Water hammer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
For a hammer powered by water, see Trip hammer.

Effect of a pressure surge on a float gauge

Water hammer (or, more generally, fluid hammer, also called hydraulic shock) is a
pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid, usually a liquid but sometimes also a
gas, in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly, a momentum change. A
water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline
system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe.

This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe
collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses with
accumulators, expansion tanks, surge tanks, blowoff valves, and other features.

Rough calculations can be made either using the Zhukovsky (Joukowsky) equation,[1]
or more accurate ones using the method of characteristics.[2]

Contents
1 History
2 Cause and effect
2.1 Related phenomena
3 Water hammer from a jet of water
4 Water hammer during an explosion
5 Mitigating measures
6 The magnitude of the pulse
6.1 Instant valve closure; compressible fluid
6.1.1 Equation for wave speed
6.2 Slow valve closure; incompressible fluid
7 Expression for the excess pressure due to water hammer
8 Dynamic equations
9 Column separation
10 Simulation software
11 Applications
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
History
In the 1st century B.C., Marcus Vitruvius Pollio described the effect of water
hammer in lead pipes and stone tubes of the Roman public water supply.[3][4] Water
hammer was exploited before there was even a word for it; in 1772, Englishman John
Whitehurst built a hydraulic ram for a home in Cheshire, England.[5] In 1796,
French inventor Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740�1810) built a hydraulic ram for his
paper mill in Voiron.[6] In French and Italian, the terms for "water hammer" come
from the hydraulic ram: coup de b�lier (French) and colpo d'ariete (Italian) both
mean "blow of the ram".[7] As the 19th century witnessed the installation of
municipal water supplies, water hammer became a concern to civil engineers.[8][9]
Water hammer also interested physiologists who were studying the circulatory
system.[10]

Although it was prefigured in work by Thomas Young,[11][10] the theory of water

hammer is generally considered to have begun in 1883 with the work of German
physiologist Johannes von Kries (1853�1928), who was investigating the pulse in
blood vessels.[12][13] However, his findings went unnoticed by civil engineers.[14]
[15] Kries's findings were subsequently derived independently in 1898 by the
Russian fluid dynamicist Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky (1847�1921),[16][17] in 1898
by the American civil engineer Joseph Palmer Frizell (1832�1910),[18][19] and in
1902 by the Italian engineer Lorenzo Allievi (1856�1941).[20]
Cause and effect
When a pipe is suddenly closed at the outlet (downstream), the mass of water before
the closure is still moving, thereby building up high pressure and a resulting
shock wave. In domestic plumbing this is experienced as a loud banging resembling a
hammering noise. Water hammer can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is high
enough. Air traps or stand pipes (open at the top) are sometimes added as dampers
to water systems to absorb the potentially damaging forces caused by the moving
water.

In hydroelectric generating stations, the water traveling along the tunnel or

pipeline may be prevented from entering a turbine by closing a valve. For example,
if there is 14 km of tunnel of 7.7 m diameter full of water travelling at 3.75 m/s,
[21] that represents approximately 8000 megajoules of kinetic energy that must be
arrested. This arresting is frequently achieved by a surge shaft[22] open at the
top, into which the water flows. As the water rises up the shaft its kinetic energy
is converted into potential energy, which causes the water in the tunnel to
decelerate. At some HEP stations, such as the Saxon Falls Hydro Power Plant In
Michigan, what looks like a water tower is actually one of these devices, known in
these cases as a surge drum.[23]

In the home, a water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, washing machine or toilet
shuts off water flow. The result may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging
(as the shock wave travels back and forth in the plumbing system), or as some
shuddering.

On the other hand, when an upstream valve in a pipe closes, water downstream of the
valve attempts to continue flowing creating a vacuum that may cause the pipe to
collapse or implode. This problem can be particularly acute if the pipe is on a
downhill slope. To prevent this, air and vacuum relief valves or air vents are
installed just downstream of the valve to allow air to enter the line to prevent
this vacuum from occurring.

Other causes of water hammer are pump failure and check valve slam (due to sudden
deceleration, a check valve may slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic
characteristic of the check valve and the mass of the water between a check valve
and tank). To alleviate this situation, it is recommended to install non-slam check
valves as they do not rely on gravity or fluid flow for their closure. For vertical
pipes, other suggestions include installing new piping that can be designed to
include air chambers to alleviate the possible shockwave of water due to excess
water flow.[24]

Related phenomena

Expansion joints on a steam line that have been destroyed by steam hammer
Steam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water
hammer, known as steam hammer. In a steam system, a water hammer most often occurs
when some of the steam condenses into water in a horizontal section of the piping.
Steam picks up the water, forming a "slug", and hurls this at high velocity into a
pipe fitting, creating a loud hammering noise and greatly stressing the pipe. This
condition is usually caused by a poor condensate drainage strategy.

Where air filled traps are used, these eventually become depleted of their trapped
air over a long period of time through absorption into the water. This can be cured
by shutting off the supply, opening taps at the highest and lowest locations to
drain the system (thereby restoring air to the traps), and then closing the taps
and re-opening the supply.

On turbocharged internal combustion engines, a fluid hammer can take place when the
throttle is closed while the turbocharger is forcing air into the engine. A
pressure relief valve placed before the throttle prevents the air from surging
against the throttle body by diverting it elsewhere, thus protecting the
turbocharger from pressure damage. This valve can either recirculate the air into
the turbocharger's intake (recirculation valve), or it can blow the air into the
atmosphere and produce the distinctive hiss-flutter of an aftermarket turbocharger
(blowoff valve).

Water hammer from a jet of water

If a stream of high pressure water impinges on a surface, water hammer can quickly
erode and destroy it. In the 2009 Sayano�Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station
accident, the lid to a 640 MW turbine was ejected upwards, hitting the ceiling
above. During the accident, the rotor was seen flying through the air, still
spinning, about 3 meters above the floor. Unrestrained, 256 cubic metres (67,600 US
gal) per second of water began to spray all over the generator hall.[25] The geyser
caused the structural failure of steel ceiling joists, precipitating a roof
collapse around the failed turbine.

Water hammer during an explosion

When an explosion happens in an enclosed space, water hammer can cause the walls of
the container to deform. However, it can also impart momentum to the enclosure if
it is free to move. An underwater explosion in the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel
caused the water to accelerate upwards through 2.5 feet (0.76 m) of air before it
struck the vessel head at 160 feet per second (49 m/s) with a pressure of 10,000
pounds per square inch (69,000 kPa). This pressure wave caused the 26,000 pounds
(12,000 kg) steel vessel to jump 9 feet 1 inch (2.77 m) into the air before it
dropped into its prior location.[26] It is imperative to perform ongoing
preventative maintenance to avoid water hammer as the results of these powerful
explosions have resulted in fatalities.[27]

Mitigating measures
Water hammer has caused accidents and fatalities, but usually damage is limited to
breakage of pipes or appendages. An engineer should always assess the risk of a
pipeline burst. Pipelines transporting hazardous liquids or gases warrant special
care in design, construction, and operation. Hydroelectric power plants especially
must be carefully designed and maintained because the water hammer can cause water
pipes to fail catastrophically.

The following characteristics may reduce or eliminate water hammer:

Reduce the pressure of the water supply to the building by fitting a regulator.
Lower fluid velocities. To keep water hammer low, pipe-sizing charts for some
applications recommend flow velocity at or below 1.5 m/s (4.9 ft/s)
Fit slowly closing valves. Toilet fill valves are available in a quiet fill type
that closes quietly.
High pipeline pressure rating (expensive).
Good pipeline control (start-up and shut-down procedures).
Water towers (used in many drinking water systems) help maintain steady flow rates
and trap large pressure fluctuations.
Air vessels work in much the same way as water towers, but are pressurized. They
typically have an air cushion above the fluid level in the vessel, which may be
regulated or separated by a bladder. Sizes of air vessels may be up to hundreds of
cubic meters on large pipelines. They come in many shapes, sizes and
configurations. Such vessels often are called accumulators or expansion tanks.
A hydropneumatic device similar in principle to a shock absorber called a 'Water
Hammer Arrestor' can be installed between the water pipe and the machine, to absorb
the shock and stop the banging.
Air valves often remediate low pressures at high points in the pipeline. Though
effective, sometimes large numbers of air valves need be installed. These valves
also allow air into the system, which is often unwanted.
Shorter branch pipe lengths.
Shorter lengths of straight pipe, i.e. add elbows, expansion loops. Water hammer is
related to the speed of sound in the fluid, and elbows reduce the influences of
pressure waves.
Arranging the larger piping in loops that supply shorter smaller run-out pipe
branches. With looped piping, lower velocity flows from both sides of a loop can
serve a branch.
Flywheel on a pump.
Pumping station bypass.
The magnitude of the pulse

Typical pressure wave caused by closing a valve in a pipeline

One of the first to successfully investigate the water hammer problem was the
Italian engineer Lorenzo Allievi.

