Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nucleus
Golgi body
Nonmembranous Organelles
Ribosomes
Microtubules
a. Centrioles
b. Cilia & Flagells
c. Mitotic apparatus used to separate chromosomes during
division
Microfilaments
Centriole
2. Microtubules in 9 + 2 arrangement
a. 9 microtubules in a ring + 2 microtubules in the center
Epithelium I Epithelial Components
Basic Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissues
Tissue that covers and lines organs and organisms, found on the surface
2. Connective Tissues
Tissue that Supports and connects, not found on the surface
3. Muscle Tissue
Tissue that contracts and produces motion and/or locomotion
4. Nerve Tissue
Tissue that respons to stimuli and conducts impulses, communication of
information
1. Cells
2. Fibers
3. Matrix (ground substance)
1. Cell shape
a. Squamous cells
Flat or thin cytoplasm, the nuclei bulge above the cytoplasmic thickness
Functional characteristic: thin cytoplasmic adaptation for "diffusion "
b. Cuboidal cells
Square cells with round centrally located nuclei
Functional characteristic: Organelles for energy production and
secretory activity
c. Columnar cells
Tall or "column like" cells, normally oval shaped nuclei located near the
attached surface.
Functional characteristic: Organelles for energy production and
secretory activity
2. Cell layers
a. Simple Epithelium = Single layer
Diffusion membranes
b. Stratified Epithelium = Two or more layers of cells Basal layer:
generative (mitosis), Surface layer : mature cell type
Specializations of Epithelial cells:
Fibers
1. Reduced in Epithelium
2. Basement membrane, fibers secreted by epithelial cells at their attached
surface
Matrix
1. Extremely reduced
Classification of Epithelia
Secretions
1. Mucous membranes:
viscous secretions, line passageways connected to the exterior.
ex. GI tract, esophagus, trachea
2. Serous membranes:
watery fluid secretions, line internal cavities to reduce friction
ex. pericardium, peritoneum, endocardium, endothelium, pleura
Blood and Bone Marrow
1. Classified by Matrix
a. Fluid - Blood
b. Soft - Connective Tissue Proper
(Loose Irregular, Dense Irregular, Dense Regular, Adipose, Reticular)
c. Semi soft - Cartilage
d. Solid - Bone
TYPE CELLS FIBERS MATRIX
1. Blood,Lymph blood cells, dissolved watery
lymphocytes
2. Loose irregular fibroplasts collagen elastin, hyaluronic acid
connective tissue macrophages reticular
mast cells
plasma cells
3. Adipose adipocytes collagen elastin, hyaluronic acid
reticular
4. Dense regular fibroblasts primarily collagen viscous due to
connective tissue hyaluronic acid
5. Cartilage chondrocytes collagen, elastin, chondroitin
tissue reticular sulfate
6. Bone tissue osteocytes collagen mineralized,
calcium
phosphate and
calcium
carbonate
White Blood Cells - Leukocytes [7-9 X 103] Myeloid & Lymphoid elements
5. Monocytes
a. Nucleus - oval, kidney, horseshoe; chromatine stains
lightly, less condensed, 2-3 nucleoi
b. Basophilic cytoplasm with azurophilic granules
(lysosome)
c. Highlt mobile, highly phagocytophilic
d. Major cell of chronic infections (100 bacteria per cell)
e. Moves into the tissues from the blood after a few days, becomes a
histiocyte
1. Mononuclear phagocytic system (reticuloendothelial system)
2. Receptors on the plasma membrane for complement &
immunogloublins
6. Platelets "thrombocytes!"
a. Fragments of megakaryocyte cytoplasm
b. central zone - purple granule, granulomere
c. transparent zone blue stained, hylomere
d. Releases
1. serotonin - constricks blood vessels
2. thromboplastin - converts prothrombin -> thrombin
3. thrombosthenin - causes contraction of the clot
Fibers
Matrix.
Cells
1. General characteristics
a. Found in the spaces between the meshwork of fibers.
b. Many C.T. cells develope from the fibroblast of C.T. proper
c. Many different types of cells found in areolar (loose irregular) tissue
2. Fibroblast.
a. Form fibers
b. Cytoplasm clear
c. Irregular cell shape
d. Nuclei, easily seen, slightly elongate lightly stained
3. Histiocytes (macrophages)
a. Next most common cell.
b. They can be best seen in tissue
c. taken from experimental animals which have been injected with
certain vital stains.
d. Related to monocytes (blood.)
e. Distinguished from fibrocytes by their more darkly staining nuclei
f. See table below
4. Mast cells
a. Centrally located nucleus
b. Basophilic granules (similar to Basophil of circulating blood)
1. Heparin (redish purple stain with toluidine blue)
2. Histamine, release triggered by membrane binding of IgE
from plasma cell
3. Contraction of smooth muscle, mostly in bronchioles
4. Dilates blood vessels, increases premeability of capillaries
5. SRS-A, slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis,
release triggered by membrane binding of IgE from plasma
cell
contraction of smooth muscle
6. ECF-A, eosinophil chemotactic factor,
release triggered by membrane binding of IgE from plasma
cell
attracks eosinophils
5. Plasma cells, antibody producing
a. Oval cell
b. Nucleus, :clock face", off center,
toward one end
c. Basophilic cytoplasm
d. Few in number, increases in
chronic infection
e. Area of bacterial penetration
f. Develops from activated B lymphocyte
6. Adipose cells, fat cells
a. Fibroblast cytoplasm becomes filled with
fat(triglycerides).
1. White fat - unilocular, contain a
single large fat droplet.
