Volum Isb-Inmateh 2014

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM
AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Bucharest
2014
2
AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
1
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. PARASCHIV Gigel -P.U. Bucharest (RO); Ph.D. Eng. GANEA Ioan - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. PIRNĂ Ion - INMA Bucharest (RO); Ph.D. Eng. POPA LucreŃia - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. VOICU Gheorghe - P.U. Bucharest (RO); PhD. Stud. Eng. ŞTEFAN Vasilica - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. BIRIŞ Sorin - P.U. Bucharest (RO); PhD. Stud. Eng. PERSU Cătălin - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Ph.D. Eng. VLĂDUł Valentin - INMA Bucharest (RO); Lect. PhD. Eng. CONSTANTIN Gabriel - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. CARP-CIOCÂRDIA CrăiŃa - P.U. PhD. Stud. Eng. ION Alexandru - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Bucharest (RO); Ph.D. Eng. MURARU Virgil - INMA Bucharest (RO);
PROGRAM COMMITTEE
TINKER David - Secretary-General EurAgEng; PhD. Eng. USENKO Mykhaylo - State Technical University
Prof. PhD. Eng. PARASCHIV Gigel -P.U. Bucharest (RO); Lutsk (UKR);
Prof. PhD. Eng. ANDRONESCU Ecaterina - PU Bucharest PhD. Eng. PANDIA Olimpia - USAMV Bucharest (RO);
(RO); Ress.Assist. PhD SELVĐ Kemal - Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversity
Prof. PhD. Eng. PRISECARU Tudor - P.U. Bucharest (RO); (TR)
Ph.D. Eng. COSTOIU Mihnea - P.U. Bucharest (RO); PhD. KABAŞ Önder - Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research
Prof. PhD. Eng. PIRNA Ion - INMA Bucharest (RO); Institute (TR);
Prof. PhD. De Wrachien Daniele - State University of Milan (IT); Assoc.Prof. PhD. Eng. ERTEKIN Can - Akdeniz University
(TR);
Prof. PhD. Eng. CÂMPEANU Sorin - USAMV Bucharest (RO)
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. KISS Imre - P.U. Timisoara (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. VOICU Gheorghe - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. ILIE Filip - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Prof.PhD.Eng. FILIP Nicolae - Technical University Cluj
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. MAICAN Edmond - P.U.
Napoca (RO);
Bucharest (RO);
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. BIRIŞ Sorin-Ştefan - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Assoc. Prof. PhD. MAGÓ László - Szent Istvan University
Assoc.Prof.PhD. Eng. BUNGESCU Sorin – USAMVB (HU)
Timisoara (RO);
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. BELC Nastasia - IBA Bucharest
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. ATANASOV Atanas - University of (RO);
Rouse (BG); PhD. Eng. DRAGOMIR Cătălin - IBNA Baloteşti (RO);
Assoc.Prof.PhD. Eng. BORUZ Sorin - University of Craiova; Prof. PhD. Eng. Ragazzi Marco -University of Trento (IT);
Assoc.Prof. PhD. Eng. SAVIN Lazar - University of Novi Sad (SR); Prof. PhD. Eng. Torretta Vincenzo - Insubria University
Assoc. Prof. PhD. PANAYOTOVA Galina - Agricultural (IT);
Academy (BG); Ph.D. Eng. VLĂDUł Valentin - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. PADUREANU Vasile -T.U. Brasov (RO); PhD. Eng. PĂUN Anişoara - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. CĂSĂNDROIU Tudor - P.U. Bucharest (RO); PhD. Stud. Eng. MATACHE Mihai - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. łENU Ion - USAMV Iaşi (RO); Lect. PhD. Eng. DUłU Iulian - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. JOVANOVIĆ Larisa – Soc. for Env. Prot. of Serbia; PhD. Ch. POPESCU Carmen - S.C. HOFIGAL S.A. (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. KOSUTIC Silvio - Zagreb University (HR); PhD. Eng. MARIN Eugen - INMA Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. MARTINOV Milan – University of Novi Sad (SR); PhD. Eng. DUMITRESCU Cătălin - INOE 2000 – IHP
Prof. PhD. Eng. MIHAILOV Nikolai - University of Rouse (BG); (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. BRKIĆ Miladin - University of Novi Sad (SR); PhD. Eng. CEREMPEI Valerian - MECAGRO, Institute of
Agricultural Technique (MD);
Prof. Ph.D. YAO X. Guanxin - Along Agriculture R&D
Technology and Management Consulting Co., Ltd (CN); Ph.D. Eng. RADA Elena Cristina - University of Trento (IT)
Prof. PhD. Eng. DAVID Ladislau - P.U. Bucharest (RO); PhD. Eng. śelaziński T. - Warsaw University of Life
Sciences (PL);
Prof. PhD. Eng. GERGEN Iosif - USAMVB Timisoara (RO);
Lect. PhD. Eng. HĂRMĂNESCU Monica - USAMVB
Prof. PhD. Eng. TUCU Dumitru - P.U. Timisoara (RO); Timisoara (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. BĂDESCU Mircea - University of Craiova (RO); Assoc. Prof. PhD. Ec. DAVID Oana - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. SĂRĂCIN Ion - University of Craiova (RO); Lect. Ph.D. Eng. DUłU Mihaela - P.U. Bucharest (RO);
Prof. PhD. Eng. GONZÁLEZ Omar - Central University "Marta Lect. PhD. Eng. MATEI Gheorghe - University of Craiova
Abreu" de las Villas, (CU); (RO);
Prof. PhD. Sc. Eng. BARAC Săsa - Serbia University of Lect. PhD. Eng. COVALIU Cristina - P.U. Bucharest (RO)
Prishtina (SR); Lect. PhD. Eng. VOICU Paula - P.U. Bucharest (RO).
2
CONTENT
No. SECTION 1 - POWER AND MACHINERY Pg.
INTERACTION PROCESS BETWEEN STRIP-TILLAGE EQUIPMENT, PLANT RESIDUES AND SOIL /

JUOSTINIO ŽEMöS DIRBIMO MAŠINOS, AUGALINIŲ LIEKANŲ IR DIRVOS SĄVEIKOS TYRIMAI
1. 11
PhD. Stud. Vaitauskien÷ K., Prof. Šarauskis E.
Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Safety, Aleksandras Stulginskis University, Lithuania
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF FLOW CONCENTRATION FOR PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS OF
AIR-SEEDERS /
DETERMINATION EXPERIMENTALE DE LA CONCENTRATION DE TRANSPORT DANS LES SYSTEMES DE
2. DISTRIBUTION DES SEMOIR PNEUMATIQUES 17
Ph.D. Stud. Yatskul A.I.1,2), Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Lemière JP.1)
1)
Kuhn SA / France; 2) National Institute of Higher Education in Agronomy, Food and
Environmental Sciences (AgroSup Dijon) / France
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE EFFECT OF TILLAGE OPERATIONS ON SOME PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL /
CERCETĂRI PRIVIND IMPACTUL LUCRĂRILOR DE PREGĂTIRE A PATULUI GERMINATIV ASUPRA UNOR
3. 25
ÎNSUŞIRI FIZICE ALE SOLULUI
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. łenu I., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Roşca R., Lect. Ph.D. Eng.Cârlescu P., D. Eng. Butnaru C.L.
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Faculty of Agriculture / Romania
MOIRÉ SUPPORTED STRESS DISTRIBUTION STUDY ON GEARS /
APLICAÇÃO DA TÉCNICA DE MOIRÉ NO ESTUDO DA DISTRIBUIÇÃO DE CARGAS EM ENGRENAGENS
4. BSAE. Stud. Eng Dafine Villa(1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Jonathan Gazzola(2), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Inácio M. D. Fabbro(1), 33
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Marcos V. G. Silva(1),
1)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas / Brazil; 2)Department of Agricultural Engineering, UFS, Aracaju / Brazil
DYNAMICS OF OVERSOWING MACHINE MSPD 2,5 RELATED TO WORKING AND CONSTRUCTIVE
PARAMETERS / DINAMICA MAŞINII DE SUPRAÎNSĂMÂNłAT MSPD 2,5 ÎN CORELAłIE CU PARAMETRII DE
5. LUCRU ŞI CONSTRUCTIVI 39
Ph.D. Eng. Ene T.A., Ph.D. Eng. Mocanu V.
Research-Development Institute for Grassland Brasov / Romania
THE INFLUENCE OF METALLOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OVER THE ATTRITION OF ACTIVE ORGANS OF
AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENTS MADE FROM SINTERED IRON-BASED MATERIALS /
ÎNCERCĂRI ALE UNOR MATERIALE SINTERIZATE PENTRU CONSTRUCłIA ORGANELOR ACTIVE ALE
6. 49
MAŞINII DE PLANTAT RĂSADURI
Prof. PhD. Eng. Sărăcin I.1). Lect. PhD. Eng. Pandia O.2), Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Bozgă I.2)
1)
University of Craiova / Romania; 2)University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Romania
THE EGYPTIAN EXPERIENCE WITH THE PRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT SPARE PARTS
FROM AUSTEMPERED DUCTILE IRON (ADI) /
7.
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ات ارا ا
اه ا
ن ا‬# $#
‫ ا‬%& ‫(ا‬ADI 55
Prof. Adel Nofal1), Dr. Hesham Farag2)
1)
Central Metallurgical R&D Institute (CMRDI), Cairo / Egypt; 2)Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AEnRI), Cairo / Egypt
KINEMATIC STUDY OF THRESHING PROCESS CONDUCTED BY TANGENTIAL THRESHING SYSTEM OF
CONVENTIONAL CEREAL HARVESTING COMBINES /
STUDIUL CINEMATIC AL PROCESULUI DE TREIER REALIZAT DE APARATUL DE TREIER TANGENłIAL AL
8. 65
COMBINELOR CONVENTIONALE DE RECOLTAT CEREALE
PhD. Eng. Ivan Gh., PhD. Eng. Vlădut V.
INMA Bucharest / Romania
RESEARCHES ON OBTAINING THE REAL STRESS SPECTRUM FOR THE RESISTANCE STRUCTURE OF THE
MAS 65 DEEP SOIL LOOSENING MACHINE /
CERCETĂRI PRIVIND OBłINEREA SPECTRULUI REAL DE SOLICITARE AL STRUCTURII DE REZISTENłĂ A
9. MAŞINII PENTRU AFÂNAREA ADÂNCĂ A SOLULUI MAS 65 75
PhD. Stud. Eng. Matache M.1), Prof. Ph. Eng. Voicu Gh.2), Math Cardei P.1), PhD. Stud. Eng. Persu C.1),
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Savin L.3)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITEHNICA Bucharest / Romania; 3)University of Novi Sad / Serbia
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH OF THE OBTAINED PRODUCT QUALITY TO THE MECHANICAL HARVESTING
OF CHAMOMILE INFLORESCENCES /
CERCETAREA EXPERIMENTALA A CALITATII PRODUSULUI OBTINUT LA RECOLTAREA MECANIZATA A
10. 81
INFLORESCENTELOR DE MUSETEL
Eng. Muscalu A.1), Biol. Pruteanu A.1) Prof. PhD. Eng. David L.2)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania
CONSIDERATII PRELIMINARE PRIVIND REALIZAREA UNUI SISTEM DE CALCUL OPTIMAL AL
PARAMETRILOR DE EXPLOATARE A AGREGATELOR AGRICOLE /
11. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM FOR CALCULATING OPTIMAL 89
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR AGRICULTURAL AGGREGATES
Eng. Ludig M., Eng. Bolinitineanu G., Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Cujbescu D., Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Persu C.
3

APPROACH, LIMITS AND CRITERIA FOR FARM MACHINERY REPLACEMENT IN AGRICULTURE / ПОДХОД,
ОГРАНИЧЕНИЯ И КРИТЕРИИ ПРИ ЗАМЯНА НА СЕЛСКОСТОПАНСКА ТЕХНИКА ЗА ЗЕМЕДЕЛИЕТО
12. Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Vezirov Ch.Z.1), Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Atanasov At.Z.1), 93
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Hristov H.Y.1), Ph.D. Eng. VlăduŃ V.2)
1)
Ruse University, Agro-industrial Faculty / Bulgaria; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
MOIRÉ SUPPORTED STRAIN DISTRIBUTION DETERMINATION ON MACHINE ELEMENTS OF
DISCONTINUOUS GEOMETRY /
LEVANTAMENTO TOPOGRÁFICO DE PEÇAS MECÂNICAS DE GEOMETRIA DESCONTÍNUA ATRAVÉS DA
TÉCNICA DE MOIRÉ POR PHASE-SHIFTING
13. 101
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Gazzola J.1), Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Cardoso K.C.2), Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Silva M. V.G. 2), Prof. Ph.D. Eng.
Dal Fabbro I.M. 2)
1)
Department of Agricultural Engineering, UFS, Aracaju / Brazil 2)Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP,
Campinas / Brazil
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING IMPROVING ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF A RECIRCULATING
AQUACULTURE SYSTEM OF SUPERINTENSIVE FISH GROWING /
CONSIDERAłII TEORETICE PRIVIND ÎMBUNĂTĂłIREA CONSUMULUI ENERGETIC AL UNUI SISTEM
14. 107
ACVACOL RECIRCULANT DE CREŞTERE SUPERINTENSIVĂ A PEŞTILOR
PhD. Stud. Eng. David E.A., Phd. Eng. Pop A., PhD. Stud. Eng. Andrei S.
INMA Bucharest – Branch Timisoara / Romania
INFLUENCE OF TILLAGE TOOLS CUTTING EDGE WEAR OVER TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL MARKERS /
INFLUENłA UZĂRII MUCHIEI TĂIETOARE ASUPRA INDICATORILOR TEHNICO-ECONOMICI IN PROCESUL DE
15. PRELUCRARE A SOLULUI 113
Lect. PhD. Eng. Fechete Tutunaru L.V.1), PhD. Stud. Eng. Nagy E.M.2), PhD. Stud. Eng. CoŃa C.2)
1)
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
ANALYSIS OF WORK PROCESS OF SEEDING FURROWS EMBEDDING BY A CONICAL ROLLER /
АНАЛІЗ РОБОЧОГО ПРОЦЕСУ ЗАГОРТАННЯ ПОСІВНИХ БОРОЗЕН КОНІЧНИМ КОТКОМ
16. 121
Shvedik M.
Lutsk National Technical University / Ukraine
ORGANIC APIARY DESIGN IN BULGARIA /
ПРОЕКТИРАНЕ НА БИОЛОГИЧНИ ПЧЕЛИНИ В БЪЛГАРИЯ
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Atanasov At1)., Ph.D. Hristakov I.1)., Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Lubenov L.1)., Ph.D. Eng. VlăduŃ
17. 127
V.2)., Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Dochev V.3)., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Biris St.S.4)
1)
Ruse University, Agro-industrial Faculty / Bulgaria; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania; 3)IASS Obrzcov Chiflik Ruse /
Bulgaria; 4)University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania
DEFINITION OF BASIC PARAMETERS OF SMALL-SIZED FLEXIBLE HARROW /
ВИЗНАЧЕННЯ ОСНОВНИХ ПАРАМЕТРІВ МАЛАГАБАРИТНОЇ ГНУЧКОЇ БОРОНИ
18. 135
PhD. Eng. Usenko M.
STUDY ON THE SHADE-TOLERANCE ABILITY OF GLECHOMA HEDERACEA /
欧活血丹的耐荫能力研究
Lect. M. S. Agr. Wang J.Q.1), Ph.D. Agr. Yang D.P. 2), Prof. Ph. D.Agr. Zhu N. 3), Prof. Ph. D. Yung Dmitry 4)
19. 1) 141
College of Architecture and Urban Environment, Soochow University, Suzhou / China; 2) Research Department,
China Society for Urban Studies, Beijing / China; 3) College of Landscape Architecture, Northeast Forestry University,
Harbin / China; 4) Seoul Konghon Service Center for Agricultural Flower Planting, Seoul / Republic of Korea
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE PNEUMATIC-SCREW CONVEYOR SCREW MECHANISM OPERATION /
МАТЕМАТИЧНА МОДЕЛЬ ФУНКЦІОНУВАННЯ ШНЕКОВОГО МЕХАНІЗМУ ПНЕВМОШНЕКОВОГО ТРАНСПОРТЕРА
20. 149
Ph.D. R.B. Hevko1), Ass. Prof. Ph.D. Stud. V.O. Dzyura2), R.M. Romanovsky2)
1)
Ternopil National Economical University / Ukraine; 2)Ternopil Ivan Pul'uj National Technical University / Ukraine
INVESTIGATING A POWER TILLER HANDLE AND SEAT VIBRATION ON TRANSPORTATION MODE /
‫ و "! ار دو خ در و‬#$‫ ار&ش د‬$‫'ر‬
21. Hossein Ahmadian1), Seyed Reza Hassan-Beygi*1), Barat Ghobadian2) 157
1)
Department of Agro-technology, College of Abouraihan, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2)
Department of Mechanics of Agricultural machinery Engineering, Tarbiat Modaress University, Tehran, Iran
DESIGN OF AQUACULTURE SYSTEM BASED ON WIRELESS MONITORING AND ITS TESTING /
无线监控水产养殖系统设计与试验
22. Prof. Ph.D. Lijia Xu1), Prof. Zhiliang Kang1), Stud. Danni Bao1), Stud. Yu Feng1), Prof.Ph.D. K. Jorshin2) 171
1)
College of Information and Engineering Technology, Sichuan Agriculture University, Ya’an / China; 2) Dept. of
Agricultural Engineering, New South Tesee Corporation of Technology, Auckland / New Zealand
CHOPPING OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS /
TOCAREA PLANTELOR MEDICINALE SI AROMATICE
23. 181
Eng. Muscalu A.1), Biol. Pruteanu A.1) Prof. Phd. Eng. David L.2)
1)
OPTIMIZATION OF THE ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION IN INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS /
OPTIMIZAREA CONSUMULUI DE ENERGIE ELECTRICA AL UNEI HALE INDUSTRIALE
24. 189
Eng. Pop F., Eng. Marian M.
4
SECTION 2 - ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
MODELING FOR USE OF WATER IN AGRICULTURE /

MODELLAZIONE PER L’USO DELLE ACQUE IN AGRICOLTURA
25. 197
Prof. Eng. Trulli E., Prof. Eng. Ph.D. Torretta V., Dr. Eng. Ph.D. Rada E.C., Lect. Eng. Ph.D. Istrate I.A., Prof. Eng. Papa E.A.
1)
University of Basilicata, Potenza / Italy; 2)University POLITEHNICA Bucharest / Romania
A COMPARISON BETWEEN DIESEL AND FUEL OBTAINED FROM RECICLED WASTE PLASTICS USED FOR
FUELED DIESEL ENGINES /
COMPARAREA MOTORINEI CU COMBUSTIBILI OBłINUłI DIN MASE PLASTICE RECICLATE UTILIZABILI LA
26. ALIMENTAREA MOTOARELOR DIESEL 205
As. Ph.D. Eng. Popescu G.L.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Filip N.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Popescu V.2)
1)
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering / Romania
2)
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Faculty of Materials and Environmental Engineering / Romania
RESEARCH ON COPPER IONS REMOVAL FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER USING ENVIRONMENTAL
FRIENDLY NANOMATERIALS /
CERCETĂRI PRIVIND ÎNDEPĂRTAREA IONILOR DE CUPRU DIN APA UZATĂ INDUSTRIALĂ UTILIZÂND
27. NANOMATERIALE NEPOLUANTE 213
Lect. Ph. D. Eng. Covaliu C.1), Ph. D. Chim. Bunghez I.R.2), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Biriş S.Şt.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Paraschiv G.1)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering / Romania
2)
INCDCP-ICECHIM Bucharest / Romania
THE USE OF PELARGONIUM FOR THE REMEDIATION OF ORGANIC CONTAMINATED SOIL /
UTILIZAREA PLANTELOR PELARGONIUM PENTRU REMEDIEREA SOLURILOR
28. CONTAMINATE ORGANIC 219
Lect. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Istrate I.A.1), Ph.D. Eng. Rada E.C.2), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Ragazzi M.2)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 2)University of Trento / Italy
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION AND CLIMATE CONTROL IN VEGETABLE GREENHOUSES /
TEHNOLOGIE INOVATIVĂ DE IRIGAłII ŞI CONTROLUL CLIMEI ÎN SERELE LEGUMICOLE
29. 227
Ph.D. Eng. Marin E., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Pirnă I., Ph.D. Eng. Manea D., Ph.D. Stud. Matache M.
PRODUCTION OF POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS BIOMASS IN SUBMERGED CULTURE WITH ALTERNATIVE
CARBON SOURCE / OBłINEREA DE BIOMASĂ DIN POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS ÎN CULTURĂ SUBMERSĂ CU
30. SURSE DE CARBON ALTERNATIVE 235
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Ferdeş M., Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Dincă M.
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF CLEAN ROOMS /
MONITORIZAREA MEDIULUI DIN SPAłII STERILE
31. Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Safta V.V.1), Eng. S.R. Ciucă V.C.2) 241
1)
2)
N.S. ‘’Pasteur Institute” Bucharest / Romania
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON MICROGREENHOUSE AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM BASED ON ARDUINO /
STUDIU EXPERIMENTAL PRIVIND CONTROLUL AUTOMAT IN MICROSERE BAZAT PE ARDUINO
32. 247
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Ipate G.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Voicu G. 1), Ph.D. Eng. Manea D.2) , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Nutescu C.1)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania, 2) INMA Bucharest / Romania
CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING THE TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS FOR BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION WITHIN
RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS /
CONTRIBUłII PRIVIND SOLUłII TEHNICE PENTRU FILTRAREA BIOLOGICĂ
33. 253
ÎN CADRUL SISTEMELOR ACVACOLE RECIRCULANTE
PhD. Stud. Eng. Andrei S.G., Ph.D. Eng. Pop A., PhD. Stud. Eng. David E., Eng. Ştefanov C.
INMA Bucharest – Branch Timisoara
UTILIZATION OF LABVIEW PROGRAM FOR ACQUIRING AND PROCESSING THE VIBRATIONS OF AN OSCILLATING
CONE-SHAPED SIEVE WITH VERTICAL AXLE USED FOR CLEANING THE AGRICULTURAL CROPS SEEDS /
UTILIZAREA PROGRAMULUI LABVIEW PENTRU ACHIZIłIA ŞI PRELUCRAREA VIBRAłIILOR UNEI SITE
34. 259
CONICE OSCILANTE CU AX VERTICAL
Lect. PhD. Eng. Stoica D.1), Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh.1), Lect. PhD. Eng. Covaliu C.1), PhD. Eng. VlăduŃ V.2)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
THE USE OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS IN STUDYING THE SPRAYING PROCESS THROUGH NOZZLES AT
PHYTOSANITARY TREATMENT MACHINES /
UTILIZAREA ANALIZEI DIMENSIONALE ÎN STUDIUL PROCESULUI DE PULVERIZARE PRIN DUZE LA
35. 267
MAŞINILE DE APLICAT TRATAMENTE FITOSANITARE
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Dumitraşcu A.1), Ph.D. Eng. Manea D.1), Prof. Em. Ph.D. Eng. Căsăndroiu T.2)
1)
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW METHOD FOR VOLUME MEASUREMENT BASED ON MOIRÉ TECHNIQUES /
DESENVOLVIMENTO DE UM NOVO MÉTODO PARA MEDIDA DE VOLUME BASEADO EM TÉCNICAS DE MOIRÉ
36. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Silva M.V.G.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Enes A.2), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Fabbro I.M.D.1), S.R. de Almeida C. 273
1)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil; 2)Department of Agricultural Engineering, UFS,
Aracaju, SE / Brazil
37. BASIC PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE FERMENTATION OF BIOMASS IN ORDER TO OBTAIN BIOGAS – A REVIEW / 279
5
PARAMETRI DE BAZĂ CARE INFLUENłEAZĂ PROCESUL DE FERMENTARE A BIOMASEI ÎN VEDEREA

OBłINERII BIOGAZULUI - REVIEW
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Dincă M., Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Ferdeş M., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Voicu Gh., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Paraschiv
G., Ph.D. Eng. Moiceanu G., Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Muşuroi G.
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR SEEDLING PRODUCTION FORM SMALL AND
SMALLER SEEDS /
TENDINTE DEZVOLTARE A TEHNOLOGIILOR AVANSATE PENTRU PRODUCEREA MATERIALULUI SADITOR
38. 285
DIN SEMINTE MIC SI FOARTE MICI
Eng. Bogdanof C.G., Eng. Milea D., Ph.D. Eng. Vişan A.L.
ECONOMIC RISK ANALYSIS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITY /
ANALIZA ECONOMICĂ A RISCULUI ÎN ACTIVITATEA AGRICOLĂ
39. 291
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Ec. David O., Lect. PhD. Eng. Voicu P.
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania
EXPERIMENTAL ARGUMENTATION OF PRESS PARAMETERS FOR SQUEEZING JUICE FROM PLANT STEMS /
ARGUMENTAREA EXPERIMENTALĂ A PARAMETRILOR PRESEI PENTRU STOARCEREA SUCULUI DIN
40. TULPINILE PLANTELOR 295
Assoc. Member Cor. AŞM, PhD.Eng. Hăbăşescu I., PhD.Eng. Cerempei V., Eng. Balaban N.
Institute of Agricultural Machinery „Mecagro”, Chisinau / Moldova
THEORETICAL ARGUMENTATION ON THE CHOICE OF VALUES FOR THE PARAMETERS OF THE PRESS
DESIGNED TO SQUEEZE OUT THE JUICE FROM PLANTS STEMS /
MOTIVAREA TEORETICĂ A ALEGERII VALORILOR PARAMETRILOR PRESEI PENTRU STOARCEREA
41. 303
SUCULUI DIN TULPINILE PLANTELOR
PhD. Eng. Cerempei V.
Institute of Agricultural Machinery „Mecagro”, Chisinau / Moldova
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY IN RURAL AREAS / ENERGETICA DURABILĂ ÎN MEDIUL RURAL
42. Ph.D. Eng. Nicolescu M.A. 313
BLADE TYPE CAVITATION PREDICTION ON THE TWICE DEFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL AUTOMOBILE
ENGINE COOLING WATER PUMPS BASED ON CFD /
基于 CFD 的农用汽车发动机冷却水
农用汽车发动机冷却水泵二次变曲率叶型空化特性预测
冷却水泵二次变曲率叶型空化特性预测
43. Lect. Ph.D. Xue Dangqin1, 2), Lect. Ph.D. Ma Shibang3), Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Shi Huojie 4) , Prof. Ph.D. Hou Shulin1) 321
1)
College of Engineering ,China Agricultural University, Beijing / China; 2) School of Mechanical ＆Automotive
Engineering, Nanyang Institute of Technology, Henan / China;3) Nangyang Normal University, Henan / China;
4)
Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman / U.S.A.
ENERGY WILLOW CULTIVATION OPPORTUNITIES IN ROMANIA /
OPORTUNITĂłILE CULTIVĂRII SALCIEI ENERGETICE ÎN ROMÂNIA
44. 331
PhD. Eng. Găgeanu P.1), Eng. Milea D.1), Eng. Găgeanu I.1), Eng. Mircea R.1), Eng. Vajda L.2)
1)
INMA/ Bucharest / Romania; 2) Green Energy Association, Sfântu Gheorghe / Romania
MAINTENANCE OF THE ENERGETIC POPLAR CROP BY USING PRECISION HERBICIDES IN STRIPS EQUIPMENT /
ÎNTREłINEREA CULTURII DE PLOP ENERGETIC PRIN UTILIZAREA UNOR ECHIPAMENTE DE ERBICIDAT CU
45. PRECIZIE ÎN BENZI 341
PhD. Eng. Kolozsvari C., PhD. Eng. Manea D., PhD. Stud. Eng. David A., Eng. Gheorghe G.
USING A FAST AND ACCURATE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PH AND OF THE MAIN NUTRIENTS
IN THE SOIL /
UTILIZAREA UNEI METODE RAPIDE ŞI EXACTE PENTRU DETERMINAREA PH-ULUI ŞI A PRINCIPALILOR
46. 349
NUTRIENłI AI SOLULUI
Eng. Găgeanu G., Ph.D. Eng. Marin E., Eng. Găgeanu I., Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P.
GOOD PRACTICES FOR SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION /
BUNE PRACTICI PENTRU CONSERVAREA SOLULUI SI A APEI DIN SOL
47. 355
Ph.D. Eng. Neacşu F.
NHR AGROPARTNERS S.R.L / Romania
SECTION 3 - FOOD INDUSTRY
DEVELOPMENT OF A IMAGE ANALYSIS TOOLBOX FOR THE SCILAB SOFTWARE /

DESENVOLVIMENTO DE UM TOOLBOX PARA ANÁLISE DE IMAGENS PARA O SOFTWARE SCILAB
48. 365
S.R. Neto N.M.1), Ph.D. S.R. Lino Loureiro A.C.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Dal Fabbro I.M.D.1)
1)
IAC, Jundiai, SP / Brazil; 2) Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP / Brazil
MATHEMATICAL MODEL BASED ON WARNER – BRATZLER ANALYSE METHOD CONCERNING TENDERIZED
PORK BONELESS LOIN IN ORDER TO PRODUCE ROMANIAN TRADITIONAL PRODUCT “COTLET PERPELIT“ TYPE /
MODEL MATEMATIC BAZAT PE METODA DE ANALIZĂ WARNER – BRATZLER PRIVIND FRĂGEZIREA
COTLETULUI DE PORC ÎN VEDEREA PRODUCERII PRODUSULUI TRADIłIONAL ROMÂNESC DE TIP
49. 371
“COTLET PERPELIT“
Ph. D. Stud. Eng. Simion A.D.1), Math. Cârdei R.P.2), Assist. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Roşca A.3),
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Bădescu M.3), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Roşca D.3)
1)
S.C. AVI – GIIS S.R.L. Stuparei, Valcea / Romania; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania; 3)University of Craiova / Romania
50. THE ANALYZE OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE JUGLANS REGIA FRUIT WITH THE SELECTIONS 379
6
FROM THE NORTH AREA OF OLTENIA /

ANALIZA COMPOZIłIEI BICHIMICE A FRUCTELOR DE JUGLANS REGIA LA SELECłIILE DIN ZONA
DE NORD A OLTENIEI
Prof. Flondor I.S.
College „Constantin Brâncoveanu” Horezu / Romania
THE EFFECT OF THE OVEN AND MICROWAVE HEATING ON TOTAL PHENOL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY
VALUES OF DIFFERENT APPLE VARIETIES /
FARKLI ELMA ÇEŞĐTLERĐNĐN TOPLAM FENOL VE ANTĐOKSĐDAN AKTĐVĐTESĐ ÜZERĐNE FIRIN VE
51. MĐKRODALGA ISITMANIN ETKĐSĐ 383
As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Uslu N.1), As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Bozkurt D.1), Assoc Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Al Juhaimi F.2),
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Özcan M.M. *1), Assist Prof. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Yıldız M.U.3)
1)
Selcuk University / Turkey; 2)King Saud University, Riyadh-Saudi Arabia; 3)Agriculture Engineering / Turkey
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES UPON THE DOSING ACCURACY OF TECHNICAL DOSAGE EQUIPMENT
DESTINED FOR AGRIFOOD PRODUCTS /
CERCETǍRI EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND ACURATETEA DOZARII PENTRU ECHIPAMENTUL TEHNIC DE
52. 387
DOZARE DESTINAT PRODUSELOR AGROALIMENTARE
Ph.D. Eng. Brǎcǎcescu C., Ph.D. Eng. Pǎun A., Eng. Milea D., Ph.D. Stud Eng. Matache M., Eng. Bunduchi G.
FRUIT VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION BASED ON MOIRÉ TECHNIQUES /
RECONSTITUIÇÃO TOPOGRAFICA E VOLUMÉTRICA DE FRUTOS UTILIZANDO TÉCNICAS OPTICAS DE MOIRÉ
53. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Silva M.V.G. (1), S.R. de Almeida C.1), Ph.D. SR Lino Loureiro A.C.2), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Dal 393
Fabbro I.M.1)
1)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil; 2) IAC, Jundiai, SP / Brazil
THE VISION SYSTEM USAGE AS DATA SOURCE FOR STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL IN THE FOOD EXTRUSION /
WYKORZYSTANIE SYSTEMU WIZYJNEGO DO STATYSTYCZNEJ KONTROLI PRZEBIEGU PROCESU
EKSTRUZJI PRODUKTÓW ŹYWNOŚCIOWYCH
54. 399
PhD. Eng. śelaziński T., PhD. Eng. Ekielski A., PhD. Stud. Eng. Florczak I.
Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Production Engineering, Department of Production Management and
Engineering, Warsaw / Poland
FREE SURFACE EQUATION OF BEER WORT IN A ROTAPOOL /
ECUAłIA SUPRAFEłEI LIBERE A MUSTULUI DE BERE ÎN ROTAPOOL
55. Prof. PhD. Eng. Biriş S.Şt.1), PhD. Eng. VlăduŃ V.2), As. PhD. Stud. Eng. Ungureanu N.1), 407
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Begea M.1), As. PhD. Stud. Eng. Ionescu M.1)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 2) INMA Bucharest / Romania
EXPLAINING OF THE PHENOMENON OF SEPARATION INTO FRACTIONS OF A MIXTURE OF PARTICULATE
MATTER APPLYING THE PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM ENERGY /
EXPLICAREA FENOMENULUI DE SEPARARE ÎN FRACłII A UNUI AMESTEC DE PARTICULE MATERIALE ÎN
56. 413
BAZA APLICĂRII PRINCIPIULUI ENERGIEI MINIME
Prof. PhD. Eng. Paraschiv G., Prof.PhD.Eng. Manole C.
CURRENT STAGE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON EXTRACTION OF BIOLOGIC ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
FROM MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS /
STADIUL ACTUAL AL CERCETARILOR EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND EXTRACTIA SUBSTANTELOR BIOLOGIC
57. ACTIVE DIN PLANTE MEDICINALE SI AROMATICE 419
PhD. Stud. Eng. Pruteanu A.1), PhD. Stud. Eng. Muscalu A.1), Assoc. Prof. PhD. Ferdes M.2),
PhD. Stud. Eng. Voicea I.1), Lect. PhD. Eng. Popescu C.3)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 3)SC HOFIGAL SA / Romania
ECONOMIC AND LOGISTICAL ANALYSIS OF FOIL COVERED FIELD CUCUMBER PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY /
FÓLIAALAGUTAS SZABADFÖLDI ZÖLDSÉGTERMELÉS-TECHNOLÓGIA ÖKONÓMIAI ÉS LOGISZTIKAI ELEMZÉSE
58. Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. László Magó 425
Szent István University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering Management, Department of
Logistics and Materials Handling, Gödöllı / Hungary
EFFECT OF FREEZING STORAGE AND TREATMENTS WITH ANTIOXIDANTS IN QUALITATIVE
CHARACTERISTICS OF OKRA FRUITS (ABELMOSCHUS ESCULUNTUS (L.) MOENTH CV. KHNESRI) /
59. ABELMOSCHUS‫ >ر‬5)*!‫ت ا‬,-‫ ا‬./ ‫ ة‬1‫آ‬3‫دات ا‬4' 567&‫) وا‬8' ‫ن‬:;‫ =<) ا‬ESCULUNTUS (L.)MOENTH CV. KHNESRI 431
Dhia Ahmed Taain, Abbas Mahdi Jasim, Jameel Hassan Hiji Al-Hij
Department of Horticulture and Landscape, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah / Iraq
SIMULATION OF SALINITY STRESS ON GROWTH OF WINTER WHEAT BY SOIL WATER ATMOSPHERE
PLANT MODEL IN LOESS PLATEAU /
用 SWAP 模拟盐分胁迫对黄土高原冬小麦生长的影响
60. Ph.D. Quan Quan1,2), Prof. Ph.D. Bing Shen2), Prof. Ph.D. Runxun Jin3), Ph.D. Changxing Jin4) 437
1)
State Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research
Institute, Nanjing/ China; 2)Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an / China; 3)Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge /
United Kingdom; 4) Environmental Consulting & Technology, Florida / U.S.A.
OPTIMIZATION OF CONSTRUCTIVE AND FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS OF HAMMER MILLS IN ORDER TO
INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY AND REDUCE SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION /
OPTIMIZAREA PARAMETRILOR CONSTRUCTIVI ŞI FUNCłIONALI AI MORILOR CU CIOCANE ÎN VEDEREA
61. 445
CREŞTERII PRODUCTIVITĂłII ŞI REDUCERII CONSUMULUI SPECIFIC DE ENERGIE
Ph.D. Eng. Păun A., Ph.D. Eng. Ciupercă R., PhD.Stud. Eng. Ivancu B., Eng. IoniŃă Gh., PhD.Stud. Eng. Zaica A.
62. RESEARCH INTO THE GRADING METHOD OF KIWI FRUIT BASED ON VOLUME ESTIMATION AND SURFACE DEFECT / 451
7
基于体积估计和表面缺陷的猕猴桃分级方法
Prof. Ph.D. Lijia Xu 1), Stud. Yu Feng 1), Stud. Zhangkun Fan 1), Ph.D. Dingchun Yun2)
1)
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sichuan Agriculture University, Ya’an / China; 2) University of
Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Hagenberg /Austria
CERTIFICATION OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS / CERTIFICAREA PRODUSELOR ECOLOGICE
63. Ph.D. Eng. Alexandru I.D. 461
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE SYSTEMS MODELING AND SOWING VEGETABLE CROPS /
CONSIDERAłII PRIVIND MAŞINILE DE MODELAT ŞI SEMĂNAT ÎN SISTEM DURABIL A CULTURILOR DE LEGUME
64. 465
Ph.D. Eng. Mateescu M., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Pirnă I., Ph.D. Eng. Păun A., Ph.D. Eng. Marin E.
FEATURES WELDED JOINTINGS MADE FROM STEEL OL 52.4K THE INFLUENCE OF MELTED MATERIAL PROPERTIES /
CARACTERISTICILE IMBINARILOR SUDATE REALIZATE DIN OTELUL OL 52.4K INFLUENłATE DE
PROPRIETATILE MATERIALULUI TOPIT
65. 473
Prof. PhD. Eng. Sărăcin I.1). Lect. PhD. Eng. Pandia O.2), Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Bozgă I.2), PhD. Eng. Ganea I.3)
1)
University of Craiova / Romania; 2)University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Romania;
3)
SECTION 4 – YOUNG PEOPLE
CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETAL FRAGMENTS FROM THE MEDICINAL PLANTS IN ORDER TO THEIR SORTING /
CARACTERISTICILE FRAGMENTELOR VEGETALE DIN PLANTE MEDICINALE ÎN VEDEREA SORTĂRII LOR
66. 481
Ph.D. Stud. Biol. Pruteanu A.1), Prof. PhD. Eng. David L.2), Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Muscalu A.1), Ress.Assist. Dr. Selvi K.Ç.3)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 3)Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversity / Turkey
ASPECTS REGARDING THE QUALITATIVE INDEXES OF THE WORK OF APPLICATION OF PHYTOSANITARY
TREATMENTS IN THE FIELD CROPS /
ASPECTE PRIVIND INDICII CALITATIVI AI LUCRĂRII DE APLICAT TRATAMENTE FITOSANITARE ÎN
67. CULTURILE DE CÂMP 487
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. NiŃu M.1), Prof. Em. PhD. Eng. Căsăndroiu T.2), PhD. Stud. Eng. Matache M.1), PhD. Eng. VlăduŃ
V.1), PhD. Eng. Caba Ioan3), PhD. Stud. Eng. Mitu (Bârsan) M.1)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 3)MUNAX SRL Timişoara / Romania
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ARTIFICIAL COMPACTION OF AGRICULTURAL SOIL – A REVIEW /
FACTORII CARE INFLUENłRAZĂ COMPACTAREA ARTIFICIALĂ A SOLULUI AGRICOL – O SINTEZĂ
68. PhD. Stud. Eng. Ungureanu N.1), Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh.1), Prof. PhD. En. Biriş S.Şt.1), 499
PhD. Eng. Matache M.2), PhD. Stud. Eng. Ionescu M.1)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania, 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
ASPECTS REGARDING THE CULTURE TECHNOLOGY AND MEASURES FOR CULTURE DISEASES AT
CUCUMBER (CUCUMIS SATIVUS) GREENHOUSES /
ASPECTE PRIVIND TEHNOLOGIA DE CULTURĂ ŞI MĂSURI DE COMBATERE A BOLILOR LA CULTURILE DE
69. CASTRAVEłI (CUCUMIS SATIVUS) DIN SERE 507
Eng. Grigore I.1), PhD. Eng. Marin E.1), PhD. Eng. Sorică C.1), PhD. Eng. Mateescu M.1), PhD. Eng. Popescu C.2),
PhD. Eng. Caba I.3)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; SC HOFIGAL SA / Romania; 3)MUNAX SRL Timişoara / Romania
2)
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE USE OF SCREW CONVEYOR WITH BRUSHES IN THE SEED TREATMENT /
CONSIDERATII PRIVIND UTILIZAREA TRANSPORTORULUI ELICOIDAL CU PERII IN PROCESUL DE TRATARE
70. A SEMINTELOR 515
PhD. Stud. Eng. Zaica Al., Ph.D. Eng. Păun A., PhD. Stud. Eng. Ivancu B., Ph.D. Eng. Visan A
CURRENT STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITIVE CUBES SEEDLING EQUIPMENTS /
STADIUL ACTUAL DE DEZVOLTARE A ECHIPAMENTELOR DE SEMANAT IN CUIBURI NUTRITIVE
71. 521
Eng. Milea D., Ph.D. Eng. Vişan A.L., Eng. Bogdanof C.G.
CURRENT STAGE OF THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN THE WORLD ON AIR FLOW SEPARATION /
STADIUL ACTUAL AL CERCETARILOR TEORETICE SI EXPERIMENTALE PE PLAN MONDIAL PRIVIND
SEPARAREA IN CURENTI DE AER
72. 531
PhD. Stud. Eng. Birsan (Mitu) M.1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Căsăndroiu T.2), PhD. Stud. Eng. Matache M.1),
PhD. Stud. Eng. Ciobanu V.1), PhD. Stud. Eng. Rosu (Nitu) M.1)
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITEHNICA Bucharest / Romania
DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT USED ON ADMINISTERED FOR CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS GRANULAR
EQUIPMENT / APARATE DE DISTRIBUTIE UTILIZATE PE ECHIPAMENTELE DE ADMINISTRAT
INGRASAMINTELE CHIMICE GRANULATE
73. 535
Ph.D. Stud. Petcu A. 1), Ph.D. Popa L.1), As. Ph.D. Stud. Toderaşc P.2), Ph.D. Ciupercă R.1),
Ph.D. Stud. Stefan V. 1), As. Ph.D. Avramescu A.2)
1)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENERGETIC PLANT STEM - REVIEW /
PROPRIETĂłILE MECANICE ALE TULPINILOR PLANTELOR ENERGETICE - REVIEW
1) 1) 1)
74. PhD. Eng. Moiceanu G. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Paraschiv G. , Lect. PhD. Eng. Dinca 543
M.1), PhD. Stud. Eng. Chitoiu M.1), PhD. Eng. Vlădut V.2)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
75. MODERN STATISTICAL METHODS IN THE PRODUCT QUALITY MANAGEMENT / 551
8
METODE STATISTICE MODERNE ÎN MANAGEMENTUL CALITĂłII PRODUSELOR

Stud. Manole B.1), Prof. PhD. Eng. Paraschiv G.2)
1)
University of Essex, BA European Studies and Modern Languages, U.K.
2)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania
A GEOMETRIC MODELING OF SCREWDRIVER PRODUCT DESIGN /
MODELAREA GEOMETRICĂ A DESIGNUL DE PRODUS – SURUBELNIłĂ
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A.M.1), Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S.1), As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Jugănaru E.-C.2), As.
76. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P.1), Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S.3), As. Ph.D. Stud. Rugescu A.M.3) 561
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Department of Engineering Graphics and Industrial Design / Romania
2)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology / Romania
3)
CURRENT STAGE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON HUSKING SUNFLOWER SEEDS /
STADIUL ACTUAL AL CERCETĂRILOR EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND DECORTICAREA SEMINłELOR DE
FLOAREA SOARELUI
77. 567
As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P.1), Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S.2), Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S.1),
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A-M1), Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Biriş S.Ş.1), Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Ciobanu V.2)
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania 2) INMA Bucharest / Romania
EVOLUTION OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN ROMANIA /
EVOLUłIA AGRICULTURII ECOLOGICE ÎN ROMÂNIA
78. 573
Eng. Găgeanu I., Eng. Găgeanu G., PhD. Eng. Alexandru I., Phd. Eng. Brăcăcescu C.
BIOMASS GRINDING/MILLING RESISTANCE AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION – REVIEW /
REZISTENTA BIOMASEI LA TOCARE/MARUNTIRE SI CONSUMUL SPECIFIC DE ENERGIE - REVIEW
1) 1) 1) 1)
79. PhD. Stud. Eng. ChiŃoiu M. , PhD. Eng. Moiceanu G. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Paraschiv G. , 579
1) 2)
Lect. PhD. Eng. Dincă M. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Voicea I.
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
NEED OF DYNAMIC HARMONIZATION OF CERTIFICATION BODIES TO THE PROVISIONS OF EU
REGULATIONS IN THE FIELD OF MACHINERY /
NECESITATEA ARMONIZĂRII DINAMICE A ORGANISMELOR DE CERTIFICARE LA PREVEDERILE
80. 585
REGLEMENTĂRILOR UNIUNII EUROPENE ÎN DOMENIUL MAŞINILOR
Eng. Epure M., PhD. Eng. Alexandru I., PhD. Eng. Brăcăcescu C., Eng.Găgeanu I.
CEREAL SEEDS SEPARATION ON AN OSCILLATING ASPIRATOR-SEPARATOR WITH COMBINED METHOD:
ON SIEVES / WITH AIRFLOW
SEPARAREA SEMINłELOR DE CEREALE PE UN SEPARATOR ASPIRATOR OSCILANT PRIN METODA
81. COMBINATĂ: PE SITE / CU AJUTORUL CURENłILOR DE AER / 591
Eng. Bunduchi G., PhD. Eng. Găgeanu P., PhD. Eng. Brăcăcescu C.,
PhD. Stud. Eng. Ivancu B., PhD. Stud. Eng. Zaica A.
QUADRATIC REGRESSION - BASED ORTHOGONAL DESIGN AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF A NEW-
TYPE AGRICULTURAL WELL PUMP /
种新型农用井泵的二次回归正交设计与数值模拟
种新型农用井泵的二次回归正交设计与数值模拟
82. 595
Ph.D. Stud. Wang Hongliang1), Prof. Ph.D. Shi Weidong1), Ph.D. Stud. Wang Chuan2)
1)
Research Center of Fluid Machinery Engineering and Technology, Zhenjiang / China;
2)
Nangyang Technological University, Singapore / Singapore
EXPERIMENTAL STRUCTURE FOR INVESTIGATION OF INFLUENCING FACTORS IN PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY /
STRUCTURĂ EXPERIMENTALĂ PENTRU INVESTIGAREA INFLUENłEI UNOR FACTORI IN BIOTEHNOLOGIA
83. VEGETALĂ 605
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Velcea N.M.1), PhD. Eng. Ganea I.2)
1)
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest / Romania; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
THE CONCEPT OF “ENVIRONMENT’’ INTO THE EVALUATION OF AN ECOLOGICAL MATERIAL /
CONCEPTUL DE “MEDIU’’ IN EVALUAREA UNUI MATERIAL ECOLOGIC
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A.M.1), Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S.1), Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Haraga G.1), Assoc.
84. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă E.1), As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Jugănaru E.-C.2), As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P.1), Ph.D. 611
Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S.3)
1)
U.P.B., Department of Engineering Graphics and Industrial Design / Romania; 2)U.P.B., Department of Machine
Manufacturing Technology, Bucharest, Romania; 3)INMA Bucharest / Romania
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE MECHANIZED PLANTING OF ENERGETIC WILLOW /
CONSIDERAłII PRIVIND PLANTAREA MECANIZATĂ A SALCIEI ENERGETICE
1) 2) 1)
85. As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S. , As. Ph.D. 617
1) 2), 2)
Eng. Avramescu A-M , Ph.D. Eng. Marin E. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Ciobanu V.
1)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania 2)
9
SECTION 1
POWER AND MACHINERY
10
INTERACTION PROCESS BETWEEN STRIP-TILLAGE EQUIPMENT, PLANT RESIDUES AND SOIL

/
JUOSTINIO ŽEMöS DIRBIMO MAŠINOS, AUGALINIŲ LIEKANŲ IR DIRVOS SĄVEIKOS TYRIMAI
PhD. Stud. Vaitauskien÷ K., Prof. Šarauskis E.

Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Safety, Aleksandras Stulginskis University, Lithuania
Tel: +37037752357, E-mail: kristina.vaitauskiene@asu.lt, egidijus.sarauskis@asu.lt
Abstract: This article presents the experimental research Santrauka: Šiame straipsnyje pateikti juostinio žem÷s
results on the interaction between the working parts of dirbimo mašinos darbinių dalių sąveikos su dirva ir
strip-tillage equipment, soil and plant residues. The aim augalin÷mis derliaus liekanomis eksperimentinių tyrimų
was to substantiate the working process of the row cleaners rezultatai. Buvo siekiama pagrįsti juostinio žem÷s
of strip-tillage equipment by changing different technological dirbimo mašinos diskinių nužertuvų darbo procesą,
parameters of the equipment. The experimental investigations keičiant įvairius mašinos technologinius parametrus.
were carried out by changing the position angle of the row Eksperimentiniai tyrimai vykdyti keičiant nužertuvų diskų
cleaners, the gap between row cleaner discs and driving pad÷ties kampą, tarpą tarp nužertuvų diskų ir mašinos
-1 -1
speed from 4 to 7 km·h . The experimental research važiavimo greitį nuo 4 iki 7 km·h . Eksperimentiniais
established that the greatest amount (about 79%) of plant tyrimais nustatyta, kad daugiausia (apie 79%) augalinių
residues are cleaned when the position angle of the liekanų nužeriama, kai nužertuvų diskų pad÷ties kampas
cleaner discs is 22.5° and about 59% of residues are 22,5°, ir apie 59% liekanų nužeriama, kai kampas – 15°.
cleaned when the angle is 15°. The gap between the Tarpas tarp nužertuvų diskų daro esminę įtaką augalinių
cleaner discs has essential influence on plant residue liekanų nuž÷rimui. Tyrimai parod÷, kad didinant
cleaning. The research showed that the increase of driving važiavimo greitį augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo atstumas
speed increased the range of plant residue cleaning from nuo įdirbtos juostos centro did÷ja. Didžiausias nuž÷rimo
-1
the tilled strip centre. The greatest cleaning range (about atstumas (apie 420 mm) buvo gautas esant 7 km·h
-1
420 mm) was achieved at a 7km·h driving speed. važiavimo greičiui.
Keywords: strip-tillage, row cleaners, plant residues, Raktiniai žodžiai: juostinis žem÷s dirbimas, diskiniai
speed, position angle nužertuvai, augalin÷s liekanos, greitis, pad÷ties kampas.
INTRODUCTION ĮVADAS
Continually increasing prices for energy sources, Nuolat brangstantys energijos šaltiniai, trąšos, augalų
fertilizers, plant protection means, machinery and apsaugos priemon÷s, mašinos ir įrengimai bei d÷l
equipment as well as intensive agricultural activities and intensyvios žem÷s ūkio veiklos ir nepageidaujamų
undesirable climatic conditions reduce fertile soil areas klimatinių sąlygų maž÷jantys derlingų dirvožemių plotai
and necessitate the development of agricultural plant verčia tobulinti žem÷s ūkio augalų auginimo būdus ir
cultivation methods and technologies. Currently, the technologijas. Šiuo metu jau sukurtos ir pritaikytos
technologies allowing agricultural plant cultivation both in technologijos, leidžiančios žem÷s ūkio augalus auginti ir
the soils tilled by conventional intensive methods and tradiciniu būdu intensyviai įdirbtose, ir visiškai
untilled soils have already been developed and adapted. neįdirbtose dirvose. Kadangi tiek tradiciniai žem÷s
As both conventional tillage and no-tillage methods have dirbimo, tiek ir tiesiogin÷s s÷jos būdai turi nemažai
some drawbacks, new ways are looked for to match the trūkumų, tai ieškoma naujų būdų, kaip suderinti
advantages of no-tillage and conventional tillage tiesiogin÷s s÷jos ir tradicinio žem÷s dirbimo technologijų
technologies. privalumus.
Recently strip-tillage technologies are becoming Pastaruoju metu pasaulyje ypač populiar÷ja neariminio
increasingly popular throughout the world, when soil is juostinio žem÷s dirbimo technologijos, kai dirva įdirbama
tilled only in the spots where plants will be sown [7,8]. tik tose vietose, kuriose bus s÷jami augalai [7,8].
Strip-tillage is one of conservative tillage technologies Juostinis žem÷s dirbimas yra viena iš neariamųjų žem÷s
combining the positive elements of full conventional dirbimo technologijų, tarpusavyje kombinuojanti ištisinio
tillage and no-tillage systems. This technology can be tradicinio žem÷s dirbimo ir tiesiogin÷s s÷jos sistemų
applied by two different ways. The first way is, when teigiamus elementus. Ši technologija gali būti įvykdoma
during the first drive special working parts of the dviem skirtingais būdais. Pirmas būdas yra toks, kai
equipment remove the plant residues of the last harvest vienu važiavimu nuo būsimos s÷jos eilut÷s specialiomis
from a forthcoming drill line and soil is tilled in strips; mašinos darbin÷mis dalimis pašalinamos pra÷jusio derliaus
during the second drive plant seeds are incorporated into augalų liekanos ir dirva įdirbama juostomis, antru
the tilled soil strips as well as fertilizers, if the machinery važiavimu į įdirbtas dirvos juostas įterpiamos augalų
design allows that. The second way is when both s÷klos ir jeigu pritaikyta mašinų konstrukcija – trąšos.
technological operations are combined into one Antras būdas yra toks, kai abi technologin÷s operacijos
[6,8].Most often the application of the strip-tillage gali būti sujungtos į vieną [6,8].Taikant juostinio žem÷s
technology includes soil tillage in 100 to 300 mm wide dirbimo technologiją dirva dažniausiai įdirbama nuo 100
strips, tillage depth ranging from 80 to 200 mm [6]. The iki 300 mm pločio juostomis, dirbimo gylis nuo 80 iki 200
strip width and spaces between them depend on the mm [6]. Juostų plotis ir atstumai tarp jų priklauso nuo to,
agricultural plants planned to cultivate. kokie žem÷s ūkio augalai bus auginami.
One of the important environmental advantages of Vienas svarbesnių šios technologijos aplinkosauginių
this technology is that plant residues can be left on the privalumų yra tas, kad augalin÷s liekanos gali būti
soil surface and thus the soil is protected against wind paliekamos dirvos paviršiuje ir d÷l to dirva įvairiais metų
and water erosion during different seasons. Another laikais yra apsaugoma nuo v÷jo ir vandens erozijos.
equally important advantage is that the removal of plant Kitas nemažiau svarbus privalumas yra tas, kad
residues from a forthcoming drill line strip and the soil pašalinus augalines liekanas iš būsimos s÷jos eilut÷s
11
tillage of that strip result in faster soil surface warming in juostos ir įdirbus dirvą toje juostoje, ankstyvą pavasarį
early spring [2]. In addition, it is necessary to mention galima greičiau sušildyti dirvos paviršių [2]. Be to, būtina
that the application of conservation strip-tillage pamin÷ti ir tai, kad, taikant neariminio juostinio žem÷s
technology helps to reduce the leaching of fertile soil dirbimo technologiją, galima sumažinti derlingų dirvos
layers from slopes. The plant residues and stubble left sluoksnių išplovimą šlaituose. Tarp įdirbtų juostų,
between the tilled strip interrows are fairly good water tarpueiliuose, liekančios augalin÷s liekanos bei styranti
retainment means even after abundant rainfall allowing ražiena pakankamai gerai sulaiko net ir po stipresnių
water to be absorbed by the plant residues and the soil kritulių iškritusį vandenį, kuris lengviau susigeria į
[4,9]. It is considered that the application of strip-tillage augalines liekanas ir dirvožemį [4,9]. Manoma, kad
technology facilitates the reduction of soil density in taikant juostinio žem÷s dirbimo technologiją, sumaž÷ja
tilled soil strips, the increase of soil porosity and much dirvos tankis įdirbtose dirvos juostose, padid÷ja dirvos
better water infiltration into soil compared with poringumas, o vandens infiltracija į dirvą yra žymiai
conventional tillage [4]. geresn÷ lyginant su tradiciniu žem÷s dirbimu [4].
Having carried out the investigations the researchers Mokslininkai [1,2] atlikę tyrimus nustat÷, kad
[1,2] established that the application of the conservation naudojant neariminio juostinio žem÷s dirbimo
strip-tillage technology resulted in maize and sugar beet technologiją kukurūzų ir cukrinių runkelių derlius
harvests similar to those achieved by the conventional gaunamas panašus, kaip įdirbant dirvą tradiciniu būdu,
tillage method, however, operation time and fuel costs tačiau mažesn÷s darbo laiko sąnaudos ir išlaidos
were lower. kurui.
One of the main functions in the strip-tillage technology Juostinio žem÷s dirbimo technologijoje vieną iš
is performed by the equipment’s plant residue row cleaners, svarbiausių funkcijų atlieka mašinos augalinių liekanų
which influence the appropriate seedbed preparation nužertuvai, kurie daro įtaka tinkamam s÷klos guoliaviet÷s
according to the requirements of agricultural engineering. paruošimui pagal agrotechnikos reikalavimus. Augalinių
The plant residue cleaning process when applying no- liekanų nuž÷rimo procesą, taikant tiesioginę s÷ją, tyr÷
tillage was investigated by the researchers from different įvairių šalių mokslininkai [5,8]. Vienas pirštinis diskinis
countries [5,8]. One finger row cleaner with a diameter of nužertuvas, kurio skersmuo 500 mm, pad÷ties kampas
o o
500 mm at a position angle of 10 to the driving direction 10 važiavimo krypčiai, nuž÷r÷ nuo 10 iki 15%
cleaned from 10 to 15% of chopped straw. Two serrated smulkintų šiaudų kapojų. Du dantyti diskiniai
row cleaners with a diameter of 330 mm and an angle of nužertuvai, kurių skersmuo 330 mm, o kampas tarp jų
o o
60 between them cleaned from 40 to 50% of chopped 60 , nuž÷r÷ nuo 40 iki 50% šiaudų kapojų. Vieno
straw. The cleaning by one finger row cleaner decreased pirštinio nužertuvo šiaudų nuž÷rimas nežymiai
-1
insignificantly when increasing driving speed from 5 to 12 sumaž÷jo didinant jud÷jimo greitį nuo 5 iki 12 km·h , o
-1
km·h , however, the speed had no influence on the operation dviejų dantytų diskinių nužertuvų darbo kokybei greitis
quality of two serrated row cleaners. The two serrated row įtakos netur÷jo. Du dantyti diskiniai nužertuvai nuž÷r÷
cleaners cleaned chopper straw within the strip wider by šiaudų kapojus 100 mm platesniame ruože negu vienas
100 mm compared with one finger row cleaner [5]. pirštinis nužertuvas [5].
The row cleaners of strip-tillage equipment can be also Juostinio žem÷s dirbimo mašinose diskiniai
installed behind a disc coulter which cuts soil; however, in nužertuvai gali būti sumontuoti ir už diskinio norag÷lio,
such a case about 4% more of plant residues will be kuris prapjauna dirvą, tačiau tokiu atveju į dirvą yra
incorporated into soil [3]. įterpiama apie 4% daugiau augalų liekanų [3].
The researchers propose that it is important to leave a Mokslininkai teigia, kad tarp diskinių nužertuvų svarbu
5–20 mm gap between row cleaners as two row cleaners palikti 5–20 mm tarpelį, nes du diskiniai nužertuvai
positioned at an angle are clogged with straw and lift it pastatyti kampu kemšasi šiaudais ir juos kelia į viršų
upwards [11]. [11].
The strip-tillage technology has not been practically Lietuvoje juostinio žem÷s dirbimo technologija dar praktiškai
investigated in Lithuania as there is no appropriate visiškai netirta, nes šiuo metu dar n÷ra tinkančių kombinuotų,
combined strip-tillage machinery available yet. There is juostomis dirbančių, žem÷s dirbimo ir s÷jos mašinų.
lack of investigations on which technological processes of Trūksta tyrimų, kokie juostinių žem÷s dirbimo mašinų
strip-tillage machinery operation are the most appropriate darbo technologiniai procesai tinkamiausi Lietuvos
under Lithuanian soil and climate conditions and what dirvožemiams ir klimato sąlygoms, n÷ra nežinoma, kokie
parameters of the main working parts have to be tur÷tų būti pagrindinių darbinių dalių parametrai, kad
maintained to ensure a quality process of tillage and būtų užtikrinamas kokybiškas žem÷s dirbimo ir s÷jos
sowing as well as the lowest energy costs and the most procesas, kad energetin÷s sąnaudos būtų mažiausios, o
environmentally friendly impact. poveikis aplinkai būtų draugiškiausias.
The aim of this work is to establish the parameters of Šio darbo tikslas yra nustatyti juostinio žem÷s dirbimo
the row cleaners of strip-tillage machinery in interaction mašinos diskinių nužertuvų darbo technologinius
with soil and plant residues. parametrus sąveikoje su dirva ir augalin÷mis liekanomis.
MATERIAL AND METHOD TYRIMŲ METODIKA

The experimental research was carried out in 2013 Eksperimentiniai moksliniai tyrimai atlikti 2013 metais,
after harvesting winter wheat at the Trial Station of po žieminių kviečių derliaus nu÷mimo, Aleksandro
Aleksandras Stulginskis University (54º52′ N, 23º49′ E). Stulginskio universiteto Bandymų stoties (54º52′ N,
The soil of the experiment was loam in the soil. With a 23º49′ E) karbonatingojo giliau gl÷jiško lengvo priemolio
view to carrying out the investigations experimental dirvoje. Tyrimams atlikti Žem÷s ūkio inžinerijos ir saugos
equipment of conservation strip-tillage was manufactured institute buvo pasigaminta neariminio juostinio žem÷s
at the Institute of Agricultural Engineering and Safety; the dirbimo eksperimentin÷ mašina, kurią sudar÷ dvi
equipment consisted of two sections fit for tilling two sekcijos, galinčios įdirbti dvi atskiras juostas ir pas÷ti dvi
separate strips and drilling two seed lines. The working s÷klų eilutes. Kiekvienos sekcijos darbin÷s dalys gali būti
parts of each section can be controlled separately, reguliuojamos atskirai, nepriklausomai viena nuo kitos
12
independently of each other (Fig. 1). (1 pav.).