Water hammer can be analyzed by two different approaches�rigid column theory, which
ignores compressibility of the fluid and elasticity of the walls of the pipe, or by
a full analysis that includes elasticity. When the time it takes a valve to close
is long compared to the propagation time for a pressure wave to travel the length
of the pipe, then rigid column theory is appropriate; otherwise considering
elasticity may be necessary.[28] Below are two approximations for the peak
pressure, one that considers elasticity, but assumes the valve closes
instantaneously, and a second that neglects elasticity but includes a finite time
for the valve to close.

Instant valve closure; compressible fluid

The pressure profile of the water hammer pulse can be calculated from the Joukowsky
equation[29]

{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial P}{\partial t}}=\rho a{\frac {\partial v}{\partial

t}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial P}{\partial t}}=\rho a{\frac {\partial v}
{\partial t}}}
So for a valve closing instantaneously, the maximum magnitude of the water hammer
pulse is:

{\displaystyle \Delta P=\rho a_{0}\Delta v} \Delta P =\rho a_0 \Delta v

where ?P is the magnitude of the pressure wave (Pa), ? is the density of the fluid
(kg m-3), a0 is the speed of sound in the fluid (ms-1), and ?v is the change in the
fluid's velocity (ms-2). The pulse comes about due to Newton's laws of motion and
the continuity equation applied to the deceleration of a fluid element.[30]

Equation for wave speed

As the speed of sound in a fluid is {\displaystyle a={\sqrt {\frac {B}{\rho }}}}
{\displaystyle a={\sqrt {\frac {B}{\rho }}}}, the peak pressure depends on the
fluid compressibility if the valve is closed abruptly.

{\displaystyle B={\frac {K}{(1+V/a)[1+c(K/E)(D/t)]}}} {\displaystyle B={\frac {K}

{(1+V/a)[1+c(K/E)(D/t)]}}}
where

a = wave speed
B = equivalent bulk modulus of elasticity of the system fluid-pipe
? = density of the fluid
K = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid
E = elastic modulus of the pipe
D = internal pipe diameter
t = pipe wall thickness
c = dimensionless parameter due to system pipe-constraint condition on wave
speed[30][page needed]
Slow valve closure; incompressible fluid
When the valve is closed slowly compared to the transit time for a pressure wave to
travel the length of the pipe, the elasticity can be neglected, and the phenomenon
can be described in terms of inertance or rigid column theory:

{\displaystyle F=ma=PA=\rho LA{dv \over dt}.} F = m a = P A = \rho L A {dv \over

dt}.
Assuming constant deceleration of the water column (dv/dt = v/t), gives:

{\displaystyle P=\rho Lv/t.} {\displaystyle P=\rho Lv/t.}

where:

F = force, N
m = mass of the fluid column, kg
a = acceleration, m/s2
P = pressure, Pa
A = pipe cross section, m2
? = fluid density, kg/m3
L = pipe length, m
v = flow velocity, m/s
t = valve closure time, s
The above formula becomes, for water and with imperial unit: P = 0.0135 V L/t. For
practical application, a safety factor of about 5 is recommended:

{\displaystyle P=0.07VL/t+P_{1}} P =0.07 V L/t +P_1

where P1 is the inlet pressure in psi, V is the flow velocity in ft/sec, t is the
valve closing time in seconds and L is the upstream pipe length in feet.[31]

Expression for the excess pressure due to water hammer

When a valve with a volumetric flow rate Q is closed, an excess pressure ?P is
created upstream of the valve, whose value is given by the Joukowsky equation:

{\displaystyle \Delta P=Z\,Q} {\displaystyle \Delta P=Z\,Q}

In this expression:[32]

overpressurization ?P is expressed in Pa;

Q is the volumetric flow in m3/s;
Z is the hydraulic impedance, expressed in kg/m4/s.
The hydraulic impedance Z of the pipeline determines the magnitude of the water
hammer pulse. It is itself defined by:

{\displaystyle Z={\frac {\sqrt {\rho \,B}}{A}}} {\displaystyle Z={\frac {\sqrt

{\rho \,B}}{A}}}
with:

? the density of the liquid, expressed in kg/m3;

A cross sectional area of the pipe, m2;
B equivalent modulus of compressibility of the liquid in the pipe, expressed in Pa.
The latter follows from a series of hydraulic concepts:

compressibility of the liquid, defined by its adiabatic compressibility modulus Bl,

resulting from the equation of state of the liquid generally available from
thermodynamic tables;
the elasticity of the walls of the pipe, which defines an equivalent bulk modulus
of compressibility for the solid Bs. In the case of a pipe of circular cross
section whose thickness t is small compared to the diameter D, the equivalent
modulus of compressibility is given by the following formula: {\displaystyle
B={\frac {t}{D}}E} {\displaystyle B={\frac {t}{D}}E}; in which E is the Young's
modulus (in Pa) of the material of the pipe;
possibly compressibility Bg of gas dissolved in the liquid, defined by:
{\displaystyle B_{g}={\frac {\gamma }{\alpha }}P} {\displaystyle B_{g}={\frac
{\gamma }{\alpha }}P}
? being the specific heat ratio of the gas
a the rate of ventilation (the volume fraction of undissolved gas)
and P the pressure (in Pa).
Thus, the equivalent elasticity is the sum of the original elasticities:

{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{B}}={\frac {1}{B_{l}}}+{\frac {1}{B_{s}}}+{\frac {1}

{B_{g}}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{B}}={\frac {1}{B_{l}}}+{\frac {1}{B_{s}}}+
{\frac {1}{B_{g}}}}
As a result, we see that we can reduce the water hammer by:

increasing the pipe diameter at constant flow, which reduces the flow velocity and
hence the deceleration of the liquid column;
employing the solid material as tight as possible with respect to the internal
fluid bulk (solid Young modulus low with respect to fluid bulk modulus);
introducing a device that increases the flexibility of the entire hydraulic system,
such as a hydraulic accumulator;
where possible, increasing the percentage of undissolved gases in the liquid.
Dynamic equations
The water hammer effect can be simulated by solving the following partial
differential equations.

{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}}+{\frac {1}{B}}{\frac {\partial P}

{\partial t}}=0\,} {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}}+{\frac {1}{B}}
{\frac {\partial P}{\partial t}}=0\,}
{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial V}{\partial t}}+{\frac {1}{\rho }}{\frac {\partial
P}{\partial x}}+{\frac {f}{2D}}V|V|=0\,} \frac{\partial V}{\partial t}+ \frac{1}
{\rho}\frac{\partial P}{\partial x}+\frac{f}{2D}V|V|=0\,
where V is the fluid velocity inside pipe, {\displaystyle \rho } \rho is the fluid
density and B is the equivalent bulk modulus, f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction
factor.

Column separation
Column separation is a phenomenon that can occur during a water-hammer event. If
the pressure in a pipeline drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid, cavitation
will occur (some of the liquid vaporizes, forming a bubble in the pipeline, keeping
the pressure close to the vapor pressure). This is most likely to occur at specific
locations such as closed ends, high points or knees (changes in pipe slope). When
subcooled liquid flows into the space previously occupied by vapor the area of
contact between the vapor and the liquid increases. This causes the vapor to
condense into the liquid reducing the pressure in the vapor space. The liquid on
either side of the vapor space is then accelerated into this space by the pressure
difference. The collision of the two columns of liquid (or of one liquid column if
at a closed end) causes a large and nearly instantaneous rise in pressure. This
pressure rise can damage hydraulic machinery, individual pipes and supporting
structures. Many repetitions of cavity formation and collapse may occur in a single
water-hammer event.[33]

Simulation software
Most water hammer software packages use the method of characteristics[30] to solve
the differential equations involved. This method works well if the wave speed does
not vary in time due to either air or gas entrainment in a pipeline. The Wave
Method (WM) is also used in various software packages. WM lets operators analyze
large networks efficiently. Many commercial and non commercial packages are
available.
Software packages vary in complexity, dependent on the processes modeled. The more
sophisticated packages may have any of the following features:

