IEEE Std 1291™-1993 (R2005)

IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge

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Measurement in Power Switchgear

Sponsor
Switchgear Committee
of the
IEEE Power Engineering Society

Reaffirmed 20 March 2005

Approved 18 March 1993
IEEE-SA Standards Board

Approved 30 August 1993

American National Standards Institute

Abstract: This guide defines methods of measuring partial discharges that may occur in energized
power switchgear apparatus in flaws, voids, and interfaces of non-self-restoring insulation that may
then result in dielectric failure of the switchgear. Guidance on instrumentation and calibration tech-
nique is also given.
Keywords: calibration, corona, dielectric tests, partial discharge, switchgear

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Copyright © 2005 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published 1993. Printed in the United States of America.

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 Introduction

(This introduction is not a part of IEEE Std 1291-1993, IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Power Switchgear.)

A partial discharge is a localized dielectric breakdown of a section of dielectrically stressed insulation path that occurs
generally in voids, cracks, or interfaces within that insulating system or from the sharp edges of energized apparatus
parts. These discharges may or may not exhibit a glow discharge, based on location and the intensity of these
discharges. The classic form of corona is usually denoted by a visual glow or dielectric breakdown of the insulating air
or gas around overstressed conductors or the sharp edges of energized apparatus parts. Radio influence voltage (RIV)
measurements are made to determine the extent of radio interference generated by this corona and the corrective
measures that should be made. This corona, when associated with the self-restoring insulation of the apparatus, may
not necessarily contribute to insulation damage.

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In contrast, partial discharges, localized dielectric breakdowns of a section in an insulation path where the discharges
occur in voids, cracks, or interfaces of solid and/or solid/gas dielectrics, are undesirable because of the possible
deterioration of that insulation with the formation of ionized gas due to this breakdown that may accumulate at or in a
critical stress region. This generally involves non-self-restoring insulation that may be subject to permanent damage.

Partial discharge measurements may be made on the basis of the resultant momentary change in the voltage at the
terminals of the device. Such a change may be expressed as a voltage change [radio influence voltage (RIV) in
microvolts] or by calibration as an apparent charge. When injected between the terminals of the device, this apparent
charge, measured in picocoulombs, would cause the same voltage change as that resulting from the partial discharge.

The initial efforts at measuring partial discharge levels on apparatus to provide an acceptance criteria between user and
manufacturer utilized NEMA 107-1987, Methods of Measurement of Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) of High-Voltage
Apparatus. However, it has been determined that this narrow frequency band measuring system has limitations and that
measuring partial discharges in terms of apparent charge has many advantages over that of the RIV approach. These
advantages include:

a) The internal and stray capacitance of differing switchgear and/or components are accounted for by the
calibration procedure. Thus, the measured value is related to the partial discharge level.
b) The partial discharge measurements are, in most cases, not affected by local radio broadcast signals. It should
be noted that apparent charge measurements may be made on either a wide-band or narrow-band basis. Both
methods are included in this document.

In developing this guide, the working group followed the basic instrumentation, calibration, techniques described in
IEEE C57.113-1991, IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurements in Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt
Reactors, to the extent that they could be adapted to partial discharge testing in power switchgear. This commonality
should provide for an efficient application of laboratory test equipment and a better understanding of partial discharge
testing on various types of apparatus.

It is expected that by the application of this guide, both users and manufacturers of switchgear and components will
utilize the apparent charge measurements on their devices such that an adequate base of experience can be developed
for the evaluation of this equipment.

This guide was prepared by the Partial Discharge Working Group of the ADSCOM Subcommittee of the IEEE
Switchgear Committee, which consisted of members from the High-Voltage Circuit Breaker; High-Voltage Switches,
Reclosers, and Sectionalizers; High-Voltage Fuses; and Switchgear Assemblies Subcommittees.

Copyright The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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 At the time that this guide was approved, the Partial Discharge Working Group had the following membership:

E. F. Veverka, Chair

R. J. Alton L. W. Gaussa Sr. R. P. O’Leary

R. H. Arndt W. E. Harper* H. M. Pflanz
R. L. Capra L. V. McCall D. L. Swindler

*Past Chairman—Deceased

The following persons were on the IEEE Switchgear Administrative Subcommittee that oversaw and approved this
document:

J. H. Brunke, Chair

L. R. Beard D. Hendrix L. V. McCall

M. T. Brown D. G. Kumbera J. E. Reed
R. L. Capra S. R. Lambert E. F. Veverka
L. W. Gaussa G. N. Lester C. L. Wagner

The following persons were on the IEEE Switchgear Committee that approved this document for submission to the
IEEE Standards Board:

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R. J. Alton P. L. Kolarik R. Ranjan
J. G. Angelis D. G. Kumbera J. C. Ransom
R. H. Arndt S. R. Lambert J. E. Reed
S. C. Atkinson D. M. Larson D. N. Reynolds
L. R. Beard W. E. Laubach A. B. Rishworth
H. L. Bowles J. G. Leach H. C. Ross
M. T. Brown G. N. Lester T. E. Royster
J. H. Brunke D. L. Lott L. R. Saavedra
C. G. Burland E. L. Luehring L. H. Schmidt
R. F. Cameron J. A. Maneatis C. A. Schwalbe
R. L. Capra R. Matulic E. W. Schmunk
G. Clary P. C. Mayo J. C. Scott
A. Dixon A. K. McCabe D. N. Sharma
J. J. Dravis L. V. McCall H. M. Smith
C. J. Dvorak M. S. McGuire G. St. Jean
P. W. Dwyer W. C. McKay D. L. Swindler
R. D. Garzon H. W. Mikulecky J. S. Tannery
L. W. Gaussa D. C. Mills S. S. Telander
K. I. Gray G. F. Montillet F. C. Teufel
G. R. Hanks F. J. Muench J. T. Tobin
K. D. Hendrix J. F. O’Donnel E. F. Veverka
H. L. Hess R. P. O’Leary C. L. Wagner
W. F. Hoeningmann A. F. Parks W. R. Wilson
J. M. Jerabek D. F. Peelo B. F. Wirtz
G. O. Perkins

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 When the IEEE Standards Board approved this standard on March 18, 1993, it had the following membership:

Wallace S. Read, Chair

Donald C. Loughry, Vice Chair
Andrew G. Salem, Secretary

Gilles A. Baril Ben C. Johnson T. Don Michael*

Clyde R. Camp Walter J. Karplus Marco W. Migliaro
Donald C. Fleckenstein Lorraine C. Kevra John L. Rankine
Jay Forster* E. G. “Al” Kiener Arthur K. Reilly
David F. Franklin Ivor N. Knight Ronald H. Reimer
Ramiro Garcia Joseph L. Koepfinger* Gary S. Robinson

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Donald N. Heirman D. N. “Jim” Logothetis Leonard L. Tripp
Jim Isaak Donald W. Zipse

*Member Emeritus

Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE Standards Board liaisons:

Satish K. Aggarwal Richard B. Engelman David E. Soffrin

James Beall Stanley Warshaw

Adam Sicker, IEEE Standards Project Editor

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 CLAUSE PAGE
1. Scope ...................................................................................................................................................................1

2. Purpose................................................................................................................................................................1

3. References ...........................................................................................................................................................2

4. Definitions...........................................................................................................................................................2

5. Test circuits .........................................................................................................................................................3

5.1 Partial discharge detector basic sensitivity test.......................................................................................... 3

5.2 Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling from the step-up transformer bushing tap................... 3
5.3 Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling from a bushing tap of the circuit breaker .................... 4
5.4 Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling from a capacitance voltage divider ............................. 4

6. Measuring instrument .........................................................................................................................................8

6.1 Measuring impedance unit (Zm)................................................................................................................. 8

6.2 Detector unit characteristics....................................................................................................................... 8
6.3 Partial discharge detector/circuit sensitivity ............................................................................................ 10

7. Calibrator characteristics...................................................................................................................................10

7.1 Calibrating capacitor value (Cq) .............................................................................................................. 10

7.2 Pulse generator rise time and decay time................................................................................................. 10
7.3 Pulse generator voltage amplitude (Uo) ................................................................................................... 10
7.4 Pulse generator output impedance (Zo).................................................................................................... 11
7.5 Calibrator output level adjustment........................................................................................................... 11
7.6 Pulse generator repetition rate.................................................................................................................. 11

8. Calibration procedure........................................................................................................................................11

8.1 Considerations regarding test voltage ...................................................................................................... 11

8.2 Partial discharge calibration..................................................................................................................... 12

9. Partial discharge measurement..........................................................................................................................12

Annex A (informative) PD recognition ........................................................................................................................14

Annex B (informative) Bibliography ............................................................................................................................17

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 IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge
Measurement in Power Switchgear

1. Scope

This test procedure applies to the detection and measurement of partial discharges (corona) occurring in switchgear
equipment and/or components during dielectric tests, where applicable. The following types of equipment are
included: high-voltage fuses, high-voltage switches, high-voltage circuit breakers, reclosers and sectionalizers, and
switchgear assemblies.

2. Purpose

Partial discharge measurement in switchgear equipment can be made on the basis of measurement of the apparent
charge. Relevant measuring systems are classified as narrow-band or wide-band systems. Both systems are recognized
and widely used. General principles of partial discharge measurement, including both broad and narrow-band
methods, are covered in IEEE Std C57.113-1991 and IEC 270 (1981).1

The use of partial discharge testing as a tool to assess the integrity of insulation systems requires a great deal of
judgment. It should not be used as a general, all inclusive test such as the 60 Hz and impulse dielectric tests. Although
it may be appropriate to perform a partial discharge test on an entire device for some types of equipment, practice tends
to indicate that it should be used to evaluate component parts of apparatus. If partial discharges on apparatus are
associated with self-restoring insulation, such as air, and do not affect nearby non-self-restoring insulation materials,
then relatively high levels of partial discharge may be acceptable if the resultant radio influence voltage (RIV) level
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and the audible discharge noise level is acceptable, see NEMA 107-1987. It may be necessary to temporarily isolate
areas of high partial discharge so that other more critical areas involving non-self-restoring insulations may be more
carefully evaluated. Immersing components in oil or SF6 gas is an accepted means of isolating noncritical areas so that
critical areas can be tested. Thus, partial discharge testing is used more effectively to evaluate isolated areas of high
dielectric stress that are judged to have the probability of deterioration of their non-self-restoring insulation.

1
Information on references can be found in clause 3.

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 IEEE Std 1291-1993 IEEE GUIDE FOR PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

3. References

This guide shall be used in conjunction with the following publications. When the following standards are superseded
by a new revision approved by the relevant standards authority, the latest revision shall apply.

IEEE Std 4-1978, IEEE Standard Techniques for High-Voltage Testing.2

IEEE Std C57.19.00-1991, IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Procedures for Outdoor Apparatus
Bushings (ANSI).

IEEE Std C57.113-1991, IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurements in Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and
Shunt Reactors.
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IEC 270 (1981), Partial discharge measurements.3

NEMA 107-1987, Methods of Measurement of Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) of High-Voltage Apparatus.4

4. Definitions

4.1 partial discharge (PD), q: A localized electric discharge resulting from ionization in an insulation system when
the voltage stress exceeds the critical value. This discharge partially bridges the insulation between electrodes.
4.2 apparent charge (terminal charge): A charge that, if injected instantaneously between the terminals of the test
object, would momentarily change the voltage between its terminals by the same amount as the partial discharge itself.
The apparent charge should not be confused with the charge transferred across the over-stressed insulation in the
dielectric medium. Apparent charge within the terms of this document is expressed in picocoulombs, which is
abbreviated as pC (10−12 Coulombs).
4.3 repetition rate, n: The average number of partial discharge pulses per second measured over a selected period of
time.
4.4 acceptable terminal partial discharge level: The specified maximum terminal partial discharge level for which
measured terminal partial discharge values exceeding this value are considered unacceptable. This level may be
defined by the appropriate apparatus test standard or may be a level agreed to by the user and manufacturer. The
method of measurement and the test voltage for a given test object must be specified with respect to the acceptable
terminal partial discharge level.
4.5 test voltage related to partial discharges: The phase-to-ground alternating voltage whose value is expressed by
its peak value divided by 2 .
4.6 partial discharge-free test voltage: A specified voltage, applied in accordance with a specified test procedure, at
which the test object should not exhibit partial discharges above the acceptable energized background noise level.
4.7 energized background noise level: Stated in pC, the residual response of the partial discharge measurement
system to background noise of any nature after the test circuit has been calibrated and energized at 100% of the test
voltage without the test object connected.
4.8 partial discharge inception voltage: The voltage that should be recorded on the device or system under test when
raised to a point where the PD signal rises above the energized background noise level.

2
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Service Center, 445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331,
Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA.
3IEC publications are available from IEC Sales Department, Case Postale 131, 3 rue de Varembé, CH-1211, Genève 20, Switzerland/Suisse. IEC
publications are also available in the United States from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th
Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
4
NEMA publications are available from the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2101 L Street NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA.

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 IN POWER SWITCHGEAR IEEE Std 1291-1993

4.9 partial discharge extinction voltage: The voltage at which partial discharge (corona) is no longer detectable on
instrumentation adjusted to a specified sensitivity, following application of a specified higher voltage.
4.10 acceptable energized background noise level: Energized background noise level present during test that does
not exceed 50% of the acceptable partial discharge level of the test specimen. Spurious noise, however, can exceed this
level if identified as not emanating from the specimen. This may require extending the period of voltage application.
4.11 bushing tap: A connection to a capacitor foil in a capacitively graded bushing designed for voltage or power
factor measurement that also provides a convenient connecting point for partial discharge measurement. The tap-to-
phase capacitance is generally designated as C1 and the tap-to-ground capacitance is designated as C2. See: bushing
potential tap, bushing test tap, and capacitance (of bushing) in IEEE Std C57.19.00-1991.
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5. Test circuits

5.1 Partial discharge detector basic sensitivity test

Figure 1 is a schematic of the basic PD test circuit that, for simplicity, omits the high-voltage source. C1 is a high-
voltage capacitor that provides for coupling the partial discharges generated by the specimen (CT) to the measurement
circuit. C1 and C2 function as a voltage divider that separates the high-voltage circuit from the low-voltage measuring
circuit. By calibrating the test circuit with the test specimen in place, the effect of the specimen capacitance, CT, is
taken into account and the sensitivity of the system is determined.

Figure 1— Partial discharge detector basic sensitivity test

The measurement impedance, Zm, is normally a resistance, Rm, that parallels C2 when broad-band PD measurements
are made (see 6.1). However, in the case in which the switchgear under test has a large capacitance, it is desirable to
use an inductance, Lm, instead of C2 such that a resonant PD coupling circuit is formed with maximum circuit
sensitivity at resonance. This narrow-band measuring system is applicable to the test circuit shown in figures 2, 3, and
4. Either broad-band or narrow-band PD measurements are acceptable.

5.2 Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling from the step-up transformer bushing
tap

Figure 2 shows a PD test circuit with the signal coupling to the PD detector from a capacitively graded bushing of the
transformer used to energize the test circuit. As shown, the capacitance, C1, is the capacitance of the bushing lead to a
foil in the bushing body that is brought out at the bushing tap. This foil also has a capacitance, C2, to the outermost

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 IEEE Std 1291-1993 IEEE GUIDE FOR PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

bushing shield and mounting flange. The capacitances, C1 and C2, constitute a voltage divider that is used to couple
PD signals to the measuring instrument.