The main objective of this experimental research was Pagrindinis šių eksperimentinių tyrimų objektas buvo
row cleaners. Two serrated row cleaners were used for diskiniai nužertuvai. Tyrimams buvo naudojami du
the research; each of them had the diameter of 340 mm dantyti diskiniai nužertuvai, kurių skersmuo 340 mm ir
and the same number of indentations – 14. dantų skaičius – 14 buvo vienodas.
Fig. 1 – Experimental strip-tillage equipment

1 – row cleaners of plant residues; 2 – supporting wheel; 3 – protected coulter for loosening deeper layers of soil;
4 – discs with serrated edges; 5 – hob coulter; 6 – drilling device; 7 – seed covering discs; 8 – pressing roller; 9 – seed box; 10 – frame
The experimental investigations were carried out by Eksperimentiniai tyrimai buvo atliekami keičiant
changing the position angles of the experimental eksperimentin÷s mašinos diskinių nužertuvų diskų
equipment’s row cleaner discs (10°, 15°, 22.5°, 30°), the pad÷ties kampus (10°, 15°, 22,5°, 30°), tarpą tarp
gap between the cleaner discs (30 mm and 40 mm) and nužertuvų diskų (30 mm ir 40 mm) ir važiavimo greitį
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
the driving speed (4 km·h , 5 km·h , 6 km·h , 7 km·h ). (4 km·h , 5 km·h , 6 km·h , 7 km·h ). Augalinių
The scheme of cleaning plant residues in a soil strip is liekanų nuž÷rimo dirvos juostoje schema pateikta 2
presented in Fig. 2. The research was carried out in pav. Tyrimai vykdyti lengvo priemolio neįdirbtoje
untilled winter wheat stubble soil of light loam; the žieminių kviečių ražienin÷je dirvoje, kurios viršutinio
moisture content of its upper layer (0–50 mm) was 13 % dirvos sluoksnio (0-50 mm) dr÷gnumas buvo 13 %, o
and soil penetration resistance was about 1 MPa. The soil kietumas – apie 1 MPa. Dirvos kietumas ir dr÷gnumas
penetration resistance and moisture content were išmatuotas „Eijkelkamp” firmos gamybos prietaisu
measured by “Eijkelkamp” meter (Penetrologger). (Penetrologger).
During the investigations first of all the soil surface Tyrimų metu, pirmiausiai diskiniais dantytais
covered with plant residues was driven over by serrated nužertuvais buvo pravažiuojama per augalin÷mis
row cleaners. After that the amount of cleaned and liekanomis padengtą dirvos paviršių. Po to, nužertuvais
uncleaned plant residues was established, having nužertoje juostoje, 5 pakartojimais atsitiktinai
2
assessed the difference in the plant residue mass before pasirinktuose 0,1 m ploto laukeliuose, įvertinant
2
and after the cleaning, in randomly selected 0.1 m plots augalinių liekanų mas÷s skirtumą prieš nuž÷rimą ir po
with 5 replications within the cleaned strip. The analogous nuž÷rimo, buvo nustatytas nužertų ir nenužertų augalinių
principle was used to establish the amount of plant liekanų kiekis. Analogišku principu nužertų augalinių
residues cleaned from the small plots in the adjacent strip liekanų kiekis buvo nustatytas ir iš šalia nužertuvais
formed by the cleaners. Having changed the position suformuotos juostos esančių plotelių. Pakeitus diskinių
angle of the row cleaners, the gap between the discs or nužertuvų pad÷ties kampą, tarpą tarp diskų arba
driving speed the investigations of plant residue cleaning važiavimo greitį, augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo tyrimai buvo
were repeated with the same sequence. atliekami iš naujo ta pačia seka.
The experimental research also established the range Eksperimentiniais tyrimais taip pat buvo nustatyta,
of cleaning plant residues from the strip centre by the row kokiu atstumu diskiniai nužertuvai nuž÷r÷ augalines liekanas
cleaners depending on driving speed, and the variation of nuo juostos centro, priklausomai nuo važiavimo greičio,
cleaning range and the cleaned strip width depending on ir kaip kito nuž÷rimo atstumas bei nužertos juostos plotis,
the row cleaner position angle. priklausomai nuo diskinių nužertuvų pad÷ties kampo.
The data of the experiments was analyzed by the Eksperimentinių tyrimų duomenys buvo apdorojami
dispersion analysis method estimating the least significant dispersin÷s analiz÷s metodu, įvertinant esminio skirtumo
difference LSD05 at 95% probability level [10]. ribą LSD05, esant 95% tikimyb÷s lygmens [10].
Fig. 2 – Scheme of plant residue cleaning in soil strip

v – driving speed, km·h-1; α – position angle of cleaner discs, degree o; l – gap between cleaner discs, mm; L – range of cleaned plant
residues, mm; a – cleaned soil strip, mm; b – uncleaned soil strip, mm ; c - cleaner discs
13
RESULTS REZULTATŲ APTARIMAS

The experimental research established that at a steady Eksperimentiniais tyrimais nustatyta, kad esant
-1 -1
driving speed of 7 km·h and a 40 mm gap between the pastoviam 7 km·h važiavimo greičiui ir 40 mm tarpui
cleaning discs the greatest amount (79.97%) of plant tarp nuž÷rimo diskų, daugiausia (79,97%) augalinių
residues was cleaned when the position angle of each liekanų nužeriama, kai nužertuvų kiekvieno disko
cleaner disc was 22.5° (Fig. 3). Having reduced the pad÷ties kampas 22,5° (3 pav.). Nužertuvų diskų
cleaner disc position angle to 15° or increased to 30° the pad÷ties kampą sumažinus iki 15° arba padidinus iki
amount of plant residues cleaned decreased significantly 30°, nužertų augalinių liekanų kiekis sumaž÷jo
to 58.89% and 62.28% respectively. However, the esmingai, atitinkamai iki 58,89% ir 62,28%. Tačiau
requirement of agricultural engineering to clean more than agrotechnikos reikalavimas, kad liekanų būtų nužeriama
50% of plant residues was met. Practically, in all cases of daugiau negu 50%, buvo tenkinamas. Beveik visais
certain row cleaner position angles, when the gap between diskinių nužertuvų diskų pad÷ties kampo atvejais, kai
the cleaner discs was 40 mm, the amount of plant residues tarpas tarp nužertuvų diskų buvo 40 mm, nužertų
cleaned was greater compared with the experimental augalinių liekanų kiekis buvo didesnis, lyginant su tyrimų
results, when the gap between the cleaner discs was 30 rezultatais, kai tarpas tarp nužertuvų diskų buvo 30 mm.
mm. At a 15° disc position angle the gap between the Esant 15° diskų pad÷ties kampui, tarpas tarp nužertuvo
cleaner discs had no significant influence. diskų esmin÷s įtakos netur÷jo.
Fig. 3 – Dependence of plant residue amount cleaned on position angle of row cleaner discs at 7 km·h-1 driving speed
The application of conservation tillage technologies Taikant neariminio žem÷s dirbimo technologijas,
requires that the working parts of tillage machinery touch pageidautina, kad žem÷s dirbimo mašinų darbin÷s
and loosen soil as little as possible. Therefore, in order to dalys kuo mažiau liestų ir purentų dirvą. Tod÷l tam
substantiate this purpose it was established that the disc tikslui pagrįsti buvo nustatyta, kaip diskų pad÷ties
position angle makes influence on the cleaned strip width kampas daro įtaką nužertos dirvos juostos pločiui,
-1 -1
at a driving speed of 7 km·h . The experimental research esant 7 km·h važiavimo greičiui. Eksperimentiniais
established that the reduction of the row cleaner position tyrimais nustatyta, kad mažinant diskinių nužertuvų
angle decreased the cleaned strip width (Fig. 4). In all diskų pad÷ties kampą, maž÷ja nužeriamos juostos
cases of the investigations significant differences were plotis (4 pav.). Visais tyrimų atvejais tarp skirtingų
established between different disc position angles. The diskų pad÷ties kampų buvo nustatyti esminiai
widest (280 mm) strip was achieved when the position skirtumai. Plačiausia (280 mm) juosta buvo tada, kai
angle of the cleaner discs was 30° and the narrowest nužertuvo diskų pad÷ties kampas buvo 30°, o
(140 mm) one – when the angle was 10°. siauriausia (140 mm) – kai kampas 10°.
Fig. 4 – Influence of cleaner disc position angle on width of cleaned soil strip at 7 km·h-1 driving speed
14
Having assessed the influence of the cleaner disc position Įvertinus nužertuvų diskų pad÷ties kampo įtaką
angle on the width of the cleaned soil strip further experimental nužertos dirvos juostos pločiui, dar buvo atlikti
research was carried out to establish the influence of driving eksperimentiniai tyrimai, kuriais nustatyta važiavimo
speed on the range of plant residue cleaning from the strip greičio įtaka augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo atstumui nuo
centre. The experimental research demonstrated that the juostos centro. Eksperimentiniai tyrimai parod÷, kad
increase of the driving speed increased the range of plant didinant važiavimo greitį, augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo
residue cleaning (Fig. 5). The greatest (420 mm) range of atstumas did÷ja (5 pav.). Didžiausias (420 mm) nužertų
-1
cleaned plant residues was established at a driving speed liekanų atstumas buvo nustatytas esant 7 km·h , o
-1 -1
of 7 km·h and the least one (258 mm) – at a driving mažiausias (258 mm) – esant 5 km·h važiavimo
-1
speed of 5 km·h . It was not expedient to increase the greičiui. Labiau didinti greiti nebuvo tikslinga, nes
driving speed more as the plant residues could have been augalin÷s liekanos gal÷jo būti užžeriamos ant kitos,
scattered on the other adjacent strip. The analysis of the greta esančios juostos. Analizuojant diskų pad÷ties
disc position angle influence on the range of plant residue kampo įtaką augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo atstumui,
cleaning established that a larger angle resulted in a nustatyta, kad esant didesniam kampui, nuž÷rimo
greater cleaning range. The significant influence of disc atstumas buvo didesnis. Esmin÷ diskų pad÷ties kampo
-1 -1
position angle was established only at a 7 km·h speed. įtaka buvo nustatyta tik prie 7 km·h .
Fig. 5 - Range of plant residue cleaning from strip centre depending on driving speed and position angle of cleaner discs when gap
between cleaner discs is 40 mm
Concluding the influence of different technological Apibendrinant įvairių juostin÷s žem÷s dirbimo
parameters of the strip-tillage equipment’s row cleaners on mašinos diskinių nužertuvų technologinių parametrų
the cleaning of plant residues from the untilled soil surface įtaką augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimui neįdirbtos dirvos paviršiuje,
it can be observed that a very important parameter is the galima pasteb÷ti, kad labai svarbus parametras yra
disc position angle. Having evaluated the data of different diskų pad÷ties kampas. Įvertinus įvairių eksperimentinių
experimental research it can be stated that the best result tyrimų duomenis, galima teigti, kad Lietuvos sąlygomis
of cleaning plant residues in light loamy soils under lengvo priemolio dirvoje geriausi augalinių liekanų
ᴼ
Lithuanian conditions were achieved at a disc position nuž÷rimo rezultatai gauti esant 15 ir 22,5° diskų
ᴼ ᴼ
angle of 15 and 22.5 . With a view to obtaining as narrow pad÷ties kampui. Siekiant, kad nužertos dirvos juostos
soil strip cleaned as possible and as great range of plant plotis būtų galimai mažesnis, o augalinių liekanų
residue cleaning as possible without exceeding the width of nuž÷rimo nuo juostos centro atstumas didesnis, bet
interrows the most favourable angle of disc position angle neviršytų tarpueilių pločio, palankiausias diskų pad÷ties
ᴼ -1 -1
could be 15 and driving speed could be 7 km·h . kampas gal÷tų būti 15°, važiavimo greitis – 7 km·h .
Aknowlegement Pad÷ka
This research was funded by a grant (No. MIP- Tyrimą finansavo Lietuvos mokslo taryba (sutarties
116/2012) from the Research Council of Lithuania. Nr. MIP-116/2012).
CONCLUSIONS IŠVADOS
The greatest amount (79.97%) of plant residues from Juostinio žem÷s dirbimo mašinos diskiniais dantytais
the soil strip was cleaned by serrated row cleaners when nužertuvais daugiausia (79.97%) augalinių liekanų iš
the disc position angle was 22.5 5 and somewhat smaller dirvos juostos buvo nužeriama, kai diskų pad÷ties
amount – when the angle was 15° and 30°, however, in all kampas buvo 22,5°, šiek tiek mažiau, kai – 15° ir 30°,
three cases the result was not lower than 50%. tačiau visais trimis atvejais nemažiau negu 50%.
The reduction of the cleaner disc position angle Mažinant nužertuvų diskų pad÷ties kampą nužertos
decreases the width of the soil strip cleaned. The smallest dirvos juostos plotis maž÷ja. Mažiausias (140 mm)
(140 mm) width of the soil strip cleaned as well as the soil nužertos dirvos juostos plotis, o tuo pačiu ir diskinių
affected with the indentations of row cleaners was nužertuvų dantimis paveiktos dirvos buvo nustatyta
ᴼ
achieved at a disc position angle of 10 . A 20 mm higher diskų pad÷ties kampui esant 10°. 20 mm didesnis
ᴼ
strip width was achieved at an angle of 15 and 40 mm – at juostos plotis buvo prie 15°, 40 mm – prie 22,5°
an angle of 22.5°. kampo.
The increase of the strip-tillage equipment driving speed
15
increases the plant residue cleaning ranges from the strip Didinant juostinio žem÷s dirbimo mašinos važiavimo
centre when the cleaner disc position angle is 15°. The greitį, kai nužertuvo diskų pad÷ties kampas 15°,
greatest (420 mm) range of plant residue cleaning was augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo atstumas nuo juostos centro
-1
established when the driving speed was 7 km·h . did÷ja. Didžiausias (420 mm) augalinių liekanų nuž÷rimo
-1
atstumas nustatytas esant 7 km·h važiavimo greičiui.
REFERENCES
[1]. DeJong-Hughes J., Vetsch J. (2007) - On-farm LITERATŪROS SĄRAŠAS
comparison of conservation tillage systems for corn [1]. DeJong-Hughes J., Vetsch J. (2007) - Kukurūzų
following soybeans, University of Minnesota, pg. 12; derliaus palyginimas naudojant neariminio žem÷s
[2]. Evans R.G., Stevens W.B., Iversen W.M. (2010) - dirbimo technologijas, Minesotos universitetas, p. 12;
Development of strip tillage on sprinkler irrigated [2]. Evans R.G., Stevens W.B., Iversen W.M. (2010) -
sugarbeet, Applied Engineering in Agriculture, pg. 59-69, Juostinio žem÷s dirbimo vystymas, purkštuvais
vol. 26(1); dr÷kinant cukrinių runkelių pas÷lį, taikomoji inžinerija
[3]. Fallahi S., Raoufat M.H. (2008) - Row-crop planter žem÷s ūkyje, p. 59-69, nr. 26(1)
attachments in a conservation tillage system: A comparative [3]. Fallahi S., Raoufat M.H. (2008) - Row-crop planter
study, Soil and Tillage Research, pg. 27-34, vol. 98; attachments in a conservation tillage system: A comparative
[4]. Jabro J.D., Stevens W.B., Iversen W.M., Evants R.G. study, Soil and Tillage Research, p. 27-34, vol. 98;
(2011) - Bulk density, water content, and hydraulic properties of [4]. Jabro J.D., Stevens W.B., Iversen W.M., Evants
a sandy loam soil following conventional or strip tillage, R.G. (2011) - Tankis, vandens kiekis ir hidraulin÷s
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, pg. 59-69, vol. 27(5); savyb÷s priesm÷lio dirvožemyje po tradicinio ir juostinio
žem÷s dirbimo, taikomoji inžinerija žem÷s ūkyje, p. 59-
[5]. Linke C. (1998) - No-tillage-crop cultivation taking
69, vol. 27(5)
account of technical, agronomical and economic aspects,
[5]. Linke C. (1998) - Augalų auginimas naudojant
Thesis, Hohenheim; neariminio žem÷s dirbimo technologiją techniniu,
[6]. Morris N.L., Miller P.C.H., Orson J.H., Froud-Williams agronominiu ir ekonominiu aspektais, Disertacija,
R.J. (2010) - The adoption of non-inversion tillage systems Hohenhaimas;
in the United Kingdom and the agronomic impact on soil, [6]. Morris N.L., Miller P.C.H., Orson J.H., Froud-
crops and environment - A review, Soil and Tillage Williams R.J. (2010) - Neariminio žem÷s dirbimo
Research, pg. 1-15, vol. 108; technologijų poveikis dirvožemiui, augalams ir aplinkai
[7].Sokolov N.M. (2012) - Main tillage method on slopes Jungtin÷je Karalyst÷je: Apžvalga, Dirva ir žem÷s
maintaining soil moisture, Tractors and Agricultural dirbimo tyrimas, p. 1-15, nr. 108;
machinery, pg. 17-18, vol. 5; [7]. Sokolov N.M. (2012) - Pagrindinis žem÷s dirbimo
[8]. Sarauskis E., Masilionyte L. (2012) - Combination of būdas šlaituose išlaikant dirvos dr÷gmę, Traktoriai ir
tillage and no-tillage, Mano ukis, pg. 70-75, vol. 6; žem÷s ūkio mašinos, p. 17-18, nr. 5
[9]. Sokolov N.M. (2012) - Main tillage method on slopes [8]. Šarauskis E., Masilionyt÷ L. (2012) - Žem÷s dirbimo
maintaining soil moisture, Tractors and Agricultural ir tiesiogin÷s s÷jos derinys, Mano ūkis, p. 70-75, vol. 6;
machinery, pg. 17-18, vol. 5; [9]. Coкoлob H.M. (2012) - Почвовлагосберегающий
[10]. Steponavicius D., Jasinskas A., Sarauskis E., Sniauka спосб основной обработки почвы на склoнах,
P., Vaiciukevicius E., Zinkevicius R. (2010) - Laboratory Tpaкторы и cельхозмашины, p. 17-18, vol. 5;
works on agricultural machinery, LZUU: Akademija. [10]. Steponavičius D., Jasinskas A., Šarauskis E.,
[11]. Terminology for soil-engaging components for Šniauka P., Vaiciukevičius E., Zinkevičius R. (2010) -
conservation-tillage planters, drills and seeders (1995), Žem÷s ūkio mašinų laboratoriniai darbai, LŽŪU: Akademija.
Transaction of the ASAE standarts S477, pg. 312-317. [11]. Terminology for soil-engaging components for
conservation-tillage planters, drills and seeders. (1995)
- Transaction of the ASAE standarts S477, p. 312-317;
16
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF FLOW CONCENTRATION FOR PNEUMATIC

CONVEYING SYSTEMS OF AIR-SEEDERS
/
DETERMINATION EXPÉRIMENTALE DE LA CONCENTRATION DE TRANSPORT DANS LES
SYSTÈMES DE DISTRIBUTION DES SEMOIR PNEUMATIQUES
1,2 1
Ph.D. Stud. Yatskul A.I. , Associate. Prof. Ph.D. Lemière JP. .
1
Kuhn SA, 4, Impasse des Fabriques, 67700, Saverne, France.
2
National Institute of Higher Education in Agronomy, Food and Environmental Sciences (AgroSup Dijon), 26 Bd Dr. Petitjean, 21079
Dijon cedex, France
Abstract: Taking into account the complexity of wide Résumé: Compte tenu de leur complexité, les semoirs pneumatiques
width air-seeders, they stay little-developed. The chief de grande largeur restent peu étudiés. Le point clef pour les
point for air-seeder designers is conception of the concepteurs semoir pneumatique est la conception du système
pneumatic conveying system. It must be precise in de transport pneumatique. Il doit être précis en termes
terms of uniformity in order the agro-technical goals d'uniformité pour que les objectifs agro-technique sont atteints. Il
are achieved. It must also ensure high rates without doit également permettre des débits élevés sans occasionner de
causing damages to seeds. This paper provides a dommages aux semences. Ce document présente une analyse
theoretical analysis of pneumatic conveying designing théorique de la conception d’un transport pneumatique appliquée
applied to air-seeders. It shows that the conveying of aux semoirs pneumatiques. Il montre que le transport des
particles (seeds, fertilizers or their mixture) in a given particules (semences, engrais ou leur mélange) dans une conduite
pipe depends of two interconnected parameters: flow donnée dépend de deux paramètres interdépendants: la
concentration and air velocity. The knowledge of concentration de trasport et la vitesse de l'air. La connaissance de
these two parameters is a necessity for the design of ces deux paramètres est nécéssaire à la conception de ces
conveying systems but they are not defined in the systèmes de transport, mais ils ne sont pas définis dans le cas des
case of agricultural machinery. This paper proposes a machines agricoles. Cet article propose une méthode pour
method to measure the flow concentration and the air mesurer la concentration de transport et les valeurs de vitesse de
velocity values which must be used to optimize an l'air qui doivent être utilisées pour optimiser le fonctionnement d’un
existing seeder (relatively to machine's outflow) or to semoir existant (en fonction du débit de la machine) ou pour
design a new pneumatic seeder. In this case choices concevoir un nouveau semoir pneumatique. Dans ce cas, le choix
about pipes’ diameters in each part of conveying des diamètres des conduites pour chaque partie du système de
system can be optimized from an energy point of view transport peut être optimisé d'un point de vue énergétique et cet
and this paper presents how the collected values can article présente la manière dont les valeurs collectées peuvent être
be used in a global methodology of design for air- utilisées dans une méthodologie globale de conception des
seeders’ conveying system. système de transport des semoirs pneumatiques.
Keywords: air-seeder, distribution system, pneumatic Mots-clés: semoir pneumatique, système de distribution, transport
conveying, flow concentration, stagnation velocity pneumatique, concentration de transport, vitesse de stagnation
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Today farmers must have an equipment allowing to Aujourd'hui les agriculteurs doivent avoir des matériels
cultivate sizeable areas (300 to 500 ha) efficiently and permettant de cultiver des zones assez importantes (300 à
to achieve a controlled seeding during a short window 500 ha) de manière efficace et de réaliser un
of time. It especially concerns the emerging market ensemencement contrôlé pendant un court laps de temps.
economies countries like Russia, Ukraine and Ceci concerne en particulier les marchés des pays
Kazakhstan. So farmers want to have high capacity émergents comme la Russie, l'Ukraine ou le Kazakhstan. Les
hoppers for seeds and a wide coulter bar for insuring a agriculteurs veulent des trémies grande capacité pour les
rapid seeding. Consequently, the sowing implements semences et une large barre de semis pour assurer un
become more sophisticated and heavier. They are ensemencement rapide. Par conséquent, les outils de semis
called air-seeders and consist of a coulter-bar and a deviennent plus sophistiqués et plus lourd. Ces semoirs
hopper to contain the seeds (and fertilizers if pneumatiques se composent d'une barre de semis et une
necessary). Seeds are conveyed from the hopper to the trémie pour contenir les semences et les engrais (si
coulter-bar by an air-stream. Taking into account the nécessaire). Les graines sont transportées depuis la trémie
complexity of this type of seed drills, they stay little- vers la barre de semis par un flux d'air. Compte tenu de la
studied. complexité de ce type de semoirs, ils restent peu étudiés.
One of the critical points for the design of this kind of L'un des points critiques pour la conception de ce type
machines is the pneumatic conveying system design. de machines est la conception du système de transport
Usual approaches of pneumatic conveying design couldn’t pneumatique. L’approche habituelle ne peut être
be applied to air-seeders because of high discrepancy appliquées en raison de fortes divergences entre les
between theoretical calculating and practical calculs théoriques et les mesures pratiques. Ces écarts
measurements. This discrepancy exists because of non existent en raison de l’existence de régimes non
steady-state phenomena during particles’ transport permanents au cours du transport des particules (causés
(caused by the many bends, changes in pipe diameter, the par les nombreux coudes, changements de diamètre,
presence of manifolds, stop and restart of seeding in arrêts et redémarrages du semis dans les fourrières...).
headlands...). So, very often, conveying system Ainsi, les paramètres du système de transport sont très
parameters are chosen intuitively and incorrectly, which souvent choisis de manière intuitive et incorrecte, ce qui
leads to a plugging of pipes or to unjustified energy losses conduit à des obturations des conduites ou à des pertes
(excessive pression loss, the use of oversized turbines). d'énergie non justifiées.
17
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS AND METHODS

METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL APPROACH METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL APPROACH
When designing a pneumatic transport system, first Lors de la conception d'un système de transport pneumatique,
we define both the concentration of transport of particles on définit d'abord la concentration de transport des
and the air speed. The velocity of the air which transports particules et la vitesse de l'air. La vitesse de l'air véhiculant
the particles must be greater than a limit speed of les particules doit être supérieure à une vitesse limite de
stagnation of particles. During a vertical transport, air stagnation des particules. Au cours d'un transport vertical
speed is of course greater than the fluidization velocity of elle est notamment supérieure à la vitesse de fluidisation
the particles. During horizontal transport or in a bend, des particules. Au cours d’un transport horizontal ou dans
gravity or inertia movement deport the axis of the flow un coude, la gravité ou les forces d’inerties déportent la
ducts and can cause deposits of material (cf. Fig. 1, b). direction des écoulements et peuvent provoquer des dépôts
Once both the air velocity and concentration of transport (cf. Fig. 1, b). Une fois que la vitesse de l'air et la
are set, and knowing the flow-rate of particles to be concentration du transport sont définis, et en connaissant le
transported, it is possible to choose a suitable diameter débit de particules à transporter, il est possible de choisir un
for the pipe. diamètre approprié pour les conduites.
Moreover, as several transport speeds and several pipe Comme plusieurs vitesses de transport et plusieurs diamètres
diameters are possible, it is proposed in this paper to de tuyaux sont possibles, il est proposé ici de choisir la
choose the most energy efficient solution. The conveying solution la plus économe en énergie. La conception du
system design involves the definition of a pipe internal système de transport implique la définition d'un diamètre
diameter, the calculation of pressure drop and the interne de conduite, le calcul des pertes de charge et le
assignation of a fan unit. The power of the fan must be choix d'un compresseur. La puissance du ventilateur doit
lower as possible and depends both of the pressure loss être la plus faible possible et dépend à la fois de la perte
and the volumic air-flow rate. de charge totale à vaincre et du débit d'air transporté.
The volumic air-flow rate required from a fan unit is Le débit d'air volumique traité par un compresseur est
given by: donné par l’équation:
, [m3/s] (1)
, [Pa] (2)
Horizontal conveying losses can be presented as: Les pertes de charge liées au transport horizontal seront:
, [Pa] (3)
Where [8,10,11]: Avec [8,10,11]:
, [Pa] , [Pa] (4)

(5)
, [Pa] (6)
Vertical conveying is subordinated to the same Le transport vertical est subordonné aux mêmes
principles as in horizontal areas, except that in vertical principes que dans les zones horizontales, sauf que dans
transport we consider an influence of gravity. Pressure le transport vertical on considère une influence de la
drop can be described as [8]: gravité. La perte de charge peut être décrite comme [8]:
, [Pa] (7)
The losses in bends are generally equated to Les pertes dans les coudes Σ sont généralement
some equivalent linear losses. In the case of particles assimilées à des pertes linéaires équivalentes. Dans le
transport, losses in accessory equipments can be cas du transport de particules, les pertes dans les
determined experimentally. accessoires peuvent être déterminées expérimentalement.
The classical theories for pressure drops estimations Les théories élaborées pour estimer les pertes de
prove the dependence of two interconnected parameters: charge montrent l’interdépendance de deux paramètres:
flow concentration and air velocity having to be accepting la concentration de transport et la vitesse de l'air qui
in the beginning of each design. doivent être posés au début de chaque calcul.
According to [10] the theoretical definitions of flow Selon [10] le calcul théorique de la concentration de transport
concentration and of optimal air velocity, relatively to a et de la vitesse d'air optimale, par rapport à un diamètre de
pipe diameter, are very difficult or are impossible. So, we conduite, est très difficiles voire irréalisable. Ainsi, nous
had to develop a rational method for the experimental avons dû développer une méthode rationnelle de définition
definition of flow concentration for various seeds and expérimentale de concentration de flux pour diverses
fertilizers in the case of air-seeders. semences et engrais dans le cas des semoirs pneumatiques.
It remained to be seen what part of the transportation Il restait à savoir quelle partie du système de transport
system should be designed first. To make this choice, devait être conçue en premier. Pour faire ce choix des
observations and field measurements were carried out to observations et des mesures sur le terrain ont été
find which was the part of the system that suffered the réalisées pour chercher quel était l'organe qui subissait le
most frequently problems of clogging or flow plus frequemment des problèmes de bouchage ou
heterogeneity. d'hétérogénéité de débit.
The testing of air-seeders with the granulated Les essais avec des granulés d’engrais ont montré
fertilizers, testified about numerous stagnations and l’apparition de nombreux dépots et colmatages entre
cloggings between the distribution manifold (called also l’éclateur (également appelé tête de distribution) et un
18
divider header) and an opener. The “problematic” areas ouvreur. Les zones «problématiques» comportaient des
showed inflections of the flexible pipe and low initial air inflexions de la conduite flexible et une faible vitesse initiale
speed. For these reasons we propose to define the de l'air. Pour ces raisons, nous proposons de définir la
maximum flow-concentration and the minimum air-velocity concentration maximale de transport et la vitese minimale de
in outlets of distribution manifold for different cultures and l'air après les sorties de la tête de distribution pour différentes
pipe diameters. These values must avoid the plugging of semences et différents diamètres de tuyaux. Ces valeurs
the system. Values found will be used as input data for doivent éviter le colmatage du système et seront utilisées
theoretical calculations of the whole pneumatic conveying comme données d'entrée pour le dimensionnement de
system. l’ensemble du système de transport pneumatique.
Experimental setup Montage expérimental

Testing was made on a specific experimental setup Les essais ont été effectués sur un dispositif
(Fig. 1, a) within the company Kuhn SA in Saverne in expérimental spécifique (Fig. 1, a) au sein de l'entreprise
France. This setup used for the testing of metering units in Kuhn SA à Saverne, en France. Le dispositif initial, qui
the case of small seeds and fertilizers was modified était utilisé pour le réglage des doseurs dans le cas de
relatively to our purpose. It was reequipped with the petites graines et des engrais, a été modifié en fonction
metering unit of serial seeder in order to simulate flows de nos objectifs. Il a été rééquipé avec l'unité de dosage
equivalent to real flows in the outlet of distribution d’un semoir de série afin de simuler des flux équivalents
manifold. aux flux réels observés à la sortie de la tête de distribution .
Once seeds are expelled by the metering unit (1) from Une fois les graines expulsées par le doseur (1) de la
the pressurized hopper (6), they are picked-up by the air trémie sous pression (6), elles sont entraînées par le flux
flow provided by the fan (2). They are transported in the d'air produit par le compresseur (2). Elles sont transportées
flexible pipe (3) toward the plastic box (4) through a dans une conduite flexible (3) vers un bac en en plastique (4)
cyclone (5). The airflow was controlled using a primary à travers un séparateur cyclone (5). Le débit d'air est contrôlé
control valve (8) and a fine control valve (7). The material en utilisant une vanne de réglage grossier (8) et une vanne
flowrate was controlled by the electronic terminal ISOBUS de réglage fin (7). Le débit de matière est controlé par un
VT50 of Kuhn, used on the serial machines compatibles terminal électronique ISOBUS VT50 de Kuhn, utilisé sur les
with ISOBUS standard. machines de série compatibles avec la norme ISOBUS.
Air velocity was measured using Venturi tubes La vitesse de l'air a été mesurée avec des tubes Venturi
(according to [3]) by acquiring the kinetic energy of airflow (conformément à [3]) en captant l'énergie cinétique du flux
in the form of pressure difference between the different d'air sous la forme d'une différence de pression entre les
sections separated by converging area (Fig. 1, a). différentes sections séparées une zone de convergence (Fig.
Pressure difference was taken by micro-manometers 1, a). La différence de pression a été mesurée à l’aide de
Testo 512 (11) laterally to air and material flows and in a micro-manomètres Testo 512 (11) latéralement au flux d'air et
straight area with a stabilized flow. de matière et dans une portion droite avec un flux stabilisé.
a) b)
Fig. 1: a - The experiment setup configuration scheme
b – Air velocity profils and velocity measurement in a horizontal pipe. (air flow alone; loaded flow)
It is important to notice that first measurements of air Il est important de noter que les premières mesures de la
velocity in the conveying pipe where made with a Pitot- vitesse de l'air dans le tuyau de transport ont été faites avec un
tube but they didn't give good results. The Pitot-tube tube Pitot mais ces mesures n'ont pas donné de bons
introduced in the middle of the straight pipe (far from the résultats. Le tube Pitot introduit au centre du tuyau rectiligne
impermanent-flow area) provided values corresponding to (loin de toute zone d’écoulement instable) a donné des valeurs
one air velocity value distributed in a core velocity de vitesse de l'air variables car distribuées dans une courbe de
profile (Fig. 1, b). Ideally the maximum value is in front profils de vitesse (Fig. 1, b). Idéalement, la valeur maximale de
of the Pitot-tube but in an horizontal transport this value vitesse est au niveau de la sonde Pitot mais en transport
represents a random and accidental velocity of a flow horizontal cette valeur devient aléatoire selon les accidents dans
layer in a point of velocity profile. l’écoulement des couches d’air en un point du profil de vitesse.
19
The value of air velocity reduces towards the walls of La valeur de la vitesse de l'air diminue lorsqu’on se
the pipe (and in practice it is very problematic to locate rappoche des parois (de plus il est très difficile de localiser le
the Pitot-tube precisely on the pipe axis). Furthermore tube de Pitot précisément sur l'axe du tube). En outre lorsque
when air-flow is loaded with particles, the velocity l’air est chargé de particules, le profil de vitesse est déformé
profile is ousted on the top because of particles vers le haut par les particules concentrées dans la partie
concentrated in the bottom of pipe. So the core of inférieure du tube. Ainsi, la courbe du profil des vitesse se
velocity profile moves up relatively to the axis of pipe, déplace vers le haut par rapport à l'axe du tube en fonction de
depending on loading (Fig. 1, b). This phenomenon la charge transportée (Fig. 1, b). Ce phénomène rend
makes impossible a correct utilization of Pitot-tube. impossible une utilisation correcte des tubes Pitot.
Test procedure and data collection Procédure de test et de collecte de données

Three diameters (20, 25, 30mm) of flexible pipes Trois diamètres (20, 25, 30mm) de tuyaux flexibles ont
were tested. They were loaded with wheat, barley, été testés. Ils ont été chargés avec du blé, de l'orge, de
starter fertilizers and a barley-fertilizer mixture (with a l’engrais de démarrage et un mélange orge-engrais (selon
mass proportion 60/40). The material flow-rate was une proportion massique 60/40). Le débit de matière a été
calculated on the basis of agrotechnical requirements calculé sur la base des exigences agro-techniques pour
with a seeder ground speed of 10km/h, a coulter-bar une vitesse au sol du semoir de 10 km/h, une largeur de
width of 12m with 6 manifolds (11 outlets). The barre de semis de 12m avec 6 têtes de distribution (11
established material flow-rate was equal to flow- rate in sorties). Le débit de particules était égale au débit réel
one outlet of manifold. The flow-rate then was changing dans une des sorties du collecteur. Le débit a donc varié
from 3 to 30 g/s. Sometimes for the higher rates the de 3 à 30 g/s. Il est arrivé que le doseur déborde pour les
metering unit overflowed and material flow-rate could débits les plus élevés auquel cas le débit souhaité n'a pas
not be respected. It happened typically for smallest pu être respecté. Cela s’est produit typiquement pour des
diameters. petits diamètres de conduites.
Each test was realized for horizontal and vertical Chaque essai a été réalisé pour des conduites horizontales et
pipes upon the following sequence: the experimental verticales selon la séquence suivante: le dispositif expérimental
setup was set to the precise material flow-rate. The fan est réglé au débit matière souhaité. Le débit d’air était réglé à
flow-rate was set to a high and sufficient level to ensure un niveau, suffisant pour assurer le transport de la matière. Le
material conveying. The airflow decreased by débit d'air était ensuite réduit en fermant progressivement les
progressive closing of the valve increments, waiting at vannes de réglage, en attendant à chaque position que l’écoulement
each position that flow stabilizes, until particles begin to se stabilise, jusqu'à ce que les particules commencent à
subside and stagnate in the bottom of the pipe. Just as refluer ou à stagner dans la partie inférieure de la conduite.
we visually detected material stagnation, the data from Dès qu’on détecte visuellement une stagnation de matière,
micro-manometers were collected. To ensure the most les données des micro-manomètres sont recueillies. Pour
accurate results, a first manipulation was devoted to obtenir des résultats plus précis, une première manipulation
define the range of air velocities corresponding to est consacrée à définir la gamme de vitesses d'air
particles stagnation. As soon as the velocity range is correspondant au début de stagnation des particules. Dès
known and when approaching the stagnation air que la plage de vitesse est connue, et à l'approche de la
velocity, we start closing the valve more slowly and vitesse de l'air de stagnation, on démarre la fermeture de la
precisely, fixing air velocity to a plugging beginning. soupape plus lente et précise, en fixant la vitesse de l'air à un
Each experiment is replicated 5 times. Particles’ flow début de bouchage. Chaque expérience est reproduite 5 fois.
rate was known. So maximum flow concentration could Le débit des particules était connu. Ainsi la concentration
be calculated for the minimum measured stagnation maximale de transport a pu être calculée pour la vitesse de
velocity upon the following equation: stagnation minimum observée selon l'équation suivante:
, [kg/kg] (8)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION RÉSULTATS ET DISCUSSION

Vertical and horizontal conveying comparing Comparaison du transport vertical et horizontal
Stagnation air velocity corresponds to the minimum La vitesse de stagnation correspond à la quantité minimale
quantity of energy necessary to the air to move d'énergie nécessaire à l'air pour déplacer les particules et se
materials and itself. Stagnation air velocity during déplacer lui-même. En transport vertical la vitesse minimale de
vertical transport of wheat is always higher than during stagnation pour le blé est toujours plus élevée que lors d’un
horizontal one (Fig. 2). Stagnation air velocity during transport horizontal (Fig. 2): La vitesse de stagnation pendant le
vertical transport is about 25 % higner than during transport vertical est environ 25% plus élevée qu’en transport
horizontal conveying whatever pipe diameter. It can be horizontal (quel que soit le diamètre de la conduite). Ceci peut
explained by the influence of gravity forces which are s'expliquer par l'influence des forces de gravité qui s’opposent au
single forces opposing velocity vector. That’s way vecteur vitesse de l’air. Ainsi, un transport ascentionnel nécessite
vertical conveying needs greatest air velocity. This une plus grande vitesse de l'air. Cette valeur sera spécifique à
value will be specific for the each type of material chaque type de matériau transporté en fonction de ses
according to its physical properties (weight, shape etc.). propriétés physiques (poids, forme, etc.). La vitesse de l’air limite
The vertical stagnation air velocity is then the critical entraînant une stagnation en transport ascentionnel est donc le
parameter which should be used for the design of air- paramètre essentiel qui doit être utilisée pour la conception de
seeder pneumatic transport systems. systèmes de transport des semoirs pneumatiques.
These data about fluidization and pick-up velocities Ces données sur la vitesse de fluidisation et la vitesse
can be compared to literature data taken from [9,10]. d’entraînement des particules peuvent être comparées aux
20
Our experimental values of stagnation velocities are in données de la littérature tirées de [9, 10]. Nos valeurs
the top of fluidization threshold for a vertical conveying expérimentales sont dans la fourchette haute des seuils de
and in the top of pick-up threshold for a horizontal one. fluidisation (transport vertical) cités et dans dans la fourchette
Similar results were obtained for wheat, barley and haute des vitesses d’entraînement horizontal citées. Des
fertilizers. résultats similaires ont été obtenus pour le blé, l'orge et l’engrais.
Fig. 2 - Comparing of vertical and horizontal conveying of wheat (on the left) Barley, fertilizers and mixture stagnation velocities (on the right)
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 3: a – Maximum flow concentration of wheat; b - Maximum flow concentration of barley;
c - Maximum flow concentration of starter fertilizers; d – Maximum flow concentration, barley-fertilizer mixture..
Mixture conveying Transport du mélange

There are ambiguous observations about barley- Concernant le mélange orge-engrais, on obtient des
fertilizer mixture conveying. The results obtained with résultats ambigus. Les résultats obtenus avec l'orge,
barley, fertilizers and their mixture are grouped on the l’engrais et leur mélange sont regroupés sur un même
same diagram. In the smallest pipe (diameter 20mm) graphique. Dans le plus petit tuyau (diamètre 20mm), la
stagnation velocity of mixture is identical to barley one vitesse de stagnation du mélange est identique à celle de
(green curves, Fig. 2). The ratio 60/40 by weight l'orge (courbes vertes, Fig. 2). Le ratio 60/40 en masse
implicates that barley volume is double than fertilizer's implique que le volume de l'orge est le double de celui de
volume in one volume of air. We could suppose the l'engrais par volume d'air. Nous pourrions supposer que le
behavior of the fertilizer is masked by the behavior of comportement de l'engrais est masqué par le
barley: Barley has a tendency to “carry” fertilizers in the comportement de l’orge qui tendrait à "transporter"
21
manner of a "broom". l’engrais à la manière d'un "balai".

In the pipe of 25 mm the effect of fertilizer presence Dans le tuyau de 25 mm de diamètre, l'effet de la présence
is more perceptible. The curve of mixture stagnation is d'engrais est plus perceptible. La courbe de stagnation du
just between the barley (green) and fertilizer (red) mélange (Fig. 2) est entre celle de l'orge (en vert) et de
curves (Fig. 2). We can suppose that as air could l’engrais courbes (en rouge). On peut supposer que l'air peut
circulate freely between the particles, heavier particles circuler librement entre les particules et que les plus lourdes
(fertilizer and heavier barley seeds) subside easily at (l’engrais et les grains d’orge les plus lourds) sédimentent plus
the bottom of the pipe. In spite of the superior volume facilement au fond de la conduite. Malgré le volume supérieur
of the barley seeds have a less influence to the qu’il occupe, l’orge aurait une moindre influence sur le dépot
fertilizer stagnation because of the wider diameter of de l'engrais en raison du diamètre plus élevé du tuyau. Nous
the pipe. We can suppose that a bigger content of pouvons supposer qu'une plus grande proportion d'engrais
fertilizer in the mixture will increase the stagnation limit dans le mélange augmenterait la vitesse limite de stagnation.
velocity. Cependant, quand on augmente le diamètre de tuyau à
However, increasing of pipe diameter to 30 mm (black 30 mm (courbes noires), on observe le même résultat que
curves), we observed the same result than for the 20 mm pour le tube de 20 mm. D'autres expériences et études
pipe. So further experiments and statistical analysis will statistiques seront donc réalisées en vue de conclure.
be done in order to conclude. In a first approach, we will Dans une première approche, nous allons donc utiliser la
use the higher stagnation velocity of one part of the vitesse de stagnation la plus élevée de celles des éléments
mixture (here fertilizer) to design the system of d’un mélange (ici l’engrais) pour concevoir le système de
conveying. transport.
Flow concentration and pipe diameter Concentration de transport et diamètre de conduite

Transport in a dense phase would be preferable Un transport en phase dense serait économiquement
economically [7,10], but it is not possible to provide a préférable [7,10], mais il est impossible d’obtenir un écoulement
regular transportation without "seed holes." So dense régulier sans "effet de poquet". Le transport en phase dense ne
phase transport cannot be applied in a seeder. Also, peut donc appliqué aux semoirs. En outre, lors du semis de
when carrying large seeds (eg. beans), dense phase grosses graines (ex. fèves), un transport en phase dense augmenterait
transport increases the risk of clogging. That's why the le risque de colmatage. C'est pourquoi le transport de particules
conveying of particles in air-seeders is assumed to be dans un semoir pneumatique est supposé être assimilé à un
assimilated to a dilute phase transport. The oversizing transport en phase diluée. Le surdimensionnement des sections
of pipes' sections is not a solution. Particles present in des tubes n'est pas une solution. Les particules présentes dans
the bottom part of wide pipes offsets the maximum of la partie inférieure des tubes larges déporte la vitesse d’air
air velocity towards the top of the pipe. The subsiding maximale vers le haut du tube. La sédimentation des graines
of grains then creates a "brake" for the air (Fig. 1,b). crée alors un "frein" pour l'air (Fig. 1, b). L'air arrivant dans cette
The air arriving in this section of pipe has the tendency section de tuyau a tendance à "éviter" la perte de pression créée par
to "avoid" the pressure loss created by obstacles. So les obstacles. Donc, un grand diamètre entrainera un «évitement»
the greatest diameter will always create an "avoidance" des particules au lieu de pousser l’ensemble du flux de graines
of the particles instead of pushing the whole flow of dans la bonne direction. Utiliser un diamètre élevé accentue ce
seeds toward the right direction. Therefore, when the phénomène comme on peut le voir sur la Fig. 2 (pour de faibles
section size decreases, air circulation between the débits de semences). Lorsque la taille de la conduite diminue, la
particles will be more homogeneous, so fan energy will circulation d'air entre les particules est plus homogènes, de
be more efficiently used. The oversizing of diameter sorte que l'énergie du compresseur sera utilisée plus efficacement.
will also lead to increase airflow rate (for a constant air Le surdimensionnement des conduites accroit aussi le débit d'air
velocity) and increases the energy consumption (to a nécessaire (à vitesse de transport constante) et augmente la
power 3). It is necessary to create good conveying consommation d'énergie (à la puissance 3). Il est nécessaire de
conditions, ensuring local velocities are greatest than créer de bonnes conditions de transport en veillant à ce que les
the critical velocity. vitesses locales soient plus élevées que la vitesse critique.
The first parameter to determine is the air velocity in Le premier paramètre à déterminer est la vitesse de l'air
the pipe. It is proposed to set this value from Figure 1 as dans la conduite. Il est proposé de fixer cette valeur d'après
a function of the flow of seeds (here in the case of la Figure 1 en fonction du débit de graines (ici dans le cas du
wheat). This value may be 10% higher than the limit of blé). Cette valeur, par sécurité, peut être supérieure de 10 %
stagnation speed in vertical transportation for more à la vitesse limite de stagnation en transport vertical. Cette
safety. This speed value sets the maximum transport valeur de vitesse fixe les concentrations maximales de
concentrations (plotted in Figure 4). In Figure 4 we transport (reportées sur la Figure 4). Sur la figure 4 on se
realize that the diameter of 20 mm would be sufficient to rend compte que le diamètre 20 mm serait suffisant pour
transport the flow concentrations in the case of air assurer le transport des concentrations de flux dans le cas
seeders. In addition, this pipe diameter reduces the des semoirs pneumatiques. De plus, ce diamètre de tuyau
energy cost of the operation. In practice we do not réduit le cout énergétique de l'opération. Dans la pratique on
choose smaller diameter because seeder must be ne choisit pas de diamètre plus petit car les semoirs sont
versatile and must also sow large seeds. polyvalents et doivent aussi semer de grosses graines.
Previous calculations were made for pipes after the Les calculs précédents correspondent aux conduites
distribution manifold. In an air-seeder, the sum of the placées après la tête de distribution. Dans un semoir
sections after the distribution manifold is greater than the pneumatique, la somme des sections suivant l’éclateur est plus
section before it. According to the matter conservation law, grande que celle de la section précédente. Selon la loi de
the airflow velocity before distribution manifold will so be conservation de la matière, la vitesse de l'air avant l’éclateur
higher and air velocity before head of distribution will be sera plus élevée. La vitesse de l'air avant la tête de distribution
high enough to avoid particles stagnation. sera donc suffisante pour éviter la stagnation des particules.
22
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONS
1. Starting point of design must be the optimization of 1. Le point de départ de la conception doit être l'optimisation du
transport after manifold’s outlets. transport à la sortie de la tête de distribution.
2. An experimental set up was design to obtain 2. Un dispositif expérimental a été de conçu pour obtenir
experimental values for both the maximum flow des valeurs expérimentales de concentration de
concentration and the minimum air velocity suitable for transport maximale et de vitesse d’air minimum
pneumatic conveying. acceptables pour le transport pneumatique.
3. Experimental curves of minimum vertical velocity can be 3. Les courbes expérimentales de vitesses verticales
used to define conditions of conveying for a type of minimum peuvent être utilisées pour définir les
seeds. conditions de transport pour chaque type de semence.
4. In a first approach, we will use the higher stagnation 4. Dans une première approche, on utilisera la vitesse de
velocity of one part of the mixture (here fertilizer) to stagnation la plus élevée de celles des éléments d’un
design the system of conveying. mélange pour concevoir le système de transport.
5. It is recommended to use the pipe sections as lower as 5. Il est recommandé d'utiliser une section de conduite
possible to favor a homogenous airflow and to reduce aussi faible que possible pour favoriser l’homogénéité du
the energetic cost of transport. flux et réduire les coût énergétique du transport.
6. In order to develop knowledge on the transport of 6. Afin de développer la connaissances sur le transport des
mixtures it will be necessary to test several proportions mélanges, il sera nécessaire de tester plusieurs
of fertilizers and seeds. proportions d'engrais et de semences.
NOMENCLATURE NOMENCLATURE
, – is the length and diameter of the conveying pipeline, in m; , – Longueur et diamètre de la conduite, en m;
, – the fan shaft horse power, in kW; , – puissance sur l’arbre du compresseur, en kW;
– mass material rate, in kg/s; – débit massique de la matière, en kg/s;
– mass air rate: , in kg/s; – débit massique de l’air: , en kg/s;
3 3
- volume air rate, in m /s; - débit volumique de l’air, en m /s;
3 3
, – the air rate before and after changing, in m /s , – débits de l’air avant et après variation, en m /s
Re – Reynolds number: ; Re – nombre de Reynolds: ;
, , – is the air, particle and stagnation velocities, in , , – vitesses de l’air, de stagnation et des
m/s; particules, en m/s;
– the lift height, in m; – hauteur d’élévation, en m;
– total pressure drops, in Pa; – pertes de charges totales, en Pa;
– linear losses, in Pa; – pertes linéaires, en Pa;
– acceleration losses, in Pa; – pertes d’accélération, en Pa;
– material conveying losses, in Pa; – pertes liées au transport de matière, en Pa;
3 3
- volumetric mass density of air (equal 1.2 kg/m at – masse volumique de l’air (égale 1.2 kg/m à la
normal atmospheric pressure and temperature of +10°C) pression atmosphérique et la température de +10°C)
– resistance coefficient; – coefficient de résistance;
- resistance coefficient, for agricultural seeds: - coefficient de résistance, pour les semences agricoles:
(Zuèv, 1976); (Zuèv, 1976);
– mass flow concentration :, in kg/kg; – concentration massique de transport: , en kg/kg;
– kinematic viscosity of the air ( ). – viscosité cinématique de l’air ( ).
REFERENCES REFERENCES
[1]. Afonso Júnio, P.C., Corrêa P.C., Pinto F.A.C. & Queiroz [1]. Afonso Júnior P.C., Corrêa P.C., Pinto F.A.C. &
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conveying problems and solutions. Handbook of Conveying conveying problems and solutions. Handbook of Conveying
and Handling of Particulate Solids, 10, 303. and Handling of Particulate Solids, 10, 303.
[5]. Li, H., & Tomita, Y. (2000) - Particle velocity and [5]. Li H. & Tomita Y. (2000) - Particle velocity and
concentration characteristics in a horizontal dilute swirling concentration characteristics in a horizontal dilute swirling
flow pneumatic conveying. Powder Technology, 107(1), flow pneumatic conveying. Powder Technology, 107(1),
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[6]. Mills D. (2004) - Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide. [6]. Mills D. (2004) - Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide.
Second Edition Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004 Second Edition Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004
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investigation into flow mode transition and pressure investigation into flow mode transition and pressure
fluctuations for fluidized dense-phase pneumatic conveying fluctuations for fluidized dense-phase pneumatic conveying
of fine powders. Particuology. of fine powders. Particuology.
[8]. Srivastava A.K., Goering C.E., Rohrbach R P., [8]. Srivastava A.K., Goering C.E., Rohrbach R.P.,
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ASABE. (doi: 10.13031/2013.41476); ASABE.
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machines. Машиностроение, 270с. сельскохозяйственных культур. Машиностроение.
[10]. Зуев Ф.Г. (1976) - Pneumatic conveying on crop [10]. Зуев Ф.Г. (1976) - Пневматическое транспортирование
processing industries - М.: Колос, - 344 с. на зерноперерабатывающихпредприятиях.-М.:Колос, 344.
24
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE EFFECT OF TILLAGE OPERATIONS ON SOME PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL
/
CERCETĂRI PRIVIND IMPACTUL LUCRĂRILOR DE PREGĂTIRE A PATULUI GERMINATIV
ASUPRA UNOR ÎNSUŞIRI FIZICE ALE SOLULUI
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. łenu I., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Roşca R., Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Cârlescu P., D. Eng. Butnaru C. L.
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Faculty of Agriculture / Romania
Tel: 0723545065; E-mail: itenu@uaiasi.ro
Abstract: Tillage operations, aiming to obtain a loosened Rezumat: Lucrările agricole ale solului, efectuate cu scopul
and leveled soil, create the conditions for a rapid and de realiza un strat afânat şi mărunŃit, creează condiŃii pentru
uniform germination of seeds and also for the proper o germinare rapidă şi uniformă a seminŃelor, dar şi pentru
development of the plant roots. However, intense dezvoltarea rădăcinilor plantelor. Intensificarea tehnologiilor
mechanical tillage can negatively affect the physical and de mecanizare a lucrărilor solului poate afecta negativ
mechanical properties of soil and also the growing and proprietăŃile fizico-mecanice ale acestuia, dezvoltarea plantelor,
development of plants, thus diminishing the production. precum şi producŃia agricolă. Din aceste considerente, sunt
This is why researches must be performed in order to necesare cercetări pentru a stabili impactul acŃiunii organelor
evaluate the impact of the active parts on some physical lucru asupra unor însuşiri fizice ale solulului. În lucrarea de
characteristics of soil. This paper presents the results of faŃă se prezintă rezultatele cercetărilor referitoare la impactul
the researches regarding the effect of different soil tillage diferitelor tehnologii de mecanizare a lucrărilor la înfiinŃarea
technologies applied for the wheat crops; the following culturii de grâu asupra rezistenŃei specifice a solului la penetrare,
parameters were taken into account: soil penetration diametrului mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură ale
resistance, average diameter of the soil’s structure solului şi stabilitatea hidrică a elementelor de structură ale
elements and water stability of aggregates. The following solului, prin utilizarea sistemului convenŃional (varianta
tillage technologies were used: conventional tillage martor), sistemului de lucrări în benzi sau fâşii înguste şi
(control sample), narrow strips tillage and no-tillage system. sistemului „fără lucrări” sau semănatul direct (no-tillage, direct
The statistical analysis of the experimental results allowed drill). Prin prelucrarea statistică a datelor experimentale s-au
the ranking of the tillage operations taking into account their ierarhizat tehnologiile de mecanizare a lucrărilor solului în
effect over the physical properties of soil. funcŃie de impactul asupra unor însuşiri fizice ale solului.
Keywords: soil tillage, active parts, physical properties of Cuvinte cheie: lucrările solului, organe de lucru,
soil însuşiri fizice ale solului
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCERE
Soil has an essential part in maintaining life on earth, Solul are un rol esenŃial în menŃinerea vieŃii pe
being the support for agricultural activities aimed to insure pământ, prin funcŃia sa de a reprezinta suportul pentru
the population’s food security and safety; the vital role of practicarea agriculturii, de a asigura securitatea şi
soil is due to its physical, chemical and biological siguranŃa alimentară a populaŃiei, rol datorat
properties, its fertility and its capacity to provide, proprietăŃilor fizico-chimice şi biologice, fertilităŃii sale,
continuously and simultaneously, water and nutritive capacitatea acesteia de a pune la dispoziŃia plantelor,
elements during the entire vegetation period [7, 8,12]. în mod simultan şi continuu, elementele nutritive şi apa
Under these circumstances we may consider soil as pe tot parcursul perioadei de vegetaŃie [7, 8, 12].
one of the most complex natural systems of our planet; it În aceste condiŃii, putem considera că solul este
may also be considered as a structured system of unul din cele mai complexe sisteme naturale ale
continuously changing substances, a biological complex in planetei, respectiv poate fi considerat ca un sistem
which life pulsates permanently, a catalyst for the welfare structurat de substanŃe în permanentă transformare,
of the environment, a complex and multifunctional system, un complex biologic în care viaŃa pulsează continuu,
essential to life [1,3]. un catalizator pentru sănătatea mediului, un sistem
In order to preserve the functions of soil in the present complex, polifuncŃional şi indispensabil vieŃii [1,3].
conditions of intensive development of agriculture a new Pentru menŃinerea funcŃiilor solului, în contextul
and complex concept was introduced, which takes into condiŃiilor actuale de dezvoltare intensivă a agriculturii,
account not only the agricultural sector but also all the se impune pentru umanitate un concept complex care
other aspects of social life, concept known as „durable antrenează pe lângă sectorul agricol şi toate celelalte
domenii ale vieŃii sociale, concept cunoscut sub
development” [6, 9,10].
denumirea de "dezvoltare durabilă" [6, 9, 10].
Within the system of durable agriculture a new concept
În cadrul sistemelor de agricultură durabilă se
was developed, the „conservative agriculture”, which is dezvoltă un nou concept de “agricultură conservativă”,
based on the utilization of the renewable natural care se bazează pe utilizarea resurselor naturale
resources, targeted on soil and on the means to reînnoibile, mai ales a solului şi a condiŃiilor de
regenerate it in real time [3, 7,11]. regnerare a acestuia în timp real [3, 7, 11].
No matter if the production genetic potential of the În aceste condiŃii, indiferent dacă potenŃialul genetic
crops will increase or not all the farmers need new de producŃie al plantelor de cultură continuă să
technologies, aiming to significantly reduce the costs and crească sau nu, toŃi fermierii au nevoie de tehnologii
to insure the long term sustainability of the agricultural care să reducă semnificativ costurile şi care să confere
production; these technologies are based on three sustenabilitate producŃiei pe termen lung, bazându-se
principles: minimum disturbance of soil, optimal rotation of pe trei principii: perturbarea minimă a solului, rotaŃia
optimă a culturilor, reŃinerea resturilor vegetale pe sol
25
crops and retention of the vegetable waste on soil (minimum 30 %) [4].