2. Brown fat - multilocular, contains
many smaller fat droplets
7. Leukocytes
a. Lymphocytes small B & T cells found in lamina propria, migrate into
lumen
life days to weeks, some months to years
b. Eosinophils
8. Chromatocytes, pigment cells
Cartilage
Types of cartilage
A. Hyaline Cartilage
1. Matrix "Glassy"
a. Collagen Fibers, (40% of dry
wt)same refractive index. index as
matrix, not seen!
b. Sulfated Proteoglycans protein core
1. with short, unbranched
mucopolysaccharides, "bottle
brush like"
2. chondroiten 4-SO4
3. chondroiten 6-SO4
4. keratin sulfate
c. Hyaluronic acid - long unbranced chains
d. Gucosaminoglycans cross linked with Collagen fibers provides
rigidity
2. Chondrocyters
a. Chondrocytes synthesize all matrix components
(B in Photo at right)
b. Located in Lacunae (C in Photo at right)
c. Capsule, matrix area around the lacuna (A in
Photo at right)
1. Collagen poor
2. Glucosaminoglycan rich
3. More basophilic
4. PAS+
5. Metachromatic
d. Note: histological preparation causes shrinkage
of chondroctes
B. Elastic Cartilage
1. Yellow
2. Elastic fibers in matrix
3. Higher cell density
4. External ear, epiglottis, a few larynegeal cartilages
5. Orcein elastic stain to "see" fibers (photo, top of page)
6. Degenerates less than Hyaline cartilage
C. Collagenous/Fibrocartilage
1. Coarse Collagen fibers embedded in matrix
2. No perichondrium
3. Lacuna with chondrocytes
4. Seems a mixture of cartilage and fibrous connective tissue
Bone
Characteristics of Bone
Bone Structure
A. Membranous Bone
1. Ossification directly from C. T. Membranes
2. Bones of the Skull
B. Endochondral Bone, Long Bones
1. Medullary (marrow) Cavity
a. Cavity in Shaft of bone filled with marrow
(diagram=pink)
b. Red Marrow - Blood forming connective tissue
c. Yellow Marrow - Fatty connective tissue
2. Epiphysis (Ends of Long Bone)
a. Spongy Bone
1. Meshwork of bone, spaces filled with marrow
(diagram=Black & white)
2. Osteocytes in lacunae connected by canaliculi
3. No Osteons/Haversan Systems
b. Epiphyseal Plate (Closure of Growth region, diagram=Black Line)
c. Covered with Hyaline Cartilage (diagram=red)
3. Diaphysis (Shaft of Long Bone)
a. Medullary Cavity (see above)
b. Compact Bone (diagram=Blue,
photo=pink)
1. Osteons (Haversan Systems)
a. Rings of Osteocytes
(Lamella)
b. Central Canal (Blood vessels,
nerves)
c. Osteocytes in lacunae connected by canaliculi
Transfer of nutrients from Haversian canal and cell to cell
d. Lamellar Layers of Collagen Fibers up to 5 Rings
Bone Development
A. Intramembranous Osteogenesis
1. most of the cranial/flat bones, increase in
diameter of long bones
2. develop directly out of mesenchyme
3. Primary Ossification centers (starting point)
4. Fibroblast - Osteoblast - Osteocyte
5. Matrix is produced and calcified
a. Matrix sysnthesis results using 3H-
glycine
1. 30 min in osteoblast
2. 4 hours in osteoid
3. 35 hours in calcified bone
b. Calcification is dependent on the blood levels of calcium and
phosphate
2. Zone of Maturation
. Chondrocytes are arranged in columns parallel to
the long axis of the bone
a. Growth occurs by increase in cell size
b. In the enlarged photo above maturation is taking
place darker blue area above the light blue area.
3. Zone of Hypertrophy(and cartlaginous
calcification)
. Chondrocytes enlarge and become
vacuolated
a. Lacunae enlarge
b. In the enlarged photo above
(maturation) note the light blue area
of hypertrophy
c. In the high magnification photo at the right. Note:
the hypertrophy in the lower cells compared to
those at the top of the photo
4. Zone of Calcified Cartilage
. Cartilagenous matrix becomes calcified
a. Blocks flow of nutrients
b. Chondroncytes die, leaving spicules of calcified
cartilage
c. Connective tissue from periostium growths in
d. Blood vessels and capillaries grow
in
5. Zone of Ossification
. Osteoblasts form along the
trabeculae of calcified cartilage
a. Osteoblasts secretion bony matrix
over the calcified cartilage
b. Detail show in photo at the right. Dark blue
spicules in the center of the cavity
6. Periosteal Bone Formation
. Periosteum forms a bony collar around
the central portion of the developing
bone
a. Periosteal collar supports the developing
bone structure
b. Periosteal collar detail in photo at right.
note light blue bone and the red of the
osteoblasts
7. Secondary Ossification Center
. Starts in one of the epiphysis
a. Starts in the other epiphysis
b. Epiphyseal plate (proliferating cartilage ) forms
c. Growth zone between the epiphysis and the shaft
Muscle Tissue
c. Sarcomere
1. Extends from Z line to Z line
2. Basic unit of contraction
3. Composed of of Thick & Thin filaments
1. Thick filaments - myosin (A band)
2. Thin filaments - actin (I band) with "relaxing
protein" troponen & tropomyosin
3. Z line - Thin filament attachment point
4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum wrapped around sarcomere of
myofrbril, sequesters calcium
5. T tube form triad with sarcoplasminc reticulum at A I
band junction (mammals)
D. The sliding filament theory of contraction
1. Sliding filaments produced by cross bridge formation
a. Actin / myosin not attached at rest (Binding blocked by troponen
tropomyosin complex)
b. Globular heads of myosin, act as myosin ATPase, ATP => ADP +
Pi
1. ADP + Pi remain bound to myosin, required before
binding with actin
c. Myosin heads bind to specific binding site on Actin
1. ADP & Pi are released
2. Conformational change in myosin producing POWER
stroke
2. Excitation contraction coupling
i. Motor Nerve Impulse initiates an End Plate Potential
(EPSP of muscle cell)
ii. Impulse travels across the sarcolemma & down the t
tubes to SR
iii. Action Potential stimulates the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
to release sequestered Ca++
iv. Ca++ binds to Troponen and displaces Tropomyosin,
unblocking binding sites
v. Actin myosin cross bridges occur and muscle contracts.
