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Analytical Essay of a Physical Education Lesson Plan

(Development, Learning & Cognition M - EDUC 5160)

INTRODUCTION
Teachers are important agents of change and play a key role in influencing the dynamics of
their learning environments, to ensure that the learning environments they create are both
well structured and student orientated, so they’re responsive to their students needs. Teachers,
who effectively apply learning theories in their lesson plans and teaching practices, are able
to make learning engaging and thus help students transform their understandings and
thinking’s of acquiring knowledge. The aim of this paper is to analyse and discuss a physical
education lesson plan, targeting year 5 students, with a teaching focus towards dance and
movement, from two theoretical approaches to children’s cognitive development. The first is
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1986) and the theoretical concepts of observational
learning and self-efficacy. Secondly, Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) adapted Cognitive
Information Processing Theory and the theoretical concepts of attention and rehearsal in
working memory. Contributing to student’s cognition and learning of achieving the physical
education lesson aims.

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Theory/Theorist 1 –Bandura Social Cognitive Theory (1986)

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory is essentially concerned with the social learning process
and cognitive factors of belief, self-perception and expectations (Bandura 1986, citied in
Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 316). The theoretical concepts of Bandura’s Social Cognitive
Theory that are most visible and applicable to the physical education lesson plan are
observational learning and self-efficacy. This section is most concerned with what influences
the students to achieve the physical education lesson aims.

Theoretical Concept– Observational Learning

Observational learning is a theoretical concept defined as ‘learning by observation and

imitation of others’ (Bandura 1986, citied in Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 318).
Observation learning, also known as modelling is a teaching strategy by which teachers cab
implement in the classroom to teach students new modelled behaviours and attitudes and thus

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contribute and improve learning, cognitive and motivational processing. The teaching and
learning process underlying observation learning are governed by the following four
principles: ‘attention, retention, reproduction and motivation (Bandura 1986, citied in
Bullock, 2014, p.4).

In physical education, much of performing new gross motor skills is facilitated by observing
a model (e.g. modelling). According to a study by Blandin et al. (1999), there is evidence to
suggest that a student can learn a new motor skill, by observing it first. Bandura and Carrol
(1987) describe this as a “cognitive representation” of the gross motor skills to be learned, as
it gives the student a blue print of the new movements. When this occurs, it helps the students
organise and make representations of the movements mentally first, before performing them
in practice under the guidance of the teacher later (citied in Seidel et al. 2005, p. 101). In
order to improve the motor skills retention and fluency, the learning is strengthened by the
teacher’s external motivation, before becoming controlled intrinsically by the student, thus
enabling them to perform and regulate the gross motor skills on their own (Wulf et al. 2010).

The four related principles of observational learning are indirectly implemented throughout
the physical educational lesson plan to provide students the opportunity to develop and
enhance their cognitive and physical movement, (aspects of ‘skilled play’) by participating in
a dance routine. When addressing the first principle, of attention, the teacher aims to get the
students attention, by providing a management plan which focuses on the need for the teacher
to wait for the student’s full attention before providing modelling of instructions of the new
gross motor skills (e.g. physical movements and dance steps). Bandura (1971) suggests,
getting the students’ attention is the first step in the cognitive learning process. In addition,
the lesson plan highlights the importance of the teacher’s position to be in a highly visible
location within the educational setting, so the students can visibly see and hear the verbal and
visual instruction and demonstrations. To ensure the students retain the knowledge observed,
the teacher aims to get the students to progressively learn the dance steps by breaking down
long sequences into chunks and walking students through sequences, counting students in and
providing key cognitive cues for specific dance moves. This is linked to the second principle
of retention. For the newly learned behaviour to be performed smoothly, the teacher than sets
aside time for the students to practice, with guided questioning and feedback by the teacher.
This helps the students retain the movements, since learner generated questioning techniques,
‘involves a higher level of metacognitve involvement since the learner is acting
independently in monitoring and regulating his or her own comprehension’ (Louca 2003, p.

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19). This is linked to the third principle of reproduction. The lesson plan highlights the
importance for the teacher to provide direct effort reinforcement during the physical
education lesson. This gives the students motivation to continue in the lesson. This is linked
to the fourth principle of motivation. This research asserts to the significance of each
principle of observational learning, forming a cycle which enhances student’s learning,
acquisition of knowledge and cognitive growth.

Theoretical Concept – Self-Efficacy

Self – efficacy is a theoretical concept defined as ‘the beliefs in one’s capabilities to organise
and execute the course of action required to proceed given attainments’ (Bandura 1997, citied
in Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 367). Self-efficacy contributes to children’s learning and
cognitive development, by exerting its influences through human functioning, of cognitive
and motivational processes (Bandura 1993, p. 117).

Self-efficacy contributes to cognitive processing by influencing the anticipatory scenarios

they construct and rehearse (Bundura 1993). Viewed from the physical education lesson
perspective, when the students have strong self-efficacy about their abilities, this affects their
cognitive processing and their ability to react, make good judgement and control situations
during physical activity participation (Bandura 1997). Bandura (1993) explained a ‘person
with the same knowledge and skill may perform poorly, adequately or extraordinary, is
dependent on fluctuations in self – efficacy thinking’ (citied in Marek 2016, p. 24). Self-
efficacy contributes to motivation by determining goal levels, effort and perseverance to
failures (Bandura, 1994).Viewed from the physical education lesson perspective, when the
students have strong self-efficacy they will be more motivated to pay attention and not give-
up when challenges arise. This influences their ability to cognitively process information,
understand and elaborate on tasks (Ormrod 2010). In short, self-efficacy impacts students’
cognition and analytical thinking and ‘leads students to perform those activities that they
believe will result in learning’ (Schunk 1991, p. 214).

The encouragement of student’s self-efficacy is indirectly built throughout the physical

education lesson plan to impact the student’s learning, cognitive and motivational processing.
According to Bandura (1993), self-efficacy can be instilled and strengthened in four principle
ways; ‘mastery experiences, level of arousal, vicarious experience and social persuasion’
(Bandura 1997, citied in Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 366).

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The lesson plan aims, for the students to show resilience by persisting and giving their best
effort while learning challenging movements. The teacher wants the students to show effort
and to be successful throughout the lesson. This learning out-come is linked to Bandura’s
self-efficacy (1997), mastery experience. Mastery experience determines resilience in a
student. According to Martens, (2012) ‘success at performing an activity gives a child a
positive experience and a direct incentive to further participate in that activity’ (citied in
Bullock, 2014, p.28). As a result students will try longer when facing with challenges in the
lesson, strengthening their performance of the learned movements

The lesson plan aims for the students, to develop and enhance their cognitive and physical
movement, (aspects of ‘skilled play’) by participating in a dance routine. Since this is a new
gross motor skill for the students, the teacher includes strategies throughout the lesson plan to
minimise emotional stress and anxiety. The lesson plan does this by utilising 2 -3 lines of
students, rotating lines regularly, breaking off into small groups to refine movements and
removing ‘performances’ in front of everyone. This learning out-come is linked to Bandura’s
self-efficacy (1997), level of arousal. The teacher wants to make the students feel excited,
rather than feeling worried and anxious throughout the physical education lesson. This
enhances emotional arousal, which may increase children’s responsiveness to cognitively
process information (Bundura 1993).

The lesson plan aims, for the students to demonstrate fair play by showing consideration for
others when learning new and complex movements. In order for this outcome to be achieved
the lesson plan outlines the importance for the teacher to create a comfortable environment
and provide confident modelled instructions of the new gross motor skills (e.g. dance steps
and physical movements), as the majority would have little to no experience with the physical
activity task. This lesson aim is linked to Bandura’s self-efficacy (1997), vicarious
experience. Vicarious experience can contribute to self-efficacy, whereby, if the students see
a model succeeding, the greater the impact on self-efficacy (Woolfolk & Margetts 2014, p.
368). When the students observe the teacher performing the tasks successfully it encourages
their own behaviours and decision-making, aiding in cognitive development.

The lesson plan highlights the importance for the teacher to use verbal communication, by
questioning and providing direct effort feedback to student demonstrations throughout the
lesson. This teaching strategy is linked to Bandura’s self-efficacy (1997), social persuasion.

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When the teacher provides performance feedback and verbal boost on the student’s efforts, it
supports student’s perception of their progress, sustains motivation and increases efficacy for
learning (Schunk 1989, p. 218).

Theory/Theorist 2 – Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) adapted Cognitive Information Processing

Theory

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) adapted Cognitive Information Processing Theory is a

structured informational processing model which describes how people take in, store and use
information. Figure 1 below, provides a visual representation of the memory stages involved
in this processing model. The theoretical concepts of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) adapted
model that are most visible and applicable to the physical education lesson plan are the
executive control processes of attention and rehearsal. Since students rely on incoming
information and stored information in working memory to do an activity, the role of attention
and rehearsal are important in this process of transferring information from one memory
stage to the next. This section is most concerned with how the students process and remember
the dance movements in a routine from the teacher in the physical education lesson.

Figure 1: Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) adapted Cognitive Information Processing Theory
(citied in Surgenor 2010, p. 3).

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Theoretical Concept – The Role of Attention in Working Memory

Attention is defined by Suthers (1996) as the ‘limitations in our perceptual processing and
response generation: to attend to one this is to not attend to others’ (citied in Lutz & Huitt,
2003, p. 3). According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, (1968) adapted Cognitive Information
Processing Theory, attention was conceptualised as a filter that selects only relevant
information for access into the working memory stage. The analysis of the physical education
lesson plan will focus on the role of sustained and selective attention at early perceptual
processing stage of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) adapted Cognitive Information Processing
Theory before entering into working memory.

Students rely on sustained and selective attention to concentrate on the teacher’s stimuli in
order for them to move the filtered information through consciousness to use in working
memory (Fougnie 2008). Attention is a fundamental cognitive function that controls and
regulates the rest of the cognitive processes, for example; perception. When student’s
attention abilities get better, they are able to process more information at greater levels.
Therefore without the students being sustained and selectively attentive to the stimuli made
by the teacher, processing the modelled dance movements would not be possible.

Factors that can affect student’s sustained and selective attention is their inability to control
their attention long enough to focus on important details and their inability to recognise or
perceive the information being modelled. There are teaching strategies visible in the physical
education lesson to connect and extend the students sustained and selective attention to
strengthen their ability to engage, recognise and perceive the right stimuli made by the
teacher thus contributing to children’s learning and self-monitoring for future development.

The teacher aims to introduce the physical education lesson, by opening with discussion
towards any prior knowledge about dancing that the students may have, as a way to lead into
the objectives of the lesson. According to Keller (1983), in order to engage students and
maintain attention, it’s important to start the lesson off with confidence and relevance, by
arousing initial interest into the subject and encourage the students to use the knowledge they
already posses (citied in Jordan et al. 2008, p. 50).

The teacher aims to present the dance routine without music first to reduce perplexity and
distraction. Children’s cognitive flexibility improves with maturity, experience and or
practice (Deak & Wiseheart 2015, p. 32). Therefore the year 5 students of the physical
education lesson still may find it difficult to modify working memory and control attention.

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This strategy helps sustaining the student’s attention, so they’re able to focus directly on the
teacher’s stimulus, so they can recognise and perceived the most important information
relevant to learning the dance movements.

The teacher aims to give clear, simple verbal instructions and visual demonstrations tailored
to the activity to help the students recognise and perceive the right stimuli made by the
teacher. When addressing verbal communication according to research, organised
instructions that are clear and simple are crucial for promoting new gross motor skills.
Brocken and Kamp (2016, p. 527), suggest that ‘subtle differences in the wording of a
teacher’s organised instructions can significantly influence what aspects of the to-be-learned
motor skill the learner directs attention and consequently on the degree of learning’. When
addressing non verbal communication, the teacher aims to do visual demonstrations of the
modelled skill. Visual demonstrations are valuable in teaching technical movements with
complicated directions. When the teacher implements these strategies it helps the information
processing capacities and students are able to organize and categorize the information to keep
working memory space filled with the right information. According to Atkinson and Shiffrin
(1968), when this occurs it influences sustained attention by adjusting the sensitivity of neural
circuits in favor of the information currently being processed in working memory (citied in
Furley & Wood 2016, p. 2).

Theoretical Concept – The Role of Rehearsal in Working Memory

When the teacher has the student’s attention and has begun delivering instructions, the
teacher must ensure that the new information keeps spinning in working memory. Mental
rehearsal strategies, in the types of maintenance, chunking and elaborative rehearsal are seen
in research as effective ways for students to keep the information activated, so it can be
reproduced (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 259). These rehearsal strategies are visible
throughout the physical education lesson plan; in order for the students to temporarily keep
the newly learned dance movements activated just enough, so they’re able to perform the
dance together in a routine.

The process of maintenance rehearsal is indirectly implemented throughout the lesson plan.
The teacher aims to give students time to break off into small groups to refine movements on
their own. This teaching strategy allows the students to keep information in working memory
by repeating it (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 259). The practice that occurs here helps with

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information encoding and retrieval allowing them to remember the dance moves.
Complimentary when the students get to practice at their own pace this strategy enhances the
student’s self-control of information processing, shifting the focus of learning from the
teacher to the students. It enables the student to control and modify information flow within
the information processing model. This involves different aspects of cognition, contributing
to the students metacognitive abilities of awareness, control over thinking and self-regulatory
behaviour (Surgenor 2010, p. 7).

