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metal-ceramic composites:
Part 2 Thermomechanical behaviour
S. Suresh and A. Mortensen
Introduction
Following a review of the processing of In Part 1 (Ref. 1) of this two part series, attention
functionally graded metals and metal-ceramic
was focused on the different methods and processes
composites in Part 1; this Part 2 of the two part
series focuses on the thermomechanical by recourse to which functionally graded metals and
behaviour. The paper begins with an overview of metal-ceramic composites could be synthesised. Also
the fundamentals of thermoelastic and addressed in Part 1 were the overall principles under-
thermoplastic deformation in metal-ceramic lying the concept of functionally graded materials
composites. Various approaches, including the whereby gradual transitions in microstructure and/or
rule of mixture approximations, mean field composition, motivated by spatially varying func-
theories, crystal plasticity models, discrete
tional performance requirements within a single com-
dislocation models, and continuum finite element
ponent, could be engineered from currently available
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Constrained plastic 0 0 0
zone during thermal/ )'0 0 0
mechanica I loading /
/
0 o 0 0
0 0
/
/ 0 0 0
Ceramic particle /
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Functionally graded materials can, at least in prin- of diesel engines used in surface transportation
ciple, be designed to tailor thermomechanical charac- vehic1es.3o,31 The mechanical integrity of such a thick
teristics by the appropriate choice of gradients in coating can only be ensured by a stepwise increase in
composition or microstructure in view of the follow- the ceramic content from the interior to the outer
ing potential benefits: surface, by depositing a number of metal-ceramic
1. The magnitude of thermal stresses and the criti- composite sublayers of increasing ceramic content;
cal locations at which they act can be judiciously the deposition of the ceramic directly on to the metal
controlled.13-23 will in this case result in interfacial delamination even
2. The onset of plastic yielding and failure can be before the component enters service.
delayed for a given thermomechanicalloading.15-19 8. Gradients in the composition of surface layers
3. The severity of stress concentrations and can be tailored to suppress the singular fields which
singularities at free edges of interfaces can be arise at the root of sharp indentations on the surface32
suppressed.18,24 or to alter the plastic deformation characteristics
4. The strength of the interfacial bond between around the indentation.33 These processes are of
dissimilar solids, such as a metal and ceramic, can be considerable interest for the potential design of ther-
increased by the introduction of continuous or step- mal barrier, tribological, or impact resistant coatings
wise gradations in composition as compared to a (such as for turbine blades for aircraft jet engines
sharp interface.9,25 which are susceptible to domestic and foreign object
5. The density and kinetics of misfit/threading dis- damage), or of graded armour materials with
locations generated at the interfaces between dis- improved resistance to high strain rate deformation
similar solids can be altered.26 (This is indeed the and impact. It is also known34 that stepwise gradients
objective in some optoelectronic devices wherein, for in the alignment of fibres in continuously reinforced
example, a graded layer in InGaAs, produced by organic composites can be designed to improve sig-
molecular beam epitaxy or chemical vapour depos- nificantly their indentation resistance and to suppress
ition, is sandwiched between InGaAs and GaAs micro cracking damage.
layers.26) The present paper is arranged in the following
6. The driving force for crack growth through sequence. Since developing a complete understanding
and across an interface can be reduced by tailor- of the effective properties of composites is central to
ing the interface with gradients in mechanical the eventual success in the design of graded metal-
properties.24,27-29 . ceramic composites with optimised thermomechanical
7. Some applications necessarily involve the depos- performance, first there is a detailed discussion of
ition of a 'thick' brittle coating on a ductile substrate different approaches to composite modelling which
for protection against thermal exposure, environmen- include the simple rule of mixture formulations, mean
tal attack, contact failure, or wear. An example of field theories and their various adaptations, finite
such an application is the thermal spraying of a element unit cell models, and numerical modelling of
zirconia layer, more than 2 mm in thickness, on a a large sample of the real microstructure. This dis-
steel substrate for thermal protection in piston heads cussion is followed by analyses of the evolution of
International Materials Reviews 1997 Vol. 42 NO.3
Suresh and Mortensen Functionally graded metals: Part 2 87
stresses, strains, and curvatures in graded multilayered In this 'rule of mixtures', E is the isotropic Young's
structures. For this purpose, classic beam/plate theor- modulus, I the volume fraction of the phase, and the
ies of continuum mechanics are employed to develop subscripts 1 and 2 denote phase 1 and phase 2,
a theoretical foundation for elastic and elastoplastic respectively. Very small differences from the prediction
response of graded materials within the context of of equation (1) would be expected for the above equal
small strain, small deformation analyses. Departures strain case when the isotropic values of the Poisson
from small deformations during the thermomechan- ratios of the two phases are not equal.
ical deformation of graded multilayers are examined An alternative approach, often relevant to the
next in an attempt to identify the geometry and transverse loading of a unidirectionally reinforced
loading conditions which promote instabilities, shape continuous fibre composite, invokes the assumption
changes, and bifurcation. The descriptions of these that each phase in the composite carries an equal
deformation theories are then followed by a brief stress during the imposition of an external load. In
summary of available methods to monitor the evol- this case, the so called Reuss model,44 the overall
ution of stresses, strains, and curvatures in graded strain in the composite is the sum of the net strain
multilayers, and examples of such measurements in carried by each phase, and the effective composite
model systems are presented. Attention is then modulus is given by
directed to the fracture of graded materials, where
parameters to characterise the driving force for frac- E = (11 + 12)-1
e (2)
ture are examined. This is followed by a discussion £1 E2
of crack growth across graded interfaces. The paper
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
~
><
Obviously, q ~ 0 and q ~ 00 refer to the equal stress o
and equal strain averaging schemes given in equations c:
~
(2) and (1), respectively. Combining equations (4)
and (5), one obtains
Ee =
q
[ 12 ( q
+ E1)
+ E2 + 11
J-l
Uniaxial strain
. . . . (9)
15 = ~
V Jvr p dV . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
T I I I I 11
, I I , " I I I
T Tll..~JII-lr
.J.o'" """'looool
..........-1 11 ~,
'I II 11~
Q r I
i"'t-L-l
I
I
I
I .-....rII...I
I
I
T II
I I
(a )
\ + / / (d)
, ..,
~, -'-- I Til
I
I
• -I --
-~-- t .•. /
", '"
t \
I
I
+
I I T1 .,. '-
\ £=0
£
~ --.
1
E= E I
I I
1/ (c )
" .•. -•.
I I I I I I
I I I I I
;;iii ". "
Transformation strain
(b) ( e)
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3 Eshelby method61
for estimating stress state in metal matrix reinforced with misfitting ellipsoidal
inclusion (After Ref. 37)
phase, i) of the composite can be defined as where I is the identity tensor. Expressions similar to
emE' =~i m Vm
edT/:
for the matrix . . . . (12)
equation (17) can be obtained for the volume aver-
aged stresses in each phase by recourse to the so
called stress concentration tensors,45.54 The stress and
strain concentration tensors and their components
a
m
=~rV JVm
udV generally depend on the geometry and spatial distri-
bution of each phase.57 Expressions which link the
m
concentration tensors to the elastic stiffness and com-
and pliance tensors and the tensor of CTE have been
derived58-60 by invoking the principle of virtual work.
f=~i
1 K
1 Vi
edT/:' For the particular case of an ellipsoidal inclusion
of arbitrary aspect ratio in an infinite continuous
for the inclusion . . . . (13)
matrix, Eshelby61 showed that the stresses are uniform
a. =~
1 Vi JV
r adV throughout the inclusion. Consider that an ellipsoid
i shaped elastic inclusion, made from the same material
Here Vm and Vi are the volumes of the matrix and as the surrounding infinite matrix (i.e. taken out from
inclusion phase, respectively, and V = Vm + Vi. The an ellipsoidal region of an infinite matrix), is permitted
total averaged thermoelastic stresses in the matrix to undergo an unconstrained (i.e. stress free) trans-
and the inclusion can then be written as formation strain eT (i.e. shape change or eigenstrain,
such as that produced by pure thermal expansion or
am=Emem-Emam~1; ai=Eiei-Eiai~T (14) martensitic transformations which involve no changes
If the composite is subjected to a homogeneous in elastic constants of the inclusion and which may
applied stress aapp, the resultant overall thermoelastic be anisotropic), as shown in Fig. 3. Since the stress
strain is given by state in the constrained inclusion is uniform, Ui = G'i.