A. Cellular Organization
1. Single, non striaed cells that taper at their ends
a. Contracted - short and fat with folds in membrane
b. Relaxed - long and thin
2. Wrapped in a network of reticular fibers (helps to combind contraction
force)
3. Single, centrally located nucleus
4. No T tubes
5. some Sarcoplasmic reticulum
B. Contractile Elements
1. Bundles of myofilaments criscross through the cell forming a network
2. Ratio of thick filaments to thin filaments 16:1
3. Long myosin filaments have heads along the whole lenth with clear
regions at the ends (reverse of skeletal muscle)
4. Ca++ binds calmodulin (No troponen)
a. Activates myosin light chain kinase
b. Latch state, maintains contraction (low energy) not well
understood
c. Graded depolarization
C. Single unit - large number of Gap junctions, function as a single unit
D. Multiunit - innervation of a group of cells
PNS
1. CNS - White Matter [Axon bundles, tracts], Brain Central, Spinal cord
Peripheral (#1 in Photo above) Below Arrow 1 points to the axon and Arrow 2
points to the myelin (blue), both in the white matter.
2. Autonomic NS neurotransmitters
D. Neuronal Cytology
1. Nucleus
. finely dispersed chromatin, nucleolus
(female, Barr body) pale staining
2. Cytoplasm
. Nissl substance - RER & Free Ribosomes,
varies with neuron and functional state
0. RER highly developed, free
ribosomes in "rosettes (polysomes)
1. structural proteins, proteins
for transport
2. extends into dentrites
1. reduced amount -
Injury/Exhaustion, nucleus
migrates to perifery
a. Golgi - arround nucleus, only
in perikaryon
b. Mitochondria - in perikaryon, concentrated mostly in Teerminal Knobs
c. Neurofilaments, Microtubules - abundent in karyon, criscrossing
isolates RER, free ribosomes into Nissl substance
3. Dendrites
. Normal distribution - 3D arborization
a. Receptor areas - 200,000 in purkinje cell
b. Size & Shape - short & many, tapered toward end
c. contain
0. Nissl substance
1. Mitochondria
2. Neurofilaments and microtubules (more than axons)
3. Thorny spikes (gemmules) for synaptic contact
4. Axon
. One per cell, long process from thickened
Hillock
a. short to 40 inches long
b. constant diameter, does not taper
c. Few organelles, low synthetic activity, almost NO ribosomes
d. Mitochondria
e. Neurofilaments, Microtubules
f. Do not branch profusely, collaterals at right angles
g. Terminal Knob
0. Mitochondria
1. Neurotransmitter vessicles that fuse with the presynatic membrane to
release
5. Synapse Types
0. Axon to Dentrite - Axodendritic
1. Axon to Perikaryon - Axosomatic
2. Between axons - Axoaxonic
3. Between dendrites - Dendrodendritic
4. Between Axon and Effector (muscle or gland)
5. Electrical Synapse = Gap Junctions join neurons
0. Gap Junctions allow ions & small
molecules to move from cell to cell
1. Coordinates contractions of large masses of muscles (heart, smooth
muscle)
2. Embryonic tissues - disappear after specialization occurs
3. Neurons of the Brain - possible 2 way transmission!!
4. Neuroglial cells - No impulses!!
6. Chemical Synapse
0. Components:
1. Presynaptic membrane, with
neurotransmitter vessicles
2. Space
3. Postsynaptic membrane
1. Neurotransmitter
diffuses across synapse
E. Neuron types (examples)
1. Pyramidal cells (Motor) of the cerebral cortex
2. Spinal motor neurons in the grey matter of the spinal cord
Nerve Tissue II
Neuroglea & Nerves
Circulatory System
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Lymphoid Organs
Organs/Tissues of the Immune System/Lymphatic
A. Function
1. Potection of the Internal Environment
2. Distinguish Self from Non Self
3. Distroy or inactivate Foreign or Non Self
B. Lymph vessels - One Way Transport
1. Begins in Lymph capillaries (porous)in the tissues, carry excess
fluid
2. Thin vessel lined by endothelium
3. With valves as in Veins
4. No clear cut separation between, tunica inta ma, media and
adventitia
5. Lymph Vessels in Intestines form from Lacteal (Lymph
capillary) in villus, carry lipids
6. Fluid filtered by Lymph nodes (below)
7. Vessels empty into the subclavian Veins
C. Lymphatic Ducts
1. similar to large veins
2. Media - longitudinal and circular muscle
3. Adventitia - underdeveloped, vava vasorum, rich neural
network
D. Lymphoid Tissue
1. Loose Lymphoid Tissue - Fixed cells predominate
2. Dense Lymphoid Tissue - Free cells predominate (mainly
lymphocytes)
3. Nodular Lymphoid Tissue - Free cells predominate
Found in all lymphoid tissue except Thymus
a. Mobile Cells - lymphocytes and free macrophages
b. Fixed Cells - reticuloendothelial (RE) cells, fixed
macrophages, plasma cells
E. Lymphoid Organs
1. Lymph Nodes/Gland
2. Tymus
3. Spleen
4. Oganization:
1. Encapsulated in connective tissue
2. Network of reticular cells
3. Lymphocytes, macrophages, plasma cells, & small #'s of
immunocompetent cells
A. Lymph Nodes/Glands
1. Function
a. Divided into Nodules filled with lymphocytes and Macro
phages
b. Filters Lymph fluid
c. Macro phages remove infectious organisms and debris
2. Location
a. throughout the body, along lymph vessels
b. In axillary and groin regions, along great vessels in the
neck
c. in thorax and Abdomen, especially in the messentaries
3. Shape
a. Kidney shaped
b. Smooth surface where lymph vessels enter (afferent)
c. Hilum - arteries, veins, nerves enter; Lymph vessels leave
(efferent)
d. Cortex and medullary regions with paracortical region
inbetween
4. Histology
a. Connective Tissue organization
1. Dense connective tissue
capsule
2. Partitioned by connective
tissue trabeculae
extending from capsule
through the cortex to the hilum
3. Reticular framework (stroma) "Filtration
apparatus"
retucular cells, reticular fibers
4. Forms system of Lymphatic sinusus from sub
capsular sinus
b. Free Cells [proportions depend on antigenic stimuli]
1. lymphocytes - part of circulating pool,
lymphopoietic activity (minimal under normal
circumstances)
2. macrophages - relatively stable, not in efferent
lymph
3. plasma cells - Static, not in efferent lymph
Not in blood, lymph, only a few in bone marrow
precursors in efferent lymph stimulate
plasmcytopoiesis in other nodes
4. Infection = node increases in size due to increase in
number of cells
5. Organization
a. Subcapsular region - large number of free cells
b. Cortex - Primary and seconday lymph nodules, B cells
(see lymphoid nodules below)
c. Paracortical region Thymus
dependent zone
d. Medulla (photo right)
1. Medullary sinuses, loose
lymphoid cells
2. Reticular cells and fibers bridge sinuses
3. Medullary cords rich in plasma cells, & fixed
macrophages
B. Lymphoid Nodules
1. Function
a. Filtration of lymph
b. 99% of antigens and debri removed by macrophages
c. Antigens recognized by immunocompetant cells
d. Active cell proliferation enlarges nodules
e. Plasma cells (antibody producing) produced
2. Location
a. Scattered through many areas of the body, neck, groin
etc.
