MINIREVIEW www.rsc.

org/ees | Energy & Environmental Science

Energy applications of ionic liquids

James F. Wishart*
Received 30th March 2009, Accepted 1st May 2009
First published as an Advance Article on the web 11th May 2009
DOI: 10.1039/b906273d

Due to their unusual sets of properties, ionic liquids have many important applications in devices and
processes for the production, storage and efficient use of energy and other resources.

Introduction
Ionic liquids (ILs) are defined (somewhat arbitrarily) as molten
salts whose fusion temperatures are at or below 100  C. Although
their history extends back almost a century,1 they have received
a burgeoning amount of attention in the present decade. While it
may have been tempting a few years ago to view the interest in
the field as a passing fad, the literature on ionic liquids continues
to grow rapidly and to diversify into new areas. Ionic liquids are
here to stay.1
The attraction of ionic liquids (ILs) lies in their remarkable set
of properties when compared to conventional solvents. As salts
consisting of distinct anions and cations, ILs are inherently
binary (or higher order) systems. The anions and cations can be
independently selected to tune the IL’s physicochemical prop-
erties (melting point, conductivity, viscosity, density, refractive
index, etc.) while at the same time introducing specific features
for a given application (hydrophobicity vs. hydrophilicity,
controlling solute solubility, adding functional groups for
catalysis/reactivity purposes, chirality, etc.) Examples of typical
IL anions and cations are shown in Fig. 1, however these are only
a sample of the infinite variety available. Generally speaking,
various tricks, such as using bulky organic ions, fluorous
substitution, and low-symmetry structures, are employed to
prevent efficient ion lattice packing that would result in strong
coulombic interactions and high-melting solids instead of room-
temperature liquids.
Although the coulombic interactions in ILs are weakened by
design, in most cases they remain strong enough to make the IL’s
vapour pressure negligible at room temperature. Herein lies one
of the major distinctions of ILs – the low vapour pressure makes
Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY,
11973, USA. E-mail: wishart@bnl.gov; Fax: +1 631 344-5815; Tel: +1
631 344-4327
Fig. 1 Typical cations and anions used to make ionic liquids.
them combustion resistant, evaporation-proof, and suitable for
vacuum applications, and the lack of a boiling point (below the
decomposition temperature) means that many ILs have very
wide temperature ranges in the liquid state. In some ILs the fluid
range extends all the way down to the glass transition tempera-
ture (typically 110 to 50  C). On the other hand, certain ILs
can be distilled if they are heated in high vacuum,2 or, as in the
case of protic ionic liquids, they are in equilibrium with volatile
neutral molecules via a proton transfer reaction.3
Ionic liquids are intrinsically conductive since they typically
contain on the order of 2–5 M electrolyte, however the viscosities
of ionic liquids tend to be higher than conventional solvents,
ranging from 20–30000 cP at room temperature. Nevertheless,
low-viscosity ionic liquids often have room-temperature
conductivities of 1–10 mS cm 1, comparable to or larger than
that of 0.1 M aqueous KCl solution. The reciprocal relationship
between the viscosities and conductivities of ionic liquids, and
causes of non-ideality, have been carefully studied by Angell and
coworkers,4 as well as other groups.5
A large fraction of the reported ionic liquids are amphiphilic
due to the hydrocarbon side chains that festoon the cations or
anions. Molecular dynamics simulations6 have shown that
hydrophobic domains can be formed through hydrocarbon side-
chain aggregation, and if the chains are long enough the domains

Broader context
During the early phases of the rapid growth of interest in ionic liquids, their ‘‘green’’ and environmentally-friendly characteristics
were praised perhaps a little too enthusiastically. Ionic liquids, like any materials, are not intrinsically green; their environmental
benefits accrue through the ways they are employed. As our understanding of ionic liquids and their novel combinations of tunable
properties has grown, it is possible to see many opportunities for ionic liquids to contribute to the sustainable production, storage
and efficient use of energy as components of advanced devices and processes. This brief review provides a basic introduction to ionic
liquids and their interesting properties, and enumerates how these properties are being applied to improve the ways in which we
generate, store, and consume energy.

956 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 956–961 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2009
can merge into a continuous structure within the IL interwoven
with the polar domain. This results in the second major distinc-
tion between ILs and molecular solvents – their ability to dissolve
and solubilize a wide range of polar and nonpolar materials that
would not be simultaneously soluble in a conventional molecular
solvent. Solutes can range from inorganic salts to hydrocarbons,
synthetic and bio-polymers, lipids, sugars, proteins and even
functional enzymes. ILs can dissolve wood and lignocellulosic
materials,7 and they even show promise as less hazardous fixa-
tives for embalming tissues.8
Due to the electrostatic constraints of this ionic fluid, the polar
and nonpolar regions are forced to remain in intimate contact
and the liquid is heterogeneous on the molecular scale. Concepts
of polarity that are useful for understanding the nature of
conventional solvents are ill-defined in ionic liquids.9 Empirical
polarity measurements often give conflicting results, since probe
molecules sample local environments to which they have the
highest affinity, recalling the Indian fable of the blind men and
the elephant. Long-range structural order can persist in ionic
liquids as well, for example interfacial layering at charged
surfaces.10 These features can give rise to new reactivity patterns,
the preparation of hybrid materials, and the fabrication of
advanced devices.
The introduction above provides only a brief overview of the
features of ionic liquids that motivate their energy-related
applications. Their utility manifests itself in wide-ranging aspects
of energy production, storage and utilization.
Ionic liquids and energy production
Ionic liquids will play many roles in the production of energy, for
example in the capture and conversion of solar energy into
electricity, the conversion of raw biomass or fossil resources
into cleaner fuels, and enabling advanced nuclear energy
technologies.
Solar photoconversion
Due to their conductivity, low volatility, and thermal stability,
ionic liquids have been extensively studied as electrolytes for
James F. Wishart received a BS
in Chemistry from the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology
in 1979 and a PhD in Inorganic
Chemistry from Stanford
University in 1985 under the
direction of Prof. Henry Taube.
After a postdoctoral appointment
at Rutgers University he joined
the Brookhaven National Labo-
ratory Chemistry Department in
1987. His research interests
include ionic liquids, radiation
James F: Wishart chemistry, electron transfer, and
new technology and techniques
for pulse radiolysis.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2009
dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs).11 DSSCs use a metal complex
or organic dye absorbed onto a semiconductor, such as TiO2,
which has been applied to an electrode. Capture of a photon by
the dye causes the excited state to inject an electron into the TiO2.
The oxidized dye is reduced by a charge carrier within the elec-
trolyte, typically iodide anion. The electron and the oxidized
species (‘‘hole’’) recombine at the counter electrode, completing
the circuit.
Although ILs are conductive, mass transport of the hole
carrier to the counter electrode can be a limiting factor for IL
DSSC performance.12 Iodide is the most utilized hole carrier
because I0 can dimerize to form I2 and pick up an iodide anion to
form I3 . A Grotthus-type exchange mechanism transferring I2
between I3 and I has been invoked to explain the superior
charge transport in iodide-based DSSCs.13 A large body of
literature traces the improvement of IL-based DSSCs. The
present state of the art employs mixtures of IL cations and anions
(in addition to I and I3 ) to lower viscosity and thus optimize
hole transport. The energy efficiencies of IL-based DSSCs are
close to those of the best conventional solvent-based systems,
with substantial improvements in durability.14
Solar thermal conversion
Another emerging technology for conversion of solar energy
involves using arrays of reflectors to focus sunlight onto vessels
or pipes containing a heat transfer fluid. The heated fluid is then
conducted through a system that converts the heat into elec-
tricity, either through thermoelectric conversion or by powering
a generator. The heated fluid can be stored in an insulated vessel
for electric generation on demand. Fluids for these systems must
endure a wide range of temperatures, from night-time lows in
winter to daytime operating temperatures in excess of 200  C.
Many ILs are liquid and stable over that entire range, and several
studies15 have supported their suitability for this application. In
addition to large-scale electricity installations, the technology is
being investigated to provide direct heat and air conditioning to
hospitals and resorts in Mediterranean countries.16
Biofuel production
Biofuels such as ethanol, butanol and biodiesel represent
a potentially sustainable, carbon-neutral transportation fuel
source if they can be obtained from non-food biomass grown and
harvested in an ecologically stable manner. One of the biggest
challenges is that the bulk of the energy available from such
biomass (corn stalks, switchgrass, softwood, etc.) is in the form
of lignocellulose, a tight, covalent- and hydrogen bond-linked
matrix of the carbohydrate polymers cellulose and hemicellulose
and the phenolic polymer lignin. Plants owe their sturdiness to
the durability of lignocellulose and its ‘‘recalcitrance’’ to chemical
and biological attack. Breaking down lignocellulose into its
components so that they can be converted to biofuels requires
harsh chemical treatments or specialized organisms (e.g., fungi).