As shown in figure 2, a circuit breaker is in place for system calibration, followed by a test with the calibration leads
removed. Tests are made with the circuit breaker in the various contact open/closed positions with grounded and
ungrounded adjacent terminals as prescribed by the product standard.

For this and other test circuits, the 60 Hz power feeder circuit conducted noise level may exceed the acceptable
energized background noise level as defined in 3.10. In that case, a low-pass filter (not shown) should be installed on
the low-voltage side of the step-up transformer to block this interference.

5.3 Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling from a bushing tap of the circuit
breaker

Figure 3 shows a PD test circuit in which the circuit breaker under test has capacitively graded bushings. In this case,
the capacitances of the breaker bushing, C1 and C2, may be used to couple the PD signal to the measuring instrument.
Tests should be made with the circuit breaker in the contact open and closed positions with adjacent terminals
grounded and ungrounded as required by the product standard.

For this test circuit, a low-pass filter (not shown) may be used in the power feeder to the step-up transformer to block
conducted interference noise on that system. Also, a low-pass filter, Z (optional), shown at the high-voltage terminal of
the step-up transformer, may also be used to block interference noise from both the power feeder and the transformer.

5.4 Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling from a capacitance voltage divider

Figure 4 shows a PD test circuit with signal coupling from a voltage divider. In this case, the coupling divider is
independent of both the test specimen and the step-up transformer. The voltage divider, C1 and C2, is a pure
capacitance voltage divider and is a common coupling circuit for PD measurements.

The low-pass filter, Z (optional), may be used to block interference signals from the power feeder and test transformer,
and a low-pass filter (not shown) may be used at the input to the step-up transformer.

As shown, a three-phase circuit breaker is calibrated and then tested one phase at a time. All switchgear contact
positions must be tested, including the effects of adjacent grounded and ungrounded bushings as required by the
product test standard.

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 Copyright © 1993 IEEE All Rights Reserved

IN POWER SWITCHGEAR
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Figure 2— Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling

from the step-up transformer bushing tap

IEEE Std 1291-1993

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 6

IEEE Std 1291-1993

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IEEE GUIDE FOR PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

Copyright © 1993 IEEE All Rights Reserved

Figure 3— Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling

from the bushing tap of the circuit breaker

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 Copyright © 1993 IEEE All Rights Reserved

IN POWER SWITCHGEAR
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Figure 4— Partial discharge test circuit with signal coupling
from a capacitance voltage divider

IEEE Std 1291-1993

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 IEEE Std 1291-1993 IEEE GUIDE FOR PARTIAL DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

6. Measuring instrument

The measuring instrument is composed of two main elements:

a) A measuring impedance unit (Zm)

b) A partial discharge detector unit

6.1 Measuring impedance unit (Zm)

The measuring impedance unit (Zm), see figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, is physically located as close as possible to a high-
voltage bushing tap or to C2, which is the low-side element of a special high-voltage divider.

The purpose of Zm is to

a) Attenuate the normal frequency test voltage at the capacitance bushing tap or, in the case of the high-voltage
divider, attenuate the voltage at C2 to a safe value for measurement of partial discharge signals.
b) Match the input impedance of the partial discharge detector to that of the bushing tap or the voltage divider
element, C2, so that there are no input circuit oscillations that would interfere with the PD measurements.

The measuring impedance, Zm, should be configured to allow observation of the phase relationship between the test
voltage and the partial discharges. Zm normally will be a resistor, Rm, specified by the PD instrument manufacturer,
that parallels C2.

6.1.1 Voltage divider requirements

When a bushing tap is not available on the equipment to be tested, a voltage divider consisting of a high-voltage (high
resonant frequency) blocking capacitor, C1, and a low-voltage arm, designated as C2, should be provided. (See
figure 4.)

As a result of the rated voltage range (1.0 to 800 kV) of equipment under test and the wide spread of capacitance values
for the switchgear and components to be tested under this guide, it is not possible to specify limiting values of C1 and
C2. The capacitors, C1 and C2, are chosen on the basis of providing the required voltage divider ratio and are sized so
that they provide a sensitive coupling network to the apparatus under test.

In the case of test specimens with large capacitances, an inductor, LM, should be substituted for C2 and sized with
capacitor C1 to provide a sensitive narrow band resonant frequency coupling divider. Likewise, the reactor, Lm, should
be paralleled by a resistor, Rm (contained in Zm), so that the impedance can match the input impedance to the partial
discharge detector. Again, it is not possible to specify the sizes of C1 and LM because the choice is influenced by the
capacitance of the test specimen and the test voltage level required.

By direct measurement of the capacitance of the test specimen, an estimation of the selected metering circuitry can be
made. The actual validity of the voltage divider/PD meter sensitivity for a specific test application must be
demonstrated as indicated in 6.3.

6.2 Detector unit characteristics

The detector unit should be of the wide-band type. A narrow-band detector may be used for PD measurements on
equipment with high capacitance that require a resonant frequency coupling divider for detection sensitivity. The
characteristics of the wide-band detector unit are defined in 6.2.1 through 6.2.7.