b. Scattered through lamina of digestive tract, respiratory
tract, urinary passages
c. Peyer's Patches (Ileum) and Appendix (aggregates of
nodules)
d. Tonsils (aggregates of nodules)
e. Some temporary structures - may disappear then
reappear in the same place
3. Histology
a. No connective tissue capsule
b. Primary Lymphoid nodule
1. Spherical mass of small lymphocytes
2. No germinal center
3. Found only in new born, aseptic conditions
c. Secondary Lymphoid nodule
1. Periferal ring of small lymphocytes, dense
population, highly basophilic
2. Germinal Center
1. Less densly stained, antibody producing
2. Activated lymphocytes
(lymphoblasts/immunoblasts) large active
nucleus, large pale staining cytoplasm
3. Mitotic Figures, intense proliferation
4. Large macrophage population
5. Plasma cells
6. Intense immunoactivity reflected in all sizes
of lymphocytes
C. Thymus
1. Function
a. differentiation of primitive lymphocytes into
immunocompetent T-cells
b. Produces a hormone, thymosin (Aides in T cell
maturation)
c. expansion of antigen-stimulated T-cells
d. Larger in children than adults
2. Location - Mediastinum at the level of the great blood vessels
3. Histology
a. Capsule
1. Connective tissue, arteries, veins
2. NO afferent lymphatics
3. NOT a filter
b. Cortex
1. Partitioned by connective tissue "trabeculae" into
"Lobules"
2. Incomplete separation of "Lobules"
3. NO Lymphoid Nodules
4. No reticular fibers
5. Mostly small lymphocytes in comtinous layer
6. Epithelial reticular cells around blood vessels
forming Blood Thymic Barrier (cortex only)
7. Epithelial reticular cells, long thin processes,
linked by desmosomes (make up for no reticular
fibers)
c. Medulla
1. Hassell's corpuscles,
concentric layers of
Epithelial reticular cells
(light stain), inner cells
degenerate (right
photo)
2. Fewer lymphocytes than cortex
3. Lymphoblasts and young lymphocytes
4. NO Blood Thymic Barrier
5. No reticular fibers
D. Spleen
1. Function
. Complex Filter
a. Antibody forming organ
b. Defense against infection in the blood (Largest mass of Lymphoid
Tissue)
c. Production of RBCs (fetal)
d. Distruction of RBCs
e. Blood Reservoir (assists in Blood pressure maintenance)
2. Location in mesentary, abdominal cavity
3. Histology
1. Nodular like
sheaths around
"Central
Artery"
(periarterial
sheath) NOTE:
central artery
in enlarged
white pulp
nodule.
2. Lymphoid cells directly around artery - T Cells
3. Lymphoid nodules, outside PALS, mainly - B Cells
4. Marginal zone, between Red & White pulp
Many active macrophages,
Dendritic cells trap and present antigens to
immunocompetent cells
Remove B cells & T cells from blood
5. Activate B cells move to center of the nodule &
differentiate into Plasma cells and memory cells
6. Plasma cells move to the splenic cords and release
antibodies into the blood
d. Red Pulp
1. Splenic cords
1. Elongated structures of cells between
sinusoids
2. reticular cells and fibers
3. Lymphocytes, Plasma cells
4. Blood elements (RBCs, platelets,
granulocytes)
2. Sinsoids
1. Note: Red blood Cells free in Sinsoids of ren
pulp
2. Long endothelial cells supported by
reticular fibers
3. Hoop like rings of basement membrane
4. Macrophages present, as in Liver sinusoids
5. Large lumen with 2-3 µ spaces for flexable
cells to pass through.
E. Tonsils
1. Aggragations of incompletely encapsulated lymphoid tissue
associated with the gut
2. Lie beneath the epithelium
3. Densely packed lymphocytes, (most B cells)Produce
lymphocytes
become plasma cells
4. Mouth and Pharynx ( forms "ring" of lymphoid tissue)
. Palatine Tonsils, nodules with germinal centers, numerous (10-20)
crypts, posterior walls of oral cavity
stratified squamous may be infiltrated by lymphocytes from here.
a. Pharyngeal Tonsils, diffuse lymphoid tissue and nodules, back of
nasopharynx
b. Lingual Tonsils, base of the tongue, small and numerous
5. Gut: Intestinal tonsils
. Peyer's Patches in lamina propria of the Ileum
a. Vermiform appendix
F. Bone Marrow
1. Function (Storage organ, hematopoietic tissue)
. Original site of all Blood cells
a. Stem cells that produce all blood cells
b. Production of RBC, Granulocytes, Monocytes.
c. Development of immature T cells (migrate to thymus) & B cells that
migrate to non thymus lymphoid tissue
d. RBC distruction
e. Storage of iron (ferritan & hemosiderin) in Reticular cells and
macrophages
Iron also stoered in hepatocytes, spleen macropgages, skeletal muscle fibers
f. Rich in adipose cells (Yellow marrow)
2. Histology
. Reticular cells & fibers form "sponce" transversed by sinusoids
a. Sinusoids, lined by endothelium, basement membrane
b. Free cells: RBC, moncytes, granulocytes, platelets, developmental
stages of all, and some plasma cells
c. Remian in groups, one cell type predominates in different stages of
maturation
Digestive System I
Oral Cavity
B. Dentine (D)
1. Produced by odontoblasts
2. Calcified ground substance.
3. Dentinal tubules. . (Black arrows, Enlarged photo
at right ) What occupies the tubule ?
4. Granular layer of Tomes. An area of dentine just
under the cementum where the canal system is
very irregular.
C. Cementum, hardest tissue, essentially bone, but lacks
Haversian systems, blood vessels, cementocytes
D. Pulp
1. Loose C.T with many blood vessels
2. Rich in nerves (myelinated)
3. Unmyelinated fibers (some) extend into dentine
tubules
E. Peridondal membrane
1. Special type of Dense ConnectiveTissue
2. Fibers penetrat cementum and bind to bone wall
(periostium of alveolar bone)
F. Alveolar bone
1. Immature bone structure, (Not lamellar)
2. forms socket, blood vessels, nerves penetrat into
pulp cavity
3. Bundles of Collage penetrate bone and cementum
G. Gingiva
1. Mucus membrane
2. Cells bound to basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes
3. Bound firmly to bone and tooth enamal (cuticle)
4. Epithelial attachment of Gotlieb (cuticle)
H. Summary Table
Enamal Dentine Cementum
ameloblasts odontoblasts Cementoblasts from
(Enamal organ0 Line pulp cavity mesenchyme
Thin columnar Procollagen => Cementocytes in
=> Cuboidal cells collagen lacunae, canaliculi
=> Atrophy Mineralizes Bone W/O
Lost before tooth (Tomes fibers in Haversian systems
erruption dentine tubules) & blood vessels
No Collagen Nerve fibers in
dentine, a few
Collagen
2. Tongue
A. Mucosa - Upper surface
1. Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
2. Papillae, some with taste buds
A. Mucosa
1. epithelium
2. lamina propria
3. muscularis mucosa
4. function
1. Permeability barrier
2. Mucus production for lubrication
3. Enzymes for digestive processes
4. Absorpyion membrane
5. Lymph nodules prevention of bacterial invasion
6. Independent movement of mucosa (muscularis mucosa),
keeps incontact with food
B. Submucosa
1. Dense irregular connective tissue, nerves, blood vessels,
lymphatics
2. Sub mucosal glands
3. Meisner's nerve plexes (parasympathetic ganglia)
C. Muscularis externa.
1. Smooth muscle
2. 2 layers, inner circular, outer longitudinal
3. Auerbach's plexes (myenteric)
D. Serosa, Adventitia
1. Mesothelium
2. Simple squamous & C.T.
3. Rich in blood vessels, lymph and some adipose
4. Adventitial - loose irregular C.T.
Summary of Digestive Tract Anatomy
H. Accessory Glands
A. Mucosa
1. Epithelium = Stratified Squamous
2. lamina propria
3. muscularis mucosa
B. Submucosa
1. Small mucus secreting, submucosa.
esophageal glands
2. Human = numerous compound
mucous glands
3. [cat, the horse and rodents usually do
not have them these]
C. Muscularis externa
1. Top third Voluntary, striated muscle tissue for swallowing
2. Lower third smooth muscle
3. Middle third mixed smooth and striated
meshed with connective tissue fibers.
D. Adventitia
1. Areolar Connective tissue and binds the esophagus to other
organs.
2. Replaced by a thin serosa in abdominal cavity
connective tissue covered by mesothelium.
6. Paneth cells
. Found throughout stomach
a. Enteroendocrine Cells
b. Base of Gastric glands
c. Large eosinophil granules
d. Serous cell - Complex protein, carbohydrate, lysozyme
e. Lysozyme present
f. May control Intestinal flora
d. Pyloric Glands -
1. Deep gastic pits
2. Mucus and some Lysozyme
3. Gastrin (G) Cells
5. Muscularis Mucosae: trilaminar
1. two layers of muscle, sometimes a third an inner circular, outer
longitudinal.
2. heavily meshed with connective tissue fibers.
0. inner oblique
1. middle circular
2. outer longitudinal.
D. Serosa
1. mesothelium
2. thin connective tissue
E. Endocrine Production of Gastric Mucosa
1. Pyloric Mucosa
. Gastrin
a. Stimulated by Amino acids(tryptophane & phenylalanine) and
peptides
b. Stimulates Parietal cells [HCl] and Chief cells {Pepsinogen]
c. Maintains gastric mucosa
d. Inhibited when pH falls below 2.5
2. Paneth cells ( See cell description above)
3. Argentifine Cells, enterochromaffin ( See cell description above)
Digestive System II Intestines
Parotid
Serous secretion 100%
Sublingual Exocrine gland Bile
80% Mucous secretion Serous secretion Metabolic Waste
5% Serous secretion Digestive enzymes Stored in Gall Bladder
Submaxillary
60% Serous secretion Endocrine gland
30% Mucous secretion Insulin
Glucagon
A. Salivary Glands
1. Capsule rich in Dense Connective tissue
2. Divided into Lobules
3. Connective tissue septa with blood vessels and nerves
4. Ducts (Photo, right, top)
a. Conducting ducts (intercalated ducts)
Low cuboidal, enter at hilum of gland
b. Striated ducts (interlobular) Tall cuboidal
cells, similar to kidney tubules
c. Extralobular ducts (in septa)
5. Secretory Portion
a. Serous Acinus, (top, right) central located
nucleus
b. Myoepithelial cells
c. Mucous Acinus, (bottom, right)
clear cytoplasm, nucleus compressed at bottom of the cell
d. Mucous Acinus with Serous Demilune (half moon)
[sublingual]
Parotid
Submaxillary Sublingual
C. Liver.
1. Lobule
0. Hepatic cords of liver cells radiating single large central vein.
E. Pancreas
1. Exocrine glandular tissue.
0. Serous acinar gland
1. Produce Enzymes
2. Pyramidal shape cells
3. Centro-acinar cells
4. Wall of the intercalated duct
[characteristic of the pancreas]