Happily, ionic liquids that have anions with good hydrogen
bond accepting properties, such as Cl , carboxylates, and
oxoanions, can dissolve cellulose (and lignocellulose) by dis-
rupting their networks of intramolecular hydrogen bonds.17 It is
therefore possible to dissolve wood and other plant material.7,18
Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 956–961 | 957
The dissolved cellulose (or lignocellulose) can be recovered by
addition of water to the ionic liquid. The water breaks up the
cellulose–anion hydrogen bonds and precipitates the cellulose in
a structurally disrupted form that is easier for enzymes to cleave
into fermentable sugars to make ethanol, for example.19 Several
groups are working on the adaptation of ionic liquid pre-treat-
ment of biomass for the production of ethanol and butanol. Ionic
liquids could possibly be used to extract butanol out of dilute
aqueous fermentation broths.20
Ionic liquids have been used to solubilize other natural
biopolymers in addition to cellulose, such as silk21 and wool
keratin,22 and to make hybrid biopolymer materials with exotic
items such as magnetic nanoparticles23 and carbon nanotubes.24
ILs have enabled the exploitation of cheap, renewable biopoly-
mers in many applications that used to be the province of fossil
fuel-derived plastics.
Biodiesel is another alternative fuel that has received a lot of
attention because of its compatibility with the present trans-
portation infrastructure. Several groups have used ionic liquids
to convert triglycerides to glycerol and biodiesel (fatty acid
methyl esters) through transesterification by immobilized lipase25
or homogeneous catalysis.26
More efficient production of cleaner fossil fuels
Although alternative energy sources will increase in capacity over
time, fossil fuels will remain a major source of energy for the
foreseeable future. Ionic liquids can make their production and
use cleaner. Desulfurization of petroleum feedstocks is vitally
important for the prevention of air pollution via SOx aerosols
and the environmental destruction caused by acid rain, as well as
for the protection of antipollution catalysts and fuel cells. Stan-
dard methods such as hydrodesulfurization require elevated
temperatures and pressures, along with hydrogen gas.
Ionic liquids have been shown to be effective at extracting
sulfur compounds from fuels under ambient conditions,
including compounds that are difficult to remove through
hydrogenation such as dibenzothiophene.27 Ionic liquid extrac-
tion has been coupled with oxidation by H2O2 to boost effi-
ciency,28 in some cases catalyzed by polyoxometallates.29 Ionic
liquids containing Lewis acidic metal complex anions also show
high performance.30
Ionic liquids are also effective for extracting aromatic hydro-
carbons from aromatic/aliphatic mixtures, and an engineering
analysis has shown significant cost savings and process benefits
could be obtained by ionic liquid-based removal of aromatics
from naphtha cracker feed streams.31 Regardless of the ability of
ILs to extract organic materials out of hydrocarbons, they show
limited solubility in hydrocarbons for the same Coulombic
reasons that make their vapour pressure very low. Consequently,
they are not washed away, even over many process cycles,
a bonus for their cost efficiency.
A cleaner, advanced nuclear fuel cycle
Nuclear power provides a significant fraction of the world’s
energy, and it is a major carbon-free source of continuous, base-
supply electrical power generation. Although the proportion of
renewable alternative energy production will continue to grow,
958 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 956–961
international recognition32 of the urgent need to reduce CO2
emissions calls for the growth of nuclear power generation in the
near term to avoid an even larger increase in greenhouse gases
from fossil fuel-based generating stations. Still, serious technical
and political problems persist in the handling and ultimate
disposal of spent nuclear fuel and waste. Current approaches are
not sufficient for future needs, and work is underway to design an
advanced fuel cycle33 that recycles spent nuclear fuel to signifi-
cantly minimize waste, extracts more energy from existing
uranium supplies, and burns up plutonium and other transuranic
elements so that they are no longer weapons proliferation risks
nor hazards to future generations.
