Fatigue Crack Growth and Threshold Measurements at Very High Frequencies

International Materials Reviews
ISSN: 0950-6608 (Print) 1743-2804 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yimr20
Fatigue crack growth and threshold

measurements at very high frequencies
H. Mayer
To cite this article: H. Mayer (1999) Fatigue crack growth and threshold measurements at very
high frequencies, International Materials Reviews, 44:1, 1-34, DOI: 10.1179/imr.1999.44.1.1
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1179/imr.1999.44.1.1
Published online: 18 Jul 2013.
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Fatigue crack growth and threshold measurements
at very high frequencies
H. Mayer
W specimen width
Fatigue testing at ultrasonic frequencies makes it Y (a/w) correction function for stress intensity
u
possible to investigate the fatigue properties of factor calculation for amplitude
materials in an effective and time saving manner. controlled resonance loading
The mechanical and electrical components of Y (a/w) correction function for stress intensity
ultrasound equipment are described in detail. v
factor calculation for velocity
Different testing and evaluation procedures are controlled resonance loading
reviewed. Recommendations on how to perform
high frequency fracture mechanics studies and to
evaluate experimental results are described. Greek symbols
Recent developments for multiaxial loading, for c shear strain amplitude
performing in-service loading fatigue experiments, DK stress intensity factor range
and for realising high frequency torsional DK effective stress intensity factor range
vibrations are described. A survey of fatigue eff
DK threshold of effective stress intensity
investigations of metallic materials, composites, eff,th
factor range
metallic glass, and ceramics, determined with the e normal strain amplitude
ultrasound method, is presented. Intrinsic
Downloaded by [Politecnico di Torino] at 06:30 06 December 2017
m Poisson ratio
frequency effects are reviewed, emphasising the
influences on dislocation structures, crack r material density
initiation, and fatigue crack growth for pure metals s normal stress amplitude
and for technical materials. The advantages and t shear stress amplitude
disadvantages of the ultrasound method are w angular amplitude
compared with those of conventional fatigue v angular frequency of resonance
testing equipment. IMR/340 vibration
© 1999 IoM Communications Ltd and ASM International.
The author is based at the University of Agricult- Introduction
ural Sciences, Institute of Meteorology and Physics, Ultrasound in the frequency range of 15 to 22 kHz
Türkenschanzstr. 18, A-1180 Vienna, Austria.
has been used to perform fatigue loading of solid
materials under resonance conditions since about
1950.1 The main incentive for the development of
List of symbols ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment was the possibil-
ity of investigating fatigue properties of materials in
a length of fatigue crack+initial notch an effective and time saving manner. Testing times
E Young’s modulus can be shortened by a factor of 100 to 1000. This
f (a/w) correction function for stress intensity means that measurements become possible that
u
factor calculation for amplitude cannot be performed at all with conventional equip-
controlled resonance loading ment, as they would last too long (109 load cycles,
f (a/w) correction function for stress intensity for example, would need about 8 months with a
v
factor calculation for velocity conventional 50 Hz servohydraulic machine, whereas
controlled resonance loading about one day with 20 kHz ultrasonic equipment).
G shear modulus Neppiras2 used high frequency resonance vibrations
K maximum stress intensity factor of to determine the first S–N curves of a brass and a
max
cycle light metal alloy and the fatigue strength of an aral-
K threshold of maximum stress intensity dite adhesion between steel specimens. The majority
max,th
factor of early ultrasonic research work concentrated on
K minimum stress intensity factor of measurements of lifetimes and the fatigue limits of
min
cycle different materials under constant amplitude fully
K crack tip opening stress intensity reversed loading conditions (R=−1) (Ref. 3).
op
factor When high cycling frequencies are used for fatigue
L resonance length of ultrasound testing of materials, the question of potential fre-
specimen quency influences on the cyclic strength properties
L resonance length of cylindrical bars arises. Early literature shows contradictory results on
r,axial
with isotropic elastic constants whether high cycling frequencies increase or decrease
subjected to axial vibrations the fatigue strength and on whether or not strain
L resonance length of cylindrical bars localisation and crack initiation depend on the cycling
r,torsional
with isotropic elastic constants frequency.3 A main reason for the limited reliability
subjected to torsional vibrations of older ultrasonic fatigue data was the relatively low
R load ratio (s /s or K /K ) accuracy of the early equipment and poor control
min max min max
u displacement amplitude and evaluation techniques. Dislocation structures
ISSN 0950–6608 International Materials Reviews 1999 Vol. 44 No. 1 1
2 Mayer Fatigue crack growth and threshold measurements
established under ultrasonic fatigue loading were first all stress amplitudes are raised by a certain factor,15
investigated by Awatani et al. for aluminium,4 iron which might have a variety of consequences for the
and copper5 using transmission electron microscopy. processes of fatigue damage. To perform high cycle
To observe potential frequency influences on the fatigue experiments on the basis of actual in-service
dislocation array, dislocation structures obtained after load sequences, the ultrasound technique has been
low frequency and ultrasonic frequency cycling were adjusted and used for random and multistep lifetime16
compared for pure crystals by Buchinger et al.6,7 and and fatigue crack growth studies.17
for alloys by Laird et al.8 The emission of ultrasonic sound waves into the
After characterising the fatigue properties of load train leads to several vibration nodes and a
unnotched material, Mitsche et al.9 developed a tech- symmetric loading of the specimen in tension and
nique to use high frequency vibrations for fracture compression. At vibration node locations it is possible
mechanical investigations. They performed the first to introduce additional (tension, compression, tor-
fatigue crack growth studies using the ultrasound sion) loads into the wave train without damping the
method and in 1973 published crack growth curves high frequency oscillation. This principle has been
(Da/DN versus DK curves) of a chromium steel and used by Hansson and Thölen18 to study the so-called
a low carbon steel in different environments and at Blaha effect,19 i.e. cyclic softening of materials when
different temperatures.9 A single edge notched speci- high frequency loads are superimposed on a static
men was cycled at constant displacement amplitude, tension load. Hoffelner20 reported the first fatigue
and fatigue crack growth was observed using a high crack growth experiments with superimposed static
speed camera. At the same time, Purushothaman axial loads. Early equipment to superimpose external
et al.10 suggested the use of ultrasound for fracture loads, however, was found in practice to cause several
mechanical measurements, and actually published technical problems, such as the introduction of unde-
their first fatigue crack growth data of a nickel base sirable bending forces and a problematic control of
superalloy in 1978.11 the vibration amplitude and the resonance frequency.

In fatigue crack growth tests, a similar time com- Kromp21 presented a technically appropriate solution
pression to S–N experiments is possible. To obtain a to introduce external preloads which allowed a highly
crack advance of 0·2 mm at a crack growth rate near accurate study of the influence of different loading
the threshold (i.e. 10−10 m/cycle), testing time is about frequencies on the cyclic stress–strain response of
1 day at a cycling frequency of 20 Hz. At ultrasonic materials22 as well as the fatigue properties of mater-
frequency such data are obtained within minutes. ials under complex loading conditions.23 The influence
Therefore the application of high loading frequencies of static torsional loads on fatigue crack growth at
is especially effective in determining the fatigue prop- different R ratios (mode I and mode II) was studied
erties of materials in the threshold region. Due to first by Stanzl et al.23 using the ultrasound method.
discontinuous fatigue crack growth at very low cyclic Tschegg et al.24 performed threshold studies under
stress intensities, high numbers of cycles are necessary superimposed mode I and mode III loading con-
to decide whether or not a threshold of crack propa- ditions and showed the importance of crack closure
gation has been reached. for fatigue crack growth at ultrasonic frequencies.
When applying ultrasound for fracture mechanical The fatigue strength of materials is significantly
purposes, i.e. measurements of (Da/DN versus DK ) influenced by temperature and interaction with the
curves, it is necessary to determine adequately the environment. If no additional preload is imposed on
cyclic stress intensity DK. Stresses cannot be measured the high frequency oscillation, one specimen’s end is
directly, and the deformation of vibrating specimens free and can be easily exposed to different testing
is significantly different from loading with a static or environments. This technique has been used to per-
a slowly varying force. In early ultrasonic fracture form fatigue crack growth experiments in different
mechanic studies, standard procedures similar to con- environments25 and at different temperatures.26
ventional fatigue crack growth experiments were used The ultrasonic fatigue testing method is not restric-
to determine DK on the basis of a calibration pro- ted to cyclic axial loading. Mayer et al.27 developed
cedure to determine the cyclic stress amplitude.9 a method for investigating the fatigue properties of
Schoeck12 considered specific influences arising from materials when subjected to high frequency torsional
the way to control the resonance loading. More vibrations with or without external preloads. Using
recently, finite element calculations have served to this method, they investigated the influence of com-
determine the cyclic stress intensity for different speci- pression preloads on the fatigue properties of a cer-
men and notch geometries.13,14 amic material subjected to high frequency shear
Most components of structures and machines are loading.27 Mayer and Stanzl-Tschegg28 compared the
subjected to varying amplitudes in practice rather high cycle fatigue behaviour of an aluminium alloy
than constant amplitude loading. In such cases, when in different environments when subjected to high
rare high loads of the load sequence exceed the frequency axial and torsional cycling.
endurance limit, fractures may occur at 108 to 1010 A variety of equipment has been developed by
cycles even for materials which show a pronounced different research groups for performing fracture
fatigue limit in S–N experiments. With conventional mechanical investigations with the ultrasonic fatigue
fatigue testing equipment, simulations of very large testing method. Progress has been made during recent
in-service load sequences are too time consuming, years not only concerning the possibilities of the high
and actual fatigue experiments must be performed frequency technique but especially also on the accu-
using a changed cumulative frequency distribution of racy of the experimental equipment (control of load
load cycles, in which low amplitudes are omitted or amplitude and resonance frequency). Such equipment,
International Materials Reviews 1999 Vol. 44 No. 1
Mayer Fatigue crack growth and threshold measurements 3
however, with high technical standards is not com-

mercially available at the present time, thus making
it necessary to review and evaluate the advantages
and disadvantages of equipment described by different
research groups.
For lifetime measurements, some recommendations
for a proper application of the ultrasonic fatigue
technique exist already.3,29 Fatigue crack growth 1 Principle of mechanical equipment used to
experiments have to be more sophisticated than life- perform ultrasonic fatigue experiments under
time measurements and an improper testing pro- fully reversed loading conditions
cedure may have a decided influence on the quality
of data obtained. The appropriate measurement of
Torsional as well as axial vibrations can be gener-
cyclic strain at high frequencies, the adequate cooling
of the specimen, the proper control of cyclic load ated with appropriate ultrasonic transducers, and the
mechanical parts of the equipment are designed so
amplitude and resonance frequency, and the reliable
that either an axial or a torsional resonance oscilla-
design of specimens are some of the problems which
have to be considered carefully. One aim of the tion may be obtained. Since the velocity of sound
is different for torsional and axial waves, different
present review is to critically discuss practical testing
procedures and to recommend methods for the de- mechanical equipment must be used for each kind of
termination and evaluation of experimental data. vibration. The first harmonic of the mechanical parts
is chosen to be equal to the excitation frequency.
Fatigue data obtained with the ultrasonic fatigue
testing method during the last 15 years will be Cyclic forces in the transition between coupled
reviewed with respect to the investigation of new mechanical parts (in the coupling area) would then
be at a minimum.
materials and new experimental possibilities. The
question of frequency influence on the fatigue prop- Different mechanical equipment may be used if
erties will be reviewed extensively and the advantages cyclic loading is fully reversed (R=−1) or if external
stresses are superimposed. For fatigue experiments
and limitations of the ultrasound fatigue testing tech-
nique will be demonstrated. under conditions R=−1, one end of the specimen
may vibrate free, whereas to introduce additional
static or slowly varying axial or torsional forces
additional mechanical parts must be attached to the
Measurement technique and specimen. Since the resonance length is independent
evaluation procedure of the displacement amplitude, the mechanical equip-
Mechanical equipment ment is not influenced, whether constant amplitude,
multi-step, or random amplitude tests are performed.
Cyclic loading of the specimen is established in ultra-
sonic fatigue testing using a relatively small periodic Fatigue testing under fully reversed loading
stimulus. A sound wave is injected from an ultrasonic conditions (R=−1)
transducer into one end of the load train and travels Mechanical equipment suitable for fatigue testing
along at a velocity which is determined by the elastic under fully reversed loading conditions (R=−1)
constants (Young’s modulus for axial waves and shear consists at least of an ultrasonic transducer, an ampli-
modulus for torsional waves), the density of the fication horn, and a specimen. Eventually, a mounting
material, and the shape of the component. The sound part may be used to mount the load train (Fig. 1).
waves enter the fatigue specimen and are reflected The mechanical parts attached to the ultrasonic trans-
from the opposite end of the wave train, i.e. the lower ducer work in the following way.
end of the specimen or eventually the end of an An amplification horn serves to increase the ampli-
additional mounting part. If the stimulating frequency tude of the high frequency vibration. The displace-
is equal to the resonance frequency of the mechanical ment amplitude at the coupled interface of the
system, then incoming and reflected waves will super- specimen is higher than the vibration amplitude gen-
impose to form a resonance vibration. erated by the ultrasonic transducer. The technique
The operation frequency most often used to per- used is to change the diameter of a circular symmetri-
form ultrasonic fatigue tests is approximately 20 kHz. cal rod along its length and to adjust the horn length
This frequency choice is a result of technical as well to maintain resonance. A simple design is a stepped
as practical reasons. Frequencies around 20 kHz are horn, in which the diameter of the second end
out of the audio frequency range and therefore cannot attached to the specimen is smaller than the diameter
be heard and since the acoustic power emitted from attached to the mounting device or ultrasonic trans-
the specimen may be greater than 100 W, arrange- ducer. If the step is in the centre, the vibration
ments for sound insulation would be necessary for amplitude at the second end of the horn increases
lower cycling frequencies. Resonance lengths of typi- according to the ratio of both areas.2 Each part is a
cal fatigue specimens made of aluminium, steel, or quarter wavelength long. Nevertheless, using these
titanium alloys are respectively about 60–130 mm kinds of horn involves major difficulties: the step
for axial and 30–80 mm for torsional vibrations, causes stress concentrations which may lead to the
depending on the design of the specimens. Since the formation of cracks, and the sharp change of the
resonance length is inversely related to the resonance diameter of the horn leads to reflections of the sound
frequency, using significantly higher frequencies than wave and thereby disturbs the acoustic transfer to the
20 kHz would lead to relatively small specimens. specimen.
AB C AB D
Efficient propagation of acoustic waves requires r 1/2 r 1/2
smooth transitions of the diameter. Several designs c(x)=−Rw v sin v x (6)
0 G G
of acoustic horns appropriate to perform axial30 or
torsional31 fatigue loading experiments have already If linear elastic material behaviour is assumed, axial
been described in earlier ultrasonic literature. A more stress amplitudes s(x), and shear stress amplitudes
recent horn design is a cylindrical bar with a constant t(x) at the surface of the bar, may be calculated
radius transition to a smaller diameter. The radius of according to Hooke’s law
the transition should be larger than the largest dia- s(x)=Ee(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . (7)
meter of the amplification horn in order to avoid
sound reflections, and should be located near half of t(x)=Gc(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
the length of the horn. The design of a horn which is Displacement, strain, and stress amplitudes vary sym-
adequate to perform torsional fatigue experiments is metrically as to the centre of the length of the part if
described in detail in Ref. 32. These types of horn this part is symmetric and the maximum stress ampli-
may be easily manufactured and have an effective tude is obtained in the centre.
transfer of the acoustic waves and relatively high If the ultrasonic transducer is not equipped with
amplification factors. The amplification factor is any fixture device, a cylindrical mounting device may
determined by the ratio of the displacement ampli- serve for mounting purposes. Its length corresponds
tudes at both ends of the horn. Amplification horns to half of the axial or torsional wavelength, respect-
for axial resonance vibrations may have amplification ively, and the displacement amplitude in the centre
factors between 1 and 40.30 For torsional fatigue is zero. A flange may be used there to clamp the
experiments, the amplification factor of the horn entire mechanical equipment without damping the
described in Ref. 32 is 10. It is possible to bolt together vibration.
amplification horns for multiple increments in the Similar materials may be used for mounting devices
displacement amplitude. and amplification horns. These materials should