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 IN POWER SWITCHGEAR IEEE Std 1291-1993

6.2.1 Lower and upper cut-off frequencies, fL and fH

The lower and upper cut-off frequencies, fL and fH, respectively, are the frequencies at which the response to a constant
sinusoidal input voltage has fallen by 6 dB from the maximum value occurring within the recommended frequency
range of 70 kHz to 300 kHz.
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To minimize the effect of attenuation on partial discharge signals from the apparatus under test and, at the same time,
to provide adequate rejection of silicon controlled rectifier generated noise present in manufacturing plants, fL should
be in the range from 70 to 120 kHz. An upper limit of 300 kHz for fH is usually necessary to prevent broadcast stations
from interfering with the partial discharge measurement.

6.2.2 Filter characteristics

The filter characteristics of the partial discharge detector should provide attenuation of at least 40 dB at 25 kHz, at least
60 dB at 15 kHz and below, and at least 20 dB at 500 kHz and above with respect to the response at the geometric mean
frequency (fC) of the system pass bandwidth, which is given by

fC = fL ⋅ f H

6.2.3 Bandwidth, ∆ f

The bandwidth, ∆f, is defined as:

∆f = fH − fL

For PD measurements using a high-voltage divider or capacitance bushing with a tap to provide the elements C1 and
C2, a nominal bandwidth of 100 kHz is preferred. (See figures 2, 3, and 4.) However, narrow bandwidths that are
obtained using voltage divider elements of C1 and LM are acceptable when required as a result of the large range of
switchgear specimen capacitances and voltage ratings. (See figure 4 and 6.1.1).

6.2.4 Linearity

The instrument circuit, display unit, and discharge meter should be linear within ±15% over the working range of the
test.

6.2.5 PD instrument

A partial discharge instrument that includes a cathode ray oscilloscope with an appropriate time base is recommended.
The time base should be synchronized to the test voltage frequency with a complete normal frequency cycle displayed.
The phase relationship of the partial discharges to the test voltage should be easy to determine. A partial discharge
meter can be included as an attachment to this instrument.

A partial discharge meter or pulse analyzer without an oscilloscope display unit can be used instead of the above.
However, the instruments must have the requisite frequency response and sensitivity throughout the operating range.

In all cases, the instrument cables must be properly terminated to match the surge impedance to that of the instrument.

6.2.6 Discharge meter characteristics

The partial discharge meter should track the peak voltage of the cathode ray oscilloscope display unit within ±5% over
the usable range. Instrument charge time to 95% of signal maximum should be 1/2fH seconds5 (one half the period of

5
fH is defined in 6.2.1.

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fH) or shorter. The discharge time constant, or the time taken for a reading to decay to 36.8% of its initial value, should
be between 100 and 750 ms.

6.2.7 Basic sensitivity

The minimum partial discharge level that can be detected is determined by the partial discharge detector basic
sensitivity, the test specimen capacitance, and the efficiency of the PD coupling network to the discharge detector. The
partial discharge detector basic sensitivity should be high enough that the measurement sensitivity during actual tests
will be limited by the test circuit background noise alone and not by the amplifier noise of the detector. The signal to
noise ratio should be at least 2:1 at the specified apparatus or component test voltage.

6.3 Partial discharge detector/circuit sensitivity

To ensure that the combination of the test circuit and partial discharge detector has the required sensitivity for the
apparatus or component to be tested, the following procedure should be followed. With the switchgear equipment in
the test circuit, the calibration procedure should be performed as required with appropriate voltage injections. The
sensitivity of the total system should then be such that, with the required injection signal magnitude, the peak signal
recorded by the detector is at least two times the value of the total circuit and instrument background noise.

7. Calibrator characteristics
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The calibrator comprises a pulse generator in series with a small capacitor (Cq) of known value. The pulse generator
and the capacitor can be placed in the same box, or they can be connected together via a properly terminated coaxial
cable of sufficient length to permit calibration. The calibrator can be line or battery powered.

Capacitor Cq should be placed as near as possible to the apparatus under test.

7.1 Calibrating capacitor value (Cq)

The capacitance of the calibrating capacitor, Cq, must be chosen based on the capacitance of the test specimen and the
high-voltage coupling network. If a high-voltage capacitor bushing with a tap or capacitance voltage divider consisting
of C1 and C2 is used, the value of Cq should be no more than 10% of the capacitance of the test specimen. This will
allow measurements with broad-band bandwidths up to 100 kHz. For other cases in which a voltage divider consisting
of C1 and Lm (narrow-band measurements) is used (see 6.1.1), the value of Cq relative to the capacitance of the test
specimen may be considerably larger.

7.2 Pulse generator rise time and decay time

The rise time of the pulse generator should be less than 0.1 µs from 10% to 90% of peak value. A decay time to 50%
of peak value of not less than 100 µs usually will be suitable.

7.3 Pulse generator voltage amplitude (Uo)

The maximum voltage amplitude (Uo) of the pulse generator output should be such that the product Uo·Cq can be
varied up to two times the required PD level.

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7.4 Pulse generator output impedance (Zo)

In the case in which the pulse generator and the calibration capacitor, Cq, are connected together via a coaxial cable,
the output impedance of the generator should be the same as the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable.
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7.5 Calibrator output level adjustment

The amount of charge injected, Qo, will be determined using the formula Qo = Uo · Cq. The pulse generator either
should have a known calibrated output level, or its output level should be monitored. A suitable means of adjusting the
output level, such as a calibrated potentiometer or a calibrated step attenuator, should be provided. The adjustment
range should extend over at least two decades with a minimum of three adjusting steps per decade. A calibrated
adjustment is not required if the generator output level is monitored. Adjusting its output level should not affect the
pulse generator equivalent source impedance.

