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by
Francesco Q. Pancheri
Luis Dorfmann
Abstract
In this paper we provide new experimental data showing the response of 40A
natural rubber in uniaxial, pure shear and biaxial tension. Real-time biaxial
strain control allows for independent and automatic variation of the velocity
of extension and retraction of each actuator to maintain the pre-selected
deformation rate within the gage area of the specimen. The remaining part
of the paper focuses on the Valanis-Landel hypothesis that is used to verify
and validate the consistency of the data. We use a three term Ogden model to
derive stress-stretch relations to validate the experimental data. The material
model parameters are determined using the primary loading path in uniaxial
and equibiaxial tension. Excellent agreement is found when the model is
used to predict the response in biaxial tension for different maximum in-plane
stretches. The application of the Valanis-Landel hypothesis also results in
excellent agreement with the theoretical prediction.
∗
Corresponding author
Email address: Luis.Dorfmann@tufts.edu (Luis Dorfmann)
URL: http://ase.tufts.edu/msml/ (Luis Dorfmann)
2
strain invariants are proposed by, for example, Mooney (1940); Rivlin (1948);
Yeoh (1993); Gent (1996); Horgan and Murphy (2007) and Carroll (2011), in
terms of principal stretches by Valanis and Landel (1967), and Ogden (1972).
Frequently, nonlinear iterative methods are used to determine values of
the material model parameters. Numerous publications describing these
methods are available, however, most of them involve the use of a single
set of experimental data, typically a simple tension test. Only few publi-
cations discuss the importance of using multiple independent data sets to
determine the magnitude of the parameters and to ensure a stable response
over a wide range of deformations. For instance, Palmieri et al. (2009) and
Ogden et al. (2004) use a combination of simple tension and equibiaxial data,
while Twizell and Ogden (1983) and Stumpf and Marczak (2010) use simple
tension, equibiaxial tension and pure shear.
Unlike the protocol used in Jones and Treloar (1975), the procedure used
here focuses on periodic loading and unloading to preselected stretch lev-
els, the use of virgin samples at the start of each test, and the inclusion of
equibiaxial extension. Additionally, here, tests are performed in real time
while in Jones and Treloar (1975), Kawabata et al. (1981), Rivlin and Saun-
ders (1951) a point to point incremental stretch approach was used. In fact,
stretch was measured manually in the gage region at isochronal intervals, and
was a dependent variable to the applied displacement using a preconditioned
material sample.
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we provide a short overview
of the basic equations describing the response of an incompressible nonlinear
elastic material. To validate the experimental data we specialize the theory
and provide stress-stretch relations for uniaxial and biaxial tension as well as
pure shear. The Ogden model, a formulation that can be used to apply the
Valanis-Landel hypothesis, is used to obtain explict expressions of the stress-
stretch relations in uniaxial and planar biaxial tension. Section 3 outlines
the testing protocol and summarizes experimental data. In Section 4 we
apply the Valanis-Landel hypothesis to verify and validate the consistency
of the data. A three term Ogden model is used to obtain numerical results,
which are compared to the experimental data. Values of the material model
parameters are determined using the primary loading path in uniaxial and
equibiaxial tension. Then, the same material model is used to predict the
response in biaxial tension and the results are compared to available data.
Excellent agreement is obtained in all cases.
3
2. Basic equations
In this section we provide an overview of the basic equations describing
the nonlinear elastic response of rubber-like solids. These will be used to
validate uniaxial loading-unloading and planar biaxial experimental data of
thin sheets of natural rubber. The orientation of the reference system is such
that in all cases the loading directions are parallel to the Cartesian coordinate
axes.
It has been shown by Christensen and Hoeve (1970), Gee et al. (1950)
and Penn (1970) that in uniaxial tension the change in volume is between
0.01% − 0.02% depending on the type of rubber used. In view of these
results we restrict the theory applicable to incompressible materials only.
For a more general representation of the theory of nonlinear elasticity the
interested reader is referred to, for example, Ogden (1997) and Holzapfel
(2001).