2. Interlobular ducts, simple cuboidal or columnar epithelium,
0. Secret Primary Pancreatic secretion (neutralizes acid chyme)
3. Endocrine glandular tissue.
0. Islets of Langerhans (clusters of 5 to 50
cells), randomly scattered
1. Surrounded by Reticular fibers
2. cords of polygonal cells surrounded by
capillaries
3. Stain lighter than acinar cells
4. 3 types of cells, alpha, beta and delta cells (need special stains to see
differences)
1. Beta Cells 60-80% (Proinsulin => Insulin + C
protein)
Hemtoxylin and Phloxine Blue Granules
2. Alpha Cells 20% (Glucagon), cells larger, less
numerous, perfiery of Islet
Hemtoxylin and Phloxine Red Granules
3. Delta and "F" cells few
5. Capillary networks in the Islets
6. control, blood glucose levels, Sympathethic and Parasympathethic
nerve ending
4. Pancreas (Endocrine Function)
. Insulin (Pancreas, Ilets of Longerhans, Beta cells)
1. Promotes cellular uptake of glucose and synthesis
of glycogen
2. Promotes cellular uptake of amino acids & protein
synthesis
3. Stimulates fat storage, Promotes lipogenesis
4. Stimulates lipoprotein lipase activity (Depressed in
Obesity)
A. Glucagon (Pancreas, Ilets of Longerhans, Alpha cells)
1. Stimulates Glucogenolysis
2. Stimulates Gluconeogenesis (use amino acids)
B. Pancreatic (Secretion)Enzymes
1. Pancreatic Secretion #1 Increase of pH
Stimulated by hormone, CCK (cholecystokinen)
2. Pancreatic Secretion #2 Enzymatic
Stimulated by hormone, Secretin
a. Trypsin and Chymotrypsin secreted as
Trypsinogen and Chymotrypsinogen
(Inactive)
b. Trypsin activated by Enterokinase from
intestinal Glands
c. Chymotrypsin activated by Trypsin
C. Digestive Tract Short Summary of Digestion
Respiratory System
A. Larynx
1. Laryngeal Cartilages held together by ligaments
a. Large(Hyaline Cartilage) &
b. Small (Elastic Cartilage)
c. Keep air way open
d. Valve to prevent food from entering the airway
e. Sound production
2. Lamina Propria
a. Epiglottis on rim of Larynx
b. False Vocal Cords 1st pair of folds
Endocrine System I
Pituitary & Thyroid
Hormones
2. Five hormone secreting cells!, Only 3 Histological cell
types.
3. Alpha or acidophil cells.
a. Cytoplasmic
granules stain pink
with eosin.
b. Predominate at the
periphery of the gland.
c. GH, Prolactin!
4. Beta or basophil cells.
a. Cytoplasmic granules stain blue with Delafield's
hematoxylin.
b. More toward the center of the gland
c. ACTH, FSH, TSH, LH !
5. Chief or chromophobe cells.
a. Cytoplasm stains poorly
b. .EM=some with few very small granules, others,
none
c. Star shapped, between capillaries
d. Center of the gland.
D. Pars intermedia (Posterior lobe)
1. Cords of weakly staining basophils, few secertory
granules, small barely visible
2. Intraglandular cleft, reminant of Rathke's Pouch,
Rathke's cysts, (front of the pars intermedia), cuboidal
epithelium, with colloid
3. Amphibians - MSH
4. Function not well understood
E. Pars nervosa (Neurohypothesis,
Posterior lobe)
1. No Secretory cells,
Neurosecretory cells in the
hypothalamus.
2. Processes into the pars
nervosa ( fibrous appearance, right photo )
3. ~ 100,000 unmyelinated axons
4. Rich capillary plexis.
5. Pituicytes 25% (glial cell) numerous cytoplasmic
processes that end in perivascular spaces
F. Pars tuberalis
1. Cells aranged in cords along blood vessels
2. Secrete mostly FSH & LH
III. Pituitary Gland (Master gland) Hormone Production
1. Hypothalamus Releasing Hormones (Control Anterior Pituitary
Function)
1. GBH- Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
2. LRH- Luteinizing Releasing Hormone-Both for FSH and
LH
3. PIH- Prolactin Inhibitory Hormone, Suppresses Prolactin
in non Pregnant
4. CRH, Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone, stimulates
release of ACTH
5. SRH( GRH) -Somatotrophin (Growth Hormone )
Releasing Hormone
6. Somatostatin, Somatotrophin and TSH Inhibitory
Hormone
2. Anterior Pituitary Gland
1. Somatotrophin = Growth Hormone (Stimulates Cell
division, Bone growth and Protein synthesis)
2. FSH - Stimulates Follicular Growth in Ovary,
Spermatogenesis in the male
3. LH - Stimulates Corpus luteum in Ovary, ICSH in male.
4. ACTH - Stimulates Adrenal Cortex
5. TSH - Stimulates Thyroid Gland
6. Prolactin, secretion of milk
3. Posterior Pituitary Gland
1. Vassopressin, Vasoconstrictor, ADH
2. Oxytocin , Stimulates uterine muscle contraction,
mammary gland milk release
IV. Thyroid gland
. Anatomy
1. Two lobes and isthmus
2. Cervical region
3. Anterior, inferior to Larynx
4. Extremely vascular
A. Capsule
1. Narrow layer of dense connective tissue
2. Wide external layer of loose areolar tissue.
B. Lobules
Endocrine System II
Parathyroid & Adrenal
I. Parathyroid Gland
A. Histology
1. Two pair in posterior
surface of the Thyroid
2. Separated from
thyroid by a separate
membrane.
3. Capsule of connective
Tissue
4. thin septa, collagen and elastic fibers
5. Principal Cells
1. Polygonal cells with vesicular nucleus
2. Pale stain, slightly acidophillic cytoplasm
3. EM secretory granules
4. Inactive cells, masses of glycogen granules
5. Most numerous, most Mammals, only cells
6. Oxyphil Cells,.acidphilic cytoplasm
1. Large Polygonal cells, larger than Principle cells
2. Many acidophillic granules in the cytoplasm
7. Adipose Cells, increase with age (older 50% of all cells!)
B. Parathyroid hormone
1. maintains blood level of calcium
2. absorbtion of calcium from intestines
3. mobilizes calcium from bones (osteoclast)
4. decreases renal reabsorbtiom of phosphate
5. activates Vit D3 in kidney
II. Adrenal Gland
A. Capsule
1. Layer of Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue
2. The outer portion is fused with the mesothelium (serosa)
in some areas.
B. Cortex
1. Cortex cord-like arrangement of 3 concentric layers of
cells
continously secrets, hypertrophy in stress
2. Zona glomerulosa
a. Narrow layer just under the capsule
b. Cells columnar or pyramidal, in clusters,
around capillaries
c. Dome-shaped or rounded arrangement of
closely packed cells.
d. Rounded nuclei with a round nucleolus
e. Acidophilic cytoplasm, basophilic granules,
and lipid droplets.
f. Sinusoids
g. Septa which separate the cells.
h. Mineral corticoids, aldosterone
1. SER acetate=> cholesterol
2. Mitochondria, cholesterol=> pregnenolone
3. SER pregnenolone +. Progesterone,
deoxycorticosterone
4. Mitochondria, Deoxycorticosterone =>
corticosterone =>18 hydroxycorticosterone
=> Aldosterone
3. Zona fasiculata
. Thickest layer
a. Straight columns, 2 cells thick, separated
by septa which contain capillaries.
b. Cells are polyhedral, centrally located
nucleus
c. Large number of Lipid droplets give
them a fasiculated appearance.
d. Glucocorticoids, deoxycorticosteroids, 17-ketosteroids (sex hormones)
4. Zona reticularis
. Cells smaller than in other layers
a. Irregular network of cords of cells rich in
capillaries.
b. Cells similar, smaller, than those in the
other zones, differ ultrastructurally
c. Some irregular shaped cells with
pyknotic nuclei (degenerating cells!)
d. Glucocorticoids, 17-ketosteroids (sex hormones)?
5. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
0. Glucocorticoids - Increases blood glucose
a. Stimulates Gluconeogenesis (use amino acids), glycogenolysis
b. Stimulates hepatic enzymes synthesis for Gluconeogenesis
c. Stimulates protein catabolism
d. Increases circulation of aminio acids, fatty acids, ketone bodies, glucose
e. Lipolysis & Ketogenesis
f. Anti inflammatory
1. Mineralcorticoids (Adrenal Cortex) - Aldosterone
2. Sex Hormones(Adrenal Cortex) - Estrogens, Progesterones, Androgens,
Testosterone
C. Medulla
1. Histology
. Medulla irregular arrangement of
masses and network of cords of cells.
a. Between and around Blood sinusoids
and venules
b. few Sympathetic gangilon cells
c. "chromaffin cells" stain for
Catecholamines
2. Stores secretion in granules,
Continously secretes small amounts
Large quanties in response to stress
3. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
0. Epinephrine & Norepinephrine = "fight or flight" mobilization
1. Human 80% Epinephrine
III. Other Glands
A. Pineal Gland
1. Connected to the roof of the diencephalon by a short stalk
2. Convered by pia mater
3. Irregular lobules of cellular cords and follicles
4. Unmyelinated nerve endings
5. Cell types
0. Pinealocytes, irregular nucleus, slightly basophilic cytoplasm
Produce melatonin, serotonin, pineal peptides (Neuroendocrine transducer)
Rhythmic changes in gonads and hypothesis
1. "Brain sand" calcified bodies, x-ray reference point
2. Interstitial cells, elongate nucleus, stain dark, between cords of
Pinealocytes,
resemble astrocytes (Astroglial)
B. Interstitial Cells of the Testis. See Testis
C. Follicular Cells of the Ovary. See ovary.
D. Corpus Luteal Cells of the Ovary. See ovary.
Urinary System
Renal Circulation
A. Kidney
1.
Cortex Medulla
Glomerulus
Bomans Capsule
1. Histology
a. Glomerulus (Tuff of capillaries)
1. Capillary, thin
walled,
fenestrated
with large
pores, no
diaphragm in
pores
2. Pores larger and more numerous than other
porous epithelia
3. Mesangial Cells, between capillaries, under
pododcyte layer, processes supporting Capillaries
b. Bowmans Capsule
1. Visceral Layer (contact with glomerulus)
1. Podocytes - a Primary process & secondary
processes; cell body does not touch capillary
The Secondary processes wrap around the
capillary
Contacts the basement membrane (fusion of
capillary & podocyte bm) directly
Form filtration slits ~25nm wide
2. Parietal Layer (external, outer wall)
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
3. Basement membrane with a thin layer of elastic
fibers
2. Funtion
. Highly Permeable To Small Solutes
a. Selectively Permeable To Large Solutes,
b. Charged Molecules Blocked
c. Neutral Passes More Easily
d. 180 liters per day
C. Proximal Convoluted Tubule, PCT
1. Histology
. Cuboidal epithelium with round, centrally loacted nucleus
a. Cytoplasm, acidophilic
b. Cell margins difficult to see
c. Lumen, large in living, collapsed(reduced) in fixed tissue
d. Brush border ( Microvilli
e. Base of cells folded with many mitochondria.
2. Funtion
. Reabsorption (90% of solutes)& Secretion
a. 100% of glucose reabsorbed
b. Water reabsorption by osmosis
c. Active Transport & Passive Diffusion
D. Loop Of Henle
1. Histology
. Descending limb, thin with wide lumen
a. Ascending limb, thin segment,
squamous epithelium
Thick segment resembles DCT
2. Funtion
. Counter Current
a. Produces Sodium concentration gradient
in renal medulla
E. Distal Donvoluted Tubule, DCT
1. Histology
. Cuboidal Epithelium
a. Smaller than PCT, more cells per cross section
b. Less Acidophilic cytoplasm
c. No Brush Border, Larger Lumen
d. Poor lateral margins
2. Funtion
. Secretion of uric acid, ammonia, creatinine
a. Aldosterone Na+ in and K+ out
F. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JD)
1. Histology (photo right, JD arrow )
. Includes Macula Densa, below
a. Modified smooth muscle cells of the
Tunica media of Afferent Arteriole
b. More epithelial like
c. Nuclei, flattened oval, cigar shaped,
d. Internal Elastic membrane not present in
this area
e. Granular cytoplasm, stains with PAS
f. EM, characteristics of protein secretion
2. Function:
. Enhances Blood Pressure
Control Renal Blood Flow and Glomerular Filtration
a. Renin (hormone) Production (produces Angiotensin, vasoconstrictor)
b. Acts on Angiotensin => Angiotensin I (10 amino acids)
c. Lung endotheliun produces a converting enzyme
d. Acts on Angiotensin i => Angiotensin II (8 amino acids)
G. Macula Densa
1. Histology (photo right, longitudinal cut, cells MD arrow )
. Region of DCT that passes between the Afferent and Efferent Arteriole
a. In contact with Afferent Arteriole
b. Next to Juxtaglomerular Cells, see Above
c. Cells: Columnar, Closely packed, Transfers data on filtrate
osmolarity??