According to Woolfolk and Margetts (2014), information may be lost from working memory
though interference, for example a student’s mind may start processing new information and
the previous information can written over consequently ‘maintenance rehearsal is not
sufficient to produce a lasting effect’ (Lutz & Huitt 2003, p. 5). This has bearing to chunking
and elaborative rehearsal. The process of chunking is implemented throughout the lesson
plan. Since the students can only take in so much information and store it at a given time
(Lutz & Huitt, 2003, p. 5), the teacher aims to progress learning by breaking down long
sequences into chunks and walking students through sequences. As the teacher groups
individual movements of the dance routine in smaller sequences, the students can retain the
steps in the dance routine (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2014 p. 259). The process of elaborative
rehearsal is indirectly implemented throughout the lesson plan. The teacher aims, for the
students in the next lesson to add their own movements to the end of the currently learned
dance routine. This teaching strategy allows students in the next lesson to keep information in
working memory by associating it with something they already know (Woolfolk & Margetts,
2014 p. 259). ‘It has been established that the more deeply information is processed and the
more connections that can be made between new information and existing memory
structures, the more information will be retained’ (Lutz & Huitt, 2003, p.10).

CONCLUSION
The close relationship between, attention, rehearsal and motivation are important executive
functions linked to theoretical approaches of observational learning and information
processing. Attention, rehearsal and motivation have great relevance to modelling
instruction and teaching, for information to process and incorporated into the memory
structure, for effective student learning. A blend of learning theories derived from Bandura
and information processing will actively help student learning, cognitive and motivational
processing, of achieving lesson and teaching aims in physical education. When this occurs, it

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influences students to be physical activity, which has been found to have a positive effect on
children’s executive functions and or metacognitive abilities, such as attention, organisation,
rehearsal and general information processing skills.

Word Count (Excluding references): 2,779

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REFERENCES

- Bandura, A. 1986, Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

- Bandura, A. 1971, Analysis of modeling processes. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Psychological

modeling: Conflicting theories. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.

- Bundra, A. 1993, Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning,

Journal of Education Psychologist, 28, 2, pp. 117-148.

- Bandura, A, 1997, Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

- Blandin Y., Lhuisset L & Proteau L., 1999, Cognitive Processes Underlying
Observational Learning of Motor Skills, the Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 1999, 52a (4), 957 – 979

- Brocken, E & Kamp J, 2016, Focus of Attention in Children's Motor Learning:

Examining the Role of Age and Working Memory, Journal of Motor Behavior, 48:6, 527-
534, DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2016.1152224

- Bullock, C.G, 2014, "The Influence of Observational Learning on Self-reported Physical

Activity, Self-efficacy for Physical Activity, and Health-related Fitness Knowledge for
Physical Activity" Dissertations. 22. pp. 1-120

- Deak G.O & Wiseheart M, 2015, Cognitive flexibility in young children: General or task-
specific capacity, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 138 (2015) 31–53

- Fougnie, D, 2008, The relationship between worming memory and attention,

- Furley, P., & Wood, G, 2016, Working Memory, Attentional Control, and Expertise in
Sports: A Review of Current Literature and Directions for Future Research. Journal of
Applied Research in Memory and Cognition,

- Louca E.P., 2003, ‘The Concept and Instruction of Metacognition’, Teacher

Development, 7(1).

- Jordan A, Orison C & Annetta S, 2008, Approaches to learning, A guide for teachers,
McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY 10121—2289, USA

- Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2003). Information processing and memory: Theory and
applications. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State
University. Retrieved [date], from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/infoproc.pdf

- Marek, C.J., 2016, Building Principals’ Self-Efficacy Regarding Their Ability to

Supervise Special Education Programming and Staff, Masters Theses. 820.

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- Schunk D.H., 1991, Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation, Journal of Educational

Psychologist, 26(3 & 4), 207-231.

- Seidel, R.J., Perenceviech, K.C & Kett, A.L., 2005, From Principles of Learning to
Strategies for Instruction: Empirically Based Ingredients to Guide Instructional
Development, Springer Science and Business, New York, USA.

- Surgenor P, 2010, Teaching toolkit, how students learn 3, UCD Teaching and Learning
Resources.

- Woolfolk A, & Margetts K, 2016, ‘Educational psychology’, 4th Ed Australasian edition,

Pearson Education, Frenchs Forest, NSW.

- Wulf G, Chiviacowsky S, Schiller E & Ávila L, 2010, Frequent external focus feedback
enhances motor learning , Frontiers in Psychology, 1 pp. 1-190

APPENDIX

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Lesson Plan: Year 5 (Health & Physical Education)

Learning area: Health & Physical Education Band: Movement & Physical Activity
Strand: Moving our body / Understanding movement / Learning through movement
Practise, apply and transfer movement concepts and strategies
Demonstrate and explain how the elements of effort, space, time, objects and people can enhance
performance
Practise and apply personal and social skills when undertaking a range of roles in physical activities
Capabilities: Cross Curriculum Priorities
 Critical & Creative thinking
 Personal & Social capability
 Ethical Behaviour
Student learning Outcomes: Teacher Outcomes:
Evidence of learning The students will ….. The teacher will …….
Cognitive & Physical: (aspects of ‘skilled play’) Management: (operating framework &
interactions)
 Demonstrate development of musicality
through applying sequencing, timing and co-  Wait for the full attention of the class before
ordination during a dance routine. providing instructions
 Learn the students names better through
 Demonstrate good timing by moving in time name based activities in order to foster
to the beat or flow of the music. better individual feedback

Personal Responsibility: (Fair Play / resilience) Presence: (verbal & non verbal communication)

 Demonstrate fair play by showing  Give clear and simple instructions.

consideration for others when learning new
and complex movements.
Social:
 Work co-operatively with their peers and
demonstrate positive communication and
interaction
Affective: (feelings & attitudes)
 Show resilience by persisting and giving
their best effort while learning challenging
movements.
 Use questioning and student
demonstrations to check for student
understanding
P’s of Pedagogy: (Presentation of task,
positioning, acknowledgement + feedback )
 Progress learning by breaking down long
sequences into chunks and walking students
through sequences without music
 Present the task effectively by counting
students in and providing key cues for
specific dance moves
 Position myself to the side and front of the
group so that I have visibility of the students
and they can also follow my demonstrations

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ACTIVITY FOCUS CLASS ORGANIZATION TIME

SPECIFIC LEARNING
(shape + method + (teaching cues or (Shape)
OUTCOMES
enhance ) questions)
(Students will ……)

I Introduction
N
T  Demonstrate good  Who has done some 8.55-9
R timing by moving in hip hop dancing (5min)
 Discussion around the before?
Ensure enough space is given to allow
O time to the beat or lesson plan and any prior students to move freely
D flow of the music.  Discussion around
knowledge about hip-
U what they did, did
hop dancing that the
C  Show resilience by they find it fun?
students might have
T persisting and giving  Explain that the class
 Highlight three key
I their best effort while will be learning a hip-
elements of skilful hip-
O learning challenging hop routine and then
hop dancing techniques
N movements. they will be able to
create their own

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 routine
 Discuss the
importance of 14
emphasising big
movements, strong
movements and low
movements and the
D Picking the beat
importance of these
E in hip-hop dancing
 Give a demonstration
V  Work co-operatively  While listening to three of the differences so
different songs the Rotate students from front to back
E with their peers and that the students
students will complete regularly
demonstrate positive understand what i am
L communication and basic movements as a talking about. 9-9.10
interaction warm-up and a rhythm (10min)
O development exercise
 Begin with basic clapping
P
action in time with the
Songs:
M main beat
 Progress to a marching
E action in time with the
main beat and then Drapht - Bali Party
N
progress to a second Vanilla Ice - ice ice baby
T faster beat
 Transfer into more hip- Tag Team - Whoomp!
hop related movements
with a lean to the beat
 Demonstrate  Transfer into a squatting
development of action and emphasise
musicality through large arm movements  If students are finding
applying sequencing, and going as low as the beat easy to pick
timing and co- possible then progression to a
ordination during a shorter faster beat
dance routine. can be introduced
into all of these
 Demonstrate fair play movements
Name Game
by showing Jonathan Fritsch 100082230 - Development, Learning & Cognition M - EDUC 5160
consideration for  Emphasis on low and
others when learning  Standing in a circle the big through group
new and complex students will
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CLOSURE/DEBRIEF

-Praise for great effort and Last Five

improvement Minutes
C - Thanks for your great
effort and participation
L
-What we will introduce next
O
week - Adding their own
- What was your favourite
S moves to the end of the
move?
routine
U
R
- Group work next week -
-Get them to think about
E Your own routine!
possible moves for next
week and write them down

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