To describe the deformation, we denote the stress-free reference configu-
ration of the body by Br and identify a generic material point by its position
vector X relative to an arbitrary chosen origin. Application of mechanical
forces deforms the body, so that the point X occupies the new position x in
the deformed configuration B. This deformation is completely described by
the deformation gradient tensor F defined by
F = Gradx, (1)
where Grad denotes the gradient operator with respect to X. The Cartesian
components of F are Fiα = ∂xi /∂Xα , where i, α = 1, 2, 3. Roman indices
are associated with the current configuration B and Greek indices with the
reference configuration Br . We also use the standard notation
dV
J = det F = > 0, (2)
dv
where dV and dv denote corresponding volume elements in Br and B, re-
spectively. Under the deformation of an incompressible material there is no
change in volume and the corresponding deformation is said to be isochoric
satisfying the internal constraint
J = det F ≡ 1. (3)
The deformation gradient can be decomposed according to the unique
polar decomposition
F = RU = VR, (4)
4
where R is a proper orthogonal tensor and U and V are positive definite and
symmetric and are known as the right and left stretch tensors. These can
be expressed in spectral form. The tensor U, for example, has the spectral
decomposition
X3
U= λi u(i) ⊗ u(i) , (5)
i=1
where the principal stretches λi are the eigenvalues of U, u(i) are the unit
eigenvectors of U, and ⊗ denotes the tensor product.
In hyperelastic materials, for a time independent deformation, the work
done by the body force and surface traction is stored entirely as elastic en-
ergy. The energy density is denoted W and represents the work done by
the stress in deforming a unit volume in Br to B. For homogeneous mate-
rials W depends only on the deformation gradient and we use the notation
W = W (F).
Ogden (1986, 1997), using the energy balance equation, shows that for a
homogeneous incompressible material the nominal stress tensor S is given by
∂W
S= − pF−1 , (6)
∂F
where p is an arbitrary scalar. In component form equation (6) reads
∂W −1
Sαi = − pFαi , (7)
∂Fiα
where we note the switch of indices in performing derivatives with respect to
a non-symmetric tensor.
Using Nanson’s formula Ogden (1997) gives the connection between the
symmetric second-order Cauchy stress σ and the nominal stress S as
σ = J −1 FS. (8)
∂W ∂W
σ=F − pI, σij = Fiα − pδij , (9)
∂F ∂Fjα
5
The notion of objectivity requires that the stored energy is unchanged
when the body is subject to an arbitrary rigid motion in the deformed con-
figuration, i.e. the energy W depends on F only through U and we write
I1 = λ21 + λ22 + λ23 , I2 = λ21 λ22 + λ22 λ23 + λ23 λ21 , I3 = λ21 λ22 λ23 . (12)
Ogden (1997) and Valanis and Landel (1967), for example, have shown
that the energy of an unconstrained, isotropic and elastic material can equiv-
alently be given as function of I1 , I2 , I3 or in terms of the principal stretches
λ1 , λ2 , λ3 . A necessary and sufficient condition is that the energy is a sym-
metric function of the principal stretches, which we write as
∂W
si = − pλ−1
i i = 1, 2, 3, (14)
∂λi
where si are the eigenvalue of S. Similary, the specialization of (9) gives the
principal Cauchy stresses
∂W
σi = λi − p, i = 1, 2, 3, (no summation over i) . (15)
∂λi
Note that the transformation (8) between the principal components of S and
σ reduces to σi = λi si , with no summation over i.
6
2.1. Application to planar biaxial deformations
To validate the experimental results shown in Section 3.3 we apply the
theory to the case of biaxial loading with the principal axes of deformation
coinciding with the Cartesian coordinate directions. Then, the corresponding
deformation gradient F is diagonal with components λ1 , λ2 , λ3 . The stress-
deformation relation in terms of the extension ratios, rather than in terms
of the strain invariants, is most suitable for the determination of the energy
function, which is the formulation we consider in the following (Valanis and
Landel, 1967; Ogden, 1997).