The inclusion is now forced to assume its original
e* = fiei + fmem = e app + a*~ T = c*aapp
. . . . . . . . (15)
+ a*~T shape by the imposition of surface tractions (Fig. 3c)
and forced back to fill exactly the ellipsoidal cavity
in the matrix. Once placed back in its original position
where fi and fm (= 1 - fi) are the volume fractions of
inside the matrix, the interfaces between the matrix
the inclusion and the matrix, respectively. The overall
and the inclusion are such that no interfacial sliding
elastic stress is given by
occurs, and the surface tractions constraining the
. (16) inclusion to its original shape are released. As equi-
librium is attained between the inclusion and the
The total phase averaged strains and stresses are then matrix, the inclusion develops a constrained strain eC
related to the overall strains and stresses via the strain relative to its initial pretransformation shape. The
concentration tensors A and a, which are defined as constrained strain is related to the stress free trans-
em = Ame* + am~ 1; and ei = Ai e* + ai ~ T ( 17) formation strain by the so called Eshelby tensor, S
which causes internal stresses, the stress within the Pedersen56 has proposed that the average matrix
inclusion can be obtained by Hooke's law to be stress due to the inclusions be treated as if it were an
externally applied stress, an approach which is
O'i = Ei(e C
- eT) . . • • (20)
expected to give lower bound estimates for composite
A particularly useful feature of the Eshelby tensor S properties. Similar methods which estimate directly
is that it enables the determination of the uniform the elasticity tensor of the composite have been
stress and strain in the inclusion, and obviates the formulated by Tandon and Weng.66 Wakashima
need for a full knowledge of the complex matrix stress et al.67 have proposed an approach for computing
field.37-39,61,62If the matrix elastic deformation exhib- the image stresses by employing the Eshelby method.
its isotropic material symmetry, Sm depends only on They postulate that, since the volume average total
the Poisson ratio of the matrix and on the aspect matrix stress am is essentially the same as the applied
ratio of the ellipsoidal inclusion. stress aapp in the dilute case, the non-dilute concen-
Now consider the case of an 'inhomogeneous tration effects be accounted for by replacing the
inclusion', i.e. one which is made of a material different applied stress with the volume averaged total matrix
from the matrix. In this case, the transformation stress. This method has also been extended to graded
strain eT in the inhomogeneous inclusion can be metal-ceramic composites.68
modelled by considering a homogeneous 'equivalent' During plastic flow, the back stresses may arise
or 'reference' inclusion (with the same elastic prop- from the pile up of dislocations (such as the Orowan
erties as the matrix) which is permitted to undergo a loops) around brittle inclusions in a ductile matrix
suitable equivalent eigenstrain q in such a way that e: which may oppose continued forward deformation
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
the inhomogeneous inclusion. and the equivalent while aiding reverse deformation (this can be viewed
inclusion attain the same uniform stress state as one of the mechanistic origins of the Bauschinger
O'i = Ei(eC
- eT
) = Em(e C
- e:q) • • (21)
effect).63,69 The magnitude of the Bauschinger effect
scales with the area fraction of the Orowan loops or
Since equation (19) applies equally to both a homo- the unsheared area of the glide plane. The dislocation
geneous and an inhomogeneous inclusion (with eT or loops can also promote additional inhomogeneous
e: q as the transformation strain, respectively), equa- stresses in the matrix since the presence of one loop
around a particle may repel successive loops which
tion (21) can be written as
are being formed around the same particle and also
O'i = Ei(Sme:q - eT) = Em(Sm - I)e:q . . (22) the effective spacing between the particles and hence
This equation can be solved to obtain the equivalent the matrix volume undergoing plastic flow are
transformation strain as a function of the stress free reduced. This latter term is commonly referred to as
transformation strain, the elastic constants for the the 'source shortening stress',56,69-73 and has been
matrix and the inclusion, and the tensor Sm. used to explain the strengthening and uniaxial ten-
When the concentrations of both phases of the sion--eompression asymmetry of metal matrix com-
composite are non-dilute, interactions of the fields posites reinforced with ceramic particles, whiskers, or
from other inclusions will be expected to influence continuous fibres. A variety of energy minimisation
the evolution of the average fields in the matrix and schemes and relaxation micromechanisms are also
the reinforcement. One way to account for such effects incorporated in such models to account for the onset
is to estimate an average matrix stress arising from and spread of inelastic deformation.37,38
the back stresses or image stresses from all the other A commonly discussed iterative method for estimat-
reinforcements, and to incorporate this back stress in ing the effective properties of a composite with a non-
the computation of the fields within and around a dilute concentration of a second phase is to envision
particular inc1usion.63,64 the composite volume as comprising an inclusion that
Irrespective of the particular mechanistic origins of is surrounded by an average medium whose effective
the average matrix stress, approaches which employ properties are the properties of the composite. These
the image stress or mean stress concept are commonly composite properties are not known a priori, but are
referred to as mean field theories, the Mori- Tanaka solved iteratively to obtain a self-consistent result. In
approaches, or the 'equivalent inclusion-average the generalised self-consistent schemes, the inclusion
stress' methods. For isothermal stressing of a matrix is embedded within a matrix material which, in turn,
reinforced with inclusions65 is surrounded by an effective composite medium. A
number of unit cell based analytical and semi-analyti-
cal models, wherein continuous fibres are periodically
(23a)
arranged in a matrix, have also been considered by
Bapp = Bi [( 1 - h)I + h(AddiluteJ [(AddiluteJ-1
different researchers.74,75
where the subscript 'dilute' refers to the value of the
subscripted quantity for the dilute concentration of
the inclusion. From equation (23a), it is readily shown Computational models
that All of the foregoing analyses of two phase composites,
with very rare exceptions, do not accurately capture
(Adnon-dilute = (Ai)dilute [( 1 - fdI + 11 (AddiluteJ-1 the geometrical effects of the shape and spatial distri-
. . (23b)
bution of one phase in the matrix of another phase.
A number of different variations of the mean field This limitation raises certain key issues.
theory have been proposed for non-dilute concen- 1. As noted above, the Eshelby method61 provides
trations of a second phase in a matrix. For example, elegant analytical tools for quantifying the stresses in
International Materials Reviews 1997 Vol. 42 NO.3
Suresh and Mortensen Functionally graded metals: Part 2 91
4 10
recourse to computational models, such as the finite
element method. b 0.2
2. As noted in a number of studies,76-s6 composite ~
models which invoke assumptions of spatially uniform
Ib 3
5
phase dispersions and idealised shapes (such as
spheres, ellipsoids, or cylinders) for one phase in the 2 0.5
2
matrix of the other may, in some cases, provide I
erroneous predictions of the effective elastic moduli I
for most real composites where the shapes and spatial o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
distributions of the phases are seldom uniform. Inclusion volume fraction (fj)
3. For some reinforcement shapes and large
5
reinforcement concentrations, averaging schemes38,87 (b)
(such as those based on the Eshelby method)
may fall outside the elastic bounds of Hashin
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•
Detailed micromechanical analyses81,82 have revealed
that the dependence of the effective elastic moduli of
two phase composites on the shape of the reinforcing b
phase can be traced to the differences in the extent of ~
load transfer between the phases. Ib 3 Aligned
4. The effective CTE of a two phase composite discs
depends strongly on the overall bulk modulus of the
composite. For composites exhibiting macroscopically
isotropic elastic behaviour, the effective CTE is of
the form
(1/Q) - (1/Q2)
0: = 0:2 + (a1 - 0:2) (1/Qd _ (1/Q2) . (24)
2 +
Randomly
where a and Q = E/[3( 1- 2v)] are the CTE and bulk orientated
modulus, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the discs
ductile and brittle phases, respectively. The variables 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
without the subscripts denote the effective properties Inclusion volume fraction (fj)
of the composite. Where E is strongly influenced by
the spatial dispersion of the constituent phases as a 4 Normalised limiting value of overall composite
consequence of differing levels of constrained shear- tensile strength plotted as function of volume
ing, Q is essentially insensitive to phase distribution fraction of a aligned ellipsoidal inclusions and
effects. As a result, from equation (24), a is also b aligned and randomly oriented discs and
unaffected by spatial distribution (see, for example, needles (After Ref. 78)
Refs. 87 and 91). This result has important impli-
cations for the evolution of thermal stresses in graded
composites. rounding matrix within the cell are considered to
5. The effects of particle shape and spatial distri- deform identically to every other particle and matrix
bution on composite deformation become more pro- neighbourhood in the composite, and the particles
nounced when constrained plastic deformation, are assumed to populate the composite in a perfectly
accompanied by high triaxial stress and plastic strain periodic arrangement.
gradients, occurs in one of the two phases.76,78,82,83 One study of this type was published by Bao
To address these issues, a number of studies have et al.,78 who analysed the effects of particle morph-
dealt with detailed finite element simulations of the ology and orientation on composite elastoplastic
micromechanics of deformation within the context of deformation. Figure 4a shows the strengthening ratio
unit cell models.76-86 In these models, the concen- iiy/(Jy for an elastic-perfectly plastic matrix reinforced
tration of the reinforcing phase in the cell is the same with ellipsoid shaped isotropic elastic inclusions plot-
as that in the composite, and all the reinforcement ted against their volume fraction Ii for different ratios
particles are assumed to have the same shape, orien- of the particle aspect ratio atfaL, which was taken to
tation, and size. The unit cell comprising the particle be the same as the cell aspect ratio AIfAL. The matrix
in the ductile matrix is generally approximated by an is assumed to conform to a Mises type yield behaviour
axisymmetric geometry with periodic boundary con- whereby the effective stress (Je = [(3sijSij)/2] 1/2= (Jy,
ditions. Furthermore, the reinforcement and its sur- where sij are the deviatoric stress components and
International Materials Reviews 1997 Vol. 42 No.3
92 Suresh and Mortensen Functionally graded metals: Part 2
160
(a) ~.,
/'" Square
~
0120 ~/
a. / ..,.,-..,.,-
~
~
(J)~
~ 80 /,
/
"
",-""--
,.,. ", ... ......-- --- ---- --_.-.---
....--
...---Hexagonal
-Q)
(J)
'
,.( /"/:,.....
~ ...
//
,,~
... --"'~
...""-Square diagonal
(J)
'"
~ 40
Transverse tension
o
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Tensi Ie strai n, 0/0
Sa transverse tensile deformation of 6061-0 AI-Zn-Mg alloy reinforced with 46 vol.-o/o of boron fibres
that are distributed in different periodic or random arrangements and b finite element unit cell showing
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
(Jy is the tensile yield strength of the matrix. iiy is the only recourse for quantitative modelling of the com-
limiting value of overall tensile yield stress ii of the posite micromechanical behaviour.
composite. This overall limit yield stress is independ- Finite element models of the dependence of spatial
ent of the elastic properties of the reinforcement and distribution of the two phases on the overall inelastic
the matrix, and is not influenced by the size of the response have been studied by a number of research-
reinforcement. Figure 4a shows that aligned elongated ers.76-83,92-100 The most systematic among such simu-
(atfaL> 1) or disc shaped (atfaL < 1) inclusions impart lations involve the effects of phase geometry on the
significantly more strengthening than spheres (adaL = transverse tensile deformation of metal matrix com-
1). Figure 4b is a plot of iiy/(Jy versus fi for randomly posites reinforced with a high concentration of uni-
oriented elongated ellipsoidal needles (atfaL = 0'1) and directionally reinforced fibres.83,93,94 Figure 5a shows
discs or platelets (atfaL = 10) reinforcing an elastic- the transverse tensile stress-strain curve for a 6061-0
perfectly plastic matrix. (Here the grainlike packets Al-Zn-Mg alloy reinforced with 46 vol.-% of boron
are oriented in such a way that the overall composite fibres. When the fibres are packed in a square array
behaviour is isotropic. These calculations of Bao and transverse tensile loading is applied along the
et al.78 involved (a) a three-dimensional cell model to edge of the square (termed 'square edge packing'
extract the multi axial limit yield surface of the grain- arrangement), the composite exhibits the greatest
like packets and (b) averaging over all orientations resistance to both elastic and plastic deformation.
with respect to the tensile axis, by recourse to a When the applied tensile loading is along the diagonal
Bishop-Hill procedure, to obtain an upper bound for of the square (termed 'square diagonal packing'
iiy•92) Also superimposed in Fig. 4b are the results for arrangement), the most compliant response is seen.
aligned inclusions of the same shape from Fig.4a. For fibres packed in a triangular or hexagonal per-
The randomly oriented particles, as anticipated, are iodic array, an inbetween stress-strain curve results
not as effective as strengtheners as the aligned ones. between the two bounds for the square packing case.
While the results shown in Fig. 4 exhibit macro- Figure 5b shows a random arrangement of 60 fibres
scopic trends, the micromechanics of plastic deforma- packed in a unit cell, which is repeated in the finite
tion in the metallic phase is subject to further element model with periodic boundary conditions
complexities. When one of the two phases deforms involving a generalised plane strain model. For this
plastically due to thermal and/or mechanical loading, geometrical arrangement of 'random fibres' (which
the local deformation undergoes severe non-pro- can be created by imaging and then discretising a
portional loading and becomes highly inhomo- typical microstructure in the real composite), the
geneous with steep gradients in plastic strains and stress-strain curve falls inbetween the bounds pre-
hydrostatic stresses, especially in the vicinity of sharp dicted by the square edge and square diagonal pack-
corners.76 The overall deformation of the composite ing models in Fig.5a. Note that the random fibre
then becomes increasingly more sensitive to the load- model predictions are noticeably different from those
ing path and to the shape and spatial distribution of of the periodic hexagonal array predictions (which
the phases. The onset and spread of local failure produces a transversely isotropic response during
processes are also influenced markedly by these fac- elastic deformation only). Brockenbrough et al. 83 and
tors. As a result, analytical methods become increas- Nakamura and Suresh94 showed that the effects of
ingly incapable of tracking the evolution of inelastic fibre distribution (for a fixed volume fraction) on the
deformation, damage, and failure in the composite, plastic response of the composite directly correlated
and computational models, albeit time consuming with the extent of hydrostatic stresses and constrained
and numerically cumbersome, appear to provide the plastic flow developed in the matrix. Consequently,
International Materials Reviews 1997 Vol. 42 NO.3
Suresh and Mortensen Functionally graded metals: Part 2 93
strengthening in plastically deforming matrixes into plastically deforming matrixes from the ends of
remain far from complete at this time. reinforcing particles has been documented during
The analysis techniques discussed in the foregoing thermomechanical loading, using the photoplastic
sections were also predicated on isotropic elastic or Agel as a model matrix material and SiC or A1203
inelastic constitutive models. These approaches do as reinforcements.118,119 These observations illustrate
not allow for the discreteness of crystallographic slip the significant role of discrete dislocations and loops
in the metallic grains of the composite, and the in not only relieving misfit strains during thermome-
ensuing anisotropy of microscopic deformation. This chanical loading, but also in influencing subsequent
limitation can at least partly be overcome by resorting deformation.
to continuum formulations of crystal plasticity at the
single grain level. Such models, which build on the
works of Taylor106 and Hill and Rice,107 have been
Some critical issues in modelling of
developed into a framework amenable for detailed graded composites
computational simulations.los-115 Modelling of the Modelling of the elastoplastic deformation character-
plastic deformation can be accomplished to account istics of compositionally graded composite micro-
for both the discreteness of straining by slip and the structures requires the incorporation of additional
randomness of grain orientations in a microstructural factors and length scales into the analyses, over and
ensemble, by allowing for the shearing along crystallo- above the aforementioned factors for two phase com-
graphic planes in preferential slip directions and posites without gradients in phase mix, in view of the
summing the plastic shear flow over all active slip following considerations:
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systems in different crystal structures. It has been 1. The existence of a gradient in phase mix intro-
found that while the predictions of the crystal plas- duces a new length scale to the problem, i.e. the
ticity models for the deformation of metal-ceramic variation of the relative concentrations of the two
composites qualitatively mirror the trends derived phases with distance. In addition to the phase shape,
from continuum Mises type (J 2 flow theory) calcu- connectivity, and dispersion, the gradient in compos-
lations, the discreteness of the slip process has been ition generates additional geometrical effects in the
found to identify more pronounced shear localisation deformation of a composite.
effects which can have a major influence on failure 2. In a unidirectionally graded composite layer
processes. The crystal plasticity theories, however, are sandwiching two homogeneous materials, discrete
also incapable of predicting the effects of phase dimen- sublayers can be found within which the composite
sions (such as the size of the reinforcement particle) has essentially uniform concentration of the two
on deformation. A more detailed discussion of con- phases. For example, if a graded metal-ceramic com-
tinuum crystal plasticity theories, as they specifically posite layer is synthesised by sintering techniques by
apply to graded metal-ceramic composites, is pre- stacking sublayers of different relative proportions of
sented in the section 'Crystal plasticity models' below. the two materials, the thickness of each sublayer
The discreteness of microscopic deformation can introduces another microstructural length scale. In
be considered at yet smaller length scales by invoking order for continuum analyses to be valid, the thickness
the concept of discrete dislocations within the ductile of each such sublayer must be significantly greater
phase. Such dislocation based plasticity models have than the characteristic microstructural unit size, such
a built in characteristic length scale, which is the as a grain size or a particle size. When the graded
Burgers vector. Cleveringa et al.116 have presented an composite layer is discretised into sublayers for com-
analysis of plastic flow arising directly from the putational modelling, each sublayer should comprise
collective motion of a large number of dislocations in a sufficiently large number of elements for numerical
a composite material subject to simple shear. A full convergence and accuracy, and must be sufficiently
boundary value problem is considered with a two- larger than the microstructural unit size. At the same
dimensional array of line defects in an isotropic linear time, the size of each unit must be small enough to
elastic solid. Deriving from earlier studies117 (see capture the local fluctuations in stresses between
Ref. 116 for additional references on the subject of sublayers. This issue is illustrated with examples in
dislocation modelling of deformation), the stresses the section 'Experimental measurement of stresses
and strains are cast as the superpositions of the fields and deformation in graded multilayers' below.
from discrete dislocations and the complementary 3. In a metal-ceramic composite graded continu-
fields which account for the interactions with hard ously or discretely from an all metal layer to an all
inclusions and enforce the boundary conditions. ceramic layer, the concentration changes from a dilute
Continuum elasticity fields describe the long range mix of a brittle phase in a ductile matrix at one end,
interactions between dislocations, and an additional to a high fraction of a brittle (ductile) phase in a
set of constitutive rules account for dislocation drag, ductile (brittle) matrix near the middle, to a dilute
interactions with obstacles, as well as dislocation mix of a ductile phase in a brittle matrix at the other
nucleation and annihilation. It is shown that such an end. The phase shape, connectivity, and dispersion
approach would predict the dependence of the local may also change continuously through the thickness
stress and deformation fields in the metallic phase of of the graded layer.
the composite on the size of the brittle phase, as well 4. Differential shrinkage during sintering and poss-
as on the spatial dispersion and geometry of the ible differences in the evolution of pores and other
two phases. defects across the thickness of the compositionally
This section is concluded by noting that direct graded layer engender residual strains which can have
experimental evidence for the punching of dislocations a marked effect on subsequent thermomechanical
1
Layerl, 2El,vpal
5. Since the constraint due to the brittle phase on
Graded layer (GL) 20
the ductile matrix changes with distance, constitutive
models for deformation and failure must be designed y hi Layer 2, E2, v2' a2
to capture the differing constrained plastic flow and
damage evolution in the different regions within the .• Lx
tion, small strain plate/beam theories of classical in-plane) are such that the strain is allowed to be a
continuum mechanics (e.g. Ref. 120). These formu- function of z only, the small strain compatibility
lations, which ignore dynamic effects, thermal gradi- equations lead to the result that the in-plane normal
ents, and stress relaxation mechanisms, provide exact strain C = Cxx (= Cyy for the biaxial stress state in
results within the realm of small strain analyses in Fig. 7) is linear; it can be expressed as
regions away from free edges where the multiaxial
fields due to edge effects and singularities need to be c(z) = Cxx = Co + KZ . • . . •. .• (25)
examined. For the purpose of illustration, consider where Co is the normal strain at z = 0 and K the
the layered structure schematically shown in Fig. 7 curvature (i.e. the inverse of the radius of curvature)
which comprises two homogeneous layers, 1 and 2, of the plate in its plane. The only non-zero stress is
between which a graded layer of thickness 2a is O"(z) = O"xx(z) = O"yy(z), which is given, for the equal
placed. The in-plane shape of this layered solid is a biaxial stress state, by
rectangle whose length and width are Lx and Ly along
the x and y axes, respectively. The plate is assumed E(z)
O"(z) = 1 _ v(z) [c(z) - ex(z)~ T(z)]
to have a uniform thickness everywhere, and for the
purpose of simple analytical formulation, the entire
E(z)
multilayer is assumed to have a uniform temperature = 1 _ v(z) [co + KZ - ex(z)~ T(z)] . . . (26)
everywhere at all times during thermal excursions
(although simple heat conduction across the layers
where ex is the thermal expansion coefficient, and ~ T
can easily be modelled on the basis of the present
represents the change in temperature from the initial
formulation using a personal computer). The
stress free state, and in general, they are all functions
geometry of the layered structure shown in Fig. 7 is
of z. (For simplicity of illustration, isothermal con-
such that the problem can be treated as one-dimen-
ditions are assumed in the following discussion, i.e.
sional. When the geometry of the layers is such that
~ T is independent of z.) In the general case involving
Ly» (h1 + h2»> Lx in Fig. 7, plane stress beam con- externally imposed thermal and/or mechanical loads,
ditions prevail, and the parameters of interest for
the resultant force and the resultant moment of the
thermomechanical performance depend only on the
stress distribution O"(z) along the height z from equa-
vertical position z. The general three-dimensional
tion (26) must be equal to the applied axial
stress state, which prevails over a distance from the force Fap and the applied bending moment Map,
edge which is approximately equal to the layer thick-
respectively
ness, alters the plane stress results only near the edges.
The analyses for plane stress can easily be extended
to the more realistic situation involving thermoelastic
response in the equibiaxial stress state (corresponding
to the geometrical condition of a plate that
fh: +a a(z) dz
a+h1
+ t:a
a(z) dz
r:
+a
ing Young's modulus E by the corresponding biaxial
modulus E = E/( 1 - v) where v is the Poisson ratio.
Consider an initially perfectly planar uncon-
strained, layered and/or graded plate with a graded
t~:+a a(z)z dz + a(z)z dz
uniform thermal excursion ~ T from some stress free + Ja+h O"(z)z dz = Map . . . . . . (28)
+a
reference temperature (such as the processing temper-
ature, diffusion bonding temperature, or softening These two conditions, i.e. force balance and moment
temperature). The thermal expansion or contraction balance, lead to a linear system of equations in Co
- 1 (J 0 + pap)
2 + 11 (J 1 + Map)
80 = -----------
Ii - 1012
I1(JO + pap) - IO(J1 + Map) h
K = -------- .... (29)
Ii - 1012 :{ a
where
Ii = fh 2
-hi
ziE(z) dz, i = 0, 1, 2
::::
and
interlayer.16,18) Note in Fig. 8 that the stresses vary where C* is the global compliance tensor, the
linearly with distance within the metallic and ceramic subscript 0 denotes the matrix phase and the subscript
layers, and parabolically within the compositionally i denotes the inclusion phase which in the most
graded layer (when the elastic modulus and thermal general case is considered to be of an ellipsoidal
expansion coefficient vary linearly with distance). geometry of arbitrary major and minor axis ratio,
Table 1 provides an example calculation of the and orientation. Br denotes the phase concentration
elastic stresses in the Ni-GL-AI203 layered material factor tensor, and the components of Br are functions
for different values of Pa = a/h and a Ni-AI203 of the ellipsoidal parameters as well as of the elastic
bimaterial with a sharp interface (a/h = 0), subjected constants of the matrix and the inclusion. Porosities
to a temperature drop of 805 K from the initial stress in the matrix, whose concentration may vary as
free temperature.18 For small Pa, the largest stress in functions of position (as, for example, due to differen-
the Ni layer is at the free surface, and it occurs at the tial shrinkage), can be considered as inclusions with
alumina/FGM interface for larger values of Pa' The no stiffness. In view of the possibility that the matrix
residual stresses vanish as Pa ~ 1, as expected from and inclusion phases may not be interchangeable and
the theory, equations (25)-(30). Table 1 also illus- that there exists an uncertain or 'fuzzy' transition in
trates that by compositionally grading an interface microstructure between the two phases, the effective
between a metal and a ceramic, the abrupt transitions property within the graded layer (which comprises
in residual stress gradients seen at a sharp interface two materials involving different microstructural
are eliminated, and that the magnitude of the residual combinations i = 1 to I, where I is the total number
stresses is markedly reduced through the majority of of microstructures) has been taken to be123
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
f:(z) = (1- fm: Ji) (1- fp); of the graded multilayer, the stresses begin to redis-
tribute in a manner that is different from the descrip-
tions provided in equations (25)-(30). A simple and
convenient way to estimate the temperature change
f:n = ( 1 - f!: Ji) (1 - fp) . (33) at which plasticity begins, (~T)pb is to equate the
von Mises effective stress (Je to (J(z) under plane stress
where fp is the volume fraction of the micropores in or equal biaxial stress states, and to invoke the
the graded region and z is the coordinate along the criterion that plastic yielding begins at a location
thickness of the graded region. The effective prop- where (Je first reaches the yield strength of the material
erties, such as the compliance tensor, in the graded (Jy.* Closed form solutions17,18,126 and results of com-
region are obtained by the following formulation putational simulationsI5.18.127,128 are available for the
plastic deformation of graded metal-eeramic compos-
(34) ites as a function of different layer geometries and
gradient profiles. Also known are the conditions
Table 1 Calculation of elastic stresses in which govern the location for the onset of plastic
Ni-GL-AI203 layered material for different flow in a general metal-eeramic graded multilayer,18
values of Pa = a/ hand Ni-AI203 bimaterial such as the one illustrated in Fig. 7.
with sharp interface (a/ h = 0), subjected General 'plasticity diagrams' which map the onset
to temperature drop of 805 K from the of yielding in the graded metal-eeramic layered solid
initial stress free temperature18 for any arbitrary combinations of the individual thick-
a/h = 0'1 a/h=0'4 a/h = 0'9-1'0
nesses of the homogeneous and graded layers can be
developed on the basis of the above simple criteria.
z FGM* Sit FGM* Sit FGM* Sit Figure 9 is a diagram for the Ni-GL-AI203 model
h -1'91 -1'80 -1'80 -1'80 ~O -1'80 system.18,129 In this diagram, the three independent
a 4·20 4'26 2'07 2·23 ~O -1'80 layer dimensions, i.e. a, hb and 112, can be represented
0+ 0'40 4'93 0'12 4·93 ~O 4'93
0- 0'40 -7'61 0'12 -7'61 ~O -7'61
-a -6'54 -6'44 -3'47 -2'80 ~O 4·37 * Under plane strain conditions, E or E should be replaced by
-h 4·24 4'37 3'44 4'37 ~O 4'37 E/(l- v2) and a by a(l + v). The von Mises criterion for plane
strain becomes
* Functionally graded.
t Sharp interface. . (36)
Micromechanics of plastic
deformation
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
~
y. ...\
0.12 Al20J Unit cell
\
Graded \
~ 0.57 layer
Undeformed (solid)
\
\ Deformed (broken)
0.37 Ni \
... - X
W
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
10 a unit cell and nomenclature of trilayered beam with graded interlayer for finite element simulation
of thermomechanical response, b hexagonal packing arrangement of graded metal-ceramic composite
layer; c and d examples of unit cells with random distributions of metal-ceramic phases in graded
layer (After Ref. 131)
straight line during all deformation though it can employed to analyse the thermomechanical response
rotate. The axial and bending strains, respectively, of the graded layer. The finite element unit cell
are defined as comprises a homogeneous metal layer, a homo-
geneous ceramic layer, and an intermediate metal-
1 ceramic composite layer within which the metal
ea = 2W [ux(Jt: 0) + ux(Jt: P)J
and ceramic concentrations are graded, from 10 to
90 vol.- 0/0, in nine steps corresponding to a linear
1
eb = W [ux(JtJt: 0) - ux(Jt: P)J . . . (38) gradation in composition. In the vicinity of equal
volume concentrations of the metal and the ceramic,
a switch from a metal matrix to a ceramic matrix (or
For deformation induced solely by thermal excur-
vice versa) is needed here for numerical accuracy, as
sions, the curvature of the plate K as well as the
these types of models. represent only a matrix-
instantaneous coefficients of thermal expansion for
inclusion structure.