7.6 Pulse generator repetition rate

The pulse generator output should be synchronized with the power system normal frequency. The calibration pulse
rate output will be twice the normal frequency with alternate positive and negative discharges.

8. Calibration procedure

Before calibration is started, all equipment should be set up exactly as it will be during the partial discharge test and
should include the partial discharge detector and its measuring impedance unit.6 If the device to be tested is three-
phase switchgear equipment, PD calibration should be performed at each terminal to be measured while making sure
that the PD detector is always connected to the corresponding measuring impedance unit. Once the test circuit has been
set up and calibrated, no further changes to the test circuit or instrumentation settings are permitted except where the
test sample characteristics are significantly different at different terminals or in different test configurations, where
recalibration is necessary to ensure proper sensitivity.

8.1 Considerations regarding test voltage

Wide-band partial discharge detectors need a sample of the test voltage to synchronize their display. When a bushing
with a capacitor tap is part of the apparatus or high-voltage test supply, the most convenient place to obtain this signal
is from the measurement impedance box or power separation filter that is connected to the bushing tap (see figures 2
and 3). To make sure that the bushing tap voltage will not exceed a value that is safe for both the measuring impedance
unit and the partial discharge detector, the bushing tap voltage attenuation factor should be measured or calculated with
the partial discharge detector connected.

In the absence of a bushing with a capacitor tap, a capacitive voltage divider should be used as shown in figure 4.

8.1.1 Direct method of bushing tap circuit ratio measurement

The dividing ratio of the capacitance bushing tap or the voltage divider is the reciprocal of the voltage attenuation
factor and may be measured directly at the test voltage frequency by means of a suitable ratio bridge. The value will
usually be in the range of 100 to 50 000, depending on the partial discharge detector model used and the value of
capacitances C1 and C2.

6
If equipment is relocated following calibration, the calibration sensitivity may be changed, thereby resulting in an invalid test.

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8.1.2 Indirect method of bushing tap circuit ratio measurement

To measure the bushing tap or capacitive voltage divider ratio with this method, a voltmeter with an impedance higher
than 10 MΩ should be connected in parallel with the voltage input to the partial discharge detector or to some other
terminal provided for this purpose. One of the measuring systems that is specified in IEEE Std 4-1978 for alternating
voltage measurement is connected to the high-voltage bushing or voltage divider and to an appropriate voltage-reading
device. The test source transformer should be energized at some convenient low value of voltage at the test frequency,
and the voltage measured by the IEEE Std 4-1978 method should be compared with the reading of the voltmeter
connected to the PD measurement system. The voltage divider ratio can be calculated by dividing these two values.

8.1.3 Test voltage measurement

A voltmeter connected to the partial discharge measurement system can be used for test voltage measurements. The
test voltage value is obtained by multiplying the voltmeter reading by the divider ratio. When this method is used,
calibration shall be in accordance with the requirements of IEEE Std 4-1978.

8.2 Partial discharge calibration

Partial discharge calibration is performed by injecting a known charge between the high-voltage bushing and the
grounded portion of the apparatus. Either a portable, battery-powered calibrator or a pulse generator and a terminating
box can be used (see figures 1, 2, 3, and 4). The portable calibrator or the terminating box must be placed as close as
possible to the HV terminal so that the connecting lead is as short as possible. At least three separate charge levels
should be injected to ensure that the PD measuring circuit is linear over the range of interest. As an example, for an
acceptance level of 100 pC, the three levels injected would be 50 pC, 100 pC, and 200 pC. The required degree of
linearity of the reading depends on the application of the apparatus.

In order for a partial discharge detector to read directly in pC, it is necessary to establish a relationship between the
amount of charge injected at calibration and the indication on the discharge meter. This can be done easily by injecting
a known calibration level into the test specimen and adjusting the sensitivity control on the detector to get a ratio
between the value injected and the resulting reading on the discharge meter. Calibration must be made on a
representative test specimen on which partial discharges are to be measured.

The test circuit/system PD calibration will vary depending on the contact positions of the switchgear under test. With
switch contacts closed and a higher total specimen capacitance, calibration sensitivities will be reduced. Ideally, the
test apparatus should be calibrated for every circuit condition. Generally, calibration of the apparatus with the contact
position with the largest capacitance will be sufficient.

9. Partial discharge measurement

PD measurements are an ideal method for evaluating switchgear apparatus with non-self-restoring insulation. During
a temporary overvoltage, during a high-voltage test, or under transient voltage conditions during operation, PDs may
occur on insulation of this type, which includes gas, liquid, and solid materials. If these PDs are sustained due to poor
materials, design, and/or foreign inclusions in the insulation, degradation and possible failure of the insulation
structure may occur.

Due to the variability of performance of dielectric materials and system designs, it is recommended that partial
discharge tests be made as design tests in conjunction with the other dielectric tests on new switchgear equipment
designs. The partial discharge test should be performed both before and after the impulse and normal frequency
dielectric tests. Once performance is established, partial discharge tests on the switchgear equipment design need only
be performed following the normal frequency withstand tests. Due to the possible influence that the impulse and
normal frequency dielectric tests may have on the outcome of the partial discharge test, the partial discharge test may

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be performed a substantial time after these dielectric tests. In some cases, the partial discharge test can be made as a
part of the normal frequency withstand test.