(minimum 30%) [4]. Aşadar, agricultura conservativă este o tehnologie
In conclusion, conservative agriculture is a complex complexă, care implică schimbări în întregul sistem de
technology, which implies significant changes in producŃie, începând cu maşinile folosite pentru
everything concerning the production process: the seeding semănat şi recoltat, metoda de semănat,
and harvesting machines, the management of vegetable managementul resturilor vegetale, administrarea
wastes, the fertilizing machines, the machines used for fertilizanŃilor, combaterea buruienilor, patogenilor şi
dăunătorilor, rotaŃia culturilor etc [3, 5].
pest and disease control, crop rotation etc. [3, 5].
În contextul acestor aspecte se înscrie şi prezenta
The present paper is a part of the above-
lucrare, prin care s-a determinat impactul diferitelor
mentioned context, aiming to evaluate the impact of
lucrări de pregătire a patului germinativ pentru cultura
the different soil tillage technologies for wheat crop
grâului asupra unor însuşiri fizice ale solului, cum ar fi
over some physical properties of soil: the specific
rezistenŃa specifică a solului la penetrare, diametrul
penetration resistance, the average weighted
mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură ale solului
diameter and water stability of the soil’s structure
şi stabilitatea hidrică a elementelor de structură ale
elements. The soil tillage technologies considered
solului, prin utilizarea sistemului convenŃional (varianta
were the conventional one (witness sample), the
martor),sistemului de lucrări în benzi sau fâşii înguste
narrow strips tillage and the no-tillage (direct drill)
şi sistemului „fără lucrări” (no-tillage, direct drill).
system.
MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Cercetările experimentale s-au efectuat pe durata anilor
The experimental tests were performed during the agricoli 2009-2010, 2010-2011 şi 2011-2012, la Ferma
agricultural years 2009-2010, 2010-2011 and 2011- Ezăreni din cadrul SDE a USAMV din Iaşi, pe un sol
2012 at the Ezăreni farm of the university’s cernoziom cambic, mezocalcaric, slab regradat, lut argilos,
agricultural station, on a cambic chernozem, reprezentativ pentru zona de Nord-Est a României. Lucrările
mezocalcaric, lightly degraded soil, which is pentru pregătirea patului geminativ sunt cele specifice
representative for the north-eastern part of Romania. tehnologiei pentru cultura grâului de toamnă, realizate prin
The tillage operations used were the ones specific for diferite sisteme. Pe durata cercetărilor nu s-au înregistrat
autumn wheat. No significant variations of the average fluctuaŃii mari privind temperatura medie multianuală. Din
yearly temperature were recorded during the research acest punct de vedere nu au existat elemente care să
period. evidenŃieze anomalii pronunŃate.
As far as the precipitations were concerned significant În ceeea ce priveşte cantitatea şi repartiŃia
deviations from the yearly average value were recorded, precipitaŃiilor, acestea diferenŃiindu-se destul de mult, atât
but still within the specificity of the area. de la un an la altul, cât şi faŃă de media multianuală, dar
In order to evaluate the physical properties of soil the încadrându-se în specificul zonei.
Pentru determinarea însuşirilor fizice ale solului s-au
following equipment was used:
folosit următoarele aparate specifice de laborator:
- Eijkelkamp penetrologger for the measurement of the
- penetrologgerul Eijkelkamp pentru a măsura
specific penetration resistance. The tests were performed rezistenŃa specifică a solului la penetrare. Determinările s-
up to a depth of 0.4 m, using a penetration cone with an au efectuat până la adâncimea de 0,4 m, folosind un con
0 2
angle of 30 and a base area of 1 cm [2, 8]; de penetrare cu unghiul la vârf de 30° şi aria bazei de 1
- Eijelkamp sieving apparatus for measuring the weighted 2
cm [2, 8];
mean diameter of the soil’s structure elements, using - aparatul de cernut de tip Eijelkamp pentru a stabili
seven superposed sieves with 10; 5; 3; 2; 1; 0.5 şi 0,.5 diametrul mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură ale
mm orifices and with a tray mounted under the last sieve. solului, acŃionat electric, prevăzut cu o garnitură de 7 site
After the dry sieving operation the soil fractions retained suprapuse cu orificiile de: 10; 5; 3; 2; 1; 0,5 şi 0,25 mm, iar
by each sieve were weighted in order to provide the sub ultima sită este montată o tavă fără orificii. După
results referring the dimensions of the aggregates: bigger terminarea cernerii uscate, fracŃiunile de sol de pe fiecare
than 10 mm; 10 – 5 mm; 5 - 3 mm; 3 - 2 mm; 2 - 1 mm; 1 sită se cântăresc şi se calculează procentul de agregate
– 0.5 mm; 0.5 – 0.25 mm and smaller than 0.25 mm [2, 7]. pentru fiecare fracŃiune: agregate mai mari de 10 mm; de
The results were then presented as a single figure, 10 - 5mm; 5 - 3 mm; 3 - 2 mm; 2 - 1 mm; 1 - 0,5 mm; 0,5 -
representing the weighted average diameter of the soil’s 0,25 mm şi mai mici de 0,25 mm [2, 7].
Rezultatele determinărilor referitoare la alcătuirea
structure elelements, which represents the average
structurală se pot exprima şi printr-o cifră unică, de
diameter of the different classes of structural
exemplu diametrul mediu ponderat al elementelor
microelements. This index is calculated using the structurale ale solului, care reprezintă diametrul mediu al
relationship (1), where: diferitelor clase de macroelemente structurale. Acest
• DMP – the average diameter of the soil’s structure indice se calculează cu relaŃia (1), unde: DMP - diametrul
elements (mm); mediu ponderat ale elementelor de structură ale solului
• pi – percent content of each class of structure (mm); pi - conŃinutul procentual al fiecarei clase de
elements (%); elemente structurale (% g/g); di - diametrul mediu al
• di – average diameter of each class of structure fiecarei clase de elemente structurale (mm).
elements (mm). - aparatul Tiulin-Erikson pentru a determina stabilitatea
- Tiulin-Erikson apparatus for the evaluation of the water hidrică a elementelor de structură ale solului, alcătuit dintr-
stability of the soil’s structure elements. The apparatus un corp cilindric, executat din tablă din oŃel inoxidabil, în
has a cylindrical body and inside the body there are three interiorul căruia se află trei garnituri de câte de 6 site,
sets with six sieves each, mounted as columns. The dispuse sub formă de coloane şi fixate între ele prin
diameter of the sieves, from the upper side to the lower intermediul unor mufe. Sitele sunt aşezate în ordinea
mărimii orificiilor de jos în sus: 0,25; 0,5; 1; 2; 3; 5 mm. La
26
side are: 0.25; 0.5; 1; 2; 3; 5 mm. The lower side of the partea inferioară a cilindrului se găsesc două orificii: unul
apparatus has two orifices, one in the center and the other în centru şi altul lateral.
one on its side.
DMP = ∑ ( p ⋅d )
i i (1)
100
In order to feed the apparatus with water the central Orificiul central se racordează la un robinet prin care se
orifice is connected to a valve; the side orifice is used for face umplerea aparatului cu apă. La orificiul lateral este
draining the water by the means of a siphon. The aşezat un sifon, prin care este evacuată apa din aparat.
experimental technique is described in different papers [3, Tehnica experimentală pentru a determina stabilitatea
8]. hidrică a elementelor de structură ale solului sunt descrise
The quality indices used for describing the water pe larg în lucrările [3, 8]. Indicii calitativi pentru stabilitatea
stability of the soil’s structure elements are ratios between hidrică a elementelor de structură reprezintă un raport
între diferite categorii de agregate ale solului şi se
different categories of soil aggregates and are calculated
calcuează cu relaŃiile, în care:
with the relations (2) and (3), where:
• I reprezintă procente de agregate mai mari de 5 mm;
• I represents the percent of aggregates bigger than 5
mm; • II - reprezintă procente de agregate cuprinse între 3 şi
• II represents the percent of aggregates with 5 mm;
dimensions between 3 and 5 mm; • III - reprezintă procente de agregate cuprinse între 2
• III represents the percent of aggregates with şi 3 mm;
dimensions between 2 and 3 mm; • IV - reprezintă procente de agregate cuprinse între 1
• IV represents the percent of aggregates with şi 2 mm;
dimensions between 1 and 2 mm; • V - reprezintă procente de agregate cuprinse între 0,5
• V represents the percent of aggregates with şi 1 mm;
dimensions between 0.5 and 1 mm; • VI - reprezintă procente de agregate cuprinse între 0,25
• VI represents the percent of aggregates with şi 0,5 mm.
dimensions between 0.25 and 0.5 mm.
I + II + III ,
I1 = (2)
IV + V
IV
I4 = (3)
V + VI
For the index I1 the quality of the structure increases În cazul indicelui I1, calitatea structurii creşte de la
from 0.3 to 4...5; for higher figures the structure becomes valoarea indicelui de 0,3 până la 4...5, după care
structura devine grosolană [3, 7].
coarse [3, 7]. Pentru a stabili impactul diferitelor tehnologii de
In order to evaluate the impact of the different tillage lucrare a solului, la înfiinŃarea culturii grâu de toamnă,
technologies the following variants were taken into s-au utilizat următoarele variante experimentale:
account: Varianta V1-martor – arat cu agregatul tractor U-650 +
Variant V1(witness) – ploughing using the U-650 + PP-3-30 PP-3-30, pregătit patul germinativ cu agregatul U-650
+ GD-3,2 şi apoi semănat cu agregatul U-650 + SUP-
unit, seedbed preparation with the U-650 + GD-3,2 unit 29.
and seeding using the U-650 + SUP-29 unit. Varianta V2 –arat cu agregatul tractor U-650 + PP-
Variant V2 – ploughing using the U-650 + PP-3-30 unit, 3-30, pregătit patul germinativ cu agregatul tractor
seedbed preparation with the Valtra T-190+ BS 400 A Valtra T-190 + BS 400 A (combinator) (fig.1.a) şi
semănat cu agregatul tractor U-650 + SUP-29.
(combinator) unit (fig.1.a) and seeding using the U-650 +
Varianta V3 – Semănat direct, în teren nearat, cu
SUP-29 unit. agregatul tractor Valtra T-190 + MCR-2,5 (maşina
Variant V3 – seeding in the unploughed terrain using the combinată de prelucrat solul pe rânduri şi semănat,
Valtra T-190 + MCR-2,5 (combined machine for soil tillage adaptată pentru semănat grâu) (fig.1.c).
and seeding, adapted for wheat seeding) unit (fig.1.c). Varianta V4 – semănat în teren nearat, cu agregat:
tractor Valtra T-190 + OA + AGPS-24DR (alcătuit din
Variant V4 – seeding in the unploughed terrain using the
organe de afânare, freza cu rotoare verticale şi
Valtra T-190 + OA + AGPS-24DR (chisel tools, rotary semănătoarea pneumatică universală) (fig.1.b).
harrow and universal pneumatic seeder) unit (fig.1.b). Varianta V5 – arat cu agregatul tractor U-650 + PP-
Variant V5 – ploughing using the U-650 + PP-3-30 unit, 3-30; pregătit patul germinativ şi semănat cu agregatul
seedbed preparation with the Valtra T-190+ AGPS-24DR format din tractorul Valtra T-190 şi AGPS-24DR
(rotary harrow, Paker roller and universal pneumatic (format din freză cu rotoare verticale, tăvălug Paker şi
seeder) unit. semănătoare pneumatică universală).
REZULTATE EXPERIMENTALE
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Datele experimentale obŃinute pentru rezistenŃa
The experimental data regarding the soil penetration specifică a solului la penetrare au fost analizate
resistance were grouped according to the classes comparativ cu clasele de valori stabilite în literatura de
presented in the literature [3]. specialitate [3].
The results presented in Table 1 show that the Astfel din tabelul 1 rezultă că rezistenŃa specifică a
penetration resistance was lower than 1.08 MPa for all the solului la penetrare, la toate variantele, satisface
27
tested variants, thus being in accordance with the cerinŃele agrotehnice, având valori sub 1,08 MPa.
agrotechnical requirements. Moreover, for all the variants, Toate variantele experimentale au înregistrat valori mai
the penetration resistance was lower than the upper limit of mici decât limita maximă a clasei „sol cu o rezistenŃă
the class „soil with very low penetration resistance”. The foarte mică”. Varianta cu rezistenŃa specifică cea mai
lowest penetration resistance (0.215 MPa) was recorded mică este V5, respectiv 0,215 MPa , urmată de V2 cu
for the variant V5, followed by variant V2 (0.236 MPa), 0,236 MPa, V1-martor cu 0,247 MPa, V4 cu 0,260 MPa şi
variant V1 (witness) (0.247 MPa), variant V4 (0.260 MPa) and V3 cu 0,286 MPa.
variant V3 (0.286 MPa).
b
a
d
c
Fig. 1 – Agricultural units for soil tillage: a –seedbed preparation with the Valtra T-190 tractor and BS 400 A combinator;
b – complex unit for stubble seeding with chisel tools, rotary harrow, Paker roller and pneumatic universal seeder;
c – combined unit for stubble seeding (MCR-2,5); d - – complex unit for stubble seeding in operating position.
The statistical analysis showed that there are very În ceea ce priveşte analiza statistică a variantelor
significant negative differences between the variants V2 experimentale, având ca martor varianta V1-martor,
and V5 and the witness variant V1(witness) respectively; the variantele V2 şi V5 au o diferenŃă negativă foarte
main factors leading to the decrease of the penetration semnificativă faŃă de V1-martor, factorii principali care au
determinat scăderea rezistenŃei specifice la penetrare
resistance were the smaller number of passes and a better
fiind numărul mic de treceri, dar şi o mai bună
shattering of the superficial soil layer. Very significant
mărunŃire a stratului superficial de sol. Variantele V3 şi
positive differences were recorded by variants V3 and V4, V4, au o diferenŃă pozitivă foarte semnificativă faŃă de
when compared with the same witness variant V1 (witness). V1-martor.
Table 2 presents the experimental results regarding În tabelul 2 sunt prezentate rezultatele
water stability of soil aggregates, based on the I1 index, experimentale ale indicelui I1 privind hidrostabilitate
evaluated using the Tiulin-Erikson method, for the autumn elementelor de structură ale solului, determinate prin
wheat crop, in the agricultural years 2009/2010, 2010/2011 metoda Tiulin-Erikson, la cultura de grâu de toamnă, în
and 2011/2012. Taking into account that the best soil anii agricoli 2009/2010; 2010/2011 şi 2011/2012.
Varianta cu valoarea indicelui I1 cea mai apropiată de
structure is achieved for I1 = 4, the closest value to this
valoarea 4 (considerată ca reflectând cea mai bună
figure was recorded for variant V3 (I1 = 4.183). This result structură) este V3, cu 4,183. Hidrostabilitatea solului
may be explained by the fact that the rotary cultivator of foarte bună a variantei V3 este datorată prelucrării
the MCR-2,5 equipment performed the tillage operation on solului numai pe rând cu freza din cadrul maşinii MCR-
only one third of the total surface, while the rest of the 2,5, care efectuează mobilizarea solului doar pe 1/3 din
surface remained undisturbed. suprafaŃa totală a stratului superficial al solului, restul
28
For the variant V4, which was ranked on the second rămânând neprelucrat.
place, with I1 = 3.702, the water stability is very good În cazul variantei de pe locul doi, V4, hidrostabilitatea
because conventional ploughing is replaced with a este foarte bună (3,702), întrucât lucrarea de arat este
shattering of the soil to a depth of 15 cm, performed by the inlocuită de o afânare a solului, pâna la 15 cm, cu
front chisels mounted on the frame of the AGPS-24DR organele active dispuse anterior pe cadrul agregatului
equippment. For variant V5 (I1 = 3.686), ranged the third, complex AGPS-24DR. Varianta V5 (3,686), de pe locul
ploughing was performed, but seedbed preparation was trei, este cea în care s-a efectuat lucrarea de arat, dar
achieved in only one pass, using the T-190+AGPS-24DR pregătirea patului germinativ şi semănatul s-a realizat
unit. printr-o singură trecere cu agregatul T-190+AGPS-
24DR.
Table 1
Values for the specific soil resistance to penetration (MPa), at autumn wheat crop, and statistical significance of the average,
in the agricultural years 2009/2010; 2010/2011 and 2011/2012
Variant Agricultural Depth (cm) Average Average Statistic
year 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 0-40 (cm) 2009-2012 significance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2009-2010 0.111 0.161 0.270 0.380 0.230
V1(witness)
2010-2011 0.129 0.182 0.291 0.401 0.250 0.247 Witness
(PP-3-30; GD-3,2; SUP-29)
2012-2012 0.138 0.191 0.300 0.410 0.259
2009-2010 0.108 0.151 0.243 0.376 0.219
V2
2010-2011 0.127 0.172 0.264 0.397 0.240 0.236 OOO
(PP-3-30; BS 400 A; SUP-29)
2012-2012 0.136 0.181 0.273 0.406 0.249
2009-2010 0.146 0.217 0.319 0.393 0.269
V3
2010-2011 0.167 0.238 0.340 0.414 0.290 0.286 XXX
(MCR-2,5 )
2012-2012 0.176 0.247 0.349 0.423 0.299
2009-2010 0.112 0.187 0.283 0.390 0.243
V4
2010-2011 0.137 0.208 0.304 0.411 0.265 0.260 XXX
(OA-AGPS-24DR)
2012-2012 0.143 0.217 0.313 0.420 0.273
2009-2010 0.114 0.140 0.198 0.348 0.200
V5
2010-2011 0.127 0.161 0.219 0.369 0.219 0.215 OOO
(PP-3-30AGPS-24DR)
2012-2012 0.132 0.170 0.228 0.378 0.227
Limit difference DL 5%=0,01 MPa DL 1%=0,013 MPa DL 0,1%=0,017 MPa
The results of the statistical analysis show that there is În ceea ce priveşte analiza statistică a variantelor
no significant difference between variants V4 and V5 and experimentale, având ca martor varianta V1-martor putem
the witness variant, respectively; there is a very significant preciza că variantele experimentale V4 şi V5 au o diferenŃă
positive difference between variant V3 and variant nesemnificativă faŃă de V1-martor, iar varianta V3 are o
V1(witness). diferenŃă pozitivă foarte semnificativă faŃă de V1-martor.
The experimental results regarding the weighted Rezultatele experimentale privind diametrului mediu ponderat
average diameter of the structure elements, for the al elementelor de structură ale solului, la cultura de grâu de
autumn wheat crop, in the agricultural years toamnă, în anii agricoli 2009/2010; 2010/2011 şi 2011/2012
2009/2010, 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 are presented sunt prezentate în tabelul 3. Din analiza acestor date rezultă că
in table 3. The results show that for all the variants toate variantele experimentale satisfac cerinŃele agrotehnice,
the values are within the required limits (2 to 5 la care diametrul mediu ponderat al elementelor de
mm). structură ale solului are valori cuprins între 2 şi 5 mm.
Using the ranking classes presented in literature Folosind clasele de valori ale diametrului mediu ponderat al
[1,3,8] it was concluded that the variant with the value elementelor de structură ale solului, din literatura de specialitate
of the average weighted diameter closest to 3.5 (value [1,3,8], putem aprecia că varianta cu diametrul mediu ponderat
indicating the best structure) was V3 (3.568 mm), cea mai apropriată de 3,5 mm (valoare considerată ca având
followed by V4 (3.407 mm), V 5 (3.357 mm), V2 (3.684 cea mai bună structură) este V3, respectiv 3,568 mm, urmată
mm) and V1(witness) (with an average weighted de V4 cu 3,407 mm, V5 cu 3,357 mm, V2 cu 3,684 mm şi V1-
diameter of 3. 702 mm). martor cu 3, 702 mm.
Variant V3 led to the best soil structure due to the use Varianta V3 prezintă o structură a solului foarte bună, pentru
of the MCR-2,5 complex equipment, which performed the că a fost eliminată din tehnologie lucrarea de arat, prin folosirea
tillage operation on only one third of the total surface, the maşinei MCR-2,5 care efectuează o frezare a solului doar pe
ploughing operation being avoided. 1/3 din suprafaŃa totală a solului, restul rămânând neprelucrat.
Variant V4 also led to the achievement of a very De asemenea varianta V4 prezintă o structură foarte bună,
good soil structure because ploughing was replaced întrucât s-a realizat în condiŃii de pregătire a patului germinativ
with a shattering of the soil to a depth of 15 cm, fără lucrarea de arat. Lucrarea de arat este inlocuită de o
29
performed by the front chisels mounted on the frame afânare a solului, pâna la 15 cm, cu organe active de afânare
of the AGPS-24DR equipment. The average weighted din componentă a agregatului complex OA+AGPS-24DR.
diameter of the soil structure elements was lower than Diametrul mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură ale
the one recorded for variant V3 because a rotary solului din cadrul acestei variante este mai mic decât la varianta
harrow was used for seedbed preparation. V3 datorită pregătirii patului germinativ cu freza cu rotoare verticale.
For variant V 5 ploughing was used as a soil tillage Varianta de pe locul trei, V5, este cea în care s-a efectuat
lucrarea de bază, respectiv arătura cu întoarcerea brazdei, iar
operation and the average weighted diameter was micşorarea diametrului mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură
affected by the use of the rotary harrow for seedbed ale solului a fost afectată de pregătirea patului germinativ cu freza,
preparation. respectiv prin folosirea agregatului complex AGPS-24DR.
The variant ranked on the fourth place was the Varianta care se află pe poziŃia a patra în ceea ce priveşte
one for which ploughing was applied and the valoarea diametrului mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură ale
combinator BS 400A was used for seedbed solului este cea în care s-a efectuat lucrarea de arat, iar pregătire a
preparation. patului germinativ s-a efectuat cu combinatorul BS 400 A.
Table 2
Results regarding the water stability index of the soil structural elements, I1 and statistical significance of total average, for
autumn wheat crop, in agricultural years 2009/2010; 2010/2011 şi 2011/2012
Agricultural Depth (cm) Average Average Statistic
Variant
year 0-10 10-20 20-30 0-40 (cm) 2009-2012 significance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2009-2010 2.118 4.077 4.392 3.529
V1(witness)
2010-2011 2.372 4.044 4.471 3.629 3.603 Witness
(PP-3-30; GD-3,2; SUP-29)
2012-2012 2.366 4.053 4.533 3.650
2009-2010 1.939 4.331 4.601 3.623
V2
(PP-3-30; BS 400 A; SUP- 2010-2011 1.904 4.327 4.578 3.603 3.619 -
29)
2012-2012 1.967 4.370 4.554 3.630
2009-2010 2.717 4.834 5.042 4.197
V3
2010-2011 2.672 4.894 4.977 4.181 4.183 XXX
(MCR-2.5 )
2012-2012 2.690 4.872 4.953 4.171
2009-2010 2.014 4.312 4.672 3.666
V4
2010-2011 2.008 4.375 4.703 3.695 3.702 -
(OA-AGPS-24DR)
2012-2012 2.103 4.371 4.758 3.744
2009-2010 1.888 4.448 4.778 3.704
V5
2010-2011 1.825 4.469 4.754 3.682 3.686 -
(PP-3-30; AGPS-24DR )
2012-2012 1.803 4.495 4.717 3.671
Limit difference DL 5%=0.258 DL 1%=0.347 DL 0.1%=0.462
The most significant impact over the average weighted Varianta V1-martor are impactul cel mai ridicat asupra
diameter of the soil’s structure elements was recorded for diametrului mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură
the witness variant V1(witness), using the conventional tillage ale solului datorită efectuării lucrării de arat şi a
method (ploughing, followed by three successive passes pregătirii patului germinativ cu grapa cu discuri GD-3,2
with the GD-3,2 disc harrow). prin trei treceri succesive pe aceeaşi suprafaŃă.
The statistic analysis of the results concerning the În ceea ce priveşte analiza statistică putem preciza
average weighted diameter of the soil’s structure că varianta experimentală V2 are o diferenŃă nesemni
elements showed that there was no significant ficativă faŃă de V1-martor, iar variantele V4 şi V5 au o di
difference between variant V2 and the witness variant; ferenŃă negativă foarte semnificativă faŃă de V1-martor,
a very significant negative difference was recorded for factorii principali care au determinat scăderea
variants V4 and V5, because of the excessive shattering diametrului mediu ponderat al elementelor de structură
produced by the PTO-driven implements of the tillage ale solului fiind mărunŃirea excesivă efectuată de către
equipments (MCR-2,5; AGPS-24DR, OA-AGPS-24DR), organele de lucru din componenŃa frezelor ale maşinilor
which act intensively over the 0-10 cm layer of the soil. agricole (MCR-2,5; AGPS-24DR, OA-AGPS-24DR) în
For variant V3 a distinctly significant negative difference stratul de sol 0-10 cm. Varianta V3 are o diferenŃă
was recorded when it was compared to the witness negativă distinct semnificativă faŃă de V1-martor, factorul
variant, the main factor which led to the decrease of the principal care a dus la scăderea diametrului mediu
average weighted diameter being the action of the ponderat al elementelor de structură ale solului fiind
rotary cultivator which is a part of the MCR-2.5 prelucrarea solului de către freza din componenŃa
equipment. MCR-2,5.
30
Table 3
Values of the average weighted diameter of soil’s structure elements (mm) and statistical significance of total average, for
autumn wheat crop, in the agricultural years 2009/2010; 2010/2011 şi 2011/2012
Agricultural Depth (cm) Average Average Statistic
Variant
year 0-10 10-20 20-30 0-40 (cm) 2009-2012 significance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2009-2010 2.942 3.919 4.103 3.654
V1(witness)
2010-2011 3.013 3.939 4.108 3.686 3.702 martor
(PP-3-30; GD-3.2; SUP-29)
2012-2012 3.057 4.068 4.177 3.767
2009-2010 2.822 4.035 4.141 3.666
V2
(PP-3-30; BS 400 A; SUP- 2010-2011 2.834 4.058 4.166 3.686 3.684 -
29)
2012-2012 2.845 4.089 4.166 3.700
2009-2010 3.025 3.232 4.374 3.543
V3
2010-2011 3.083 3.256 4.383 3.574 3,568 O
(MCR-2.5 )
2012-2012 3.098 3.276 4.392 3.588
2009-2010 2.822 3.153 4.219 3.398
V4
2010-2011 2.833 3.154 4.228 3.405 3.407 OOO
(OA-AGPS-24DR)
2012-2012 2.839 3.162 4.261 3.420
2009-2010 2.798 3.021 4.201 3.340
V5
2010-2011 2.836 3.026 4.202 3.354 3.357 OOO
(PP-3-30; AGPS-24DR )
2012-2012 2.851 3.049 4.235 3.378
Limit difference DL 5%=0.115 mm DL 1%=0.155 mm DL 0.1%=0.206 mm
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUZII
The development of an agriculture based on Dezvoltarea unei agriculturi bazată pe sisteme convenŃionale
conventional soil tillage systems increases its de lucrare a solului determină creşterea vulnerabilităŃii acestuia
vulnerability when faced with different degradation faŃă de diferite procese de degradare, mărindu-se riscul
processes, thus increasing the risk of damaging the soil producerii şi/sau intensificării fenomenelor de destructurare,
structure, crust formation, cracking, erosion, water colmatare a spaŃiului macroporos, crustificare, crăpare,
evaporation. eroziune, precum şi pierderi apreciabile de apă prin evaporaŃie.
In order to limit these negative effects conservative Pentru a elimina aceste dezavataje agricultura
agriculture uses new technologies aiming to preserve or conservativă utilizează tehnologii care să păstreze sau
even improve the properties of soil, leading to a chiar să îmbunătăŃească însuşirile solului, să reducă
diminished wind and water erosion, to an increased eroziunea hidrică şi eolienă, să conducă la sporuri de
production, lower fuel consumption and time required by producŃie şi o reducere importantă a consumului de
the tillage operation. combustibil.
The researches referring to the soil tillage În cadrul cercetărilor experimentale privind impactul
technologies, for autumn wheat, led to the following tehnologiilor de mecanizare a lucrărilor solului, la grâul de
conclusions: toamnă, au rezultat următoarele aspecte:
- as far as the soil resistance to penetration was - variantele experimentale care determină cea mai mică
concerned, the variants were ranked as follows valoare a rezistenŃei specifice a solului la penetrare
(starting with the best one): V5 (0.215 MPa), V2 (începând cu cea mai bună) sunt: V5 – 0,215 MPa,
(0,236 MPa), V1(witness) (0.246 MPa), V4 (0.260 MPa) urmată de V2 – 0,236 MPa, V1 – 0,246 MPa, V4 – 0,260
and V3 (0.286 MPa); MPa şi V3 – 0,286 MPa;
- when the water stability of the soil aggregates (index - cele mai bune variante pentru indicele I1, privind
I1) was taken into account, the experimental variants hidrostabilitatea elementelor structurale ale solului,
were ranked as follows (considering that the best apropriate de valoarea 4 (considerată ca având cea
structure is achieved for I1 = 4 and starting with the mai bună structură), începând cu cea mai bună, sunt:
best one): V3 (4.183), V4 (3.702), V5 (3.686), V2 V3 – 4,183, urmată de V4 – 3,702, V5 – 3,686, V2 –
(3.619) and V1(witness) (3.603); 3,619 şi V1 – 3,603;
- taking into account the average weighted diameter the - pentru diametrului mediu ponderat, apropriat de
best soil structure is achieved for a value of 3.5 mm; valoare 3,5 mm (considerată ca având cea mai bună
consequently, the experimental variants were ranked structură), sunt următoarele variante experimentale,
as follows (starting with the best one): : V3 (3.568 începând cu cea mai bună: V3 – 3,568 mm, urmată de
mm), V4 (3.407 mm), V5 (3.357 mm), V2 (3.684 mm) V4 – 3,407 mm, V5 – 3,357 mm, V2 – 3,684 mm şi V1 –
and V1(witness) (3. 702 mm). 3, 702 mm.
Taking into account the experimental results and the Pe baza rezultatelor obŃinute se recomandă pentru
requirement for a minimum impact over the properties of înfiinŃarea culturii de grâu următoarele variante optime,
soil the following variants are recommended for the wheat care au impact minim asupra însuşirilor solului: V3 –
crop: V3 – seeding in the unploughed terrain using the semănat direct în teren nearat, cu agregatul tractor Valtra
Valtra T-190 + MCR-2,5 unit (combined machine for soil T-190 + MCR-2,5 (maşina combinată de prelucrat solul pe
tillage and seeding) and V4 – seeding in the unploughed rânduri şi semănat şi V4 – semănat în teren nearat, cu
31
terrain using the Valtra T-190 + OA + AGPS-24DR unit agregatul: tractor Valtra T-190 + OA + AGPS-24DR
(chisel tools, rotary harrow and universal pneumatic (alcătuit din organe de afânare, freza cu rotoare verticale
seeder). şi semănătoarea pneumatică universală).
REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1 Alvaro-Fuentes J, Arrúe L., Gracia R., López M. V. [1]. Alvaro-Fuentes J, Arrúe L., Gracia R., López M. V .
(2008) - Tillage and cropping intensification effects on soil (2008) - Tillage and cropping intensification effects on soil
aggregation: Temporal dynamics and controlling factors aggregation: Temporal dynamics and controlling factors
under semiarid conditions. Geoderma,145 (3-4), p. 15; under semiarid conditions. Geoderma, Vol. 145, Issues 3-4, 15;
[2]. Canarache A. (1990) – Physics of agricultural soils (in [2]. Canarache A. (1990) - Fizica solurilor agricole. Edit.
Romanian). Publishing Ceres, Bucharest; Ceres, Bucureşti;
[3]. Carter M. (1994) - Conservation Tillage in Temperate [3]. Carter M. (1994) - Conservation Tillage in Temperate
Agrosystems. Lewis, Publishers, London, Tokyo, Japonia. Agrosystems. Lewis, Publishers, London, Tokyo, Japonia.
[4]. Guş P., Rusu T., Bogdan I. (2003) (2003) – [4]. Guş P., Rusu T., Bogdan I. (2003) - Sisteme
Conventional and non-conventional soil tillage systems (in convenŃionale şi neconvenŃionale de lucrare a solului. Ed.
Romanian). Ed. Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca; Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca;
[5]. Hoogmoed W.B. (2009) - Conservation tillage and [5]. Hoogmoed W.B. (2009) - Conservation tillage and
sustainable small farming: Introduction. Soil and Tillage sustainable small farming: Introduction. Soil and Tillage
Research, 104 (1) Research, Vol. 104, Issue 1;
[6]. Horn R.., Way T.,Rostek J. (2001) - Effect of repeated [6]. Horn R.., Way T.,Rostek J. (2001) - Effect of repeated
wheeling on stress/strain properties and ecological wheeling on stress/strain properties and ecological
consequences in structured arable soils. Revista de la consequences in structured arable soils. Revista de la
Ciencia del Suelo y Nutricion Vegetal 1; Ciencia del Suelo y Nutricion Vegetal 1;
[7]. Jităreanu G., łenu I., Cojocaru P., Bria N., Cojocaru [7]. Jităreanu G., łenu I., Cojocaru P., Bria N., Cojocaru
I., (2007) – Technologies and equipments for mechanized I., (2007) - Tehnologii şi maşini pentru mecanizarea
operations in durable agriculture (in Romanian). Ed. Ion lucrărilor în agricultura durabilă. Ed. Ion Ionescu de la
Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi, p296; Brad, Iaşi,296 p;
[8]. Lal R. ,Stewart B.A., 1990 – Soil degradation. [8]. Lal R., Stewart B.A., 1990 – Soil degradation.
Springer Editord Verlang, New York. Springer Editord Verlang, New York.
[9]. Shen J., Kushawa R.L. (1998) - Soil-machine [9]. Shen J., Kushawa R.L. (1998) - Soil-machine
interaction: a finite perspective. Dekker, New York interaction: a finite perspective. Dekker, New York
[10]. łenu I. et al. (2011) – Impact of agricultural traffic [10]. łenu I. şi colab. (2011) – Impact of agricultural
over the physical and mechanical properties of soil and traffic over the physical and mechanical properties of
over crop yield. Scientific Papers of UASVM Iaşi, 54 (2), soiland over crop yield. Lucrări ŞtiinŃifice, 54 (2), seria
Agronomy series. Agronomie.
[11].Vigier B., Raghavan G.S.V., 1980 – Soil compaction [11].Vigier B., Raghavan G.S.V., 1980 – Soil compaction
effect in claz soils on common root rot in canning peas. effect in claz soils on common root rot in canning peas.
Can. Plant Disease Survez 60 (4): 43-45 Can. Plant Disease Survez 60 (4): 43-45
[12]. Wood R.K., Reeder, R.C., Morgan, M.T., Holmes, [12]. Wood R.K., Reeder, R.C., Morgan, M.T., Holmes,
R.G. (1993) - Soil physical properties as affected by grain R.G. (1993) - Soil physical properties as affected by grain
cart traffic. Trans. of ASAE, 36 (1): 11-15. cart traffic. Trans. of ASAE, 36 (1): 11-15.
32
MOIRÉ SUPPORTED STRESS DISTRIBUTION STUDY ON GEARS

/
APLICAÇÃO DA TÉCNICA DE MOIRÉ NO ESTUDO DA DISTRIBUIÇÃO DE CARGAS EM
ENGRENAGENS
(1) (2) (1)
BSAE. Stud. Eng Dafine Villa , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Jonathan Gazzola , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Inácio M. D. Fabbro ,
(1)
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Marcos V. G. Silva ,
(1)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil (2)Department of Agricultural Engineering, UFS, Aracaju, SE, Brazil
Tel: +55 19 3521-1059; E-mail: inacio@feagri.unicamp.br
Abstract: Gears are widely employed in farm machinery Resumo: Elementos de transmissão são bastanteto
transmission units. However, the severe environment aplicados a projetos de máquinas agrícolas e a engrenagem
imposed to the machine operation generates special figura como um dos mais aplicados. Porém, o ambiente
problems associated to maintenance, as well as to the severo dos meios agrários exigem maiores cuidados no
expected time life. Machinery which works on field are projeto de máquinas. Problemas como sujeira e ausência de
exposed to excessive dust, moisture, heat, chemicals, lubrificação em engrenagens induzem a tensões que podem
uneven mechanical loading and quite frequently the sair do comportamento esperado. Softwares de simulação
manufacturer recommendations are not adequate or not even computacional não são hábeis em determinar tais
available. Based on that, the proposal of new methods for comportamentos devido à sua complexidade. Técnicas
strain and stress distribution analysis on gears under different fotomecânicas analisam qualitativamente a distribuição de
working conditions is considered necessary. This research tensão em corpos indiferente de sua geometria em situações
paper introduces the application of moiré methods to replace de carregamento adversas. Entre as técnicas fotomecânicas,
the popular strain gage technique. The proposed method is destaca-se a técnica de moiré. Neste trabalho de pesquisa,
included in the photomechanical techniques and is
objetiva-se analisar o comportamento mecânico de
considered of easy as well as of low cost application. The
engrenagens sujeita a ação de contaminação por terra e por
moiré family of methods is based on the projection of optical
falta de lubrificação. Duas engrenagens de dente reto tiveram
grids onto the object under analysis, generating optical
fringes which displace as the object is deformed under cargas aplicadas sob três situações: Limpa e sem
mechanical loads. In this research work the tests were carried lubrificação; Limpa e Lubrificada; Contaminada e sem
under different working conditions, as (1) non lubricated clean lubrificação. Os dados da engrenagem limpa e sem
gears, (2) clean and lubricated, (3) lubricated and lubrificação foram rebatidos com os resultados das outras
contaminated with soil. The comparison of these three duas situações. Os resultados mostraram a influência dos
situations indicated the influence of soil contamination as well agentes contaminante e lubrificante sobre o comportamento
as of the lubrication. The conclusion emphasizes the mecânico de engrenagens. O trabalho é concluído com
application of the proposed method to gear transmission informações importantes para ser aplicados em projetos de
design as well as to maintenance. transmissão por engrenagens.
Key words: gear design, gear maintenance, moiré Palavras-chave: Projeto de Máquinas Agrícolas;
methods, photoelastic moiré Engrenagens; Técnica de Moiré de Sombra
INTRODUCTION INTRODUÇÃO
Farm machinery works quite often in severe As engrenagens são elementos de transmissão muito
environments which are hazardous to the equipment time utilizados em máquinas agrícolas. O ambiente severo dos
life as well as to the maintenance procedure and meios agrários exigem maiores cuidados no projeto de
chronogram. The objective of this research work was to máquinas. Na agricultura, há a necessidade de que as
study the effects of lubrication and dirt on gears máquinas agrícolas estejam bem dimensionadas para
deformation and stress loading which directly affects time proporcionar elevada capacidade operacional, redução de
working life. The experimental procedure of this research custos e tempo (JUNIOR, 2008). Segundo Rodrigues (2008),
includes the application of a moiré photoelastic technique, as falhas em engrenagens ocorrem de formas variadas,
specifically the shadow moiré. Hertz contact stress theory dependendo do tipo de engrenagem, das características de
assumes that the pressure exerted by spheres in contact transmissão do sistema e pelo material base do corpo da
follows an elliptical distribution (Maugis, 2000). Equations engrenagem. Como engrenagens têm contato contínuo entre
associated to that theory are important to numerical dentes, o modo como ocorrem esses contatos é responsável
calculation, as well as, its use with finite elements to pela capacidade de carga que elas oferecem. As cargas
promote numerical simulations (Fischer, 2000 APUD operacionais figuram entre os principais tipos de falha
Maugis, 2000). Numerical simulation shows that gear ocorridos em engrenagens. As regiões onde mais concentram
failure occurs due to certain kind of mechanical loading, as cargas estão localizadas no diâmetro primitivo e na raiz do
contact loading due normal stress and loading placed on dente, onde se concentram as tensões de contato ou tensões
teeth root. Stress distribution on coupled gears is de hertz, e de flexão, respectivamente Segundo
concentrated on regions of gears contact, on teeth root RODRIGUES (2008) e [6], a maior parte das falhas em
and stress concentration is distributed along specimen engrenagens tem origem ligada à montagem, a lubrificação
with some displacement in the same direction of gear inadequada e sobrecarga, sendo classificadas em quatro
rotation. The photoelasticity is a family of methods of classes gerais: desgaste, fadiga, deformação plástica e
experimental stress and strain analysis applied in quebras. O uso ou não uso de lubrificante, bem como sua
evaluating, validating and developing of structural correta escolha, e o desgaste dos dentes, ocorridos por
elements which is subjected to mechanical loadings. problemas de cavitação, onde as partículas que se soltam
Photoelastic techniques permit determining strain and ficam no meio dos dentes, fazendo com que os estes se
deformation at any point of interest on the structural desgastem mais. Ao submeter um corpo a um sistema de
forças, esse sofrerá movimentos decorrentes dessa ação,
33
element [11]. Stress direction and intensity are obtained sendo que esse deslocamento não provoca deformação. No
from the information provided by the isocline and caso da deformação tem-se duas classificações, a saber, a
isochromatic fringes (Myiake, et al., 2004). Isocline fringes deformação normal e a deformação de cisalhamento. A
inform regions which every main stresses exhibits the deformação normal é definida como a mudança de
same direction, meanwhile the isochromatics inform comprimento de um segmento de linha entre dois pontos
regions where is able to obtain the angle between main divididos pelo comprimento original do segmento de linha. A
stresses [11]. Photoelastic methods do not include deformação de cisalhamento é definida como a mudança
destructive procedures and can be applied on structural angular entre dois segmentos de linhas originalmente
members of any geometric configuration (Cohen, 2001). perpendiculares entre si. (SILVA, 2011). As deformações estão
The moiré phenomenon is generated when screens of associadas aos gradientes dos deslocamentos as quais serão
certain mesh density are superposed, producing waves determinadas pela diferenciação dos números de franjas com
like patterns or fringes, which move when its relative respeito à sua posição. (PHILLIPS 2001, APUD AFFONSO,
positions are displaced (Sciammarella, 1982). The 2011). As técnicas fotomecânicas são métodos experimentais
selected method for this research work is named shadow que aplicam óptica interferométrica na análise de tensões e,
moiré, which consists in generating an interference pattern tal como a fotoelasticidade, podem gerar informações de
with a grid before the object in study and its shade project campo completo [8]. Dentre as técnicas fotomecânicas
onto the object. Moiré interferometry gives support to destacam-se a holografia, o speckle interferométrico e as
similar photoelastic techniques, allowing similar applications técnicas de moiré [3]. O fenômeno de moiré esta baseado na
as the conventional methods, presenting high precision and interferometria gerada pela projeção de grades ópticas
confidence as well. Moiré methods require low cost experimental formando padrões ou franjas (TAKASAKI, 1973 APUD SILVA,
setups and generate reliable results. (Dal Fabbro et al. 2005). 2.011) [9]. O objetivo deste trabalho de pesquisa é de analisar
The objective of this research work is to carry on shadow moiré a distribuição qualitativa de tensão no corpo completo de
technique to determine stress distribution on coupled gears engrenagens cilíndricas de dente reto através do uso da
under compressive stress loading. Tests will be carried with técnica óptica de moiré
clean gears, lubricated gears and lubricated dirt gears.
MATERIAL E MÉTODOS
MATERIAL AND METHODS Os ensaios fotomecânicos foram levados a cabo no
The selected experimental setup to carry the shadow Laboratório de Óptica da Faculdade de Engenharia
moiré tests in this research work included a SAMSUNG Agrícola da UNICAMP, localizado na cidade de
digital camera 7.1 mega pixels with remote control to Campinas/SP. Como corpo de prova selecionou-se duas
avoid undesired movement, a white light source, a set of engrenagens cilíndricas de dentes retos confeccionadas
Ronchi grids of 0.2 mm period, a loading press, em material plástico. Uma mesa metálica foi utilizado para
considered appropriate to carry Shadow Moiré tests, as dar suporte aos corpos de prova. O arranjo experimental
recommended by Dal Fabbro et al. (2005). Testing gears para o ensaio de carregamento ainda incluiu uma prensa
were coupled and diametrically loaded and the grid was hidráulica acoplada a sensores para determinar o módulo
placed in front of the specimen, before the light source do carregamento. O ensaio fotomecânico de moiré incluiu
and the digital camera, in an angular position as shown on uma grade Ronchi com período de 0,2 mm, um projetor
Figure 01. Loaded and non-loaded specimen images were multimídia da marca SONY e uma câmera digital da marca
captured through the following procedure: (1) The Ronchi SAMSUNG de 6,1 Mega Pixels com controle remoto para a
grid was projected onto the gears surface with no load and captura de imagens, prevenindo qualquer tipo de
photographed to generate the image I1 (x,y). (2) The grid movimentação indesejavel. O corpo de prova foi pintado de
was projected onto the gears under traction loads of 05 cor branca fosca para que as franjas padrões
kgf, 10 kgf and 30 kgf, generating the images I2(x,y), apresentassem maior contraste. A grade Ronchi foi
I3(x,y) and I4(x,y) respectively. Image processing included posicionada frontalmente ao corpo de prova conforme está
the application of the software ImaeJ and Kilimanjaro. indicado na Figura 1 a qual ilustra o arranjo experimental
Image from load and non-load gears was captured and utilizado para este trabalho de pesquisa.
processing, including the creation of masks.
Fig. 1 – Shadow moiré setup selected to carry diametrical load on the coupled gears
34
In this test, three different diametrical loads were applied Para este trabalho de pesquisa, três taxas foram
on the coupled gears as 5 kgf, 10 kgf and 30 kgf. The 05 aplicadas no ensaio de carregamento e em três situações
kgf and 10 kgf loads augmented the contact area between de trabalho diferentes, tais como, engrenagem limpa,
teeth, however the 30 kgf load rotated the gears from their
original position besides of increasing the contact area. lubrificada e lubrificada com sujeira.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO

Figures 2, 3 and 4 exhibits the resulting isodeformation As Figuras 2, 3 e 4 mostram os resultados do mapa de
maps as obtained through the shadow moiré method isodeformações, obtidos pela técnica de moiré de sombra
respectively for clean gears, lubricated gears and para os casos de: engrenagem limpa, engrenagem lubrificada
lubricated dirt gears. e engrenagem lubrificada com sujeira, respectivamente.
a) b) c)
Fig. 2 - Isodeformation maps of clean gears loaded with: a) 05 kgf. b) 10 kgf. c) 15 kgf
a) b) c)
Fig. 3 - Isodeformation maps of lubricated gears loaded with: a) 5 kgf. b) 10 kgf. c) 15 kgf
35
Fig. 4 - Isodeformation maps of lubricated dirt gears loaded with: a) 5 kgf. b) 10 kgf. c) 15 kgf
Figures 5, 6 and 7 shows the isoclinics and As Figuras 5, 6 e 7 mostram os resultados de franjas
isochromatic curves as obtained by the moiré method for isocromáticas e isoclínicas, obtidos pela técnica de moiré
de sombra para os casos de: engrenagem limpa,
respectively for clean gears, lubricated gears and
engrenagem lubrificada e engrenagem lubrificada com
lubricated dirt gears. sujeira, respectivamente.
a) b) c)
Fig. 5 - Isoclinics and isochromatics curves for clean gears loaded with: a) 5 kgf. b) 10 kgf. c) 15 kgf
36
a) b) c)
Fig. 6 - Isoclinics and isochromatics curves for lubricated gears loaded with: a) 5 kgf. b) 10 kgf. c) 15 kgf
a) b) c)
Fig. 7 - Isoclinics and isochromatics curves for lubricated dirt gears loaded with: a) 5 kgf. b) 10 kgf. c) 15 kgf
The differentiation of pattern fringes generaterd from As figuras resultantes da diferenciação entre as franjas
deformed and non-deformed gears as shown on Figure 2, padrões do corpo de prova deformado e não deformado,
3 and 4 produced a color scale associated to pixel color apresentados nas Figuras 2, 3 e 4, obteve como resultado
uma régua graduada relativa à intensidade das cores de pixel.
which varies according to the testing body deformation. A intensidade dos pixels pode ser relacionada de acordo com
The high the color variation, the high the body a deformação do objeto, i.e., quanto maior for a variação das
deformation, which can be verified in all the cases cores de pixels, maior será a deformação relacionada à força
mentioned before. Color pixel variation starting with aplicada. Analisando esta variação pixelar, percebe-se que,
lubricated dirt gear which presented the highest pixel para todos os casos analisados, houve o aumento da
variation, the clean gear presenting average pixel variation intensidade do pixel à medida que o carregamento aplicado no
meanwhile the lubricated gear presented the lowest pixel corpo de prova foi ampliado. Também é notado que, de
acordo com a variação dos pixels, a engrenagem com
variation. Following, it is possible to state that dirt lubrificação apresentou menor variação que os outros casos. A
increases gear deformation, meanwhile lubrication engrenagem lubrificada e com sujeira apresentou o maior
minimizes deformation. Isochromatic lines presented on índice de variação pixelar, enquanto que a engrenagem limpa
Figures 5, 6 and 7 when analyzed with the color scale ficou com variação intermediária entre os casos. Logo, é
indicate load and deformation concentration to be in close possível afirmar que a lubrificação apresenta menores taxas
agreement despite the loading conditions, however certain de deformação que a engrenagem trabalhando sem
lubrificação alguma e também é possível afirmar que a sujeira
37
discrepancies are also noted. Isochromatic fringes é um fator que aumenta consideravelmente a deformação
distribution indicates a clear association of stress with do corpo de prova. Analisando as franjas isocromáticas
applied force. As loading increased isochromatic fringes da Figura 5, 6 e 7, e adotando a régua de cores obtidas
pelo processamento da imagem, percebe-se que,
spacing decreased, tending to occupy the whole observed comumente, independente da situação de carregamento a
area. Fringes distribution density indicates stress concentration. concentração de tensão e deformação apresenta situações
It was also noted that fringes concentrations were initially de comum comportamento e outros de certa discrepância.
positioned at gears tooth top and bottom. Analisando as franjas isocromáticas em termos de
As soon as the loading increased, fringes concentration espaçamento, pode-se observar que as linhas isocromáticas
moved to tooth border, following, to gear central areas. ficam mais próximas umas das outras, ou seja, ocorre um
aumento de tensão proporcional ao aumento da força
Low material density areas, as tooth region, experienced high aplicada. À medida que o carregamento foi ampliado, a
fringes concentration. The above referred discrepancies, as distribuição de tensão foi tomando toda a área
fringes slops, are associated to gears working conditions; correspondente ao corpo de prova e seu distanciamento foi
clean gear presented the lowest fringe slop, followed by diminuindo. Esse aumento de densidade das linhas mostra a
concentração de tensões no corpo de prova.
lubricated gear and finally by the lubricated dirty gear.
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSÕES
Based on what it has been exposed before, the Pelo que foi exposto acima, pode-se concluir que engrenagens
following conclusions can be drawn. Lubricated gears trabalham com melhor distribuição de tensão com lubrificação
presented the best load distribution, and the lowest por ter uma menor variação da deformação do corpo de prova,
deformation variation. In case of dirt penetration, stress i.e., a lubrificação ajuda a conservar o elemento de máquina.
concentration and stress intensity variation as well as Nos casos onde há a penetração de sujeira, o comportamento
deformation were shown to be higher, indicating mecânico mostrou que a concentração de tensões e variação
decreasing element working life. The results are da intensidade de tensão e deformação foi maior, o que pode
considered very useful, since the working conditions of implicar seriamente na diminuição da vda útil do peça. Em
farm machinery are severe. In the case dirt material projetos de engenharia agrícolas, estas informações são de
penetrated between gears, stress concentration and crucial importância para o dimensionamento de engrenagens
intensity variation were noted to be higher which utilizados em máquinas, pois as condições de trabalho são de
implies in working life reduction. certa agressividade aos elementos mecânicos envolvidos.
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[6]. Koda F. (2009) - Study of Contac Fatigue in Straight [6]. Koda F. (2009) - Estudo da fadiga de contato em engrenagens
Teeths Cylindrical Gears, Master Degree Thesis, cilíndricas de dentes retos, Dissertação de mestrado apresentada
Technological University of Paraná – UTFPR; na Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná – UTFPR;
[7]. Kuninari F., Dal Fabbro I.M., Lino A.C.L., Almeida C. [7]. Kuninari F., Dal Fabbro I.M., Lino A.C.L., Almeida C. (2008)
(2008) - Moiré aided soil-tractor tire contact area and - Aplicação da Técnica de Moiré no Estudo do Contato Solo-Pneu,
contact volume determination, Journal of Agricultural Determinação da Área de Contato e Deslocamento de Volume,
Machinery Science, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 39-43; Journal of Agricultural Machinery Science, v. 4, n. 1, p. 39-43;
[8]. Lei Z., Yun H., Yun D., Kang Y. (2007) - Numerical [8]. Lei Z., Yun H., Yun D., Kang Y. (2007) - Análise
analysis of phase-stepping interferometric photoelasticity Numérica Aplicada a Fotoelasticidade Interferometrica
for plane stress separation, Optics ans Laser in com Incremento de Fase para Separação de Carga no
Engineering, vol. 45, no. 1, p. 77-82; Plano, Optics ans Laser in Engineering, v. 45, n. 1, p. 77-82;
[9]. Lino A.C.L. (2008) - Application of the Phase Displacement [9]. Lino A.C.L. (2008) - Aplicação de moiré de projeção
Projection Moiré Method in Generating Plant Organs com deslocamento de fase na construção de modelos
Digital Models, PhD Thesis, Faculty of Agricultural digitais topográficos de órgãos vegetais, Tese de Doutorado
Engineering, State University of Campinas, SP, 92 p., em Engenharia Agrícola – Faculdade de Engenharia
Brazil; Agrícola, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 92 p.;
[10]. Rodrigues L.E.M. (2008) - Specialization Course on [10]. Rodrigues L.E.M. (2008) - Curso de Especialização
Total Productive Maintenace, <http://www.ebah.com.br/ em Manutenção Produtiva Total, Encontrado em
content/ABAAAe5ocAJ/falhas-engrenagens>; <http://www.ebah.com.br/content/ABAAAe5ocAJ/falhas-engrenagens>;
[11]. Spinelli H.A., Silva F.A. (2003) - Application of [11]. Spinelli H.A., Silva F.A. (2003) - Aplicação da Fotoelasticidade
Photoelasticity on Structural Analysis of a Riveted Joint for na Análise Estrutural de uma Junta Rebitada de Uso
Aeronautical Application, Anais... Guaratinguetá; Aeronáutico, Anais... Guaratinguetá;
[12]. Santos A.A. (2002) - Notes on Machine Elements 2, [12]. Santos A.A. (2002) - Apostila para o curso de elementos de
Campinas, march, http://www.fem.unicamp.br/~lafer/em618/, maquinas 2, Campinas, março, http://www.fem.unicamp.br/~lafer/em618/,
pdf/Apostila%20Engrenagens%204.pdf. pdf/Apostila%20Engrenagens%204.pdf.
38
DYNAMICS OF OVERSOWING MACHINE MSPD 2,5

RELATED TO WORKING AND CONSTRUCTIVE PARAMETERS
/
DINAMICA MAŞINII DE SUPRAÎNSĂMÂNłAT MSPD 2,5
ÎN CORELAłIE CU PARAMETRII DE LUCRU ŞI CONSTRUCTIVI
Ph.D. Eng. Ene T.A., Ph.D. Eng. Mocanu V.
Research-Development Institute for Grassland Brasov / Romania
E-mail: tudorene@yahoo.com, vasmocanu@yahoo.com
Abstract: In the paper, the equipment and methodology Rezumat: În lucrare sunt prezentate echipamentul şi
of experimental research concerning the dynamics of the metodologia cercetării experimentale cu privire la
individual sowing section and the complete machine, are dinamica secŃiei individuale de semănat şi a întregii
presented. Depending on working conditions (deep: 2 maşini. În funcŃie de condiŃiile de lucru (adâncime: 2 şi 4
and 4 cm, speed: 5,5 km/h (1,52 m/s) and 7,5 km/h (2,08 cm, viteză: 5,5 km/h (1,52 m/s) şi 7,5 km/h (2,08 m/s)) şi
o
m/s)) and constructive solutions (attack angle of soil soluŃiile constructive (unghiul de atac al brăzdarului: 25 ,
o o o o o
opener: 25 , 35 and 45 ), analyzing the data of 35 şi 45 ), analizând datele încercărilor experimentale,
experimental trials, there is possibility to find optimal este posibilă găsirea soluŃiilor constructive şi funcŃionale
constructive and functional solutions to reduce traction optime pentru a reduce forŃa de tracŃiune şi ulterior
forces and finally fuel consumption of the aggregate. consumul de combustibil al agregatului.
Keywords: grassland, over sowing, traction forces, Cuvinte cheie: pajişte, supraînsămânŃare, forŃă de
working deep, aggregate speed tracŃiune, adâncime de lucru, viteza agregatului
INTRODUCTIO INTRODUCER
A new oversowing machine MSPD-2,5 type, which O nouă maşină de supraînsămânŃat tip MSPD 2,5,
works in unit with 35…50 HP wheels tractor, at the care lucrează în agregat cu tractoare pe roŃi de 35 ... 50
Research-Development Institute for Grassland CP, a fost proiectată, realizată şi testată la Institutul de
Brasov/Romania was designed, realized and tested [3]. Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Pajişti Braşov [3].
The main advantages of the new oversowing machine Principalele avantaje ale maşinii sunt: copierea
are: the copy of the unevenness of the ground on each denivelărilor solului pentru fiecare rând semănat în limita
row processed and sown, in the limits of ± 10 cm; a ± 10 cm; realizează o bună uniformitate de distribuŃie
achievement of a good uniformity of the metering on the pe lăŃimea de lucru; reglarea şi menŃinerea constantă în
work breadth; adjustment and constant maintaining the lucru a adâncimii brăzdarelor şi introducerea seminŃelor
depth of the soil opener and inclusive the seeding depth. în sol.
Fig. 1 – Constructive scheme of grassland oversowing machine [1, 2]:

1-deformable parallelogram mechanisms; 2- cutter disc; 3-body of the section;4- soil opener; 5-setting wheel;6-reglable springs;
7-seed box; 8-delivery hose; 9-frame of machine.
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

The constructive and functional optimization of the Optimizarea constructivă şi funcŃională a maşinii a
39
machine needed an analysis of the dynamics and necesitat analiza dinamică şi energetică prin cercetări
energetics through experimental trials of cinematic, experimentale ai parametrilor cinematici, dinamici şi
dynamic and energetic parameters of both the sowing energetici ai ambelor secŃii de semănat, luate individual,
sections and the tractor-grassland oversowing machine şi a sistemului tractor-maşină de supraînsămânŃat [1, 2].
system [1, 2]. Pentru a îndeplini aceste obiective a fost necesară
To achieve this objective it was necessary to măsurarea, achiziŃia şi procesarea următorilor parametri
measure, record and process the following main principali: forŃele de tracŃiune din mecanismul
parameters: the traction forces from coupling bars of the paralelgram al secŃiei de semănat (pentru a determina
sowing sections (to determine the traction forces of forŃa de tracŃiune a secŃiilor), forŃelor ce acŃionează
sections), forces acting on cutter disc, forces acting on asupra discului, forŃelor ce acŃionează asupra
the soil opener, load forces on section body performed by brăzdarului, forŃa de apăsare pe cadrul secŃiei prin
tensioned springs, the resistance force to traction of the intermediul arcurilor, forŃa de rezistenŃă la tracŃiune a
oversowing machine transmitted to tractor by the rear maşinii de supraînsămanŃat transmisă la tractor prin
three points hitch, machine working speed and working mecanismul de suspendare în trei puncte, viteza de lucru
depth of soil opener. To carry out the experimental a maşinii şi adâncimea de lucru a brăzdarelor. Pentru
researches of the mentioned parameters, a series of realizarea cercetării experimentale a parametrilor
transducers and sensors were placed on both the tractor menŃionaŃi, pe tractor şi maşină au fost amplasaŃi o serie
and the machine, shown in figure 2. de traductoare şi senzori, prezentaŃi în figura 2.
Fig. 2 - Location scheme of transducers and sensors on the tractor-oversowing machine system [1,2]:
1-optical transducers for measuring the space; 2- frame with tensometric transducers for determining the forces in the three points hitch of the tractor;
3- tensometric transducers for determining the forces in parallelogram mechanisms; 4- tensometric transducers for determining the forces from cutter disc;
5- tensometric transducers for determining the forces from soil opener; 6- tensometric transducers for determining the force from springs of sowing section;
7-inductive transducers for determining the vertical displacements of section related to body of machine.
The experimental trials were carried out on the Cercetările experimentale au fost efectuate pe un
oversowing machine for degraded grasslands MSPD-2,5 sistem format din maşina de supraînsămânŃat pajişti
type and the four wheel drive tractor by 100 HP system degradate tip MSPD 2,5 şi tractor pe roŃi 4x4 de 100 CP
[1, 2]. [1, 2].
In figure 3, the position of section with tensometric În figura 3 sunt prezentate amplasarea secŃiilor cu
rings (that one red-blue color) relative to body of machine inele tensometrice (cele de culoare roşu-albastru) relativ
are presented [2]. la cadrul maşinii [2].
a. b.
Fig. 3 - Position of the section with tensometric rings relative to body of machine [2]:
40
a-vertical-transversal view; b-horizontal-transversal view
a) b)
Fig. 4 - Mounting of the devices (tensometric rings) from determining the forces from bars for sowing section connected at the
body of machine [1, 2]: a) long section; b) short section;
1 - conection bars (parallelogram mechanism); 2 - frame of sowing section; 3 - body of the machine;
4 - tensometric rings; 5 - wires for signal of tensometric rings.
The measurement of forces from connection bars 1 Măsurarea forŃelor din barele de legătură 1 (fig. 4)
(Fig. 4) of the sowing section 2 to the frame of the (mecanismul paralelogram) ale secŃilor de semănat 2
machine 3 was performed by using devices with (scurtă şi lungă) la cadrul maşinii 3 s-a realizat cu ajutorul
tensometric traction rings equipped with electro resistive unor dispozitive cu inele de tracŃiune cu traductoare
transducers 4, mounted perpendicularly on the electrorezistive 4, montate perpendicular pe axa
longitudinal axis of the parallelogram bars (Fig. 5,a; 5,c). longitudinală a barelor paralelogramului (fig. 5,a; 5c).
For each tensometric ring there were used 4 transducers Pentru fiecare inel tensometric s-au folosit patru
of type 6/120 ZY11 (Hottinger company), with resistance traductoare de tip 6/120LY11 (firma Hottinger), cu
R=120 Ω and constant K=2,07. The resistive transducers rezistenŃa R = 120 Ω şi constanta K=2,07. Montarea
were mounted on a strain gauge bridge (Fig. 5, b) [1, 2]. rezistenŃelor mărcilor tensometrice s-a făcut în punte
completă (Fig. 5, b) [1, 2].
a) b) c)
Fig. 5 - Scheme of tensometric rings for forces measurement from connections bars
of parallelogram mechanism [1, 2]:
a – the location of strain gauge marks on the tensometric rings;
b – mounting scheme of trade strain gauge on a strain gauge bridge;c – 3D tensometric ring model.
The measurement of forces from fork 2 of cutter disc Măsurarea forŃelor din furca 2 a discului de tăiere 1
1 (Fig. 6) was performed by using devices with (forŃele de tracŃiune a roŃii şi de apăsare pe sol) (Fig. 6), s-a
tensometric traction rings 3, mounted on direction of fork realizat un dispozitiv cu inele cu traductoare electrorezistive 3,
2. On internal and external walls of the rings there are montate pe direcŃia furcii 2. Pe pereŃii exteriori şi interiori ai
connected resistive tensometric transducers with strain inelului tensometric s-au lipit traductoare tensometrice
longitudinal axis placed in the same plane with rezistive cu axa longitudinală de solicitare plasată în acelaşi
longitudinal axis of the fork of cutter disc (Fig. 7,a; 7,c). plan cu axa longitudinală a furcii roŃii cu obadă (Fig. 7,a; 7,c).
There were used 4 trade resistive transducers 10/120 S-au folosit patru traductoare (mărci) tensometrice rezistive de
ZY11 type (Hottinger company), with resistance R=120 Ω tip 10/120LY11 (firma Hottinger), cu rezistenŃa R = 120 Ω şi
and constant K=2,07, the trade strain gauges were constanta K=2,07, Montarea rezistenŃelor traductoarelor
mounted on a strain gauge bridge as shown in figure 7,b tensometrice s-a făcut în punte completă conform schemei
[1, 2]. din figura 7, b [1, 2].
41
Fig. 6 - The tensometric ring amplacement for determining the resultant force within fork of cutter disc [1, 2]:
1-cutter disc; 2-fork; 3- tensometric ring; 4-body of sowing section.
a. b. c.
Fig. 7 - Scheme of tensometric rings for determining the force from fork [1, 2]:
a – the location of strain gauge marks on the tensometric rings; b – mounting scheme; c – 3D design of the tensometric ring.
The measurement of forces at soil opener 1 of the Măsurarea forŃelor la brăzdarul 1 al secŃiei de semănat
sowing section (Fig. 8) was performed by using devices (Fig. 8) s-a realizat cu un dispozitiv cu inele cu
with tensometric traction rings with electro-resistive
transducers 2 mounted on the fixing bar 3 to the frame 4 traductoare electrorezistive 2 montat pe braŃul de
of the sowing section [1, 2]. prindere 3 la cadrul 4 al secŃiei de semănat [1, 2].
a. b.
Fig. 8 - Tensometric ring device for determining the forces in fixing arm of soil opener [1, 2]:
a- mounting the tensometric ring at the soil opener; b- soil opener mounting on the body of the sowing section;
1-soil opener; 2-tensometric ring; 3-fixing arm devices;4- body of sowing section; 5- cutter disc; 6-spring of section.
To design the transducer with tensometric ring (Fig. Pentru realizarea dispozitivului cu inel tensometric
9,a; 9,c) there were used 4 strain gauges 6/120 ZY11 (Fig. 9,a; 9,c) s-au folosit patru traductoare tensometrice
rezistive de tip 6/120LY11 (firma Hottinger), cu rezistenŃa
type (Hottinger company), with resistance R=120 Ω and R = 120 Ω şi constanta K=2,07. Montarea rezistenŃelor
constant K=2,07. The strain gauges were mounted on a traductoarelor tensometrice s-a făcut în punte completă
42
strain gauge bridge (Fig. 9,b) [1, 2]. (Fig. 9,b) [1, 2].
a) b) c)
Fig. 9 - Scheme of tensometric rings for forces measurement from connection bars of parallelogram
between sowing section and furrow [1, 2]:
a-the location of trade strain gauges on the tensometric ring;b-mounting scheme of trade strain gauge on a strain gauge bridge
c-3D design of tensometric ring.
The measurement of forces from springs 3 (Fig. 10) Măsurarea forŃelor din arcurile de apăsare 3 (Fig. 10)
that act on the direction of the rod axis 4 of spring and care apasă pe cadrul secŃiei de semănat 1 pe direcŃia
presses the body 1 of the sowing section was performed axei tijei resortului 4 şi s-a realizat cu inele cu traductoare
with tensometric electroresistive transducers ring 2. The electrorezistive 2. Mărcile tensometrice au fost montate
electroresistive transducers were mounted on a device pe inele tensometrice de comprimare, prezentate în
with compression rings similar to those shown in figure figura 10 [1, 2]. La montarea inelelor tensometrice pe tija
10 [1, 2]. During the emplacement of tensometric rings de ghidare a arcului de apăsare s-a avut în vedere ca
on the spring rod it had in view the rings have no acestea să nu aibă influenŃe negative în timpul
negative influences in the working process. funcŃionării.
Fig. 10 - Mounting the tensometric ring for determining the force from the spring of the sowing section body [1, 2]:
1-body of sowing section; 2-tensometric ring; 3-spring; 4-rod spring.
The measurement of linking forces between the Măsurarea forŃelor de legătură dintre tractor şi maşina
tractor and the oversowing grassland machine (the total de supraînsămânŃat (forŃa de rezistenŃă la tracŃiune a
traction force for machine operating) was performed with maşinii) s-a realizat cu un dispozitiv cu traductoare
a device with tensometric transducers (tensometric tensometrice (ramă tensometrică) prezentat în figura 11 [1, 2].
frame) presented in figure 11 [1, 2]. The device is made Rama tensometrică este formată din trei cadre (central 1 şi
of 3 frames (central 1 and sides 2, 3) and five strain două laterale 2, 3) şi cinci suporŃi tensometrici care se pot
gauges supports which can be assembled in three asambla prin organe de asamblare în trei poziŃii, făcând
positions, making it possible to couple it to the astfel posibilă cuplarea acesteia atât la mecanismele de
suspension mechanisms at three hitch points and to the suspendare în 3 puncte ale tractoarelor cât şi la
coupling devices of the agriculture machine. dispozitivele de cuplare ale maşinilor agricole.
The frame is coupled to the rear three points hitch of Cuplarea ramei la mecanismul de suspendare al
the tractor by coupling the side and central links of the tractorului se realizează prin cuplarea tiranŃilor laterali şi
43
tractor to the side bolts 4 and central bolts 5. central ai tractorului la bolŃurile laterale 4 şi central 5.
On side bolts 4 and central bolt 5 are fixed to side La bolŃurile laterale 4 şi central 5 de se fixează şi
strain gauges 6 and central strain gauges 7 for coupling suporŃii tensometrici laterali 6 şi central 7, pentru
the agriculture machine one side strain gauges supports cuplarea maşinii agricole. De suporŃii tensometrici laterali
6 are connected through bolts 8 to vertical strain gauges 6 sunt articulaŃi prin bolŃurile 8 suporŃii tensometrici
supports 9. verticali 9.
Fig. 11 - Intermediate frame with tensometric rings for measuring the traction force of agricultural machine [1, 2]:
1-central frame; 2,3-lateral frame; 4- lateral pin; 5- central pin; 6-horizontal lateral supports strain gauges;
7- central supports strain gauges; 8-pin; 9- vertical lateral supports strain gauges.
The measurement of the working speed of tractor- Pentru determinarea vitezei reale de deplasare a
grassland oversowing machine system was performed agregatului tractor-maşină de supraînsămânŃat s-a
with speed transducers, optical type, made by utilizat un traductor de viteză, de tip optic, tip Aqua L 350,
CORRSSYS DATRON Company, AQUA L 350 type. The produs de firma CORRSSYS DATRON (SUA). În figura
transducers is presented in figure 12,a and the mounting 12.a se prezintă varianta constructivă a traductorul, iar în
solution is presented in figure 12,b [1, 2]. figura 12.b se prezintă amplasarea acestuia pe tractor [1,2].
a) b)
Fig. 12 - Optical speed transducers AQUA L 350 type (a) and transducer location on the tractor (b) [1, 2]:
1-tractor 4 WD (100 HP); 2-oversowing machine (type) MSPD-2,5; 3-optical transducers of speed.
The measurement of the vertical displacement of Pentru măsurarea deplasărilor liniare faŃă de cadrul
sowing sections in order to determine the vertical position maşinii de supraînsămânŃat a secŃilor de semănat s-au
of sowing sections as well as the measurement of the utilizat traductori inductivi de deplasare tip W 200 (± 100
working depth of soil opener, was performed with mm) pentru secŃia lungă şi tip W 100 (± 50 mm) pentru
inductive transducers of linear displacement type WAL
secŃia lungă (produse de firma Hottinger). Cu ajutorul
100 (±50 mm) for short section and WAL 200 (±100 mm)
for long section (made by Hottinger company). The valorilor deplasărilor liniare măsurate şi a formulelor
values of linear displacement and the mathematical matematice s-au determinat prin calcul poziŃiile
formulae were applied in order to calculate the angular unghiulare ale barelor mecanismelor paralelogram de
position of coupling bars of parallelogram mechanism of cuplare ale secŃiilor în vederea corelării forŃei rezultante
sowing sections to correlate the resulting force from din barele mecanismului paralelogram cu forŃele de
parallelogram mechanism bars with resistance traction rezistenŃă la tracŃiune şi cu forŃele de apăsare normală pe
forces and vertical load forces of sowing sections. sol a secŃiilor de semănat.
The equipment for measuring and recording the Echipamentul de măsurare şi achiziŃie a datelor folosit
44
data used for experimental tests of the system la încercările experimentale în câmp agregatului format
compose by the tractor 1 (Fig. 13) and oversowing din tractorul 1 (fig. 13) şi maşina de supraînsămânŃat 2, a
machine 2 has consisted in power supply 4, voltage fost format din: generatorul de curent 4, stabilizatorul de
stabilizer 5 (UPS), booster modular system 6 (MGC tensiune (UPS) 5, sistemul modular amplificator (MGC-
plus) and laptop (type P4) 7, all these components plus) 6 şi un calculator portabil (Laptop P4) 7, toate
being placed on the grassland oversowing machine 2 aceste componente au fost montate pe un cadru de
through frame 3. susŃinere 3 amplasat pe maşina de supraînsămânŃat 2.
Fig. 13 - Location of measurement and data recording equipment on the tractor-agricultural machine system:
1-tractor; 2-grassland oversowing machine; 3-frame for placement of measurement and data
acquisition equipments; 4-power supply; 5- voltage stabilizer; 6- booster modular system (MGCplus); 7-laptop P4.
The characteristics of the soil were determined by Caracteristicile solului au fost determinate prin
measuring the soil humidity, using PT-1 type soil capacitive măsurarea umidităŃii solului, utilizând umidometrul
humid meter, (made by Kapacitiv KKT Budapest Company) portabil de tipul PT-1 (model al firmei Kapacitiv KKT) , şi
and for measuring the degree of soil compaction, using SCT a rezistenŃei la penetrare, utilizând penetrometrul static
type penetrometer (made by DICKEY-JOHN Company) [4, 5]. (model al firmei DICKEY-JOHN) [4, 5].
The experimental trials were carried out at ICDP Magurele in Încercările experimentale s-au desfăşurat la ICDP
Brasov, on grassland, on the leaching chemozem soil for different Braşov – Măgurele, pe pajişte, pe un sol de tip cernoziom
working conditions [4, 5]: two working speeds (v1=5,5 km/h levigat pe diferite condiŃii de lucru [4, 5]: două viteze de
and v2=7,5 km/h), two working depth (d1=2 cm and d2=4 cm) deplasare (v1=5,5 km/h şi v2=7,5 km/h), două adâncimi
and three constructive type of soil opener (with inclination de lucru (d1=2 cm and d2=4 cm) şi trei tipuri constructive
o o o o o o
angle: α1=25 , α2=35 and α3=45 ). Having been determined de brăzdar (α1=25 , α2=35 and α3=45 ). S-au determinat
and recorded simultaneously 18 parameters there was the simultan 18 parametri care au permis cuantificarea
possibility to quantify the influence of working conditions and influenŃei condiŃiilor de lucru şi a parametrilor constructivi
constructive parameters on forces variation. asupra variaŃiei forŃelor.
RESULTS REZULTATE
After data processing, have been determined După prelucrarea datelor experimentale s-au
average values of traction forces to the section, as determinat valorile medii ale forŃelor de tracŃiune pentru o
well as the entire machine (traction force of the tractor) secŃie, precum şi pentru întreaga maşină (forŃa de
according to the working depth (a1=2 cm, a 2=4 cm), tracŃiune a tractorului) în funcŃie de adâncimea de lucru
working speed (v1=5.5 km/h; v2=7.5 km/h) and soil (a1=2 cm; a2=4 cm), viteza de lucru v1=5,5 km/h; v2=7,5
o o o o o o
opener angle (25 , 35 and 45 ). These data are km/h) şi unghiul de atac al brăzdarului (25 , 35 şi 45 ).
shown in Table 1. Analytic have been determined Aceste date sunt redate în tabelul 1. Prin calcule s-au
average values for the traction forces of the stellar determinat valorile medii ale forŃelor de tracŃiune pentru
wheel for metering and the power consumption of roata stelată de antrenare a aparatelor de distribuŃie şi
tractor. puterea consumată de tractor.
Table 1
The values of average traction forces for different trial conditions
Angle of Traction force of Consumption of
Deep Speed
soil opener Section Stellar wheel Tractor traction power
[cm] [km/h]
[o] [N] [N] [N] [kW]
α1=25 405 280 7.165 10,1
v1=5,5 km/h
α2=35 446 280 7.870 11,9
(v1=1,52 m/s)
α3=45 518 280 9.091 13,8
a1=2 cm
α1=25 374 250 6.608 14,8
v2=7,5 km/h
α2=35 429 250 7.547 15,6
(v2=2,08 m/s)
α3=45 453 250 7.958 16,5
α1=25 548 280 9.599 14,5
v1=5,5 km/h
α2=35 654 280 11.403 17,3
(v1=1,52 m/s)
α3=45 760 280 13.192 20,0
a2=4 cm
α1=25 505 250 8.838 18,3
v2=7,5 km/h
α2=35 535 250 9.350 19,4
(v2=2,08 m/s)
α3=45 565 250 9.863 20,5
45
The following graphs present the variation of traction Graficele următoare prezintă variaŃii ale forŃelor de
forces. Figure 14 shows the traction force variation of the tracŃiune. Figura 14 redă variaŃia forŃei de tracŃiune a unei
sowing section depending on the soil opener attack angle, secŃii în funcŃie de unghiul de atac al brăzdarului pentru
at different working depth and in the figure 15 is presented diferite adâncimi de lucru şi în figura 15 se prezintă variaŃia
the traction force variation of the sowing section depending forŃei de tracŃiune a unei secŃii, în funcŃie de unghiul de
on the soil opener attack angle, at different working speed atac al brazdarului pentru diferite viteze de lucru
(the signals were filtered). (semnalele au fost filtrate).
Fig. 14 - Variations of traction force of the sowing section depending on soil opener angle, at different working depth.
Fig. 15 - Variations of traction force of the sowing section depending on soil opener angle, at different working speed.
Fig. 16 - Variations of traction force of the oversowing machine depending on soil opener angle, at different working depth.
Fig. 17 - Variations of traction force of the oversowing machine depending on soil opener angle, at different working speed.
46
Figure 16 shows the traction force variation of the Figura 16 redă variaŃia forŃei de tracŃiune a maşinii de
oversowing machine depending on the soil opener attack supraînsămânŃat în funcŃie de unghiul de atac al
angle, at different working depth and in the figure 17 is brăzdarului pentru diferite adâncimi de lucru şi în figura 17
presented the traction force variation of the oversowing se prezintă variaŃia forŃei de tracŃiune a maşinii de
machine depending on the soil opener attack angle, at supraînsămânŃat, în funcŃie de unghiul de atac al
different working speed brazdarului pentru diferite viteze de lucru
Signals recorded and stored in computer memory, Semnalele înregistrate şi salvate în memoria calculatorului,
ASCII type files, were processed using Microsoft Excel în fişiere tip ASCII, au fost prelucrate cu ajutorul softului
software, and presented in the graphs form, which were Microsoft Excel, şi prezentate sub forma unor grafice, care
processed, eliminating transitory operation (at the au fost prelucrate, eliminându-se regimurile tranzitorii de
beginning and the end of experimental trials). lucru (la începerea şi terminarea probelor experimentale).
After processing the data and analyzing the results În urma prelucrării datelor şi analizării rezultatelor
obtained by trials the following conclusions are: obŃinute prin încercări rezultă următoarele concluzii:
• at the same speed and working depth, the traction • la aceeaşi viteză de deplasare şi adâncime de lucru
force of one section increases simultaneously with soil forŃa de tracŃiune a unei secŃii creşte simultan cu
opener angle: unghiul de atac al brăzdarului;
- at working depth a1=2 cm and working speed - la adâncimea de lucru a1=2 cm şi viteza de lucru v1=5,5
v1=5.5 km/h by increasing the angle of soil opener km/h prin creşterea unghiului de atac al brăzdarului de la
o o o o
from α1= 25 to α2 = 35 it obtains a 19% increase α1=25 la α2=35 se obŃine o creştere de 10% a forŃei de
in traction force of section, and to a larger angle of tracŃiune a unei secŃii, iar la o crestere a unghiului de atac
o o o o
α1=25 to α2=45 , achieve a 38% increase traction al brăzdarului de la α1=25 la α2=45 se obŃine o creştere
force; de 28% a forŃei de tracŃiune;
- at working depth a2=4 cm and working speed - la adâncimea de lucru a2=4 cm şi viteza de lucru v2=7,5
v2=7.5 km/h by increasing the angle of soil opener km/h prin creştere a unghiului de atac al brăzdarului de la
o o o o
from α1=25 to α2=35 achieve a 6% increase in α1=25 la α2=35 se obŃine o creştere de 6% a forŃei de
traction force of section and to an angle increase tracŃiune a unei secŃii, iar la o crestere a unghiului de atac
o o o o
of α1=25 to α3=45 to obtain a higher traction al brăzdarului de la α1=25 la α3=45 se obŃine o creştere
force with 12%. de 12% a forŃei de tracŃiune.
• by increasing the depth of a1 =2 cm to a2 = 4 cm, the • prin creşterea adâncimii de la a1=2 cm la a2=4 cm, forŃa
traction force of oversowing machine increases with: de tracŃiune a maşinii de supraînsămânŃat creşte cu:
- 34% at section equipped with soil opener angle of - 34% la secŃia echipată cu brăzdar cu unghiul de atac
o o
α1 = 25 ; de α1=25 ;
o o
α2 = 35 ; de α2=35 ;
o o
α3 = 45 ; de α3=45 ,
• by increasing working depth of a1 =2 cm to a2 = 4 cm, the • prin creşterea adâncimii de lucru de la a1=2 cm la a2=4 cm,
traction force of oversowing machine increases with: forŃa de tracŃiune a maşinii de supraînsămânŃat creşte cu:
- approximately 43% at working speed v1=5.5 km/h; - aproximativ 43 % la deplasarea cu viteza v1=5,5 km/h;
- approximately 28% at working speed v2 = 7.5 km/h; - aproximativ 28 % la viteza v2=7,5 km/h;
• at the same speed and working depth, the traction force • la aceeaşi viteză de deplasare şi adâncime de lucru
of oversowing machine increases simultaneously with forŃa de tracŃiune a maşinii de supraînsămânŃat creşte
soil opener angle: simultan cu unghiul de atac al brăzdarului:
- at working depth a1 =2 cm and working speed - la adâncimea de lucru a1=2 cm şi viteza de lucru v1=5,5
v1=5.5 km/h by increasing the angle of soil opener km/h prin creşterea unghiului de atac al brăzdarului de
o o o o
from α1= 25 to α2 = 35 it obtains a 10% increase la α1=25 la α2=35 se obŃine o creştere de 10% a forŃei
in traction force of section, and to a larger angle of de tracŃiune a unei secŃii, iar la o crestere a unghiului
o o o o
α1=25 to α3=45 , achieve a 27% increase traction de atac al brăzdarului de la α1=25 la α3=45 se obŃine
force; o creştere de 27% a forŃei de tracŃiune;
- at working depth a2 =4 cm and working speed - la adâncimea de lucru a2=4 cm şi viteza de lucru v2=7,5
v2=7.5 km/h by increasing the angle of soil opener km/h prin creştere a unghiului de atac al brăzdarului de
o o o o
from α1=25 to α2=35 achieve a 6% increase in la α1=25 la α2=35 se obŃine o creştere de 6% a forŃei
traction force of section and to an angle increase of de tracŃiune a unei secŃii, iar la o crestere a unghiului de
o o o o
α1=25 to α2=45 to obtain a higher traction force atac al brăzdarului de la α1=25 la α2=45 se obŃine o
with 12%. creştere de 12% a forŃei de tracŃiune.
[1]. Ene T.A., Popescu S. (2009) – Contribution to [1]. Ene T.A., Popescu S. (2009) – ContribuŃii la cercetări
experimental research regarding the dynamic and experimentale cu privire la parametrii dinamici şi
energetic parameters of grassland oversowing machine, energetici ai maşinii de supraînsămanŃat pajişti, a 3-a
The 3-rd International Conference on “Computational conferinŃă internaŃională “Mecanică computerizată şi
Mechanics and Virtual Engineering”, COMEC 2009, inginerie virtuală”, COMEC 2009, Braşov, România, p.
Braşov, România, p. 582 – 588; 582 – 588;
[2]. Ene T.A. (2010) – Research regarding dinamica si [2]. Ene T.A. (2010) – Cercetari privind dinamica şi
energetica agregatelor folosite la imbunatatirea pajistilor energetica agregatelor folosite la îmbunătăŃirea pajiştilor
47
prin insamantare si suprainsamantare, PhD Thesis; prin însămânŃare şi supraînsămânŃare, Teză de doctorat;
[3]. Hermenean. I., Mocanu V., Popescu S., (2003) [3]. Hermenean. I., Mocanu V., Popescu S., (2003)
Realisation and testing of a new machine for grassland Realizarea şi testarea unei noi maşini de supraînsămânŃarea
oversowing, Proceedings of the International Congress on pajiştilor, Proceedings of the International Congress on
Information Technology in Agriculture and Food Industry- Information Technology in Agriculture and Food Industry-
itafe´ 03-Izmir (Turkey), p. 670-673; itafe´ 03-Izmir (Turkey), p. 670-673;
[4]. Mocanu V., Popescu S., Sperchez Fl., Hermenean I., [4]. Mocanu V., Popescu S., Sperchez Fl., Hermenean I.,
(1996) – The method and equipment for experimental (1996) – Metodă şi echipament pentru investigarea
investigation of dynamics and energetic of monoaxle experimentală a dinamicii şi energeticii tractorului monoax
tractors at cutting and transport works, volume II of 8th în lucru la cosit şi transport, volumul II al ConferinŃei a 8-a
Conference with international participation VEHICLE AND cu participare internaŃională de AUTOVEHICULE ŞI
ENVIRONEMENT, pag. 321-326, Transilvania University of MEDIU, pag. 321-326, Universitatea Transilvania din
Brasov; Braşov;
[5]. Mocanu V. (1998) – Dynamic and energetic [5]. Mocanu V. (1998) – Optimizarea dinamică şi
optimization of monoaxle tractors with agricultural energetică a agregatelor formate din tractoare monoax şi
machines for cutting and transport, PhD Thesis. maşini agricole de recoltat şi transport, Teză de doctorat.
48
THE INFLUENCE OF METALLOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OVER THE ATTRITION OF ACTIVE

ORGANS OF AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENTS MADE FROM SINTERED IRON-BASED
MATERIALS
/
ÎNCERCĂRI ALE UNOR MATERIALE SINTERIZATE PENTRU CONSTRUCłIA ORGANELOR
ACTIVE ALE MAŞINII DE PLANTAT RĂSADURI
1) 2) 2)
Prof. PhD. Eng. Sărăcin I. . Lect. PhD. Eng. Pandia O. , Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Bozgă I.
1)
University of Craiova, Faculty of Agriculture, Romania;
2)
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Romania;
E-mail: ion_saracin@yahoo.com
Abstract: This paper primarily deals with the soil action Rezumat: Lucrarea analizează in principal modul de
on the active organs of agricultural machines which are comportare la uzare a organelor active a masinilor
made from sintered iron-based materials. Five types of agricole ce sunt realizate din materiale sinterizate pe
materials were obtained depending on the sintering baza de fier. In functie de tehnologia de sinterizare
technology applied for active organs containing the next aplicata pentru organele active au fost obtinute 5 tipuri de
structures: ferrite-pearlite-cementite, ferrite-pearlite- materiale cu urmatoarele structuri metalografice: ferită-
graphite-cementite, ferrite-pearlite-graphite, ferrite- perlită-cementită, ferită-perlită-grafit-cementită, ferită-
pearlite, ferrite with graphite (free). The five types of perlită-grafit. ferită-perlită, ferită cu grafit (liber). Cele 5
materials used in active element construction were tipuri de materiale folosite în construcŃia organelor active
tested for the action of friction in contact with two types au fost testate acŃiunii forŃelor de frecare în contact cu
of soil and there was established the action of the soil două tipuri de sol şi s-a stabilit acŃiunea solului prin uzură
by abrasive attrition over active organs after a number abrazivă asupra organelor active după un număr de
of functioning cycles. cicluri de funcŃionare.
Keywords: wheat milling, grist, plansifter compartment, Cuvinte cheie: uzură, coeficient de frecare, materiale
physical properties, grinding phase, reduction roller mill sinterizate, compoziŃia chimică, duritate
The multitude of factors and requests that should Multitudinea factorilor şi solicitărilor cărora trebuie să
correspond with the pieces that work in slip friction le corespundă piesele care lucrează în condiŃii de frecare
conditions, without lubrication or with lubrication provided cu alunecare, fără ungere, sau cu ungere asigurată
only by humidity at low levels, implicitly a wide and numai de prezenŃa umidităŃi foarte mici, implicit o gamă
pretentious range of proprieties that are often largă şi pretenŃioasă de proprietăŃi ce au adesea
contradictory, as well as the imposed requests, so a good caracter contradictoriu, ca şi solicitările ce le impun, astfel
material is the result is a compromise between că un bun material este rezultatul unui compromis între
contradictory tendencies and the problem of their tendinŃe contradictorii, iar problema optimizării lor este de
optimization is very actual [1]. deosebită actualitate [1].
There is a close correlation between more physical Exista o strânsă corelaŃie între mai multe proprietăŃi fizico-
and mechanical proprieties of the material in a certain mecanice ale materialului şi un anumit parametru tribologic,
tribological parameter and in the literature the conditions iar în literatura de specialitate principalele sunt prezentate
requested by these are presented: compatibility, condiŃiile cerute acestora si anume: compatibilitate,
compliance, printing capability, fatigue resistance, conformitate, capacitate de imprimare, capacitate de
corrosion resistance, hardness, thermal conductivity and încărcare, rezistenŃă la oboseală, rezistenŃă la coroziune,
friction coefficient [2]. duritate, conductivitate termică şi coeficient de frecare [2].
The fatigue resistance represents the capacity of the RezistenŃa la oboseală constituie capacitatea materialului
material to resist at cyclic requests under the elastic limit de a rezista la solicitări ciclice sub limita elastică, respectiv
and repeated variable requests without leading to crack la solicitări variabile repetate, fără a conduce la apariŃia
or pores on its surface. The hardness of the material fisurilor sau a porilor pe suprafaŃa sa. Duritatea materialului
must be as much as elevated for the material to take trebuie să fie cât mai ridicată pentru ca materialul să poată
important contact pressure [3, 4, 5, 6]. prelua importante presiuni de contact [3, 4, 5, 6].
The choice of the most appropriate materials for their Alegerea celor mai potrivite materiale în vederea
efficient usage and the increase of the functioning period utilizării lor cât mai eficiente, mărindu-le astfel perioada
imply the knowledge of multitude of problems related to de funcŃionare, implică cunoaşterea unui ansamblu de
work conditions, structure and proprieties of materials probleme legate de condiŃiile de lucru, structura şi
incorporated in the pieces. proprietăŃile materialelor încorporate în piesele respective.
For the economic factors involved in the construction Pentru factorii economici implicaŃi în construcŃia şi
and operation of the pieces, an important place is exploatarea pieselor un loc important îl ocupă şi costul
occupied by material cost, along with reliability, functional materialului, alături de fiabilitatea acestora, performanŃele
performance, replacement and repair costs [4, 5]. funcŃionale, costurile de înlocuire şi reparaŃii [4, 5].
The simultaneous fulfillment of these multiple Îndeplinirea simultană a multiplelor condiŃii, izvorâte
conditions, arising from various conditions in which they din condiŃiile foarte variate în care funcŃionează piesele,
operate is not possible. Thus the solution to the nu este posibilă. Apare astfel problema optimizării soluŃiei
optimization problem under a set of data is raised and it într-un complex de condiŃii date, care se poate obŃine
that can be obtained by: choosing one of the known prin: alegerea unuia dintre materialele cunoscute care să
materials which meets the requirements, its răspundă principalelor cerinŃe, dezavantajele lui
disadvantages remaining within the acceptable limits [7]; rămânând în limite acceptabile [7]; modificarea prin aliere
49
modification by alloying of known materials properties in a proprietăŃilor materialelor cunoscute în sensul îmbunătăŃirii
order to improve their properties and mitigate adverse; lor şi atenuării efectelor proprietăŃilor defavorabile;
finding new materials through research and găsirea de noi materiale prin cercetare şi experimentare
experimentation [8, 10]. There were proposed materials [8,9,10]. Pentru confecŃionarea organelor active a
sintered from iron based metallic powders for producing utilajelor agricole s-au propus s-au folosit materiale
the active organs of agricultural equipments. The sinterizate din pulberi metalice pe bază de fier. Produsele
products from sintered powders can be made from din pulberi sinterizate se pot elabora din materiale
various materials and can weigh from several grams to diverse şi pot avea masa de la câteva grame până la
hundreds of kilograms. The basic transformations of iron câteva sute de kilograme. Transformările de bază ale
such as heating and cooling are accompanied by a fierului, la încălzire şi răcire, sunt însoŃite de un însemnat
significant thermal effect (absorption or release of heat). efect termic (absorbŃiune sau degajare de căldură).

There were proposed materials sintered from iron Pentru confecŃionarea organelor active a utilajelor agricole
based metallic powders for producing the active organs of s-au propus s-au folosit materiale sinterizate din pulberi
agricultural equipments. The products from sintered metalice pe bază de fier. Produsele din pulberi sinterizate se
powders can be made from various materials and can weigh pot elabora din materiale diverse şi pot avea masa de la
from several grams to hundreds of kilograms. The basic câteva grame până la câteva sute de kilograme.
transformations of iron such as heating and cooling are Transformările de bază ale fierului, la încălzire şi răcire, sunt
accompanied by a significant thermal effect (absorption or însoŃite de un însemnat efect termic (absorbŃiune sau
release of heat). Outside the critical temperature degajare de căldură). În afara temperaturilor critice care
corresponding to the basic transformations at 768 C, the corespund transformărilor de bază la temperatura 768 C,
0
iron presents a magnetic transformation accompanied only fierul prezintă şi o transformare magnetică care este însoŃită
by intra-atomic changes, the mutual distribution of atoms in numai de transformări intraatomice, distribuŃia reciprocă a
the crystal lattice remaining unchanged. atomilor în reŃeaua cristalină rămânând neschimbată.
After applying different sintering technologies and În urma aplicarii diferitelor tehnologii de sinterizare
taking into account different maintain periods several avana in vedere diferiti timpi de mentinere au fost
versions of metallographic structures were obtained and obtinute mai multe variante de structuri metalografice, iar
Figure 1 presents three metallographic structures obtained in Figura 1 sunt prezentate trei structuri metalografice
during sintering the carbonyl iron powder at different maintaining obŃinute în timpul sinterizării pulberii de fier carbonil la
periods. From the analysis of different metallographic diferiŃi timpi de menŃinere. Din analiza structurilor
structures it can be observed that the basic constituent is metalografice se observa ca constituentul de baza este
ferrite in from of large particles, visible in the structure as ferita sub forma unor graunti mari, vizibili în structură, ce
a result of the re-crystallization phenomena. apar ca urmare a fenomenelor de recristalizare.
a) b)
c)
Fig. 1 – a) Microstructure of an iron piece with 0.5% C sintered in endothermic gas at 1120 ° C (× 400; nital 2%) containing ferrite (a),
perlite (b) and pores; b) Microstructure of an iron piece with 3,5% C sintered at 1090 ° C (× 200; nit al 2%);
c) Microstructure of an iron piece with 3,5% C sintered at 1120 ° C in endothermic gas (× 500; nital 2%), perlite, secondary cementite
and ledeburite network
The introduction of graphite in iron determines Introducerea grafitului în fier determină obŃinerea de
obtaining sintered materials with different proprieties and materiale sinterizate cu diferite proprietăŃi şi structuri.
structures. The structure of sintered materials iron- Structura materialelor sinterizate fier-grafit, poate fi
graphite can be adjusted in large limits. Different forms of reglată în limite largi. Prin variaŃia compoziŃiei chimice,
50
structure can be obtained by varying chemical temperaturii şi timpului de sinterizare, a vitezei de răcire
composition, temperature sintering time and cooling rate: se pot obŃine diferite forme de structuri: ferită cu grafit
ferrite with graphite (free); ferrite- pearlite; ferrite-pearlite- (liber); ferită-perlită, ferită-perlită-grafit, ferită-perlită-grafit-
graphite; ferrite-pearlite-graphite-cementite; ferrite- cementită, ferită-perlită-cementită etc.
pearlite-cementite etc. Ferita este constituentul structural cel mai moale al
The ferrite is the softest structural constituent of aliajelor fier grafit, având o duritate cuprinsă între 80-100
graphite-iron alloys, having a hardness HB between 80- HB, iar cementita este cea mai dură 72-75 HRC, dar şi
100 and cementite is the toughest (72-75 HRC), but also foarte fragilă. Perlita lamelară are o duritate ridicată 180-
very fragile. Lamellar pearlite has a high hardness, 200 HB.
between 180-200 HB. Pentru studiul organelor active a utilajelor agricole,
For the study of active organs and the elucidation of dar si pentru elucidarea fenomenelor care intervin în
phenomena that occur during the contact between the timpul contactului dintre suprafaŃa metalică a organelor
metal surface of the active organs and soil the tribological active a fost realizat un sistem tribologic a cărei structură
system structure shown in Figure 1 was proposed, which este prezentata în Figura 2 în unde sunt specificate
provides the main components involved in attrition: principalele componente participante la uzură:
material properties and its shape, properties of the work proprietăŃile materialului şi forma acestuia, proprietăŃile
environment, tribological interactions between the organs mediului de lucru, interacŃiunile tribologice între
of the system (system status, type of attrition). elementele sistemului (starea sistemului, felul uzurii).
Fig. 2 – The structure of the tribological system for the study of friction and wear between active organs and soil
To calculate the friction, respectively the attrition of Pentru calculul frecării, respectiv a uzurii unor
some surfaces that are in relative motion, the next suprafeţe aflate în mişcare relativă au fost folosita relatia:
relation was used:
(1)
Where: În care:
- is the (tangential) admissible unit effort size - este mărimea efortului unitar la forfecare
at shearing; (tangenţial) admisibil;
– the size of the unit effort to the null wear - mărimea efortului unitar la uzură nulă şi se
3 3
and is achieved in 2·10 passages. atinge în 2·10 treceri.
The equipment for attrition test was projected for De asemenea, pentru realizarea cercetărilor experimentale
making the experimental research and its kinematic a fost proiectat un echipament pentru incercare la uzura
structure is presented in Figure 3. a carui structura cinematica este prezentata in Figura 3.
There was taken into account the simulation as In etapa de proiectare s-a avut in vedere faptul ca
closely as the real conditions of functioning for the echipamentul sa reproducă cât mai fidel condiţiile reale
tribological system in the projecting phase. Thus the de funcţionare al sistemului tribologic. Astfel
projected work equipment has a kinematic structure echipamentul de lucru proiectat are o structura
formed from: electric engine, coupling, speed controller, cinematica formata din: motor electric, cuplaj, variator de
fasteners of the body to be tested, tank with agitator and turaţie, sistem de prindere a organului de încercat, cuvă
compaction cylinder de sol cu agitator şi cilindru de compactare.
51
Fig. 3 – Equipment for attrition testing
RESULTS REZULTATE
The experimental researches were made in the Cercetările experimentale au fost efectuate în laborator
laboratory using the projected equipment by using five folosind echipamentul proiectat prin folosirea a 5 tipuri de
types of sintered materials with different metallographic materiale sinterizate cu diferite structuri
structures: ferrite-pearlite-cementite, ferrite-pearlite- metalografice:ferită-perlită-cementită, ferită-perlită-grafit-
graphite-cementite, ferrite-pearlite-graphite, ferrite- cementită, ferită-perlită-grafit, ferită-perlită, ferită cu grafit
pearlite, ferrite with graphite (free). The five types of (liber). Cele 5 tipuri de materiale din care au fost
materials which were used for confectioning the active confectionate organele active au fost testate la uzura
organs were tested to attrition for two types of soil that pentru doua tipuri de sol ce a fost introdus incasete de
was introduced in parallelepiped-shaped boxes with formă paralelipipedică, cu dimensiunile: 1000×500×400.
dimensions of 1000×500×400. The soil that were used Solurile folosite a fost unul de tipul cernoziom argiloiluvial,
were argiloilluvial chernozem and psamosoil. The iar cealalt cu psamosol. Solul cernoziom argiloilivial din
argiloilluvial chernozem in the box was artificially tapped casetă a fost tasat artificial până la obţinerea unei densităţi
3 3
until achieving an apparent density of 1.31 d / cm . The aparente de 1,31 d/cm . Psamosolul din cea de-a doua
psamosoil in the second box was artificially tapped to casetă a fost tasat artificial până la obţinerea densităţii
3 3
obtain an apparent density of 1.20 g/cm . aparente de 1,20 g/cm .
During the tests the boxes were moved to the În timpul încercărilor casetele cu sol au fost deplasate
position of the active element at a speed of 0.5 m / min. faţă de poziţia organului activ cu viteza de 0,5 m/min.
After each operating cycle the artificial density was După fiecare ciclu de funcţionare stabilit a fost refăcută
rebuilt. artificial densităţii aparente.
Table 1 presents the attrition values of active organs În Tabelul 1 sunt prezentate valorile de uzura a organelor
of agricultural equipments made from the five types of active ale utilajelor agricole realizate din cele 5 tipuri de
materials for the argiloiluvial chernozem soil. The materiale pentru solul de tipul cernoziom argiloiluvial. Uzura
attrition was measured after certain cycles of attrition a fost masurata dupa anumite cicluri de solicitare la uzură şi
stress (6 000, 12 000, 18 000 and 24 000). After anume 6 000, 12 000, 18 000 respectiv 24 000. In urma
research, the lowest attrition was found for an active cercetarilor efecutate s-a constatat că cea mai mică uzură o
element made from sintered material from ferrite- are organul activ construit dintr-un material sinterizat din
pearlite-cementite. ferită-perlită-cementită.
Table 1
The determination of cups attrition on an argiloiluvial soil
Number of functional cycles
Apparent density
Material Soil type 3 6 000 12 000 18 000 24 000
[g/cm ]
The difference of masses [g]
1. 0,001 0,011 0,015 0,018
2. 0,001 0,009 0,012 0,016
3. Argiloiluvial chernozem 1,27 – 1,35 0,001 0,008 0,011 0,015
4. 0,001 0,009 0,011 0,017
5. 0,001 0,008 0,012 0,016
52
Fig. 4 – The cups wear in the conditions of the soil working on an argiloiluvial chernozem soil – with the apparent density of 1.27-1.35 [g/cm3]
1 - ferrite-pearlite-cementite 2 - ferrite-pearlite cementite-graphite 3 - ferrite-pearlite, graphite, 4 - ferrite-pearlite, 5 - ferrite graphite (free)
Table 2 presents the attrition values for active organs În Tabelul 2 sunt prezentate valorile de uzura a organelor
of agricultural equipment made from the five types of active ale utilajelor agricole realizate din cele 5 tipuri de
materials for the psamosoil. The attrition was measured materiale pentru solul de tipul psamosol. Uzura a fost
after certain cycles of attrition stress (6000, 12000, 18000 masurata dupa anumite cicluri de solicitare la uzură şi anume
and 24000). After research, the lowest attrition was found 6000, 1 000, 18000 respectiv 24000. In urma cercetarilor efecutate
for an active element made from sintered material from s-a constatat că cea mai mică uzură o are organul activ construit
ferrite-pearlite-cementite. dintr-un material sinterizat din ferită-perlită-cementită.
Table 2
The determination of cups attrition on a psamosoil
Number of functional cycles
Apparent density /
Material Soil type 3 6 000 12 000 18 000 24 000
g/cm
The difference of masses [g]
1. 0,015 0,016 0,021 0,024
2. 0,015 0,014 0,018 0,022
3. Psamosoil 1,12 – 1.21 0,015 0,013 0,017 0,021
4. 0,015 0,014 0,017 0,023
5. 0,015 0,013 0,018 0,022
Fig. 5 – The wear of cups under the operating conditions on a psamosoil with an apparent density from 1.12 to 1.21 g / cm 3. 1 - ferrite-
pearlite-cementite 2 - ferrite-pearlite cementite-graphite 3 - ferrite-pearlite, graphite, 4 - ferrite-pearlite, 5 - ferrite graphite (free).
The next conclusions were made after the research: În urma cecetarilor efectutate au rezultat următoarele:
- the attrition of active organs depends on the soil - uzura organelor active depinde tipul solului
type, the apparent density and the granulometric respective de densitatea aparentă şi de compoziŃia
53
composition, establishing that the highest attrition granulometrică, constatandu-se ca uzura cea mai
appears for the active organs used for processing mare apare in cazul organelor active folosite la
argiloiluvial chernozem soil type with the apparent prelucrarea solului de tipul cernoziom – argiloiluvial
3 3
density of 1.27-1.35 g/cm ; cu densitatea aparentă 1,27 -1,35 g/cm ;
- the most resistant material at attrition by abrasion - in urma încercărilor după 24.000 de cicluri de
after 24 000 cycles of functioning was sintering funcŃionare, materialul cel mai rezistent la uzura prin
material of type 1 which has in its metallographic abraziune a fost materialul sinterizat de tipul1 ce are
structure formed from ferrite, pearlite and cementite. structura metalografica formata din ferită, perlită si
cementită.
REFERENCES
[1]. Alexandru I. and colab. (1997) - The choice and BIBLIOGRAFIE
utilization of metallic materials, Didactical and [1]. Alexandru I. and colab. (1997) – Alegerea şi
Pedagogical Publishing, Bucharest; utilizarea materialelor metalice, Editura Didactică şi
[2]. Covici L. and colab. (1991) - The study of metallic Pedagogică Bucureşti;
materials, Laborator Guideline, GalaŃi; [2]. Covici L. and colab. (1991) - Studiul materialelor
[3]. Florea Gh. şi colab. (2001) - Tribological metalice, Ghid de l, GalaŃi;
characterization of alloys, Science and Materials [3]. Florea Gh. şi colab. (2001) – Caracterizarea
Engineering Conference, Vol. I, Braşov; tribologică a aliajelor, ConferinŃa de ŞtiinŃa şi Ingineria
[4]. Kuksenova L.I. (1988) - Metallic materials resistant Materialelor, Vol. I, Braşov;
to attrition, Technologies, quality, machines, material, [4]. Kuksenova L.I. (1988) – Materiale metalice
No. 3, Techincal Publishing, Bucharest; rezistente la uzură, Tehnologii, calitate, maşini,
[5]. Manea Gh. (1970) - Machine organs, Vol. I, material, nr. 3, Editura Tehnică Bucureşti;
Technical Publishing, Bucharest; [5]. Manea Gh. (1970) – Organe de Maşini, vol. I,
[6]. Paraschiv G., Dobrotaă D. (2014) - Research on Editura Tehnică Bucureşti;
deformations which appear in within the metal [6]. Paraschiv G., Dobrotaă D. (2014) - Cercetări privind
structures of mining equipment, Metallurgy, vol. 53 (4), deformările care apar în cadrul structurilor metalice ale
p. 657-660; echipamentelor pentru minerit, Metalurgia, vol. 53 (4), p.
[7]. Pavelescu D. şi colab. (1987) - Tribology, Didactical 657-660;
and Pedagogical Publishing Bucharest; [7]. Pavelescu D. şi colab. (1987) - Tribologie, Editura
[8]. Protopopescu H. (1983) - Metallography and Didactică şi Pedagogică Bucureşti;
thermic treatments, Didactical and Pedagogical [8]. Protopopescu H. (1983) – Metalografie şi
Publishing Bucharest; tratamente termice, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică
[9]. Surdeanu T., Perneş M. (1984) - Sintered pieces Bucureşti;
from metallic powders, Technical Publishing, Bucharest; [9]. Surdeanu T., Perneş M. (1984) - Piese sinterizate
[10]. Ştefănescu F. (1995) - Metallic composites, din pulberi metalice, Editura Tehnică Bucureşti;
Matrixrom Publishing, Bucharest; [10]. Ştefănescu F. (1995) - Compozite Metalice,
[11]. *** STAS 12877-90 - A method for determining the Editura Matrixrom, Bucharest;
friction coefficient and attrition speed of metallic [11]. *** STAS 12877-90 - O metodă de determinare a
materials, National Standard. coeficientului de frecare si viteza uzură a materialelor
metalice, Standard NaŃional.
54
THE EGYPTIAN EXPERIENCE WITH THE PRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT

SPARE PARTS FROM AUSTEMPERED DUCTILE IRON (ADI)
/
EXPERIENTA EGIPTEANA PRIVIND PRODUCEREA DE PARTI COMPONENTE ALE
ECHIPAMENTELOR AGRICOLE DIN FONTA DUCTILA AUSTENITICA (ADI)/
1) 2)
Prof. Adel Nofal , Dr. Hesham Farag
1) 2)
Central Metallurgical R&D Institute (CMRDI), Cairo / Egypt; Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AEnRI), Cairo / Egypt
E-mail: 1)adelnofal@hotmail.com; 2)heshamfaragarc@hotmail.com
Abstract: The ambitious plans of the Egyptian Government %‫ ا‬1‫ـ‬34

‫ا‬
for more extensive mechanization of Agricultural is 5!o)‫ ا‬p)& 5q rrs tu‫ ا‬v‫ ا‬w/ 5x-‫ ا‬57ou‫ ا‬w!y
necessarily related to increased demand of high performance ‫داء‬3‫ ا‬5)* ‫| ا{)ر‬rv )/ w6* ‫ورة‬4' & }rs w‫ وه‬5)*‫را‬:‫ا‬
consumable spare parts of enhanced properties, particularly 6 ‫ك‬o‫ ا‬7 !‫ي ا‬y‫ ا‬57‫و‬7 "-s ‫ و‬5v,7 ‫اص‬s ‫ذات‬
the wear resistance. This property is of special concern
5)67‫! ا‬7 ‫اء‬$ 5'‫ ا‬7 5,6;‫ اع ا‬3‫| ا‬7 ‫ة‬17 ‫رة‬-' ‫اء‬:3‫ا‬
because of the abrasive nature of soil and rocks, with
which these parts are in permanent contact. The Egyptian ‫ أدوات‬w6* ‫ =<)ه‬./ ‫وت‬, ‫ اع‬3‫ و ه ا‬5x;-‫ أو ا‬5)!)r‫أو ا‬
market still largely depends either on import or local 6)>7 ‫ أن‬8 ‫ي‬y6 5)* 57‫و‬7 w‫ إ‬5)67‫ ا‬5'‫ج ا‬u !)y/ ,u‫ا‬
supply, which very often lacks the rational selection of the .1o6 5)* 57‫و‬7 ‫م‬:61 5x;-‫ا‬
proper alloys, suitable to meet the demanding properties of 5)6&' ‫ه ان‬:‫ ا‬y$ xr 5)t‫ ى ا&د ا>ث ا‬7 w6* ‫و‬
those consumables. This project, which is a collaborative .* ‫ه ان‬:‫ ا‬7 ‫ ة‬x 5y‫ ر ر‬w‫ أدت إ‬5r)1' 5x‫ ار‬58&7
initiative between the Central Metallurgical R&D Institute 7 ‫ ة‬x/ 5*8' ‫ ز‬5o)y$ .‫ و ه‬ADI 5o)y1' ‫&ف‬x 5 ‫ا‬
(CMRDI) and the Agricultural Engineering Research w6* ‫ و ا رة‬6o‫ي و إدات ا‬y‫ ا‬57‫و‬7 ‫ و‬5 ‫اص اى و ا‬s
Institute (AENRI), aims at introducing the production w6* ){6 5&7 5)6'v w6* ‫ازات *وة‬:‫ء و اه‬t4‫;) ا‬
technology of agricultural spare parts from advanced iron ‫آت و‬y17 u7 ‫ ة‬x‫ا‬:7 ‫رة‬-' u 5o)y1‫ & ه ا‬7 ‫اآ)!ت‬
castings with enhanced wear resistance, such as the
7 5)*‫را‬:‫ و ا‬5)*!-‫)ت ا‬yr‫ ا‬7 x &‫ ا‬./ 6-‫ت ا‬v‫و‬r7
austempered ductile iron (ADI). In the last two decades,
the revolutionary material, the austempered ductile iron 7 5&!-‫اء ا‬:3‫) و أوزان ا‬o ./ ,s w‫ورة إ‬4' ‫دي‬x
(ADI) with its unique combination of strength, abrasion .5o)y1‫ ا‬6
resistance, toughness, noise and vibration dampening 5)&‫ '& اآت ا‬5'8 uy‫ ها ا‬7 ‫ول‬3‫ء ا‬:8‫!ول ا‬x ‫و‬
capacity as well as machinability has been finding new ‫)ه‬ ‫ي و اوآ¡ و‬x‫> ن د‬7 5)*‫را‬:‫& ات ا‬6 58!‫ ا‬5v&‫ا‬
applications in various sectors of agricultural applications .‫ ا‬o7 ‫ و‬5)*‫را‬:‫!)| ا& ات ا‬- ADI 5o)y$ ‫; ام‬$‫ ا‬./
as a replacement to conventional materials such as cast ./ 5'&" ‫اء‬:3‫ أآ> ا‬7 y& .‫ و ا‬5'‫ ا‬xu ./ &
and forged steels with cost and weight savings. The two ‫ي و‬y‫ ا‬7 5)$v ‫ وف‬u ‫ار‬$¢' & 3 ‫ا‬£ )-‫ا‬
project partners have selected, based on an extensive ..o) o)‫آ ا‬¤‫ا‬
market survey, demonstrator parts representing significant .>u' ‫ وع‬5)‫و‬3‫)!ول ا! ا‬/ uy‫ ها ا‬7 . >‫ء ا‬:8‫ ا‬7‫أ‬
weight of imports, to be the object of this research. CMRDI
|'‫ ا‬5)*‫را‬:‫ ا‬5$ !‫ث ا‬u' &7 5r$‫) 'ا‬,! ) x .)yr
developed the production technology of those parts at its
rather well equipped pilot foundry and heat treatment xr ‫ث و‬u' :‫آ‬7 |7 ‫اك‬¥¦' ‫ي‬-‫ ا‬5)*‫را‬:‫ث ا‬uy‫ ا‬:‫آ‬
facilities. The microstructural features of the produced 7 ‫دة‬,$¦‫ و ذ ' ف ا‬5x-‫ ا‬.6&‫ ا‬uy‫ات ا'| زارة ا‬:6,‫ا‬
parts were investigated and correlated to the abrasion 7 5)‫و‬3‫!)| ا!ذج ا‬- ‫ات‬:6,‫ث ا‬u' :‫آ‬7 ./ 5‫ات ااآ‬y;‫ا‬
resistance of plow blades and gears produced from y1‫ ا‬7 5&!-‫ ت ا‬o6 x y‫ آ‬5 ‫ ا‬.* ‫ه ان‬:‫آت ا‬y17
different grades of ADI. The Prototype castings have been ‫ أداء‬w6* ‫ و *ض =<) ذ‬6-‫ت ا‬v‫و‬r7 ‫آت و‬y17 >7 5x )6‫ا‬
subjected to field assessment and their performance will .5)*‫را‬:‫ ا‬5$ !6 5,6;‫ت ا‬8‫ ا‬./ ‫ ت‬o‫ ا‬6
be compared to imported components manufactured from ‫ أدى‬v ADI 5o)y$ ‫; ام‬$‫ أن ا‬5)‫ او‬5)6&‫ ا! ا‬ut‫ أو‬v ‫و‬
conventional alloys such as steel castings and forgings. x‫ر‬u‫ ا‬5u6$‫> أ‬7 ‫ي‬y6 5t&‫اء ا‬:3‫ * ا‬./ 5u67 ‫دة‬x:
The results of the performance tests, however, will be )){ ‫ ازم‬7:‫ر ا‬-s‫ إ‬.' ‫ي و‬y6 ‫ة‬:)‫ ا‬7‫ و‬58)!‫آ‬
reported in a second part of this paper, to be published
5)‫ ا! أه‬ut‫ آ أو‬،5)6&,‫ وف ا& ا‬u ‫ ت‬o‫ ا‬6
later as the short time elapsed since those components
have been in service does not allow a fair comparison. ‫ي‬y‫ ا‬57‫و‬7 7 5!xy7 ‫اص‬s 7 ' 5,6;‫ ا‬ADI ‫)ر ر‬s‫ا‬
Keywords: agricultural components, plough blades, .5'‫ ا‬7 5,6;7 ‫ وف‬u 6){ !* 1o‫ ا‬57‫و‬7 ‫و‬
austempered, microstructure, hardness, wear resistance
With the ambitious plans of the Egyptian Ministry of Odata cu planurile ambiŃioase ale Ministerului Egiptean
Agriculture for more mechanization of agricultural al Agriculturii, pentru o mecanizare mai amplă a lucrărilor
operations, the needs for local production of spare parts agricole,nevoile pietei locale de producŃie a pieselor de
and consumables required for the continuous operation schimb si consumabile necesare pentru funcŃionarea continuă
of agricultural equipment become more and more a echipamentelor agricole devin tot mai pronunŃate. CerinŃele
pronounced. The properties requirements of those spare impuse de proprietăŃile acestor piese de schimb variază în
parts vary with the application of the part in different funcŃie de utilizarea piesei în condiŃii diferite şi ar trebui să
conditions and should have various combinations of wear aibă diverse combinaŃii de rezistenŃă la uzură, rezistenŃă
resistance, impact toughness as well as fatigue de impact, precum şi proprietăŃi de oboseală, în funcŃie de
properties, depending on the nature of the soil and natura solului şi produsele agricole care trebuie prelucrate.
agricultural products to be processed. În ultimii ani, milioane de dolari au fost cheltuiti pentru
55
Over the past years, millions of dollars have been a face acele piese de schimb disponibile prin import.
spent to make those parts available through import. Încercari modeste au fost de asemenea realizate la
Modest trials have as well been made to locally fabrica locală, dar, din păcate, alegerea materialelor
manufacture those parts, but unfortunately, the selection utilizate în procesul de fabricaŃie a fost de foarte multe ori
of materials used for the manufacturing process was very departe de a fi optima. Acest lucru a dus la o rată prea
often far from being optimum. This resulted in too high mare a uzurii componentelor rezultând in oprirea
rate of wear of these parts with the consequent result of maşinilor de arat sau de recoltat in timpul procesului de
stoppage times of the earth moving or harvesting lucru, ambele putand implica pierderi economice
machines, both would imply excessive economic losses. excesive.
Realizing the importance of collaboration between the Realizând importanŃa colaborării dintre oamenii de ştiinŃă
scientists working in both agricultural engineering as well care lucrează atât în inginerie agricolă, precum şi selecŃia
as material selection and processing, both the Central materialelor şi prelucrarea lor, atât InstitutulCentral de R &
Metallurgical R&D Institute (CMRDI) of the Egyptian D in metalurgie (CMRDI) din cadrul Ministerului Egiptean de
Ministry of Scientific Research and the Agricultural Cercetare ŞtiinŃifică şi Centrul de Cercetare de Inginerie
Engineering Research Centre (AEnRI) of the Egyptian Agricolă (AEnRI) din cadrul Ministerului Egiptean Agriculturii
Ministry of Agriculture took the initiative of conducting a au luat iniŃiativa de a conduce un proiect de cercetare care
research project aiming at introducing the available vizează introducerea de cunoştinŃe disponibile şi experienŃa
knowledge and experience accumulated at CMRDI about acumulate în CMRDI despre producerea de grade avansate
manufacturing of advanced grades of iron castings for de fontă pentru aplicaŃii de inginerie agricole. Proiectul ar
agricultural engineering applications. The project is trebui să creeze conştientizarea capacităŃilor şi
supposed to create awareness of the capabilities and proprietăŃile unice ale ADI în rândul comunităŃii de
unique properties of ADI among the agricultural inginerie agricolă în Egipt. Acest lucru ar duce, prin
engineering community in Egypt. This would consequently urmare, la creşterea indicilor economici ai operaŃiunilor
lead to the enhancement of the economical indices of the ce implica tehnologii de prelucrare a solului prin
ground engineering operations through increase of life creşterea timpului de viaŃă, scăderea ratei de uzură a
time, decrease of wear rate of moving parts as well as pieselor în mişcare, precum şi minimizarea timpilor de
minimizing the idle times needed to replace those parts. mers în gol necesari pentru a înlocui aceste componente.
Several developments have occurred in the past few O serie de evoluŃii au avut loc în ultimii ani în ceea ce
years regarding the use of advanced iron castings, such priveşte utilizarea de piese turnate din fontă avansate, cum
as austempered irons in the agricultural industry. ar fi metale procesate termic utilizate in industria agricolă.
Farmers, component designers, agricultural equipment Fermierii, proiectanŃii, producătorii de echipamente
manufacturers and after market agricultural component agricole şi furnizorii de componente agricole pe piaŃa
suppliers all have found unique, cost-effective use for pieselor de schimb, toŃi au găsit, utilizări unice, eficiente
austempered iron components. In addition to the din punct de vedere al costului pentru componente din
austempered ductile iron (ADI), carbidic austempered austenită. În plus faŃă de fontă ductilă austenitică (ADI),
ductile iron (CADI) increasingly have found applications aplicaŃiile cu fontă ductilă carbidica austenitică (CADI) şi-
in agricultural equipment and component applications as au gasit aplicatii pe echipamentele agricole dar şi în
will be explained later. componentele de schimb cum va fi explicat ulterior.

Austempered ductile iron (ADI) is a relatively a new Fonta ductilă austenitică (ADI) este un material relativ
engineering material with exceptional combination of nou în inginerie cu o combinaŃie excepŃională de rezistentă,
strength, ductility, wear resistance, fatigue strength and ductilitate, rezistenta la uzura, rezistenŃă la oboseală şi
machinability. This material has, therefore, marked prelucrabilitate. Acest material, are, prin urmare, un potenŃial
potential for numerous applications in automotive, important pentru numeroase aplicaŃii în industria auto, agricola,
agricultural, earthmoving, mining, construction as well as terasamente, minerit, construcŃii, precum şi aplicaŃii militare [1].
military applications [1]. De la anuntul primei producŃii de ADI la sfârşitul
Since the announcement of the first production of ADI in secolului trecut, o explozie, la nivel mondial, în cercetare
the late decades of the last century, a worldwide explosion a început [2], şi a oferit o bază solidă pentru extinderea
in research started [2], which provided a sound foundation producerii acestui material cu potenŃial în multe Ńări
for expanding the production of this prospective material in industrializate în anii 1990 şi după. Până la începutul
many industrialized countries during the 1990’s and secolului, piaŃa ADI a început să accelereze rapid de la
beyond. By the turn of the century, the ADI market had un început modest la începutul anilor 1970 la un nivel
begun to rapidly accelerate from a modest beginning in the estimat de producŃie la nivel mondial de 700.000 tone /
early 1970’s to an estimated worldwide production level of an, până la sfârşitul anului acestuia 2014.
700,000 tons/year by the end of this year 2014. Avantajul unic al ADI poatea fi dedus aruncand o
The unique advantage of ADI could be realized by a privire in fig. (1) [3]. În cazul în care costul pe unitate de
glance at Fig. (1) [3]. If the cost per unit of yield strength limita curgere a diferitelor materiale este comparat, ADI
of different engineering materials is compared, ADI is este cea mai buna alegere din punct de vedere
the best economic choice. If the material weights economic. În cazul în care greutatea materialului necesar
required to give unit yield strength are compared, ADI is pentru unitate de curgere sunt comparate, ADI este cel
the lightest and can compete successfully with mai uşor şi poate concura cu succes cu aliaje usoare.
56
lightweight alloys.
Fig. 1-a Comparison of the cost per unit of yield strength Fig. 1-b Comparison of the weight per unit of yield strength for
for different materials different materials
ADI is produced by austempering a ductile iron ADI este produs prin procesarea termică a unei fonte
(spheroidal graphite iron) material to produce an ductilă (fontă cu grafit nodular) material folosit pentru a
ausferritic matrix. The spheroidal graphite “nodules” in produce o matrice ausferritica. "Nodulii" de grafit sferoidal
ductile iron allow engineers to fully exploit the high din fontă ductilă permit inginerilor să exploateze pe deplin
strength and toughness of ausferrite, as they do not puterea mare şi duritatea de austenizare, deoarece acestea
reduce the toughness of the iron like graphite flakes or nu reduc duritatea fierului cum ar fi fulgi de grafit sau carburi
large carbides in gray iron. ADI is about 10% less dense mari din fontă cenuşie. ADI este de aproximativ 10% mai
than steel due to the presence of these graphite nodules. puŃin densă decât oŃelul datorită prezenŃei acestor moduli de
Table 1 shows the properties of the ADI grades specified grafit. Tabelul 1 prezintă proprietăŃile claselor ADI specificate
in ASTM A897/A897M-06. în ASTM A897 / A897M-06.
Engineers and designers have learned that ductile iron Inginerii şi designerii au învăŃat că fontă ductilă poate
can be easily cast into complex shapes. By subsequently fi uşor turnat în forme complexe. Prin austentificare
austempering these castings, they can exhibit a strength- ulterioară a acestor piese turnate, ei pot prezenta un
to-weight ratio comparable to heat treated steel or raport rezistenŃă-greutate comparabil cu oŃelul tratat
aluminum. This allows designers to create one-piece termic sau cu aluminiul. Acest lucru permite proiectanŃilor
designs that might have been previously assembled from să conceapa desene ale unei piese, care ar fi putut fi
multiple forgings, castings, extrusions, welding or asamblate în prealabil din mai multe piese forjate, piese
stampings. turnate, extrudate, sudate sau stantate.
Table 1
Minimum properties of the six ADI grades specified in ASTM A897/A897/M-06
Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation Typical Hardness
[MPa/ksi] [MPa/ksi] [%] HBw
750/110 500/70 11 241-302
900/130 550/90 9 269-341
1050/150 750/110 7 302-375
1200/175 850/125 4 341-444
1400/200 1100/155 2 388-477
1600/230 1300/185 1 402-512
ADI’s microstructure contains carbon-stabilized Microstructura ADI conŃine austenita-stabilizata cu

austenite that is thermally stable but, when acted upon by carbon, care este stabil termic, dar, atunci când este
a high, normal force, transforms locally to untempered acŃionat de o forŃă mare, normală, se transformă la nivel
martensite nested in a ferritic matrix. This increases the local in martensita necalita incapsulata într-o matrice
surface micro-hardness, giving ADI an abrasive wear feritică. Acest lucru creşte micro-duritatea de suprafaŃa
resistance that exceeds that implied by its bulk hardness, micro-duritate, oferind ADI o rezistenta la uzura abrazivă,
and making it ideal for many agricultural applications. care o depăşeşte pe cea implicată de duritatea sa de
In certain angular and rocky soils, ADI plow points, masa, şi făcându-l ideal pentru multe aplicaŃii agricole. În
boots and plow shins have been reported by farmers to anumite soluri unghiulare şi stâncoase, punctele plugului
wear more slowly than hard-face welded and high- din ADI se uzeaza mult mai incet decat celelalte pluguri
57
chrome wear resistant irons. In other, less aggressive din materiale rezistente la uzură. În alte soluri, mai puŃin
soils, ADI does not perform as well. agresive, ADI nu funcŃionează la fel de bine .
Fig. 2 - a) a one-piece ADI main drive wheel replaced an 84-piece steel welded and assembled component in the Toro Dingo TX;
b) typical ADI plow point in production for more than 25 years; c) grain deflector for a harvesting combine is produced in ADI to stand up
to abrasive grain flow; d) Australian farmers have utilized ADI Mitch Tips since the 1990s [4]
Many types of wheeled agricultural and construction Multe tipuri de utilaje agricole cu roti şi de echipament
equipment are being converted to rubber tracks for de construcŃii sunt transformate în piese de cauciuc pentru
increased versatility and lower weight, cost and soil versatilitate sporită şi greutate redusă, costuri mai mici şi
compaction. In one application, the Toro Dingo TX 413 compactarea solului scazută. Într-o aplicaŃie, Toro Dingo
(Fig. 2-a), the main drive wheel consisted of an 84- TX 413 (Fig. 2-a), roata de acŃionare principală a constat
piece welded and bolted steel assembly. Engineers at dintr-un ansamblu de oŃel sudat şi şuruburi, 84 piese.
Toro and Smith Foundry, Minneapolis, collaborated to Inginerii de la Toro şi Turnatorie Smith, Minneapolis, au
create a one-piece ADI design that proved to be lower colaborat pentru a crea o singură bucată ADI design care
in cost and more durable. Because 84 pieces of steel s-a dovedit a fi mai putin costisitoare şi mai durabila.
were replaced with one green sand ADI casting, the Pentru că 84 de piese de oŃel au fost înlocuite cu o singura
wheel reliability was improved by eliminating the piesa turnată în nisip verde ADI, fiabilitatea roaŃii a fost
variability in cutting, stamping, drilling, bolting and îmbunătăŃită prin eliminarea variabilitatii de tăiere, ştanŃare,
welding the components together. forare, bolŃuire şi sudarea componentelor împreună.
The earliest agricultural applications of ADI were simple Cele mai vechi aplicaŃii agricole ale ADI-ului sunt înlocuirea
aftermarket plow points and wear shins. Fig. 2-b shows a pieselor de schimb cu uzura ridicată a plugului. Fig. 2-b
typical ADI plow point that has been in production for more arată un punct de plug ADI tipic, care a fost în producŃie
than 25 years. These through-hardened ADI ground pentru mai mult de 25 de ani. Aceste componente, din ADI
engaging parts replace hardened and hard-faced welded călit, de angrenare a solului au inlocuit componentele din
steel components at a competitive price. oŃel prelucrate termic si sudate datorita pretului competitiv.
Harvesting machines present their own set of Utilajele de recoltare prezintă propriul set de provocări
challenges to the designer, and the advent of rotary pentru designer, şi apariŃia de modele rotative a creat noi
designs has created new opportunities for castings. oportunităŃi pentru piese turnate. Multe tobe de cereale,
Many grain rasps, deflectors and other parts used to deflectoare şi alte părŃi utilizate pentru a separa şi a
separate and convey grain within harvesters have been transporta cerealele de-a lungul combinei au fost
converted to ADI. The complex shape shown in Fig. 2-c convertite în ADI. Forma complexa prezentata în Fig. 2-c
would be difficult to produce by any other method than ar fi dificil de obtinut prin orice altă metodă decât
casting. The wear resistance offered by ADI allows it to turnarea. RezistenŃa la uzură oferite de ADI îi permite să
stand up to abrasive grain flow. se ridice la fluxul abraziv al granulelor.
Australian farmers have utilized the prize-winning Fermierii australieni au folosit designul MitchTip
MitchTip design since the 1990s (Fig. 2d). This premiat începând cu anii 1990 (Fig. 2-d). Acest design cu
proprietary ADI design utilizes impacted soil to extend proprietăŃi ADI utilizează solul afectat pentru a prelungi
the life of the tip. durata de viaŃă a vârfului.
ADI also is used in powertrain and sprocket-driven ADI, de asemenea, este utilizat în sistemul de propulsie
applications. John Deere utilizes an ADI adjuster şi aplicaŃii acŃionate de pinion. John Deere utilizeaza un
58
sprocket on one of its harvesters as a cost effective regulator de pinion ADI pe una din combinele sale de
alternative to a steel sprocket. recoltare ca o alternativă rentabilă la un pinion oŃel.
Agricultural components must often withstand impact Componentele agricole trebuie să reziste de multe ori la
loading and the abrasive wear characteristics of sandy impactul de încărcare şi la caracteristicile de uzură abrazive
and/or wet grass, stalks and organic material. de nisip şi / sau de iarbă umedă, tulpini şi material organic.
The steel fabrication did not hold up to the rigors of Componenta fabricată din oŃel nu a rezistat la condiŃiile
the harsh, wilderness terrain in either wear resistance, dure ale terenului sălbatic, nici in rezistenŃă sau parametrii
or strict seed flow-through parameters. The steel stricŃi de uzură ai fluxului continuu de seminŃe. Ansamblul
welding wore through after only 500 acres of planting purtat din otel sudat după numai 500 de acri de plantare
necessitating an expensive and time consuming field necesită o înlocuire costisitoare şi consumatoare de timp.
replacement. The welded design also lacked the Designului sudat îi lipsea, de asemenea, o tranziŃie lină
smooth, internal transitions needed for precise seed flow. internă, necesara pentru un debit precis de seminŃe.
The redesigned ADI casting (shown installed on the Reproiectarea componentei turnate din ADI (Figura 4.
planter in Figure 4) meets Truax’s difficult requirements Componenta instalată pe echipament)indeplineste cerinŃele
while posting a 15% reduction in part weight, cutting the dificile celor de la Turax in timp ce reduce greutatea cu 15%
manufacturing lead time in half (from six weeks to three şi reduce timpul de producŃie la jumătate(de la 6 săptămani
weeks), better than doubling the life of the boot, and la 3 săptămani), dublându-se astfel durata de viaŃă şi
reducing the part cost by more than 65%. This reducând costurile de fabricatie cu 65%. Aceasta conversie
conversion won Smith Foundry and Truax the 2007 le-a câştigat celor de la turnatoria Smith si Turax premiul
Engineered Casting Solutions / American Foundry “Engineered Casting Solutions / American Foundry Society
Society Casting of the Year Award. Casting of the Year Award” în 2007
a) b)
Fig. 3 - a) a seed boot constructed of welded steel; (b) ADI casting that replaced it as a cost and weight reduction
Fig. 4 - The Truax Rangeland Planter Boot installed on the planter
Carbidic Austempered Iron (CADI) Fonta ductilă carbidica austenitică (CADI)

CADI is produced by the introduction of carbides into CADI este produs prin introducerea de carburi în
the cast iron matrix during the casting process. The iron matricea din fontă în timpul procesului de turnare. Fierul
is subsequently austempered in a manner that produces este ulterior austentificat într-o manieră care produce un
a controlled percentage of carbides in an ausferritic procent controlat de carburi într-o matrice ausferitică.
matrix. CADI was introduced in 1991 to produce CADI a fost introdus în 1991 pentru a produce
components with better wear resistance than ADI with a componente cu o rezistenŃă mai bună la uzură decât ADI
price and performance competitive with abrasion cu un preŃ şi performanŃe şi mai competitive, rezistente la
resistant irons but with a modicum of impact strength [5]. eroziune cu o forŃă de impact modică [5].
CADI also may be produced by mechanically CADI de asemenea, poate fi produsă prin introducerea
introducing carbides into a casting cavity prior to the mecanica a carburilor in cavitatea de turnare înainte de
introduction of molten metal. The subsequent introducerea metalului topit. Austentificarea ulterioara a
austempering of the component does not affect the cast- componentei nu afectează carburile turnate. O altă
in carbides. Another version of CADI can be produced by versiune a CADI poate fi produsă prin turnarea unei părŃi
59
casting a part as ductile iron, hard-face welding a locality ca fonta ductilă, sudând local componenta şi ulterior
on the part and then subsequently austempering it, austenteificarea acesteia, lasând partea cu carburi
leaving the carbidic hard-face weld unaltered while sudată nealterată producând astfel o bază a matricii de
producing a base matrix of ausferrite. austentificare
The first commercial application of CADI was introduced Prima aplicaŃie comercializată a aplicaŃiei CADI a fost
in 1991. A small agricultural implement manufacturer then introdusă in 1991. Un mic producător de componente
using ADI needed more wear resistance on a fully- agricole folosind ADI avea nevoie de mai multa
supported plow point (Fig. 5). The manufacturer, Carroll rezistenŃă la uzură pentru un plug purtat. Producatorul
Agricultural, worked with G&C Foundry Co., Sandusky, Carroll Agricultural a colaborat cu G&C Foundry Co.,
Ohio, and an austempered iron consultant to develop a Sandusky, Ohio, si un consultant în austentificarea
casting process to produce an as-cast iron matrix containing fierului, pentru a dezvolta o noua tehnologie de turnare
mixed spheroidal graphite and carbides. The carbides pentru a produce o matrice de fier conŃinând un mix de
were subsequently partially dissolved during grafit sferoidal si carburi. Carburile au fost partial
austenitizing. The material was then austempered. The dizolvate prin procesul de austentificare. RezistenŃa la
resulting wear resistance was suitable for the customer’s uzură a fost necesară pentru aplicaŃiile clientului, iar
application, and the parts exhibited adequate toughness partile au aratat o rezistenŃă crescută la impacutul cu
to survive impacts with stones [4]. pietre.
Figure 6 shows the John Deere Laser-Rip ripper Figura 6. reprezintă punctele scarificatorului John
points, which utilize CADI for wear resistance and Deere Laser-Rip care utilizează CADI pentru rezistenta la
toughness in highly abrasive, rocky soil. The material uzură şi duritatea intr+un sol pietros şi abraziv. Materialul
provides better wear resistance than standard steel prezintă o rezistenŃă la uzură mai ridicată decât oŃelul
points and better impact resistance than high-chrome, standard şi o rezistenŃă la impact mai înaltă decât oŃelul
abrasion resistant steels and irons. cromat.
Harvesting machines pose interesting challenges for Utilajele agricole de recoltat prezintă câteva provocări
design engineers. If the handled components are too interesante pentru inginerii în proiectare. Dacă componentele
soft, they will wear out, causing downtime at critical manipulate sunt prea moi, se vor uza fizic, cauzănd
harvest times. If those same components are too brittle, cresterea timpului de recoltare. În acelaşi timp, daca
they may break, causing the machine to be offline at a componentele sunt prea fragile acestea se vor rupe
critical time. Engineers have found that CADI rasps, cauzând echipamentului un timp mort. Inginerii au
thrashing tines, flights and buckets can withstand the descoperit că tobele, cuŃitele zdrobitoare şi cupele turnate din
impacts sustained in grain harvesting and provide CADI pot rezista la impactul creat în recoltare si pot oferi
sufficient wear for a full season and more [4]. suficientă uzura pentru un sezon sau si mai mult.
Fig. 5 - The first commercial CADI application was Fig. 6 - These John Deere LasserRip ripper points were
this small plow point for Carroll Agricultural produced in CADI for wear resistance and toughness
in abrasive, rocky soil
Experimental work Date experimentale

Melting was carried out in a 100-kg medium Topirea a fost realizată intr-un cuptor cu inducŃie cu o
frequency induction furnace. The metallic charge frecventa medie de 100kg. Încărcătura metalică a constat
consisted of steel scrap and return scrap. The chemical în resturi de oŃel, bucati din metal si resturi din retur.
composition of the base metal was adjusted through CompoziŃia chimică a metalului de baza a fost modificata
additions of the required additions of ferrosilicon (65% prin adăugare de adaosurile dorit al ferosiliciu (65% Si) şi
Si) and ferrochrome (70% Cr), whereas the carbon ferocrom (70% Cr), în timp ce conŃinutul de carbon a fost
content was adjusted through the addition of carburizing ajustat prin adăugarea de material de carburare care
material containing 9.9% carbon. conŃine 9,9% carbon.
After complete melting, alloying and superheating to După topirea completă, aliere şi supraîncălzire a
1520°C, the molten metal was de-lagged and then treated 1520°C, metalul topit a fost curăŃat şi apoi se tratează cu
with the proper amounts of ferrosilicon-magnesium alloy cantităŃile corespunzătoare de aliaj ferosiliciu-magneziu
containing 9% Mg for graphite spheroidized and then conŃinând 9% Mg pentru grafit globulizat şi apoi inoculat
inoculated with 75% ferrosilicon inoculant. cu 75% ferosiliciu inoculant.
After a statistical analysis of the spare parts used for După o analiză statistică a pieselor de schimb folosite
agricultural applications in Egypt, two categories of pentru aplicatii agricole din Egipt, au fost selectate două categorii
components were selected to be casted from ADI: de componente care urmează să fie turnate din ADI:
(1) Plough blades: represent a considerable percentage 1) Lamele de plug: reprezintă un procent considerabil
60
of the required components and are usually din componentele necesare şi sunt de obicei
considered to be of the most difficult to engineer due considerate a fi de cel mai dificil de proiectat din
to the severe abrasive environments they are cauza mediilor abrazive, severe la care sunt
subjected to, Fig. 7). supuse, Fig. 7).
(2) Gears: are indispensable components of all 2) RoŃi dinŃate: sunt componente indispensabile ale
agricultural equipment and recently ADI has been tuturor echipamentelor agricole şi recent ADI a fost
considered as an ideal material for gear designers considerat ca un material ideal pentru designerii şi
and manufacturers due to its unique combination of producătorii de roŃi dinŃate, datorită combinaŃiei unice
abrasion resistance, contact and bending fatigue de rezistenta la abraziune, proprietăŃi de contact şi
properties, fracture toughness as well as vibration oboseala îndoire, rezistenŃă la rupere precum si
and noise damping capacities [4]. amortizare a capacităŃilor de vibratii si zgomot [4]
However, this report deals only with the results Cu toate acestea, acest raport se referă numai la
obtained with the ADI plough blades. rezultatele obŃinute cu lamele de plug din ADI.
The chemical composition of the base ductile iron CompoziŃia chimică a fierului ductil bază utilizat pentru
used for the production of ADI plough blades is shown in producerea de ADI pentru lame de plug este prezentată
Table (2). în tabelul (2).
Table 2
Chemical composition of ADI blades
Element C Si Mn S P Mg Cr
Percentage 3.6 2.5 0.25 0.001 0.01 0.05 0-2
Fig. 7 - Plough blades
Chromium was added to some heats to induce the Cromul a fost adaugat la numite temperaturi pentru a
formation of carbides in the microstructure of ADI as Cr is induce formarea de carbura in microstructura ADI-ului
one of the most potent carbide stabilizers in cast irons. având in vedere ca Cr este unul dintre cei mai puternici
One and two percentages of Cr were added to give stabilizatori de carbid in fonte.Unul si doua procente de
different amounts of carbides. The produced “carbidic Cr au fost adăugate pentru a da diferite cantitati de
ADI” or “CADI” owns superior abrasion resistance but carbura. Produsul obŃinut “carbură de ADI “ sau “CADI“
lower impact toughness [5] and its application is therefore posedă o rezistenŃă superioară la abraziune dar rezistenŃă
limited to soils, where rocks and stones are not scăzută la impact [5] deci aplicaŃiile acestora sunt limitate
anticipated. la soluri unde roci si pietre nu sunt anticipate.
After casting of the plough blades, they were După turnarea lamelor plugului, acestea sunt supuse
subjected to austempering treatment, where these tratamentului de austentificare, unde aceste componente
components were first austenitized at 900°C for one hour au fost austentificate initial la 900°C pentru o oră şi apoi,
and the quenched in a molten salt bath to two different tratate imediat intr-o baie de sare topita la doua
temperatures: 275°C and 375°C. temperaturi diferite de 275°C şi 375°C.
Wear test specimens were machined from the casted Specimenele pentru testul uzurii au fost prelucrate
plough blades as bars of dimensions 8 x 8 x 12 mm. The mecanic în bare de dimensiuni 8 x 8 x 12 mm in lame de plug.
wear test was carried out by a laboratory pin-on-ring Testul de uzura a fost efectuat prin metoda de laborator PIN-
method at 0.5 and 0.8 bars with 65 rpm for 30 min. This O-RING la 0,5 si 0,8 bari, cu 65 rpm timp de 30 de minute.
test involved high stress, two-body abrasion, in which Acest test implică stres ridicat şi abraziune celor doua corpuri,
one end of a rectangular pin specimen was fixed against în care un capăt al unui specimen dreptunghiular a fost fixat
rotating abrasive silicon carbide ring. Abrasive wear fata de inelul din carbura de siliciu cu rotire abraziva.
behavior was studied by determining the weight loss Comportamentul la uzura a fost studiat prin determinarea
using scale with sensitivity of 0.1 mg. pierderii de greutate, folosind scara de sensibilitate 0,1mg.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS REZULTATE ŞI DISCUłII

Table (3) shows the chemical compositions of the Tabelul (3) arată compoziŃia chimică folosită iniŃial la
originally used plough blades. lamele plugului.
Table 3
Chemical composition of original blades
Element C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Al Cu W
% Blade 6 0.64 0.286 `0.699 0.011 0.017 0.048 0.021 0.014 0.050 0.013
Blade 4 0.264 0.326 1.2 0.017 0.003 0.486 0.89 0.05 0.137 0.011
61
Figure (8) shows the microstructure and hardness of Figura (8) arată microstructura şi duritatea celor două
the two original blades. It is clear that both blades were lame originale. Este clar că ambele lame au fost făcute
made from steel, with blade No. 6 made from pearlitic din oŃel, cu lama nr.6 din otel carbon de perlit simplu fără
plain carbon steel without hardening heat treatment with low a se întări prin tratament termic cu duritate scăzută
hardness value of 289 HV and blade No. 4 from hardened valoare de 289 HV şi lama nr. 4 din oŃel călit, cu matrice
steel, with martensitic matrix and hardness value of 478 HV. martensitică şi valoare duritate de 478 HV.
Fig. 8 - Microstructures of original blades

a) pearlitic unhardened steel, 289 HV; (b) hardened martensitic steel, 478 HV
Figure 9 shows the microstructures of the as-cast blades Figura 9 prezintă microstructurile paletelor turnate precum
as well as those subjected to the two heat treatment şi cele două supuse ciclurilor de tratament termic, de
cycles, i.e. austempered at low temperature 275°C and at exemplu, la austentificarea de 275°C- temperatură scăzută
higher temperature of 375°C. The following remarks could şi la temperatură mai mare de 375°C. Următoarele observaŃii
be made on the microstructures obtained after different pot fi făcute pe microstructurie obŃinute după diferite
heat treatment cycles of alloys containing from 0-2% Cr: cicluri de tratament termic de aliaje care conŃin 0-2% Cr:
• The as-cast structure consists from spheroidal graphite in • Structura turnată se compune din grafit nodular într-o
a ferritic-pearlitic matrix (about 90% pearlite) with matrice fero-perlit (aproximativ 90% perlită) cu duritate
hardness ~264 HV; ~ 264 HV;
• The carbide volume fraction in the structure increases • FracŃia în volum de carbură din structura creşte cu
with Cr-content; conŃinut de Cr;
• Austempering at 275° results in a fine acicular • Austentificare la 275° a determinat o faza de ferita
(needle-like) ferrite phase with only a small amount of aciculara (ac-ca) cu doar o cantitate mică de austenită
retained austenite (~12%). Typical ultimate tensile reziduală (~ 12%).RezistenŃă la rupere tipica obŃinută
strength obtained was around 1300 MPa, elongation 1 a fost de aproximativ 1300 MPa, alungire de 1% şi
% and hardness of 528 HV; duritate de 528 HV;
• Increasing the austempering temperature to 375°C • Creşterea temperaturii la austentificare la 375°C a
results in a coarser ausferrite structure with higher rezultat într-o structură mai grosieră cu cantităŃi mai
amounts of retained austenite (~35%). Typical ultimate mari de austenită reziduală (~ 35%). RezistenŃă la
tensile strength obtained was around 1100 MPa, rupere tipica, obŃinută a fost de aproximativ 1100 MPa,
elongation of 14 % and hardness of 327 HV; alungire de 14% şi duritate de 327 HV;
• The carbide volume fraction increase with Cr-content • Creşterea fracŃiunii volumului din carbură se face odata
with subsequent increase in hardness values to 680 cu creşterea conŃinutului Cr, ceea ce duce la cresterea
HV and 670 HV in blades containing 2% Cr and ulterioara în valori ale durităŃii la 680 HV şi 670 HV în
austempered at 275°C and 375°C respectively. The lame conŃinând 2% Cr şi austentificat la 275°C şi respectiv
carbide phase in the Cr-containing blades (white-etched 375°C. Faza carbură ce conŃine Cr în lamele (faza alb-
phase) appears in the typical form of ledeburitic structure gravat) apare sub forma tipică a structurii ledeburitice
(eutectic carbides with eutectic austenite globules. (carburi eutectice) cu globule de austenită eutectice.
Fig. 9 - Microstructures and hardness values of CADI plough blades as functions of the
austempering temperatures and Cr - content
62
Wear Resistance RezistenŃa la uzură

Figure 10 compares the wear resistance of the Figura 10 compară rezistenŃa la uzură investigată în
investigated ADI plough blades. lamele plugului din ADI.
The original plough blades were subjected to the Lamele plugului originale au fost supuse la cel mai
highest wear under both the investigated pressures of 0.5 înalt grad de uzură sub ambele presiuni investigate de
and 0.8 bars, blade No. 4 with martensitic structure head 0,5 şi 0,8 bari, lama nr. 4 cu o structura martesitică are o
better wear resistance due to its high hardness of 528 HV mai buna rezistenta la uzură, datorită durităŃii sale
compared to 289 HV of blade No. 6.
ridicate de 528 HV, comparativ cu 289 HV al lamei nr.6.
The ADI blades showed a considerable improvement
Lamele ADI au arătat o îmbunătăŃire considerabilă a
of wear resistance, blades austempered at 375°C
rezistenŃei la uzură, lame austemperate la 375°C au
showed 50% reduction in wear rate compared to the
original blade No. 6, whereas blade austempered at indicat o reducere cu 50% a ratei de uzură în comparaŃie
lower temperature of 275°C showed further 30% cu lama originală nr.6, în timp ce lama austemperată la
improvement compared to ADI-G375 blades. Carbidic temperatura mai mica de 275°C au arătat o ameliorare
ADI (CADI) alloyed with 1 and 2% Cr showed superior de 30% comparativ cu lame ADI-G375. CADI aliat cu 1 şi
wear properties among all investigated alloys, apparently 2% Cr au arătat proprietăŃi superioare de uzură între
due to the presence of the very hard carbides in the toate aliajele investigate, aparent datorită prezenŃei
microstructures carburilor foarte tari din microstructuri
Fig. 10 - Comparison of wear resistance of the ADI blades with the original blades made of steel
High wear resistance is usually obtained in any RezistenŃă ridicată la uzură este de obicei obŃinută în
material by ensuring a high hardness. Hard grades of orice material, asigurând o duritate ridicată. Clasele Hard
ADI (480-550 BHN) are austempered at lower de ADI (480-550 BHN) sunt austentificate la temperaturi
temperatures (235-275°C) and such grades would be mai mici (235-275°C) şi aceste clase vor fi selectate
selected when good wear resistance is the main atunci când o bună rezistenŃă la uzură este principala
requirement. At higher austempering temperatures, the cerinŃă. La temperaturi mai mari de austentificare,
hardness decreases, resulting in more wear. However, duritatea scade, determinând o uzură mai mare. Cu toate
the softer grades of ADI (typically 280-330 BHN) contain acestea, ADI-ul mai moale (de obicei 280-330 BHN)
large amounts of retained austenite, which can work conŃine cantităŃi mari de austenită reziduală, care pot
harden and/or transform to martensite when subjected to lucra să întarească şi / sau transforma în martensită
mechanical strain at the surface under abrasive atunci când este supus la solicitări mecanice la suprafaŃă
conditions. This results in the wear resistance being în condiŃii abrazive . Acest lucru duce la o rezistenŃa la
significantly higher than would be expected. Although this uzură semnificativ mai mare decât s-ar fi de aşteptat.
effect is a disadvantage when machining, it can be very Deşi acest efect este un dezavantaj atunci când
beneficial for applications when the surface is worn away prelucrezi, el poate fi foarte benefic pentru aplicaŃii atunci
as it would be continuously replaced by a freshly formed, când suprafaŃa este erodata, ca si cum ar fi înlocuita
hardened layer. continuu cu un strat călit proaspăt format
• The state-of-the art summarized in the introduction • Materialele de top mentionate in introducerea acestui
of this paper obviously illustrates the great potentials document ilustrează în mod evident, marile
of ADI as a material for different applications in potenŃialuri ale ADI-ului ca material pentru diferite
agricultural engineering. aplicaŃii inginereşti;
• The ADI plough blades investigated throughout this • Lamele de plug din ADI investigate pe parcursul
work show superior wear resistance compared to the acestei lucrri arata o rezistenŃa la uzură superioară în
original blades made from different types of steel. comparaŃie cu lamele originale realizate din diferite
• The highest wear resistance was recorded to the oŃeluri;
carbidic grades of ADI (CADI) followed by ADI • Cea mai mare rezistenŃă la uzură a fost înregistrată la
63
austempered at 275°C and then ADI austempered at clasele CADI, urmate de ADI austempizat la 275°C şi
375°C. apoi ADI austempizat la 375°C.
• The wear resistance was correlated to the microstructure • RezistenŃa la uzură a fost corelată cu microstructura şi
and hardness of the different ADI grades. duritatea diferitelor calităŃi de ADI.
• Field assessment of the investigated blades has • Domeniul de evaluare a lamelor investigate a început
started and comparative results will be available in şi rezultatele comparative vor fi disponibile în câteva
few weeks with the results published later. săptămâni cu rezultatele publicate mai târziu.
[1]. Harding R.H. (2002) - Asia-Europe Environment [1]. Harding R.H. (2002) - Asia-Europe Environment
Forum Conf., Jakarta, Indonesia; Forum Conf., Jakarta, Indonesia;
[2]. Nofal A. (2013) - Advances in the Metallurgy and [2]. Nofal A. (2013) - Advances in the Metallurgy and
Applications of ADI, Journal of Metallurgical Engineering Applications of ADI, Journal of Metallurgical Engineering
(ME), Vol. 2 (1), pag. 1-18; (ME), Vol. 2 (1), pag. 1-18;
[3]. Keough J.R., Hayrynen K.L., Popovski V.M. (2012) - [3]. Keough J.R., Hayrynen K.L., Popovski V.M. (2012) -
Continuing Developments in the Science and Application Continuing Developments in the Science and Application
th th
of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI), 70 World Foundry of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI), 70 World Foundry
Congress 2012 (WFC 2012), Monterrey, Mexico, pg. 491- Congress 2012 (WFC 2012), Monterrey, Mexico, pg. 491-
500; 500;
[4]. Keough J., Hayrynen K. (2010) - Technical Report for [4]. Keough J., Hayrynen K. (2010) - Technical Report for
Applied Process, Feb. Applied Process, Feb.
[5]. Laino S., Sikora J., Dommarco R.C. (2010) - Wear [5]. Laino S., Sikora J., Dommarco R.C. (2010) - Wear
Behavior of CADI Operating Under Different Behavior of CADI Operating Under Different
Tribosystems, ISIJ International, Vol. 50 (3), pg. 418-424; Tribosystems, ISIJ International, Vol. 50 (3), pg. 418-424;
[6]. Nofal A.(2014) - Proceedings of the World Foundry [6]. Nofal A.(2014) - Proceedings of the World Foundry
Congress, 19-21 May, Bilbao, Spain Congress, 19-21 May, Bilbao, Spain
64
KINEMATIC STUDY OF THRESHING PROCESS CONDUCTED BY TANGENTIAL THRESHING

SYSTEM OF CONVENTIONAL CEREAL HARVESTING COMBINES
/
STUDIUL CINEMATIC AL PROCESULUI DE TREIER REALIZAT DE APARATUL DE TREIER
TANGENłIAL AL COMBINELOR CONVENTIONALE DE RECOLTAT CEREALE
PhD. Eng. Ivan Gh., PhD. Eng. Vlădut V.
INMA Bucharest
Tel: 021.269.32.55; Fax: 021.269.32.73; E-mail: geoivan2006@yahoo.com
Abstract: The working capacity of conventional cereal Rezumat: Capacitatea de lucru a combinelor conventionale
harvesting combines is mainly determined by the working de recoltat cereale este in principal determinata de
capacity of tangential threshing system. This depends on capacitatea de lucru a aparatului de treier tangential. Capacitatea
the technical and functional characteristics of the de lucru a acestuia depinde de caracteristicile tehnice si
threshing system itself and the biological characteristics functionale ale aparatului de treier tangential propriu-zis si
of the harvested vegetal mass.Tranche of material de caracteristicile biologice ale masei vegetale recoltate.
entrainment by one bar of threshing cylinder is laminated Transa de material antrenata de o sina a batatorului este
in to the threshing space and under the action of the laminata in spatiul de treier si sub actiunea fortelor de
friction and centrifugal forces it is produced the combing of frecare si centrifuge se produce pieptanarea materialului
material and the seeds separation. The paper presents si separarea semintelor. Articolul prezinta studiul
the kinematic study of threshing process along threshing cinematic al procesului de treier de-a lungul spatiului de
space and the conditions for optimization of process. treier si conditiile de optimizare a procesului.
Keywords:cereal harvesting combine, tangential Cuvinte cheie: combina de recoltat cereale, aparat de
threshing system treier tangential
The threshing system of the conventional cereal Aparatul de treier al combinelor conventionale de recoltat
harvesting combines is type tangential. This is the main cereale este de tip tangential. Acesta este principalul
work organ of this harvesting combines in terms of the organ de lucru al acestor combine din punct de vedere al
separation of the seeds and the energy consumption [4]. separararii semintelor si consumului energetic [4].
The tangential threshing system is positioned in the Aparatul de treier tangential este pozitionat in fluxul
technological flow of a conventional cereal harvesting tehnologic al combinei conventionale de recoltat cereale
combine between the feederhouse and the straw walker. intre elevatorul central si scuturator.
The main components of tangential threshing system Componentele principale ale aparatului de treier
with bars are: threshing cylinder with bars, concave, tangential cu sine sunt: batatorul cu sine, contrabatatorul,
beater and concave extension [5] (Figure 1). postbatatorul si prelungirea contrabatator [2] (figura 1).
Fig.1 - The main components of tangential threshing system
In the tangential threshing system takes place threshing In aparatul de treier tangential are loc procesul de
process, which consists in the separating the seeds from treier, care consta in separarea prin contrabatator a
vegetal mass through concave. Separate seeds get to semintelor din masa vegetalaSemintele separate ajung la
cleaning system and the straw get to the straw walker. sistemul de curatire iar paiele ajung pe scuturator.
The threshing cylinder is the component who entrains Batatorul este componentul care antreneaza si
and transports the vegetal mass in the threshing space transporta masa vegetala in spatiul de treier (intre batator
(between the cylinder and concave), to achieve the si contrabatator), pentru realizarea separarii semintelor de
separation the seeds from the rest of plants. The threshing restul plantelor. Batatorul cu sine este format dintr-un ax,
cylinder with bars comprises a shaft, a number of molded un numar de rozete turnate sau ambutisate, pe care sunt
or stamped rosettes, in which are screwed 6...10 bars, prinse in suruburi 6…10 sine, facute dintr-un profil forjat
made of forged steel profile (Fig. 2). de otel (fig.2).
65
Fig.2 - The threshing cylinder with bars of Romanian cereal harveting combine C110
Threshing cylinder bars of Romanian harvesting combines Sinele batatoarelor combinelor romanesti C110, C140
C110, C140 are provided with a flat area and a dimpled sunt prevazute cu o zona neteda si o zona riflata. Zona
area. Flat area makes first contact with vegetal mass brought neteda face primul contact cu masa vegetala adusa de
by the conveyor with chains and slats of feederhouse, transportorul cu lanturi si racleti al elevatorului central,
providing its good taking and reducing the percentage of asigurand o buna preluare a acesteia si reducand
seeds damaged. Flat area produces a fan effect, an effect procentul semintelor vatamate. Zona neteda produce si un
that determine the increases speed of the vegetal mass efect de ventilator, efect ce determina cresterea vitezei
who entry into the threshing space (Fig. 3). masei vegetale la intrarea in spatiul de treier (fig. 3).
Fig. 3 – Cylinder bar configuration of cereal harvesting combines C110, C140
MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIALE SI METODA