An efficient way to design all vibrating mechanical have a high fatigue strength and good acoustic prop-
parts (amplification horns, mounting parts, and speci- erties. High strength titanium alloys (for example
mens) is to calculate the propagation of undamped Ti–6Al–4V) show good mechanical stability and low
axial30 or torsional31 waves in bars. For simple acoustic damping. High strength aluminium alloys
designs, the resonance length may be determined may also be used, but are more sensitive to scratches
analytically. For more complicated shapes of speci- at the interfaces than titanium alloys. These scratches
mens and amplification horns, an adequate approxi- waste the transfer of the acoustic waves. Likewise the
mation procedure (e.g. Runge Kutta) has to be used.33 load train may be made of high strength steels, which
Resonance lengths of cylindrical bars with isotropic show a good resistance against surface damage. The
elastic constants subjected to axial or torsional relatively high specific weight, however, affects the
vibrations L or L , respectively, are acoustic energy necessary to establish a resonance
r,axial r,torsional
vibration in the load train, which may cause a less
AB
p E 1/2
L = . . . . . . . . . (1) sensitive control of the vibration amplitude in com-
r,axial v r parison to titanium or aluminium alloys.
Specimens used in ultrasonic fatigue experiments
AB
p G 1/2
L = . . . . . . . . (2) may have different shapes, depending on whether
r,torsional v r torsional or axial vibrations are established, whether
where E is Young’s modulus, G is the shear modulus, lifetime or fatigue crack growth studies are performed,
r is the material density, and v is the angular and whether or not external loads are superimposed.
frequency of the resonance vibration. The displace- The design of the specimens must be appropriate to
ment amplitudes u(x) and the angular amplitudes allow an axial or torsional resonance vibration, which
w(x), respectively, change sinusoidally along the usually means that the first harmonic of the speci-
length x men’s vibration is equal to the system resonance
frequency. The specimen’s length may be calculated
C AB D
r 1/2 according to standard procedures described in the
u(x)=u cos v x . . . . . . . (3)
0 E literature34,35 or with numerical methods.33 Specimens
usually are axially symmetric (circular or rectangular)
C AB D
r 1/2 and symmetric with respect to half of their length. A
w(x)=w cos v x . . . . . . (4)
0 G main difference between conventional and ultrasonic
fatigue test specimens is that the cyclic strain ampli-
where u and w are the axial and angular amplitudes tude varies from zero at the ends to maximum in the
0 0
at both ends of the cylindrical bar. Strain amplitudes centre rather than being constant over the entire
for axial vibrations e(x) are the derivation of the axial length.
displacement amplitudes The actual design of the specimen is determined by
AB C AB D
r 1/2 r 1/2 the desired strain amplitude in the gauge section, by
e(x)=−u v sin v x . . . (5) the available dimensions of the testing material, by a
0 E E
minimum diameter to ensure stiffness without flexure,
For torsional resonance vibration, strain amplitudes and by the investigated fatigue property, i.e. if lifetime
at the surface of the cylindrical bar c(x) may be or fatigue crack growth experiments are performed.
calculated from the angular amplitudes and the radius The specimens may have a constant cross-section
of the bar R or a reduced cross-section in the centre to amplify
the load amplitude. For the following reasons some external thread or by an adhesive. Good acoustic
stress amplification is usually required to run fatigue contact between specimen and amplification horn is
experiments. necessary since the amplitude of vibration is in the
The stresses at the interface between specimen and order of micrometers. Specimen length depends on
amplification horn should be as small as possible. design and it is possible to save testing material by
The interface is only stress free if a hypothetical case using specimens with high magnification factors.
of an undamped vibration with constant amplitude Testing material also can be saved by welding or
and exact resonance length of all mechanical parts is brazing additional dummy material to the investi-
considered. Cyclic loading usually is applied in pulsed gated material. The process of finishing of a specimen,
form and the amplitude increases during the rise time including surface polishing and (eventually) elimin-
to the preselected value. The coupling area is then ation of residual stresses, is similar to procedures used
exposed to cyclic forces which stimulate the vibration for conventional fatigue experiments.
of the specimen. Fatigue of the specimen leads to Specimens with circular cross-sections are fre-
cyclic plastic deformation, and some load transfer to quently used for lifetime or fatigue crack initiation
the specimen is necessary to balance the loss of energy studies. Stress amplification is obtained by using a
due to internal friction even for constant amplitude circular cross-section reduction with constant radius
cycling of the specimen. resulting in an hourglass shaped specimen or, for
The maximum power required to run a fatigue test example, by using a dumbbell shaped specimen with
should be minimised. Energy loss of the specimen an inner section of constant diameter. Specimens
must be supplied by a power amplifier. The amount with rectangular cross-section or sheets also can be
of material which is exposed to cyclic loading must used for fatigue tests. In such cases, edges in the
be small enough so that the amount of absorbed stressed area eventually have to be rounded to mini-
energy is less than the maximum power supplied by mise notch effects. A constant radius introduced at
the amplifier. In order to decrease the total power half length from both sides may serve to amplify the
required to drive the specimen, it is necessary to cyclic stress. In performing fatigue experiments with
reduce the amount of material subjected to high cyclic wires, they are attached to a screw by welding or
strain amplitudes. Additionally, reduction of material brazing which can then be mounted to the amplifi-
volume exposed to high stresses also reduces the cation horn. If fatigue tests with thin sheets and or
amount of heat produced by internal friction and wires are performed, flexure oscillations may be
therefore reduces the requirements for cooling the considered. Nevertheless, flexure oscillations were
specimen. found to be absent even for sheets with a diameter
Ultrasonic transducers are not only restricted as to of only 1 mm,36 and may cause significantly fewer
their electrical power output but their maximum difficulties in comparison to conventional fatigue tests
displacement amplitude is limited as well. Using speci- run under fully reversed loading conditions.
mens with reduced cross-sections in the centre Specimens appropriate for fatigue crack growth
decreases the displacement amplitude necessary to studies contain a starter notch to initiate the crack.
run fatigue experiments. Such notches may be introduced, for example, by
The reduction of the diameter in the centre of the means of a saw cut or spark erosion. The thickness
specimen should be relatively smooth in order to of the specimen in the plane of the crack is typically
minimise sound wave reflections. In order to classify between 1·5 and 3 mm. Specimens with a rectangular
different specimen designs according to their amplifi- cross-section are frequently used for fracture mechanic
cation possibilities, an amplification factor may be experiments under fully reversed axial loading con-
used. This factor is referred to as the stress amplifi- ditions (R=−1). Centre notched specimens37,38 and
cation factor,2 and is defined by the ratio of the stress single edge notched specimens14,39 with rectangular
amplitude in the centre of the actual specimen to the cross-sections have recently been used for ultrasonic
stress amplitude in the centre of a hypothetical cylin- fracture mechanical studies. Eventually a circular
drical bar of resonance length cycled under linear cross-section reduction creates stress amplification.
elastic conditions at the same vibration amplitude. In Centre notch geometry causes symmetric loading
practice, amplification factors of axial fatigue speci- of the specimen with respect to the specimen centre.
mens are typically in the range of 1 to 5. For torsional Therefore no additional bending moment may be
fatigue experiments, the amplification factor of the expected from asymmetric loading of the specimen
specimen described in Ref. 32 is about 3. with respect to the specimen’s axis, and no undesirable
One end of the specimen must be in acoustic bending oscillation may superimpose over the axial
contact with the source and one end may be free, high frequency loading. Nevertheless, this advantage
if fatigue experiments are performed under fully is only present if fatigue cracks start to grow from
reversed loading conditions. One of the advantages both sides of the notch with the same crack growth
of the ultrasonic fatigue testing method in comparison rate, which rarely occurs. Additionally, two crack tips
to conventional testing techniques is that specimens must be observed with crack propagation measure-
can be mounted without introducing undesirable ment equipment.
bending forces. If the specimen’s length is chosen If single edge notched specimens are used, only one
correctly, the stress on the coupling area between crack tip has to be observed, thus simplifying the
specimen and load train is minimal, and it is possible testing procedure. Higher order bending modes, intro-
to fatigue brittle materials with low clamping stresses duced from the asymmetric loading of the specimen,
to avoid fracture in the clamping area during the however, must be considered.40 If unsuitable specimen
experiment. Gripping is usually accomplished by an shapes are used, bending oscillations may superim-
for the investigated material, it may be a result of

undefined loading conditions or an inappropriate
determination of the cyclic stress intensity factor.
Fatigue testing under superimposed loading
conditions
R≠−1, mixed mode loading In order to obtain
mean loads other than zero or to simulate combined
loading conditions, axial or torsional loads may
be superimposed to the high frequency vibration.
External forces will be introduced at both ends of the
specimen. Appropriate equipment to perform fatigue
experiments under superimposed loading conditions
was developed by Kromp21 and is shown in principle
in Fig. 3.
Flanges of both mounting devices introduce an
external static or slowly varying torsional or axial
load. The load train is mounted into an appropriate
2 Single edge notched specimen used to perform machine frame or in a conventional servohydraulic
fatigue crack growth investigations under
fatigue testing machine. Since both mounting devices
cyclic axial fully reversed loading conditions
(R =−1) (Ref. 14) have the length of l/2, the flanges in the centre are
at vibration nodes. Eventually a second amplification
horn may be used, as shown in Fig. 3. This second
pose to the axial resonance loading and may cause

an undefined stress state at the crack tip. In early amplification horn decreases the displacement ampli-
ultrasonic fracture mechanic works, bending oscil- tude at the lower end of the load train. In fatigue
lations were suppressed using specimens with a crack growth experiments, for example, the resonance
relatively small width (∏10 mm) and a limited max- frequency decreases as the crack length increases and
imum crack length (crack length+notch typically then the wavelength increases as well. Therefore, the
3–4 mm).41 A single edge notched specimen with a flanges of the mounting devices do not remain exactly
circular cross-section reduction, which was developed at the places of zero displacement, since the actual
to be insensitive to bending oscillations for maximum places of vibration nodes shift slightly during the
crack length+notch of 6 mm,42 is shown in Fig. 2. experiment. If the vibration amplitude of the mount-
Using this specimen shape, fatigue crack growth ing devices is lowered using a second amplification
experiments could be performed with steel and cast horn, potentially occurring oscillations at the pos-
iron,43 cast aluminium alloys,44 wrought aluminium itions of the flanges are of minor influence on the
alloys,45 and particle reinforced aluminium alloys.46 high frequency oscillation. Additionally, if com-
Slight variations of the thickness in the centre of the pression loads are introduced, the greater diameter of
specimen or of the specimen length did not appear to the mounting devices is more appropriate to avoid
influence the stability of such specimens against bend- buckling of the load train. This principle has
ing oscillations. The fact that the fatigue crack growth been used to perform very accurate fatigue crack
rates at a constant nominal value of the cyclic stress growth experiments under mixed mode loading con-
intensity do not depend on the crack length and vary ditions23,24 and has recently been adapted for high
within the range of scatter47 points to well defined frequency torsional testing.27
loading conditions at the crack tip. Another specimen Fatigue crack growth studies under high frequency
with a rectangular cross-section and circular cross- cycling and superimposed axial loads have been per-
section reduction in the centre is described in Ref. 39. formed using a single edge notched specimen with a
The specimen geometry should be carefully tested rectangular cross-section.48 A circular cross-section
before starting a fracture mechanical test series. For reduction in the centre of the specimen served to
constant stress intensity amplitude cycling, the fatigue amplify the stress amplitude. Specimens made of the
crack growth velocity should be constant within the titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V were mounted into the
range of scatter after an initially accelerated propa- load train using threads on both ends. These speci-
gation of the short crack according to the linear mens have been successfully tested at R ratios of
elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) principles. If the about 0·88 (Ref. 48). A perfect alignment of the load
crack propagation rate varies for the different crack train, as well as low tolerances of the symmetry
length to a greater extent than that which is typical of the single edge notched specimen, is necessary.
3 Principle of mechanical equipment used to perform ultrasonic fatigue experiments with superimposed
external loads
4 Hollow tube used to perform fatigue fracture mechanical investigations under cyclic mode I at different
load ratios and (eventually) superimposed mode II load
Otherwise, undesirable bending forces are super- be higher in comparison to single edge notched speci-
imposed, which makes the exact determination of mens. More data points may be obtained with one
the actual load difficult and may cause an inclined specimen fracturing about 30% of the cross-section,
crack front. since the circumference is larger than the width of an
Another type of specimen which is appropriate for ultrasonic specimen with a rectangular cross-section.
fatigue testing under superimposed external loads is Bending oscillations of tubes have to be considered,
hollow tubes.23 The bending stiffness of tubes used in since a growing fatigue crack causes asymmetric load-
ultrasonic fatigue testing is higher than that of single ing of the specimen. A specimen shape which was
edge notched specimens, and it is easier to avoid successfully used for fatigue crack growth investi-
undesirable forces when the specimen is mounted into gations of AISI 420 steel at load ratios between R=
the load train. Tubes with a constant cross-section, −1 and 0·5 (Ref. 23) as well as of several aluminium–
however, do not amplify the stresses. The displacement lithium alloys49 is shown in Fig. 4. A hole and a notch
amplitudes provided by the ultrasonic transducer must served to initiate the fatigue crack.
5 Ultrasound testing equipment for fatigue experiments under superimposed (axial or torsional) loading
conditions
and cyclic torsional loading28 respectively is shown

in Fig. 7.
Marked changes in the diameter of vibrating parts,
which reflect sound waves, were found to be more
critical for torsional than for axial resonance loading.
The reason is that changes of the axial displacement
amplitudes u(x) along the wave train are influenced
by variations of the cross-section areas, whereas for
torsional loading, changes of the angular amplitudes
w(x) are influenced by variations of the torsional
6 Circumferentially notched cylindrical specimen resistance. To obtain smooth changes in the load
with circular cross-section reduction used train, two amplification horns were used in Ref. 28
to perform fatigue fracture mechanical investi- for multiple increase of the vibration amplitude for
gations under cyclic mode I at different load torsional fatigue testing, whereas only one amplifi-
ratios plus superimposed mode III load24
cation horn was needed to magnify the axial high
frequency oscillation.
Hollow tubes are also appropriate when performing Equipment for cooling and testing in different
fatigue crack growth experiments under mixed mode environments
loading conditions. Mode I loading is performed by Lifetime investigations and fatigue crack growth stud-
an ultrasonic vibration and a superimposed static ies are frequently performed in ambient air at room
axial force. A torque introduced at the flanges of the temperature. In this case, a specimen’s temperature
mounting parts causes additional mode II loading of should remain at about 20°C during the experiment.
the crack. Experiments with superimposed mode II Special care has to be taken to control the damping
loading may be performed if the lower end of the heat being caused by the high loading frequency
load train allows rotation with low friction. Ultrasonic which might be quite large depending on the stress
testing equipment which was used for fatigue crack amplitude and the tested material. Even small cyclic
growth studies of AISI 420 steel under mixed mode loads could increase a specimen’s temperature, if the
loading conditions (mode I at different R ratios and tests were to be run continuously. Therefore the load
superimposed mode II) is shown in principle in should be applied in pulsed form with periodic pauses
Fig. 5.23 A machine frame and a hydraulic system between the pulses that are long enough to cool the
serve to mount the load train and to introduce axial specimen. Attention has to be paid to the highly
forces. The actuator is free to rotate and an additional stressed region at the crack tip, since plastic deforma-
torsional moment is obtained using different weights tion and friction may lead to a rise in local temper-
which twist a circular disc attached to the flange of ature. If materials with a low thermal conductivity,
the second mounting device. Mode II stress intensity like polymers, are tested or if the pulse lengths are
is controlled by the diameter of the disc and by using too long, increase in local temperature may have a
different weights.23 significant influence on the fatigue crack growth prop-
If cylindrical specimens with a circumferential erties. Measurements of temperature, experiments
notch are used, mixed mode fatigue crack growth with different pulse lengths, and fracture surface stud-
experiments (mode I and mode III) may be performed. ies may help to decide if a temperature problem at
Ultrasonic vibration and superimposed axial loads the crack tip exists.
maintain mode I loading at various load ratios To carry off the heat and to shorten the pause
and a torque introduced at the flanges leads to an length, forced air cooling equipment may be used,
additional mode III load of the circumferential crack. especially if lifetime measurements of unnotched speci-
Using the equipment described above, fatigue crack mens are being performed. Cooling with (pumped by)
growth studies under mode I and superimposed static liquids is also reported in the literature.29,50 In this
mode III loading conditions were performed with case, however, environmental influences (corrosion
AISI 420 steel.24 The specimen shape used is shown fatigue) have to be considered. Distilled water, for
in Fig. 6. A circular reduction of the diameter in the example, acts as corrosive fluid for aluminium alloys
specimens’ centre served for stress amplification. Prior and significantly reduces lifetimes in high frequency
to the mixed mode fatigue experiments a 0·4 mm deep fatigue tests.28 If a crack is present, coolant fluid may
fatigue crack was initiated using rotating bending flow to the crack tip and, besides environmental
technique. interaction processes, hydrodynamic wedging may
High frequency torsional fatigue testing increase the crack closure level.51
The mechanical equipment for torsional fatigue test- Under fully reversed loading conditions, studies of
ing is in principle similar to the equipment for high the influence of different environments on the fatigue
frequency axial fatigue experiments. The sound velo- properties of materials can be easily performed. One
city of shear waves in a cylindrical bar with constant end of the specimen is free so that the specimen may
radius (G/r)1/2 however, is smaller than the sound be introduced into an environmental chamber. If
velocity of axial waves (E/r)1/2. All vibrating parts, tests are performed under superimposed loading con-
including the specimens, must therefore be smaller ditions, a seal mounted at the flange of the mounting
in order to obtain resonance. A comparison of speci- devices may serve to fix the environment chamber.
mens made of 2024-T351 aluminium alloy which were Ultrasonic lifetime measurements or investigations of
used for lifetime investigations under cyclic axial the fatigue crack growth properties can be performed
(a) (b)
7 Specimen shape used for ultrasonic lifetime measurements under a cyclic torsional and b cyclic axial
loading28
at high and low temperatures and in different liquids cylindrical extension rods of half or one wavelength
or gases, or with liquids sprayed on specimen surfaces. between amplification horn and specimen increases
High temperatures can be obtained through a number the distance between transducer, amplitude detection,
of means: a permanent blow-by of hot air provided and specimen. Wavelength, and thus length of exten-
by a hot air blast,52 by mounting the specimen into sion rods made of titanium, steel, or aluminium alloys
a furnace,53 or by placing it in a hot liquid.38 Low are about 25 cm for a cycling frequency of 20 kHz.
temperature can be provided, for example, by immers- Since the material of extension rods and specimens
ing the specimen into liquid nitrogen or liquid helium may be different, if the test is run in a corrosive
environments.26 Fatigue tests in a corrosive environ- environment, the electrochemical difference should be
ment can be performed by mounting the specimen noticed, and the joint should be adequately protected
into corrosive fluids54 or spraying a corrosive fluid from the electrolytical solution.
on the specimen surface.55 Equipment to control the specimen’s temperature
When ultrasonic fatigue experiments in fluids are is especially necessary if the fatigue tests are performed
performed, undesirable cavitation erosion may below or above room temperature, since the specimen
damage the surface of the specimen. Those areas of temperature may diverge from the temperature of the
the specimen surface which vibrate normally to the environment. Thermocouples may be used, but may
front of the fluid are particularly subjected to erosion, also eventually cause damage of the specimen’s sur-
such as the lower end of the specimen for axial face. If the thermocouple is not applied exactly at the
resonance loading. Specimen design should be chosen place of a node, friction may cause localised heating.
so that those surface areas where fatigue cracks At temperatures below approximately 200°C, a tem-
initiate or propagate are not subjected to cavitation perature dependent resistor may serve to monitor the
erosion. In torsional fatigue tests cavitation was not specimen’s temperature. Such electronic components
observed28 since no axial displacement was present. may be mounted without damage to the specimen’s
The ultrasonic transducer and the amplitude detec- surface by using thermopaste. Infrared cameras are
tion unit should be located some distance away from also suitable for contact free measurement of the
the environment chamber or the furnace. Mounting specimen’s temperature. Wielke and Stanzl56 used
liquid crystals to measure the temperature distri- power output of the supply is needed, for example, if
bution along copper specimens in order to determine lifetime measurements of materials with high damping
the elastic and plastic strain distribution during ultra- properties are performed or if rare high cyclic loads
sonic fatigue loading. are necessary in random fatigue tests. Increasing the
Dissipated heat may increase the specimen’s tem- maximum power of the supply also makes it possible
perature, especially when experiments are performed to shorten the rise time at the beginning of a pulse in
in a vacuum, since heat is conducted away from the pulse–pause loading sequence.
the specimen mainly through the mounting system. Electrical input resistance as well as the capacity
Materials with good heat conducting properties, such of different types of ultrasonic transducer varies. To
as aluminium alloys, should be used for the mounting obtain a high efficiency of the power transmission, an
devices and quite long pauses will be necessary. adjustment of the maximum output voltage signal of
Therefore, depending on testing material and stress the power supply may be necessary. In this case a
amplitude, application of the ultrasonic method for ferrite transformator may be used to increase or
fatigue tests in vacuum probably will not lead to a decrease the sinusoidal voltage to the required level.
significant reduction of the testing times in compari- In some cases, an additional inductivity may be
son to conventional fatigue experiments. appropriate in order to compensate the capacity of a
piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer. High frequency
power supplies may be bought commercially from
Electrical equipment
different suppliers or may be constructed if sources
Electric and electronic components of of sufficient experience are available in the laboratory.
ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment An ultrasonic transducer converts the electrical exci-
Ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment consists of the tation of the power supply into mechanical vibrations.
following electric and electronic components:57 a high
Piezoelectric or magnetostrictive converters are avail-

frequency power supply to provide a sinusoidal power able. Nowadays, mainly piezoelectric transducers are
signal; an ultrasonic transducer to generate a high used, since they are more efficient (>90%) in compari-
frequency oscillation; an amplitude detection unit to son to magnetostrictive transducers (about 20%).
measure the actual magnitude of vibration; an ampli- Additionally, magnetostrictive transducers often have
tude control unit to guarantee that the vibration a length of l (in comparison to l/2 for piezoelectric
amplitude coincides with the preselected value; a transducers). The greater mass leads to a lower sensi-
frequency control unit to maintain the loading fre- tivity of the amplitude control. Ultrasonic transducers
quency at the actual system resonance frequency; and are commercially available for longitudinal as well as
a process control unit to determine and control the torsional vibrations.
system parameters. The magnitude of vibration and Both single or double converter arrangements exist.
the pulse and pause length in a constant amplitude,
In the second case, the load train is symmetric with
step loading, or random loading experiment is deter-
respect to the specimen’s centre and sound waves are
mined by the process control unit. The process control
generated from both sides.58,59 This implies, however,
unit also counts the number of cycles imposed on
that the specimen must be fixed on both sides, thus
specimen, controls whether or not the actual resonant
reducing some of the conveniences of ultrasonic
frequency is within defined bounds, and eventually
measures, classifies, and stores the magnitude of each fatigue testing which use a specimen with a free end.
load cycle which is imposed on the specimen. Strain An amplitude detection unit is used to measure the
measurement equipment measures and monitors the magnitude of the high frequency vibration. In early
actual strain amplitude of the specimen. If a static or ultrasonic fatigue works, the amplitude of oscillation,
slowly varying preload is superimposed on the high which is in the order of magnitude of micrometers,
frequency oscillation, the magnitude of the preload is was measured with a microscope and tiny marks on
determined and controlled through a load cell and the specimen or the amplification horn. Such micro-
load control equipment. The principle of the electrical scopical measurements may be used to approximately
components of ultrasonic equipment adequate to calibrate amplitude detection units. Suitable elec-
perform fatigue experiments with high accuracy, is tronic devices have to deliver a voltage signal pro-
shown in Fig. 8. The electric and electronic com- portional to the vibration amplitude, which then
ponents of the equipment work in the following way. serves as input for the control units. Although several
A high frequency power supply generates a sinus- systems for amplitude detection devices may be found
oidal high frequency voltage signal. Since loading is in the literature,29 only three principles are currently
in resonance, it is possible to obtain high enough used for data acquisition as well as for control pur-
stress amplitudes to perform lifetime measurements poses in closed loop amplitude and frequency con-
or fatigue crack growth experiments while using a trol units.
power supply with a relatively low maximum power Measurement of the magnitude of vibration is
output. The maximum power output of the power possible using permanent magnets or a direct current
supply should be at least 150 W and, depending on to induce a magnetic field at one vibration antinode
the transducer, may be up to 5000 W. Since high of the amplification horn. Cyclic loading changes the
frequency experiments need much shorter testing magnetic field proportionally to the displacement
times and the power demand for resonance cycling amplitude and the resonance frequency. The changes
usually is relatively low, the ultrasound method saves may be measured with a coil.60 These electromagnetic
a great deal of energy in comparison to conventional devices measure the oscillation of the specimen with-
fatigue testing techniques. A relatively high maximum out mechanical contact and have been successfully
8 Electric and electronic components of ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment
used for amplitude detection in axial as well as Regulation of the vibration amplitude may also be
torsional high frequency loading experiments.32 performed with a computer.53 In an adequate pro-
The longitudinal vibration amplitude of the speci- gram, the actual requirement of power is calculated
men may be measured using capacitive sensors.61 from the amplitude detection signal and the preselec-
These sensors are mounted at the free end of the ted value of the vibration amplitude. The accuracy of
specimen. When the specimen vibrates in resonance, the computer regulation described in Ref. 53 is 95%.
a changing (small) gap causes a change in the capacity. Due to a relatively slow response of the computer
The signal of the device may then serve for control regulation, rise times at the beginning of a pulse are
purposes. relatively long (3000 ms). With increasing capacity of
Assuming linear elastic behaviour of all mechanical modern computers, however, digital control units will
parts, strain amplitudes in all vibration nodes of the become more appropriate for control purposes.
load train are proportional. Therefore, the strain A frequency control unit keeps cyclic loading in
amplitude measured at the vibration node of the resonance. Slight changes in a specimen’s temperature
amplification horn or the mounting device may assist or an increase in a specimen’s compliance by a crack
in determining the cyclic load amplitude.50 Strain initiation or amplitude dependent damping properties
gauges applied to the centre of the specimens, how- of the material may cause variations in the resonance
ever, should not be used for control purposes since frequency. Since vibrations in the whole system are
they may fail or loosen during the experiments. They almost elastic, resonance is obtained in a narrow
should serve for calibration and monitoring of cyclic frequency range and accurate control of the frequency
loading only. is necessary. One possibility of a frequency control
An amplitude control unit ensures that the actual method is a phase locked loop circuit.62 A phase
vibration amplitude and the preselected value detection unit drives a voltage controlled oscillator
coincide within the accuracy of the system. The actual to keep actual loading in resonance.32
cyclic load, obtained from the amplitude detection The process control unit is used to determine the
unit, is compared with the preselected value which load sequence and to measure several parameters and
was determined by the control unit. Eventually, an data during the fatigue experiment. Either electronic
ac signal of the amplitude detection device will have equipment (for constant amplitude fatigue tests) or a
to be rectified for control purposes. The difference computer (for constant and variable amplitude fatigue
between the preselected amplitude and the actual tests) may serve as the process control unit.
amplitude may be processed in an analogous PID
(proportional, integral, differential ) control circuit.62 Determination of load sequence In order to start a
To obtain the input signal for the power supply, fatigue experiment, the required magnitude of the
which defines the actual requirement of power, the amplitude detection signal must first be selected. The
output signal of the PID circuit must be electronically relationship between the amplitude detection signal
multiplied with the actual resonant frequency. If and the strain amplitude in the centre of the specimen,
appropriate time constants of the components are the point of maximum strain, is determined in a
selected, the amplitude control may be determined calibration experiment. The signals of the above
with approximately 99% accuracy. described amplitude detection units are exactly pro-
portional to the strain amplitudes in the specimen damage of the specimen is mainly caused by cycling
centres (if linear elastic behaviour is presumed) and at the nominal cyclic amplitude. An adequately trig-
calibration may be performed at low enough load gered cycle counter may be used to count the number
amplitudes that the specimens are not damaged of stress amplitudes until failure or until a certain
during the calibration procedures. crack extension is obtained.
Fatigue loading of the specimen during ultrasonic To measure cyclic loading of a specimen a strain
testing is applied in pulsed form, using a preselected measurement unit consisting of strain gauges and a
pulse length. Depending on amplitude control and strain amplifier may be used. Small strain gauges
power supply, cyclic amplitude increases with typical appropriate to measure axial or torsional strains are
rise times between 5 and 10 ms (100–200 cycles, if the applied in the centre of the specimen to calibrate the
resonant frequency is 20 kHz) to the preselected experiment and to monitor the cyclic strain during
amplitude. After cycling at a defined nominal the experiments. Although strain gauges are often
amplitude, power transfer is stopped and vibration used in technical applications, attention has to be
decreases to zero, typically within 5–15 ms, depending paid since they may be fatigued or damaged or the
on the electric and mechanical damping properties of adhesive may loosen during high frequency cycling.
the system. Load amplitudes before and after cyclic Since strain gauges are often used as quarter bridges
loading at the nominal amplitude cause additional in ultrasonic fatigue experiments, temperature influ-
damage to the specimen and should therefore be ences should be considered as well. Adhesives may
small. A minimum pulse length at the nominal ampli- alter the specimen’s surface, which may play a role
tude of approximately 25 ms is usually chosen. Since with a number of materials. The strain gauge should
heat is produced during cyclic loading of the specimen, be removed in this case and the surface adequately
it is necessary to use short pulses to limit the increase treated before starting the experiment.
in temperature of the specimens and of the material If static or slowly varying loads are superimposed
at the crack tip. To obtain reliable fatigue data, it is on the high frequency oscillation, adequate equip-
necessary to confirm that eventual increases in the ment for load control is necessary. This may be
temperature during the pulses are small and do not accomplished by use of a load cell, for example, to
influence the data obtained. Pauses between the pulses control the hydraulic pressure of an actuator,23 or by
must be of an appropriate length to remove the heat mounting the load train into conventional fatigue
caused by internal friction. The length of these per- testing equipment.27,66
iodic interruptions is typically 25–1000 ms, depend-
ing on the load level and the mechanical properties Crack length measurement
of the specimen. Adequate cooling can significantly To study fatigue cracks, a notch is introduced in the
decrease pause length. centre area of the specimen at the point of maximum
If constant amplitude fatigue experiments are per- strain, i.e. the vibration node. Using a symmetric
formed, the amplitude of successive pulses will be specimen the maximum strain amplitude coincides
constant at the preselected value, and the load with the minimum displacement amplitude, which
sequence may be determined by an analogous elec- enables one to observe the fatigue crack growth
tronic circuit. If multistep or random loading fatigue optically. Video equipment has already been used to
experiments are performed, the amplitude of success- determine crack propagation in the first ultrasonic
ive pulses may be adjusted according to the desired fracture mechanic investigation.9 Optical systems
testing procedure. Ultrasonic multistep and random should magnify by a factor of about 100–200 in order
tests were realised with a computer control by to have good resolution. Microscopes on travelling
Stanzl.63 stages as well as video equipment can be used to
study fatigue crack growth under mode I either
Control of parameters and data of high frequency with or without superimposed mode II loading
loading Automatic operation of the high frequency conditions.62
fatigue experiment is made possible by monitoring To perform fatigue crack growth experiments under
the resonance frequency.64 As the compliance of mode I and superimposed mode III loading con-
the specimen increases with increasing crack length, ditions, a circumferentially notched cylindrical speci-
decrease in resonant frequency may serve to detect men may be employed. However, optical observation
the initiation of a fatigue crack or specimen failure. of the crack tip would then be impossible. To deter-
The experiment is stopped when a predefined mine crack growth the potential drop technique has
lower limit of the resonance frequency is reached. been successfully adapted.24 A constant current is
Monitoring of the resonant frequency is possible with introduced into the load train using the flanges in the
a computer control or with commercially available centre of both mounting parts. The potential differ-
controller units. ence between both crack fronts serves as a measure
A computer unit may be used to measure the for the crack length.
magnitude of load amplitudes imposed on the speci- Calculations of the crack length on the basis of
men during a fatigue test. All load cycles may be changes in the resonant frequency are also reported
classified with an accuracy of 1% and stored.44 For in the literature,38 since an increase in the crack
example, amplitudes below the nominal cyclic load length reduces the frequency of the resonance
imposed on the specimen during rise time, and during vibration. Nevertheless, the resonant frequency of
the decrease of the cyclic load after the pulse, may ultrasonic equipment is determined by the mechanical
then be considered in damage accumulation calcu- properties of all of the vibrating parts of the load
lations.65 In constant amplitude experiments, fatigue train and the electrical properties of the ultrasonic
transducer and the power amplifier. Additionally, about 10−7 m/cycle cannot be investigated adequately
slight changes in the actual temperature of the load since fracture of the specimen is very rapid and
train or the specimen, and amplitude dependent difficult to control. For low crack growth rates (and
damping lead to variations in the resonance fre- a restricted size of the plastic zone), the stress intensity
quency. Frequency changes therefore are a less sensi- factor range DK, or the maximum stress intensity
tive measure of crack length than optical or potential factor of a cycle K , may serve to describe the cyclic
max
drop measurements. loading of the crack.9 If a static mean load is superim-
posed on the high frequency oscillation, the load ratio
Fatigue testing procedures
Fatigue tests may be performed under constant ampli- R must also be considered. Crack propagation rates
tude, step, or random amplitude loading conditions. follow from the numbers of cycles, which are counted
by a cycle counter, and from the crack extensions
Since loading is in resonance, the magnitude of suc-
cessive pulses is varied according to a step or random which are measured as described above.
sequence rather than to the amplitude of individual Evaluation of the cyclic stress intensity factor must
take into consideration several particularities of the
cycles. Load sequences of successive pulses in random
loading tests may be determined following the stan- ultrasonic fatigue method. A significant difference to
conventional experiment techniques already exists for
dard procedures described in the literature67 or may
a specimen with constant cross-section in the absence
be determined by in-service loading measurements of
construction parts. Ultrasonic fatigue studies have of a crack, since cyclic stress amplitude varies sinus-
oidally rather than remaining constant along the
been performed with a stepwise varying magnitude
specimen length. Stress amplitude in the specimen’s
of successive pulses,17 with two standard random
centre cannot be evaluated from an external force.
sequences,16 and under in-service loading conditions
Instead the calibrated signal of the load detection
of a car wheel.44
unit must serve to determine the magnitude of
loading.
Determination and evaluation of In early ultrasonic fracture mechanic studies, the
experimental data cyclic stress intensity factor was calculated assuming
To obtain reliable data in ultrasonic fatigue experi- similarities of the stress field near the crack tip for
ments, correct methods for evaluation of cyclic loads both high and low frequency loading for single edge
(cyclic stress amplitudes for lifetime measurements notched specimens9 and centre notched specimens.69
and cyclic stress intensity factors for fatigue crack Change in a specimen’s compliance due to the grow-
growth studies) and for determination of number of ing crack was considered in an additional correction
applied load cycles are necessary. The process of function.12 Finite element (FE) calculations show
statistical evaluation and presentation of the results that older evaluations overestimated the stress in-
of lifetime experiments obtained with the ultrasound tensity factor by up to about 20% for both crack
method are similar to data processing for conven- geometries.13,14
tional fatigue testing methods.68 Specimen dimensions Hoffelner and Gudmundson40 treated the problem
should be considered in the statistical evaluation, of the dynamic behaviour of a bar with a centre crack
since ultrasonic fatigue experiments are frequently of length a, width W, resonance length L , and positive
performed using relatively small specimens. R values using the finite element method. Based on
Maximum strain amplitude is obtained only in the the displacement amplitude of specimen ends u, calcu-
centres of the specimens, thus influencing the statistic lation of the stress intensity K value follows with
distribution of lifetimes, especially of inhomogeneous
AB A B
uE a 1/2 a W
materials. K= f , ,m . . . . . . (9)
Number of cycles to failure are counted by a cycle W 2 W L
counter as described above. Stress amplitudes cannot where E is Young’s modulus, and m is the Poi-
be measured directly but have to be calculated out of sson ratio. Besides a proportional constant, which
the measured cyclic strain. If linear elastic material takes into account the sinusoidal strain distribution
behaviour is assumed, cyclic axial or shear stresses along the specimen’s length, the correction function
are proportional to the axial or shear strain respect- f (a/W, W/L , m) for resonance loading approximates
ively (equations (7) and (8)). If soft materials are the correction function for quasi-static loading of a
tested at high stress levels, plastic deformation may centrally notched bar with relative crack lengths
contribute significantly to the strain amplitude in the a/W ∏0·3.
cycled volume. The relationship between plastic and The influence of an initial hole, which serves
elastic strain amplitude, however, may change with to initiate a fatigue crack in a centre notched ultra-
increasing number of cycles if cyclic hardening or sonic specimen, was calculated by Blom and Glem-
cyclic softening of the material takes place. Then berg.13 Similar to the results of Hoffelner and
calculation of the cyclic stress amplitude is possible Gudmundson,40 FE calculations for resonance load-
only if the cyclic stress–strain behaviour of the investi- ing coincide with low frequency calculations for small
gated material is already known. ratios of a/W. This similitude is explained through
In fatigue crack growth studies, the increase in the inertia forces, which act essentially only on the speci-
crack length as a function of the magnitude of loading mens ends where the acceleration is largest, whereas
and the applied number of cycles is determined. at the crack plane in the midsection of the specimen
Fatigue crack growth experiments at ultrasonic fre- the acceleration is zero.13
quencies are generally restricted to investigations in For an hourglass shaped single edge notched (SEN)
the threshold regime. Crack growth rates higher than specimen, Mayer et al.14 and Wu and Baithias39
1.6 1.6
CORRECTION FUNCTIONS Y (a /W )
CORRECTION FUNCTIONS f (a /W ) 1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
RELATIVE CRACK LENGTH (a /W ) RELATIVE CRACK LENGTH (a /W )
9 Correction functions f (a/w) and f (a/w) for 10 Comparisons of correction functions:14
u v
amplitude controlled and velocity controlled CC amplitude controlled resonance load-
ultrasonic fatigue crack growth experiments ing; D D D uniform displacement loading; and
respectively14 E concentric loading
performed FE calculations of the stress intensity