The following procedure is recommended for PD tests on switchgear equipment. The normal frequency voltage is
applied and raised to the dry normal frequency withstand voltage level, as specified by standards, for no less than 10
s. Partial discharges may occur at this test voltage depending on the PD voltage inception level of the equipment under
test. The voltage is then decreased to the partial discharge test voltage level as specified by the equipment standard and
held at that voltage for one minute. If the measured PD level exceeds the level allowed by the equipment standard at
the end of this time limit, the equipment is considered to have failed this test. A PD level lower than that allowed by
the equipment standard signifies that the apparatus has passed.

Partial discharge acceptance levels and related normal frequency test voltages are not listed in this guide because the
various switchgear equipment standards list the specific test levels established for that equipment. Until the individual
PD acceptance levels and test voltages are established by standards, the responsibility rests with the manufacturer for
meeting the technical requirements for the specific equipment, in agreement with the user.

Annex A will help the user of this document to recognize typical PD signals that emanate from various types of
insulation/switchgear systems during partial discharge tests, as well as extraneous interference signals that may be
present on the system.
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Annex A—PD recognition

(Informative)

(These annexes are not a part of IEEE Std 1291-1993, IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Power Switchgear, but are
included for information only.)

One of the greatest advantages of the wide-band PD method is the ease with which the results can be displayed on a
cathode ray oscilloscope, which means that the signal can be observed in terms of the phase of the applied test voltage.
This is a great help in determining whether or not the discharges originate inside the test object. The pulse polarity can
also be identified, and pulses can be counted and sorted according to their amplitude and/or polarity. Digital processing
of PD signals by computer is also possible.

Examples of the most common oscillographic patterns encountered during partial-discharge tests on power apparatus
are shown in figures A.1 to A.6. The Lissajous patterns displayed in these figures all have the positive half cycle of the
normal frequency voltage at the top and the negative half cycle at the bottom. Time is displayed in a clock-wise
direction. These oscillograms are reproduced with permission from [B24] .

Figure A.1 represents the case of air corona on the high-voltage electrode. Such corona usually can be eliminated by
selecting a high-voltage electrode of larger diameter or by covering protrusions on and around the equipment with
rounded metallic shields or semiconductive material, such as rubber. These corona discharges are usually very large;
however, it should be pointed out that they appear only during one half-cycle of the applied voltage. Small discharges
are present on the other half-cycle but are low in amplitude and usually cannot be observed. A calibration pulse is
shown on this half-cycle.

Figure A.1—Classic “corona” in air or gas from a sharp point

Figures A.2, A.3, A.4, and A.5 represent PDs occurring within the insulation structure of a test specimen. They are
usually present on the increasing voltage slope of both half-cycles and do not normally cross the voltage peaks;
although they may extend down to the zero-crossings. There is usually a fair amount of hysteresis present, but
excessive hysteresis and rapidly decreasing inception voltage are indicative of PDs in voids. Figure A.2 is typical of
discharges in voids in solid-sheet or cast insulating material. Figure A.3 shows discharges in a large number of cavities
of different shapes and sizes, or discharges on an external dielectric surface, or discharges between a touching
conductor on a dielectric surface that creates a high tangential stress. Figure A.4 illustrates partial discharges in cast-
resin insulation. Figure A.5 represents PDs in oil-paper insulation systems or in gas bubbles related to those systems.

Figure A.2—Internal discharges in a solid dielectric cavity

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Figure A.3—Internal discharges of cavities of different shapes and sizes

Figure A.4—Discharges in voids in cast-resin insulation

Figure A.5—Partial discharge in gas bubbles in an insulating liquid

Figure A.6 shows the result of a bad ohmic contact that is usually inside the equipment; although it could also be from
the connections outside. In this case, the discharges occur on both sides of the zero-crossings of the test voltage.

Figure A.6—Contact noise due to imperfect metal-to-metal contact

Figures A.7 to A.10 represent typical cases of external interference. Figure A.7 is typical of thyristor interference, the
pulses being equally spaced and of roughly the same amplitude. The number of pulses appearing during one cycle of
the test voltage depends on the ratio of its frequency to that of the power system and on the particular design of the
equipment producing the interference.

Figure A.8 is the very common fluorescent light interference pattern. Figures A.9 and A.10 show typical radio
frequency and industrial high-frequency processing equipment interferences. Other than the fact that they are not
usually synchronized to the test voltage, interference signals are not usually dependent on the test-voltage level and do

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not normally disappear when the test voltage is lowered, as do PD signals. In normal situations, these characteristics
suffice to identify the signals as interference.

Figure A.7—Mercury-arc or thyristor rectifier interference

Figure A.8—Fluorescent lamp interference

Figure A.9—Radiation from high-frequency power amplifiers and oscillators

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Figure A.10—Interference from industrial high-frequency equipment

For more detailed information, see [B24]. Figures A.1 to A.10 in this Annex are figures 40, 5, 9, 11, 15, 38, 44, 45, 47,
and 49 respectively from [B24].