Such a sea change in technology requires the development of
new, detailed spent fuel treatment and separations schemes that
present many challenges for chemists. Ionic liquids can play key
roles in advanced fuel separations systems because of their useful
properties, including low volatility and combustibility, amphi-
philicity, tuneable separations affinities including functionaliza-
tion, high conductivity, wide liquidus range and high thermal
stability. In addition, ionic liquids containing boron can
dramatically reduce the risk of criticality accidents in the pro-
cessing of fissile materials.34 Several groups are investigating the
liquid/liquid extraction behaviour of ionic liquids for actinides
and fission products (lanthanides, Cs, Sr, Tc, etc.).35 Binnemans
recently published a review on lanthanides and actinides in ILs.36
ILs have been shown to be effective solvents for extraction, but in
some cases the operative mechanism is ion exchange instead of
true neutral extraction.37 Several studies have revealed the effect
of IL anion and cation hydrophobicity on the balance between
the mechanisms.38 In addition to liquid/liquid extraction, various
elements can be selectively electrodeposited in metallic form,
even if highly reactive, due to the high conductivity and wide
electrochemical windows of selected ILs.39 The use of ionic
liquids to electrodeposit a wide variety of metals and alloys has
industrial and commercial applications far beyond the nuclear
field.40,41
Instability under the radiation burden of spent nuclear fuel is
a common problem for nuclear separations systems based on
conventional solvents. Therefore it is important to understand
the chemistry produced by irradiation of ionic liquids and its
potential effects on separations processes. A review of this issue
has recently been published.42 Ionic liquid radiolysis product
studies have shown that ILs are generally resistant to radiation
damage, and product distributions have been characterized.43
EPR identification of radiation-induced radical species relates
initial transient species to the ultimate product distributions.44,45
Unlike conventional hydrocarbon solvents that direct damage
into the extractant molecules, thus reducing their efficiency, ionic
liquids can be designed to direct damage away from the extrac-
tant, thereby increasing the durability of the separations
system.42,44 There are numerous reasons to believe that the future
of ionic liquids in advanced nuclear fuel recycling is bright.
Ionic liquids and energy storage
Batteries and supercapacitors
The strongest motivation for the development of ionic liquids in
the early years of the field was in their use as battery electrolytes,
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2009
where their conductivity, wide electrochemical windows and
liquidus ranges, and low volatility made them attractive for high
performance applications such as thermally-activated batteries.46
The electrochemical properties of ionic liquids are intensively
studied worldwide and several reviews47–50 and books41 have been
published on the subject, which includes many uses of ILs that
fall under other sections of this minireview. The field is so large
that it is not possible to do it justice within this space; interested
parties are urged to consult the reviews.
Ionic liquids have been studied in nearly every battery system
imaginable, but their use in lithium batteries has received the
greatest attention.47–49,51 Because of their chemical and
thermal stability, ILs are a good choice for development of
batteries with lithium metal anodes, although there are issues
with film formation at the IL/Li interface that require further
investigation.
Supercapacitors store energy through the formation of elec-
trochemical double layers formed by the adsorption of ionic
species on electrode surfaces.47,49,52 They are designed to have
very large electrode surface areas and they can store much more
charge than conventional dielectric capacitors. They can be
charged and discharged rapidly, and thus have higher power
densities than batteries, although their energy density is lower.
Supercapacitors have many uses in mobile electrical systems and
power distribution systems (regenerative braking, accelerating
electric vehicles, load buffering, uninterruptible power supplies)
that can markedly improve energy conservation. Supercapacitors
can also enhance the performance characteristics of batteries
and fuel cells. Because of the ionic nature, conductivity and
durability of ILs, supercapacitors using them are actively being
developed.47,49,52,53
Ionic liquids and efficient energy utilization
Ionic liquids impact energy utilization most directly through
their application to fuel cells, but there are many other ways that
they can make positive contributions indirectly through
improved materials, devices and processes that conserve energy
or other resources during their manufacture or operation. The
example of metal electrodeposition has already been mentioned
above.
Fuel cells
As low-volatility conductive media with good thermal stability,
ionic liquids are finding applications as fuel cell electrolytes and
as proton conductors in proton exchange membranes, often in
combination with polymer gels.48,54 Typically, ‘‘protic’’ ionic
liquids, formed through the reaction of a strong acid with a base,
are used as the proton conductors. However, fuel cells typically
operate at temperatures over 100  C. Under those conditions,
reverse proton transfer to produce volatile neutral acid and base
molecules leads to slow loss of the ionic liquid through evapo-
ration of its molecular precursors. This problem can be avoided
through the use of very strong acids or bases.55
Advanced devices and processes
Ionic liquids can be combined with electroactive polymers to
make electrochromic windows or displays.56 Their durability,
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2009
chemical inertness and low volatility promise gains in reliability
and useful lifetime. In addition to changing color, the charging or
discharging of conductive polymers can be coupled to IL ion
migration and electrostriction to produce physical displace-
ments, creating electromechanical actuators or ‘‘artificial
muscles’’.48,49,57 Turning signal transduction in the opposite
direction, ILs can be used to make sensors for the electro-
chemical detection of gases, ions (selective electrodes), biomole-
cules, and electroactive species.58 Similarly, the principles used to
design IL-based actuators could be applied to portable energy
harvesting systems59
Catalysis and industrial applications
The use of ionic liquids in catalytic systems has been studied
extensively1,60 Because many ILs are practically insoluble in
hydrocarbons and supercritical CO2,61 particular attention has
been paid to their use in phase-transfer catalysis, particularly
when the catalyst can be ‘‘immobilized’’ in the IL (to prevent
its loss and product contamination) by attaching a charged
functionality.