The material tranche entrains by one cylinder bar is Transa de material antrenata de sina batatorului este
laminated in the area of the plate articulated at concave, laminata in zona placii articulata la contrabatator,
diagram forces is shown in Figure 4. diagrama fortelor fiind prezentata in figura 4.
Fig. 4 – Forces diagram acting on the tranche of material in the area of the plate articulated at concave /
66
The centrifugal force who acting on a material point of Forta centrifuga care actioneaza asupra unui punct
trance entrained by one cylinder bar is conforms relation material al transei antrenata de o sina batatorului este
1: conform relatiei 1:
Fcf = m b ω c2R c (1)
where: unde:
Fcf is centrifugal force acting on a material point Fcf este forta centrifuga care actioneaza asupra unui
of material trance entrained by cylinder bar, in N; punct material al transei de material antrenata de
mb – material trance mass entrained by cylinder sina batatorului, in N;
bar, in kg; mb – masa transei de material antrenata de sina
-1
ωc – angular speed of the cylinder, in rad ; batatorului, in kg;
-1
Rc – cylinder radius, in m. ωc – viteza unghiulara a batatorului, in rad ;
The trance material weight entrained by cylinder bar it Rc – raza batatorului, in m.
is conforms relation 2: Greutatea transei de material antrenata de sina
batatorului este conform relatiei 2:
Gb = mb g (2)
where: unde:
Gb is trance material weight entrains by cylinder Gs este greutatea transei de material antrenata de
bar, in N; sina batatorului , in N;
2 2
g - gravitational acceleration, in m/s . g – acceleratia gravitationala, in m/s .
The lamination pressure of material tranche entrained Presiunea de laminare a transei de material antrenata
by cylinder bar in the area of plate articulate at concave, de sina batatorului, in zona placii articulata la
is given by relation 3 [3]: contrabatator, este data de relatia 3 [3]:
 δ
C  1- 
 ∆
plp = Ae (3)
where: unde:
plp - lamination pressure material tranche entrained plp este presiunea de laminare a transei de material
by cylinder bar in the area of plate articulate at antrenata de sina batatorului, in zona placii
2 2
concave, in N/m ; articulata la contrabatator, in N/m ;
δ – tranche of material thickness laminated in area δ – grosimea transei de material laminata in zona
of the articulate plate at concave, in m; placii articulata la contrabatator, in m;
∆ – tranche material thickness entrained by cylinder ∆ – grosimea transei de material antrenata de sina
bar in the area of plate articulate at concave, before batatorului în zona placii articulata, inaintea
lamination, in m; laminarii, in m;
A,C – experimental coefficients with constant value A,C – coeficienti experimentali cu valoare
depending on the crop harvested constanta in functie de cultura recoltata
2 2
(for wheat is A=10 N/m and C=12). (pentru grau fiind A=10 N/m si C=12).
The lamination force of material tranche in the area of Forta de laminare a transei de material in zona placii
articulate plate at concave is given by relation 4 [3]: articulata la contrabatator este conform relatiei 4 [3]:
Flp = plp ( Sb - Sp ) (4)
where: unde:
Flp is lamination force of material tranche in the Flp este forta de laminare a transei de material in
area of plate articulate at concave, in N; zona placii articulata la contrabatator, in N;
Sb – material surface contact with the dimpled Sb – suprafata de contact a materialului cu zona
2 2
area of cylinder bar, in m ; riflata a sinei batatorului, in m ;
Sp – material surface contact with the plate Sp – suprafata de contact a materialului cu placa
2 2
articulate at concave, in m . articulata la contrabatator, in m .
The contact surface of the material with cylinder bar Suprafata de contact a materialului cu sina batatorului
increases with the number and size of the dimples. The creste proportional cu numarul si marimea riflurilor.
report dimpled surface with the bar surface, if it had not Raportul suprafetei riflate cu suprafata sinei, daca n-ar fi
been dimpled, it is called the dimpled coefficient. fost riflata, poarta numele de coeficient de riflare.
The contact surface of the material with cylinder bar is Suprafata de contact a materialului cu sina batatorului
given by relation 5: este conform relatiei 5:
S b = C d b1L S
(5)
where: unde:
Sb is material surface contact with the dimpled Sb este suprafata de contact a materialului cu zona
2 2
area of cylinder bar, in m ; riflata a sinei batatorului, in m ;
Cb – dimpled coefficient; Cb – coeficientul de riflare;
b1 – dimple area width of cylinder bar, in m; b1 – latimea zonei riflata a sinei batatorului, in m;
Ls – cylinder bars length, in m; Ls – lungimea sinelor batatorului, in m.
Contact surface of the material with plate articulate at Suprafata de contact a materialului cu placa articulata
67
concave is the projection of dimple area of cylinder bar la contrabatator este proiectia suprafetei riflate a sinei
on articulate plate at concave, at a laminating angle, batatorului pe placa articulata la contrabatator, sub un
denoted by ρ, multiplied with the cylinder bars length. unghi de laminare, notat cu ρ, inmultita cu lungimea sinei
The Romanian combine C110, C140 this lamination batatorului. La combinele romanesti C110, C140, acest
angle has an average value of ρ=32°. unghi de laminare are valoarea medie de ρ=32º.
The material surface contact with the plate articulate at Suprafata de contact a materialului cu placa articulata
concave is given by relation 6: la contrabatator este data de relatia 6:
b1L S
Sp =
sinρ
(6)
where ρ is the lamination angle. unde ρ este unghiul de laminare.
The lamination force of material tranche in the area of Forta de laminare a transei de material in zona placii
plate articulate at concave is given by relation 7: articulata la contrabatator este data de relatia 7:
 δ
C 1- 
 ∆  1 
Flp = Ae b1L s  Cr -  (7)
 sinρ 
Frictional force acting on the tranche of material, in the Forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra transei de
area of plate articulate at concave, is given by relation 8: material, in zona placii articulata la contrabatator, este
data de relatiei 8:
Ffp = f (Flp - Gs cosζ p - Fcf ) - Gs sinζ p (8)
where: unde:
Ffp is frictional force acting on the tranche of Ffp este forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra
material, in the area of plate articulate at concave, transei de material, in zona placii articulata la
in N; contrabatator, in N;
f - friction coefficient of the material with plate f - coeficientul de frecare al materialului cu placa
articulate at concave and cylinder bar; articulata si sina batatorului;
ζp – angle made by the radius that defines the ζp – unghiul facut de raza care defineste pozitia
vertical position of the cylinder bar. sinei batatorului cu verticala.
In Figure 5 it is shown the diagram of forces acting on In figura 5 este prezentata diagrama fortelor care
a material point under the action of first bar of concave. actioneaza asupra unui punct material aflat sub actiunea
primei sine a contrabatatorului.
Fig. 5 – Forces diagram acting on material point of the tranche under the action of first bar of concave/
Centrifugal force and weight of the material is defined Forta centrifuga si greutatea materialului sunt definite
by the relations 1, 2. The lamination pressure produced de relatiile 1, 2. Presiunea de laminare produsa de prima
by the first concave bar is given by relation 9 [3]: sina a contrabatatorului este data de relatia 9 [3]:
 d 
C 1- 1 
 δ
pl1 = Ae (9)
where: unde:
pl1 is lamination pressure produced by the first pl1 este presiunea de laminare produsa de prima
2 2
concave bar, in N/m ; sina a contrabatatorului, in N/m ;
68
d1 - tranche of material thickness laminated in d1 - grosimea transei de material laminat in zona

area of the first concave bar, in m; primei sine a contrabatatorului, in m;
δ – tranche of material thickness laminated in area δ – grosimea transei de material laminata in zona
of the articulate plate at concave, in m; placii articulata la contrabatator, in m;
A,C – experimental coefficients with constant A,C – coeficienti experimentali cu valoare constanta
value depending on the crop harvested in functie de cultura recoltata
2 2
(for wheat is A=10 N/m and C=12). (pentru grau fiind A=10 N/m si C=12).
The lamination force of material tranche in the area of Forta de laminare realizata de prima sina a
the first concave bar is given by relation 10: contrabatatorului este data de relatia 10:
 d 
C 1- 1 
Fl1 = Ae  δ
L s ( Cr b1 - b2 ) (10)
where: unde:
Fl1 is lamination force of material tranche in the area Fl1 este forta de laminare realizata de prima sina a
of the first concave bar, in N; contrabatatorului, in N;
Ls – cylinder bars length, in m; Ls – lungimea sinelor batatorului, in m.
b1 – dimple area width of cylinder bar, in m; b1 – latimea zonei riflata a sinei batatorului, in m;
b2 – concave bar width, in m; b2 – grosimea sinei contrabatatorului, in m;
The frictional force who acting on the material tranche, Forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra transei de
in the area of the first concave bar, is given by relation material, in zona primei sine a contrabatatorului, este
11: data de relatiei 11:
( )
Ff1 = f Fcf + Gb cosζ1 - Fl1 - Gb sinζ 1 (11)
where: unde:
Ff1 is frictional force acting on the material Ff1 este forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra
tranche, in the area of the first concave bar, in N; transei de material, în zona primei sine a contrabatatorului,
f – friction coefficient of the material with plate in N;
articulate at concave and cylinder bar; f – coeficientul de frecare al materialului cu sina
ζ1 – angle made with the vertical by position of the contrabatorului si sina batatorului;
cylinder bar, corresponding lamination material, in ζ1 – unghiul facut cu verticala de pozitia sinei
area of the first concave bar. batatorului corespunzatoare laminarii materialului, in
The frictional force, in this case, represent the action zona primei sine a contrabătătorului.
of concave bar over the trance material, unlike the area Forta de frecare, in acest caz, reprezinta actiunea sinei
of plate articulated at concave, when friction force contrabatorului asupra transei de material, spre deosebire de
tepresent the action of cylinder bar over the material for zona placii articulate la contrabatator, cand forta de frecare
entrain of this into the threshing space. reprezenta actiunea sinei batatorului asupra materialului
In the Figure 6 it is shown the forces diagram acting pentru antrenarea acestuia in spatiul de treier.
on a material point located on the direction of the first In figura 6 este prezentata diagrama fortelor care
interval between the concave bars. actioneaza asupra unui punct material aflat pe directia
primului interval dintre sinele contrabatatorului.
Fig. 6 – Forces diagram acting on a material point located on the direction of the first interval between the concave bars
69
The forces acting on the material point located the Fortele care actioneaza asupra punctului material aflat pe
direction of the first interval of concave bars are directia primului interval dintre sinele contrabatatorului
centrifugal force and weight of the material, defined by sunt forta centrifuga si greutatea materialului, definite de
relations 1 and 2, which will cause separation of the free relatiile 1 si 2, care vor produce separarea semintelor
seeds by threshing space through the concave. libere din spatiul de treier prin contrabatator.
In Figure 7 it is shown the forces diagram acting on a In figura 7 este prezentata diagrama fortelor care
material point under the action of the second concave actioneaza asupra unui punct material aflat sub actiunea
bar. sinei a doua a contrabatatorului.
Fig. 7 – Forces diagram acting on a material point under the action of the second concave bar
The centrifugal force and weight of the material, Forta centrifuga si greutatea materialului sunt definite
defined by relations 1 and 2. de relatiile 1 si 2.
The lamination pressure of material tranche in the Presiunea de laminare a materialului in zona sinei a
area of the second concave bar, is given by relation 12: doua a contrabatatorului este data de relatia 12:
 d 
C  1- 2 
 d1 
pl2 = Ae (12)
where: unde:
pl2 is lamination pressure of material tranche in the pl2 este presiunea de laminare produsa de sina a
2 2
area of the second concave bar, in N/m ; doua a contrabatatorului, in N/m ;
d1 - tranche of material thickness laminated in area d1 - grosimea materialului laminat în zona primei
of the first concave bar, in m; sine a contrabatatorului, in m;
d2 - tranche of material thickness laminated in area d2 - grosimea materialului laminat în zona sinei a
of the second concave bar, in m. doua a contrabatatorului, in m.
The lamination force of material tranche in the area of Forta de laminare a transei de material in zona sinei a
the second concave bar is given by relation 13 doua a contrabatatorului este data de relatia 13:
 d 
C 1- 2 
Fl2 = Ae  d1 
L s ( Cr b1 - b2 ) (13)
where: unde:
Fl2 is lamination force of material tranche in the area Fl2 este forta de laminare realizata de sina a doua a
of the second concave bar, in N; contrabatatorului, in N;
The friction force acting on the material tranche, in the Forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra transei de
area of the second concave bar, is given by relation 14: material in zona sinei a doua a contrabatatorului este
data de relatia 14:
Ff2 = f (Fcf + Gb cosζ 2 - Fl2 ) - Gb sinζ 2 (14)
70
where: unde Ff2 este forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra

Ff2 is friction force acting on the material tranche transei de material cu sina a doua a
with the second concave bar, in N; contrabatatorului in N;
f - friction coefficient of the material with plate f – coeficientul de frecare al materialului cu sina
articulate at concave and cylinder bar; contrabatorului si sina batatorului;
ζ2 – angle made with the vertical by position of the ζ2 – unghiul facut cu verticala de pozitia sinei
cylinder bar, corresponding lamination material, in corespunzatoare laminarii materialului, in zona
area of the second concave bar. sinei a doua a contrabatatorului.
Further on, the material entrains by cylinder bar will In continuare, materialul antrenat de sina batatorului
be laminated by following concave bars, and friction va fi laminat de urmatoarele sine ale contrabatatorului, iar
forces will pull the material, causing the combing of the fortele de franare vor trage de material, producand-se
ears, under the action of dimpled area of cylinder bar and pieptanarea spicelor sub actiunea riflurilor sinei
liberation of the seeds. batatorului si eliberarea semintelor.
Free seeds, located in threshing space, will be Semintele libere, aflate in spatiul de treier, se vor separa
separat through concave in times when cylinder bars will prin contrabatator in momentele in care sinele batatorului se
be positioned in the concave bars intervals, when the vor afla pozitionate in intervalele dintre sinele contrabatatorului,
centrifugal force and weight force acting free seeds (the cand forta centrifuga si forta de greutate actioneaza
threshing of wheat, centrifugal force is about 300 times asupra semintelor libere (la treieratul graului, forta centrifuga
greater than the weight force). este de circa 300 de ori mai mare decat forta de greutate).
It should be noted that, if the size intervals between Mai trebuie remarcat ca, in cazul in care marimea
the concave bars is constant, the other two bars of the intervalelor dintre sinele contrabatatorului este constanta,
threshing cylinder acting on the material entrained by the celelalte doua sine ale batatorului care actioneaza
first cylinder bar, they should not be in the same position asupra materialului antrenat de prima sina, nu trebuie sa
on concave bars. se afle in aceeasi pozitie fata de sinele contabatatorului.
In other words, when the first cylinder bar is Altfel spus, cand prima sina se afla pozitionata pe o
positioned on the concave bar, the material being pulled sina a contrabatatorului, materialul fiind tras de forta de
by the friction force, the other two following cylinder bars frecare, celelalte doua sine urmatoare ale batatorului se
will be positioned at intervals of concave bars, the vor afla pozitionate pe intervale ale sinelor contrabatatorului,
material is free to move and because of multiple contacts materialul fiind liber sa se deplaseze si datorita contactelor
with concave bars producing the separate of seeds multiple cu sinele contrabatatorului producandu-se separarea
(effect of "Beating the carpet"). semintelor (efectul “batutul covorului”).
In Figure 8 it is shown the forces diagram acting on a In figura 8 este prezentata diagrama fortelor de frecare
material tranche entrained by cylinder bar, under the care actionaza asupra transei de material antrenata de
action of the last concave bar. sina batatorului, aflata in zona ultimei sine a
contrabatatorului.
Fig. 8 – Forces diagram acting on the material tranche entrains by cylinder bar
The friction forces sum acting on a material tranche Suma fortelor de frecare care actioneaza asupra unei
under the action of the three cylinder bars and n concave transe de material aflata sub actiunea celor trei sine ale
bars is given by the relation 15: batatorului si sinele contrabatatorului este data de relatia 15:
71
Fft = 3 (Ffp - Ffi ) ; i = 1...n (15)
where: unde:
Fft is friction total force acting on the material Fft este forta de frecare totala care actioneaza asupra
tranche materialului antrenat de o sina a batatorului, in N;
entrained by one cylinder bar, in N; Ffp – forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra transei
Ffp – frictional force acting on the tranche of de material, in zona placii articulata la contrabatator,
material, in the area of plate articulate at concave, in N;
in N; Ffi – forta de frecare care actioneaza sinele
Ffi – frictional force acting concave bars on the contrabatatorului asupra transei de material, in N;
tranche of material, in N; n – numarul de sine ale contrabatatorului.
n – number of concave bars. Pentru ca forta de greutate are o actiune mica asupra
Because the weight force has a little action on the materialului, iar fortele de laminare a materialului produse
material and the lamination forces products by concave de sinele contrabatatorului sunt aproximativ egale,
bars are approximately equal, resulting relation 16: rezulta relatia 16:
Fft = 3f (Flp - Fcf ) - n (Fcf - Fls )  (16)
where: unde:
Fft is friction total force acting on the material Fft este forta de frecare totala care actioneaza asupra
tranche entrained by one cylinder bar, in N; materialului antrenat de o sina a batatorului, in N;
Flp – lamination force of material tranche in the Flp – forta de laminare a transei de material in zona
area of plate articulate at concave, in N; placii articulata la contrabatator, in N;
Fcf – centrifugal force acting on the material trance Fcf – forta centrifuga care actioneaza asupra transei
entrained by cylinder bar, in N; de material antrenata de sina batatorului, in N;
n – number of concave bars; n – numarul de sine al contrabatatorului;
Flc – lamination force of material tranche by one Flc – forta de laminare realizata de o sina a
concave bar, in N. contrabatatorului, in N.
The moving of material in the threshing space under Deplasarea materialului in spatiul de treier sub actiunea
the action of friction forces caused by concave bars, is fortelor de frecare produse de sinele contrabatatorului,
conform relation 17: este conform relatiei 17:
Fft Tt2
Sf = cosαr (17)
2mb
where: unde:
Sf is moving of material in the threshing space Sf este deplasarea materialului in spatiul de treier sub
under the action of friction forces caused by the actiunea fortelor de frecare produse de placa articulata
plate articulate at concave and concave bars, in m; la contrabatator si sinele contrabatatorului, in m;
Tt – durtion of all the bangs, in seconds; Tt – durata tuturor loviturilor, in secunde;
mb – material trance mass entrained by cylinder mb – masa transei de material antrenata de sina
bar, in kg; batatorului, in kg;
αr – dimples inclination angle of cylinder bars. αr – unghiul de inclinare al riflurilor sinei batatorului.
The duration of all the bangs is given by relation 18[5]: Durata tuturor loviturilor este dată de relaŃia 18 [5]:
3 ( n +1) b1 (18)
Tt =
ωc R c
where: unde:
Tt is duration of all the bangs, in seconds; Tt este durata tuturor loviturilor, in secunde;
b1 – dimple area width of cylinder bar, in m; b1 – latimea riflata a şinei batatorului, in m;
-1 -1
ωc – angular speed of the cylinder, in rad ; ωc – viteza unghiulară a batatorului, in rad ;
Rc – cylinder radius, in m. Rc – raza batatorului, in m.
RESULTS REZULTATE
For calculation of parameters used in study, the Pentru calculul marimilor prezentate in studiu, se
following values characteristic to harvesting combine folosesc urmatoarele valori caracteristice combinei C110
C110 are being used [1,6]: [1,6]:
- cylinder radius: Rc=0.3 m; - raza batatorului: Rc=0.3 m;
- cylinder bars number: z=8; - numarul de sine ale batatorului: z=8;
- material trance mass entrained by cylinder bar: - masa materialului antrenata de sina batatorului:
mb=0.162 kg; mb=0.162 kg;
-1
- threshing cylinder speed nc=960 min ; - turatia batatorului la recoltarea graului: nc=950 rot/min;
- tranche of material thickness laminated in area of the - grosimea transei de material laminata in zona placii
articulate plate at concave: δ= 0.022 m; articulatala contrabatator: δ= 0.022 m;
- tranche material thickness entrained by cylinder bar in - grosimea transei de material antrenat de sina
area of plate articulate at concave, before lamination: batatorului in zona placii articulata, inaintea laminarii:
∆=0.080 m; ∆=0.080 m;
72
- cylinder bars length: Ls =1.08 m; - - lungimea sinelor batatorului: Ls =1.08 m;

- dimple area width of cylinder bar: b1=0.043 m; - latimea riflata a sinei batatorului: b1=0.043 m;
- friction coefficient of the material with the components - coeficientul de frecare al materialului cu componentele
of threshing system: f =0.4; aparatului de treier: f =0.4;
- angle made by the radius that defines the vertical - unghiul facut de raza care defineste pozitia sinei
position of the cylinder bar: ζp = 35º; batatorului cu verticala: ζp = 35º;
- tranche of material thickness laminated in area of the - grosimea transei de material in zona primei sine a
first concave bar: d1= 0.022 m; contrabatatorului: d1= 0.022 m;
- tranche of material thickness laminated in area of the - grosimea materialului laminat in zona sinei a 2-a a
second concave bar: d2=0.021 m; contrabatatorului: d2=0.021 m;
- concave bar width: b2=0.010 m; - grosimea sinei contrabatatorului: b2=0.010 m;
- angle made with the vertical by position of the cylinder - unghiul facut de pozitia sinei batatorului aflata in zona
bar, in area of the first concave bar: ζ1 = 30º; primei sine a contrabatatorului cu verticala: ζ1=30º;
- number of concave bars: n=12; - numarul de sine al contrabatatorului: n=12;
- dimples inclination angle of cylinder bars: αr = 30 º. - unghiul de inclinare al riflurilor sinei batatorului: αr=30º.
According to kinematic study presented, the results Conform studiului cinematic prezentat, rezultatele
are: sunt:
- centrifugal force acting on a material point of material - forta centrifuga care actionează asupra transei de
trance entrained by cylinder bar: Fcf=481 N; material antrenata de sina batatorului: Fcf=481 N;
- trance material weight entrains by cylinder bar: - greutatea transei de material antrenata de sina
Gb=1.59 N; batatorului: Gb=1.59 N;
- lamination force of material tranche in the area of - forta de laminare a transei de material in zona placii
plate articulate at concave: Flp = 6209.3 N; articulata: Flp=6209.3 N;
- - frictional force acting on the tranche of material, in - forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra transei de material,
the area of plate articulate at concave: Ffp= 2483.7 N; in zona placii articulata la contrabatator: Ffp=2483.7 N;
- lamination force of material tranche in the area of the - forta de laminare realizata de prima sina a
first concave bar: Fl1 =Fls=5.2 N; contrabatatorului: Fl1=Fls=5.2 N;
- frictional force acting on the material tranche, in the - forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra transei de
area of the first concave bar: Ff1=190.3 N; material, in zona primei sine a contrabatatorului: Ff1=190.3 N;
- friction total force acting on the material tranche - forta de frecare totala care actioneaza asupra
entrained by one cylinder bar: Fft = 18.7 N; materialului antrenat de o sina a batatorului: Fft=18.7 N;
- durtion of all the bangs: Tt = 0.056 s; - durata tuturor loviturilor: Tt=0.056 s;
- moving of material in the threshing space under the - deplasarea materialului in spatiul de treier sub
action of friction forces caused by the plate articulate actiunea fortelor de frecare cauzate de placa articulată
at concave and concave bars: Sf =0.157 m. la baruri concave şi concave Sf =0.157 m.
CONCLUSION CONCLUZII
The material tranche entrains by one cylinder bar is Transa de material antrenata de sina batatorului este
laminated in the area of the plate articulated at concave, laminata in zona placii articulata la contrabatator, forta de
friction force resulted entraining the tranche in threshing space. frecare rezultata antrenand transa in spatiul de treier.
The material tranche entrained will be laminated by Transa de material antrenata va fi laminata de sinele
concave bars, and friction forces resulted will pull the contrabatatorului, iar fortele de franare rezultante vor
material, causing the combing of the ears under the trage de material, producand-se pieptanarea spicelor sub
action of dimpled area of cylinder bar and liberation of the actiunea riflurilor sinei batatorului si eliberarea
seeds. semintelor.
Free seeds, located in threshing space, will be Semintele libere, aflate in spatiul de treier, se vor
separat through concave in times when cylinder bars separa prin contrabatator in momentele in care sinele
will be positioned in the concave bars intervals, when batatorului se vor afla pozitionate in intervalele dintre
the centrifugal force and weight force acting free sinele contrabatatorului, cand forta centrifuga si forta de
seeds. greutate actioneaza asupra semintelor libere.
Under the friction forces, the material moving Sub actiunea fortele de frecare, transa de material se
tranche vs. cylinder bars, displacement can be deplaseaza in raportat cu sinele batatorului, deplasarea
calculated. In the study conducted on the threshing putand fi calculata. In studiul realizat pe aparatul de treier
system of combine C110, tranche material moves al combinei C110, transa de material se deplaseaza in
relative to cylinder bars with distance Lf=157 mm, this raport cu sinele batatorului pe distanta de Sf=157 mm,
movement does not affect entrainment and transport aceasta deplasare neafectand antrenarea si transportul
next tranche. urmatoarei transe.
[1]. INMA Bucharest (1995) - Results of tests for [1]. INMA Bucuresti (1995) - Rezultatele incercarilor in
homologating the self-propelled cereal harvesting vederea omologarii a combinei autopropulsate de recoltat
combine C110, Testing Report; cereale C110, Referat de incercari;
[2]. Ivan Gh. (2009) - Researches regarding the influence [2]. Ivan Gh. (2009) – Cercetari privind influenta
of constructive and functional parameters of shaking- parametrilor constructivi si functionali ai sistemelor de
separating system on seed losses of cereal harvesting scuturare-separare asupra pierderilor de seminte la
combines, PhD thesis, University Transilvania from combinele de recoltat cereale, Teza de doctorat,
Brasov, Romania; Universitatea Transilvania Brasov, Romania;
[3]. Krasnicenko A.V. (1962-1964) - Handbook of [3]. Krasnicenko A.V. (1962-1964) - Manualul
Agricultural Machinery Builder – vol.2, Technical constructorului de masini agricole – vol. 2, Ed. Tehnica,
73
Publishing House Bucharest, Romania, pg. 403-430; Bucuresti, Romania, 1964, pg. 403-430;
[4]. Kutzbach H.D.(2003) – Grain Harvesting, Combine [4]. Kutzbach H.D. (2003) – Grain Harvesting, Combine
Harvesting, Hohenheim Germania, p.129-136; Harvesting, Hohenheim Germania, p.129-136;
[5]. Miu P.(2005) – Modeling the threshing process at [5]. Miu P. (2005) – Modelarea procesului de treier la
ceral harvesting combines, PhD thesis, Polytechnic combinele de recoltat cereale, Teză de doctorat, Institutul
Institute of Bucharest, p.23-25; Politehnic Bucureşti, p. 23-25;
[6]. S.C. Semanatoarea S.A. (2001) - Technical Book for [6]. S.C. Semanatoarea S.A. (2001) - Carte Tehnica
combine harvester C110. pentru combina C110.
74
RESEARCHES ON OBTAINING THE REAL STRESS SPECTRUM FOR THE RESISTANCE

STRUCTURE OF THE MAS 65 DEEP SOIL LOOSENING MACHINE
/
CERCETĂRI PRIVIND OBłINEREA SPECTRULUI REAL DE SOLICITARE AL STRUCTURII DE
REZISTENłĂ A MAŞINII PENTRU AFÂNAREA ADÂNCĂ A SOLULUI MAS 65
1) 2) 1) 1)
PhD. Stud. Eng. Matache M. , Prof. Ph. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Math Cardei P. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Persu C. ,
3)
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Savin L.
1) 2) 3)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; University POLITEHNICA Bucharest / Romania; University of Novi Sad / Serbia
Tel: 0727651064; E-mail: matache@inma.ro
Abstract: The real stress spectrum of a resistance Rezumat: Spectrul real de solicitare al unei structuri de
structure constitutes a powerful tool which can be rezistenŃă constituie un instrument puternic care poate fi
used for determination of life expectancy by calculus folosit în determinarea prin calcul a duratei de viaŃă a
or for synthetizing a step accelerated test program structurii sau poate fi folosit la sintetizarea unui program
for it. Shocks at which such a structure of an de încercare accelerată în trepte a acesteia. Solicitările la
agricultural machine is subjected are usually random, care este supusă o astfel de structură a unei maşini
such that the best way to obtain them is by direct agricole sunt de obicei aleatoare, astfel încât cea mai
measurement. Thus there will be determined the bună metodă de obŃinere a acestora este prin măsurare
characteristic usage situations of the machine and directă. Astfel se vor determina situaŃiile caracteristice de
then there will be quantified the stresses at which the utilizare ale maşinii şi apoi se vor cuantifica solicitările la
resistance structure is subjected in all these care structura de rezistenŃă este supusă în toate aceste
situations. Within the paper will be presented the situaŃii. În cadrul lucrării se va prezenta metodologia de
obtaining methodology for the real shock spectrum of obŃinere a spectrului real de solicitare al structurii de
the resistance structure of MAS 65 deep soil rezistenŃă a maşinii pentru afânarea adâncă a solului de
loosening machine and also the experimental results tip MAS 65 cât şi rezultatele experimentale obŃinute în
obtained after its application. urma aplicării acesteia.
Keywords: stress spectrum, resistence structure, Cuvinte cheie: spectru de solicitare, structura de rezistenta,
experimental determinations determinari experimentale
The real stress spectrum of a resistence structure Spectrul real de solicitare al unei structuri de rezistenŃă
represents a very important component which contributes reprezintă o componentă foarte importantă care contribuie
to determining the active life span of structure in la determinarea duratei active de viaŃă a structurii în
exploitation conditions, both by calculation and condiŃii de exploatare, atât prin calcul cât şi prin încercări
accelerated regime tests. One of methods of establishing în regim accelerat. Una din modalităŃile de stabilire a
the amount of stresses at which the machine will be cuantumului sarcinilor la care va fi supusă maşina în
subject is to set the specific operations to perform by it exploatare este acela de a stabilii operaŃiile la care aceasta
and relevant periods of time. In [3] the authors have va fi folosită şi perioadele de timp aferente acestora. În [3]
completed some questionnaires by agricultural autorii au recurs la completarea unor chestionare de către
equipment users, so that they establish the machine utilizatorii echipamentelor agricole astfel încât să
mission profile. Then, the stresses at which the machine stabilească din acestea profilul misiunii respectivei maşini.
was subject were determined, including its resistence Apoi a urmat determinarea experimentală a sarcinilor la care
structure in different exploitation conditions. Based on este supusă maşina agricolă, deci implicit structura acesteia
these experimental determinations, after data processing, de rezistenŃă în diferitele situaŃii de exploatare. Pe baza
a simulated and accelerated regime testing programme is acestor determinări experimentale, în urma prelucrării
established at which the machine frame will be subject in datelor obŃinute se întocmeşte un program de testare în
laboratory conditions, always respecting the modern regim simulat şi accelerat la care cadrul maşinii va fi supus
principles of accelerated tests. Another method of în condiŃii de laborator, respectând principiile moderne ale
establishing the shocks spectrum at which the machine testelor accelerate. Altă metodă de stabilire a spectrului de
resistence structure could be subjected is that of solicitare la care structura de rezistenŃă a maşinii ar putea fi supusă
measuring directly in the field and monitoring the stress este aceea de măsurare directă în teren şi de urmărire a
evolution in time [1, 4]. Then, the experimental data are evoluŃiei în timp a solicitărilor [1, 4]. Apoi se recurge la
analyzed and processed so that to obtain the real stress analizarea şi prelucrarea datelor experimentale astfel încât
spectrum of resistence structure. să se obŃină spectrul real de solicitare al structurii de rezistenŃă.
Analysis of experimental data obtained can be made in Analiza datelor experimentale obŃinute se poate face
frequency or time domain depending on the process în frecvenŃa sau în domeniul timp în funcŃie de dinamica
dynamics [5]. This paper presents the methodology of procesului [5]. În această lucrare se prezintă metodologia
obtaining the real stresses spectrum of resistance de obŃinere a spectrului real de solicitare al structurii de
75
structure of soil deep loosening machine of MAS 65 type, rezistenŃă a maşinii de afânare adâncă a solului de tip
choosing the method of data processing in time domain, MAS 65, alegându-se metoda de prelucrare a datelor în
having in view the shocks at which it was subjected had a domeniul timp, având în vedere că solicitările la care
rather static character. aceasta a fost supusă au avut un caracter cvasi-static.

Machine for soil deep loosening MAS 65 is designed Maşina pentru afânarea adâncă a solului tip MAS 65 este
to be used in aggregate with 65-80 HP tractors. It has a destinată utilizării în agregat cu tractoare de 65-80 CP. Aceasta
maximum working depth of 65 cm and is aimed to are o adâncime maximă de lucru de 65 cm şi este destinată
perform deep soil decompaction. realizării lucrărilor de decompactare adâncă a solului.
For determining the profile of MAS 65 mission, the Pentru determinarea profilului misiunii maşinii de afânare
operations at which it was subjected and their share adâncă a solului de tip MAS 65 s-au identificat operaŃiile
during the whole exploitation period, were identified. la care aceasta este supusă în exploatare şi ponderea
Thus, two utilization regimes of machine per working acestora în durata totală de exploatare. Astfel s-au identificat
season were identified: două regimuri de utilizare ale maşinii per sezon de lucru:
- transport regime; - regim de transport;
- regime during work with a 50% share of type of soil - regim în lucru cu o pondere de 50% a tipului de teren
on which it acts: laying fallow and tilled soil. asupra căruia se acŃionează: înŃelenit şi prelucrat.
Taking into account that there were estimated a Având în vedere că s-a estimat o suprafaŃă de 150 ha
surface of 150 ha worked/season, with an average lucrate/sezon, cu o viteză medie de lucru de 2 km/h şi
speed of 2 km/h and average working width of 1.5 m, in lăŃimea medie de lucru de 1.5 m, în exploatare perioada
exploitation, the working period of 150 ha will be about de lucru a 150 ha va fi în jur de 499.5 ore, adică 62.43
499.5 hours, namely 62.43 uninterrupted working shifts of schimburi de lucru neîntrerupt de câte 8 ore. De
8 hours each. At the same time, the maximum working asemenea se consideră adâncimea de lucru maximă,
depth, which generates the greatest stress on machine aceasta generand cele mai mari solicitări asupra
resistance structure, is also considered. Average structurii de rezistenŃă a maşinii. DistanŃa medie parcursă
distance run in transport was established at 10 în transport a fost stabilită la 10 km/schimb de lucru,
km/working shift, namely 624.3 km/season, with an adică 624.3 km/sezon, cu o viteză medie de transport de
average transport speed of 20 km/h. 20 km/h.
Fig. 1 - MAS-65 machine in aggregate with tractor New Holland TD80
14 interest points situated on machine resistance Au fost identificate 14 puncte de interes situate pe structura
structure were identified, on which strain gauges were de rezistenŃă a maşinii MAS-65 în care au fost amplasate
placed in order to measure the specific strains registered mărci tensometrice pentru măsurarea deformaŃiilor specifice
during the experimental determinations, noted M1÷M14. înregistrate în timpul determinărilor experimentale, notate
A part of measuring points were empirically identified, M1÷M14. O parte din punctele de măsură au fost identificate
being situated near the welded joints between the empiric, acestea fiind situate lângă zonele de îmbinare sudată
components of resistance structure. In order to identify între componentele structurii de rezistenŃă. În scopul
the other points, a structural model of machine made of identificării celorlalte puncte s-a folosit un model structural al
unidimensional elements, was used. Because of that the maşinii realizat cu elemente unidimensionale. Din această
measuring direction of strain gauges was chosen along cauză sensul de măsurare al mărcilor tensometrice a fost ales
the components symmetry axis and there where it was în lungul axei de simetrie a componentelor şi acolo unde a
possible, an additional gauge perpendicular on this existat posibilitatea a fost instalată o marcă suplimentară
76
direction, was installed. perpendiculară pe această direcŃie.
Fig. 2 - Locations of strain gauges M5, M6, M8, M9, M10, M11
A number of 14 strain gauges LY11-6/350, Au fost aplicate un număr de 14 mărci tensometrice

manufactured by Hottinger company, with 6mm base and LY11-6/350, produse de firma Hottinger având baza de
350 Ohmi resistance, factor k=2.03 ±1.0%, cross 6mm şi rezistenŃa de 350 Ohmi, factorul k=2.03 ±1.0%,
sensibility -0.1%, were applied. The amplifying modulus sensibilitate transversală -0.1%. Modulul de amplificare
used for measuring the specific strains was of QuantumX folosit pentru măsurarea deformaŃiilor specifice a fost de
1615 type with 16 amplifying channels. Measuring results tipul QuantumX 1615, cu 16 canale de amplificare.
were registered in files of ASCII type, in columns, Rezultatele măsurătorilor au fost înregistrate în fişiere de
representing the information referring to time, tip ASCII, reprezentând pe coloane informaŃiile referitoare la
respectively the specific strain value registered for each timp, respectiv valoarea deformaŃiei specifice înregistrate
point. We considered as working domain the elastic pentru fiecare punct în parte. Am considerat că domeniul
domain [2], so that the mechanic strengths were obtained de lucru este cel elastic [2], astfel încât tensiunile
by formula: mecanice, au fost obŃinute folosind formula:
, [mm] (1)
Where σ represents the mechanical strengths in MPa, Unde σ reprezintă tensiunea mecanică în MPa, E
E represents Young modulus and ᴼ represents the reprezintă modulul lui Young şi ᴼ reprezintă deformaŃia
specific strain in µm/m. E was considered as having the specifică în µm/m. E a fost considerat ca având valoarea
5 5
value of 2.1*10 MPa. de 2.1*10 MPa.
The shocks in critical points, previously presented, S-a procedat la măsurarea solicitărilor în punctele critice
were measured in each of operating regimes: prezentate anterior în fiecare din regimurile de funcŃionare
transport, work in untilled field. There was taken into amintite: transport, lucru în teren prelucrat, lucru în teren
account the share of each working regime during the neprelucrat. S-a Ńinut cont de ponderea fiecărui regim de
whole operating period and the signals obtained were lucru în perioda totală de funcŃionare şi s-au concatenat
cocatenated in order to obtain the total stess semnalele obŃinute în consecinŃă astfel încât să se obŃină
spectrum/season for the resistance structure of the spectrul total de solicitare/sezon pentru structura de rezistenŃă a
machine MAS 65. Signal obtained represents the raw maşinii MAS 65. Semnalul astfel obŃinut reprezintă informaŃia
information on structure stress state. For enabling its brută despre starea de solicitare a structurii. Pentru a putea
use in synthesizing a laboratory accelerated test it fi folosit în sintetizarea unui test accelerat în laborator acesta
should be processed for simplifying and reducing the trebuie prelucrat în consecinŃă în scopul simplificării şi
testing period by removing the intermediary shock condensării perioadei de testare prin eliminarea ciclurilor de
cycles which are not dangerous in terms of material solicitare intermediare nepericuloase din punct de vedere
fatigue, and as well as, by statistic methods. al oboselii materialului cât şi prin metode statistice.
We must underline the fact that the obtained stress Trebuie precizat faptul că spectrul de solicitare obŃinut
spectrum represents the abstracting of real stress reprezintă o abstractizare a spectrului real de solicitare
spectrum which could be obtained by a continous care s-ar obŃine printr-o monitorizare continuă a punctelor
monitoring of stressing points during a working season, de solicitare pe durata unui sezon de lucru, care nu ar fi
which would not be advantageous in economical and avantajoasă pentru inginer din punct de vedere economic
monitoring time terms. Therefore, only little operating şi al duratei foarte mari de urmărire. Din acest motiv se
periods in quasi-stationary working regime (which we vor urmări doar perioade mici de funcŃionare în regim de
consider relevant for the whole operating period) will be lucru cvasi-staŃionar dar pe care-l consideram
monitored. These working sequences will be repeated „n” caracteristic întregii perioade de funcŃionare. Aceste
times before reaching the working season period secvenŃe de lucru se vor repeta de „n” ori până la
estimated. atingerea duratei de lucru estimate pe sezon.
77
RESULTS REZULTATE
A synthesis of extreme values obtained during the În figura 3 se prezintă o sinteză a valorilor extreme
determinations for each tested working regime is shown obŃinute în timpul determinărilor pentru fiecare regim de
in figure 3. It can be noticed that there are certain points lucru testat. Se observă că există puncte puŃin solicitate
less loaded, which amplitude is under 10% out of ale structurii, a căror amplitudine reprezintă sub 10% din
maximum amplitudes registered. These points are not at amplitudinile maxime înregistrate. Aceste puncte nu
all liable to loosen during work, as they will not be prezintă pericol de cedare în lucru astfel încât acestea nu
monitored within laboratory tests. vor fi monitorizate în cadrul încercărilor de laborator.
Fig. 3 - Distribution of maximum values of strength in the 14 strain gauges according to structure working method
The evolution in time of mechanical strengths De real interes pentru noi a fost evoluŃia în timp a
registered by M5, mounted on working part transmitting tensiunilor mecanice înregistrate de marca M5, montată pe
the mechanical stress on machine resistance structure organul de lucru, organ prin care se transmit solicitările
has been very relevant. In figure 4, diagram 1 this mecanice asupra structurii de rezistenŃă a maşinii. În figura
evolution for working regime in land lie falow (practically 4, diagrama 1 se prezintă această evoluŃie pentru regimul
the land which requests the biggest structure values), is de lucru în teren înŃelenit (practic terenul care solicită
shown, and in figure 4, diagram 2, is presented the structura cu valorile cele mai mari), iar în figura 4, diagrama
evolution in untilled land working regime.. A part of signal 2 se prezintă evoluŃia acesteia pentru regimul de lucru în
of a fixed duration of 55 seconds, appropriate for the teren prelucrat. S-a identificat o porŃiune de semnal
working regime chosen, has been identified. These reprezentativă pentru regimul de lucru ales, având o durată
values were concatenated, thus obtaining a real stress fixă de 55 secunde. Aceste valori au fost concatenate
spectrum for 110 seconds time (fig. 4, diagram 3). This obŃinându-se spectrul real de solicitare, pentru o perioda de
signal will be repeated for approximately 16347 times, timp de 110 secunde (fig. 4, diagrama 3). Acest semnal se
obtaining a real stress spectrum/season for the working va repeta de aproximativ 16347 ori, obŃinându-se spectrul
regime in field. real de solicitare/sezon pentru regimul de lucru în teren.
Fig. 4 - Time evolution of mechanical strength registered by M5 in tilled and untilled field and the signal obtained by concatenation
78
The signal obtained by 5 times repeating the În figura 5 se prezintă semnalul obŃinut prin repetarea
sequence of concatenated signal M5, representing a secvenŃei semnalului concatenat M5 de 5 ori,
period of 550 seconds of shocks, is shown in figure 5.. reprezentând o perioadă de 550 de secunde de
solicitare.
Fig. 5. - Stress spectrum obtained by 5 times repeating the M5 signal
As for the results obtained during the transport, also În ceea ce priveşte rezultatele obŃinute în transport,
analyzing the statistic data from figure 3 we chose to analizând şi datele statistice din figura 3 am ales să
present the time evolution of strength registered by M2 prezentăm evoluŃia în timp a tensiunilor înregistrate de
and M3 strain gauges, mounted along the machine mărcile M2 şi M3, montate în lungul lonjeroanelor
longerons, next to the three-point attachment to tractor. maşinii, aproape de prinderea în trei puncte la tractor.
Taking into account that the transport regime is defined Având în vedere faptul că regimul de transport este unic
only by the hypotheses presented in the chapter Material definit prin ipotezele prezentate în capitolul de Material şi
and method, we used the signal as such, without metoda, am folosit semnalul ca atare, fără să-l mai
concatenated it to other signals from other working concatenăm cu alte semnale din alte regimuri de lucru.
regimes. Data obtained may be used for synthetizing the Datele obŃinute pot fi folosite pentru sintetizarea
testing signals in laboratory, in transport conditions of semnalelor de testare în regim accelerat în laborator în
resistance structure of MAS 65 machine. condiŃii de transport a structurii de rezistenŃă a maşinii
MAS 65.
Fig. 6 - Stress spectrum obtained by repeating for 5 times M2 and M3 signals
Following the evolution of extreme values of transport Urmărind evoluŃia valorilor extreme ale tensiunilor
strengths we have discovered that this working regime înregistrate în transport am descoperit că şi acest regim
too can affect the structure integrity, initially being de lucru poate avea efecte asupra integrităŃii structurii,
tempted to neglect these aspects. For this reason, we iniŃial fiind tentaŃi să neglijăm aceste aspecte. Din acest
have established that the stress spectrum obtained motiv am stabilit ca spectrul de solicitare obŃinut să fie
should comprise two components coming from two constituit din două componente care să provină din cele
different operating regimes, namely from transport and două regimuri diferite de funcŃionare, mai exact din
exploitation. Taking into account that the excitation transport şi din exploatare. Având în vedere că sursa
source on structure in the two operating regimes is totally excitaŃiilor asupra structurii în cele două regimuri de
different (more exactly, in transport shocks are funcŃionare înregistrate este diferită (mai exact în
determined by road profile, working speed and transport solicitările se datorează profilului drumului,
79
equipment mass by inertia force, while in operating vitezei de lucru şi masei utilajului prin forŃa de inerŃie, pe
conditions they are mainly determined by interaction când în exploatare acestea se datorează în principal
between the working part, soil and machine resistance interacŃiunii dintre organul de lucru, sol şi structura de
structure) we decided that the eventual laboratory tests rezistenŃă a maşinii) am stabilit că eventualele încercări
should be performed separately. în laborator să se facă separat.
Signal representing the real stress spectrum in Semnalul care reprezintă spectrul real de solicitare în timp
time per season is very difficult to be graphically per sezon este deosebit de greu de afişat grafic, având în
displayed, viewing its approximately 500 hours span, vedere că acesta se întinde pe aproximativ 500 de ore, din
therefore it is shown as 550 seconds sequences. acest motiv alegându-se varianta de prezentare a acestuia pe
Though, the real stress spectrum obtained is raw and secvenŃe de 550 secunde. Totuşi, spectrul real de solicitare
should be processed so that it could be used as astfel obŃinut este brut şi trebuie prelucrat în consecinŃă astfel
reference signal in laboratory. încât să poată fi folosit ca semnal de referinŃă în laborator.
The engineer is allowed to choose the period of time Rămâne alegerea inginerului perioda de timp pe care
he considers representative for characterizing the acesta o consideră reprezentativă pentru caracterizarea
working regime chosen.He should make a compromise regimului de lucru ales. Acesta va trebui să facă un
between the signal amplitude and the processing compromis între mărimea semnalului şi capacitatea
hardware, but at the same time he must be sure that the hardware de prelucrare, dar în acelaşi timp trebuie să se
monitored operating regime is appropriate to running asigure că regimul de funcŃionare monitorizat este
regime of respective structure. caracteristic regimului de exploatare al structurii respective.
[1]. Shafiullah A.K.M., Wu C.Q. (2013) – Generation and [1]. Shafiullah A.K.M., Wu C.Q. (2013) – Generarea şi
validation of loading profiles for highly accelerated validarea profilelor de încărcare pentru teste de durabilitate
durability tests of ground vehicle components, foarte accelerate ale componentelor vehiculelor de
Engineering Failure Analysis, volum 33, Pages 1–16; teren, Analiza Ingineriei Defectelor, vol. 33, Pag. 1–16;
[2] Buzdugan Gh. (1980) – Materials resistance, [2] Buzdugan Gh. (1980) – RezistenŃa materialelor,
Technical Publishing House, Bucharest; Editura Tehnica, Bucureşti;
[3]. Mattetti M., Molari G., Sedoni E. (2012) – [3]. Mattetti M., Molari G., Sedoni E. (2012) –
Methodology for the realisation of accelerated structural Metodologie pentru realizarea testeko structurale
tests on tractors, Biosystems Engineering, volume 113, accelerate ale tractoarelor, Ingineria Biosistemelor, volum
November, Pages 266–271; 113, Noiembrie, Pagini 266–271;
[4]. Ming Li (2005) – An iteration method to adjusting [4]. Ming Li (2005) – O metodă de iteraŃie pentru
random loading for a laboratory fatigue test, International ajustarea încărcării aleatorii pentru un test de oboseală
Journal of Fatigue; de laborator, Jurnalul OnternaŃional de Oboseală;
[5]. VlăduŃ V., Biriş S., Bungescu S., Păunescu D., Dima [5]. VlăduŃ V., Biriş S., Bungescu S., Păunescu D., Dima
I. (2006) – Computer-aided test of the disk harrow gd 3.2 I. (2006) – Testarea asistată de calculator a unei grape
in simulated and accelerated regime on the hydropulse cu discuri GD 3,2 în regim simulat şi accelerat pe
installation and the stress states analysis, Annals Of The instalaŃia hidropuls şi analiza tensiunilor, Analele
Faculty Of Engineering Hunedoara. FacultăŃii de Inginerie din Hunedoara.
80
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH OF THE OBTAINED PRODUCT QUALITY TO THE

MECHANICAL HARVESTING OF CHAMOMILE INFLORESCENCES
/
CERCETAREA EXPERIMENTALĂ A CALITĂłII PRODUSULUI OBłINUT LA RECOLTAREA
MECANIZATĂ A INFLORESCENłELOR DE MUŞEłEL
1) 1) 2)
Eng. Muscalu A. , Biol. Pruteanu A. Prof. Phd. Eng. David L.
1) 2)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; P.U. Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 021/269.32.50; Fax: 021/269.32.73; E-mail: amuscalis@yahoo.com
Abstract:. Rezumat:
In pharmaceutical industries, cosmetics and perfumery, In industriile de produse farmaceutice, cosmetice şi
food industry, etc. increasingly high demands is parfumerie, alimentare, etc. se manifesta cerinte tot mai
manifested of vegetal raw material, constituted by ridicate de materie prima vegetala, constituita din plante
aromatic and medicinal plants. The particular interest to medicinale si aromatice. Interesul deosebit pentru
them is due to the presence of bioactive compounds. Their acestea se datoreaza prezentei compusilor bioactivi.
therapeutic action is determined by the quality of the Actiunea lor terapeutica este determinata de calitatea
harvested vegetal material. Large quantities of raw materialului vegetal recoltat. Cantitati mari de materie
material can be obtained by expanding the cultivated prima se pot obtine prin extinderea suprafeŃelor
areas with these species, by modernizing the cultivation cultivate cu aceste specii, prin modernizarea
technologies or by the adaptation them to the current tehnologiilor de cultură sau prin adaptarea acestora la
requirements. The mechanized harvesting can be applied cerinŃele actuale. Recoltarea mecanizata se poate
only to the cultivated species, representing one of the aplica doar speciilor cultivate, reprezentand unul din
important factors in obtaining of profitable productions, factorii importanti ai obtinerii unor productii profitabile,
which sums the high productivity and the improved quality ce insumeaza productivitatea ridicata si calitatea sporita
of the collected product . a produsului colectat.
This paper is a continuation of experimental research Lucrarea este o continuare a cercetarilor
carried out within INMA, related to mechanized harvesting experimentale realizate in cadrul INMA, legate de
of chamomile inflorescences with different typo recoltarea mecanizata a inflorescentelor de musetel cu
dimensions of active organs. Thus it shows the synthesis diferite tipodimensiuni de organe active. Astfel ea
of working qualitative indicators expressing the quality of prezinta sinteza unor indici calitativi de lucru ce exprima
the obtained product and of the exploitation indicators. calitatea produsului obtinut si a indicilor de exploatare.
The obtained results allow a complete evaluation of the Rezultatele obtinute permit o evaluare completa a
work performances achieved by the harvesting equipment performantelor de lucru realizate de echipamentul de
of chamomile inflorescences, fitted with each of the recoltat inflorescente de musetel, echipat cu fiecare din
working bodies which represented the object of the tests. organele de lucru, care au reprezentat obiectul
Also, the results are an important prerequisite for the incercarilor. De asemenea rezultatele constituie o
development of performant specialized equipment, importanta premisa pentru realizarea unor utilaje
appropriate to the local conditions and of the sustainable specializate performante, adecvate conditiilor autohtone
development. si dezvoltarii durabile.
Keywords: chamomile inflorescences, mechanized Cuvinte cheie: indici calitativi, inflorescente musetel,
harvesting, qualitative indices. recoltare mecanizata.
The phytotherapeutical efficiency of the medicinal and Eficienta fitoterapeutica a plantelor medicinale si
aromatic plants is influenced primarily by the quality of aromatice este influentata primordial de calitatea
plant material. This is obtained by a process of harvest, materialului vegetal. Acesta este obtinut in urma unui
differentially performed depending on the species, on the proces de recoltare, realizat diferentiat, in functie de
useful body of the plant and on the season. It is important specie, de organul util al plantei si de anotimp. Este
that medicinal and aromatic plants harvesting to be important ca recoltarea plantelor medicinale si
performed at the optimal harvest time, when the content of aromatice sa fie efectuata la momentul optim de
active ingredients is maximal, using a collection method recoltare, cand continutul de principii active este maxim,
(manually or mechanically) by which to keep all its utilizand o metoda de colectare (manuala sau
properties. mecanica) prin care sa-si pastreze toate propritatile.
Harvesting the flowers of the aromatic and medicinal Recoltarea florilor plantelor medicinale şi aromatice
plants is a characteristic work, but also difficult, from the este o lucrare caracteristica, dar si dificilă din cadrul
culture technologies for these species. tehnologiilor de cultură pentru aceste specii.
The chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) is one of the Musetelul (Matricaria chamomilla L.) reprezinta una
most known and used medicinal plants, used since din cele mai cunoscute si utilizate plante medicinale,
ancient times. It is grown for its flowers which contain 0.5- folosit inca din antichitate. Este cultivat pentru florile
1.5% volatile oil rich in azulene, flavonoids and sale care contin 0,5-1,5% ulei volatil, bogat in azulene,
coumarins.[5] It is considered a powerful antiseptic, flavonoide si cumarine.[5] Este considerat un puternic
antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and anesthetic. [2] It is the antiseptic, bactericid, antiinflamator si anestezic. [2]
plant with the largest cosmetic applications due to its Este planta cu cele mai largi aplicatii in cosmetica,
properties cicatrizing, emollient etc. datorita proprietatilor cicatrizante, emoliente etc.
This paper is a continuation of a previous work in which it Aceasta lucrare este continuarea unei lucrari anterioare
81
was analyzed the harvesting degree of an equipment for in care a fost analizat gradul de recoltare al unui
chamomile inflorescences harvesting, for different types echipament de recoltat inflorescente de musetel, pentru
and sizes of working organs.[3] Since the product obtained diferite tipo-dimensiuni de organe de lucru.[3] Deoarece
at harvest also contains a number of non-floral structures produsul obtinut la recoltare contine si o serie de
(stalks, leaves, long peduncles etc.), the material purity structuri neflorale (tulpini, frunze, pedunculi lungi etc.),
constitutes an advantage and a goal to achieve. puritatea materialului constituie un avantaj si un obiectiv
de realizat.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
To highlight the quality of harvested material has MATERIALE ŞI METODA
been utilized the chamomile harvesting machine in the Pentru evidentierea calitatii materialului recoltat a
same conditions in which the experiments were performed fost utilizata masina de recoltat musetel in aceleasi
for determining the harvest degree. Table 1 presents the conditii in care s-au efectuat experimentarile pentru
characteristics of the chamomile harvesting machine, and determinarea gradului de recoltare. In tabelul 1 sunt
in Table 2 are presented the characteristics of the prezentate caracteristicile masinii de recoltat musetel,
chamomile culture in which the experiments were iar in tabelul 2 sunt prezentate caracteristicile culturii de
performed. musetel in care au fost efectuate experimentarile.
Table 1
Characteristics of chamomile harvesting machine [3]
Machine type towed
Tractor power [HP] 45
Working width [mm] 2000
-1
Brush gyro frequency [min ] 327÷400
-1
Linear velocity of conveyor type picker [ms ] 0.5; 0.76;1.08
-1
Working speed [kmh ] 0.5÷1.22
-1
Transport speed [kmh ] 15
Working personnel [number of persons] 1
Table 2
Characteristics of chamomile culture [3]
Variety Margaritar
2
Average number of chamomile[pcs/m ] 326
2
Average number of weeds [pcs/m ] 12
2
Average number of mature flowers [pcs/m ] 1986
2
Average number of buds which have not blossomed [pcs/m ] 46
Average production of fresh inflorescences [kg/ha] 3204
Average mass of 100 inflorescences [g] 13.2
Diametrul mediu al inflorescentelor [mm] 19.4
Minimum and maximum height between which the flowers grow [mm] 298...583
The chamomile harvester is towed and works offset Masina de recoltat musetel este tractate si lucreza
from the tractor, being provided with mechanical dezaxat fata de tractor, fiind prevazuta cu transmisie
transmission. The gatherer is tape type with scrapers mecanica. Culegatorul este de tip banda cu piepteni
combs. During the working process, due to the forward razuitori, ce au rolul de a smulge florile. In timpul procesului
movement of the machine as well as of the gatherer band de lucru, datorita miscarii de inaintare a masinii precum si a
movement (from bottom to top), any point on the comb miscarii benzii culegatorului, (de jos in sus) orice punct de
describes a trajectory in the form of an elongated cycloid. pe pieptene descrie o traiectorie de forma unei cicloide
[4] Banda cu piepteni detaseaza florile de tulpini in fata alungite. [4] Banda cu piepteni detaseaza florile de tulpini in
masinii, tranportandu-le apoi, spre buncar.[3] fata masinii, tranportandu-le apoi, spre buncar.[3]
The scrapers combs acts only on the floral floors which Pieptenii razuitori actioneaza doar asupra etajelor
are harvested, corresponding to the working height. florale ce se recolteaza, corespunzator inaltimii de lucru.
There were executed and tested several types of S-au executat si incercat mai multe tipuri de piepteni
scrapers combs with straight teeth (Fig. 1 a) and curved razuitori cu dinti drepti (Fig. 1 a) si dinti curbati (Fig. 1 b).
teeth (Fig. 1 b). In both types of teeth the gap between La ambele tipuri de dinti golul dintre dinti are forma unui
teeth is shaped like a rounded "U" [1]. The radius of the "U" rotunjit [1]. Raza golului este egala cu jumatate din
gap is equal to half the distance between teeth. For distanta dintre dinti. Pentru identificare s-au folosit
identification have been used the following symbols: urmatoarele simboluri:
a) combs with straight teeth - M1; N1;O1; S1;T1;V1. a) piepteni cu dinti drepti- M1; N1;O1; S1;T1;V1.
b) combs with curved teeth - M2; N2;O2; S2;T2;V2. b) piepteni cu dinti curbati- M2; N2;O2; S2;T2;V2.
Notations used in Figure 2 have the following meaning: Notatiile utilizate in figura 2 au urmatoarea semnificatie: p
p - tooth pitch; L - length of the teeth; d - distance between - pasul dintilor; L - lungimea dintilor; d - distanta între doi
two consecutive teeth; b - width of the teeth; R - the radius of dinti consecutivi; b - latimea dintilor; R - raza de curbura a
curvature of the combs with curved teeth, m = 2 . [3] pieptenilor cu dinti curbati, m = 2
R R . [3]
2 2
82
Fig. 1– Combs shape: a) with straight teeth; b) with curved teeth
The dimensional characteristics of combs have the Caracteristicile dimensionale ale pieptenilor sunt
following values [3]: [3]:
1) d=6 mm 1) d=6 mm
M1 and M2: p=12 mm; L=60 mm; b=6 mm; RM2=60 mm; M1 si M2: p=12 mm; L=60 mm; b=6 mm; RM2=60 mm;
N1 and N2: p=14 mm; L=80 mm; b=8 mm; RN2=80 mm; N1 si N2: p=14 mm; L=80 mm; b=8 mm; RN2=80 mm;
O1 and O2:p=16 mm; L=100 mm; b=10 mm; RN2=100 mm; O1 si O2: p=16 mm; L=100 mm; b=10 mm; RN2=100 mm;
2) d=4 mm 2) d=4 mm
S1 and S2: p=10 mm; L=60 mm; b=6 mm; RS2=60 mm; S1 si S2: p=10 mm; L=60 mm; b=6 mm; RS2=60 mm;
T1 and T2: p=12 mm; L=80 mm; b=8 mm; RT2=80 mm; T1 si T2: p=12 mm; L=80 mm; b=8 mm; RT2=80 mm;
V1 and V2: p=14 mm; L=100 mm; b=10 mm; RV2=100 mm; V1 si V2: p=14 mm; L=100 mm; b=10 mm; RV2=100 mm;
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS REZULTATE SI CONCLUZII

The value of the product obtained at the harvesting of Valoarea produsului obtinut la recoltarea inflorescentelor
chamomile inflorescences was expressed by the following de musetel a fost exprimata prin urmatorii indici calitativi
working qualitative indexes: de lucru:
- Content of inflorescences "extra"; - Continutul de inflorescente ,,extra’’;
- The degree of injury of flowers; - Gradul de vatamare al florilor;
- Harvested product purity; - Puritatea produsului recoltat;
- Losses of inflorescences on the ground. - Pierderile de inflorescente pe sol.
The content of inflorescences "extra" is defined as the Continutul de inflorescente ,,extra’’ se defineste ca
percentage ratio between the number or the amount of fiind raportul procentual dintre numarul sau cantitatea de
flowers with stalk less than or equal to 10 mm and the flori cu pedunculul mai mic sau egal cu 10mm si numarul
total number, respectively the total quantity of flowers of total, respectiv cantitatea totala de flori a probei de
the sample to be analyzed. analizat.
a) b)
Fig. 2 - The content of inflorescences "extra" at a working speed of v = 0.5 kmh-1 and a working height of: a) H=0.300m si b) H=0.450m
a) b)
Fig. 3 - The content of inflorescences "extra" at a working speed of v =0.76 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b)
H=0.450m
83
In Figures 2, 3 and 4 was analyzed content of In figurile 2, 3 si 4 s-a analizat continutul de inflorescente
inflorescences “extra” from the harvested material with the „extra“ din materialul recoltat cu variantele de piepteni
variants of combs previously defined, for different linear definite anterior, pentru diferite viteze liniare ale benzii
-1 -1
speeds of the gatherer band (v=0.5; 0.76; 1.04 ms at culegatorului (v=0,5; 0,76; 1,08 ms ) la inaltimi de lucru
different working heights H=0.300m si H=0.450m, for diferite H=0,300m si H=0,450m, pentru diferite viteze de
different working speeds of the equipment. lucru ale echipamentului.
a) b)
Fig. 4 - The content of inflorescences "extra" at a working speed of v=1.04 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
The degree of injury of the flowers is expressed as being Gradul de vatamare al florilor se exprima ca fiind
the ratio between the number or the amount of flowers raportul procentual dintre numarul sau cantitatea de flori
injured in the harvesting process and the total number, vatamate in procesul de recoltare si numarul total,
respectively the total amount of flowers of the sample taken respectiv cantitatea totala de flori a probei prelevata
for analysis. The injured flowers are those flowers which pentru analiza. Florile vatamate sunt acele flori care au
were crushed or sectioned in the harvesting process. fost strivite sau sectionate in procesul de recoltare.
In Figures 5,6 and 7 was analyzed the degree of injury of In figurile 5,6 si 7 s-a analizat gradul de vatamare al florilor
the flowers from the harvested material, in the same din materialul recoltat, in aceleasi conditii ca pentru
conditions as for the content of inflorescences "extra". continutul de inflorescente ,,extra’’.
a) b)
Fig. 5 - The degree of injury of the flowers at a working speed of v=0.5 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
a) b)
Fig. - 6 The degree of injury of the flowers at a working speed of v=0.76 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
84
a) b)
Fig. - 7 The degree of injury of the flowers at a working speed of v=1.04kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
For the determination of the purity of the product obtained at Pentru determinarea puritatii produsului obtinut la
harvest, the samples of material were separated into fractions: recoltare, probele de material au fost separate in fractiuni:
- Flowers without peduncle or with the peduncle ≤ 30mm; -Flori fara peduncul sau cu pedunculul ≤ 30mm;
- Flowers with the peduncle >30mm, herba, weeds, impurities. -Flori cu pedunculul >30mm, herba, buruieni, impuritati.
a) b)
Fig. 8 - The purity of the harvested material at a working speed of v=0.5 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
a) b)
Fig. 9 - The purity of the harvested material at a working speed of v=0.76 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
a) b)
Fig. 10 - The purity of the harvested material at a working speed of v=1.04kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
85
The purity of the product obtained at harvesting was Puritatea produsului obtinut la recoltare s-a exprimat
expressed as a percentage being the participation of the procentual, fiind participatia fractiunii florilor fara peduncul
faction of flowers without peduncle or with the peduncle ≤ sau cu pedunculul ≤ 30mm, la proba de material din
30mm at the analyzed sample of material from bunker. buncar analizata.
In Figures 8, 9 and 10 was analyzed the purity of the In figurile 8, 9 si 10 s-a analizat puritatea produsului
product harvested in the same conditions as for the other recoltat in aceleasi conditii ca pentru ceilalti doi indici
two qualitative working indices previously analyzed. calitativi de lucru analizati anterior.
The loss of inflorescences on the soil represents the Pierderile de inflorescente pe sol reprezinta florile
detached flowers of the stalks in the harvesting process, that detasate de tulpini in procesul de recoltare, care nu sunt
are not retained by the gatherer. Due to a number of factors retinute de culegator. Datorita unui complex de factori
difficult to control, these fall to the ground without to more be greu de controlat, acestea cad pe sol fara a mai putea fi
able to be recovered. The losses represents the ratio recuperate. Pierderile reprezinta raportul procentual dintre
between the number of flowers fallen on the ground and the numarul florilor cazute pe sol si numarul florilor detasate
number of the detached flowers of the stalks per unit of area. de tulpini pe unitatea de suprafata.
In Figures 11, 12 and 13 were analyzed the losses of In figurile 11, 12 si 13 s-au analizat pierderile de
inflorescences on the ground, under the same conditions inflorescente pe sol, in aceleasi conditii ca cele prezentate
as those presented above. anterior.
a) b)
Fig. 11 - The loss of inflorescences at a working speed of v=0.5 kmh-1 and a working height of a) H=0.300m and b) H=0.450m
a) b)
a) b)
During the experiments it was observed that the In timpul experimentarilor s-a observat ca neuniformitatea
nonuniformity of repartition of plants on the ground leads to de repartitie a plantelor pe sol conduce la cresterea
86
the increase of inflorescences losses at harvesting. pierderilor de inflorescente la recoltare.