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Annex B—Bibliography

(Informative)

[B1] ANSI C63.2-1987, American National Standard Specifications for Electromagnetic Noise and Field Strength,
10 kHz to 40 GHz.

[B2] ASTM D 1868-73, (R 1986), Detection and Measurement of Discharge (Corona) Pulses In Evaluation of
Insulation Systems.

[B3] IPCEA T-24-380, 1979, Proposed Guide for Partial Discharge Test Procedure.

[B4] Ahmed, A. S. and Zaky, A. A., “Calibration of Partial Discharge Detectors for Pulse-Height Distribution
Analysis,” IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, vol. EI-14, no. 5, Oct. 1979, pp. 281–284.

[B5] Bartnikas, R., “Effect of Pulse Rise Time on the Response of Corona Detectors,” IEEE Transactions on
Electrical Insulation, vol. EI-7, no. 1, Mar. 1972, pp. 3–8.

[B6] Bartnikas, R. and McMahon, E. J., “Corona Measurement and Interpretation,” Eng. Dielectrics, vol. 1, STP 669,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1979.

[B7] Black, I. A. and Leung, N. K., “The Application of the Pulse Discrimination System to Measurement of Partial
Discharges in Insulation Under Noisy Conditions,” IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Boston,
Mass., June 1980, pp. 167–170.

[B8] Boggs, S. A., “Partial Discharge: Overview and Signal Generation,” IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 6,
no. 4, July/Aug. 1990.

[B9] Boggs, S. A., “Partial Discharge Part II: Detection Sensitivity,” IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 6,
no. 5, Sept./Oct. 1990.

[B10] Boggs, S. A., “Partial Discharge Part III: Cavity-Induced PD in Solid Dielectrics,” IEEE Electrical Insulation

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Magazine, vol. 6, no. 6, Nov./Dec. 1990.

[B11] Brand, U. and Muhr, M., “New Investigations on the Measurement of Partial Discharge (PD) and Radio
Interference Voltage (RIV) on High Voltage Apparatus,” paper 63.13, Fourth International Symposium on High-
Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.

[B12] Brown, R. D., “Corona Measurement on High-Voltage Apparatus Using the Bushing Capacitance Tap,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-84, Aug. 1965, pp. 667–671.

[B13] Carter, W. J., “Practical Aspects of Apparent Charge Partial Discharge Measurements,” IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-101, no. 7, July 1982, pp. 1985–1989.

[B14] Cesari, S. and Yakov, S., “Partial Discharge Inception Tests on Oil Immersed Insulation Structures,”
paper 22.09, Fourth International Symposium on High-Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.

[B15] “Elimination of Interference in Discharge Detection,” CIGRE Working Group 03, Electra, no. 21, pp. 55–72.

[B16] “General Report of Group 12-01,” CIGRE Working Group 12-01, Electra, no. 37, Dec. 1974, pp. 64–74.

[B17] James, R. E. and White, P. A., “Relationships Between Fast and Slow Rise Partial Discharges,” paper 22.05,
Fourth International Symposium on High-Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.

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[B18] Krueger, F. H., Discharge Detection in High Voltage Equipment. London: Temple Press books, Ltd., 1964.

[B19] Krueger, F. H., “Recommended Means for Calibrating and Checking Discharge Detection Circuit,”
Appendix III to Progress Report of Study Committee No. 2 (H.V. Cables), CIGRE paper 21-01, June 10–20, 1968,
pp.12–22.

[B20] Mangiavacchi, C. and Rabach, G., “The Degradation Processes in Highly Electrically Stressed Epoxy Resins by
the Analysis of Partial Discharge Amplitude Distributions,” paper 22.09, Fourth International Symposium on High-
Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.

[B21] Millar, A. G., Kemp, I. J., and Pringle, R. D., “Digital Acquisition Storage and Processing of Partial Discharge
Signals,” paper 63.01, Fourth International Symposium on High-Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.

[B22] Mole, G., “Basic Characteristics of Corona Detector Calibrators,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-89, no. 2, Feb. 1970, pp. 198–204.

[B23] Muhr, M. and Scheucher, W., “Computer-Aided Measurement of Partial Discharges,” paper 63.12, Fourth
International Symposium on High-Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.

[B24] Nattrass, D. A., “Partial Discharge Measurement and Interpretations,” IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine,
vol. 4, no. 3, May/June 1988.

[B25] Parker, R. D., DeLong, R. V., and Zelik, J. A., “Accurate Corona Detector Calibrator,” IEEE Transactions on
Electrical Insulation, vol. EI-15, no. 6, Dec. 1980, pp. 451–454.

[B26] “Recognition of Discharges,” CIGRE Working Group 21-03, Electra, no. 11, pp. 61–98, Dec. 1969.

[B27] Vaillancourt, G. H., Dechamplain, A., and Malewski, R. A., “Simultaneous Measurement of Partial Discharge
and Radio-Interference Voltage,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurements, vol. IM-31, no. 1,
Mar. 1982, pp. 49–52.

[B28] Viale, F., Poittevin, J., Fallou, B., Morel, J. F., Buccianti, R., Yakov, S., Cesari, S., and Serena, E., “Study of a
Correlation Between Energy of Partial Discharges and Degradation of Paper-Oil Insulation,” CIGRE paper 15–12,
Sept. 1–9, 1982.
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