The solubility of gases in ionic liquids and their general lack of
volatility make them useful for gas capture or separation appli-
cations, for example using supported ionic liquid polymer
membranes for separation of CO2, SO2, etc.,62 H2 purification63
and storage of large gas volumes under mild conditions.64
Conclusion
Well over a dozen edited books, at least 14,000 articles, and
hundreds of patents concerning ionic liquids have been written.
This short minireview highlights the major ways that ILs can
impact energy technologies from generation to consumption.
Most of the examples mentioned are still in the research and
development stage, but commercial application of ILs continues
to move forward in many areas. It is hoped that this brief
introduction to ionic liquids will inspire new ideas for IL uses
among the readers of this review.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the U. S. Department of Energy,
Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Chemical Sciences
under contract # DE-AC02-98CH10886.
References
1 N. V. Plechkova and K. R. Seddon, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2008, 37, 123–
150.
2 M. J. Earle, J. M. S. S. Esperanca, M. A. Gilea, J. N. C. Lopes,
L. P. N. Rebelo, J. W. Magee, K. R. Seddon and J. A. Widegren,
Nature, 2006, 439, 831–834.
3 D. R. MacFarlane, J. M. Pringle, K. M. Johansson, S. A. Forsyth and
M. Forsyth, Chem. Commun., 2006, 1905–1917.
4 W. Xu, E. I. Cooper and C. A. Angell, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2003, 107,
6170–6178.
5 D. R. MacFarlane, M. Forsyth, E. I. Izgorodina, A. P. Abbott,
G. Annat and K. Fraser, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2009, DOI:
10.1039/b900201d.
6 J. N. A. C. Lopes and A. A. H. Padua, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2006, 110,
3330–3335.
Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 956–961 | 959
 7 D. A. Fort, R. C. Remsing, R. P. Swatloski, P. Moyna, G. Moyna and
R. D. Rogers, Green Chem., 2007, 9, 63–69.
8 P. Majewski, A. Pernak, M. Grzymislawski, K. Iwanik and J. Pernak,
Acta Histochem., 2003, 105, 135–142.
9 H. Weingartner, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2008, 47, 654–670.
10 M. Mezger, H. Schroder, H. Reichert, S. Schramm, J. S. Okasinski,
S. Schoder, V. Honkimaki, M. Deutsch, B. M. Ocko, J. Ralston,
M. Rohwerder, M. Stratmann and H. Dosch, Science, 2008, 322,
424–428.
11 M. Gratzel, J. Photochem. Photobiol., C, 2003, 4, 145–153.
12 M. Gorlov and L. Kloo, Dalton Trans., 2008, 2655–2666; P. Wachter,
M. Zistler, C. Schreiner, M. Berginc, U. O. Krasovec, D. Gerhard,
P. Wasserscheid, A. Hinsch and H. J. Gores, J. Photochem.
Photobiol., A, 2008, 197, 25–33.
13 R. Kawano and M. Watanabe, Chem. Commun., 2005, 2107–2109;
N. Yamanaka, R. Kawano, W. Kubo, T. Kitamura, Y. Wada,
M. Watanabe and S. Yanagida, Chem. Commun., 2005, 740–742.
14 Y. Bai, Y. M. Cao, J. Zhang, M. Wang, R. Z. Li, P. Wang,
S. M. Zakeeruddin and M. Gratzel, Nat. Mater., 2008, 7, 626–630;
D. Shi, N. Pootrakulchote, R. Z. Li, J. Guo, Y. Wang,
S. M. Zakeeruddin, M. Gratzel and P. Wang, J. Phys. Chem. C,
2008, 112, 17046–17050.
15 L. Moens, D. M. Blake, D. L. Rudnicki and M. J. Hale, J. Sol. Energy
Eng. Trans. ASME, 2003, 125, 112–116; R. G. Reddy, Z. J. Zhang,
M. F. Arenas and D. M. Blake, High Temp. Mater. Process., 2003,
22, 87–94; M. E. Van Valkenburg, R. L. Vaughn, M. Williams and
J. S. Wilkes, Thermochim. Acta, 2005, 425, 181–188; I. Perissi,
U. Bardi, S. Caporali, A. Fossati and A. Lavacchi, Sol. Energy
Mater. Sol. Cells, 2008, 92, 510–517.
16 T. El Asmar, Desalination, 2008, 220, 600–611.
17 R. C. Remsing, G. Hernandez, R. P. Swatloski, W. W. Massefski,
R. D. Rogers and G. Moyna, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2008, 112, 11071–
11078.
18 I. Kilpelainen, H. Xie, A. King, M. Granstrom, S. Heikkinen and
D. S. Argyropoulos, J. Agric. Food Chem., 2007, 55, 9142–9148;
S. D. Zhu, Y. X. Wu, Q. M. Chen, Z. N. Yu, C. W. Wang,
S. W. Jin, Y. G. Ding and G. Wu, Green Chem., 2006, 8, 325–327.
19 A. P. Dadi, C. A. Schall and S. Varanasi, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol.,
2007, 137, 407–421.
20 A. Chapeaux, L. D. Simoni, T. S. Ronan, M. A. Stadtherr and
J. F. Brennecke, Green Chem., 2008, 10, 1301–1306.
21 R. A. Mantz, D. M. Fox, J. M. Green, P. A. Fylstra, H. C. De Long
and P. C. Trulove, Z. Naturfors. Sect. A, 2007, 62, 275–280.
22 H. B. Xie, S. H. Li and S. B. Zhang, Green Chem., 2005, 7, 606–608.
23 N. Sun, R. P. Swatloski, M. L. Maxim, M. Rahman, A. G. Harland,
A. Haque, S. K. Spear, D. T. Daly and R. D. Rogers, J. Mater.
Chem., 2008, 18, 283–290.
24 H. Zhang, Z. G. Wang, Z. N. Zhang, J. Wu, J. Zhang and H. S. He,
Adv. Mater., 2007, 19, 698–704.
25 M. Gamba, A. A. M. Lapis and J. Dupont, Adv. Synth. Catal., 2008,
350, 160–164; S. H. Ha, M. N. Lan, S. H. Lee, S. M. Hwang and
Y. M. Koo, Enzyme Microb. Technol., 2007, 41, 480–483.
26 Q. Wu, H. Chen, M. H. Han, D. Z. Wang and J. F. Wang, Ind. Eng.
Chem. Res., 2007, 46, 7955–7960; B. A. D. Neto, M. B. Alves,
A. A. M. Lapis, F. M. Nachtigall, M. N. Eberlin, J. Dupont and
P. A. Z. Suarez, J. Catal., 2007, 249, 154–161.
27 J. Esser, P. Wasserscheid and A. Jess, Green Chem., 2004, 6, 316–322;
J. D. Holbrey, I. Lopez-Martin, G. Rothenberg, K. R. Seddon,
G. Silvero and X. Zheng, Green Chem., 2008, 10, 87–92.
28 L. Lu, S. F. Cheng, J. B. Gao, G. H. Gao and M. Y. He, Energy Fuels,
2007, 21, 383–384; D. S. Zhao, R. Liu, J. L. Wang and B. Y. Liu,
Energy Fuels, 2008, 22, 1100–1103.
29 W. S. Zhu, H. M. Li, X. Hang, Y. S. Yan, H. D. Lu and J. X. Xia,
Energy Fuels, 2007, 21, 2514–2516.
30 C. P. Huang, B. H. Chen, J. Zhang, Z. C. Liu and Y. X. Li, Energy
Fuels, 2004, 18, 1862–1864; R. Schmidt, Energy Fuels, 2008, 22,
1774–1778; H. S. Gao, J. M. Xing, Y. G. Li, W. L. Li, Q. F. Liu
and H. Z. Liu, Sep. Sci. Technol., 2009, 44, 971–982.
31 G. W. Meindersma and A. B. de Haan, Chem. Eng. Res. Design, 2008,
86, 745–752.
32 Climate Change 2007 Synthesis Report, Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, Geneva, 2007.
33 K. L. Nash, in Separations for the Nuclear Fuel Cycle in the 21st
Century, ed. G. J. Lumetta, K. L. Nash, S. B. Clark and J. I.