Using the incompressibility condition (3) it is possible to express the
stretch in the third direction as λ3 = λ−1 −1
1 λ2 . It follows that only two of the
principal stretches are independent and the material response can therefore
be defined by a symmetric function of the stretches λ1 and λ2 as
Ŵ (λ1 , λ2 ) = W λ1 , λ2 , λ−1 −1
1 λ2 , (16)
which replaces equation (13). Using equation (16) in (15) gives the principal
stress differences
∂ Ŵ ∂ Ŵ
σ1 − σ3 = λ1 , σ2 − σ3 = λ2 , (17)
∂λ1 ∂λ2
where we note that the scalar p has been eliminated. For an incompressible
material it is always possible to superimpose a hydrostatic stress without
producing strain and equations (17) specialize to
∂ Ŵ ∂ Ŵ
σ1 = λ1 , σ2 = λ2 . (18)
∂λ1 ∂λ2
2.1.1. Simple tension
Simple tension corresponds to an elongation in one direction accompanied
by free contraction in the other two. For an extension in the 1-direction, for
example, we have
λ1 = λ, λ2 = λ3 = λ−1/2 , (19)
and the energy (16) is then a function of the independent stretch λ
W̄ (λ) = Ŵ (λ, λ−1/2 ), (20)
which gives the corresponding principal stresses as
dW̄(λ)
σ1 = σ = λ , σ2 = σ3 ≡ 0. (21)
dλ
7
2.1.2. Pure shear
Pure shear deformation occurs when a thin rectangular sheet is stretched
in the 1-direction, free to contract in the 2-direction and no deformation in
the third direction. The corresponding principal stretches are
λ1 = λ, λ2 = λ−1 , λ3 = 1, (22)
which leads to
dW̃(λ)
σ1 = σ = λ , σ2 ≡ 0, (24)
dλ
and σ3 as given by (17)2 .
λ1 = λ2 = λ. (25)
8
function and is known as the Valanis-Landel hypothesis. For an incompress-
ible material the three principal stretches are not independent and (28) is
replaced by
Ŵ (λ1 , λ2 ) = W λ1 , λ2 , λ−1 −1
1 λ2 = w(λ1 ) + w(λ2 ) + w̄(λ1 λ2 ), (29)
where we note that the argument of the function w̄ is λ1 λ2 , i.e. w̄(λ1 λ2 ) =
w(λ−1 −1
1 λ2 ) = w(λ3 ). Equation (18), using the formulation (29) for Ŵ , gives
9
2.2.3. Equibiaxial tension
In Section 2.1.3 we defined the principal stretches of equibiaxial tension
as λ1 = λ2 = λ with λ3 = λ−2 . This allows the energy formulation (29) to
be replaced by
¯ (λ) = Ŵ (λ, λ) = 2w(λ) + w̄ λ2 ,
W̄ (37)
and from equation (27) the principal stress components are
10
From equation (29) we have
M
X µn
w̄(λ1 λ2 ) = (λ1 λ2 )−αn − 1 , (43)
α
n=1 n
and with σ2 = 0.
For equibiaxial tension, we have
M
¯ (λ) = Ŵ (λ, λ) =
X µn
W̄ (2λαn + λ−2αn − 3), (49)
n=1
αn
with the stress component in the direction of elongation given by
M
X
σ= µn (λαn − λ−2αn ). (50)
n=1
11
3. Experimental methods and results
Samples of natural rubber are used to perform a series of uniaxial and
planar biaxial loading-unloading tests. We provide a summary of the main
features of the testing equipment and an overview of the experimental pro-
tocol. A detailed description of specimen shape and preparation is given by
Dorfmann and Pancheri (2012).