factor. Considering the different possibilities of con- before a fatigue crack is initiated. Eventual small
trolling the magnitude of loading in ultrasonic equip- variations in the specimen thickness are taken into
ment (amplitude and velocity control ), stress intensity account by the strain measurement so that stress
factor was calculated14 for resonance loading of the intensity calculations are less sensitive to slight vari-
single edge cracked specimen shown in Fig. 2 accord- ations in the specimen geometry. Stress intensity may
ing to be calculated according to equation (12),70 where Y
u
is the correction function for an amplitude controlled
AB
uE a process, and Y is the correction function if the
K= (a)1/2 f . . . . . . . . (10) v
W u W velocity of the specimen ends serves to control the
ultrasonic fatigue crack growth experiment
if the displacement of specimen end u serves to control
AB
the magnitude of loading, and a
K=eE(pa)1/2Y
u,v W
AB
v(Er)1/2 a
K= (a)1/2 f . . . . . . . (11)
AB AB
LW v W a a 2
Y =1·12−0·63 +8·96
u W W
if the velocity of specimen end v serves to control
AB AB
loading (r is the density of the material). The correc- a 3 a 4
tion functions f (a/w) and f (a/w) are shown versus −28·4 +19·2
u v W W
the relative crack length (a/W ) in Fig. 9. The different
AB AB AB
course of the two correction functions results since a a 2 a 3
the velocity of the specimen end is proportional to Y =1·12−0·04 +0·53 +7·8
v W W W
both displacement amplitude and resonant frequency.
AB
A decrease in the resonance frequency due to the a 4
growth of a crack therefore affects f (a/w) but not −24·0 . . . . . . . . . (12)
v W
f (a/w).
u
To calculate the stress intensity factor according to The evaluation of the cyclic stress intensity factor for
equations (10) or (11) it is necessary to determine the amplitude controlled resonance loading was com-
absolute value of the vibration amplitude u, or of the pared with analogous FE calculations for a uniform
velocity of the specimen end v. The amplitude detec- distribution of the displacement of the specimen ends
tion units described above, however, deliver signals and for a concentric loading of the specimen, where
which are proportional to either u or v, and the the load is applied in the mass centres of both halves
absolute levels of the signals have to be calibrated of the SEN specimen.14 The displacement amplitudes
separately. In practice, it was found to be more for the three loading conditions were normalised so
reliable and accurate to calibrate ultrasonic fracture that the strain amplitudes e in the centres of the
mechanic experiments using the strain amplitude in specimens are the same for a crack length of zero.
the specimen centre (the plane of the crack), which Figure 10 shows a comparison of the three correction
can be measured with strain gauges.42 The nominal functions versus the relative crack length (a/W ). The
strain amplitude e for hypothetical crack length zero, correction function for amplitude controlled high
which is directly proportional to the vibration ampli- frequency resonance loading Y (a/w) is close to the
u
tude or the vibration velocity, characterises the magni- correction function for uniform displacement loading
tude of loading. After crack initiation, the nominal Y (a/w), whereas the correction function for con-
unidis
strain amplitude may be calculated from the signal centric loading Y (a/w) is remarkably different.
concentric
of the amplitude detection unit as it is calibrated This can be explained by a different bending of the
0 specimen at a certain load until a crack extension of

typically 0·1–0·2 mm is reached. An average value for
_0.2 the cyclic stress intensity can be determined from the
initial and the final crack lengths. As a result, fatigue
crack growth rates may be presented as a function of
_0.4 the maximum cyclic stress intensity K or the cyclic
R VALUE
max
stress intensity range DK and the load ratio R.
_0.6 In fatigue crack growth tests under step or random
loading conditions, mean fatigue crack growth rates
(Da/DN ) for a load sequence consisting of
_0.8 mean
N cycles are determined. To obtain a correlation
0
between mean crack growth rate and the different
1 cyclic stress intensity factors K ... K of the
1,max N ,max
load sequence, a representative value must0be chosen.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 If the shape of the cumulative frequency distribution
RELATIVE CRACK LENGTH (a /W ) of cyclic loads for different numbers of cycle N is
0
11 R value as function of a/W for single edge approximately the same,67 the RMS (root mean
notched specimen14 square value) of the stress intensity amplitudes may
be used72
A B
1 N0 1/2
specimen when loaded in the presence of a crack.14 K = ∑ K2 . . . . . . . (13)
Concentric loading of a side cracked specimen at low RMS N i,max
0 i=1
frequencies leads to an elongation of the specimen
As an alternative, the highest stress intensity ampli-

and simultaneously to a bending of the specimen axis, tude of the random sequence may serve for representa-
whereas if both ends move parallel for uniform dis- tive purposes.17 The number of cycles is delivered by
placement loading bending is mostly suppressed.71 In the control unit if all load amplitudes imposed on the
case of a high frequency oscillation, an appropriate specimen are classified and stored. The RMS values
specimen design will suppress bending oscillations.14 of all maximum stress intensity factors or the highest
As soon as a crack is present, the displacement stress intensity factors of the sequence may be used
amplitudes of the specimen ends during the tension for correlation with the mean crack growth rate
and compression half cycles will be different, since
A B
the increase in the specimens’ compliance affects Da
= f (K ) . . . . . . . . (14)
tension loading only. For a centre notched specimen, DN mean RMS
this effect is described qualitatively in Ref. 13. A
quantitative evaluation for a single edge notched Literature survey of ultrasonic
specimen on the basis of energy considerations
showed14 that the load ratio R increases from fracture mechanical studies
−1 when no crack is present (starting notch of The ultrasonic fatigue testing method was adapted to
1 mm, a/W =0·67) to −0·904 when a/W reaches 0·4 perform fracture mechanical studies of fatigue crack
(Fig. 11). Although one specimen end vibrates free growth and threshold behaviour by Mitsche et al.9
under high frequency loading conditions, loading of and the first experimental results were presented in
the crack is not strictly fully reversed. For longer 1973. This early work was performed at an R ratio
crack length, the absolute value of the maximum of −1 in an oil and a water environment. The method
stress intensity of the tension half cycle K is larger was then used for fatigue crack growth studies of
max
than the absolute value of the minimum stress inten- several technical materials such as mild and chro-
sity of the compression half cycle K . mium steel,73 a nickel base superalloy,11 molybdenum
min
Theoretical considerations aside, it is possible to alloys,74 chromium steel,75 aluminium and aluminium
determine the stress intensity factor semi-empirically. alloys,76 copper,69 as well as to study fatigue cracks
If the crack length exceeds the initial short crack in electron beam welded iron base superalloy A286
range, the fatigue crack growth rates have to be (Ref. 77). Experimental investigations of fatigue crack
constant within the range of scatter for loading at a growth in corrosive environments were first per-
constant cyclic stress intensity value. Such calibration formed by Stanzl and Mitsche78 and an analysis of
experiments were performed by Mayer et al.47 with the time dependence of corrosion fatigue crack growth
AISI 420 steel using the single edge notch specimen at high frequencies was presented by Stanzl and
shown in Fig. 2. These experiments showed the val- Tschegg.25 Tschegg and Stanzl26 also investigated the
idity of the above described procedure to determine influence of cryogenic temperatures on the fatigue
the cyclic stress intensity factor. crack growth properties of bcc and fcc metals
Fatigue crack growth experiments may be per- at ultrasonic frequencies. Hoffelner20 published the
formed under constant amplitude, step amplitude, or results of first fatigue crack growth experiments with
random amplitude conditions.17 Crack growth data a superimposed mean load in 1982. These experiments
for constant stress intensity cycling is obtained using used a notched bar which was excited to bending
a load shedding and increasing technique in 5–7% oscillations by high frequency equipment.79 This
steps of the actual value. This is similar to fatigue experimental procedure, however, was found to be
testing with conventional equipment. Constant ampli- flawed and caused several technical problems when
tude experiments are performed by oscillating the used in other laboratories.
In the following, ultrasonic fracture mechanical

studies for the time period after the ultrasonic fatigue
(a)
conference in 1982 (Ref. 54) are reviewed. This over-
view includes applications of the high frequency
method of studying fatigue crack growth at different
mean loads, the influence of temperature and environ-
ment, crack closure and short crack studies, fatigue
crack growth under multistep and random loading,
fracture mechanical investigations of newly developed
materials, and a recent development of the ultrasonic
method to perform torsion fatigue experiments.
Fatigue crack growth at different mean loads

near threshold
Fatigue crack propagation studies of a ferritic chro-
mium steel (X20Cr13, AISI 420) at different R ratios
were performed by Stanzl et al.23 They showed that
the threshold maximum stress intensity factor K
max,th
increases from 3·5 to 5·0 MPa m1/2 when the R ratio
increases from −1 to +0·5 (Fig. 12a). The influence
of different R ratios on the fatigue crack growth
properties was found to be similar at ultrasonic and
Dc /DN, m/CYCLE
conventional frequencies. An explanation for the R
sensitivity of fatigue crack growth properties was
offered on the basis of crack closure considerations.80 K Imax, MPa m1/2
These fatigue crack growth experiments also clearly
showed the influence of a compression phase on (b)
fatigue crack propagation properties. Threshold
values of K =3·5, 4·0, and 4·2 MPa m1/2 were
max,th
found for R ratios of −1, −0·33, and 0 respectively,
which indicated additional fatigue damage during the
compression half cycle. To take into account com-
pression stress intensities, fatigue crack growth rates
were also presented versus the cyclic stress intensity
range DK=K −K , where K is negative for
max min min
negative R values (Fig. 12b).23
Ultrasonic fracture mechanical studies of
Ti–6Al–4V with a superimposed static or slowly
varying load were performed by Bonis et al.48 and
Bathias et al.66 Fatigue crack growth curves at differ-
ent R values show that the threshold cyclic stress
intensity DK decreases with increasing R, which is
th
attributed to crack closure effects. High frequency
fatigue crack growth data for R=0 were compared
with analogous fracture mechanic experiments per-
formed at 2 Hz and an R value of 0·03. Within the
range of scatter no significant influence of the cycling
frequency on the fatigue data of Ti–6Al–4V could
be observed. The threshold value of DK =
th DK I, MPa m1/2
5·66 MPa m1/2 measured with the ultrasound method
was found to be compatible with the results of conven- 12 Fatigue crack growth rates of AISI 420 steel at
tional low frequency fatigue experiments.66 The super- different R ratios: a crack growth rates versus
imposing of small high frequency oscillations to a K ; b crack growth rates versus DK (Ref. 23)
Imax I
load cycle with a large stress intensity amplitude
served to simulate the in-service loading conditions exceeded this threshold, fatigue crack growth rates
of a turbine disc.48 The specimens were loaded with for superimposed loading could be a factor of
a slowly varying fatigue load with a maximum stress 100 higher than the crack growth rates obtained
intensity amplitude of 20 MPa m1/2 and R=0 first. for loading with a maximum stress intensity of
Then small vibrations at ultrasonic frequency were 20 MPa m1/2 and R=0 only.48
superimposed when the static load reached its maxi-
mum value. A threshold cyclic stress intensity of Influence of temperature and environment on
DK=2·6 MPa m1/2 for the high frequency oscillation fatigue crack growth at ultrasonic frequencies
was found, above which additional damage of the The influence of elevated temperatures on the fatigue
material was caused. If the high frequency vibrations crack propagation properties of two carbon steels
(CSN 412013 and CSN 415313) was investigated by surfaces were less rough and more brittle after crack
Puskár and Várkoly38 mounting the specimen in propagation in humid air than in a vacuum.
water (20°C) or in argon atmospheres of several
varying temperatures of between 200 and 500°C. The
crack length was determined from the change in Short crack and crack closure studies
the resonant frequency of the vibrating system. An Propagation of fatigue cracks is caused by a cyclic
increase in the fatigue crack growth rates with increas- plastic deformation of the materials at the crack tip.
ing temperature was found.38 The threshold of fatigue When a fatigue crack is cycled with a stress intensity
crack propagation decreases from 7·5 MPa m1/2 range DK=K −K , the crack opens first elasti-
max min
(CSN 412013) or 5·5 MPa m1/2 (CSN 415313) at 20°C cally and at a certain opening stress intensity K
op
to about 3 MPa m1/2 for both steels at 500°C. plastic deformation and fatigue damage begin. The
The decrease in the threshold value with increasing effective loading of the crack and the subsequent
temperature is smooth for CSN 415313 steel. For crack propagation rate may be described in terms of
CSN 412013 steel, an abrupt change in the fracture an effective cyclic stress intensity range DK =
eff
mechanic properties in the temperature range 250– K −K (Ref. 82). Besides the magnitude of load-
max op
300°C was observed. This effect was explained by ing, DK depends on several parameters, such as the
eff
dynamic strain aging of this low carbon steel. R ratio, the previous loading history, the investigated
Fatigue crack growth experiments under high tem- material, the crack length, etc. A detailed review of
perature testing conditions in an air environment crack closure mechanisms acting under constant as
have been performed by Wu and Bathias39 by mount- well as variable amplitude loading conditions may be
ing the load train into an induction furnace. In found in Ref. 83.
comparative studies of the nickel alloy Astroloy at 20 Crack closure is especially important for fatigue
crack growth in the regime of very low crack growth
and 400°C, they proved that the fatigue crack growth