Friese, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, 2006, pp. 21–40.
960 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 956–961
34 C. D. Harmon, W. H. Smith and D. A. Costa, Radiat. Phys. Chem.,
2001, 60, 157–159.
35 V. A. Cocalia, K. E. Gutowski and R. D. Rogers, Coord. Chem. Rev.,
2006, 250, 755–764; K. E. Gutowski, N. J. Bridges, V. A. Cocalia,
S. K. Spear, A. E. Visser, J. D. Holbrey, J. H. Davis and
R. D. Rogers, in Ionic Liquids IIIB: Fundamentals, Progress,
Challenges and Opportunities: Transformations and Processes, ed.
R. D. Rogers and K. R. Seddon, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington,
2005, pp. 33–48.
36 K. Binnemans, Chem. Rev., 2007, 107, 2592–2614.
37 A. E. Visser and R. D. Rogers, J. Solid State Chem., 2003, 171, 109–
113; M. L. Dietz, J. A. Dzielawa, M. P. Jensen, J. V. Beitz and
M. Borkowski, in Ionic Liquids IIIB: Fundamentals, Progress,
Challenges and Opportunities: Transformations and Processes, ed.
R. D. Rogers and K. R. Seddon, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington,
2005, pp. 2–18; V. A. Cocalia, J. D. Holbrey, K. E. Gutowski,
N. J. Bridges and R. D. Rogers, Tsinghua Sci. Tech., 2006, 11, 188–193.
38 H. Luo, S. Dai, P. V. Bonnesen, T. J. Haverlock, B. A. Moyer and
A. C. Buchanan, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 2006, 24, 19–31;
M. L. Dietz and D. C. Stepinski, Talanta, 2008, 75, 598–603.
39 P. Y. Chen and C. L. Hussey, Electrochim. Acta, 2005, 50, 2533–2540;
T. Tsuda, C. L. Hussey, H. M. Luo and S. Dai, J. Electrochem. Soc.,
2006, 153, D171–D176.
40 A. P. Abbott and K. J. McKenzie, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2006, 8,
4265–4279.
41 H. Ohno, ed., Electrochemical Aspects of Ionic Liquids, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 2005; F. Endres, D. MacFarlane and A. Abbott,
Electrodeposition from Ionic Liquids, Wiley, New York, 2008.
42 J. F. Wishart and I. A. Shkrob, in Ionic Liquids: From Knowledge to
Application, ed. R. D. Rogers, N. V. Plechkova and K. R. Seddon,
Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, 2009, in press.
43 D. Allen, G. Baston, A. E. Bradley, T. Gorman, A. Haile,
I. Hamblett, J. E. Hatter, M. J. F. Healey, B. Hodgson, R. Lewin,
K. V. Lovell, B. Newton, W. R. Pitner, D. W. Rooney, D. Sanders,
K. R. Seddon, H. E. Sims and R. C. Thied, Green Chem., 2002, 4,
152–158; L. Berthon, S. I. Nikitenko, I. Bisel, C. Berthon,
M. Faucon, B. Saucerotte, N. Zorz and P. Moisy, Dalton Trans.,
2006, 2526–2534; E. Bosse, L. Berthon, N. Zorz, J. Monget,
C. Berthon, I. Bisel, S. Legand and P. Moisy, Dalton Trans., 2008,
924–931.
44 I. A. Shkrob, S. D. Chemerisov and J. F. Wishart, J. Phys. Chem. B,
2007, 111, 11786–11793.
45 I. A. Shkrob and J. F. Wishart, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2009, 113, 5582–
5592.
46 J. S. Wilkes, in Ionic Liquids, ed. R. D. Rogers and K. R. Seddon,
Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, 2002, pp. 214–229.
47 M. Galinski, A. Lewandowski and I. Stepniak, Electrochim. Acta,
2006, 51, 5567–5580.
48 D. R. Macfarlane, M. Forsyth, P. C. Howlett, J. M. Pringle, J. Sun,
G. Annat, W. Neil and E. I. Izgorodina, Acc. Chem. Res., 2007, 40,
1165–1173.
49 T. Tsuda and C. L. Hussey, Electrochem. Soc. Interface, 2007, 16, 42–49.
50 P. Hapiot and C. Lagrost, Chem. Rev., 2008, 108, 2238–2264.
51 H. Sakaebe, H. Matsumoto and K. Tatsumi, Electrochim. Acta, 2007,
53, 1048–1054; N. Byrne, P. C. Howlett, D. R. MacFarlane,
M. E. Smith, A. Howes, A. F. Hollenkamp, T. Bastowe, P. Hale
and M. Forsyth, J. Power Sources, 2008, 184, 288–296.