3.1. Equipment
All tests are performed on a custom built Zwick/Roell planar biaxial
testing machine. The machine is outfit with four diametrically opposed
independently-controlled linear actuators, each of 2 kN capacity, travel reso-
lution of 0.1 µm and a dedicated load cell with a resolution of ±0.003 N. A
video extensometer equipped with a charge-coupled device (CCD) continu-
ously monitors the deformation within the gage area of the specimen at 50
frames per second and determines both longitudinal and transverse strains in
separate input channels. Physical gage marks are attached to the sample to
identify the gage region and are used by the video extensometer for tracking
and controlling deformation, see Figure 1.
The arms of the cruciform shaped specimen are securely held in place by
screw-type grips connected to individual load cells. All recorded data, po-
sition of gage marks, actuator drives, load cell readings, stretches and time,
are captured at a sampling rate of 15 Hz. Experiments are performed at
isothermal and quasi-static conditions with ambient temperature of 22±1◦ C
and with constant strain rate of 0.005 s−1 . Control deviations are ±1% from
the specified target stretches. The ability to perform tests using real-time
strain control allows for independent and automatic variation of the veloc-
ity of extension and retraction of each actuator to maintain the prescribed
deformation rate within each pair of gage marks. Therefore, the technol-
ogy corrects for the small sample-to-sample difference in the positioning of
gage marks and also compensates for the differences in specimen arm lengths
caused by the relative position of the sample with respect to the machine’s
grips. This produces a pure homogeneous deformation within the gage re-
gion regardless of what occurs outside of it. To the best of the authors’
knowledge, this is the first time a full strain control protocol has been used
to characterize natural rubber in planar biaxial tension.
12
digital
gage marks
gage physical
region gage marks
Figure 1: Geometric layout of material specimens. The digital gage marks follow the
location of the physical markers by using the provided contrast. Each of the gage marks
is tracked independently and used to adjust actuator movements to control pre-selected
values of stretch and strain rate.
13
coordinate system with the 1- and 2-directions coinciding with the in-plane
principal axes of deformation. Planar biaxial characterization consists of
first stretching the specimen to a pre-selected value λ2 contracting freely in
−1/2
the other two directions, i.e. λ1 = λ3 ≈ λ2 . Next, starting from this
configuration, with λ2 held constant, the sample is subjected to five loading-
unloading cycles in the 1-direction with maximum stretch λ1 = 2.5. During
each cycle unloading is completed and reloading initiated when the initial
preload of 1.5 N is reached.
Following these specifications and using virgin specimens we perform four
planar biaxial tension tests. For the first test, known as pure shear, the spec-
imen is subjected to five loading-unloading cycles with maximum extension
λ1 = 2.5 and no deformation in the 2-direction (λ2 = 1). Additional biaxial
characterization tests are performed by changing the value of the maximum
stretch in the 2-direction to λ2 = 1.5, λ2 = 2.0 and λ2 = 2.25. With these
values held constant, each specimen is subjected to five loading-unloading
cycles in the 1-direction with maximum stretch λ1 = 2.5.
14
6 6
4 4
σ σ
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ λ
Figure 2: Graphs on the left and right show five loading-unloading cycles of natural rubber
in uniaxial and equibiaxial tension, respectively. Data are shown as Cauchy stress versus
stretch with stress values given in MPa.
The graphs on top in Figures 3 and 4 depict the response during initial
uniaxial tension in the 2-direction to a pre-selected value of λ2 . With λ2 held
constant, the specimen is preconditioned in the 1-direction with maximum
extension λ1 = 2.5 (graphs below). Bottom plots show σ2 as a function of λ1
with λ2 held constant.
15
6 6
4 4
σ2 σ2
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ2 λ2
6 6
4 4
σ1 σ1
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ1 λ1
6 6
4 4
σ2 σ2
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ1 λ1
Figure 3: Left and right columns show the stress-stretch responses, respectively, in pure
shear with λ2 = 1 and planar biaxial tension. For the latter, the specimen is first stretched
in the 2-direction to λ2 = 1.5 and free to contract in the other two. Then, with λ2 held
constant, the material is subjected to five loading-unloading cycles in the 1-direction with
maximum stretch λ1 = 2.5. 16
6 6
4 4
σ2 σ2
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ2 λ2
6 6
4 4
σ1 σ1
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ1 λ1
6 6
4 4
σ2 σ2
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ1 λ1
Figure 4: Left and right columns show the stress-stretch responses in planar biaxial tension.