curve is shifted about 30% towards lower stress rates, since the ratio K /K increases when the
op max
intensity values when the temperature is increased. cyclic load decreases towards the threshold value.84
Stanzl et al.45 tested the influence of ambient air, Since ultrasonic fatigue crack growth investigations
dried air, and a vacuum environment on the fatigue concentrate mainly on the regime of slow crack
crack growth behaviour of the aluminium alloy growth, crack closure is generally of great importance
2024-T3. In ambient air (Fig. 13a), a regime with a in constant and variable amplitude fracture mechan-
significantly reduced slope of the fatigue crack growth ical studies. Due to the cyclic plastic deformation and
curve appeared at crack growth rates between 10−10 due to friction processes, the high cycling frequency
and 10−9 m/cycle. The threshold value was K = can lead to an increase in temperature at the crack
max,th tip. However, heat generation due to asperities and
2·1 MPa m1/2 in air and 3·3 MPa m1/2 in a vacuum.
crack closure has not been quantitatively addressed
In a vacuum (Fig. 13b), mean crack growth rates as
in the literature.
low as 10−12 m/cycle were observed, whereas in ambi-
A consequence of crack closure effects is the history
ent air the crack growth curve decreased rapidly at
dependence of the fatigue crack growth rates.85 For
crack growth rates of 10−10 m/cycle. The results
variable amplitude loading, overloads lead to an
clearly showed that the regime with reduced slope in
increase in the crack closure level and delayed crack
the Da/DN versus K curve of 2024-T3 is deter-
max growth for successive cycling at low cyclic loads.86
mined by the environment and not by microstructural The influence of numerous low loads at or below the
features. Comparing high frequency data to literature threshold value on the crack propagation rate of a
showed a similar regime with a reduced slope of the load sequence, however, has been investigated to a
crack growth curve at an approximate factor of 10–30 far lesser extent.85 In order to investigate history
higher fatigue crack growth rates for a cycling fre- effects and the interaction of low and high cyclic
quency of 13 Hz (Ref. 81). This difference is explained loads in the threshold regime, two step loading experi-
by the surface diffusion of hydrogen into the material ments were performed with the aluminium alloy
in front of the crack tip. Diffusion length is dependent 2024-T351 by Mayer et al.87,88
on the square root of the time period the water To separate the different closure mechanisms acting
vapour can act at the crack tip. Therefore, the regime at very low crack growth rates following overloads,
of reduced slope would be expected at about ×40 negative step tests were performed in a vacuum and
higher crack growth rates if cycling frequency is 13 Hz an ambient air environment.87 Crack growth retard-
instead of 20 kHz, which is close to the experimental ation occurred and an additional number of cycles
result. Water vapour in ambient air which leads to (delay cycles), depending on low and high load level,
hydrogen embrittlement is responsible for the higher were necessary to obtain the same crack advance as
fatigue crack growth rates and the lower threshold in for constant low amplitude cycling only. For a large
comparison to vacuum. Experiments in dried air with negative step, however, the crack may stop growing
significantly reduced water content (Fig. 13c) lead to and a threshold for fatigue crack growth after rapid
crack growth rates between those obtained in humid load reduction (reduction threshold) was obtained.
air and those in vacuum for K greater than about Delay cycles as well as the reduction threshold
max
7 MPa m1/2. In the regime of very low crack growth depended on the environment. Figure 15 shows delay
rates, the remaining humidity in dried air led to cycles of 2024-T351 measured in ambient air and a
embrittlement and a threshold value almost as low vacuum after rapid load reduction from a cyclic stress
as that in a humid environment. SEM studies of the intensity of 7 MPa m1/2. While in an inert environ-
fracture surfaces (Fig. 14) showed that the fracture ment the reduction threshold was only slightly higher
(a) (b)
CRACK GROWTH RATE Da/DN, m/CYCLE
(c)
STRESS INTENSITY K max, MPa m1/2
13 Fatigue crack growth of Al alloy 2024–T3 in different environments: a ambient air, b vacuum,
c dried air45
than the threshold measured with a load shedding

technique in 5–7% steps of the actual value (K =
th
3·6 instead of 3·3 MPa m1/2), the reduction threshold
in humid air was increased by approximately
100% (K =4·3 instead of 2·1 MPa m1/2). Plasticity
th
induced crack closure and deviation of crack
growth from the initial direction to bypass the pre-
viously formed plastic zone served to explain delayed
fatigue crack growth successive to over-
loads in both environments.87 The drastic increase
in the threshold after negative step loading in am-
bient air, however, points to the great significance
of an additional crack closure mechanism in this
environment. Oxide debris formed in the humid
environment inhibits the recommencement of crack
growth after a high number of arrest cycles, and oxide
induced increase of the crack closure level therefore
14 Fracture surface after cycling with K = is described as the main reason for the high reduction
max
5 MPa m1/2 in humid air (right side) and K = threshold in ambient air.87 These results, obtained
max
9 MPa m1/2 in vacuum (left side)45 with a high strength age-hardened aluminium alloy
when characterised in terms of the same nominal

LOW STRESS INTENSITY AMPLITUDE, MPa m1/2
cyclic stress intensity amplitude.90 Initially increased
crack growth rates for crack lengths smaller than
approximately 2 mm were found for ultrasonic fre-
quency cycling by Stanzl and Ebenberger64 in a
60Cu–40%Zn alloy in a vacuum of 10−3 Pa. In air,
silicone oil, distilled water, and in a vacuum of 1 Pa,
this short crack effect was absent, which points to
environmental influences on short crack propagation
in the investigated brass.
The initiation and growth of short cracks in
2024-T3 and 7075-T761 aluminium alloys under high
frequency cycling were studied by Blom et al.91 They
showed that the crack growth rates of initial cracks
are dependent on microstructural features. When the
crack tip reaches a grain boundary, crack growth
rates may decrease to 10−12 m/cycle, whereas the
DELAY CYCLES mean crack growth rate in the interior of a grain
is about 10−10 m/cycle for cyclic stress amplitudes
15 Dependence of delay time cycles after rapid near the fatigue limit. The dominant influence of
load reduction from 7 MPa m1/2 on low stress
intensity level for 2024–T351 alloy in humid air
grain boundaries on crack growth could be found for
and in vacuum87 crack lengths below approximately 100 mm (Ref. 91).
Fatigue crack growth of small cracks in 2024-T3
described by Blom et al. shows close similarities to

were similarly obtained with a relatively ductile non- analogous investigations of the same alloy performed
hardening AlMg alloy.89 For Al-5754, the reduction by Akiniwa et al.92 They found discontinuous crack
threshold in ambient air was K =4·5 MPa m1/2 growth for crack lengths smaller than about 100 mm
max
successive to cycling with a stress intensity of in a fatigue experiment performed at 20–30 Hz and a
6 MPa m1/2, whereas the threshold value obtained by stress amplitude of 150 MPa. The studies of Stanzl
load shedding in small steps was 1·8 MPa m1/2. and Ebenberger64 and Blom et al.91 show that the
Crack closure effects are, likewise, the reason for ultrasound method is an appropriate and time saving
retarded crack propagation during two step loading, technique to study the behaviour of short cracks.
which is a continuous repetition of blocks with low
and high DK cycles. Such tests with the aluminium
alloy 2024-T351 were performed in ambient air to Fatigue crack growth under multistep and
simulate conditions relevant to acoustic fatigue as it random loading
effects aerospace components.88 For example, when a Application of the ultrasound fatigue method is of
fatigue crack was loaded with a continuous sequence special practical interest for fatigue investigations of
consisting of 500 cycles with a maximum stress inten- automobile, railway, and offshore structures which
sity of 7 MPa m1/2 and 500 000 cycles with maximum have to survive very high numbers of cycles such as
stress intensity of 3·5 MPa m1/2, crack propagation 109 or above. These components are subjected to
was observed only during the high load cycles, since variable amplitude cycling rather than to only con-
the low stress intensity level is well below the above stant amplitude loading, and the high frequency
described reduction threshold. Nevertheless, the high method has been adapted by Stanzl63 to simulate
number of low amplitudes significantly influenced variable loading conditions such as multistep, stan-
fatigue crack growth at the high level, leading to a dardised random loading sequences or simulated
crack growth rate which was ×4 that obtained for in-service loading.
cycling at the high level only. These experiments Fracture mechanic investigations of very slow
clearly showed that large numbers of low amplitudes growing fatigue cracks have been performed by Stanzl
caused additional fatigue damage and accelerated et al.17 with the structural steel StE620V for a stepwise
crack growth. The higher the magnitude of the low increasing and decreasing stress intensity amplitude
level and the greater the number of low load cycles, and for a standardised Gaussian random loading
the more prominent was their influence on material sequence. For constant amplitude, a well defined
damage.88 One interaction mechanism that was found threshold value of 5·5 MPa m1/2 was obtained for this
for low levels close to the reduction threshold, is that non-alloyed carbon steel. Similarly, no fatigue crack
fracture surface in two step experiments was smoother growth was observed in the multistep test, as long as
than for constant high amplitude cycling only. The the highest cyclic stress intensity did not exceed the
distinctly lower roughness reduced surface roughness threshold value obtained in the constant amplitude
induced crack closure and thus led to an acceleration test. Under random loading conditions, however, no
of the fatigue crack growth. threshold value could be found down to crack growth
In fatigue crack growth experiments, crack growth rates of 10−13 m/cycle, since rare high amplitudes of
rates are usually studied using crack lengths of several the load sequence propagated the crack, although
millimetres. The growth rates of small cracks with a most load cycles lay well below the constant ampli-
length below the millimetre range can be significantly tude threshold value. Linear damage accumulation
greater than the corresponding rates of long cracks calculation of the fatigue crack growth predicted
greater crack growth velocities than were found exper- will not be found for shorter lifetimes or higher crack
imentally in the range of 10−10 to 10−8 m/cycle. This growth rates. Because tests with random amplitude
is well in accordance with the literature, which pre- sequences of 109 cycles and above would last too long
dicts retarded crack growth successive to rare high with conventional fatigue testing equipment, these
amplitudes due to an increased crack closure level.83 load sequences are usually modified: either the pro-
In the regime of very slow mean crack growth rates, grams are made ‘harder’, i.e. all stresses are raised by
in the order of 10−12 m/cycle, however, higher crack a certain factor, or the lowest amplitudes are omit-
velocities than predicted were measured. At mean ted.15 With ultrasonic fatigue testing, it is possible to
crack growth rates of 10−12 m/cycle, approximately perform high cycle random fatigue experiments with-
99% of the cyclic load amplitudes of the random out modifying the cumulative frequency distribution
sequence are below the constant amplitude threshold. of load cycles. Ultrasonic fatigue testing can also
A linear damage accumulation calculation of fatigue clearly identify the contribution of small loads to
crack growth rates assumes no influence of this large material damage.
number of small cycles on crack growth. However, Load interaction effects under variable amplitude
investigations on the structural steel StE620V show17 loading conditions are especially important for meta-
that numerous load cycles below the constant ampli- stabile materials. Plastic deformation at the crack tip
tude threshold influence crack growth, and growth causes strain induced phase transformation, which
rates are higher than predicted with linear damage leads to a net increase in the volume of the transform-
accumulation calculation. ation region. As the enlarged material is left behind
Similar fatigue crack growth studies under different the advancing crack, the closure level is increased.97
load sequences were performed by Tschegg et al.93 The effect of transformation induced crack closure
with the carbon steel RSt37-2. For this material, was studied under constant and random loading
however, load interaction effects were less prominent conditions with metastabile austenitic–bainitic cast
than for StE620V steel. Mean fatigue crack propa- iron GGG 100-B at very low crack growth rates.43
gation rates in the regime between 10−13 m/cycle and For comparison purposes, ferritic stainless steel
10−8 m/cycle were predicted fairly well by linear AISI 420 (X20Cr13) was similarly tested, and the
damage accumulation calculation. experimentally determined crack growth rates were
Ultrasonic random loading experiments may also compared with linear damage calculations on the
be used to study fatigue crack initiation and the basis of constant amplitude results. It was found that
lifetimes of materials which are subjected to very high the measured crack growth rates in transforming
numbers of cycles. The fatigue behaviour of C1020 material are a factor of 10 lower than predicted
steel subjected to two standard random sequences (Fig. 16a), whereas the difference is only a factor of 2
was studied by Stanzl et al.16 For cycles to failure up for the ferritic steel (Fig. 16b). Rare high load cycles
to 109 no fatigue limit could be found, although it in the random sequence caused phase transformation
was clearly observed in constant amplitude tests of of part of the austenitic phase into martensite in
this non-alloyed carbon steel. The absence of a fatigue the plastic zone of the crack, and an increased crack
limit for random sequences was attributed to rare closure level. Therefore, fatigue crack growth in the
high load amplitudes which exceeded the fatigue limit metastabile alloy was remarkably lower during a
measured in S–N experiments. Numerous small random loading sequence than was predicted by
amplitudes below the constant amplitude fatigue limit linear calculations.
also contributed to cumulative damage of the mater- Experiments using a load sequence which is typical
ial. Lifetime calculations performed on the basis of for automotive applications were performed by Stanzl
the Miner–Haibach’s rule94 better predicted the et al.44 using two similar nearly eutectic cast alumin-
number of cycles to failure than the Miner rule,95 ium silicium alloys (AlSi11) with different porosity
which ignores damage of load cycles below the S–N and different content of manganese. Voids in these
fatigue limit. Random loading fatigue experiments lightweight alloys strongly influence the fatigue pro-
were also performed using the age-hardened alumin- cess, and the number of cycles to failure.98 Ultrasonic
ium alloy 2024-T351.96 The number of cycles to failure fatigue experiments were used to determine a corre-
up to 109 cycles could be accurately predicted using lation between void size and fatigue life and to predict
a linear damage calculation. For greater numbers the effect of reducing the maximum size and amount
of cycles, however, this calculation overestimated of cast voids on the lifetimes under in-service loading
lifetimes. conditions. Fatigue crack growth experiments with
The above described lifetime and fatigue crack the two AlSi11 alloys showed a good resistance
growth studies point to the great technical significance against crack propagation and a relatively high
of random loading investigations in the high cycle threshold of 2·8 MPa m1/2 and 3·0 MPa m1/2 obtained
regime and in the regime of very slow fatigue crack after load reduction in small steps of 5–7% of the
growth rates. Even for alloys, which show a well actual value. Increasing the cyclic load subsequently
defined fatigue limit in S–N experiments, or a thresh- showed that the crack arrested until the cyclic stress
old for constant stress intensity cycling, a similar limit intensity was raised to a value between 3·15 and
for material damage is absent under random loading 3·7 MPa m1/2. Black fracture surfaces with oxide
conditions. Furthermore, the accuracy of damage powder and debris, being formed during loading
accumulation calculations varies in the different several 107 cycles at the threshold stress intensity,
ranges of cycle to failure or crack growth rates. A indicate that oxide induced crack closure99 is prob-
very high number of relatively small load amplitudes ably the main mechanism responsible for the crack
may cause significant material damage, which perhaps arrest.
these specimens fail soon after crack initiation. In

the regime between 108 and 109 cycles to failure, a
linear damage accumulation calculation vastly over-
estimated the lifetimes by an average factor of 10.
The small lifetimes under random loading conditions
were explained by rare high cycles, which lead to an
early crack initiation. The high number of low ampli-
tudes can then promote crack extension and are
therefore significantly more effective than would be
expected on the basis of S–N experiments. Precracked
specimens with the approximate size of the com-
ponent were loaded with the same load sequence.
These experiments showed that the lifetime of porous
cast aluminium alloys in practical applications is
mainly determined by the time necessary to propagate
an initially formed crack until final failure and fatigue
MEAN FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH RATE, m/CYCLE
crack formation contributes to lifetime to a far less

extent. Constant amplitude fatigue crack growth
studies lead to threshold values between 3·6 and
4·3 MPa m1/2 and support the conclusion that cast
aluminium alloys have good fatigue crack propa-
(a) gation properties, which leads to a long period
between the formation of a crack and final failure.
Roughness induced crack closure100 was made res-

ponsible for the good fracture mechanic properties.
Complete closure of the crack during the compression
part of cycling is avoided by the rough surface profile,
since multiaxial deformation of the crack tip during
nominal mode I loading promotes a lateral shift of
the two fracture surfaces. Crack closure then reduces
the range of the cyclic stress intensity factor to a
smaller effective value.
Mixed mode loading