Multiphase flow capabilities

An algorithm for cavitation growth and collapse
Unsteady friction: the pressure waves dampens as turbulence is generated and due to
variations in the flow velocity distribution
Varying bulk modulus for higher pressures (water becomes less compressible)
Fluid structure interaction: the pipeline reacts on the varying pressures and
causes pressure waves itself
Applications
The water hammer principle can be used to create a simple water pump called a
hydraulic ram.
Leaks can sometimes be detected using water hammer.
Enclosed air pockets can be detected in pipelines.
See also
Blood hammer
Cavitation
Fluid dynamics
Hydraulophone � musical instruments employing water and other fluids
Impact force
Transient (civil engineering)
Watson's water hammer pulse
References
Kay, Melvyn (2008). Practical Hydraulics (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-
35115-4.
Shu, Jian-Jun (2003). "Modelling vaporous cavitation on fluid transients".
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping. 80 (3): 187�195.
arXiv:1409.8042?Freely accessible. doi:10.1016/S0308-0161(03)00025-5.
Vitruvius Pollio with Morris Hicky Morgan, trans. The Ten Books on Architecture
(Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914) ; Book 8, Chapter 6,
sections 5-8 , pp. 245-246. Archived 2012-07-11 at the Wayback Machine. Vitruvius
states that when a water pipe crosses a wide valley, it must sometimes be
constructed as an inverted siphon. He states that cavities ("venters") must be
constructed periodically along the pipe "and in the venter, water cushions must be
constructed to relieve the pressure of the air." "But if there is no such venter
made in the valleys, nor any substructure built on a level, but merely an elbow,
the water will break out, and burst the joints of the pipes." Swiss engineer Martin
Schwarz � Martin Schwarz, "Neue Forschungsergebnisse zu Vitruvs colliviaria" [New
research results on Vitruvius' colliviaria], pp. 353-357, in: Christoph Ohlig, ed.,
Cura Aquarum in Jordanien (Siegburg, Germany: Deutschen Wasserhistorischen
Gesellschaft, 2008) � argues that Vitruvius' phrase vis spiritus referred not to
air pressure, but to pressure transients (water hammer) in the water pipes. He
found stone plugs (colliviaria) in Roman water pipes, which could be expelled by
water hammer, allowing water in the pipe to flood the air chamber above the pipe,
instead of rupturing the pipe.
Ismaier, Andreas (2011), Untersuchung der fluiddynamischen Wechselwirkung zwischen
Druckst��en und Anlagenkomponenten in Kreiselpumpensystemen [Investigation of the
fluid dynamic interaction between pressure surges and system components in
centrifugal pumping systems], Schriftenreihe des Lehrstuhls f�r Prozessmaschinen
und Anlagentechnik, Universit�t Erlangen; N�rnberg Lehrstuhl f�r Prozessmaschinen
und Anlagentechnik (in German), 11, Shaker, ISBN 978-3-8322-9779-4
Whitehurst, John (1775), "Account of a machine for raising water, executed at
Oulton, in Cheshire, in 1772", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, 65: 277�279, doi:10.1098/rstl.1775.0026, archived from the original on
2017-03-28 See also plate preceding page 277.
Montgolfier, J. M. de (1803), "Note sur le b�lier hydraulique, et sur la mani�re
d'en calculer les effets" [Note on the hydraulic ram, and on the method of
calculating its effects] (PDF), Journal des Mines (in French), 13 (73): 42�51,
archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-18
Tijsseling, A. S.; Anderson, A. (2008), "Thomas Young's research on fluid
transients: 200 years on" (PDF), Proceedings of the 10th International Conference
on Pressure Surges, Edinburgh, UK: 21�33, archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-
10-24 see page 22.
M�nabr�a, L. F. (1858), "Note sur les effects de choc de l'eau dans les conduites"
[Note on the effects of water shocks in pipes], Comptes rendus (in French), 47:
221�224, archived from the original on 2017-03-28
Michaud, J. (1878), "Coups de b�lier dans les conduites. �tude des moyens employ�s
pour en att�neur les effects" [Water hammer in pipes. Study of means used to
mitigate its effects], Bulletin de la Soci�t� Vaudoise des Ing�nieurs et des
Architects (in French), 4 (3,4): 56�64, 65�77
Tijsseling, A. S.; Anderson, A. (2008). Hunt, S., ed. "Thomas Young's research on
fluid transients: 200 years on". Proc. of the 10th Int. Conf. on Pressure Surges.
Edinburgh, United Kingdom: BHR Group: 21�33. ISBN 978-1-85598-095-2.
Young, Thomas (1808). "Hydraulic investigations, subservient to an intended
Croonian lecture on the motion of the blood". Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London. 98: 164�186.
von Kries, J. (1883), "Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Druck und Geschwindigkeit,
welche bei der Wellenbewegung in elastischen Schl�uchen bestehen" [On the
relationships between pressure and velocity, which exist in connection with wave
motion in elastic tubing], Festschrift der 56. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher
und �rzte (Festschrift of the 56th Convention of German Scientists and Physicians)
(in German), T�bingen, Germany: Akademische Verlagsbuchhandlung: 67�88, archived
from the original on 2017-03-28
von Kries, J. (1892), Studien zur Pulslehre [Studies in Pulse Science] (in
German), T�bingen, Germany: Akademische Verlagsbuchhandlung, archived from the
original on 2017-03-28
Tijsseling, Arris S.; Anderson, Alexander (2004), "A precursor in waterhammer
analysis � rediscovering Johannes von Kries" (PDF), Proceedings of the 9th
International Conference on Pressure Surges, Chester, UK: 739�751, archived (PDF)
from the original on 2016-03-04
Tijsseling, Arris S.; Anderson, Alexander (2007), "Johannes von Kries and the
history of water hammer", Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 133 (1): 1�8
Joukowsky, N. (1898), "�ber den hydraulischen Stoss in Wasserleitungsr�hren" [On
the hydraulic hammer in water supply pipes], M�moires de l'Acad�mie Imp�riale des
Sciences de St.-P�tersbourg (1900), series 8 (in German), 9 (5): 1�71
Tijsseling, Arris S.; Anderson, Alexander (2006), The Joukowsky equation for
fluids and solids (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-09-12
Frizell, J. P. (1898), "Pressures resulting from changes of velocity of water in
pipes", Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 39: 1�18, archived
from the original on 2017-03-28
Hale, R. A. (September 1911), "Obituary: Joseph Palmer Frizell, M. Am. Soc. C.
E.", Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 73: 501�503, archived
from the original on 2017-03-29
Allievi, L. (1902), "Teoria generale del moto perturbato dell'acqua nei tubi in
pressione (colpo d'ariete)" [General theory of the perturbed motion of water in
pipes under pressure (water hammer)], Annali della Societ� degli Ingegneri ed
Architetti Italiani (Annals of the Society of Italian Engineers and Architects) (in
Italian), 17 (5): 285�325
http://communities.bentley.com/products/hydraulics___hydrology/f/5925/p/60896/14725
0.aspx#147250
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-12-20. Retrieved 2012-07-16.
"Saxon Falls Hydro Generating Station | Xcel Energy". www.xcelenergy.com. Archived
from the original on 2017-08-16. Retrieved 2017-08-16.
"How To Prevent Water Hammer | DFT Valves". DFT Valves. Archived from the original
on 2017-08-16. Retrieved 2017-08-16.
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-12-13. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
Flight Propulsion Laboratory Department, General Electric Company, Idaho Falls,
Idaho (November 21, 1962), Additional Analysis of the SL-1 Excursion: Final Report
of Progress July through October 1962 (PDF), U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Division of Technical Information, IDO-19313, archived (PDF) from the original on
September 27, 2011 ; also TM-62-11-707
Wald, Matthew L. (1993-05-07). "U.S. Blames Con Ed Error For Fatal Plant
Explosion". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2017-
08-16. Retrieved 2017-08-16.
Bruce, S.; Larock, E.; Jeppson, R. W.; Watters, G. Z. (2000), Hydraulics of
Pipeline Systems, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-1806-8
Thorley, A. R. D. (2004), Fluid Transients in Pipelines (2nd ed.), Professional
Engineering Publishing, ISBN 0-79180210-8[page needed]
Streeter, V. L.; Wylie, E. B. (1998), Fluid Mechanics (International 9th Revised
ed.), McGraw-Hill Higher Education[page needed]
"Water Hammer & Pulsation" Archived 2008-07-01 at the Wayback Machine.
Faisandier, J., Hydraulic and Pneumatic Mechanisms, 8th edition, Dunod, Paris,
1999 (ISBN 2100499483)
Bergeron, L., 1950. Du Coup de B�lier en Hydraulique - Au Coup de Foudre en
Electricit�. (Waterhammer in hydraulics and wave surges in electricity.) Paris:
Dunod (in French). (English translation by ASME Committee, New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 1961.)
External links
What Is Water Hammer and Why Is It Important That You Prevent it?
What Is Water Hammer/Steam Hammer?
"Water hammer"�YouTube (animation)
"Water Hammer Theory Explained"�YouTube; with examples
Authority control
NDL: 00571549
Categories: HydraulicsIrrigationPlumbing
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView
historySearch

Search Wikipedia
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
???????
Deutsch
Espa�ol
Fran�ais
???
???
Portugu�s
???????
??
19 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 30 May 2018, at 13:07 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia� is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie
statementMobile view