The specimens are first stretched in the 2-direction to λ2 = 2.0 (left column) and λ2 = 2.5
(right column) and free to contract in the other two. Then, with λ2 held constant, the
material is subjected to five loading-unloading cycles in the 1-direction with maximum
stretch λ1 = 2.5. 17
right hand side is constant. It follows that graphs showing the stress differ-
ence, for different values of λ2 , are of identical shape and can be superposed
using a vertical shift (Jones and Treloar, 1975; Vangerko and Treloar, 1978;
Ogden, 1986).
The use of the incompressibility condition (3) allows to extend the ex-
−1/2
perimental data set to the region λ1 ≤ λ2 . In particular, for each set
of recorded values λ1 and λ2 we calculate λ3 = λ−1 −1
1 λ2 , which results in
−1/2
λ3 ≤ λ2 . An equivalent extension of the range of measured data has been
used by Jones and Treloar (1975) and Ogden (1986). From equation (17)2 ,
using (29), we find that
σ3 − σ2 = −λ1 λ2 w̄′ (λ1 λ2 ) − λ2 w′ (λ2 ), (52)
where λ2 is again constant for each biaxial test and therefore λ2 w′ (λ2 ) is con-
stant as well. The data are combined with the measured values by renaming
−1/2
λ3 as λ1 and are shown in Figure 5. In particular, for values of λ1 ≥ λ2 the
stress difference σ1 − σ2 is given by (51) and represents the measured data.
−1/2
For λ1 ≤ λ2 the stress −σ2 is obtained from (52) with σ3 = 0. The point
−1/2
λ1 = λ2 , for each of the tests performed, is indicated by an arrow. We note
that the values of the experimental data for σ1 and σ2 , shown in Figure 5,
coincide when the stretches in the 1- and 2-directions are equal and therefore
the stress difference σ1 − σ2 = 0. For reinforced rubber, for example, this is
not possible since stress relaxation occurs in the direction of constant held
stretch. Therefore, not surprisingly, the Valanis-Landel hypothesis is only
satisfied for nonlinear elastic materials with negligible stress relaxation.
The right term on the right hand side of equations (51) and (52) is con-
stant for constant λ2 . This implies that data in Figure 5 can be shifted
vertically by a theoretically determined amount to overlap, for example, with
data representing pure shear. The vertical shift that transposes biaxial ten-
sion data to the pure shear curve is obtained from equation (51) and has the
form
λ2 w′ (λ2 ) − w′ (1), (53)
where λ2 = 1.5, 2.0 and 2.25. In Section 4 we determine the corresponding
numerical values and verify the accuracy of the data.
4. Numerical results
The material response during primary loading in uniaxial and equibiaxial
tension, shown in Figure 2, is used to determine the values of the material
18
λ2 = 1
4
λ2 = 1.5
2 λ2 = 2.0
λ2 = 2.25
❄
0
σ1 − σ2 ❄
(or −σ2 )
−2 ❄
❄
−4
−6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ1
Figure 5: Primary loading in planar biaxial tension with λ2 held constant. For each
−1/2 −1/2
test the location λ1 = λ2 is indicated by an arrow. For λ1 ≥ λ2 the graphs depict
measured data as stress difference σ1 −σ2 versus λ1 . Use of the incompressibility condition,
−1/2
interchanging λ3 with λ1 , extends range to λ1 ≤ λ2 , where −σ2 is shown as a function
of λ1 . Stress values are given in MPa.
model parameters of a three term Ogden model (39). The nonlinear iterative
method for parameter estimation proposed by Buzzi-Ferraris and Manenti
(2009) is used for calculating the constants µn and αn , n = 1, 2, 3. These val-
ues are summarized in Table 1 and, using equation (40), give the magnitude
of the shear modulus µ = 0.7609 MPa. Figure 6 shows the correspond-
ing numerical results for loading up to λ = 2.75 and compares them to the
experimental data during primary loading taken from Figure 2.