Mixed mode fatigue crack growth experiments using
the ultrasound fatigue testing method were first per-
formed by Stanzl et al.23 They studied the influence
of a constant shear load of K =12 MPa m1/2 on
II
fatigue crack growth rates of ferritic chromium steel
(X20Cr13, AISI 420) under high frequency mode I
cycling at different R ratios. The mode I cyclic load
amplitude was chosen so that a similar fatigue crack
growth rate of 7×10−10 m/cycle would be obtained
for the different preloads, if no additional shear
load was superimposed. A mutual dependence of the
(b) fatigue crack growth rate on the R ratio as well as
on the crack length was found (Fig. 17). For an R
ratio of 0·5, crack growth rate with superimposed
RMS OF MAX. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR mode II loading was slightly lower than for pure
K rms, MPa m1/2
mode I cycling (indicated with a dashed line in
16 Fatigue crack growth rates under random Fig. 17) irrespective of the crack length. In contrast,
loading conditions: 6 linear damage calc- higher initial crack growth rates were observed for
ulation (ignoring load interaction effects); q R=0 and −1. The rates drop with increasing crack
actual measurements; a material GGG 100-B, length towards a constant crack growth rate below
b material AISI 420 (Ref. 43) the value for K =0, when the crack length reaches
II
approximately 3 mm (R=0) or 5 mm (R=−1). On
the basis of SEN studies lower crack growth rates
For A356.0 cast aluminium alloy extracted from a under mixed mode conditions were explained as a
car wheel, fatigue crack initiation and propagation result of the mismatch between the rough fracture
studies were performed under a load sequence which surfaces. This mismatch causes friction and mutual
was close to the real in-service loading.65 A relatively support of the fracture surface asperities and thus
small unnotched fatigue specimen was used to deter- leads to a reduction in the effective cyclic stress
mine the fatigue crack initiation period under con- intensity. If cracks are short enough so that friction
stant and in-service loading conditions, assuming that and mutual support of the fracture surface asperities
Dc /DN, m/CYCLE
CRACK LENGTH c, mm
17 Fatigue crack growth rates at constant values for cyclic mode I and static mode II. Influence of crack
length for different R ratio23
cannot be effective, or if fracture surface roughness is

reduced or removed by mechanical degradation, or if
a compressive component during fatigue loading is
effective resulting in flattening the fracture topogra-
DK th, MPa m1/2
phy (at R ratios typically less than or equal to zero)

then a superimposed mode II load causes enhanced
fatigue crack growth.
The influence of a constant mode III load on
mode I fatigue crack growth threshold was investi-
gated by Tschegg et al.24 using cylindrical chromium
steel specimens (AISI 420, X20Cr13) with a circumfer-
ential notch (Fig. 6). Initially, a fatigue crack of
0·4 mm was introduced into these specimens by a
rotating bending machine and the specimens were
then heat treated to remove initial stresses. Fatigue K III, MPa m1/2
thresholds under cyclic mode I with and without
static mode III loading were determined afterwards 18 Influence of static mode III loads on mode I
fatigue crack growth thresholds DK with
with a load shedding and increasing technique. As th
different R ratio as parameter24
shown in Fig. 18, threshold values for mode III super-
imposed loading are generally higher than for pure
mode I loading. The influence of the static shear load to an incomplete closure of the crack and a reduction
increases with increasing K and also increases as in the cyclic mode I stress intensity range acting at
III
the load ratio R decreases. To explain this result, the crack tip. This result has important technical
roughness induced crack closure is assumed as the consequences. If a precracked shaft is imposed on a
main mechanism which becomes greater when crack constant torque, the fatigue crack growth rate is
fronts are wrenched as a CTD displacement is drastically reduced in comparison to a shaft that runs
III
superimposed. Rubbing, interference, and friction of idle, and thus a rotating shaft loaded with a constant
the rough fracture surfaces is assumed, which leads torque will live longer.
Investigations of fatigue crack growth of K =0·24 MPa m1/2. The high numbers of
max,th
properties of new materials cycles applied in ultrasonic fatigue experiments and
The influence of Al O particle reinforcement on the the additional damage due to compression stresses
2 3 under fully reversed loading conditions, which reduce
fatigue crack growth properties of 6061-T6 aluminium
alloy in the near threshold regime has been investi- fracture surface toughness, explained their results. No
gated by Papakyriacou et al.46 by comparing an alloy plastic zone in front of the crack tip was observed for
with 15 vol.-% fine particles and one with 21 vol.-% this amorphous metallic glass.
coarser particles to the unreinforced alloy. Al O Papakyriacou et al. introduced the ultrasound
2 3 method to investigate the fatigue properties of fibre
particles act as obstacles to fatigue crack growth and
were found to be especially effective at very low cyclic reinforced aluminium laminates, which were devel-
loads. The alloy containing fine Al O particles oped for application in aerospace engineering. Four
2 3 different materials consisting of three aluminium alloy
showed the highest threshold stress intensity of
K =5·4 MPa m1/2 among the three investigated layers and two resin layers containing unidirectional
max,th fibres were investigated: laminates containing pre-
alloys. The threshold value of the alloy containing
coarse particles is 4·7 MPa m1/2, whereas unreinforced stressed (Arall 1) or not prestressed (Arall 2) aramid
6061-T6 had a threshold value of 3·9 MPa m1/2. fibres and laminates containing prestressed (Glare 1)
Fracture of ceramic particles and interfaces between or not prestressed (Glare 2) glass fibres. Character-
matrix and Al O particles, both more frequent for isation of these materials and the results of fatigue
2 3 investigations at conventional frequencies may be
coarser particles, explained the more effective
improvement of fatigue crack growth properties by found in Ref. 103 (Arall ) and Ref. 104 (Glare).
fine particles. At maximum stress intensity factors Conventional fatigue experiments concentrated on
above 6·5 MPa m1/2, fatigue crack growth in the relatively high cyclic loads and were performed with
load ratio 0, whereas ultrasonic fatigue studies were
particle reinforced alloys was faster than in the unre-

inforced alloy 6061-T6, which was attributed to a performed under fully reversed loading conditions.
High frequency loading offered the possibility to
more frequent particle and interface fracturing at high
investigate relatively thin sheets at negative load
stress intensity amplitudes.
ratios without buckling, which would be problematic
In contrast to the fatigue crack growth properties,
using conventional testing equipment. To investigate
reinforcement with Al O particles significantly
2 3 an eventual increase in local temperature in the resin
deteriorated the crack initiation process in 6061-T6.
layers, the aluminium layers were removed by etching
Comparing fatigue lifetimes of unnotched specimens
after the tests. Thus it was possible to investigate the
with 12, 15, and 21 vol.-% particles with the unre-
resin optically and with a scanning electron micro-
inforced alloy, Papakyriacou et al.101 showed that the scope. No indications of a local temperature increase
fatigue limit on the basis of 109 cycles decreases from were obvious. The experiments concentrated on rela-
145 MPa for pure 6061-T6 to about 115 MPa for the tively small amplitudes and the regime of high num-
three particle reinforced alloys. Large, broken bers of cycles. Knowledge of long term fatigue crack
particles were observed to be preferential sites for initiation and propagation behaviour of these new
fatigue crack formation. Additionally, an arrangement kinds of material is necessary when used for aero-
of particles in clusters favoured the initial damage plane skins.
process. In contrast, fracture of the interface between In a first study, fatigue cracks in aramid fibre
matrix and particles was found to be very rare. It was reinforced aluminium laminates were introduced by
concluded that not only the content of particles but means of a saw cut (notch length 2 mm) and crack
also the size distribution is of importance in the growth was then studied with special attention to the
fatigue crack initiation process, i.e. fine particles are regime of very slow crack growth rates.105 Since crack
more suitable than coarse to obtain good fatigue growth in different sheets is not continuous (a crack
crack initiation as well as propagation properties of may stop, grow in another sheet, and then proceed
Al O particle reinforced alloys.101 A similar crack to grow in the first again), mean fatigue crack growth
2 3
initiation mechanism to Al O particle reinforced rates below 10−11 m/cycle were found. Experiments
2 3
6061-T6 was observed by Ishii et al.50 for the with Arall 1 and Arall 2 showed that the application
reinforcement of this alloy with SiC whiskers and SiC of the cyclic stress intensity factor is not appropriate
particles. Ultrasonic lifetime studies in a mild environ- to characterise fatigue crack propagation, since the
ment (ion exchanged water) showed similar numbers fatigue crack growth rate may decrease for longer
of cycles to failure of an alloy containing 10 vol.-%SiC crack lengths even for constant stress amplitude cyc-
particles and of monolithic 6061-T6, whereas the S–N ling (Fig. 19a and b). A critical cyclic stress amplitude
curve of an alloy containing 5 vol.-% particles is is necessary to propagate the crack until final failure.
shifted towards lower stress levels. Particle clusters Below this critical stress amplitude, fatigue crack
acting as crack nucleation sites served to explain propagation stops when a certain crack length is
the moderate fatigue properties of SiC particle rein- reached, which is in contrast to the well known
forced alloys. The best fatigue properties among increase in crack velocity with increasing crack length
the tested alloys were shown by 6061-T6 containing under constant stress amplitude cycling of metallic
25 vol.-%SiC whiskers.50 materials. The critical stress amplitude for initial
Ocelik et al.102 studied the fatigue crack growth in notch length of 2 mm is 80 MPa for Arall 1 and
Fe Ni B metallic glass and found relatively poor 40 MPa for Arall 2. Fibre bridging, which causes
40 40 20
fatigue crack growth properties in comparison to extensive crack closure, is the reason for a reduced
other metallic glasses as well as a low threshold value effective cyclic loading of the crack. This results in a
FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION RATE, m/CYCLE
(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
CRACK LENGTH (WITHOUT NOTCH), mm
19 Fatigue crack propagation rates of fibre reinforced a Arall 1, b Arall 2, c Glare 1, and d Glare 2 for
constant stress amplitude loading at indicated level. Data obtained from Refs. 105, 106
beneficial influence on the fatigue crack growth prop- concept and the fatigue crack growth data of Arall 2
erties. At cyclic loads above the critical stress, cracks and Glare 2.107 Fatigue crack growth experiments of
continue to grow, though with reduced speed. metal laminates without fibres have been performed
Analogous studies with Glare 1 and Glare 2 showed to obtain fatigue crack growth rates for different
that glass fibre reinforced laminates exhibit a higher applied cyclic stress intensities K . Fatigue crack
max
fatigue strength than aramid fibre reinforced sheets.106 propagation rates for similar cyclic stresses and crack
Figure 19c and d shows fatigue crack growth velocities lengths were lower for the reinforced material which
for both glass fibre reinforced laminates under con- is the result of crack closure due to the bridging of
stant stress amplitude cycling. The critical stress the fibres. Crack growth rates obtained for unre-
amplitude for initial notch length of 2 mm is about inforced and reinforced laminates were used to deter-
90 MPa for Glare 1 and about 50 MPa for Glare 2. mine the reduction in the cyclic stress intensity due
Glare 1 and Arall 1 containing prestressed fibres to bridging of the fibres K . For Glare 2, K
bridging bridging
showed better fatigue crack growth properties than increases with increasing crack length, irrespective of
Glare 2 and Arall 2 due to the favourable stress the stress amplitude. This results from an increasing
system with a residual compressive stress in the metal number of glass fibres in the wake of the crack with
layers and a residual tensile stress in the fibres. With increasing crack length, since failure of glass fibres in
this, the maximum stress intensity of a crack in the Glare 2 is rare. In Arall 2, however, K initially
bridging
metal sheet is reduced, and fibre buckling during the increased and then reached a maximum for longer
compression phase is limited. Microscopical studies crack length. As shown in Fig. 20, aramid fibres fail
showed that glass fibre fracture occurred on a some distance from the crack tip. This limited the
more limited scale than aramid fibre fracture, which bridging capability and explained the poor fatigue
explained the better fatigue properties of the glass crack growth properties of Arall 2 in comparison
fibre reinforced material. Additionally, a stronger to Glare 2.
bonding between glass fibres and resin limited the In practical application, fatigue cracks in aeroplane
possibility for fibre pull out. skins frequently initiate in the stress field of rivet
The bridging capability of the fibres at different joints. To study the influence of fibres on crack
stress amplitudes has been estimated by a semi- initiation and crack propagation, Glare 1 specimens
empirical method, which is based on a similarity and, for comparative purposes, laminates without
TORSIONAL STRESS AMPLITUDE Dt/2, MPa

20 Crack tip in fibres of Arall 2 after cycling with
s=40 MPa; unbroken fibres are at left side and NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE
broken fibres at right side105
21 S–N curves of ZrO for pure cyclic torsional
2
loading and for cyclic torsional plus
fibres with different blunt notches were system- superimposed static compressive loading at
atically tested at different stress levels.36,108 In the 25 MPa; y axis shows the cyclic torsional
unreinforced laminates, a single crack in the notch amplitude Dt/2 (Ref. 27)
root (at the point of maximum stress) of one metal

layer was initiated, which then stimulated the forma-
tion of cracks in the adjacent aluminium layers. In High frequency torsion fatigue
the fibre reinforced laminate, several cracks were The majority of ultrasound fatigue investigations are
formed at the notch in most cases. The numbers of performed under cyclic axial loading. Mayer et al.27
cycles for crack initiation at different places on the developed a method to study the fatigue behaviour
notch were correlated with the local stress amplitudes of materials when subjected to ultrasonic torsional
of the virgin Glare 1 specimen obtained by FE vibrations with and without superimposed external
calculations. A systematic S–N type dependence of loads. With this method, they investigated the influ-
the crack initiation cycles on the local stress amplitude ence of compression loads on the torsional fatigue
was obtained, which means that the stress field in the properties of plain tube specimens of zirconium
notch area is only slightly affected by the presence of oxide.27 Figure 21 shows the cycles to failure of this
already existing fatigue cracks.108 Since glass fibres ceramic material for pure cyclic torsion and for
did not break during the crack initiation, stress relax- torsional loading with a superimposed static com-
ation is small and cracks apparently were introduced pression stress. The fatigue limit on the basis of 109
without significant mutual interference. cycles was Dt/2=55 MPa for pure torsional loading.
Similar to crack initiation, fatigue crack propa- If the compressive load of 25 MPa was superimposed
gation behaviour was greatly affected by the presence on the high frequency shear load, the lifetimes
of glass fibres.36 In unreinforced laminates, fatigue increased ×10–100 and the fatigue limit increased to
cracks initiated in different layers interacted to form Dt/2=62 MPa.
a single through thickness crack, and crack lengths Crack initiation in the ceramic material took
in the three sheets tended to become similar. Fatigue place under mode I and the fracture surfaces were in-
crack propagation rates in different sheets of Glare 1 clined approximately 45° towards the specimen axis
were virtually independent from eventual cracks in (Fig. 22). This means that cyclic principal normal
adjacent layers. Glass fibres obviously act as effective stresses were responsible for the formation of a fatigue
barriers, and cracks in the different metal layers may crack. Under the influence of a static axial com-
therefore have different lengths. Interaction between pression preload of 25 MPa, the maximum tension
different cracks in the same metal layer was also stress in the crack initiation plane is reduced by
restricted, since the absence of fibre fracture limits the 12·5 MPa. Fatigue limit, however, only increased
stress relaxation. Fatigue crack growth rate is a about 7 MPa with superimposed compression load.
function of stress amplitude and crack length and is It is not only the maximum principal tension stress
nearly independent of whether one or more cracks which determines damage of a load cycle. Additional
are present in one sheet. When the crack tip leaves fatigue damage of the ceramic material results from
the stress field of the notch, different notch root radii the compressive phase.
do not show any influence on the crack growth rate Mayer and Stanzl-Tschegg28 compare lifetimes of
in unreinforced laminates. Small notch root radii in 2024-T351 aluminium alloy in ambient air and dis-
Glare 1 not only increased initial crack growth but tilled water under high frequency axial and torsional
also led to higher propagation rates of longer cracks. fatigue loading. Figure 23 shows the S–N curves of
At high cyclic stresses, glass fibres in the stress concen- this aluminium alloy for both cycling conditions and
tration of small notches may fail which then reduces in both environments. The S–N curves do not indicate
the bridging capability and leads to higher crack a fatigue limit until 109 cycles. With the same axial
propagation rates in comparison to larger notches. and torsional stress amplitude, the number of cycles
22 Fracture surface of plain tube specimen of 24 Specimen surface after torsional ultrasonic
zirconium oxide fatigued under high frequency fatigue loading (t=196 MPa, 1·03×105 cycles)
torsional loading27 in ambient air environment32
2. The displacement amplitudes of the specimen