the unit cell for axial loading and bending, Lia and Lib,
The geometrical arrangement of the phases in
respectively, are defined as*
Fig. lOb represents a highly idealised periodic struc-
eb dea deb ture, whereas real graded microstructures exhibit
K = P; Lia = d T; Lib = dT . . (39) phase dispersions which are significantly more irregu-
lar and non-periodic. These departures from ideal
The above arrangement can be analysed by arrangements can be captured, within the context of
employing a two-dimensional periodic unit cell for- two-dimensional numerical simulations, by consider-
mulation wherein each phase is envisioned as an ing random microstructural unit cells for finite
isolated particle in the matrix of the other phase, with element analyses which can be created by discretising
the volume fraction of the particle adjusted to reflect optical or scanning electron micrographs of typical
the appropriate spatial distribution of the concen- graded microstructures at the appropriate magnifi-
tration of that phase. Weissenbek et al.131 have pro- cation. Figure 10c and d shows two examples of
posed, for this purpose, a hexagonal packing random dispersions of a graded metal-eeramic com-
arrangement, whose finite element discretisation is posite which is sandwiched between the homogeneous
shown in Fig. lOb. The spacing between the inclusions metal and ceramic layers; here the dark grains rep-
is computed on the basis of the hexagonal packing resent the ceramic. The hexagonal packing arrange-
arrangement, since the gradations in composition do ment of Fig. lOb or the random packing arrangements
not allow symmetry in the unit cell along the thickness shown in Fig. 10c and d represent repeating periodic
of the graded layer. In the particular configuration unit cells that are subject to the boundary conditions
shown in Fig. lOb, nine different sublayers are in equation (37). The constitutive properties of the
two phases can then be introduced within the context
of continuum formulations, either by invoking the
* While lXa is based on the standard definition for linear CTE,
equation (39) shows a similar definition for the bending CTE. By von Mises plastic yield behaviour for the metal and
these definitions, the CTE values represent instantaneous values lXi isotropic elastic response for the ceramic,131 or by
at any given temperature, and not a secant or total value.131 employing single crystal plasticity models for the
1.20
,.~
I£l
'0
1.00 _.- Modified rule of mixture
.c
e:1 -- Experiment 20- 350°C
--- Hexagonol
..•. Random arrangement (d)
- Rondom orrangement (c)
80
a 200 400 600 800
T,oC
131)
of compositional gradation, with the response of each mechanical loading. A number of accurate methods,
cell coupled to the response of the entire column. including strain gauges, linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT), and scanning laser techniques,
can be used to measure the in situ evolution of
Experimental measurement of curvature K in the plate during externally imposed
thermal and/or mechanical cycling.19,143-148The cur-
stresses and deformation in
vature change can then be used, in conjunction with
graded multilayers equations (25)-(30), to estimate the variation of
X-ray and neutron diffraction methods137,138 have biaxial stresses through the thickness of the multi-
traditionally been used to assess the internal stresses layer. Figure 13 shows schematically the variation of
in layered materials and coatings. Here the residual curvature with temperature for a layered and graded
strains are computed from experimental measure- plate (such as the one shown in Fig. 7) which is
ments of shifts in lattice spacing, and then are used subjected to thermal cycling. Several features of ther-
to derive residual stresses from known elastic con- momechanical deformation in a graded multilayer
stants of the materials. Residual stress measurements can be extracted from such a plot: '
by X-rays are generally restricted to a shallow region, 1. When all the layers of the plate undergo only
typically of the order of several micrometres, beneath thermoelastic deformation, the curvature changes lin-
a free surface. Although neutrons are capable of early with temperature.
penetrating deeper into the material, both these 2. If inelastic deformation (such as plasticity or
diffraction methods are amenable to uncertainties in creep), phase transformation or dilatational strains
the estimation of internal stresses for the following (such as those arising from martensitic transform-
reasons: (1) it is generally difficult, and in some cases ations in metals and ceramics or swelling due to
impossible, to perform in situ evolution of stresses moisture absorption in polymers), damage (such as
using these techniques during thermomechanical micro cracking in brittle layers or degradation due to
loading of a graded material; (2) when extensive sunlight in organic films), cracking or interfacial
plastic strains occur in the layered structure, the delamination occurs in one or more layers, the I K I
estimation of thermal stresses on the basis of lattice versus I~ TI plot deviates from linearity. This point
constant changes becomes highly inaccurate; and of deviation from a linear variation has been used to
(3) fluctuations and spatial variations in composition quantitatively measure the onset of inelastic deforma-
in a graded layer, over and above the normal micro- tion or damage in graded metal-eeramic
structural variations in the composite layer, can cause multilayers.18,19,126
pronounced errors in the interpretation of results. 3. The direction in which this deviation occurs
In addition to the above diffraction techniques, from the initial linear response can be used to gauge
destructive methods such as layer removal and hole the location within the multilayered solid at which
drilling,139-141 as well as optical fluorescence tech- inelastic deformation is initiated.19
niques142 have been used to estimate internal stresses 4. Reducing the temperature causes a residual cur-
in layered materials. These techniques are not gener- vature to evolve due to permanent deformation in
ally amenable to provide in situ information about one or more layers as a consequence of dislocation
stresses, strains, and geometry changes in a graded plasticity, creep cavitation, grain boundary sliding,
multilayer. irreversible phase transformations, or fracture. The
The evolution of curvature in a layered plate with magnitude of this residual curvature provides an
or without gradients in compositions, when subjected indication of the extent of permanent inelastic
to thermal and/or mechanical loads, also provides a deformation or cracking.
means to assess the evolution of stresses and strains Figure 14a shows a comparison of a numerically
across the thickness of the plate during thermo- predicted variation of curvature with experimental
flat plate lC x = lCy = 0 sphere 1Cx = 1Cy to be constant in the plate. The six degrees of
lCxy =0 1Cxy =0 freedom for the small deformation case are: the two
normal curvatures, Kxx = Kx and Kyy = Ky in the x
/7 and y directions, respectively, the twist curvature,
Kxy' and the components of strain at z = 0 which are
° °
8xx' 8yy, an dOTh
Yxy' e M 0 h r clrc
. Itt'
e represen a Ion 149,150
can be used to visualise the shapes' and curvatures
of the layered plate, as shown in Fig. 15. This circle,
drawn in the Kx or Ky versus Kxy space, is centred at
(Kx + Ky)/2 and has a radius equal to (Kx - Ky)/2.
When the out of plane displacement w becomes
comparable with the plate thickness (while still being
small compared to the in-plane dimensions), the strain
and curvature throughout the layered plate are no
longer uniform.127,149-152 The relation between the
saddle shape lCx = -lCy midplane (z = 0) strains 83 and the displacements
cylinder 1C x=0 J 'ICy i:- 0 along the x and y directions (see Fig. 1), UO and va,
1Cxy i:- 0
(or) 1C y = 0, lex i:- 0 respectively, are given by
lC xyi:- 0
° _ auo !(aw)2
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
° _ avo !(aw)2
While the small deformation theory is generally 8yy - ay + 2 ay
adequate for analysing the thermomechanical
deformation of layered and graded materials, there
exist many practical situations where the foregoing
°
Yxy
= auo avo (aw) (aw)
a +a + a a . . (43)
y x x y
assumptions break down and large deformations
(albeit small strains) needs to be accounted for. These with the assumption
examples include: unsymmetric laminated tapes of
sintered ceramics and unsymmetric laminates of poly-
w(x, y) = - t (KxxX2 + Kyyy2 + 2KxyXY) . (44)
meric composites with or without stepwise gradients In conjunction with the above formulation, the
in composition, and thin film-substrate systems used in-plane displacements u and v can now be chosen to
in such applications as microelectronics, optoelectron- be polynomials of an appropriate order in x and y.
ics, and thermal barrier coatings which may contain Hyer149,150 used polynomials of order two in his
homogeneous thin films on substrates with a sharp study of large deformation in unsymmetric poly-
or graded interlayer. Furthermore, curvature meric composite laminates, while Masters and
measurements (such as those discussed above), which Salamon151,152 chose a polynomial of order six for
are widely used to assess experimentally the internal large deformation of thin films on substrates and
stresses in layered and graded coatings, can be per- incorporated in-plane shear. With these quantities,
formed with a greater degree of precision if the film- the curvatures can be computed by minimising the
substrate system is designed to undergo large total strain potential energy of the system ~E' and
deformation. examining the stability of various solutions
Consider the layered plate schematically shown in
Fig. 7. When this plate is subject to thermal loading
~E = f Wd d(volume);
from an initial stress free temperature, the relevant Jvol.
total strain components can be written as
. (45)
~
...J
20 /~~' -- / introduction of compositional gradients does not have
.'.,. ,. ~ .
,/
;'
.•'"'
.,~ Large deformation theory
any major influence on the critical temperature
10
./," (Analytical method) change at which bifurcation occurs or on the magni-
.,:,/./ ' Kx(x-direction) tude of curvature corresponding to the onset of
0 bifurcation. This was particularly true for graded thin
films on substrates. Figure 17 shows contours of
0 10 20 30
constant normalised values of temperature change,
~T ~o:L~/(h,+h2)2
L11b, at which bifurcation and abrupt shape changes
16 Variation of normalised curvature, predicted occur in graded multilayers of Ni-AI203 for all poss-
by different analytical and computational ible combinations of the relative thicknesses of the
models for different stress states, as function Ni, gradient, and Al203 layers. The results of this
of normalised temperature change in Ni-AI203 figure have the important practical implication that
square plate (After Ref. 127)
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
250
• Residual stress at 20°C
1.0
30.0
Ni-AIP3
200 A Thermal mismatch stress
Elastic response 20.0
15.0
for T = 130°C
O.B L.=L.,
13.0
~ 150 • Quench stress at 150°C
12.0
a.
11.5
11.0
:§:
0.6
en" 100
en
CD
L.
NI~j
.c
0.4 Ci5 50
I
Q.
Gradient 2a h1
NI.(AI,O,),.. h, o
A1P3
-50
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.B 1.0 Volume fraction of AI2031 0/0
Pa = 2a1(h1+h2) 18 Variation of total processing induced internal
17 Contours of constant normalised values of stress at room temperature, the ther-
temperature change L\ Tb at which bifurcation mal mismatch stress, and internal stress
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
and abrupt shape changes occur in graded at processing temperature, estimated for
multilayers of Ni-AI203 for all possible different monolayer coatings of Ni-AI203
combinations of relative thicknesses of Ni, composites (After Ref. 148)
gradient, and AI203 layers (After Ref. 127)
processing induced internal stress at room temper-
The various techniques discussed above137,138 for ature estimated for a number of different monolayer
the experimental measurement of internal stresses are coatings. One of the monolayer coatings comprised a
prone to considerable error in the estimation of single layer of Ni-5 wt-O/oAI on a steel substrate
processing induced stresses especially when gradients (which corresponds to the data point at 0°10 alumina).
in microscopic concentrations of different phases The remaining data points refer to single layer graded
occur and inelastic deformation and damage at the coatings where the content of Al203 was changed in
microscopic level strongly control the overall thermo- 20°10 increments through the thickness of the coating
mechanical response. Consequently, no 'standard' on the steel substrate, with one layer ranging from 0
method of proven reliability is available for the esti- to 200/0Al203 in Ni-5AI, and the others ranging from
mation of internal stresses. A key drawback of such 20 to 40, 40 to 60, 60 to 80, and 80 to 1000/0Al203
paucity of understanding of internal stresses is that in Ni-5Al. In Fig. 18, the results for these specimens
the 'initial mechanical state' of the material, a quanti- are plotted at the average composition of 10, 30, 50,
tative description of which is vital to the success of 70, and 90 respectively. The maximum internal
%
,
design for thermomechanical performance, remains stress at room temperature is 200 MPa for the 1"'oס.I
mostly unknown. This situation is further com- Ni-5AI layer on the steel substrate (which is close to
pounded by the fact that the internal stresses gener- the yield strength at room temperature), and an
ated in graded microstructures have been largely increase in Al203 content causes a reduction in the
unexplored despite the obvious need for research. internal stress. An average internal stress of
A method, which provides an estimate of processing -11 MPa is seen for the single graded coating with
induced stresses, thermal mismatch stresses, as well an average Al203 content of 900/0 and a range of
as in-plane Young's modulus and CTE as a function 80-100 The results in Fig. 18 were obtained by
%
•
of temperature, is proposed in Ref. 148 and applied estimating the effective elastic modulus for Ni-AI203
to graded Ni-AI203 plasma sprayed coatings on steel composite coatings which were prepared by thermal
substrates. Here use is made of a number of identical spraying (and whose effective· stiffness can be five
specimens of the substrates in the spray chamber for times smaller than that of the corresponding fully
the simultaneous coating of surface layers with fixed dense microstructure). * From the experimentally
or stepwise graded compositions (in increments of determined values of the effective CTE of the
sublayer thicknesses of the order of 100 Jlm). Coated composite coatings, Kesler et al.148 also estimated
specimens are periodically removed from the depos- the quench stress at the processing temperature of
a
ition chamber such that different thicknesses of coat- 150 C. The difference between the quench stress at
ings could be obtained on identical substrates under 150aC and the residual stress at room temperature
the same spray conditions or different compositions is plotted as the thermal mismatch stress for a
a
of the metal-eeramic graded coating can be produced temperature excursion of 130 C.
for the same coating thickness. By performing a priori
and in situ strain or curvature measurements during * Similar results can also be derived for thin graded films on thick
the spray deposition, and subsequent four-point bend substrates by recourse to measurements of curvature changes before
tests and thermal loading at different temperatures, and after processing and by employing the classic Stoney153
approximation. Here the average stress in the graded thin film is
the distribution of quench stresses and thermal mis- given by l(jl = Es1z;Kj(61zfilm). The calculation of stress does not
match stresses through the thickness of the coatings involve the properties of the film, but is based solely on curvature
is obtained. Figure 18 shows the variation of the total changes, the substrate stiffness and the thicknesses of the layers.
co 50·
:J
1
<A <2
"0
T.....-. Z_i_r_c_o_n_ia ~
T -0.05
o --o~---'=--,----
Sharp interface
--------
l~_----,....:.. ! tf
"~
b
-0.10
6.
<)
Two layer coating
One layer coating
o",:J1
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
4 layer coating
-0.05
-0.10
Graded interface
o Metal rich gradient
\j
Substrate
6. Linear gradient
<) Ceramic rich gradient
(c) -0.15
240r (b)
I (d)
-0.20
220
o 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020
x, m
o 200 21 Normalised shear stress, arising from thermal
a.. excursion, plotted as function of location along
t!)
width, which varies from centre of substrate
w.. 180 width (x= 0) to free edge (x= Lx/2), for
Linear superalloy coated with a discrete layers and
gradien1 b graded layers (After Refs. 24, 155)
160
0.04
Ceramic rich I
Coating
c~
Substrate
r-c
0.03
Ceramic
Sigmoidal
rich 2
I
Vl ------~oida-I~---
<.9 •• ,...------- ------ .••."'-
o x
<3 0.02 ~/' Linear ~
Metal rich I
(a)
1.00
l/l
W
••... o
W
vi
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0
(/)
~ 0.90
c /1
24 Variation of the strain energy release rate G,
7n
normalised by corresponding value for
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
"0
a>
.~ 0.80 substrate Gs' as function of relative crack
"0 depth ell for homogeneous and inhomo-
E
o geneous coatings (After Ref. 24)
z
0.70
One layer ical damage and contact fatigue failure.172-174While
0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
there exists a vast amount of practical data on the
fatigue of layered structures and weldments, there is
(b) Normalised thickness,y/{hl+h2)
a surprising paucity of fundamental information from
23 a two symmetrically formed edge cracks which conclusive trends could be extracted.
located at interface between Rene 41 Ni-base In an attempt to rationalise results from a study of
superalloy substrate and a coating and b eight fatigue crack propagation across ferritic/austenitic
different possibilities for choice of thermal steel interfaces,175,176and to assess the driving force
barrier coating, with all geometric dimensions for fracture across interfaces with homogeneous and
fixed. First is a homogeneous zirconia coating graded properties, Sugimura et al.I77,178 and Kim et a1.29
directly on to superalloy substrate; other seven have conducted detailed finite element simulations of
coatings involve gradient profiles of super- near tip fields. These simulations consider three
alloy and ceramic (two sigmoidal variations
different interfaces oriented normally to the plane of
of graded composition through thickness of
coating, two metal rich gradient profiles,
the crack between two materials of the same elastic
two ceramic rich gradient profiles, and a and thermal expansion properties and isotropic strain
linear profile) for which elastic modulus hardening response, but different yield strengths: an
of composite, normalised by modulus of idealised, sharp interface of zero thickness, a homo-
substrate, is plotted as function of thickness geneous interlayer of finite thickness (whose elastic
of coating (After Ref. 24) properties are the same as the two materials it separ-
ates, but whose yield strength, uniform through the
interlayer thickness, is the arithmetic mean of that of
layer zirconia coating on the alloy substrate produces
the two materials), and a graded interlayer of finite
the largest thermal mismatch stress, it exhibits the
thickness within which the yield strength varies lin-
highest G for all ell. For the choices of gradient
early with distance across the interlayer from one
profiles considered here, it is apparent that a reduction
material to the other. It has been found that the crack
of as much as a factor of four can be gained in the
tip 'driving force', as characterised by the near tip
strain energy release rate by the proper choice of a
J integral,179 Jtip, is altered vis-it-visthe applied driv-
compositional gradient, which signifies a doubling of
the apparent fracture toughness. ing force J app' When the crack approaches the
interface from the weaker material, Jtip becomes
smaller than J app' as the plastic zone spreads
Fatigue crack growth across homogeneous across the interface (Fig. 25a). (In this figure,
and graded interlayers Jtip/Japp is plotted against K/((Jy VI), where K =
Fatigue failure, arising from fluctuations in thermal [Japp(l- v2)/E]I/2, (Jy the yield strength of the plas-
and/or mechanical loads during service, is one of the tically weaker material, and L the distance from the
most potent mechanisms of failure in a number of crack tip to the centre of the interlayer, as shown in
practical applications in which layered and graded Fig. 25b.) In other words, the crack is shielded from
materials are used, or are candidates for potential the applied loads as the plastically stronger material
applications. These applications primarily involve further ahead of the crack tip sustains a greater
cyclic damage and cracking in thermal barrier coat- magnitude of opening stress than the weaker material
ings,30,31,148,166-170
fatigue in the heat affected zone of directly in front of it. The homogeneous interlayer
welded structures,l71 and coatings to prevent tribolog- exhibits the greatest shielding effect, and the sharp
International Materials Reviews 1997 Vol. 42 NO.3
110 Suresh and Mortensen Functionally graded metals: Part 2
1.4
- - - - - - - homogeneous interlayer
bimaterial interfaces wherein criteria for the growth
1.3 ---.- ..----. graded interlayer of the cracks are formulated in terms of the relation
-- sharp interface between the crack opening displacement and the
12 traction acting across the crack surfaces.1Sl In
addition, criteria for different brittle failure modes
c.
1.1 have been formulated for elastic cracks approaching
::t
c.
1.0
~~::--...a 7 8 9
sharp interfaces and those with homogeneous prop-
erties,182-18Sand fracture mechanics solutions for
-f
0.9
0.8
0.7
--_:::~~~~::~:::::)_"' cracks intersecting perpendicularly oriented interfaces
between two elastic solids have been developed.18s-187
The foregoing results clearly reveal that the proper
design of a layered or graded interface can potentially
result in the deceleration or even arrest of the crack.
(a) soft~hard
0.6
This point has considerable implications for the
fatigue resistance of layered and graded coatings, as
illustrated in the following example. Plasma sprayed
chromia (Cr203) coatings, typically 100-500 Jlm in
thickness, are commonly used to enhance resistance
to contact fatigue in a number of structural com-
ponents.188 When such coatings are deposited directly
Published by Maney Publishing (c) IOM Communications Ltd
E,v E,v E,v on to the steel substrate, and the coated material is
cry" N, cry, N cry2, N2 subjected to fatigue, the crack, once initiated on the
free surface of the coating runs rapidly through the
__ X'l{
------
thickness of the brittle coating; the interface, oriented
normally to the surface crack, easily delaminates and
a new fatigue crack initiates in a nearby location
and fractures the substrate. Figure 26a shows an
example176of such a fatigue fracture in a 0·45 wt-%C
~ I x, t
steel spray coated with Cr203' In order to improve
the bond strength, a plasma sprayed interlayer or
~L-- bond coat, typically of a ductile alloy such as
(b) (L=I+; ) Ni-5 wt-%AI of about 50-100 Jlm thickness, is sand-
wiched between the Cr203 and steel layers. If the
25 a predicted variation of
Jtipl Japp as function of
thickness of the bond coat is significantly greater than
for different interlayer geometries
K/(~L)1/2
the size of the plastic zone (for a given service loading
and properties and b schematic of interlayer
geometry (After Ref. 29)
condition) when the crack tip approaches the interface
between the ceramic and the bond coat, the propensity
for the crack to jump across the bond coat will be
interface exhibits the least shielding effect, with the suppressed. In this case, the results of experiment
graded interlayer exhibiting an inbetween trend. shown in Fig. 25 would suggest that the crack would
When the crack approaches the interface from the advance through the interface unimpeded if this
stronger material, the near tip driving force is ampli- interface remains well bonded. However, when the
fied, and hence Jtip/Japp > 1 for all three cases. Recall crack advances through the bond coat and its plastic
that for a homogeneous material, J = J app' since tw zone begins to interact with the interface with the
the J integral is path independent.17 Kim et al.29 steel substrate, i.e. the crack is approaching an
have shown that the extent of shielding and amplifi- interface from a weaker material, crack tip shielding
cation is strongly influenced by the direction of crack is expected. (Note that the elastic moduli of Ni-5AI
advance relative to the interface, the distance from and steel are comparable.) In this case, the crack tip
the crack tip to the interface, the thickness of the would be expected to arrest before reaching the bond
interface and the gradient in the properties within the coat/substrate interface. This is indeed seen exper-
interface. imentally, as shown in Fig. 26b.176 The arrest of the
If now an elastic mismatch is superimposed on the crack enhances the overall fatigue crack growth resist-
plastic mismatch between the two materials, the extent ance of the substrate-coating system. If one compares,
of shielding and amplification can be altered in Fig. 26c, the stress-life (S-N) fatigue curves for the
depending on the relative magnitudes of the two uncoated steel, steel coated only with the ceramic
mismatches. An additional complicating effect in the outer coating, and steel coated with both a bond coat
analyses of near tip driving force for fracture at and the ceramic outer coating, the beneficial effect of
interfaces is the thermal mismatch. Numerical simu- the interlayer is evident. By virtue of its hardness, the
lations180of crack driving force for a ferritic-austenitic ceramic surface coating improves the resistance to
bilayer have shown that the thermal mismatch aids fatigue crack initiation at the free surface where the
both the shielding and amplification effects, especially cracks nucleates189 compared with the behaviour of
when the crack tip is close to the interface. the steel substrate. The S-N curve for the former
While the numerical results given in Fig. 25 do not system is, therefore, higher than that of the substrate
invoke any crack growth laws, cohesive zone models alone. However, when the bond coat is introduced
have been developed for cracks terminating at between the ceramic and the substrate, the ensuing
International Materials Reviews 1997 Vol. 42 NO.3
Suresh and Mortensen Functionally graded metals: Part 2 111
Concluding remarks
The development of graded metals and metal-eeramic
composites can offer a number of distinct advantages
for thermomechanical properties, over those seen in
conventional structural metals and composites. These
include: reduction and optimal distribution of stresses,
suppression of free edge effects and of the attendant
singular fields at interfaces, enhanced interfacial bond
strength, the feasibility of depositing 'thick' coatings
on substrates, a greater resistance to damage by sharp
•
indentors or abrasive failure processes, and a
reduction in the driving force for fracture. It is demon-
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