52 J. K. Chang, M. T. Lee, C. W. Cheng, W. T. Tsai, M. J. Deng and
I. W. Sun, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 2009, 12, A19–A22.
53 C. Arbizzani, M. Biso, D. Cericola, M. Lazzari, F. Soavi and
M. Mastragostino, J. Power Sources, 2008, 185, 1575–1579.
54 R. Devanathan, Energy Environ. Sci., 2008, 1, 101–119; C. A. Angell,
N. Byrne and J. P. Elieres, Acc. Chem. Res., 2007, 40, 1228–1236;
R. F. de Souza, J. C. Padilha, R. S. Goncalves and J. Dupont,
Electrochem. Commun., 2003, 5, 728–731; J. P. Belieres and
C. A. Angell, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2007, 111, 4926–4937; H. Ye,
J. Huang, J. J. Xu, N. Kodiweera, J. R. P. Jayakody and
S. G. Greenbaum, J. Power Sources, 2008, 178, 651–660.
55 M. Yoshizawa, W. Xu and C. A. Angell, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2003,
125, 15411–15419; H. Luo, G. A. Baker, J. S. Lee, R. M. Pagni and
S. Dai, J. Phys. Chem. B, 2009, 113, 4181–4183; T. L. Greaves and
C. J. Drummond, Chem. Rev., 2008, 108, 206–237.
56 W. Lu, A. G. Fadeev, B. H. Qi, E. Smela, B. R. Mattes, J. Ding,
G. M. Spinks, J. Mazurkiewicz, D. Z. Zhou, G. G. Wallace,
D. R. MacFarlane, S. A. Forsyth and M. Forsyth, Science, 2002,
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2009
 297, 983–987; C. Pozo-Gonzalo, D. Mecerreyes, J. A. Pomposo,
M. Salsamendi, R. Marcilla, H. Grande, R. Vergaz, D. Barrios and
J. M. Sanchez-Pena, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 2008, 92, 101–
106; L. J. Ma, Y. X. Li, X. F. Yu, Q. B. Yang and C. H. Noh, Sol.
Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 2008, 92, 1253–1259.
57 B. J. Akle, M. D. Bennett and D. J. Leo, Sens. Actuators, A, 2006, 126,
173–181; K. Mukai, K. Asaka, K. Kiyohara, T. Sugino, I. Takeuchi,
T. Fukushima and T. Aida, Electrochim. Acta, 2008, 53, 5555–5562.
58 D. Wei and A. Ivaska, Anal. Chim. Acta, 2008, 607, 126–135.
59 R. Tiwari, K. J. Kim and S. M. Kim, Smart Struct. Syst., 2008, 4, 549–
563.
60 H. Olivier-Bourbigou and L. Magna, J. Mol. Catal., A, 2002, 182,
419–437; F. van Rantwijk and R. A. Sheldon, Chem. Rev., 2007,
107, 2757–2785; V. I. Parvulescu and C. Hardacre, Chem. Rev.,
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2009
2007, 107, 2615–2665; S. V. Malhotra, V. Kumar and V. S. Parmar,
Curr. Org. Synth., 2007, 4, 370–380; P. J. Dyson and
T. J. Geldbach, Electrochem. Soc. Interface, 2007, 16, 50–53;
T. Welton, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2004, 248, 2459–2477.
61 S. Keskin, D. Kayrak-Talay, U. Akman and O. Hortacsu, J.
Supercrit. Fluids, 2007, 43, 150–180.
62 J. E. Bara, E. S. Hatakeyama, D. L. Gin and R. D. Noble, Polym.
Adv. Technol., 2008, 19, 1415–1420; M. J. Muldoon, S. N. V. Aki,
J. L. Anderson, J. K. Dixon and J. F. Brennecke, J. Phys. Chem. B,
2007, 111, 9001–9009; J. Huang, A. Riisager, R. W. Berg and
R. Fehrmann, J. Mol. Catal., A, 2008, 279, 170–176.
63 A. Yokozeki and M. B. Shiflett, Appl. Energy, 2007, 84, 351–361.
64 D. J. Tempel, P. B. Henderson, J. R. Brzozowski, R. M. Pearlstein
and H. S. Cheng, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2008, 130, 400–401.
Energy Environ. Sci., 2009, 2, 956–961 | 961