ends are kept constant during the fatigue experiments.
Therefore, when the specimen compliance increases
(TORSIONAL OR AXIAL), MPa
CYCLIC STRESS AMPLITUDE
after initiation of several fatigue cracks, the nominal

stress intensity decreases. Thus, the crack extension
period contributes significantly to the number of
cycles to failure during torsional loading. In compari-
son to stress controlled experiments, longer lifetimes
result. Contrary to this, only one crack initiates in
axial loading tests and similar lifetimes would be
obtained for stress and displacement controlled
fatigue experiments.
3. The stress gradient towards the interior of a
solid specimen causes an increased number of cycles
to failure for torsional fatigue experiments.
NUMBER OF CYCLES TO FAILURE Under the influence of distilled water the S–N
curves for torsional as well as axial fatigue loading
23 S–N curves of 2024–T351 for $ + axial and are shifted approximately 30–40% towards lower
# 6 torsional ultrasonic fatigue loading in stress levels. Obviously, water acts as a corrosive
ambient air and in distilled water28
environment for 2024-T351 and significantly reduces
the fatigue lifetimes. A reduction in the fatigue
to failure is about ×5–10 larger for axial than for strength had already been observed for cycles to
torsional loading, and the S–N curves for torsional failure as low as 105 when the specimen was
loading are shifted about 15–20% towards lower exposed to the water environment for less than
stress levels. According to the Mises criterion, a larger 1 min. It was assumed that hydrogen embrittlement
difference, approximately 40% (3−1/2), had been was mainly responsible for the reduction in fatigue
expected. There are several reasons for the relatively strength. Oxidation of aluminium surfaces produces
high numbers of cycles to failure in the torsional free hydrogen, which is swept into the grains by
fatigue experiment. diffusion and dislocation movement. Embrittlement
1. Crack initiation takes place in both directions of the material then leads to an earlier crack initiation
of maximum shear load, i.e. normal and parallel to as well as a shorter crack propagation period.
the specimen axis. The surface of a specimen cycled
with a torsional stress amplitude of 196 MPa is shown Influence of cycling frequency on
in Fig. 24. The initial cracks are longer and more
frequent in axial than in circumferential direction fatigue damage
(probably because of the elongated shape of the The principal questions regarding the ultrasound
grains). Likewise, crack propagation takes place in method are: Is the fatigue process significantly influ-
both directions. The axial cracks, however, cannot enced by the drastic increase in the cycling frequency?
cause specimen failure, but do cause crack branching. And are the fatigue data determined with the ultra-
Crack propagation in radial direction is forced into sound method comparable to fatigue experiments
different planes which leads to a ‘lamella type’ fracture performed with conventional fatigue testing equip-
surface.109 The interaction between the two fracture ment? The cycling frequencies of ultrasound equip-
surfaces causes sliding mode crack closure, which ment are about 2–4 decades higher compared with
reduces the effective stress intensity and increases the conventional testing procedures. This could have
crack propagation period. several influences on dislocation structures, crack
formation, and crack propagation. Intrinsic frequency spacing of dipolar walls in PSBs, for example, was
influences on fatigue damage may be attributed to 1·5 mm for 20 kHz (Ref. 6) in comparison with 1·3 mm
high strain rates, which will be discussed in the (Ref. 113)–1·4 mm (Ref. 114) reported for conven-
following. tional frequencies. The plateau stress, where PSBs are
The cycling frequency may also influence fatigue formed, was found at a cyclic shear stress of 26 MPa
damage by time dependent interaction with the for room temperature and loading frequency 20 kHz,
environment by fatigue/creep interaction or, at higher whereas in conventional frequency cycling with a
temperatures, by dynamic strain aging. Additionally, constant plastic strain amplitude, the plateau stress
cyclic plastic straining at ultrasonic frequency might was found at 28 MPa.112 The similarity of the plateau
lead to a rise in local temperature at the crack tip, stresses is remarkable, as the control of high frequency
if heat transfer to the surrounding material is loading was less accurate before 1990 than recently.
insufficient. This problem may diminish using short Ultrasonic fatigue cycling of copper single crystals
pulses and adequate cooling, and restricting high at a low temperature likewise leads to dislocation
frequency tests to small cyclic loads. If, however, structures which were similar to those found at
materials with low thermal conductivity, like poly- conventional frequencies.7 Wall to wall spacing of
mers, are tested, local heating at the crack tip may dipolar walls in PSBs for a temperature of 77 K
influence the data obtained. These topics cannot be was 0·6–0·8 mm, which coincides with 0·7 mm which
comprehensively covered in the context of this review. is found at low frequencies.113 The plateau stress
In the following, only investigations of intrinsic fre- was 47±2 MPa for ultrasonic cycling and 48 MPa
quency effects in metals will be described. for a cycling frequency of 0·5 Hz.113
Fatigue crack growth involves cyclic plastic The frequency influence on the dislocation struc-
deformation of the material near the crack tip. tures of Cu–16 at.-%Al alloy as a representative of a
Therefore, the basic principles of frequency influences fcc metal with a low stacking fault energy and a
on crack propagation may be derived from the cyclic planar slip character was investigated by Laird et al.8
stress–strain behaviour of materials. Larid and When single crystals were cycled at a low frequency,
Charsley110 gave an overview of frequency influences a plateau regime in the cyclic stress–strain curve was
on cyclic plastic deformation, dislocation movement, observed, which is associated with the formation of
damage localisation, and fatigue crack growth in fcc persistent bands and localised slip.115 The persistent
and bcc metals. In the following, recent investigations bands were named persistent Lüders bands (PLBs).116
concerning strain rate influences on fatigue damage Plastic deformation is mainly carried in PLBs, and
will also be included. crack initiation takes place near macro PLBs.115
Cu–16 at.-%Al specimens cycled at ultrasonic fre-
quencies were compared with single crystals fatigued
Strain rate effects on fatigue of fcc metals at 0·7 Hz (Ref. 8) and no significant influence of the
The cyclic stress–strain curve of fcc metals may be cycling frequency on dislocation structures and strain
divided into three different regimes associated with localisation was found.
certain dislocation structures after saturation.111,112 The dislocation arrangements and strain localis-
At low cyclic plastic strain amplitudes, an arrange- ation in fcc metals after saturation are similar for low
ment of trapped primary edge dislocation dipoles in and high frequency cycling. A frequency influence on
a vein structure is formed. Cyclic plastic deformation the number of cycles until saturation or until crack
is caused by screw dislocations which ply back and initiation, however, would have implications for
forth in channels between the veins. For higher plastic fatigue lifetimes. Yan et al.117 performed experiments
strain amplitudes, in the so-called plateau regime, with an initially ramp loaded copper single crystal at
dislocation arrangement consists of ill defined veins different cycling frequencies. The resolved shear stress
and persistent slip bands (PSBs), and plastic straining after saturation with a frequency of 34 Hz was
is mainly carried by PSBs. Under the influence of 32 MPa. When the frequency was decreased to 2 Hz
secondary slip a cell structure is formed at large for successive constant stress amplitude cycling at
plastic strain amplitudes. None of these dislocation 32 MPa, the plastic strain amplitude increased rapidly
structures is assumed to be particularly strain rate and the formation of PSBs was observed simul-
sensitive.110 taneously.117 The PSBs were triggered by lowering of
The dislocation structures after ultrasonic cycling the cycling frequency, which points to a frequency
of polycrystalline copper and aluminium were first influence on the onset of strain localisation.
studied by Awatani et al.4,5 using transmission elec- To investigate the influence of cycling frequency on
tron microscopy (TEM). Buchinger et al.6 compared fatigue damage of fcc materials, Mayer and Laird
dislocation structures of copper single crystals estab- performed experiments with polycrystalline copper
lished under high frequency loading systematically under constant118 and variable loading conditions.119
with those which are typical for conventional cycling After the initial ramp loading, the specimens were
frequencies. Copper single crystals were initially ramp cycled at constant stress amplitude with different
loaded and then saturated at a constant displacement cycling frequencies until saturation. The cyclic plastic
amplitude. Since the cyclic load amplitude varies strain responses for different stress amplitudes and
sinusoidally along the specimen length, a single speci- cycling frequencies are shown in Fig. 25. For a high
men could be used to study the dislocation structures cyclic load (110 MPa), no significant influence of
below and at the plateau stress. The dislocation cycling frequency on the saturation plastic strain was
structures after low and high frequency cycling observed. The TEM studies of Llanes and Laird120
showed close similarities: the average wall to wall show a dislocation arrangement which consists mainly
performed with initial ramp loading, the saturation

plastic strains are lower for longer initial ramps.120
Roth et al.125 compared the S–N data of polycrys-
talline copper from 83 sources. The data were deter-
mined with a variety of testing procedures. Roth et al.
showed that the shortest fatigue lifetimes were found
under stress controlled testing conditions in conven-
CYCLIC PLASTIC STRAINx10_3
tional fatigue experiments. The highest numbers of

cycles to failure at certain stress amplitudes were
obtained in plate bending fatigue tests. Rotating bend-
ing led to numbers of cycles to failure between those
of plate bending and stress controlled tests. The S–N
curves determined at ultrasonic frequencies were close
to the curve measured with rotating bending equip-
ment. They concluded,125 that when adequate cooling
was provided and specimen temperature was con-
trolled, no effect of the test frequency could be
observed on the lifetimes between 60 and 20 kHz. It
should be noted, that the comparison of Roth et al.125
concentrated on the high cycle regime, i.e. lifetimes
greater than 106 cycles. However, for shorter lifetimes
and larger plastic strains, shorter lifetimes for lower
cycling frequencies would be expected, based on the
previously described investigations.

Fatigue crack growth does not expose the material
near the crack tip to constant amplitude loading, but
NUMBER OF CYCLES rather to a complex multiaxial and variable cyclic
stress. The cyclic shear stresses vary, depending on
25 Cyclic plastic strain response of polycrystalline
copper subsequent to ramp loading for the actual distance and the angle to the crack tip.
different loading frequencies at stress Studies of the cyclic stress–strain response and the
amplitudes of 68, 80, 94, and 110 MPa (Ref. 118) dislocation structures of copper polycrystals under
variable amplitude loading were performed by Lukás
and Klesnil126 and by Figueroa and Laird.127 Both
of cells at this stress amplitude. At lower cyclic stresses sets of authors agree that a cell dislocation structure
(94 and 80 MPa) a pronounced frequency influence established at high cyclic loads cannot be any more
on the saturation plastic strain was found. The satu- substantially changed by low amplitude cycling. Cell
ration dislocation structures at these cyclic stresses shape, however, may change from nearly equiaxed
consist of ill defined veins and PSBs.120 For example, cells to an elongated form.127 Cyclic strain response
at a stress amplitude of 80 MPa the saturation plastic depends on high and low amplitudes and on whether
strain was 220% higher and the surface of the speci- the load decreases rapidly or in small steps.127
men showed a greater density of PSBs if the specimen The influence of variable loading and simul-
was cycled with 0·5 instead of 8 Hz. For a cyclic stress taneously changing frequency on cyclic plastic
of 68 MPa, which is ×2·3 the plateau stress of a deformation of polycrystalline copper was investi-
copper single crystal, the influence of cycling fre- gated by Mayer and Laird.119 After saturation at
quency on plastic strain response decreases and 24% stress amplitudes of 87 or 110 MPa, cyclic loading
higher saturation plastic strains were measured at continued at a lower load amplitude using different
0·5 Hz instead of 8 Hz. The saturation dislocation cycling frequencies. Plastic strain response for differ-
structures for stress amplitudes slightly above the ent high and low stress levels and different cycling
expected fatigue limit of polycrystalline copper consist frequencies is shown in Fig. 26. Cyclic plastic deforma-
of low density loop patches, ill defined channels, and tion at the low load is significantly affected by the
initial stages of PSBs.120 (The fatigue limit is expected cycling frequency, if the initial stress amplitude
to be 56 MPa, which is twice the plateau stress of (87 MPa) is adequate to obtain a vein/PSB dislo-
copper single crystals.110) cation structure. For an initial stress amplitude of
The fatigue limit is based on the stress and strain 110 MPa and a cell dislocation structure, cyclic
requirements to form PSBs.121 Fatigue cracks initiate softening after the negative step starts earlier at lower
at the boundary between the PSBs and the cyclic frequencies. Saturation plastic strain, however,
matrix,122,123 and earlier formation of PSBs at low coincides within 5%.
cycling frequencies may result in shorter lifetimes. The dislocation structures around fatigue cracks in
Strain localisation and fatigue damage of polycrys- polycrystalline copper cycled with conventional
talline copper with similar microstructure, however, fatigue testing equipment have been investigated by
depends on several testing parameters besides cycling Lukás et al.,128 Awatani et al.,129 and Tong and
frequency and load amplitude: saturation plastic Bailon.130 They found a dislocation arrangement of
strain and fatigue damage are higher for stress con- cells near the crack tip. Cell size increases with the
trolled experiments than for strain controlled cyc- distance from the fracture surface.129,130 PSBs and
ling;124 if stress controlled fatigue experiments are veins, loop patches, and triangles were found adjacent
rates and the higher threshold value for ultrasonic

frequency cycling were explained by Lukás et al.131
CYCLIC PLASTIC STRAINx10_3 AFTER RAPID LOAD REDUCTION
as a lower plastic deformation at a certain cyclic
stress amplitude. The difference, however, also may
be attributed to experimental uncertainties of older
ultrasonic investigations or to a frequency dependent
interaction with the environment. Since crack tip
opening under high frequency loading is shorter than
for conventional fatigue experiments, environmentally
assisted increase in fatigue crack growth rates is
less pronounced,25 which may lead to lower crack
growth rates.
Strain rate effects on fatigue of bcc metals

BCC metals exhibit a much stronger strain rate
dependence of plastic deformation than fcc metals. At
high strain rates, thermally activated glide of screw
dislocations are limited due to lattice friction stresses
and high effective stresses result. Mughrabi et al.133
investigated the influence of high and low strain rates
on the cyclic stress–strain curve of a-iron monocrys-
tals with a carbon content below 5 wt ppm. At a high
strain rate of 10−2 s−1 and small cyclic plastic strains,

saturation stress amplitude increased rapidly due to
the growing effective stress on screw dislocations. A
small plateau in the cyclic stress–strain curve was
observed at higher plastic strain amplitudes. This
NUMBER OF CYCLES plateau was not associated with the formation of
PSBs, as in fcc metals, but results from impeded
26 Plastic strain response after load reduction hardening due to the limited glide of screw dis-
from 110 or 87 MPa respectively to indicated locations. For plastic strain amplitudes above
levels. Specimens were saturated at stress 1·5×10−3, cyclic hardening was enhanced by increas-
level of 110 or 87 MPa respectively and ing glide of screw dislocations and enforced secondary
frequency of 2 Hz. Saturation dislocation
slip, which led to a cell dislocation structure. The
structures are ill defined veins and PSBs at
stress level 87 MPa and cells at stress level cyclic stress–strain behaviour for a low strain rate of
110 MPa (Ref. 119) 2·5×10−5 s−1 was significantly different. At low
strain rates, thermally activated glide of screw dis-
locations became possible, and the effective stress was
to the cells.130 Compared to the dislocation structures lower than the athermal component of the residual
of unidirectional fatigued specimens, the structures in stress. In the entire range of cyclic plastic strains,
the plastic wake of the crack were more distorted and hardening was observed. Saturation stress increased
more than one slip system was frequently found due with increasing cyclic plastic strain and no plateau-
to the complex stress history.130 Lukás et al.131 and like regime was found.
Chen et al.132 performed similar investigations after Small amounts of impurities strongly influenced
ultrasonic fatigue crack propagation. The dislocation the gliding properties of a-iron.133 30 wt ppm carbon
structures reported by both sets of authors for a in a-iron single crystals led to a cyclic stress–strain
cycling frequency of 20 kHz are similar to those found curve closer to that of fcc metals and localised damage
for frequencies 3 orders of magnitude lower, i.e. a cell similar to PSBs.133 Carbon atoms led to an enhanced
structure in the plastic zone near the crack tip and a mobility of screw relative to non-screw dislocations
PSB ladder-like structure in the adjacent material. which explains their prominent influence on cyclic
Cell sizes at a certain distance from the fracture plastic deformation.133 Disregarding influences on the
surface were found to coincide after cycling with the cyclic stress–strain curve, strain rate additionally
same stress intensity value for 100 Hz and 20 kHz.131 changes other fatigue relevant properties of pure
Lukás et al.131 compared crack growth rates between a-iron.133 Asymmetric slip of screw dislocation causes
10−8 and 10−12 m/cycle for cycling frequencies of shape changes at high strain rates. As a result, inter-
100 and 20 kHz. They report a fatigue threshold of crystalline crack initiation was observed for polycrys-
2·15±0·1 MPa m1/2 for the low frequency of 100 Hz talline a-iron cycled at high frequencies, whereas low
and a fatigue threshold of 2·55 MPa m1/2 which was strain rates favoured transgranular fracture.133
obtained in ultrasonic fatigue experiments. Meininger and Gibelling134 cycled polycrystalline
Cell dislocation structures are relatively insensitive commercially pure niobium (CPNb) and niobium-1
to changes in the stress amplitude and the cycling pct zirconium (Nb–1Zr) at low and high strain
frequency. This is probably one reason for the moder- rates using plastic strain amplitudes between 10−3
ate influence of the cycling frequency on the fatigue and 7×10−3. CPNb showed a pronounced strain
crack growth properties. The lower crack growth rate dependence of the plastic deformation. The cyclic
stress–strain curve depended on the strain rate sim- the crack tip can be blunted even at the temperature
ilar to pure a-iron. Strain rate effects were less promi- of liquid nitrogen, if the cyclic stress intensity is near
nent for Nb–1Zr and small differences in the satu- the threshold and cyclic plastic deformation at the
ration stresses for low and high strain rates were crack tip is relatively small. Similar to conventional
observed only at relatively large plastic strain ampli- frequency cycling, the threshold stress intensity factor
tudes. Fracture mode was strain rate dependent increased with decreasing temperature. This was
for CPNb as well as Nb–1Zr. Crack initiation was explained by the higher tensile strength for the lower
intergranular when using a plastic strain rate temperature.
of 2×10−2 s−1, whereas this fracture mode could Tschegg et al.138 and Haberz et al.139 investigated
not be identified cycling with a strain rate of the influence of cyclic frequency on near threshold
2×10−4 s−1 (Ref. 134). fatigue crack propagation of polycrystalline a-iron.
Hong and Laird135 showed that strain rates affect Tschegg et al.138 compared fatigue crack growth rates
fatigue lifetimes of pure polycrystalline a-iron. For in an inert environment (silicone oil ) for cycling
low strain rates, fatigue cracks initiated and grew frequencies of 100 and 21 kHz. No influence of the
along PSBs. Fatigue lifetimes were short due to cycling frequency on the fatigue crack growth rates
intense strain localisation. At high strain rates, a between 5×10−10 and 10−8 m/cycle was found.
homogenisation of deformation occurred, which Haberz et al.139 studied the influence of cycling fre-
caused intergranular crack nucleation and a pro- quency on the threshold stress intensity factor. The
longed fatigue lifetime.135 For a constant plastic strain threshold stress intensity of polycrystalline a-iron with
amplitude of 1·5×10−2, the number of cycles to a grain size of 70 mm cycled with 100 Hz was deter-
failures increased from about 500 to 1500 when strain mined at 6·5 MPa m1/2. When the loading frequency
rates were 4×10−3 s−1 instead of 3×10−5 s−1. was lowered by a factor of 1000 to 0·1 Hz, the
The investigations of Mughrabi et al.,133 Meininger threshold stress intensity decreased to 6·3 MPa m1/2.
and Gibeling,134 and Hong and Laird135 show a Effective threshold stress intensities were determined
pronounced influence of cycling frequency on the at 2·7 MPa m1/2 for both cycling frequencies. The
fatigue damage of pure bcc metals. However, the authors conclude,139 that the effective threshold and
experiments were performed at relatively large plastic the threshold of a-iron are not affected by the loading
strain amplitudes. Ultrasonic fatigue experiments are frequency.
restricted to low cyclic plastic deformations, otherwise
specimen temperature would increase very rapidly
due to internal friction. Mitsche and Stanzl136 in- Influence of cycling frequency on fatigue
vestigated the fatigue behaviour of polycrystalline crack growth of technical metallic materials
a-iron (carbon content 0·036%) when cycled at Metallic materials are used as alloys in most technical
low and ultrasonic frequencies. If the specimens were applications, and the dislocation movement is
adequately cooled, the fatigue limit of about 100 MPa strongly influenced by the alloying elements acting as
was similar using a loading frequency of 160 Hz and interstitials, substitutionals, shearable, or non-shear-
20 kHz. Fatigue crack initiation at low cyclic stresses able second phases or particles. Alloying affects dislo-
showed intercrystalline as well as transcrystalline cation structures and fatigue damage, and therefore
features, and fatigue striations were frequently visible a variation in the strain rate may have different
on fracture surfaces irrespective of the cycling fre- consequences for pure metals and alloys. In the
quency.137 Frequency influences on fatigue damage of following, comparisons between ultrasonic and
a-iron therefore are significantly moderated, if carbon conventional fatigue crack growth experiments so
content increases, and if cyclic plastic deformation is far available will be reviewed, including several
small and stress amplitudes reach the fatigue limit. recent studies of frequency influences on fatigue crack
According to Laird and Charsley,110 cycling fre- propagation performed with conventional fatigue
quency may influence the fatigue crack propagation equipment.
mechanism in bcc metals. A change in the mechanism One of the earliest comparisons of fatigue crack
is possible if the crack cannot be blunted by thermally growth at ultrasonic and conventional frequencies
activated dislocation glide at high frequencies. Then, has been performed with a 12% chromium steel by
fracture mode may change from ductile to brittle and Speidel et al.75 If tested in a corrosive environment
a cleavage appearance of the fracture surfaces at high (water), near threshold fatigue crack growth of this
strain rates will be observed.110 stainless ferritic steel depended on the cycling fre-
Ultrasonic fatigue crack growth studies with quency. If, however, fatigue experiments at the speci-
polycrystalline a-iron (carbon content 0·036 wt-%) fied cyclic stress intensity of K =16 MPa m1/2 were
max
were performed by Tschegg and Stanzl26 at ambient performed in a vacuum at conventional frequencies
temperature and 77 K. For cyclic stress intensities and in silicone oil at ultrasonic frequencies, the influ-
>20 MPa m1/2 and fatigue crack growth rates above ence of testing frequency disappeared and similar
approximately 10−8 m/cycle, fracture appearance crack growth rates of about 10−8 m/cycle were found.
at the low temperature was brittle, and unstable Testing frequencies varied between 0·1 Hz and 20 kHz.
crack propagation with high propagation rates were This means that no influence of the cycling frequency
found. However, crack propagation rates lower than on fatigue crack growth rates was observed in an
approximately 10−8 m/cycle were characterised by a inert environment for a variation in the cycling fre-
completely changed fracture mechanism, namely a quency of more than 5 orders of magnitude. Threshold
ductile and transcrystalline fracture mode with differ- values as well as Paris exponents coincided within the
ently oriented striations in each grain.26 Obviously, range of scatter for 2·3 Hz and ultrasonic frequency. At
very low cycling frequencies of 0·01 and 0·001 Hz, Taylor and Knott143 studied frequency influences
fatigue crack growth rates increased slightly, which on fatigue crack growth with a nickel–aluminium
was attributed to the corrosional influence of the bronze in an inert argon gas environment. For crack
remaining gas in the vacuum environment. growth rates between 10−8 and 10−7 m/cycle and
Fatigue crack growth properties of three different cycling frequencies between 0·1 and 100 Hz they found
cast irons were investigated by three institutes using that growth rates decreased by approximately a factor
conventional servohydraulic equipment and by one of 1·3 when cycling frequency increased 1 decade.
institute using the ultrasound method. Bowe et al.140 Sakamoto and Takezono144 studied the fatigue
compared all fatigue crack growth curves of GGL 30 crack growth of 99·5% pure titanium cycled with 0·02
with a pearlitic microstructure containing graphite and 20 Hz. Fatigue crack growth rates in the order
flakes, and GGG 70 and 80 with pearlitic micro- of 10−6 m/cycle increased typically by a factor of 2
structures containing globular spheroids of graphite. when the cycling frequency was increased by a factor
For fatigue crack growth rates in the regime of of 1000. This result is explained by a smaller visco-
5×10−8 m/cycle, crack growth curves determined by plastic strain range at the crack tip for the higher
the four institutes coincided within 10–20%. For frequency.
lower cyclic loads in the threshold regime, however, Investigations into intrinsic frequency effects may
fatigue crack growth curves obtained with conven- be summarised as follows. Cycling frequency affects
tional equipment showed significant discrepancies. fatigue damage of metallic materials under certain
For example, threshold values varied up to a factor 2. conditions. Frequency effects were found when pure
Within this large scatter range, threshold values metals were cycled at relatively high plastic strain
obtained with the ultrasonic fatigue testing method amplitudes. Higher cycling frequencies may lead to a
coincided with low frequency results. less intense strain localisation, lower crack growth
rates, and a prolonged fatigue life. Additionally,
Matsuoka et al.141 studied the influence of cycling

frequency on near threshold fatigue crack growth time dependent interaction with the environment,
(∏10−8 m/cycle) in high strength martensitic steel fatigue/creep interaction, dynamic strain aging, or
HT 80 and austenitic stainless steel SUS 304 using non-observance of specimen temperature may lead
conventional fatigue testing equipment. A strong to differences between ultrasonic and conventional
dependence of crack growth rates on the cycling fatigue experiments.
frequency was observed when specimens were cycled Alloying reduces the strain rate sensitivity of fatigue
in a 3%NaCl aqueous solution. Under corrosive damage processes. Cyclic stressing near the fatigue
protection, however, no frequency influence on fatigue limit or fatigue crack growth near the threshold stress
crack growth was found, and a similar threshold intensity involves only a small cyclic plastic deforma-
stress intensity factor was determined with a cycling tion, and intrinsic frequency influences are signifi-
cantly moderated or absent, even for pure metals.
frequency of 0·3 and 30 Hz.
Ultrasonic lifetime and fatigue crack growth experi-
The previously described investigations of ferrous
ments should be restricted to small cyclic plastic
alloys concentrated on relatively low crack growth
deformations and low crack growth rates. Under well
rates, in which cyclic plastic deformation near the
controlled testing conditions, fatigue data of technical
crack tip is relatively restricted. At higher crack
metallic materials obtained with the ultrasound
growth rates in the order of 10−7 m/cycle, an influence method are often found comparable to results of
of the loading rate on the fracture mode and the conventional fatigue tests. However, to assure reliable
crack growth rates was found by Cheng et al.142 for fatigue data, it is necessary to confirm that effects
a non-alloyed carbon steel with pearlitic structure such as those due to temperature or strain rate are
(rail steel U 71 Mn). They simulated high loading small and do not influence the data obtained.
rates with impact loading and compared fracture
mode and growth rate with sinusoidal loading con-
ditions. Fatigue crack growth rates were, on average, Advantages and limitations of
×5 larger for impact loading compared with sinu-
soidal loading. As the loading rate rises the ten- ultrasound fatigue testing method
dency of quasi-cleavage fracturing increases. This Advantages
observation shows close similarities to the predic- Time saving
tion made by Laird and Charsley110 of fracture Ultrasonic fatigue experiments need an average test-
mode changes when a crack tip cannot be blunted ing time ×100–1000 shorter than investigations with
at high strain rates. conventional equipment. Therefore it is possible to
Hoffelner20 compared ultrasonic fatigue crack apply very high numbers of cycles (108–109 cycles) in
growth data of heat resisting fcc alloys to fracture less than 1 day. This allows the investigation of life-
mechanic results determined with a hydraulic closed times in the regime of very high numbers of cycles or
loop machine (cycling frequency 2·3–60 Hz). Three fatigue properties in the regime of very low crack
materials (austenitic steel IN 800 H, and nickel alloys growth rates (10−13–10−14 m/cycle), which would be
Hastelloy-X and RA-333) were cycled at a stress ratio uneconomic with conventional fatigue testing equip-
of R=0·1 and no frequency influence on fatigue crack ment. A shorter testing time makes it possible to investi-
growth was found within the range of scatter. The gate a larger number of specimens within a certain time
decrease in the threshold cyclic stress intensity range period. This is especially important for fatigue testing
for increasing mean load is reported to be independent of inhomogeneous materials where numerous experi-
of the cycling frequency for Hastelloy-X (Ref. 20). ments are necessary to obtain statistically reliable data.
Large random loading sequences may be simulated deformation may cause heating of the specimen and
without manipulations to shorten the load sequence. lead to unreliable fatigue data. Fatigue crack growth
For example, the influence of very high numbers of rates greater than approximately 10−7 m/cycle are
low amplitudes on the fatigue process may be investi- difficult to control due to a rapidly advancing crack.
gated. Because of rare high loads of in-service load Influence of cycling frequency on fatigue process
sequences, no fatigue limit or fatigue crack growth When time dependent processes, like corrosion, creep,
threshold exists. Therefore, high frequency random or dynamic strain aging, for example, are superim-
loading experiments are especially important for tech- posed on the fatigue process, the fatigue data obtained
nical applications. at high and low cycling frequency may differ. If tested
Energy saving at high amplitudes, soft and pure metals may show
As loading is in resonance, the power requirement an intrinsic frequency influence on the fatigue process.
necessary to perform fatigue experiments is relatively For technical materials, fatigue data obtained with
low. Fatigue tests may be performed within a short the ultrasound method in an inert environment are
time period, thus demanding only a small amount comparable to results of conventional fatigue tests.
of energy.
Possible testing procedures Acknowledgement
Studies of lifetimes, fatigue crack initiation, and The author thanks Professor S. Stanzl-Tschegg for
fatigue crack propagation may be performed under helpful discussions and several contributions during
high frequency tension–compression cycling as well the preparation of this review.
as under high frequency torsional loading. It is poss-
ible to superimpose external static or slowly varying
axial or torsional loads on the ultrasonic vibration. References
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Fatigue Crack Growth and Threshold Measurements at Very High Frequencies

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International Materials Reviews

ISSN: 0950-6608 (Print) 1743-2804 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yimr20

Fatigue crack growth and threshold

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1179/imr.1999.44.1.1

Published online: 18 Jul 2013.

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Download by: [Politecnico di Torino] Date: 06 December 2017, At: 06:30

superalloy in 1978.11 the vibration amplitude and the resonance frequency.

however, with high technical standards is not com-

displacement amplitude. and amplification horns. These materials should

for the investigated material, it may be a result of

pose to the axial resonance loading and may cause

and cyclic torsional loading28 respectively is shown

Piezoelectric or magnetostrictive converters are avail-

8 Electric and electronic components of ultrasonic fatigue testing equipment

performed FE calculations of the stress intensity

0 specimen at a certain load until a crack extension of

As an alternative, the highest stress intensity ampli-

In the following, ultrasonic fracture mechanical

Fatigue crack growth at different mean loads

and 400°C, they proved that the fatigue crack growth

CRACK GROWTH RATE Da/DN, m/CYCLE

STRESS INTENSITY K max, MPa m1/2

than the threshold measured with a load shedding

when characterised in terms of the same nominal

described by Blom et al. shows close similarities to

these specimens fail soon after crack initiation. In

crack formation contributes to lifetime to a far less

Roughness induced crack closure100 was made res-

Mixed mode loading

cannot be effective, or if fracture surface roughness is

phy (at R ratios typically less than or equal to zero)

particle reinforced alloys was faster than in the unre-

FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION RATE, m/CYCLE

CRACK LENGTH (WITHOUT NOTCH), mm

TORSIONAL STRESS AMPLITUDE Dt/2, MPa

root (at the point of maximum stress) of one metal

2. The displacement amplitudes of the specimen

after initiation of several fatigue cracks, the nominal

performed with initial ramp loading, the saturation

tional fatigue experiments. The highest numbers of

previously described investigations.

rates and the higher threshold value for ultrasonic

Strain rate effects on fatigue of bcc metals

strain rate of 10−2 s−1 and small cyclic plastic strains,

Matsuoka et al.141 studied the influence of cycling

International Materials Reviews 1999 Vol. 44 No. 1

International Materials Reviews 1999 Vol. 44 No. 1

136. .  and . : Z. Metallkd., 1971, 62, 863–866.

International Materials Reviews 1999 Vol. 44 No. 1

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