With the material parameters given in Table 1 the model is now used to
determine the in-plane Cauchy stress components σ1 and σ2 in pure shear
and biaxial tension with stretches in the 2-direction, λ2 = 1.5, λ2 = 2.0 and
λ2 = 2.25, held constant. For each value of λ2 , the stretch in the 1-direction is
Table 1: Material model parameters using data from primary loading in uniaxial and
equibiaxial tension. The values of µ1 , µ2 and µ3 are given in MPa.
Material model parameters, Ogden M = 3
µ1 α1 µ2 α2 µ3 α3
0.86253 1.63718 0.01063 5.28573 -0.02097 -2.47885
19
8 8
6 6
σ σ
4 4
2 2
0 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ λ
Figure 6: Left and right figures show numerical results and experimental data during
primary loading in uniaxial and equibiaxial tension, respectively. Numerical results, using
a three term Ogden model, are shown by solid lines. Stress values are given in MPa.
Table 2: Vertical shift factor (53) for λ2 = 1.5, 2 and 2.25. Values are given in MPa.
Biaxial tension λ2 = 1.5 λ2 = 2.0 λ2 = 2.25
Vertical shift 0.9059 2.2417 3.1714
20
8 8
λ2 = 1 λ2 = 1.5 σ1
6 6
σ1
4 4
σ σ σ2
2 2
σ2
0 0
−2 −2
λ2 = 2 λ2 = 2.25
6 6
σ2
4 4
σ2
σ σ
2 2
σ1 σ1
0 0
−2 −2
5. Concluding Remarks
A custom built planar biaxial testing machine is used to characterize
a natural rubber compound. The machine is equipped with four control
mechanisms to independently adjust the movement of each of the actua-
tors stretching simultaneously a cruciform shaped specimen in two mutually
orthogonal directions to pre-selected target stretches. For example, during
pure shear, the specimen is stretched in one direction to the prescribed tar-
21
6
2
λ1 w′ (λ1 ) − w′ (1)
0
−2
−4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
λ1
Figure 8: Vertical shift of results shown in Figure 5 to overlap with data in pure shear.
Accuracy of overlap is used to verify and validate consistency of data. After translation,
all points fall within 3% of the pure shear curve. Solid line represent the numerical fit
using a three term Ogden model. Stress values are given in MPa.
22
tension. The same material model is then used to predict the response in
biaxial tension, where the constant held stretch assumes values of 1.5, 2 and
2.5. The numerical results are compared to experimental data and excellent
agreement is obtained in all cases.
Acknowledgements
This publication was based on work supported in part by Award No KUK-
C1-013-04, made by King Abdullah University of Science and Technology
(KAUST).
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tions Breward
Colegate
Dellar
Howell
Bain
12/84 Chaste: an open source C++ library for computational physiology Mirams
and biology Arthurs
Bernabeu
Bordas
Cooper
Corrias
Davit
Dunn
Fletcher
Harvey
Marsh
Osborne
Pathmanathan
Pitt-Francis
Southern
Zemzemi
Gavaghan
12/85 A two-pressure model for slightly compressible single phase flow Schlackow
in bi-structured porous media Marguerat
Proudfoot
Bähler
Erban
Gullerova
12/97 Inference of the genetic network regulating lateral root initiation Muraro
in Arabidopsis thaliana Voß
Wilson
Bennett
Byrne
De Smet
Hodgman
King
12/99 Calculus from the past: Multiple Delay Systems arising in Cancer Wake
Cell Modelling Byrne
Copies of these, and any other OCCAM reports can be obtained from:
Oxford Centre for Collaborative Applied Mathematics
Mathematical Institute
24 - 29 St Giles’
Oxford
OX1 3LB
England
www.maths.ox.ac.uk/occam