Note Photo at right, labeled and Photo under Renal corpuscle above)
1. Histology
a. Straight throug Cortex and Medulla, open in a renal papilla
b. Small collecting ducts = Cuboidal Epithelium
c. Large collecting ducts, near Papilla = Columnar Epithelium
d. Cytoplasm stains weakly, clear halo around nucleus
e. Clear Lateral margins
2. Funtion
a. Impermeable to water
b. ADH controls permeability to water
c. Transports filtrate and Empties into Calyces of renal pelvis
Urethra Histology
A. Testis
1. Capsule, Tunica Albuginia, dense connective tissue
2. Divided into 250 lobes by fibrous connective tissue
3. Testicular Tubule, Duct System
1. Coiled Semineferous tubules (sperm production) in Lobes
2. Tubuli recti
3. Rete Testis
4. Ductus Efferentes
5. Epididymis, coiled out side testis
6. Ductus Deferens, Sperm to Prostate etc.
B. Seminiferous Tubules [coiled tubes with germinal epithelium]
1. Sperm production Begins at time of Sexual maturation
2. Meiotic Cells in Seminiferous tubules
a. Spermatogonia - Reproducing Stem Cells (#1 in photo)
b. Primary Spermatocyte - Undergoes Meiosis I [Reduction Division] (#2
in photo)
c. Secondary Spermatocyte - Undergoes Meiosis II
d. Spermatid - Haploid cell that matures into spermatozoa (sperm cells)
(#3 in photo)
A. Ovary
1. Paired ovoid bodies, Pelvic Cavity, lateral to uterus
2. Suspended by mesovarium, Ovarian ligament- Ovary to Uterus
B. Fallopian Tubes (uterine tubes, oviduct)
1. From ovary to uterus, (4" long)
2. Expanded funnel - shaped, w/Fimbriae (finger like ends)
C. Uterus (Pear shaped organ 7.5cm (long), 5cm (wide), 2.5cm (thick))
1. Supported behind the bladder by 8 ligaments
2. Fundus- broad upper Body- Tapering region between Fundus
Cervix
D. Vagina
1. 8 cm long
E. Mammary Glands
A. Ovary
1. Surface, Germinal Epithelium, Simple
Squamous or Cuboidal epithelium
2. Tunica Albuginia, dense layer of connective
tissue under the Germinal Epithelium, poorly
defined
3. Stroma, internal tissue of the Ovary
4. Ovarian Follicles - Ova and Follicular Cells
a. Primordial Follicles (Small cells, left in photo)
1. Primary Oocyte wrapped in Single layer of
flattened Follicular cells
2. Small, 25 µ m in diameter found along external
cortex surface
3. Basal lamina separates follicle from stromal cells
4. Nucleus of Oocyte in arrested in Prophase I prior
to birth
5. 500,000 to 400,000 at birth (Menopause- Only
Scars)
b. Primary Follicles
1. Monolayer (Photo 1) to Multiple layers of cuboidal
Follicular cells (Granulosa cells)
2. Follicular cells (Granulosal cells) develop into
cuboidal cells, no blood vessels
3. Proliferate forming Several layers (Photo 2)
4. Develop microvilli, gap junctions
5. Zona pellucida forms (gel-like, protein
polysaccharide) around Oocyte
e. Atretic Follicles
1. Degeneration of Follicle
2. Develop when more than one follicle begins to
develop or any time
3. Granulosal cells stop dividing
4. Oocyte dies
5. Phagocytes dipose of cells
f. Ovulation = Follicle Ruptures- sets ovum free
1. Follicle swells, Pressure of follicular fluid causes
thinning and Rupture
2. Ovum and granulose cells loose from rest and float
free
3. Active movement of cilia on fimbria of oviduct
draws ovum into the open ostium of Oviduct
g. Corpus luteum (yellow) , Progesterone Secretion,
Secretory
1. Follicular wall collapses and is thrown into folds
2. Central part of corpus luteum, clots, scar tissue,
gradually removed
3. Granulosal Cells enlarge to plump polygonal cells
accumulate lipid, Granulosa Lutein Cells
Uterus
A. Endometrium (Mucosa)
1. Simple Columnar Epithelium, Mixed ciliated and secreting
2. Simple Tubular Mucosal glands, may be branched at the base
3. Lamina Propria, Rich in cells (fibroblasts), Elastic fibers
4. Zones
a. Functionalis - lost during Menstruation, Coiled Arteries
b. Basalis - Retained for renewal of Mucosa, base of glands
source of cells for renewal of epithelium, Straight Arteries
B. Myometrium - (Muscular layer) smooth Muscle
1. Thick Bundles of Smooth Muscle
2. Separated by Connective tissue
3. Four Poorly defined Layers
4. Middle layers, Arcuate Arteries
C. Serosa - Adventitia
D. Cervix
1. Mucosal epithelium = Stratified Squamous
2. Cervical glands, Extensively branched
3. Secretions, role in fertilization
a. Watery at the Time of ovulation (easy sperm penetration)
b. More viscous in Leuteal Phase, Pregnancy etc
c. Prevents microbial invasion, sperm
4. Dilation of Cervix at Birth, Collagenolysis
Vagina
A. 8 cm long lined
B. Mucosa
1. Stratified squamous
a. Small amount of keratin
b. Synthesizes large amouts of glycogen (Estrogen present)
c. Bacterial metabolim of glycogen in lumen => Acid
environment => retards bacterial growth
d. No glands
2. Lamina propria
a. Rich in elastic Fibers
b. Lymphocytes and Neutrophils
c. Rich in blood vessels
C. Muscularis
1. Longitudinal Muscle layer, some circular
D. Fibrous Adventitial Layer
1. Elastic Tissue
2. Extensive Venous Plexus
3. Nerve Bundles
E. External to Vagina
Bartholins glands- mucoid secretion
Mammary Glands