Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cell specialization (or modification or differentiation) is actually a process that occurs after cell
division where the newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they can perform their
function efficiently and effectively.
Biological tissue is a collection of interconnected cells that perform a similar function within an
organism.
The cells in complex multicellular organisms like people are organized into tissues, groups of similar cells
that work together on a specific task. Organs are structures made up of two or more tissues organized to
carry out a particular function, and groups of organs with related functions make up the different organ
systems.
Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed sheets of cells that cover surfaces—including the
outside of the body—and line body cavities. For instance, the outer layer of your skin is an
epithelial tissue, and so is the lining of your small intestine.
Epithelial cells are polarized, meaning that they have a top and a bottom side. The apical, top, side
of an epithelial cell faces the inside of a cavity or the outside of a structure and is usually exposed to
fluid or air. The basal, bottom, side faces the underlying cells. For instance, the apical sides of
intestinal cells have finger-like structures that increase surface
area for absorbing nutrients.
Image showing three cells lining the small intestine. Each cell
contains a nucleus and is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
The tops of the cells have microvilli that face the cavity from
which substances will be absorbed.
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue is essential for keeping the body upright, allowing it to move, and even pumping
blood and pushing food through the digestive tract.
Muscle cells, often called muscle fibers, contain the proteins actin and myosin, which allow them to
contract. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth
muscle.
From left to right. Smooth muscle cells, skeletal muscle
cells, and cardiac muscle cells. Smooth muscle cells do
not have striations, while skeletal muscle cells do.
Cardiac muscle cells have striations, but, unlike the
multinucleate skeletal cells, they have only one nucleus.
Cardiac muscle tissue also has intercalated discs,
specialized regions running along the plasma
membrane that join adjacent cardiac muscle cells and
assist in passing an electrical impulse from cell to cell.
Nervous tissue
Picture of neuron. The neuron has projections called dendrites that receive signals and projections
called axons that send signals. Also shown are two types of glial cells: astrocytes regulate the
chemical environment of the nerve cell, and oligodendrocytes insulate the axon so the electrical
nerve impulse is transferred more efficiently.
Organs
Organs, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are made up
of two or more types of tissue organized to serve a particular function. For example, the heart
pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide, and the skin provides a
barrier to protect internal structures from the external environment.
Most organs contain all four tissue types. The layered walls of the small intestine provide a good
example of how tissues form an organ. The inside of the intestine is lined by epithelial cells, some
of which secrete hormones or digestive enzymes and others of which absorb nutrients. Around the
epithelial layer are layers of connective tissue and smooth muscle, interspersed with glands, blood
vessels, and neurons. The smooth muscle contracts to move food through the gut, under control of
its associated networks of neurons.2^22start superscript, 2, end superscript
Cross-section of the GI tract. From outside to inside: Blood vessels, networks of nerves in smooth
muscle layers, connective tissue, more smooth muscle, another layer of connective tissue, epithelial
tissue, and empty space in the middle as the path of digested food.
Organ systems
Organs are grouped into organ systems, in which they work together to carry out a particular
function for the organism.
For example, the heart and the blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system. They work
together to circulate the blood, bringing oxygen and nutrients to cells throughout the body and
carrying away carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes. Another example is the respiratory system,
which brings oxygen into the body and gets rid of carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, mouth,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs.