Earliest times:

The early history of Britain is essentially a chronicle of invasions. Long before the Romans
(recorded British history), wave after wave of warlike settlers landed on British shores because:
- The island lay invitingly open to invasion, since there weren’t any group of people living
there to fight the invaders.
- Britain had a milder climate than continental Europe because it lies in the way of the
Gulf Stream, which brings warm water and winds from the Gulf of Mexico.
- Also, the south and east are low-lying areas which means better agricultural conditions.
Due to all this, that area (southeast) has been the most densely populated, the richest (in terms
of wealth) and the one with greatest political power.

Britain has not always been an island, it became one only after the end of the last ice age (the ice
melted and formed the English Channel).
Our first evidence of human life is in 250,000 BC. (Neanderthal) They made stone tools. There
were two groups, one coming from Europe as far as Russia, the other coming from Africa and then
spread to Europe.
The Ice Age advance again. Then, after a milder period, around 50,000 BC a new kind of people
arrived. They are the ancestor of the modern British (they looked similar but were smaller and
had a very short lifespan)
Around 10,000 BC, as the ice age drew to a close, Britain became peopled by a small group of
hunters, gatherers and fishers, which seem to follow herds of deer which provided them with
food and clothing. Britain will become heavily forested. (Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age)
By 3,000 BC The New Stone Age (or Neolithic) began. Large groups of Neolithic people crossed
the channel from Europe in small round boats. These people: Kept animals, grew corn crops
and knew how to make pottery. They probably came from the Iberian (Spanish) Peninsula, or the
North African coast. They settled in the western parts of Britain and Ireland (Wales, Cornwall and
then went up north all the way).

These were the first of several waves of invaders before the first arrival of the Romans in
55 BC.

- Culture:
Neolithic people built great “barrows” or “burial mounds” (built from 4,000 BC to 600 CE –
Common Era) made of earth and stone. They are an artificial hill of earth and stones built over the
remains of the dead, mostly found in south Britain.
The Chalkland people (Iberian people) lived in south Britain. They started to build great circles
of earth banks and ditches (elevated areas of land and canals). Inside, they built wooden
buildings and stone circles. These were called “Henges”, and were centres of religious, political
and economic power.

Overview: From Neolithic to Bronze age:

The introduction of farming, in opposition to hunting, was one of the biggest changes in human
history, since it marked a change from a hunter-gatherer to a farming and therefore (the
significance) more settled way of life. However, this was not a rapid change, it took about 2,000
years to spread to the whole British Isles.
The arrival of farming, which came from Europe but originated in Syria and Iraq, is hailed as the
Neolithic Revolution. Neolithic farmer also brought with them the first seed grains of wheat
(trigo) and barley (cevada). Farming tended to encourage a more settled way of life than that of
the Mesolithic communities, that used to move around the country following the animals.
At about 3,800 BC (The Middle Neolithic) people started to live in communities, and with them
started the first communal tombs, known as long barrows or mounds, and the rise of the earliest
ceremonial monuments, known as causeway enclosures. Here people gather together to
socialize, to meet new partner, to acquire new livestock and to exchange ceremonial gifts.
Here, rituals took place, which involved the burial of significant items, such as finely polished axes
heads, pottery vessels or human skull. (They were good workers of metal).
Some great ceremonial monuments, such as the “passage” graves were aligned according to the
position of the sun. The grave was positioned so that the sun would shine on the interior even on
the shortest winter days. Passage ways were also constructed so there would be good acoustic,
since they were the scenes of ritual or religious practices.
From around 3,000 BC Henges monuments, like Stonehenge, started to develop. Stonehenge was
almost like a capital, to which the chiefs of other groups came from all over Britain. Henges were
built in different parts of Britain, for example in the Orkney Islands in north Scotland, or Cornwall in
the south.
Neolithic houses were thatched buildings (didn’t last) made from timber and the walls of wattle
(wicker + mud). They would mix clay, straw and cow dung, and the house would lodge a family
from 6 up to 10 people.

By around 2,500 BC, the first bronzes started to appear in Britain. The metal change the
appearance with fire. However, lifestyle didn’t change much since henges were still used. On the
other hand, long barrows or passage graves were replaced by smaller round barrows.
The Beaker folk came to Britain around 2,000 BC, and it’s unknown whether they invaded, or were
invited because of their metalworking skills. They knew how to build tools and weapons (metal
workmanship). These, soon started to replace stone ones. They received that name since they
were buried in individual graves, furnished with pottery beakers. The Beaker People brought with
them from Europe a new cereal, barley, that could grow almost everywhere. This seemed to be
one of the reasons why they buried people individually, perhaps they felt that it wasn’t necessary to
please the gods of the soil.
From 1,300 BC onwards the henge civilisation seems to have become less important, and was
overtaken by a new form of society in southern England, that of a settled farming class. Soon,
they learnt how to enrich the soil with natural waste materials; at the same time, the chalk uplands
were becoming drier. As a result, the old central control of Stonehenge and the other henges were
lost. Power shifted to the Thame Valley and southeast Britain; Hill-Forts replaced henges. (Hill-forts
were raised defended settlements, often built on cliff tops or large knolls and spurs, that provided
trading centres and secure enclosed habitats for humans during the Bronze and Iron Ages.)

The Age of Bronze brought organised religion and priesthood, a tribal structure centre
around the figure of a king-life chief and a slowly-evolving aristocracy.

Schultz: The Celtic Invaders:

Celts:
The last of the early invaders were the Celts. They mark the Iron Age, and brought the use of
money. The Celtic-speaking tribes of France and of (what is now) Western Germany, migrated to
the British Isles to obtain relief from continental conflicts (they were being threatened by rival
groups). The Celts, probably came from Central Europe, or further east like southern Russia,
and had moved slowly westwards in earlier centuries.
The Celts arrived at about 700 BC, in groups, armed with battle axes and double-edged swords.
They landed in the South-East and moved inland over the course of the next 700 years. They were
tall, had fair or red hair and also had blue eyes.
They were technically advance since they knew how to work with iron, this meant that they had
better weapons than the Beaker folk. It is possible that they drove many of the older inhabitants
westwards, into Wales, Ireland and Scotland. The Celts were organised into different tribes, and
tribal chiefs were chosen as a result of fighting matches between individuals, or sometimes by
election. The Celts arrived in different groups, and the last of the Celtic tribes to arrive were the
Belgic tribes.
The Celts made agriculture and grazing important industries for the first time. Communities of
farmers lived in hut villages and the clan (a group of families claiming descents from a common
ancestor) became the centre of their social organization. Their advance metalworking skills and the
use of iron allowed them to introduce a heavier plough, this made easier to plough heavier soils,
and as a result, the Celts were highly successful farmers and could grow enough food for a large
population.
The Hill-Forts began to replace the henges, as centres of local power. These hill-forts were filled
with houses and became the economic capitals and smaller ‘towns’ of the different tribal areas.
The two most important classes were the warriors and the priests.

Celtic Religion: Druidism originated in England and Ireland, and then spread to Gaul (what is now
France and Belgium). The Druids were a cast of priests who exercised a great powers. They
preached a religion of fear and immortality, worshipped various nature gods in sacred groves and
offered human sacrifices.
The Druid Priests:
- Commanded prestige
- Served as judges
- Were leaders of tribal opinion
- Were teachers
- Knew about astronomy and philosophy
- Believed that the soul was immortal
Druids: Even though they could not read or write, they memorised all the religious teaching, the
tribal laws, history, medicine and other knowledge necessary. The Druids from different tribes
probably met once a year, in sacred groves of trees, on certain hills, by rivers or by river sources
(during these meetings, they included human sacrifices).
Celtic and Britain Gaul: They both had several ties, such as Druidism, trade and racial affinity. In 75
BC the Belgic tribes of Gaul claimed South-East Britain as their kingdom. These Gallic Celts
dispersed the native Celts form the best lands and they were the first tribe to face the next invader:
Julius Caesar.

The Celts: They are important in British history since they are the ancestors of many people in
Highland Scotland, Wales, Ireland and Cornwall today.
At first most Celtic Britain seems to have developed in a generally similar way as before (for
example trade with Europe). But from 500 BC trade contact with Europe declined, and regional
differences between northwest and southeast Britain increased.
The Celts traded across tribal borders and trade was important for political and social contact
between the tribes. Most trade was conducted by river or sea, and for money they began to copy
the Roman coins they saw used in Gaul.
During the Celtic period women may have had more independence than they had again for
hundreds of years. When the Romans invaded Britain, one of the largest tribes were ruled by
Boadicea. She had become queen of her tribe when her husband died. She was tall, with long red
hair, and had a frightening appearance. (In 61 AD she led her tribe against the Romans and
almost drove them out of Britain, but she was defeated and killed)

The Romans:
In contrast to other invaders, like the Celts before them, and the Anglo-Saxons after them, the
Romans came to Britain to rule and and exploit the island as part of a world empire, not to
push the inhabitants and settle in their place. (The Romans, were interested in the wealth, since
they needed food to fed the legion).
The Romans remained alien to the place and therefore only temporary in its result: They didn’t
care about Britain – for them was the fringe of the world – they only wanted the land, that is
conquer and exploitation. They didn’t want to mix with the other people that were considered
barbarians. (The results only were trade with Gaul, and that the Romans could enter Britain
peacefully)
The Invasions of Julius Caesar (55 and 54 BC.):
In his conquest of Gaul, he attacked Britain two times.
- One of the reasons for the invasion was to punish the south Britons who were providing
aid to their kinsmen in Gaul.
- Another reason was that a victory would also provide Caesar with tribute and slaves
for his supporters in Rome and booty for his soldiers.
His 1st expedition was a military failure and had to withdraw. So he returned the next year with five
legions. This time he won several battles, penetrated inland as far as where London is, and the
Britons sued for peace. Caesar granted them a treaty an easy terms as renewed disturbances had
sprang up in Gaul (Caesar needed to concentrate on Gaul). The treaty was a promise of yearly
tribute and some hostages.
The coming of Claudius (43 AD):
The Romans will come to settle. In 43 AD, emperor Claudius ordered Aulus Plautius to invade the
island, because he was anxious for glory, was irritated by a revolt in Gaul instigated by the Druids,
and also his Gallic origins increased his interests in conquering Britain. Besides, the Romans
needed the food the celts were producing. Unfortunately, the Britons didn’t put up a united
resistance. The occupation took Claudius between 3 or 4 years. From 47 to 61, the Roman
occupation extended northwards and westwards.

In 61 AD Queen Boudicca (or Boadiccea) of Iceni:

During the Celtic period women may have had more independence than they had again for
hundred years. Boudicca become queen of her tribe when her husband had died.
While Suefonius was suppressing the Druids at their sacred center of worship in Anglesey, the
Iceni /ai´si:nai/ under Queen Boudicca revolted. They attacked the Romans in retaliation for the
confiscation/plundering of their property and the public outrage committed against the Queen and
her family.
Boudicca led her tribe against the Romans. An estimated 70,000 – 80,000 between Romans and
Britons were killed in 3 cities: London, Colchester and St. Albans.

Harold J. Schultz:
The expansión of Roman Rule:
In AD 78 Agricola became the new governor, and completed the conquest of Wales and extended
Roman rule into Scotland. He was an able leader and administrator, and he managed to pacify
most of southern England by means of his efficient statesmanship.
The Roman legions were reduced to 3, located at strategic centers near the frontiers: Caerdon and
Chester (on the border of Wales) and York (in the north). There were rebellions only in Scotland, so
in AD 122, in order to protect northern England from barbarian raids, Emperor Hadrian ordered to
build a wall: “The Hadrian’s Wall” From the Tyne River to Solway Firth. This wall was made of
Stone and divided England from Scotland, or as the Romans called it, Caledonia, and called the
people living there “Picts”
Later on, in AD 143 , another emperor, Antonius Pius, extender Roman control northwards and
constructed a second fortification, “The Antonine Wall”. This one was made of torf. However, the
Picts overrun both walls.

Roman Life:
Under Roman rule, the Britons began to live in towns and travelled from town to town along stone
highways. The towns were the basis of Roman administration and civilisation. There were 3
different kind of towns: the Coloniae (towns peopled by Roman settlers), the Municipia (large
cities in which the whole population was given Roman citizenship) and the Civitas (included the
old Celtic tribal capitals, through which the Romans administered the Celtic population in the
countryside).
The Romans left about 20 large towns. At first, they were army camps, so the word “castra” (camp)
has remained as part of the name of many towns, ending in –chester, -caster or –cester:
Gloucester, Lancaster, Chester, Winchester.
The towns were built with stone and wood. They had streets, markets and shops. Some buildings
had central heating, and the towns were connected with well built roads.
Outside the towns, the biggest change during the Roman occupation was the growth of large
farms, called “villas”. These belonged to the richer Britons who were more Roman than Celt in their
manners. Each villas had many workers, and were usually close to towns to sell the crops easily.

Pax Romana:
Britons began to live in towns. There were also country villas, that were near the countryside. Also,
under Roman rule, there was a New Faith, Christianity. However, the Romans leave (or accepted)
other religions and cultures.
Roman Institutions: They imposed the Britons their imperial administrative structure, known as
Indirect Rule: This included racial and religious toleration, and algo allowed the Celtic chiefs to
continue leading their people (as local leaders) as long as no political opposition was involved.
Roman Administration: Between the reigns of Claudius (43) and Severus (211), Britain was
administered by governors whose duties included maintaining peace, collecting taxes, and
providing justice. All this, and Indirect Rule, permitted the loyal Celtic chiefs to continue to exercise
authority over their tribesmen. This policy served to: Romanize the Celts, and to minimize friction.
By AD 313 (by this date, the Roman Empire was already crumbling) Emperor Constantine finally
granted toleration to Christianity, meaning that most or much of Celtic Britain remained pagan. It
gained strength mostly in Wales and will continue to expand as the Celtic Christian Church well
after the Romans leave.
Roman Withdrawal: By the 4th C. the declining of the Roman Empire encouraged the Picts, the
Scots and other raiders from northern Europe to harass Roman outposts and to force the Romans
to draw in their defensive borders. In AD 367, the Celts from Caledonia attacked the Romans and
they could not stopped them. Roman legions evacuated Britain to fight elsewhere and never
returned. The last soldier left the island in 407.
Roman Achievements: Roman contributions to Britain were largely material. They built towns and
established some features of urban lifes, such as fórums, public baths, indoor plumbing and
amphitheaters. Also, splendid stone highways, with London as the hub of these roads, became the
chief port of entry for commerce with the rest of the empire. Another innovation were the tradition of
townhouses and villas.
However, some Britons lived neither in towns nor villas, and Latin civilization made Little impact on
them. The only two things that survived after the departure of the romans were the roads (since
they were well built) and Christianity. The Romans did not succeed in permanently Latinizing
Britain, as they did with France (Gaul).

The Anglo-Saxons:
They established the fundamental character of the English people. Also, form them England
received its name (England), it’s shires, it’s ethnic groups and the beginning of political unity.
The new invaders entered England with ease, since the Romans had always protected the Britons,
now they had to fend for themselves. However, the Romans never taught the Britons how to
defend themselves. Also, this new conquest was made easier by the renewal of intertribal warfare
among the Celts.
The Nordic warriors crossed the Channel in shallow boats on sporadic forays. The invasion was
never carried out systematically, and the invaders found it much easier to fight the Britons than to
live peacefully together. The conquest continued intermittently for two centuries. But the first
invaders came to raid and plunder, and then began to settle after AD 430.
The anglo-saxons were nordic tribes, coming from what it is today north-western Germany and the
Jutland peninsula. The 3 dominant groups were: Angles (settled in the east and the north
Midlands), Saxons (settled between the Angles and the Jutes), and Jutes (settled in a band of land
from Thames Estuary westwards). The A-S brought with them their Germanic culture with its
rugged code of justice and loyalty to a chief or military leader.
The Celts couldn’t fight the invaders from the south, and the Scots and Picts from the north.
Eventually, the Roman-Celtic culture of central England was replaced with a more primitive culture,
and the Celts were pushed westwards and driven into wales. Some Britons were either killed or
enslaved.

Due to the lack of unity or a single leader, the A-S settled seven kingdoms, known as The
Heptarchy. Kent was occupied by the Jutes. Essex, Wessex and Sussex were occupied by the
Saxons. East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were occupied by the Angles.
Kent was the first dominant kingdom, especially during the reign of King Ethelbert (552-616). Then,
Northumbria succeeded Kent in the 7th century. Then Mercia and Wales in 632.
The last of the Mercian overlords was Offa II, who ruled from 757 to 796. He extended his kingdom
north and west, codified laws and won recognition from the Pope and Charlemagne (King of the
Franks and Holy Roman Emperor). Offa conquered Wessex and established supremacy over all
England so he is considered 1st overlord to be recognized as “king of the whole of the land of
the English”
When Offa died, the supremacy passed to Wessex in 802, under King Egbert (775 - 839). He
defeated the Mercians, and then his son Ethelwulf continued the consolidation of Wessex. (then
his son Ethelred, then his youngest son Alfred, later known as Alfred the Great)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
The return of Christianity:
As the A-S were pagan, conversion to christianity will happen in 590 to 660 (more than hundred
years after they settled). The new message from Rome and the Celtic island of Iona was foreign to
the Nordic tradition, since Christianity spoke of love, repentance and redemption. It suggested
great hope, but also great fera of the afterlife.
Celtic church: The Welsh and Irish church prospered, especially in the 5th and 6th C. From 432 to
461 Saint Patrick of Britain converted Ireland and founded a church more famous for the high
degree of learning and autonomy of its monasteries, than for their episcopal organization (church
government administered through bishops) An Irish Monk, Saint Columba, brought the faith to
western Scotland, and then missionaries were sent to Iona to convert the Picts in 563. In 617
Oswald of Northumbria became christian during his exile in Iona and, after becoming king in 634,
assisted Celtic missionaries in introducing the Christian faith to all Northumbria.
Roman church: In 597 Pope Gregory sent monk Augustine to Britain with forty missionaries, to re-
established Christianity in England. He went to Canterbury, the capital of Kent, and King Ethelbert
of Kent received the missionaries, since his Frankish wife was already a christian. Ethelbert
converted and made Canterbury the seat of the archbishopric. Augustine became the first
Archbishop of Canterbury in 601. In the following centuries christianity gradually enlarged its
influence in the heptarchy. When a king became a Christian, he would usually decree that
Christianity was the official religion of his kingdom.

Augustine was very successful, but it was the Celtic Church which brought Christianity to the
ordinary people of Britain. The Celtic bishops went out from their monasteries, walking from village
to village, teaching Christianity.
The Celtic Church was most interested in the hearts of the ordinary people, whereas the Roman
Church was interested in authority and organisation.
The competition, differences and conflicts between the two churches, left King Oswy of
Northumbria with a divided church (and citizenry) in his kingdom. An ecclesiastical conference was
summoned to settled the matter. In 663 at the Synod of Whitby, the king of Northumbria decided to
support the Roman Church. The Celtic churchmen gradually withdrew to Iona, leaving the Roman
Church organize England.

There were 3 main reasons why the A-S kings helped the Church to grow, and the Church
also increased the power of king:
1. Bishops gave kings their support, which made it harder for royal power to be questioned. Kings
had “God’s approval”, and this was good because of the uncertainty of the royal succession.
An eldest son did not automatically become king, as kings were chosen from among the
members of the royal family, and any member who had enough soldiers might try for the throne.
When Offa arranged for his son to be crowned as his successor, he made sure that this was
done at a Christian ceremony led by a bishop.
2. The Church also established monasteries, or minsters, which were places of learning and
education. They trained the men who could read and write, so that they had the necessary skills
for the growth of royal and Church authority.
3. The A-S kings prefered the Roman Church also for economic reasons. The monasteries
increased local trade, and they could also trade with other countries in Europe.

Government and society:

The most striking feature of the A-S period, was the gradual appearance of a semblance of
“national” unity. What unify the English people was:
● The Church: provided an organization (divided into monasteries and parishes), and also a
common faith.
● The Monarchy (+ the Witan): At the centre of the government stood the king, who wielded full
power, and treason against him was the highest crime. Aside from the Danegeld (a direct land
tax on the whole kingdom), the king had few rights to tax. However, he obtained fees from the
rents on his states, and he could demand personal service from his subjects. The Witan was an
advisory council selected and only summoned by the king, and served as the highest court of
the land and assisted the king (but the king could decide to ignore the Witan’s advice). The
member of were mainly nobles, and the bishops and some court officials.
The Crown was usually inherited, but in practice the successor would be chosen by the Witan
 from any member of the royal family. (The significance: The Witan had limited power, but set a
precedent for consulting bodies in later centuries.)
● Local Government:
➢ Shire: (called county after the Norman Conquest) was the largest unit. The chief official
was the Ealderman (earl), who were more autonomous and his office became hereditary.
Then, the shire reeve (or sheriff), who was a direct representative of the king, collected
rents from the crowns lands. And then the bishops.
➢ Hundreds: Each shire was divided into several hundreds. The hundreds had its own
assembly or moot, and was preceded over by the hundred reeve. They preceded over
local courts (although the most important cases were tried in the witan) and met twice a
year.
➢ Tun (or agricultural villages): The A-S were town people, and township was more of an
agriculture community. Village inhabitants met to draw lots for land tillage.
The A-S introduced a heavier plough, which worked better in long straight lines across the
field. It was useful for cultivating heavier soils, but was difficult to turn. This caused
changes, so the village land was divided into two or three ñarge fields, and then these were
divided into long thin strips. Each family had a number of strips.
➢ Borough: Were built in strategic locations, in the later A-S period, for security of the
inhabitants, and included a market and a court of justice. They were created by a charter
from the king, which confirmed many privileges, like the right of its residents to collect their
own taxes and could give the king a lump sum (a single payment made annually at a
particular time of a year)
● Law and justice: At first, the principle of “an eye for an eye” was in force, but then this code was
modified by the influence of Christianity and the laws of the kings so that the injured party or his
family accepted a cash payment in lieu of physical retaliation on the offender. There was a price
list developed for various injuries. The trials were by compurgation (the defendant declared his
innocence with a number of witnesses) or by ordeal (they believed that God would save them if
they were innocent)
● Social classes:
➢ King (hereditary: divine rights of kings) Both of them composed the aristocracy
➢ Earls (also hereditary)
➢ Thanes (were warriors who were rewarded with land in payment for military
service)
➢ Churl /che3:l/ (were the lowest rank of freeman and small landholder)
➢ Serfs (were free but bound to the land and the service of their lord)
➢ Thrall or slaves (people who lost their freedom because they were defeated in war or lost a
court case)
It was the beginning of a class system, made up of king, lords, soldiers, and workers on the
land.
● Economic Organization (or structure): Most of the towns were small agricultural villages, which
consisted of the thatched huts of the farm workers, the manor house of the lord (ealderman) in
which local people went to pay taxes and justice was administered, also a mill and a church.
Each village was virtually self-sufficient, and land continued to be the basis of wealth, rather
than trade, until more or less the 10th century. (the Boroughs would later on gain a prominent
role in trade and commerce)
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alfred the Great:
Alfred was an scholar, educator, and military hero, he is often considered the greatest of the A-S
kings. He saved southern England from submersion by Nordic Invaders (Vikings or Danes/Danish).

The Danish Conquest: at the end of the 8th C the Vikings came from Scandinavia (Norway and
Denmark). The attack was part of an expansion reaching from Russia to Greenland. At first, they
came to raid, they burnt churches and monasteries. But then they change from pillaging into
settlement in the middle of the 9th C. The king of Wessex repulsed the invaders on several
occasions, but soon only Wessex was free of Danish control.
In 871, Alfred, the youngest son of King Ethelwulf, succeeded his brother Ethelred as King of
Wessex (chosen by the Witan). Even though he was young, he haltered the Danish advance that
year and signed a truce with the Danes. After several attacks on Wessex in the following years,
Alfred finally defeated the Danes and Guthrum (their leader). They made a peace Treaty at
Chippenham in 878 which imposed two demands on the Danes:
● Guthrum must accept baptism as a christian
● The Danes must leave Wessex

Other achievements:
● Alfred built the first navy
● Erected several fortifications (boroughs)
● Remodelled the Fyrd (A-S militia) into active and reserve units
● He helped to preserve the A-S culture in England
● In 886, after seizing London, he signed the Treaty of Wedmore, which defined the
boundary between Danish and English authority, with the Danes in the north and east,
known as the Danelaw (the land where the law of the Danes ruled)
● Alfred was recognised as the first English leader: King of England.
● Since the Vikings destroyed churches and monasteries, there was a decline in schooling
and christianity. Alfred hired some scholars to teach in his court.
● He translated some books from Latin into English.
● He kept constant contact with Rome and with other leaders in the continent.
● He was England’s greatest lawgiver, and he issued a code of laws for the A-S kingdom.

The second Danish invasion: The coexistence between the Danes and the A-S came to an end
with the invasions of the 10th C. And the House of Wessex collapsed [from Alfred the Great (871 -
899) to Edgar the Peaceful (959 - 975)]. Aethelstan, grandson of Alfred, defeated the Scots and the
Picts, recovered the Danelaw, and claimed the title of “Ruler of all Britain”.
After the death of King Edgar, his second son Ethelred succeeded him. He was lazy and cruel, and
completely unprepared to defend England against the Danish invasion. He tried to buy off the
Danes in 991 with an extravagant payment of the Danegeld. In 1003 he ordered a massacre on the
Dane, which brought bloody retribution by the Danish king (Swein). After that, Ethelred and his son
Edmund died, and the Witan chose Canute (son of Swein) as king of England.

King Canute (1016 - 1035) soon adopted English customs, he also converted to christianity and
won the support of the Church. He also added Norway to his English and Danish thrones.
However, his early death left the empire without a ruler. His sons wrangled for the throne but they
both died seven years later, and the Witan decided to choose Edward as king.

Edward the Confessor (1042 - 1066) spent most of his life in Normandy (his mother, Emma of
Normandy, was a daughter of the Duke of Normandy), so he bought with him Norman ideas, but he
was more interested in the Church than in kingship. He encouraged church building.
Godwin, earl of Wessex, led the protest against Edward and became the leading heir of the
throne. However, he died in 1053, and his most capable son, Harold, succeeded his father as
earl of Wessex and became very popular in the country. Edward named Harold Godwin as his
successor although he prefered William of Normandy, and the Witan confirmed Harold as king after
Edward’s death. Even though he had no royal blood, he seemed to be a good choice, he was
brave and had ability.
The Norman Conquest:
Harold was challenged by William of Normandy. He had two claims to the throne:
● King Edward had promised the throne to him
● Harold, who had visited William previously in 1064, promised not to take the throne for
himself.

In 1066 William invaded England. King Harold had to faced two enemies. The Danish Vikings had
not given up their claim to the throne, the king of Norway invaded England in Northumbria. King
Harold rushed north and repulsed the invaders. However, at the same time, William of Normandy
was landing in the south with an army (he even had the Pope’s blessing - Pope Alexander II - the
soldiers were promised English states). King Harold decided to return, instead of letting his soldiers
rest or waiting for the fyrd. Even though the Norman army was small, they were well armed and
better organized. King Harold was defeated in the Battle of Hastings, and William was crowned in
Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day (he became king by conquest).

Results of the conquest: During the first five years of his reign, there were A-S rebellions against
the Normans every year. However they never unite or organise well. The Norman army marched
from village to village destroying places it could not control, and building forts to guard others.
Fortified castles were built throughout the country, beginning with the Tower of London.
William introduced many influential changes which included a reformed church, a political feudal
system based on landholding, the centralization of royal power, and the adoption of the
language and manners of the French court.
William also repudiated the political claims of the Papacy. When Pope Gregory VII claimed
England as papal fief, William replied with the Triple Concordat which made royal permission
necessary before any papal power could be exercised in England.

Feudalism: can be traced back to the Romans and the coloni who worked the land but we're not
free to leave it. Charlemagne had granted land in exchange for immunity from royal administration.
When William became king, he improved this system based on military service. The lord granted a
parcel of land to his vassal and in return received homage and knightly military service. This,
provided protection from the Vikings, since the French kings could no longer protect them. This
feudal arrangement became a political, military, and social relationships between the king (lord)
and his vassals. The land granted to the vassals was known as a fief or feudum.

William operated on the principle that “all the land belonged to the king”. In theory, this meant
that no tenant or vassal could be more powerful than the king. In practice, they were often more
powerful than the king (for example, the Duke of Normandy was more powerful than his lord, the
King of France.). He rewarded his captains by giving them small land holdings in different parts of
the country, so that none of the parts was greater than the whole, and no noble could easily rebel
and challenge his authority. He kept for himself ¼ of the estates he confiscated from the A-S, gave
¼ to the Church, and parceled out the remaining land to the barons of the army on the condition of
feudal tenure (he only gave larger estates to some of his nobles in the troublesome borders with
Wales and Scotland). In exchange, William guaranteed his vassals protection and justice, and in
return they swore their allegiance (homage and fealty) to him and promised to supply annually a
specified number of knights for 40 days of military service.
When a noble died his son usually took over his estate, but he had to received permission from the
king and make a payment. If he was still young, the king would often take the produce of the estate
until the boy was old enough to look after the estate himself. In this way, the king could benefit from
the death of a noble. If all the noble’s family died the land went back to the king, who would be
expected to give it to another noble.
By 1086, he wanted to know who own which piece of land, and how much it was worth. He needed
this information so as to find out how much was produced and how much he could ask in tax. He
therefore sent a team of people through England to make an economic survey, called Domesday
survey. The records of the survey, are written in the Domesday Book.

Government and society:

● Local government: William retained many A-S institutions. His Great Council preserved the
functions of the Witan, and the fyrd was a useful check on the military strength of the barons.
The Sheriff replaced the earl as the official representative of the king. The sheriffs had full
administration of local government and control of the local militia. In this way royal power was
no longer distant, but near and visible in each community.
William had governed England and Normandy travelling from one place to another to make sure
that his authority was accepted. When William (and the kings after him) moved around the
country staying in towns and castles, they were accompanied by a large number of followers,
and wherever they went, the local people had to give them food and somewhere to stay. The
king’s “household” was always on the move. But when the kingdom started to grow, the kings
started to send nobles and knights from the royal household to act as sheriffs. However, this
system needed people who could administered taxation, justice, and carry out the king’s
instructions. The king’s administration made sure the king claimed money every time a young
noble took over his father’s land, or when a noble’s daughter married. They also checked the
towns and the ports to make sure that taxes were paid.
Administration grew quickly. Most business, including feudal homage, was done by the spoken
word. But the need for paperwork grew rapidly. In 1050 only the king (Edward the Confessor)
had a seal with which to “sign” official papers. By 1250, every man was expected to have a seal,
even if he could not read.
● The Manor: Was the economic unit of feudalism. As an agricultural unit, it was the part of the fief
that the vassal retained for personal use. It was self-sufficient, with a village, common fields,
mill, and blacksmith shop. The manorial relationship between lord and serf was unequal. In
exchange for some meager protection and facilities, the serf spent most of the day tilling his
lord’s land or performing other obligations for him; even a percentage of the serf’s produce was
claimed by the lord. The landlord expected the villagers to work a fixed number of days on his
own land, the “home farm”. The rest of the time they worked on their small strip of land, part of
the village “common land” on which they grew food for themselves and their family.
Most landlords obtained their income directly from the home farm, and also from letting out
some of their land in returned for rent in corp or money. In the 12th C many landlords found it
more profitable to let out almost all the homa farm lands, and be paid in money or crops, than in
labour.
● Church and state: In 1066 the Pope claimed that William had promised to accept him as feudal
lord. William refused to accept this claim. He had created Norman bishops and given them land
on condition that they pay homage to him. As a result it was not clear whether the bishops
should obey the Church or the king. This struggle was for both money and power. During the
11th and 12th C. the Church wanted the kings of Europe to accept its authority over both
spiritual and earthly affairs, and argued that even kings were answerable to God. Kings, on the
other hand, chose as bishops men who would be loyal to them.
● Law and justice: After the Norman Conquest, nobles were allowed to administered justice
among the villages and people on their lands. Usually they mixed Norman Laws with the old A-S
laws. They had freedom to act more or less as they liked, but more serious offences were tried
in the king’s courts.
Dealing with the Celts: William had allowed his lords to win land by conquest in Wales. These
Normans slowly extended their control up the Welsh river valleys. After some years, a new class
started to grow up, a mixture of the Norman and Welsh rulers, who spoke Norman French and
Welsh, but not English. They all became vassals of the English king.

Kingship: A family business: William controlled two large areas: Normandy (given by his father),
and England (won in war). To him, the most important difference between these two was that as
Duke of Normandy he had to recognise the King of France as his lord.
When he died in 1087, he left the Duchy of Normandy to his elder son, Robert. He gave England
to his second son, William, known as Rufus (Latin for red) because of his red hair and face.
When Robert went to fight the Muslims in the Holy Land, he left William II (Rufus) in charge of
Normandy. William Rufus died without sons. When Robert was on his way home from the Holy
Land, his youngest brother, Henry, who wanted the English crown, rode to Winchester and took
charge of the king's treasury. He then rode to Westminster, where he was crowned king three
years later.

Offa (of Mercia) → King Egbert (of Wessex: 775 - 839) → Ethelwulf (son of Egbert) →

Ethelred (son of Ethelwulf) → Alfred the Great (youngest brother of Ethelred, son of

Ethelwulf 871 - 899) → Edward the Elder (assisted by his sister Ethelfleda) (son of Alfred 899

- 924) → Aethelstan (son of Edward 924 - 939) → Edgar the Peaceful (959 - 975) → Ethelred

the Unready (second son of Edgar 978 - 1016) → King Canute (1017 - 1035) → Edward (the

Confessor, son of Ethelred 1042 - 1066) → Harold Godwin (earl of Wessex 1066 [never

crowned]) → William I (William the Conqueror 1066 - 1087) → William II (Rufus)→ Robert II

→ Henry I → Matilda → Stephen of Blois → Henry II → Richard I → John →