The tests of exploitation were performed in the same culture Incercarile de exploatare s-au executat in aceeasi
where were determined the working qualitative indexes. cultura in care s-au determinat indicii calitativi de lucru. Pe
Based on the timings performed, was established the baza cronometrarilor efectuate, s-a stabilit viteza medie
-1 -1
average working speed, v=0.94 km h and the structure of de lucru, v=0,94 km h si structura timpului de lucru, fiind
the working time, being calculated the main coefficients of calculati principalii coeficienti de folosire a timpului de
use of working time during a working shift, shown in Table 3. lucru pe durata unui schimb, prezentati in tabelul 3.
Table 3
Coefficients of use of working time
Crt. no. Coefficient of use of working time Symbol Value
1. Coefficient of the use of operational time K02 0.950
2. Coefficient of the use of the work shift time K07 0.780
3. Technological safety coefficient K41 0.944
4. Technical safety coefficient K42 0.980
5. Operational safety coefficient K4 0.925
The value of the coefficient K4 characterizing the Valoarea coeficientului K4 ce caracterizeaza echipamentul
equipment in terms of technological safety of active din punct de vedere al sigurantei tehnologice al organelor
bodies and of the technical and operational safety, was active si al sigurantei tehnice de functionare, a fost
adversely affected by some technological cloggings influentata nefavorabil de unele infundari tehnologice
produced at gatherer and of the deformation of some produse la culegator si ale deformarii unor dinti ai
teeth of spurs, caused by the weeds from the culture. pietenilor, datorate buruienilor din cultura.
The productivity of harvesting aggregate determined Productivitatea agregatului de recoltare determinata in
under the conditions of achieving an average traveling conditiile realizarii unei viteze medii de deplasare in lucru
-1 -1
speed in working v=0.94 km h and of the coefficients of v=0,94 km h si a coeficientilor de folosire a timpului de
use of working time of the shift from the Table 3, is lucru al schimbului din tabelul 3, se prezinta mai jos in
presented below in Table 4. tabelul 4.
Table 4
Aggregate productivity
Crt. no. Working Capacity MU Symbol Value
1. Working capacity at the actual time ha/h Wef 0.188
2. Working capacity at the operative time ha/h W02 0.178
3. Hourly working capacity ha/h W07 0.146
4. Working capacity in a working shift ha/sch Wsch 0.168
Completion of the evaluation of the process and of the Completarea evaluarii procesului si a produsului
resulting product at the harvesting of chamomile rezultat la recoltarea inflorescentelor de musetel cu
inflorescences with each of the variants of types and sizes fiecare din variantele tipo-dimensionale de organe active,
of active bodies, was done in light of working qualitative s-a facut prin prisma indicilor calitativi de lucru. Analiza
indices. The comparative analysis was performed on 216 comparativa a fost efectuata pe 216 exemple de caz
case examples (twelve types and sizes of active organs, (douasprezece tipo-dimensiuni de organe active, trei
three kinematic regimes of scrapers combs motion, two regimuri cinematice de miscare a pieptenilor razuitori,
harvesting heights and three traveling speeds in working). doua inaltimi de recoltare si trei viteze de deplasare in lucru).
The content of inflorescences of ,,extra quality’’ records Continutul de inflorescente ,,calitatea extra’’ inregistreaza
-1 -1
maximum values at a low working speed (0,5km h ) in the valori maximale la o viteza mica de lucru (0,5km h ) in
case of the elements N2 and T2 at the high harvesting cazul elementelor N2 si T2 la recoltarea inalta (H=0,45m),
(H=0.45m), at high peripheral speeds of the plucking la viteze periferice ridicate ale organelor de smulgere.
bodies. It follows that the dynamics plucking favors the Rezulta ca smulgerea dinamica favorizeaza cresterea
increase of the inflorescences of "extra" quality in the continutului de inflorescente calitatea ,,extra’’ in produsul
product obtained at harvesting. obtinut la recoltare.
The harming degree of flowers varies inversely with the Gradul de vatamare a florilor variaza invers proportional
speed of active bodies, which demonstrates that “the cu viteza organelor active, ceea ce demonstreaza ca
dynamic plucking” also favors the process of detachment “smulgerea dinamica” favorizeaza si procesul de detasare
of the inflorescences from stalks, without injuries. a inflorescentelor de tulpini, fara vatamari.
The purity of the harvested product records the highest Puritatea produsului recoltat inregistraza valorile cele
values in the the case of variant of types and sizes N2. mai ridicate in cazul variantei tipo-dimensionale N2. De
Also the product purity in the case of "high harvesting" is higher asemenea puritatea produsului in cazul ,,recoltarii inalte”
by 20-22% compared to the case of "low harvesting". este mai mare cu 20-22% fata de cazul ,,recoltarii joase”.
The analysis of the losses of inflorescences on the Analiza pierderilor de inflorescente pe sol pune in
ground highlights the "cup effect" which is manifested evidenta ,,efectul de cupa” care se manifesta mult mai
more intensely in the case of curved combs compared to intens in cazul pieptenilor cu dinti curbati fata de pieptenii
the combs with straight teeth. The losses records cu dinti drepti. Pierderile inregistreaza valori minime de
minimum values 4.2% and respectively 4%, for the active 4,2% si respectiv 4%, pentru elementele active de tip N2
elements of N2 and O2 type. si O2.
The global analysis of the results, into a complete evaluation Analiza globala a rezultatelor, intr-o evaluare completa
of the working performances obtained at experimentations a performantelor de lucru obtinute la experimentari pune
87
highlight the superiority of the combs with curved teeth in evidenta superioritatea pieptenilor cu dinti curbati fata
compared to the combs with straight teeth, as well as the de pieptenii cu dinti drepti, precum si superioritatea
superiority of the "dynamic plucking" compared to the "slow plucking". “smulgerii dinamice” fata de “smulgerea lenta”.
The conclusions drawn support the deployment of the Concluziile formulate sustin desfasurarea procesului de
harvesting process of chamomile inflorescences in two recoltare a inflorescentelor de musetel in doua etape. La
stages. At the "high harvesting" is obtained a high quality ,,recoltarea inalta” se obtine un produs de calitate
product, that can be efficiently capitalized. ,,The low superioara, ce poate fi valorificat eficient. ,,Recoltarea
harvesting” performed at the second passage (at an joasa” efectuata la a doua trecere ( la un interval de 5-17
interval of 5-17 days) ensures a more complete harvesting zile) asigura o recoltare mai completa in detrimentul
in the expense of quality, allowing the obtaining of higher calitatii, permitand obtinerea unor productii superioare la
production per hectare. hectar.
The results obtained are arguments in order to Rezultatele obtinute constituie argumente in vederea
relaunch the camomile cultivation in Romania, as well as relansarii cultivarii musetelului in Romania, cat si pentru
to achieve of some efficient equipment for the harvesting realizarea unor echipamente eficiente pentru recoltarea
of its inflorescences. In the context of the sustainable inflorescentelor acestuia. In contextul agriculturii durabile,
agriculture, the mechanized harvesting represents an recoltarea mecanizata reprezinta o importanta premiza
important prerequisite for achieving of profitable pentru realizarea unor productii profitabile de plante
productions of medicinal and aromatic plants. medicinale si aromatice.
[1]. Ehlert D. and col. - Influence of comb parameters on [1]. Ehlert D. and col. – Influenta parametrilor pieptenilor
picking properties for chamomile flowers Industrial Crops asupra procesului de recoltare a florilor de musetel
and Products 33, Elsevier, 2011 Industrial Crops and Products 33, Elsevier, 2011
[2]. Muntean L. S. (1990), Medicinal and aromatic plants [2]. Muntean L. S. (1990), Plante medicinale si aromatice
cultivated in Romania, Dacia Publishing House, Cluj; cultivate in Romania, Editura Dacia, Cluj;
[3]. Muscalu A. si col. (2014) Experimental research of the [3]. Muscalu A. si col. (2014) Cercetarea experimentala a
process of mechanized harvesting of chamomile procesului de recoltare mecanizata a inflorescentelor de
inflorescences, International Conference TE-RE-RD, musetel, Conferinta Internationala TE-RE-RD, Mamaia-
Mamaia-Constanta, June 2014; Constanta, Iunie 2014;
[4]. Öztekin S. Martinov M. (2007), Medicinal and aromatic [4]. Öztekin S. Martinov M. (2007), Culturi de plante
plant crops - harvesting, drying, processing, Haworth Press medicinale si aromatice - Recoltare, Uscare, Procesare,
Trust of Agriculture & Food, New York. Trustul de Presă Haworth Agricultură &AlimentaŃie, New York.
[5]. Roman Gh. V. si col. (2009) – Cultivation of medicinal [5]. Roman Gh. V. si col. (2009) – Cultivarea plantelor
and aromatic plants in organic farming conditions, CERES medicinale si aromatice in conditiile agriculturii ecologice,
Publishing House, Bucharest. Editura CERES, Bucuresti.
88
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM FOR

CALCULATING OPTIMAL OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR AGRICULTURAL AGGREGATES
/
CONSIDERATII PRELIMINARE PRIVIND REALIZAREA UNUI SISTEM DE CALCUL OPTIMAL
AL PARAMETRILOR DE EXPLOATARE A AGREGATELOR AGRICOLE
Eng. Ludig M., Eng. Bolinitineanu G., Eng. Ph.D. Student Cujbescu D., Eng. Ph.D. Student. Persu C.
Polytechnic Universities Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering / Romania
Tel: 0731188931; E-mail: lud_mihai@yahoo.com
Abstract: Rezumat:
The Data that is necessary for building a complex Datele necesare construcŃiei unui sistem complex de
system for calculating the optimal operating parameters calcul a parametrilor de exploatare optimală a agregatelor
of agricultural aggregates is obtained after complex agricole se obŃin în urma unor teste complexe ale
testing of agricultural aggregates. After testing the agregatelor agricole. În urma testării agregatelor
aggregates, the results can be used to create a rezultatele testelor pot fi folosite pentru crearea unei baze
database that can be used to estimate fuel de date care poate fi folosită pentru estimarea consumului
consumption and choosing the right equipment. de combustibil şi pentru alegerea echipamentului potrivit.
This paper aims to present a way for achieving a Lucrarea de faŃă îşi propune să prezinte o modalitate
computing IT system for determining the energy de realizare a unui sistem informatic de calcul în vederea
consumption for agricultural agregates. stabilirii consumului de energie pentru agregate agricole.
Keywords: Agricultural Aggregate, energy consumption, Cuvinte cheie: Agregat agricol, consum energetic,
fuel economy, tractor selection economie carburant, alegere tractor
It is important for the specification of the Tractor to be Este important ca specificaŃiile tractorului să fie potrivite
appropriate for a specific activity. The amount of power pentru o activitate specifică. Cantitatea de energie necesară
that the Tractor requires will depend on the tasks that are pentru utilizarea tractorului va depinde de sarcinile care sunt
being carried out and the conditions on site. A low power efectuate şi condiŃiile de teren. Un tractor de putere redusă,
tractor that uses it’s whole power, will wear out quicker care foloseste toată puterea pentru o anumină lucrare, se
than a tractor that has a power reserve, due to the va uza mai repede faŃă de unul care are o rezervă de
increased stress and and can work with lower speed, and putere, din cauza stresului ridicat şi poate lucra cu viteze
can have a shorter lifespan, while an oversized Tractor mai mici, şi poate avea o durată de viaŃă mai mică, în timp
may never be used to its full capacity and will be operating ce tractoarele supradimensionate nu pot fi utilizate la
inefficiently. capacitate maximă şi vor opera ineficient.
Choosing a tractor for tillage is important because tests Alegerea unui tractor pentru lucrarea solului este
have shown that at least 8% of the total power consumed importantă, deoarece, testele au demonstrat că cel puŃin
by the tractor rolling resistance, is due to the weight of the 7% din puterea totală a tractorului este consumată pe
tractor. rezistenŃa la rulare, datorată greutăŃii totale a tractorului.
Drawbar power is the most important parameter to Puterea la mecanismul de suspendare a maşinilor
consider, as power is lost through transmission, wheel slip agricole cu prindere în trei puncte este cel mai important
and friction. parametru care trebuie luat în considerare, puterea
It is important to considers the rolling resistance to pierzându-se prin transmisie, patinare şi rezistenŃă.
establish the transmission coefficient [3], that includes Este important să se ia în considerare rezistenŃa la rulare
tractors with CVT (continuous variable transmission) pentru a stabili coeficientul de transmitere [3], şi se includ
taking into account the special characteristics of this tractoarele cu CVT (transmisie variabilă continuă), luând în
transmission. considerare caracteristicile specifice ale acestei transmisii.

Among current trends of test stands mainly tractors Între tendinŃele actuale ale încercării tractoarelor se remarcă
are extension of such service operational test. In this în principal extinderea sistemelor operative de încercare gen
regard, building development movable brake for service. Sub acest aspect, dezvoltarea construcŃiilor de frâne
testing to plug the tractor appears as a necessity deplasabile pentru încercarea la priză a tractorului apare ca o
imposed by the fuel economy issues and correct necesitate impusă de problemele de economie a
operational use. combustibilului şi o corectă utilizare în exploatare.
It should be noted that the development of electronics Trebuie remarcat că dezvoltarea electronicii asigură
provides the opportunity to achieve a robust and reliable posibilitatea realizării unei aparaturi robuste şi sigure
devices for operational tests. Rational use of tractors must pentru încercările operative. Utilizarea raŃională a
use their economic service duration as higher of two repairs. tractoarelor trebuie să asigure folosirea economică a
This means that the tractor is used for optimal charging acestora pe o durată de serviciu cât mai mare între două
modes, but at the same time we have maintained observing reparaŃii. Aceasta înseamnă că tractorul trebuie folosit la
the regulations in force. Therefore the optimal modes that are regimurile optime de încărcare, dar în acelaşi timp că
used are very important (adjustments, failure fixes). trebuie întreŃinut respectându-se normativele în vigoare.
Engines generally can be used raŃional knowledge De aceea, sunt importante regimurile optime de folosire
characteristics on the system controller nominal speed a tractoarelor, cum se pot obŃine şi în mod succint
(acceleration in position of maximum flow) and principalele probleme privind întreŃinerea tractoarelor
intermediate regimes. (reglaje, defecŃiuni, remedieri).
89
Optimal operating point is at 80-85% power, so the Punctul de funcŃionare optim este la 80—85% din
engine will have a sufficient reserve of power for putere, astfel motorul va avea o rezervă suficientă de
momentary overloads and reserve time determined putere pentru suprasarcini momentane, iar rezerva de
by: moment determinată de relaŃia:
(1)
where Mmax is the maximum torque; and Mnom is the unde Mmax este momentul motor maxim; iar Mnom eeste
nominal torque; will be over 5%. By choosing this area momentul motor nominal; va fi peste 5%. Prin alegerea acestei
of engine operation will not be above 95% of its zone de funcŃionare motorul nu se va încărca mai mult de 95%
maximum power, the oscillations will be reduced, which din puterea sa maximă, oscilaŃiile turaŃiei vor fi reduse, ceea ce
will encourage a better fuel combustion. va favoriza şi o ardere bună a combustibilului.
In the previous analysis was limited operating area, În cele analizate anterior s-a delimitat zona de funcŃionare,
assuming that the motor is applied near rated load. if it presupunând că motorul este solicitat aproape de sarcina
is not full engine power required for economical nominală. în cazul că nu este necesară întreaga putere a
operation, it is advisable to use intermediate speed motorului, pentru o funcŃionare economică, este recomandabil
modes, if the engine does not operate at mains să se folosească regimuri de turaŃie, dacă tractorul nu
agricultural machine requiring standard speed 540 acŃionează de la priză o maşină agricolă care necesită turaŃia
rev/min to 1000 rev/min. standard 540 rot/min sau 1 000 rot/min.
In order to achieve optimum engine load, namely the Pentru a se obŃine sarcina optimă a motorului la
tractor, when mounted on or towed machine at our tractorul respectiv, în cazul maşinilor purtate sau tractate
disposal are already known two factors which results [1] in ne stau la dispoziŃie cei doi factori deja cunoscuŃi din care
tensile strength: rezultă [1] puterea de tracŃiune:
(2)
where unde:
R is the traction force, in N and R este forŃa de tracŃiune, în N şi
Vl is the speed in m/s. Vl este viteza în m/s.
Varying the two factors must obtain maximum Variind cei doi factori trebuie să obŃinem maximum de
tensile strength for tensile yield acceptable, but the putere de tracŃiune pentru un randament de tracŃiune
values of the two factors are limited. The thrust for acceptabil, dar valorile celor doi factori sunt limitaŃi. Astfel, forŃa
each type of tractor is limited by adhesion system de tracŃiune la fiecare tip de tractor este limitată de aderenŃa
running on the ground [4]. You can not overcome the sistemului de rulare pe sol [4]. Nu se poate depăşi acea forŃă
force of traction for those soil conditions produces de tracŃiune care pentru condiŃiile respective de sol produce o
greater slip eg 15% for wheeled tractors and 7% for patinare mai mare de exemplu de 15% pentru tractoarele pe
crawler tractors. roŃi şi de 7% pentru tractoarele pe şenile.
The Sources of the Soil-aggregate interaction tractor- Surse de interacŃiune sol-agregat pentru agregatele tractor-
equipment aggregates are: echipament sunt următoarele:
1) Tyre-ground friction, µ 1) Frecare roŃi tractor-sol, m
2) Aggregate friction wheel-soil, µ 2) Frecare roŃi agregat-sol, m
3) Metal parts aggregate-soil friction, f 3) Frecare părŃi metalice agregat-sol, f
4) Soil density, ρ 4) Densitatea solului, r
The tractors, plows and machines that are tested [2] Tractoarele, plugurile şi maşinile agricole testate [2] pentru
for fuel consumption calculation are listed in principle in calcului consumului de combustibil sunt prezentate într-o
Table 1 from a database containing agricultural configuratie de principiu a bazei de date cu agregate agricole
agregates. conform tabelului 1.
Tabel 1
Main configuration of the database with agricultural aggregate
90
The agricultural traction power required for other Puterea necesară tracŃiunii unei maşini agricole alta decât
equipment than the plow [5] is calculated according to(3): plugul [5] este calculată conform relaŃiei (3):
Fm= f·g·m + K·B (3)

where: m [Kg] is the mass of the equipmant, K is the unde: m [Kg] este masa echipamentului, K este coeficientul
coefficient of linear traction resistance, B [m] is the working de rezistenŃă la tracŃiune liniară, B [m] este lăŃimea de lucru a
2
width of the machine, f is a soil-steel friction constant and g maşinii, f este o constantă de frecare sol-oŃel, isr g [m/s ] este
2
[m/s ] is the gravitational acceleration constant acceleratia gravitationala
Regarding the operating speed, the user chooses, În ceea ce priveşte viteza de lucru, se allege de către
compared to working speed calculated from the balance of utilizator, prin comparaŃie cu viteza maximă de lucru calculată
power: din bilanŃul puterilor:
Pmax=Pa(vmax)+Pm(vmax) (4)
Pmax [HP] - maximum tractor power Pmax [CP] – puterea maximă a tractorului
Pa [HP] - power consumption for tractor self-movement Pa [CP] – puterea consumată pentru autodeplasarea tractorului
Pm [HP] – agricultural equipment traction power required Pm [CP] – Puterea necesară tracŃiunii maşinii agricole
vmax [m/s] - maximum slip tangible null. vmax [m/s] – viteza maximă tangibilă la alunecare nulă.
RESULTS REZULTATE
Following the calculation with the use of a software under În urma calculelor, folosind un software aflat in dezvoltare de
development by the authors (the calculation algorithm is către colectivul de autori ai lucrării (algoritmul de calcul este
described extensively in the literature [6] and is not the descris mai pe larg în litaratura de specialitate [6] şi nu face
subject of this paper) for the aggregate containing the TD5 obiectul acestei lucrări), pentru agregatul format din tractor TD5
95 tractor, the PP-3-30 M plow and the GS 1.2, stellar 95, plugul PP-3-30 M şi grapa stelată GS 1,2 s-a reprezentat
harrow the power variation is represented in relation to the variaŃia puterii în funcŃie de viteza de lucru şi de rezistenŃa
working speed and the soil resistance to deformation solului la deformare (figura 2), rezultând consumul de
(Figure 2), resulting the fuel consumption. The same can combustibil. Se poate proceda asemănător şi pentru alte
be done for other aggregates containing the tractors and agregate formate din tractoarele şi maşinile agricole prezentate
agricultural machines presented in Table 1. în tabelul 1.
Fig 1 - Power consumption variation depending on the operating speed of the aggregate stellar harrow GS 1,2
This rticle attempts to summarize the issues in order Articolul încearcă să facă un sumar al metodei de
to create an informational system in calculating primary realizare a unui sistem informaŃional în calculul primar al
agricultural aggregates consumption. consumului agregatelor agricole.
Basic Formulas and practices currently used for Formulele şi practicile de bază folosite în prezent
optimal operation of agricultural machinery are the basis pentru exploatarea optimală a maşinilor agricole sunt baza
for achieving an informational system designed to de pornire pentru realizarea unui sistem informaŃional
facilitate efficient calculations maximize the agricultural performant pentru calcule menite să faciliteze exploatarea
aggregates. optimală a agregatelor agricole.
91
Aknowlegement Aknowlegement
The results presented in this article were obtained with Rezultatele prezentate în acest articol au fost obŃinute
the support of The National Institute Of Research - cu sprijinul Institutului National de Cercetare - Dezvoltare
Development for Machines and Installations Designed to pentru Masini si Instalatii destinate Agriculturii si Industriei
Agriculture And Food Industry – INMA Bucharest. Alimentare – INMA Bucuresti.
[1]. Bria N., Voicu Gh., Burlea Gh. (1980) - Effective use of [1]. Bria N., Voicu Gh., Burlea Gh. (1980) - Folosirea
E-684 potatoes harvesting combine, "Agricultural eficientă a combinei pentru recoltat cartofi E-684.
Mechanization", no. 7 Mecanizarea agriculturii, nr. 7.
[2]. Dobrescu C., Begheş H. (1978) - Parameter [2]. Dobrescu C., Begheş H. (1978) - Optimizarea
optimization of propelled combines for minimizing the parametrilor combinelor autopropulsate în scopul
energy consumption per unit of production, Magazine minimizării consumului de energie pe unitatea de
„Agricultural Mechanization", no. 3/july; producŃie, Mecanizarea agriculturii, nr. 3/iulie;
[3]. Dobrescu, C., Begheş H. (1977) - Methods for [3]. Dobrescu C., Begheş H. (1977) - Metode de optimizare
optimizing agricultural machines and equipment a parametrilor maşinilor şi instalaŃiilor agricole.
parameters, Agricultural Mechanization no. 3; Mecanizarea agriculturii nr. 3;
[4]. Neculaiasa V., (1971) - Tractors exploitation and agricultural [4]. Neculaiasa V. (1971) - Tehnologia exploatării
machinery technology. Polytechnic Institute of Iaşi tractoarelor şi maşinilor agricole. Institutul Politehnic Iaşi.
[5]. Pleşoianu R. (1977) - Measures to reduce fuel [5]. Pleşoianu R. (1977) - Măsuri pentru reducerea
consumption and good management of fuel and energy, consumurilor şi buna gospodărire a combustibililor şi
in the magazine, Agricultural Mechanization no. 10/oct.; energiei, Revista Mecanizarea Agriculturii nr. 10/oct.;
[6]. Letoşnev M.N. (1959) - Agricultural Machinery, Ministry [6]. Letoşnev M.N. (1959) - Masini agricole, Ministerul
of Agriculture and Forestry ,tate Agro Forestry publishing agriculturii si silviculturii editura agro - silvica de stat,
house. Bucuresti.
92
APPROACH, LIMITS AND CRITERIA FOR FARM MACHINERY REPLACEMENT IN

AGRICULTURE
/
ПОДХОД, ОГРАНИЧЕНИЯ И КРИТЕРИИ ПРИ ЗАМЯНА НА СЕЛСКОСТОПАНСКА
ТЕХНИКА ЗА ЗЕМЕДЕЛИЕТО
1) 1)
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Vezirov Ch.Z. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Atanasov At.Z. ,
1) 2)
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Hristov H.Y. , Ph.D. Eng. VlăduŃ V.
1)
Ruse University, Agro-industrial Faculty / Bulgaria; 2)INMA Bucharest / Romania
E-mail: vezirov@uni-ruse.bg
Abstract: In the paper are discussed approaches for Резюме: Обсъдени са подходи за замяна на
replacement of farm machinery. Some classifications of земеделска техника. Сравнени са класификации на
agricultural tractors are compared. It is suggested a селскостопанските трактори. Предложена е
multistage procedure for selection of appropriate процедура за избор на подходящи съчетания на
combination of agricultural tractors and implements. енергетични средства и работни машини за
Importance of language support, determination of земеделието. Показана е важността на
agricultural aggregates’ and machinery fleet’s indices is лингвистичната подкрепа, определянето на
been shown. A sample of list of appropriate machines показатели за селскостопанските агрегати и
for most common universal type tractor in Bulgaria is машинния парк. Препоръчвани са машини за най-
recommended. разпространения тип трактори в България
Keywords: farm machinery replacement, choice-making, Ключови думи: замяна на земеделска техника,
tractors, agricultural machines избор, трактори, селскостопански машини
INTRODUCTION ВЪВЕДЕНИЕ
The renovation of tractor and machines fleet in Обновяването на машинния парк в селското
agriculture is an important precondition for effectively стопанство е важна предпоставка за ефективно
implementation of mechanized activities. The right choice осъществяване на механизираните дейности.
of the agricultural machinery provides realization of Правилният избор на земеделска техника осигурява
agricultural operations within short time, with lesser извършване на операциите в земеделието в кратки
expenses of energy, fuel, machinery and with the required срокове, с по-малки разходи на енергия и с желаното
quality. качество.
Two things are important for effectively using of Две неща са определящи за ефективното използване
agricultural machinery: its structure (types and quantity) на техниката в земеделието: съставът й (вид и количество) и
and the way of its utilization. As the first is a prerequisite начинът на използването й. Тъй като първото е
for the second, further we will discuss it. предпоставка за второто, по-нататък ще се спрем на него.
The replacement of machinery may happen due to its Замяната на техниката може да става поради
physical and/or moral wearing-out. In the first case the физическото й или морално й остаряване. В първия
expenses of the machines’ maintenance in a workable случай разходите за поддръжка на машините в
condition will increase too much. In the second case there работоспособно състояние нарастват твърде много.
will exist more modern machines, realizing more up-to- Във втория случай вече съществуват по-модерни
date technologies, guarantying higher quality and машини, осъществяващи по-модерни технологии,
production. гарантиращи по-високо качество и производителност.
The concrete decision for realization of interchange is Конкретното решение за осъществяване на
taking on the base of technical or economic criteria. The замяната се взема въз основа на технически или
examples of the economic approach in the renewing of икономически критерии. Примери за икономически
tractor and machine fleet in the agriculture are found in [6, подход при обновяване на техниката в земеделието
12, 11], and of technical approach – in [28, 30]. Many намираме в [6, 12, 11], а за технически подход - в [28,
authors prefer mathematical models for presenting of the 30 ]. Много автори предпочитат математически модели
process of choice and substitution of various machinery за представяне на процеса за избор и замяна на
for agriculture [3, 8, 16]. Unfortunately, the formalized техника за земеделието [3, 8, 16]. За съжаление
description of the work of the agricultural machines can формализираното описание на работата на земеделската
lead to considerable mistakes. The base of such problem техника може да доведи до съществени грешки.
is using of economic and financial data for past time, Основа за това са използването на икономически
inappropriate technologies, non optimal periods for work. данни за минало време, неподходящи технологии,
In short: inaccuracies of input data lead to similar неоптимални срокове на работа. Накратко: неточностите
inaccuracies in result described by the proposed decision. на входните данни се показват в неточността на
In addition, the quick change of weather condition, the предлаганото решение. Допълнително бързото
levels of weeds’ level risk, diseases and plant pests, изменение на метеорологичната обстановка, нивата
impose continuous actualization of the decision. на опасност от плевели, болести и неприятели,
Practically such continuous change of the chosen налагат непрекъсната актуализация на решението. На
machinery is not possible. After the buying of the tractor, практика обаче промяната на избраната техника не
combine and other machines it is not appropriate many eвъзможна. След купуването на трактор, комбайн или
times to buy and sale them, because financial losses will друга техника не е изгодно многократно тя да се
be considerable. продава и купува нова, тъй като загубите са значителни.
Another problem is linked with necessity to use Друг проблем е свързан с необходимостта да се
computers and special software for solving of използва компютърна техника и специализиран
93
mathematical problems with many equations, restrictions, софтуер за решаване на математически задачи с много
complex model and a lot of uncontrolled and controlled уравнения, ограничения, сложен модел и голям брой
variables. Many of small agricultural farmers and управляеми и неуправляеми променливи. Повечето от
managers do not have access to such support or for them дребните земеделски стопани нямат достъп до такива
they are unprofitable. услуги или за тях те са икономически неизгодни.
CHOICE OF A TRACTOR FOR REPLACE ИЗБОР НА ТРАКТОР ЗА ЗАМЯНА

The main requirement for a tractor is to be able of operating with Основно изискване към трактора е да задвижва
various machines, to combine in need units, in order to move машините, работещи с него, за да се движат с
with appropriate velocity. Thereby there is provided sufficient подходяща скорост. По този начин се осигурява
productivity of the aggregate and respectively quality of the work. достатъчна производителност на агрегата и качество
It is well known, that the movement of the machines will happen на работата. Известно е, че задвижването на
by traction and eventually by power take-off shaft or hydraulic машините става чрез теглене и пряко с помощта на
transmission (pump and hydromotor). Therefore the possibilities вал за отвеждане на мощност или хидромотор.
of tractors, combines of other energy units are defined by the Следователно възможностите на енергетичните
power capacity of their engine and the traction force at a various машини се определят от мощността на двигателя им и
terrains. теглителната сила за конкретен терен.
There exist two ways for evaluation the capacities of Съществуват два начина за оценка на
agricultural tractors : възможностите на селскостопанските трактори:
1. By power capacity of their engines 1. По мощността на двигателите им
2. By so called towing class 2. По тъй наречения теглителен клас
The second way is used mainly in the countries of East Вторият начин се ползва основно в страните от
and Central Europe, and the first one in the rest of the източна и централна Европа, а първият в останалия
world. свят.
In a standard [24] the borders of the towing classes for В държавен стандарт [24] са определени границите
tractors are defined. For a certain tractor towing class can на теглителните класове за тракторите. За конкретен
be defined by calculation or experimentally. For calculation трактор теглителният клас се определя с изчисления
it is recommended the following formula: или опитно. За пресмятане се ползва формулата:
Fтн = A * Mт (1)
where Fтн is nominal towing force (drawbar force) of the където Fтн е номиналната теглителна сила на
tractor, kN, трактора, kN,
Мт – exploitation mass (weight) of the tractor, kg, Мт - експлоатационна маса на трактора, kg,
А – a coefficient for the agricultural tractors = А – коефициент за селскостопански трактори = 0,00324
0,00324 at Мт ≤ 2600, = 0,00373 at Мт > 2600 and при Мт ≤ 2600, = 0,00373 при Мт > 2600 и формула на
type of farm tractors 4х2 and 3х2, = 0,00392 at Мт > ходовата система 4х2 и 3х2, = 0,00392 при Мт > 2600 и
2600 and type of farm tractors 4х4, = 0,0049 for формула на ходовата система 4х4, = 0,0049 за
caterpillar tractors. верижни трактори.
Fig. 1 – In left: relation between nominal drawbar force, N, and towing class: 1 - 0,2, 2 – 0,6, 3 – 0,9, 4 – 1,4, 5 – 2,0, 6 – 3,0; in right:
relation between operating mass, kg, and nominal drawbar force, N: 1 – 4 for agricultural tractors 4x2 and 3x2, 5 – 6 for agricultural
tractors 4x4, 9 – 12 for agricultural caterpillar tractor, class 0,9 – 1, 5, 9, class 1,4 – 2,6, 8, class 2,0 – 3, 7, 11, class 3,0 – 4, 8, 12
In the table 1 there are given the borders of drawbar В таблица 1 са дадени границите на теглителните
forces Fтн and the masses for some of the towing сили Fтн и масите за някои теглителни класове.
classes. It can be seen that the nominal towing forces (on Вижда се, че номиналните теглителните сили (вляво)
the left) cover the demands of all machines with different покриват нуждите на всички машини с различно
specific resistance force. On the graphic in the right we теглително съпротивление. От графиката вдясно
can see, that only on the exploitation mass of the tractor разбираме, че само по експлоатационната маса на
and type of farm tractors (4DW, 2WD, etc) we cannot трактора и формулата на ходовата му система не
evaluate its towing capabilities. може да оценим неговите теглителни възможности.
The experimental determination of the nominal towing Опитното определяне на номиналната теглителна
force must be realized on stubble of winter cereals. It сила става върху стърнище на есенни житни култури.
must be taken the biggest practical possible towing force Тя е най-голямата практически възможна теглителна
and tractor with slipping less than 18% for tractors 4х2 и сила при ненадвишаване на буксуване 18% за трактори
3х2, 16% - for 4х4 and 5% for caterpillar tractors. 4х2 и 3х2, 16% - за 4х4 и 5% за верижни трактори.
For comparing of towing capacities of tractors it can be За сравняване на теглителните възможности на
94
used also experimental values of the coefficient of friction тракторите може да се използват и опитните стойности на
with the terrain. It is supposed that, the proportions of коефициента на сцепление с терена. Предполага се,
towing forces are the same for one tractor as the че съотношенията на теглителните сили за един и
proportions between the coefficients of adhesion for същ трактор са както съотношенията на
different terrains. коефициентите на сцепление за различните терени.
As it is well known test of tractors and other machines Както е известно изпитания на трактори и други
for agriculture happens in the United States – Nebraska, машини за земеделието се правят САЩ – Небраска,
Germany – near Frankfurt and other stations in Europe Германия – край Франкфурт и други станции в Европа
[13, 2, 15]. Some data are accessible from internet [13, 2, 15]. Някои данни са достъпни и в интернет,
sources, for example for tractors in [17]. например за трактори в [17].
Fig. 2 - Simple list of tractors manufactured by Minsk Tractors Works. Engine power in horse power is on the abscise, on the ordinate –
tractors modifications: as higher is row, tractors are with more advanced engines and extras. At right – one selected model
The data, given by producers of tractors, as a rule are Данните, предоставяни от производителите на трактори,
по правило се отнасят до твърде малко показатели.
referred only to a few indexes. For example, the producer
Например производителя на техника за земеделието на
of farm machinery set on the 8th place in the world - the осмо място в света – Минският тракторен завод, не дава
Minsk tractors works, does not give explanations of the обяснения за символите в наименованието на модела на
symbols in the labels of tractors model [27]. Nevertheless трактора [27]. Независимо от това част от данните се
представят атрактивно за потребителя с възможност за
part of the data is presented attractively for the consumer
допълнително информиране – фиг. 2.
with possibility for additional information – fig. 2.
Fig. 3 - Relation between enginine power and exploation mass of tractors manufactured by Minsk tractors works. In left with blue color
real points, with pink color – predicted values. In right – residual plot
95
The analysis of the data for the tractors of the Minsk Анализът на данните за тракторите на Минския тракторен
tractors works shows, that there exists an approximately завод показва, че съществува примерно линейна зависимост
linear interrelation between power capacity of tractor между мощността на тракторния двигател и експлоатационната
engine and their exploitation mass – fig.3. The statistical маса на трактора – фиг. 3. Статистическият анализ също
analysis also shows a strong linear relation. In the analysis показва силна линейна връзка. При дисперсионен (ANОVA)
of variance (ANOVA) the criteria of Fisher is 218,3 and the анализ критерият на Фишер е 218,3 при критична стойност
critical value at the same time is 3.94. This proves and the 3,94, с което се доказва и числово съществуването на
existing of strong relation. The regression analysis зависимост. Регресионният анализ потвърждава
confirms the proportional relation between exploitation пропорционална връзка между експлоатационната маса и
mass and power capacity. The constant term (intercept) is мощността. Свободният член е 1346, а коефициентът на
1346, and the constant of proportionality – 42,95. The пропорционалност – 42,95. Критериите на Стюдънт за
criterion of Student for the constants are respectively 8,78 коефициентите са съответно 8,78 и 27,26, което е повече
and 27,26, which is more than the table value for the level от табличната стойност за ниво на доверителна вероятност
of the confidence 0,99. Therefore the constants of the 0,99. Следователно коефициентите в уравнението са
equation are significant. Nevertheless there is an значими. Все пак е налице нееднородност на дисперсиите
inhomogeneous of dispersions and the anomaly и аномални остатъци – графиката вдясно. Това ограничава
remainders – the graphic on the right. This limits the възможността за използване на линейния модел даже в
possibility for using of linear model even in this case, which този случай, който е само за една марка трактори.
is only for one model of tractors. Подобно е положение с определянето на връзката
The situation is similar when we try to determine a между теглителния клас на трактора, мощността на
relation between towing class of the tractor, power capacity двигателя му и експлоатационната му маса. Графично
of its engine and exploitation mass. Graphically the връзките са показани за тракторите на Минския тракторен
relations are shown for the tractors of the Minsk tractors завод на фиг. 4. Макар че с нарастването на номиналната
works on fig.4. Although with the increasing of the nominal теглителна сила, съответно теглителния клас на
towing force, respectively the towing class of the tractors тракторите нараства мощността на двигателите им,
increases the power capacity of their engines, the variance разсейването е съществено. Този факт се дължи на
is essentially. This fact is a result of the installing of монтирането на различни двигатели с различна
different engines with different specific power capacity специфична мощност спрямо единица експлоатационна
towards tractors exploitation mass. Similarly for one and маса. Аналогично за един и същ теглителен клас
the same towing class, tractors have different exploitation тракторите са различна експлоатационна маса. Изключение
mass. An exception we have only for the tractors of the имаме само за тракторите от теглителен клас 0,6 - Беларус
towing class 0.6 - Belarus 310, 320 и 321, because the 310, 320 и 321, защото са с двигатели с еднаква мощност,
engines are with equal power capacity, notwithstanding макар експлоатационните им маса да са различни.
their exploitation masses are different. От изложеното до тук следва, че теглителните възможности
From the above it follows, that the towing abilities of на тракторите могат да се определят само конкретно.
tractors can be determined only specifically.
Fig. 4 - Relation between tractors’ engine power and operating mass – in left, and in right – between towing class and operating mass
The power capacity necessary for operating of rotating and Мощността необходима за задвижване на въртящи се
reciprocating moving parts of agricultural machines depends или постъпателно-възвратни движещи се части на селскостопанските
mainly on the condition of processed object (plants, soil....) машини зависи основно от състоянието на обработвания
and amount of proceed product per time. So the required продукт (растения, почва…) и постъпващата му маса за
power capacity of the tractor engine is defined still also from единица време. Така необходимата мощност на тракторния
the need of the movement of the aggregate and for the двигател се определя още и от нужната за движение на
traction of machines. агрегата и за теглене на машините.
For the choice of the tractor it has to be take in При избора на трактор трябва да се отчитат и някои
consideration some of additional requirements: the допълнителни изисквания: подходяща ъглова скорост
appropriate angle velocity and the type of the PTO, the load и типа на вала за отвеждане на мощност, товароносимостта
capacity of three-points hitch, possibilities for regulation of на навесната система, възможностите за регулиране
adhesion force, transverse and longitudinal stability, especially на сцепното тегло, надлъжна и напречна устойчивост,
in the work with mounted machine, the way of hitching the особено при работа с навесни машини, начина на
working machine on the tractor [2, 15]. Of course the choice свързване на трактора с работната машина/и [2, 15].
Естествено при избора на подходящи трактори трябва
96
of the appropriate tractors should be heeded also the influence да се отчита и влиянието им върху околната среда.
on the environment. Especially it is important for agriculture Особено важно за земеделието е те да не уплътняват
tractors not to compact and destroy too much the soil. и разрушават прекалено почвата.
CHOICE OF AN AGRICULTURAL MACHINE FOR REPLACE ИЗБОР НА СЕЛСКОСТОПАНСКА МАШИНА ЗА ЗАМЯНА

Indisputably the first thing, as it follows to be taken into Безспорно първото нещо, което следва да се вземе
consideration, is the level of achieving the necessary предвид, е степента на постигане на нужните резултати.
results. For example, the tillage can be evaluated by the Например при почвообработка това може да се оцени
quality of soil: loosening, inverting, mixing, crumbling, с качеството на разрушаване на почвата, едрината на
leveling, compacting, destroying; plants damages. Along буците, степента на унищожение на растенията. Наред
with the quality, the work capacity of the machine with the с качеството важна е и производителността на машината
maximum working velocity is important too. при максимално допустимата работна скорост.
Както бе споменато по-горе необходимо е да се знае
As it was mentioned above it is necessary to know
постъпващата маса обработваем продукт за единица
mass of proceeded product per time. The greatest amount
време. Максимално възможната такава маса определя
of such mass without decreasing of quality defines field
пропускателната способност на машината. Както е
capacity of threshing and separation parts of machine, i.e. известно тя е различна за различни обработвани
harvester. As it is known, it is different for various types of видове почви и растения, както и състоянието им,
cultivated soils and plants, as well as their condition, for например тяхната влажност.
example moisture. Фактическата постъпваща маса зависи от работната
The greatest amount of proceeded mass without скорост и количеството обработван материал от
decreasing of quality depends on the working velocity, единица площ/обем. Ако се обработват растения се
quality of the material, and its amount per one unit of отчита, че част от тях остава на полето в стърнище и
area/volume. If there are plants cultivation it has to take разпилян продукт.
into account that part of them remains on the field in Мощността за теглене на машините зависи от
stubble or as a scattered product. дълбочината на обработка на почвата, ширината на
The power capacity for towing of machines depends on работа, в по-малка степен от скоростта на движение,
the depth of tillage, the working width, and to lesser extent масата на машините и наклона на полето.
of working velocity, mass of machines and slope of the Най-често се прилагат два достатъчно обосновани
field. подхода: източноевропейски и североамерикански.
Most often it is applied two well-founded approaches: Тяхната същност е описана в [1, 4, 25, 28, 29].
East-European and North-American. There are described Енергийна ефективност на агрегатите отчита и
in [1, 4, 25, 28, 29]. The energy efficiency of aggregates възможността за икономии на гориво [9, 22].
also takes into account possibility for saving of fuel [9, 22].
ПРИНЦИПИ ЗА ИЗБОР НА ПОДХОДЯЩИ СЪЧЕТАНИЯ
PRINCIPLES FOR CHOICE OF APPROPRIATE МЕЖДУ ТРАКТОРИ И МАШИНИ
COMBINATIONS BETWEEN TRACTORS AND MACHINES Естествено процедурата за избор на техника, с
Naturally the procedure for a choice of machinery, for която да се замени до сега използваната, започва с
replacing of used one begins with defining of set (a определяне на множеството на възможните
collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its решения. То трябва да включва всички достъпни за
own right) of the possible decisions. It has to include all купуване машини, удовлетворяващи изискванията за
accessible for buying machines, satisfying requirements for опазване на околната среда, безопасност на труда,
environment protection, labor safety, quality and качество и производителност и разбира се цена. За да
productivity and of course price. In order to be chosen се изберат съвременни машини, препоръчва се да се
modern machines, it is recommended to search such in търсят такива и в съседни страни. За това е
neighboring countries too. Therefore it is necessary to know необходимо да се знаят наименованията и другите
names, types, and other terms in the area of agricultural термините в областта на техниката за селското стопанство.
machinery. Most often they include also words about its Най-често става дума за такива за експлоатация,
exploitation, maintenance and repair, spare parts. In this case поддържане и ремонт, резервни части. В този случай е
it is desirable to be used specialized dictionaries, a желателно да се ползват специализирани речници,
problem which was discussed more detailed in [18]. въпрос който е обсъден по-подробно в [18].
Further it follows this set to be narrowed, in order easier to По-нататък следва това множество да се стеснява,
be made final evaluation with as more as possibly indexes. In за да се улесни окончателната оценка с възможно
a case with tractors this happens after evaluation of needed повече показатели. При тракторите това става след
tractor engine power and greatest towing force, as well as оценка на нужните мощност на тракторния двигател и
some additional requirements. And if only a tractor it will be максимална теглителна сила, както и допълнителните
replaced, then the new one should have enough power and изисквания. Ако се заменя само трактор, то новият
towing abilities not less than the replaced tractor. In a case of такъв трябва да има мощност и теглителни възможности
replacing a machine with similar one working parts (tines, не по-малки от тези на заменяния трактор. При замяна
shanks, etc.), filed capacity, and working width should not на машина с такава с подобни работни органи и
be bigger as a rule. The impact of machine weight is lesser вместимости, работната й ширина не трябва да е по-
in the most cases and do not change its possibility for голяма. Влиянието на теглото на машината е по-малко
aggregation. This approach is acceptable for replacing of и в повечето случаи не променя възможностите й за
only one tractor or one machine. агрегатиране. Този подход е приемлив при замяна
If it will be replaced more different types of machines or само на един трактор или една машина.
their wheels, caterpillar track, working parts and other Ако се заменя повече различна по вид техника или
important characteristics usually there are significant ходовата им система, работните им органи и други
difference. That’s why it is necessary a more accurate техни характеристики съществено се различават. За
evaluation of their capability in various combinations. To това е нужна по-точна оценка за съвместните им
make easier their comparison it is recommended a възможности. За улесняване на нужното сравнение е
procedure for calculation of indexes of all possible препоръчана процедура за пресмятане показателите
97
agricultural aggregates. It allows applying of the North- на възможните агрегати. Тя позволява прилагането на
American and the East-European approaches. For its подходите североамерикански и източноевропейски.
automation it can be used relevant spreadsheets and За автоматизирането й може да се ползват съответни
databases [20]. електронни таблици и бази данни [20].
In a change of tractor and machine fleet, for example При промяна в машинния парк, например поради
due to change of area and/or growing plants, the evaluation изменение на площите и/или отглежданите култури,
can be complicated significantly. In this case it is оценката се усложнява значително. В този случай се
recommended a simulation of all possible aggregates in a farm. препоръчва симулация на използването на всички
възможни агрегати в стопанството. Процесът на
Table 1
Technical characteristics of some machines and trailers manufactured in Bulgaria eligible for tractor TK-80 or other 4x2 in
towing class1,4
Tractor
Depth [cm]
Width Mass Speed ≤ [HP]
Machine Model Features Carrying
[m] [kg] [km/h] Towing
capacity
class
Plough mounted PLC 3 до 33 1,08 620 80 +
Ordinary
Plough mounted PN-2-30 до 27 0,6 380 6-9 80 +
Plough mounted PNO-3-25 Rotated до 22 0,75 560 6 - 10 40 - 60
Field cultivator KCK-4 до 12 4,1 650 ≤ 15 0,9 - 1,4
Field cultivator + fertilizer KHPT-5,6 до 15 60 - 80

KMO Mounted до 18 1,5 - 2,0 ≤ 10 40 - 80
Row cultivator
KOB-4,2 4 до 10 4,2 700 6-9 60 - 80
Broadcast seeder CЗ-3,75 2 до 8 3,75 1310 ≤ 10 1,4
Planter for row crops PC-6 Pneumatic 2 до 8 4,2 1210 ≤8 1,4
BDV 020 до 16 2,07 2040 8 - 15 60 - 80
Pulled
BDP-3,0 до 16 3,0 2000 ≤ 15 80 - 90
Offset disc harrow
BD 022 до 24 2,2 1050 5 - 10 75
BDN-2,0 Mounted 10 2,0 520 8 40 - 60
Soil spiker BRI-5,6 4 до 7 5,6 940 ≤ 11 1,4
PSHP-12B 13,5,16,0 1050 4 -12 60 - 80
Boom sprayer
AR3 12/16 12,0/16,0 1180/1460 ≤ 10 1,4 - 2,0
3,5 -
Airflow sprayer PVP-9A 1100 4 - 12 60 - 80
Pulled 10,0
PPU-1500 12,5/6,0 810/800 4 - 12 60 - 80
Sprayer universal
PPU-1001 12,5/6,0 600/625 4 - 12 60 - 80
TTS-2 до 36 950
Centrifugal spreader
TTSP-2,5M Semimounted до 36 800
Disk roller 3TVD-4,0 4,0 1200 6 55 + 1,4
BTX-4,5D 4,5 2100 ≤ 10 50 +
Hydraulic disk roller Pulled
BTX-6,0D 6,0 2500 ≤ 10 50 +
Compactor V 5,2 5,2 80+
F-200T/A 18 2,0 505 65 - 80
Rotary tiller
F-230T/A 18 2,3 615 80+
Mounted
MA-504 4,2 1100
Mulcher
КАМТ-4,2 4,2 1100 80
PCЗM One-axis 2,175 3000

Agricultural dump trailer
PC6-2 Double-axis 4,1 6000
Squadron for two seeders CPC-8 Pulled 540 80 - 100
Decision making process can be easier if relevant вземане на решение може да се улесни с използването на
98
software is using, described more detailed in [19]. съответен софтуер, описан по-подробно в [19].
RESULTS РЕЗУЛТАТИ
For the illustration of the procedure regarding За илюстриране на процедурата по замяна на
replacement of machines for the agriculture may be used машини за земеделието бе осъществена
above described procedure for tractor TK-80, production of гореописаната процедура за трактор ТК-80,
the Karlovo tractor factory for farmers in the north-east производство на Карловския тракторен завод за
central region (around the city of Ruse). Due to the lack of стопанства в североизточен централен район (около
a place in the paper is presented less of the half of град Русе).. Поради липса на място са представени по-
agricultural machines, produced in Bulgaria and малко от половината от селскостопанските машини,
appropriate for operations with this tractor. Apart from that, произведени в България и подходящи за работа с този
there are shown only those machines, to which have трактор.Освен това са показани само онези машини, за
accesses by internet to their main technical data. Also in които има интернет достъп до основните им
this way there have not been shown the imported технически данни. Също така не са показани внасяните
machined, being offered by traders of farm machinery in машини, предлагани от търговците на селскостопанска
Bulgaria and the neighboring countries. The problem of техника в България и съседните й страни. Въпросът за
choice and replace of harvesting machinery has been избор и замяна на прибираща техника е разгледан в
reviewed in another publication [21]. друга публикация [21].
The additional resources of data have been used from Допълнителни източници на данни са ползвани от
agrometeorological handbooks and soil maps of the агрометеорологически справочници, почвени карти на
country. There is accepted an average condition, for страната. Приети са средни условия, например
example for soil moisture for the relevant period of влажност на почвата за съответния период на работа.
operations. The norms for sowing, fertilizing, spraying are Нормите за сеитба, торене, пръскане са свързани със
linked with average yields in the certain region and the средните добиви за конкретните райони и следните
following cultures: wheat/barley, maize, sunflower and култури: пшеница/ечемик, царевица, слънчоглед и
rape. рапица.
It is desirable and advisable to be used at the same Желателно да се ползват едновременно данни за
time data for the needed power of the tractor and its towing нужната мощност на трактора и неговия теглителен
class. клас.
It is clear, that part of the machines does not have Вижда се, че за част от машините няма нужната
wanted technical information, for example the greatest техническа информация, например допустима работна
working speed. When there is a lack of the data for скорост. При липса на данни за оценка на техниката се
evaluation of machinery there is used interpolation and използва интерполация и даже екстраполация.
also extrapolation. The part of data about soil cone index Данните са почвеното съпротивление са проверени за
(soil resistance) is checked for some of the fields by a някои полета с помощта на почвен твърдомер
dynamic penetrometer. (пенетрометър).
The shown table is obtained after a partly narrowing of Показаната таблица е получена след частично стесняване
area of possible decisions. It is not obligatory, but на областта на възможните решения и не е задължителна, а
recommended, for specify decision making. препоръчителна, при вземането на конкретно решение.
CONCLUSIONS ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ
The offered decision making multi-step procedure for Предложената многостъпкова процедура за вземане
replacing of farm tractor and/or agricultural machine is на решение за замяна на трактор или селскостопанска
appropriate not only for farmers, but also for specialists in машина е подходяща както за фермери така и за
agricultural engineering. For the applying in the most cases специалисти по трактори и селскостопански машини.
there are enough publications of farm machinery producers За прилагането й в повечето случаи са достатъчни
like manuals, brochure, handbooks, etc. with technical данни публикувани от производителите и търговците
data. на техника за земеделието
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100
MOIRÉ SUPPORTED STRAIN DISTRIBUTION DETERMINATION ON MACHINE ELEMENTS

OF DISCONTINUOUS GEOMETRY
/
LEVANTAMENTO TOPOGRÁFICO DE PEÇAS MECÂNICAS DE GEOMETRIA DESCONTÍNUA
ATRAVÉS DA TÉCNICA DE MOIRÉ POR PHASE-SHIFTING
(1) (2)
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Jonathan Gazzola , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Kellen C. Cardoso , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Marcos V. G.
(2) (2)
Silva , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Inácio M. D. Fabbro
1)
Department of Agricultural Engineering, UFS, Aracaju, SE / Brazil;
2)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP / Brazil
Abstract: A diaphragm spring was chosen as a machine Resumo: Uma peça de mola lâmina, a qual inclui a
element of complex geometry, which integrates the clutch montagem deum mecanismo de embreagem foi
assembly. The tabs misalignment may result in vibrations selecionada para representar um elemento de
transmitted to the clutch system, as well as difficulties in driving máquina de geometria complexa. A falta de
the pedal and can also generate components deformation and alinhamento dos elementos da mola pode transmitir
thus premature wearing of the whole clutch system. The vibrações para todo o sistema, bem como
displacement of the diaphragm spring during clutch driving deformações permanentes em elementos do sistema e
promotes alterations on the stress and strain distribution on its consequentemente induzir a desgaste prematuro. A
profile as well as on the components associated to the spring, deformação do diafragma durante a operação gera
and tabs misalignment turns this distribution not uniform. The alterações na distribuição de carga e deformação em
determination of stress and strain is widely used in engineering. todo o sistema. A determinação de carga e
Classical methods as electrical strain gage, mechanical gage deformação é amplamente utilizada na engenharia em
and finite element simulations are useful to the qualification and geral. Métodos clássicos, como strain gage, elementos
quantification of load distribution in the specimens. Photoelastic finitos e outros são bastante uteis na quantificação e
techniques are gaining space, because it facilitates the stress qualificação de distribuição de cargas e deformação
and strain distribution determination, allowing clear visualization nos corpos em estudo. Técnicas fotoelásticas têm se
of the undergoing phenomena based on a quick and reliable tornado popular nos últimos anos, ganhando espaço
experimentation. The shadow moiré and projection moiré por facilitar a determinação da distribuição de carga e
techniques are the most commonly used methods primarily deformação mesmo em corpos de geometria
due to its measurement simplicity and quickness which complexa. Esses métodos oferecem facilidade de
supports frequent studies and proposed applications. The operação, rapidez e baixo custo. As vantagens da
advantage of using moiré techniques is associated to the aplicação de técnicas de moiré estão associadas ao
requirement of simple experimental setup for image acquisition requerimento de aparatos experimentais relativamente
and processing as well as its application to bodies of simple or simples para aquisição e processamento de imagens
complex geometry. The purpose of this study was to apply a em corpos de geometria simples ou mesmo
moiré technique to obtain the stress and strain qualification and complexas. O objetivo deste trabalho de pesquisa foi o
quantification on a spring membrane taken as a machine de aplicar a técnica denominada shadow moiré para
component of complex geometry. The shadow moiré technique determinar a distribuição de deformação e carga na
can assist the simulation to determine the strain, stress distribution superfície de mola membrana tomada como objeto de
on diaphragm spring surface. The computer simulation by finite prova. A simulação por elementos finitos e por strain
element technique and strain gauges, were used as the basis gages foram levadas a cabo com a finalidade de
of comparison between the results obtained by the moiré comparação e validação da técnica óptica proposta no
method to validate the application of the proposed optical estudo de elementos de máquinas de geometria
method to study of mechanical elements of complex geometry. complexa.
Keywords: moiré techniques, stress and strain Palavras Chave: técnicas de moiré, distribuição de
distribution, spring membrane, machine elements of cargas e deformações, mola membrana, elementos de
complex geometry. máquina, fotoelasticidade.
Three dimensional coordinate data of machine O presente trabalho destina-se ao estudo da técnica de
elements are very important for mechanical design, moiré para levantamento topográfico de peças mecânicas
reverse engineering, quality control, as well as to feed com geometria descontínua. A importância deste estudo
computer programs based in finite elements and others visa avaliar o uso da técnica de moiré para levantamento
methods. Many authors refer to three dimensional survey topográfico de peças mecânicas e seu uso para controle
of testing bodies as topographic survey. The pertinent de qualidade de peças, tão bem como, para engenharia
literature discloses several techniques devoted to three reversa. A técnica de moiré fundamenta-se no deslocamento
dimensional coordinates generation of bodies with regular relativo de duas grades ao qual fornecem franjas padrões
or irregular geometry, as hologram, speckle, moiré, com informações de superfície de um objeto. Pela técnica
pantograph and others. Optical methods can be used to de moiré por phase-shifting, grades deslocadas de 90°
describe the testing specimen in a three dimensional view, podem fornecer tais informações em um caso típico de
or even as photomechanical technique, i.e., to obtain the interferometria óptica. As grades são formadas por grades
stress and strain distribution on the body surface. Classic de cor clara e escura e de mesmo período, ou seja,
photoelasticity is considered the ancestor of the mesma largaura. A disposição das grades pode ser dos
photomechanical methods. However, some authors refer mais diversos formatos possíveis, porém as mais utilizadas
as photoelastic moiré or topographic moiré. Moiré são as grades formadas por faixas. However, some authors
101
methods can be considered as a family of optical refer as photoelastic moiré or topographic moiré. Moiré
techniques, presenting a broad variation of methods, methods can be considered as a family of optical
based on printing or on the projection of optical grids onto techniques, presenting a broad variation of methods, based
the testing body surface. The moiré phenomenon takes on printing or on the projection of optical grids onto the
place when two optical grids of certain density are testing body surface. The moiré phenomenon takes place
superposed at a specific angle; fringes are generated with when two optical grids of certain density are superposed at
different period and angle of the two initial screens (LINO; a specific angle; fringes are generated with different period
DAL FABBRO, 2004). Variations of moiré methods include and angle of the two initial screens (LINO; DAL FABBRO,
the application of virtual grids, Fourier, etc. However, the 2004). Variations of moiré methods include the application
objectives of this research work do not include the of virtual grids, Fourier, etc. However, the objectives of this
description the moiré methods, but only the application of research work do not include the description the moiré
a specific technique to reproduce the three dimension methods, but only the application of a specific technique to
coordinate data of a machine element which shape is reproduce the three dimension coordinate data of a
considered complex. The machine element was machine element which shape is considered complex. The
represented by a diaphragm spring which is of common machine element was represented by a diaphragm spring
occurrence in tractor as well as in transporting vehicles which is of common occurrence in tractor as well as in
clutch system. transporting vehicles clutch system.
MATERIAL AND METHODS MATERIAL E MÉTODOS

The experimental part of this research work was carried Os ensaios foram realizados no Laboratório de Óptica
in the Laboratory of Optics in the Faculty of Agricultural da Faculdade de Engenharia Agrícola da UNICAMP-SP.
Engineering at the State University of Campinas, SP, O arranjo óptico experimental contou com o uso de uma
Brazil. The selected experimental setup included a 7.1 câmera digital da marca SAMSUNG 7.1 MegaPixels, um
MegaPixels SAMSUNG digital camera, an Epson projetor multimídia da marca EPSON e um computador,
multimedia projector and PC, all arranged to project the que em conjunto, serviram para projetar as grades sobre
optical grids onto the testing body surface. The testing o corpo de prova. Para análise, foi selecionada uma mola
machine element was represented by a diaphragm spring membrana de embreagem, muito utilizada em tratores
used in tractor the clutch assembly painted with opaque agrícolas. A peça foi pintada com tinta spray fosca branca
white color to improve contrast. The testing element was para dar maior contraste às franjas. A mola foi fixada a
fixed to metal white board with magnets kept at vertical uma placa metálica de cor branca através de imãs, ao
position. Image processing was supported by the ImageJ qual o sustentou o corpo de prova na posição vertical.
and RisingSun Moiré programs. Six images were Para processamento de imagens, foram utilizados os
processed to obtain the final topographic representation of softwares ImageJ e RisingSun Moiré. Apenas uma
the testing machine element. repetição foi realizada para este trabalho de pesquisa.
The first image was taken from the grid projected onto Foram obtidas seis imagens para a análise de topografia da
the testing element, the four following images were peça mecânica, sendo uma imagem com a grade projetada
obtained from the grid projection onto the background, but sobre o corpo de prova, quatro outras imagens projetadas
out of phase by 90° one from each other and the last sobre o plano de fundo e defasadas de 90° entre si e uma
image was taken from the object without the optical grid, última imagem com uma grade totalmente branca, isto é, sem
i.e. to generate the mask. a grade e que servirá para formação da máscara.
Images were first open in the ImageJ software, As imagens foram abertas inicialmente no software ImageJ.
converting all of them to 8 bits (gray scale). Firstly, the Todas foram convertidas para 8 bits (Gray Scale) Primeiro
image without grid was selected to generate the mask. selecionou a imagem com a luz branca para formação da
The element shape was selected from the background by máscara. Através do comando Threshold, foi selecionado o
means of the Threshold command, separating the pixel by formato da mola membrana do plano de fundo apenas
tonality. That image was them transformed into a binary separando as tonalidades de pixels. A imagem foi transformada
image containing the element shape with vector value of 1 em uma imagem binária contendo o formato da peça com
and the background with vector value equal zero. Images vetores de valor 1 e o plano de fundo com vetores de valor
of the element and the images with the grid on the zero. As imagens com o corpo de prova e as imagens com a
background were multiplied by the binary mask by means grade no plano de fundo foram multiplicadas pela máscara
of the Image Calculator command to select the area of binária através do comando Image Calculator para que
interest. fossem selecionados apenas a parte de interesse para estudo.
Grid interference was carried with the support of the Ainda no ImageJ, a interferência das grades foi
ImageJ through the vectorial difference by the Difference realizada pelo processamento de diferença vetorial
command of the Image Calculator. Later on, a filtration acionado pela operação Difference do comando Image
was carried by means of the Gaussian Blur command to Calculator. Posteriormente uma filtragem feita pelo
remove noises generated by the grid projection onto the comando Gaussian Blur foi realizada para remover ruídos
testing element, keeping only the pattern fringes. That provocados pela projeção da grade no corpo e mantendo
procedure produced four images which were saved in a apenas as franjas padrões. Este proocessamento resultou
BMP file. em quatro imagens e salvas em arquivo BMP.
Following, these images were opened in the As imagens resultantes do processamento anterior foram
RisingSun Moiré program and by means of the abertas no programa RisingSun Moiré. O conjunto de quatro
Calculate Phase command the wrapped image was imagens foi aberto no programa e através do comando
obtained. The command Calculate Displacement Calculate Phase a imagem com a topografia empacotada foi
from Phase carried the unwrapping procedure to obtida. O comando Calculate Displacement from Phase desempacotou
save in BMP. Finally, the image was open in the a imagem resultante da interferência das franjas. O arquivo
ImageJ program and through the Interactive 3D resultante foi salvo em BMP. Finalmente a imagem foi aberta
Surface Plot the three dimensional image of the no software ImageJ e através do comando Interactive 3D
testing body was finally obtained. The Plot Profile Surface Plot a imagem tri dimensional de campo completo do
102
command generates the qualitative topographic map corpo de prova foi obtido. O comando Plot Profile obtém o
of a sectional area. levantamento topográfico qualitiativo de uma área de seção.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO

Figure 1 shows the resulting topographic image of the A Figura 1 mostra os resultados de campo completo do
levantamento topográfico da mola membrana, obtido pelo
testing element as generated by the moiré method.
processamento final da imagem pela técnica de moiré.
Fig. 1 - Resulting interaction between grid and unwrapped image of the diaphragm spring
The ImageJ software shows several types topographic O software ImageJ apresenta diversos tipos de mapa de
images, as, Topographic survey by color and by gradient. levantamento topográfico. Os principais são: Levantamento
In the color survey the color is associated with color Topográfico por cores e por Gradiente. No levantamento por
cores, o mapa topográfico tem sua altura relacionada à variação
showing also an auxiliary scale. The scale indicates pixels de cores e uma régua de apoio para análise. A régua em
and not dimensions. Figure 2 exhibits the color questão não são módulos dimensionais e sim pixelares. A
topographic image. Figura 2 mostra o mapa de levantamento topográfico por cores.
Gradient map presents only variation of tonality O mapa por gradiente apresenta apenas a variação dos
according to topographic elevation. Figure 3 shows the tons da cor de acordo com sua elevação topográfica. A Figura
topographic color gradient. 3 mostra o levantamento topográfico por gradiente de cores
Fig. 2 - Color topographic map
Fig. 3 - Gradient topographic map
103
By comparing both images, it can be noted an easier Comparando as duas imagens, perceba que o
perception of the altimetry on the color topographic levantamento topográfico por cores a percepção da
map if compared with the gradient mapping. However, variação altimétrica é mais fácil de ser visualizada que no
the details of the element under analysis are easier levantamento por cores, porém, os detalhes da mola
noted on the gradient mapping. The ImageJ software podem ser mais bem detalhados no levantamento por
can also generate three dimensional topographic gradiente que por cores. O software ImageJ também
mapping. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show three fornece imagens de levantamento topográfico 3D. As
figuras 4 e 5 mostram os resultados obtidos de levantamento
dimensional mapping as generated by color and
tridimensional para a mola membrana com levantamento
gradient survey, respectively.
topográfico por cores e por gradiente, respectivamente.
a) b)
Fig. 4 - Color topographic survey: a) isometric view and b) lateral view
a) b)
Fig. 5 - Gradiente topographic survey: a) isometric view and b) lateral view
Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the results of As Figuras 6 e 7 mostram os resultados do

topographic survey of longitudinal and lateral sections, levantamento topográfico de área de seção longitudinal e
respectively. lateral, respectivamente.
Fig. 6 - Topographic survey of longitudinal section
Fig. 7 - Topographic survey of lateral section
104
Results shows slight enclination between top and Os resultados mostram que houve uma ligeira inclinação
botton borders, which is caused by two error sources: (1) entre as bordas superiores e inferiores. Esta diferenciação é
this first one is associated the body geometry, in which the originado por duas fontes de erro: A primeira está relacionado à
elements are different from each other. (2) The second própria geometria da peça, em que os dentes da mola membrana
one related to grid projection and capture. The relative são diferenciados entre si. A segunda está relacionada à projeção
angle between the camera and the multimedia projector das grades e sua captura. O ângulo relativo entre a câmera e
generates a slight inclination of the testing element. These o projetor multimídia gera uma leve inclinação da peça. Estes
errors can be minimized by improving the setup erros por aquisição de imagem podem ser diminuídos com
adjustment. uma melhor calibração do arranjo experimental.
Based on what it has been exposed before it can Os resultados acima permite concluir que a técnica de moiré
be concluded that the moiré technique is useful to é perfeitamente passível de ser utilizada para fazer levantamento
carry topographic survey of bodies showing topográfico de objetos com geometria descontínua. Os resultados,
discontinuous geometry. The results as presented in apresentados em tons de cores e pixels podem ser convertidos
color mapping as well as in pixels can be easily facilmente para unidades dimensionais, fazendo assim que esta
transformed into dimensional units which would be ferramenta possa ser utilizável como ferramenta para engenharia
applicable to quality control as well as to reverse reversa e controle de qualidade de peças. Recomendam-se
engineering. Projection errors minimization, estudos mais aprofundados para diminuir erros de projeção e
comparative topographic survey including laser estudos comparativos de levantamento topográfico de peças
scanning, contact equipment and caliper are highly através de outras técnicas de medição, tais como,
recommended. varredura à laser, máquina de contato, paquímetro, etc.
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THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING IMPROVING ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF A

RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEM OF SUPERINTENSIVE FISH GROWING
/
CONSIDERAłII TEORETICE PRIVIND ÎMBUNĂTĂłIREA CONSUMULUI ENERGETIC AL UNUI
SISTEM ACVACOL RECIRCULANT DE CREŞTERE SUPERINTENSIVĂ A PEŞTILOR
PhD. Stud. Eng. David E-A, Phd. Eng. Pop A., PhD. Stud. Eng. Andrei S.
Tel: 0741122570; E-mail: eveline_anda@yahoo.com
Abstract: Aquaculture efficiency practiced in Rezumat: EficienŃa acvaculturii practicată în sistemele

recirculating aquaculture systems depends on a variety acvacole recirculante depinde de o multitudine de
of factors, among which the most important is the energy factori, printre care cel mai important este energia
consumed by the whole system. In order to assure a high consumată de întregul sistem. Pentru a asigura un grad
degree of energy conservation, in a recirculating ridicat de conservare al energiei, într-un sistem acvacol
aquaculture system has to be maximized the recirculating recirculant trebuie maximizat gradul de recirculare al apei
water degree and has to be imposed the use of şi trebuie impusă folosirea unor surse de energie
renewable energy sources for heating, respective for neconvenŃionale pentru încălzirea, respectiv răcirea apei
cooling the water within system as well as of hall. din sistem cât şi a halei. MenŃinerea unui climat adecvat
Maintenance of an appropriate climate in a recirculating într-un sistem acvacol recirculant presupune un consum
aquaculture system involves high energy consumption, de energie ridicat, datorită cantităŃilor mari de apă ce
determined by high water quantities which have to be trebuie încălzite sau răcite, precum şi datorită menŃinerii
heat or cool, as well as determined by maintaining water temperaturii apei şi a spaŃiului de creştere.
temperature and of breeding space. O soluŃie optimă pentru înlocuirea sistemelor
An optimal solution for replacing conventional systems convenŃionale de răcire/încălzire şi optimizarea
of heating/cooling and optimizing of energy consumption consumului energetic este utilizarea pompelor de
is the use of the heat pumps. In the present paper are căldură. În lucrarea de faŃă se prezintă rezultatele
presented experimental results performed with a heat experimentale efectuate cu o pompă de căldură de tip
pump of water-water type at different water replacing apă-apă la diferite rate de înlocuire a apei şi la diferite
rates and two different water flows for demonstrating debite de apă pentru a se demonstra eficienŃa unei
efficiency of a heat pump for improving energy pompe de căldură pentru îmbunătăŃirea consumului
consumption of a RAS. energetic al unui SAR.
Keywords: recirculating aquaculture system, energy Cuvinte cheie: sistem acvacol recirculant, consum
consumption, heat pump energetic, pompă de căldură
Worldwide, the aquaculture practiced in recirculating Pe plan mondial, acvacultura practicată în sisteme
aquaculture system presents a high interest especially for acvacole recirculante prezintă un interes ridicat mai ales
fish valuable species, such as sturgeons. pentru creşterea speciilor de peşti valoroase cum sunt sturionii.
Recirculating systems of fish superintensive growing in Sistemele recirculante de creştere superintensivă a
comparing with aquaculture practiced in traditional way in peştilor faŃă de acvacultura practicată în mod tradiŃional
ponds present the advantage of land and water în heleşteie prezintă avantajul de economicitate a
resources economy and allow fish growing in controlled terenului, a resurselor de apă şi permite creşterea
environment conditions [1]. materialului piscicol în condiŃii de mediu controlate [1].
This type of system allows water treatment by removal Acest tip de sistem permite tratarea apei prin
of residual solids, ammonia and nitrites oxidation, îndepărtarea solidelor reziduale, oxidarea amoniacului şi
elimination of carbon dioxide, aeration and/or a nitriŃilor, eliminarea dioxidului de carbon aerarea şi/sau
oxygenation and water disinfection, if necessary [1]. oxigenarea şi dacă este necesar dezinfecŃia apei [1].
The efficiency of aquaculture practiced within EficienŃa acvaculturii practicată în sistemele
recirculating systems depends of a variety of factors, recirculante depinde de mai mulŃi factori, printre care cel
among which the most important is the system energy mai important este energia consumată de sistem. Pentru
consumption. To ensure a high degree of conservation of a asigura un grad ridicat de conservare a energiei într-un
energy in a recirculating aquaculture system, the water sistem acvacol recirculant, trebuie maximizat gradul de
recycling degree has to be maximized and has to be recirculare a apei şi trebuie impusă folosirea unor surse
imposed the use of renewable energy resources for de energie alternative neconvenŃionale pentru încălzirea,
heating or cooling water or hall has to be imposed. In this respectiv răcirea apei sau a halei. Pentru acest scop
purpose the optimal solution is to use water soluŃia optimă este folosirea unei instalaŃii de
heating/cooling by a heating pump. [4]. încălzire/răcire a apei cu pompe de căldură [4].
Maintaining of an appropriate climate in a recirculating MenŃinerea unui climat adecvat într-un sistem acvacol
aquaculture system involves high energy consumption, recirculant presupune un consum de energie ridicat,
determined by high water quantities which have to be datorită cantităŃilor mari de apă ce trebuie încălzite sau
heated or cooled. răcite.
An optimal solution for replacing conventional systems O soluŃie optimă pentru înlocuirea sistemelor convenŃionale
of heating, respective of cooling and optimizing of energy de răcire respectiv încălzire şi optimizare a consumului
consumption is using of the heat pumps. energetic este utilizarea pompelor de căldură.
107
The main heat pumps used in the present in function Principalele tipuri de pompe de căldură utilizate în
of the nature of the cool source are of air-water, water- prezent, în funcŃie de natura sursei reci, sunt cele de tip:
water and soil-water types [2, 3, 6]. aer – apă, apă – apă şi sol – apă [2, 3, 6].
By comparative analysis of different types of heat Făcând o analiză comparativă a diferitelor tipuri de
pump, depending on the nature of the source of the used pompă de căldură, în funcŃie de natura sursei de energie
energy, result the following data within table no.1. [4]. utilizată, se obŃin datele din tabelul 1 [4].
Table 1
Types of heat pumps according to the type of energy source used
Type/Characteristic Air – Water Water –Water Soil – Water
Value COP small big big
Variation COP
variable constant relatively constant
Depending on the climate conditions
Installing costs small big very big
Operating safety small big big
Thermic power small very big big
Possibility of passive cooling no yes only models with vertical wells
In which COP is the coefficient of real performance În care COP este coeficientul de performanŃă real şi
and is defined as a ratio between the produced thermic se defineşte ca raportul dintre energia termică produsă şi
energy and electric energy consumed for producing it. energia electrică consumată pentru producerea acesteia.
The operation of heating / cooling water from the RAS FuncŃionarea instalaŃiei de încălzire/răcire a apei din SAR
heat pump type water - water is shown in Fig. 1. The cu pompă de căldură de tip apă – apă este prezentată în
system consists of five different circuits. fig. 1. InstalaŃia este alcătuită din cinci circuite distincte:
A – primary circuit of groundwater extracted from the A – circuitul primar al apei freatice extrase din puŃ,
well, (cool source), (sursa rece),
B – circuit of refrigerant, B – circuitul agentului frigorific,
C – intermediate circuit of warm or cold water, C – circuitul intermediar de apă caldă sau rece;
D – circuit of passive cooling, D – circuitul de răcire pasivă,
E – circuit of recirculating aquaculture system, RAS. E – circuitul sistemului acvacol recirculant, SAR.
For carrying out the heat, the groundwater extracted Pentru realizarea procesului de încălzire apa freatică
from the well (1) by means of the submerged pump (2) extrasă din puŃ (1), cu ajutorul pompei submersibile (2)
reaches the evaporator of the heat pump (4), where it ajunge în vaporizatorul pompei de căldură (4), unde
gives off heat of the refrigerant, which evaporates. cedează căldură agentului frigorific, care se vaporizează.
Groundwater which is initially at a temperature of 8 ÷ Apa freatică, care are iniŃial temperatura de 8÷10°C, la
10°C, while passing through the evaporator is coole d to trecerea prin vaporizator se răceşte cu cca. 5°C,
approx. 5°C, to about 3 ÷ 5°C. ajungând la 3÷5°C.
This water is reintroduced into the second well (drain Această apă este reintrodusă în al doilea puŃ (puŃ de
well). Refrigerant, which has boiling temperature at -2°C, golire). Agentul frigorific, care are temperatura de fierbere
takes heat from the groundwater and turns into vapor. –2°C preia c ăldura cedată de apa freatică şi se
They are compressed in the compressor and go to a transformă în vapori. Aceştia sunt comprimaŃi în
temperature of + 73.5°C, after which get the conden ser, compresor, ajungând la temperatura de +73,5°C, dup ă
and where by condensation give off heat (latent heat of care ajung în condensator, unde, prin condensare,
evaporation) to the water from an intermediate circuit. cedează căldură (căldura latentă de vaporizare) apei din
The refrigerant returns to a liquid state and the cycle circuitul intermediar. Agentul frigorific revine la starea
continues. The water heated in the intermediate circuit at lichidă şi ciclul se continuă. Apa din circuitul intermediar
65 ÷ 68°C is introduced into the external heat exch anger încălzită la 65÷68°C se introduce în schimb ătorul de
(6), where it gives up heat to the water re-circulated from căldură extern (6), unde cedează căldură apei recirculate
the basins of the fish growing. din bazinele de creştere a peştilor.
The cooling process is carried out in a similar manner, Procesul de răcire se realizează în mod asemănător,
only the water circuits of the heat pumps reverse. Water doar că se inversează circuitele de apă la pompa de
reaches the secondary circuit evaporator where the căldură. Apa din circuitul secundar ajunge la vaporizator
refrigerant gives off heat that vaporizes and groundwater unde cedează căldură agentului frigorific care se
takes heat from the refrigerant in the condenser. The vaporizează, iar apa freatică preia căldură de la agentul
water cooling process is used only in exceptional cases frigorific în condensator. Acest procedeu de răcire al apei
(at very high temperatures). Usually it is used a so-called se utilizează numai în cazuri excepŃionale (la temperaturi
passive cooling water, which consists in introducing the exterioare foarte ridicate). În mod uzual se foloseşte aşa
groundwater directly into the external heat exchanger numita răcire pasivă care constă în introducerea apei
by passing of the heat pump. Thus the recycled water freatice direct în schimbătorul de căldură extern prin
from the basins releases heat directly to the ocolirea pompei de căldură. În acest fel apa recirculată
groundwater. din bazine cedează căldură în mod direct apei freatice.
This operating mode is particularly advantageous Acest regim de funcŃionare este deosebit de avantajos
because it consumes only electricity required for driving deoarece nu se consumă decât energia electrică
the submersible pump [2, 3, 6]. necesară antrenării pompei submersibile [2, 3, 6].
108
Fig. 1 - The functioning scheme of a heat pump for RAS
MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

The recirculating aquaculture system of sturgeons Sistemul acvacol recirculant de creştere superintensivă a
superintensive breeding for which the experiments were sturionilor pentru care s-au făcut experimentările în
done in order to determine the energy consumption using vederea determinării consumului energetic folosind
the heat pump was composed of: 9 tanks for fish growing pompa de căldură a fost compus din: 9 bazine de
3
with a volume of 5.65 m water/tank, water supply creşterea peştilor cu un volum util de apă de 5.65
3
systems and drainage, in and from the tanks, a group of m /bazin, sisteme de alimentare şi evacuare a apei, în şi
pumps, an UV sterilizing apparatus, biologic filter, din bazine, un grup de pompare, instalaŃie de sterilizare
installation of heating/cooling with heat pump, heat cu UV, filtru biologic, instalaŃie de încălzire/răcire cu
exchanger, aeration and oxygenation systems, pompă de căldură, schimbător de căldură, instalaŃii de
continuous monitoring devices of the physical-chemical aerare şi oxigenare, aparate de monitorizare în flux
parameters of the water (probes for the determination of continuu a parametrilor fizico-chimici ai apei (sonde
oxygen dissolved, temperature, nitrate and nitrite, pH, pentru determinarea: oxigenului dizolvat, a temperaturii,
conductivity, and turbidity of the suspended solids, nitraŃilor şi nitriŃilor, pH-lui, conductivităŃii, suspensiilor
ammonium), control and automation installation and solide şi a turbidităŃii, a amoniului), instalaŃie de comandă
drilling for cleaning water. şi automatizare şi foraj pentru apa de primenire
Water heating Încălzirea apei

Within first stage has been carried on the filling of the În prima etapă s-a procedat la umplerea sistemului cu
system with water. The storage tank was filled with water apă. S-a umplut bazinul de stocare cu apă după care, s-
after which the valves of the basins have been open. The au deschis robinetele de alimentare a bazinelor de
water volume contained in the system was: creştere. Volumul de apă conŃinut în sistem a fost:
3 3
VT = n x VB + VBS = 9 x 5,65 + 21,2 m = 72,05 m (1)
3
where: VT [m³] – total volume of water contained in the unde: VT [m ] – volumul total de apă conŃinut în sistem;
3 3
system; VB [m³] – real volume of the tank used for VB [m ] – volumul util al unui bazin de creştere; VBS [m ]
growing; VBS [m³] – real volume of the storage tank; n – – volumul util al bazinului de stocare; n – numărul de
number of the breeding tanks. bazine creştere.
Within calculation was neglected the water amount În calcule s-a neglijat cantitatea de apă conŃinută de
contained in the pipes as it is about 0.01% of the total conducte, deoarece aceasta reprezintă cca. 0.01% din
volume of water. Since the drilling system for the fresh volumul total de apă. Având în vedere că forajul destinat
water supply is equipped with a pump of small alimentării cu apă proaspătă a sistemului este echipat cu
3 3
capacity (for cca.7 m /h), filling the entire system was o pompă de capacitate mică (de cca.7 m /h), umplerea
performed in several steps, in total in 36 hours. întregului sistem s-a realizat în mai multe etape,
Because of the operation duration, the temperature of totalizând 36 de ore. Datorită duratei acestei operaŃii,
the water in the system, t1 , has come to ambient temperatura apei din sistem, t1, a ajuns la temperatura
temperature ta. mediului ambiant, ta.
t1 = ta = 14°C t1 = ta = 14°C
It has been scheduled the operating temperature of A fost programată o temperatură de funcŃionare a
the system to be: sistemului:
t2 = 20°C t2 = 20°C
Was started water circulation in the system with the S-a efectuat vehicularea apei din sistem, cu ajutorul
circulation pump. As water circulation through filters does pompei de recirculare. Deoarece vehicularea apei prin
not influence the thermal balance, in order to avoid water filtre nu are nici o influenŃă asupra bilanŃului termic,
losses and useless energy consumption the basins pentru a se evita atât pierderile de apă cât şi consumul
evacuation system was directly connected to aspiration inutil de energie electrică s-a realizat legarea directă a
of recirculating pump. evacuării bazinelor la aspiraŃia pompei de recirculare.
Then, it was performed pump heat operation. It was
109
chosen an operating regime which allows the water Apoi, s-a procedat la punerea în funcŃiune a pompei
heating from the secondary circuit flow to 35°C. It has de căldură. S-a ales un regim de funcŃionare care să
been found that after approximately 10 hours of permită încălzirea apei din turul circuitului secundar
operation, water within the system has reached the până la 35°C. S-a constatat că după o funcŃionare de
temperature t2 = 20°C. cca. 10 ore, apa din sistem a ajuns la temperatura t2 =
For water heating within the system has been 20°C.
consumed a total amount of heat [2, 3, 6]. Pentru încălzirea apei din sistem s-a consumat o
cantitate de energie termică totală [2, 3, 6].
ET = Q1 + QP1 (2)
Q1 = m X c X ∆t = ρa X VT X c X (t2 – t1) (3)
Q P1 = Q Aer + qP (4)
Q Aer = qAer X VAer X cAer X (t2 – t1) (5)
qP = є VAer X T (6)
where: ET [kWh] – total thermal energy consumption unde: ET [kWh] – energia termică totală consumată pentru
for water heating; Q1 [kWh] – heat taken up by water; încălzirea apei; Q1 [kWh] –energia termică preluată de
QP1 [kWh] – heat transferred by water to environment apă; QP1 [kWh] – energia termică cedată de apă mediului
(heat loss); înconjurător (căldura pierdută);
m [kg] – total water mass; c [kcal/kg grd.] – specific m [kg] – masa totală de apă; c [kcal/kg grd.] – căldura
3
heat of water at constant pressure; ρa [kg/m3] – water specifică a apei la presiune constantă; ρa [kg/m ] –
density; QAer [kWh] – thermal energy taken from the air densitatea apei; QAer [kWh] – energia termică preluată de
in the hall; qP [kWh] – lost thermal energy through walls, aerul din hală; qP [kWh] – energia termică pierdută prin
3 3
windows, doors etc.; qAer = 1.29 kg/m – air density; cAer pereŃi, ferestre, uşi etc.; qAer = 1,29 kg/m – densitatea
3
= 0.239 kcal/ kg grd. – air specific heat; VAer = 500 m – aerului; cAer = 0,239 kcal/ kg grd. – căldura specifică a
3
air volume in the hall; є [W/m3h] – heat loss coefficient; є aerului; VAer = 500 m – volumul de aer din hală; є
-3 3
= 8 x 10 W/m3h;T [h] – time, [W/m h] – coeficientul de pierdere de căldură;
-3 3
results: є = 8 x 10 kW/m h; T [h] - timpul,
Q1 = 1.000 x 72.05 x 1 x (20 - 14) = 435.000 kcal rezultă:
or Q1 = 1.000 x 72.05 x 1 x (20 - 14) = 435.000 kcal
-3
Q1 = 1.63 x 10 x 435.000 = 505.9kWh sau
-3
QAer = 1.29 x 500 x 0.239 x (20 – 14) = 925 kcal Q1 = 1.163 x 10 x 435.000 = 505.9kWh
or Q Aer = 1,29 x 500 x 0,239 x (20 – 14) = 925 kcal
Q Aer = 1.075kWh sau Q Aer = 1.075kWh
-3 -3
qp = 8 x 10 x 500 x 10 = 40 kWh qP = 8 x 10 x 500 x 10 = 40 kWh
Q P1 = 1.075 + 40 = 41.075kWh Q P1 = 1.075 + 40 = 41.075kWh
and şi
ET = Q1 + QP1 = 505.9 + 41.075= 546.9kWh ET = Q1 + QP1 = 505.9 + 41.075 = 546.9kWh
After the 10 hours of working it has been read the După cele 10 ore de funcŃionare s-a citit cantitatea de
amount of electricity consumed on electric meter of the energie electrică consumată pe contorul electric al
heat pump: pompei de căldură:
EC = 99 kWh EC = 9 kWh
Finally, we determined the performance coefficient of În cele din urmă s-a determinat coeficientul de
the heat pump: performanŃă al pompei de căldură:
ET 546.9
COP = = = 5.52 (7)
Ec 99
The next stage was to maintain the operating După ce a fost determinat coeficientul de performanŃă
temperature of the system at Ts = 20°C, with differ ent termică a pompei de căldură s-a urmărit posibilitatea
refresh rates of water. Thus, there were carried out menŃinerii temperaturii de funcŃionare a sistemului la ts =
refresh rates of the water system with 10 %/24 hours, 20 20ºC, cu diferite rate de împrospătare a apei. Astfel s-au
%/24 hours and 30 %/24 hours realizat rate de împrospătarea apei din sistem cu 10 % /
Water replacement rate: 10 %/24 hours 24 ore, 20 % / 24 ore şi 30 % / 24 ore
The volume of the recirculating system is: Rata de înlocuire a apei: 10 % / 24 ore
3
VR = 9 x 5.65 ≈ 50 m Volumul de apă recirculat în sistem este:
3
The amount of water for substitution is: VR = 9 x 5.65 ≈ 50 m
VÎ1 = 10% x 50 = 5 m³/24h Volumul de apă de înlocuire este:
3
After replacing an amount of about 5m³, the water Vî1 = 10% x 50 = 5 m /24h
3
temperature in the basin reached 20°C at: După înlocuirea unei cantităŃi de aproximativ 5m ,
t1 = 18°C temperatura apei din bazin a ajuns de la 20°C la:
t1 = 18°C
RESULTS
Measurements were carried out on a heat pump REZULTATE
water-water type for heating and cooling regimes and the S-au efectuat măsurători pe o pompă de căldură de tip
obtained results were filled in the tables below. apă-apă pentru regimuri de încălzire şi răcire iar
It has been calculated the thermal energy used to heat rezultatele obŃinute s-au înscris în tabelele de mai jos.
the water up to temperature t2 = 20°C and has been read S-a calculat energia termică consumată pentru
the electricity consumption. The experiments were încălzirea apei până la temperatura t2 = 20°C şi s-a citit
110
repeated for different rates of replacement of the water in consumul de energie electrică. S-au repetat
the system. The obtained results are shown in table no. experimentările pentru diferite rate de înlocuire a apei din
2. sistem. Rezultatele obŃinute sunt prezentate în tabelul 2
Table 2
COP results on the rate and amount of water replacement for heating the water in the system
Replacement Water amount of
Temperature t1 Temperature t2 ET Ec
Den. no. rate replacement COP
[ºC] [ºC] [kWh] [kWh]
[%/24 hours] [m3/24 hours]
1 10 5 18 20 51.99 9.65 5.39
2 20 10 16 20 87,24 16.04 5.44
3 30 15 15 20 128.12 23.60 5.43
Results an average performance coefficient: Rezultă un coeficient de performanŃă mediu:

COPMedium = 5.42 COPMediu = 5.42
The difference towards the theoretical COP is due to DiferenŃa faŃă de COP teoretic se datorează pierderilor
heat loss into the environment due on account of low de căldură în mediul ambiant din cauza unor izolaŃii
degree of insulations. necorespunzătoare.
Water cooling Răcirea apei:
Tests for water cooling were carried out when the Încercările pentru răcirea apei s-au efectuat când temperatura
ambient temperature was 18°C, water was heated unti l ambiantă era de 18ºC, s-a efectuat încălzirea apei până la
25°C, after which the cooling cycle was start. Fina l temperatura de 25ºC după care s-a început ciclul de răcire.
cooling temperature was set at 20°C. Temperatura finală de răcire s-a fixat ca fiind 20ºC.
After measurements have been obtained the following În urma măsurătorilor s-au obŃinut următoarele
results, filled in the table no. 3: rezultatele afişate în tabelul 3:
Table 3
Measured values for water cooling
Den. no. ta [ºC] t1 [ºC] t2 [ºC] Ec [kWh] ET [kWh] EER
1 18 25 20 69.03 462.48 6.7
2 18 24 20 56.42 377.99 6.7
3 18 23 20 43.80 293.49 6.7
4 18 22 20 31.19 208.99 6.7
where: ta [ºC] = room temperature; t1[ºC] = water unde: ta [ºC]= temperatura ambiantă; t1[ºC] = temperatura
temperature in the system at the start of test; t2 [ºC] = apei din sistem la începutul încercării;t2[ºC] = temperatura
water temperature in the system at the end of test; Ec apei din sistem la sfârşitul încercării; Ec [kWh] = energia
[kWh] = consumed electricity; ET [kWh] = thermal electrică consumată; ET [kWh] = energia termică cedată
energy; EER = cooling power efficiency is the ratio of de apă; EER = eficienŃa energetică de răcire este raportul
consumed electric energy and generated cooling power. dintre energia electrică consumată şi puterea de răcire generată.
Technology for fish growing in recirculating aquaculture Aceste tehnologii de creştere a peştilor în sistem acvacol
system is a technology of high energy consumption. recirculant sunt energofage, deoarece menŃinerea unui
Maintaining an appropriate environment within a climat adecvat într-un sistem acvacol recirculant de
recirculating aquaculture system for fish growing supposes creştere a peştilor presupune un consum de energie ridicat
high energy consumption as a consequence of high water datorită cantităŃilor mari de apă ce trebuie încălzită sau
quantity which has to be heated or cooled, as well as răcită, precum şi datorită necesităŃii menŃinerii temperaturii
through maintaining water temperature and air in the hall. apei şi a aerului din hală.
A significant share from production costs are O pondere importantă din costurile de producŃie o
represented by expenses with energy consumption for reprezintă cheltuielile efectuate cu energia consumată
heating and cooling water within the tanks. For this pentru încălzirea şi răcirea apei din bazine. Din acest
reason it is recommended to use the most efficient motiv se recomandă utilizarea unor soluŃii cât mai
solutions for thermal energy producing, necessary for eficiente de producere a energiei termice necesară
the system. sistemului.
In the table no.4 are summarized the results from În tabelul 4 sunt prezentate sintetic rezultatele obŃinute în
measurements made with a heat pump water-water type: urma măsurătorilor efectuate cu o pompă de căldură de tip apă-apă:
Table 4
Values obtained from measurements made on a heat pump type water-water for heating and cooling mode
Temperature cool sources/ Prescribed Measured (calculated)
Name of requirement M.U.
Flow temperature value value
Heating mode
Heating capacity W10/W35 kW 54.4 53
Absorbed power W10/W35 kW 9.9 9.8
Performance coefficient, COP W10/W35 - 5.5 5.4
Absorbed current W10/W35 A 18.8 18.6
Cooling mode
Cooling capacity W10/W18 kW 63.6 63.6
Absorbed power W10/W18 kW 9.5 9.5
111
Temperature cool sources/ Prescribed Measured (calculated)

Name of requirement M.U.
Flow temperature value value
EER cooling energy efficiency W10/W18 - 6.7 6.7
Absorbed current W10/W18 A 16.5 16.5
Technology for fish growing in recirculating Tehnologia de creştere a peştilor în sistem acvacol
aquaculture system is a technology of high energy recirculant este o tehnologie energofagă.
consumption. Metoda cea mai eficientă din punct de vedere
The most efficient method from economic point of view economic pentru încălzirea şi răcirea apei din SAR este
for heating and cooling the water from RAS is to use heat înlocuirea sistemelor convenŃionale de încălzire/răcire a
pumps. apei, cu pompe de căldură.
By using a heat pump water-water type with a COP = Prin utilizarea unei pompe de căldură de tipul apă-apă
5.4, 1kWh of thermal energy has been obtained cu un COP = 5.4, 1kWh de energie termică se obŃine de
approximately 5.4 times cheaper than that obtained by aproximativ 5.4 ori mai ieftin decât folosind energie
using electricity. electrică.
[1]. Cristea V., Grecu I. Ceapă C. (2002) – Engineering of [1]. Cristea V., Grecu I., Ceapă C. (2002) – Ingineria
recirculating aquaculture system, Ed. Didactical and sistemelor recirculante din acvacultură, Ed. Didactică şi
Pedagogical R.A. Publishing, Bucharest, p.13-27; Pedagogică R.A. Bucureşti, p. 13-27;
[2]. Florescu A., Duicu T., Burchiu N. (1985) – Installations of [2]. Florescu A., Duicu T., Burchiu N.(1985) – InstalaŃii
heating pumps ,Technical Publishing, Bucharest, de pompe de căldură, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti;
[3]. Gavrilescu R. (2003) – Heating pumps, Matixrom [3] Gavrilescu R. (2003) – Pompe de căldură, Editura
Publishing, Bucharest; Matixrom, Bucureşti;
[4]. Pop A., David P. (2007) – Utilization of heat pumps [4]. Pop A., David P. (2007) – Utilizarea pompelor de
for water heating/cooling in fish superintensive căldură pentru încălzirea/răcirea apei din sistemele
recirculating breeding systems, Scientific papers recirculante de creştere superintensivă a peştilor,.
(INMATEH), vol. 5, no. 23, p. 209-214; Lucrări ŞtiinŃifice (INMATEH), vol. 5, nr. 23, p. 209-214;
[5]. Pop A. (2007) – Research and development of a [5]. Pop A. (2007) – Cercetarea şi dezvoltarea unei
technology of fish superintensive breeding within a tehnologii pentru creşterea superintensivă a peştilor într-
recirculating system with optimization of technological un sistem recirculant cu optimizarea parametrilor
parameters and assuring the sanitary-veterinary protection, tehnologici şi asigurarea protecŃiei sanitar-veterinare,
INMA Bucharest, contr. no. 51- 054 / 14.09.2007; INMA Bucureşti, contr. nr. 51-054/14.09.2007;
[6]. RăduleŃ R. et alt., (1957-1966) – Romanian Technical [6]. RăduleŃ R. şi colab. (1957-1966) – Lexiconul Tehnic
Lexicon, Technical Publishing Bucharest. Român, Editura Tehnică Bucureşti.
112
INFLUENCE OF TILLAGE TOOLS CUTTING EDGE WEAR OVER TECHNICAL AND

ECONOMICAL MARKERS
/
INFLUENłA UZĂRII MUCHIEI TĂIETOARE ASUPRA INDICATORILOR TEHNICO-ECONOMICI
IN PROCESUL DE PRELUCRARE A SOLULUI
1 2 2
Fechete Tutunaru L. V. , Nagy E. M. , CoŃa C.
1) 2)
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, INMA Bucharest
E-mail: lucian.fechete@auto.utcluj.ro
Abstract: The geometry of the cutting edge or of the Rezumat: Geometria muchiei tăietoare sau a conturului
surface contour is of great importance in minimizing the suprafeŃei de lucru prezintă o importanŃă deosebită în
energy required for the mechanical processing minimizarea energiei necesare în cadrul operaŃiilor de
operations. The vast majority of the research conducted prelucrare mecanică. Marea majoritate a cercetărilor
so far in the soil processing field focuses on macro realizate până în prezent in domeniul prelucrării solului
geometry of the tools without taking into account the se concentrează pe macrogeometria sculelor fără a lua
geometry of the cutting edge. This paper presents the în considerare geometria muchiei tăietoare. În lucrare
results of experimental research regarding the influence sunt prezentate rezultatele unor cercetări experimentale
of the modification by wear of the constructive privind influenŃa modificării prin uzare a parametrilor
parameters of the cutting edge corresponding to the constructivi ai muchiei tăietoare aferentă sculei de lucrat
tillage tool on the economic indicators in the working solul asupra indicatorilor tehnico-economici în procesul
process. Thus was established a mathematical model de lucru. Astfel a fost stabilit un model matematic care
that highlights the correlation between the processed pune în evidenŃă corespondenŃa între suprafaŃa
surface and the linear wear of tools, with which the prelucrată şi uzura liniară a sculelor, cu ajutorul căruia se
average area that a tool can process until it reaches a poate stabili suprafaŃa medie pe care o poate prelucra o
wear limit value can be determined. sculă până să ajungă la o valoare limită a uzurii.
Keywords: tool, soil, wear. Cuvinte cheie: sculă, sol, uzură
The studies made [1], [3], [9], [11], show that the Studiile efectuate de [1], [3], [9], [11], au aratat faptul
resistance force of an agricultural tool, is affected by the că forŃa de rezistenŃă a unei scule agricole este afectată
wear of the tool, that modifies the geometry of the cutting de uzura sculei, care modifică geometria muchiei
edge according to the soil type and functional tăietoare în funcŃie de tipul solului şi parametrii
parameters. It was shown that a worn cutting edge funcŃionali. S-a arătat că o muchie tăietoare uzată
increases drag resistance and greatly modifies the value măreşte rezistenŃa la înaintare şi modifică puternic
of the vertical component of the resistance force (Inns, valoarea componentei verticale a forŃei de rezistenŃă [6].
1990 [6]). In 1999, [7], measured the drag resistance for În 1999 [7] a măsurat valoarea rezistenŃei la înaintare
six types of thickness of the cutting edge of the plough pentru şase grosimi ale muchiei tăietoare a brăzdarului
blade and showed that the measured force increases plugului şi a arătat că valoarea forŃei măsurate creşte
exponentially with the thickness of the cutting edge. In exponenŃial cu grosimea muchiei tăietoare. În 1996 [4], în
1996 [4], in the research on cutting edge geometry and cercetările efectuate asupra geometriei muchiei tăietoare şi
its effect on tillage performance showed an increase of efectul ei asupra performanŃelor prelucrării solului a arătat o
up to 80% of the drag resistance force for the cultivator creştere cu până la 80% a forŃei de rezistenŃă la înaintare
arrows and that the direction of the vertical force can pentru săgeŃi de cultivator şi că sensul forŃei verticale se
change from pushing the tool into the soil to raising it in poate schimba de la a împinge scula în sol la a o ridica în
the case of two tools having the same macro geometry cazul a două scule cu aceeasi macrogeometrie dar cu
but with the cutting edge in one case sharpened and the muchia tăietoare într-un caz ascuŃită iar în celălalt caz uzată.
other case worn. In the X-ray photos, the level of În fotografiile cu raze X, gradul de afânare realizat şi
loosening and the penetration resistance measurements determinările rezistenŃei la penetrare au aratăt că muchiile
showed that the worn cutting edges often induce the tăitoare uzate induc de cele mai multe ori la apariŃia
appearance of fissures and cracks in the soil layer below fisurilor şi crăpăturilor în stratul de sol de sub sculă.
the tool. Among the works consulted, there was no study Printre lucrările consultate nu s-a găsit nici un studiu
found on the optimal geometry of the cutting edge in referitor la geometria optimă a muchiei tăietoare în relaŃie
relation to final soil parameters and with the drag cu durabilitatea sculei, uzura sculei în raport cu parametrii
resistance force. finali ai solului şi cu forŃa de rezistenŃă la înaintare.

Depending on the soil working tool and its position În funcŃie de tipul sculei de lucrat solul şi de poziŃia ei
during operation, the profile of the cutting edge can be în timpul funcŃionării, profilul muchiei tăietoare poate fi
symmetrical or asymmetrical. Thus, in general, the tools unul simetric sau asimetric. Astfel, în general, sculele ce
working in a vertical profile show a symmetrical cutting lucrează în plan vertical prezintă un profil simetric al
edge profile whose geometrical parameters are shown in muchiei tăietoare a cărei parametri geometrici sunt
the figures below. evidenŃiaŃi în figurile de mai jos.
From Figures 1 and 2 is noted that the geometric Din figurile 1 şi 2 se remarcă că parametrii geometrici
parameters of the tool’s cutting edge and the ones of the ai muchiei tăietoare a sculei şi cei ai conturului sculei
tool’s contour dependent on two macro geometrical sunt dependenŃi de doi parametri macrogeometrici
113
parameters namely: the tool’s width b and thickness h respectiv: lăŃimea b şi grosimea sculei h şi de parametrul
and the functional parameter α – the tool’s angle of attack. funcŃional α – unghiul de atac al sculei.
Fig. 1 - Lateral contour of a vertical tillage tool: a) simple; b) complex
Fig. 2 - Cross section through a vertical tillage tool: a) blunt; b) sharp and chamfered; c) complex profile
For the lateral contour of the tool the following possible Pentru conturul lateral al sculei se evidenŃiază ca
geometrical parameters are highlighted: posibili parametri geometrici:
χ - angle of setting of the lower surface of the tool (it χ – unghiul de aşezare al suprafeŃei inferioare a sculei
depends on the elasticity of the soil); (depinde de elasticitatea solului);
h1 - the friction length of the lower surface of the tool h1 – lungimea de frecare a suprafeŃei inferioare a
with the soil (furrow bottom) (surface parallel to the sculei cu solul (fundul brazdei) (suprafaŃa paralelă cu
ground); planul solului);
χ1 – secondary angle of attack (value corresponding to χ1 – unghiul de atac secundar (valoarea lui
[4] can lead to the compaction of the furrow bottom or on corespunzator cu [4] poate conduce la tasarea fundului
the contrary to the creation of fissures and cracks in the brazdei sau dimpotrivă la crearea de fisuri şi crăpături în
soil beneath the tool). zona solului de sub sculă).
For the cross section of the tool are outlined the Pentru secŃiunea transversală a sculei se conturează
following geometrical parameters of the cutting edge: următorii parametri geometrici ai muchiei tăitoare:
ε - the tool sharpening angle (reducing its value leads ε – unghiul de ascuŃire al sculei (micşorarea valorii lui
to lowering the resistance force and mechanical duce la scăderea forŃei de rezistenŃă şi a rezistenŃei
resistance and rigidity of the tool); mecanice şi a rigidităŃii sculei);
j - cutting edge chamfer width (the decrease of j leads j – lăŃimea de teşire a tăişului (scăderea lui j duce la
to a decrease of the drag resistance force of the tool, micşorarea forŃei de rezistenŃă la înaintare a sculei; în
depending on the angle ε there is a minimum value for j funcŃie de unghiul ε există o valoare minimă a j dată de
given by the bending resistance of the tip of the cutting edge rezistenŃa la încovoiere a vârfului muchiei tăietoare
related to the type of soil that the tool is working on); raportată la tipul de sol în care lucrează scula);
χ2 – setting angle of the lateral surface of the tool χ2 – unghiul de aşezare al suprafeŃei laterale al sculei
compared to the vertical plane of the soil (furrow wall); faŃă de planul vertical al solului (peretele brazdei);
h2 - the friction length of the lateral surface of the tool h2 – lungimea de frecare a suprafeŃei laterale a sculei
with the furrow wall; cu peretele brazdei;
ε1 - secondary sharpening angle (between 180 ° and ε1 – unghiul de ascuŃire secundar (cuprins între 180°
ε, allows to reduce the value of j and the rapid emergence of şi ε; permite reducerea valorii j şi apariŃia mai rapidă a
a worn cutting profile favorable for cutting soil). unui profil uzat favorabil tăierii solului).
The model for the soil processing tool considered, Fig. Modelul sculei de prelucrat solul, fig. 3, luat în
3, starts from a narrow and flat tool and is developed to considerare porneşte de la o sculă îngustă plană şi se
take into account the effect of the cutting edge on cutting dezvoltă pentru a lua în considerare efectul muchiei
the soil, the maximizing of the amount of broken soil and tăietoare asupra tăierii solului, maximizarea volumului de
the determining of the force necessary to overcome the sol destrămat şi determinarea forŃei necesare de
soil resistance. învingere a rezistenŃei solului.
114
Starting from the first constructive parameter of the Pornind de la primul parametru constructiv al sculei,
tool, its width b, the model is developed by setting the lăŃimea acesteia b, se dezvoltă modelul prin impunerea
apex angle ε, the width of the chamfer j and of the radius unghiului la vârf ε, a lăŃimii teşiturii j şi respectiv a razei
of curvature of the chamfer r that occurs as a result of the de curbură a teşiturii r ce apare în urma uzării sculei.
tool’s wear. The functional parameters of the tool that are Parametrii funcŃionali ai sculei ce se modelează sunt
modeled are imposed by the tool angle α, working depth impuşi prin unghiul de al sculei α, adâncimea de lucru a
a, and working speed v. şi viteza de lucru v.
Thus, in Table 1 are indicated the geometric Astfel, în tabelul 1 sunt precizaŃi parametrii geometrici
parameters of tools made from OL37, STAS 500 / 2-80 a sculelor fabricate din OL37, STAS 500/2-80 material
material chosen for its high workability, possibility of ales pentru prelucrabilitatea ridicată, posibilitatea sudării
electric arc welding and low cost. It is noted the use of a lui cu arc electric şi costul scăzut. Se remarcă utilizarea
constant width and of 7 different apex angles for a set of unei lăŃimi constante şi a 7 unghiuri la vârf diferite pentru
tools along with the realization of 4 different chamfers, un set de scule alături de realizarea a 4 teşiri distincte
resulting in a total of 28 tested tools. rezultând un total de 28 de scule încercate.
Fig. 3 - Geometrical and functional parameters of the tool used
Table 1
ε b
Current Nb. Chamfer j [mm]
[°] [mm]
1 15 20 0
2 30 20 2
3 45 20 4
4 60 20 6
5 90 20
6 120 20
7 180 20
The testing environment is a frictional one, without Mediul de încercare este unul fricŃional, fără coeziune
cohesion and without structure - respectively quartz sand şi fără structură - respectiv nisip fin cuarŃos pentru
for adhesive dried mortars, washed and mechanically mortare adezive uscate, spălat şi clasat mecanic cu
classified with a particle diameter between 0 and 0.3 mm. diametrul particulelor între 0 şi 0,3 mm. Acesta
This corresponds to a conformable maximum wearing corespunde unui efect de uzare maximă conform [12] în
effect [12] which states that "the wear is maximum when care se precizează că „uzura este maximă când
the percentage of abrasive particles having a 0.25 mm procentul de particule abrazive cu dimensiunea de 0,25
size has a maximum value." mm are valoare maximă”.
It was also determined the resistance to penetration of A fost de asemenea determinată rezistenŃa la penetrare
the testing environment used with the force gauge a mediului de încercare utilizat cu ajutorul penetrometrului,
(penetrometer), and the results are given in Table 2. iar rezultatele obŃinute sunt cele precizate în tabelul 2.
Table 2
Resistance to penetration of the testing environment used
Depth [mm] 50 100 150 200 250
Average 102,4 191,0 258,0 322,2 333,0
Dispersion 8,246% 19,3611% 15,111% 17,9348% 12,986%
Cone parameters Cone nr. 4; cone base diameter – 25.33 mm; cone base area – 500 mm2
Soil resistance [N/cm2] 20,48 38,20 51,60 64,44 66,60
The tests made under laboratory conditions were Încercările în condiŃii de laborator s-au realizat pe un
carried out on a test stand with a soil channel, by moving stand de încercare cu canal de sol, prin deplasarea
the tools in a circular path with a diameter of 1850 mm at sculelor pe o traiectorie circulară cu un diametru de 1850
a speed of 1.5 m/s. The tool-holder assembly allows mm cu o viteză de 1,5 m/s. Ansamblul port-sculă realizat
changing the depth of processing up to 500 mm with a permite modificarea adâncimii de prelucrare până la
step of 50 mm and changing the tool’s angle of attack 500 mm cu un pas de 50 mm şi modificarea unghiului de
between -60° and 60 ° with a step of 15°. atac al sculei între -60°÷60° cu un pas de 15°.
115
Force measurement was performed with a S2 series Măsurarea forŃelor s-a realizat cu traductori de forŃă
force transducers from the HBM company. Data seria S2 a companiei HBM. AchiziŃia datelor s-a realizat
acquisition was performed with the Spider 8 cu sistemul de măsurare Spider 8 produs de aceeaşi
measurement system produced by the same company. firmă.
To evaluate the effects of various geometrical and Pentru evaluarea efectelor diferiŃilor parametri
functional parameters of the tillage tool an experiment geometrici şi funcŃionali ai sculei de lucrat solul s-a
was designed, which includes four categories of factors. conceput un experiment ce include patru categorii de
The experiment conception is a standard factorial one factori. ConcepŃia experimentului este una factorială
that involves all the combinations of the factor levels standard ce presupune toate combinaŃiile nivelelor
(3x7x4x3). factorilor (3x7x4x3).
Considering the capabilities offered by the Luând în considerare capabilităŃile oferite de standul
experimental stand used, were taken as independent experimental utilizat s-au luat ca şi parametri
parameters (factors): tool working position (3 positions independenŃi (factori): poziŃia de lucru a sculei (3 poziŃii
corresponding to different work depths due to the angle de lucru ce corespund diferitelor adâncimi de lucru
of attack and the tool’s constructive parameters - datorate unghiului de atac şi parametrilor constructivi ai
manufacturing errors ) given by adjusting the stand; tool sculei – erori de fabricare) dată de reglarea standului;
sharpening angle, materialized by the 7 tools used; unghiul de ascuŃire a sculelor, materializate prin cele 7
cutting edge chamfering performed to simulate the effect scule utilizate; teşirea muchiei tăietoare realizată pentru a
of wear on the cutting edge on the drag resistance, simula efectul uzării muchiei tăietoare asupra rezistenŃei
materialized by four discrete values and the tool’s angle la înaintare, materializată prin patru valori discrete şi
of attack (3 positions) also given by the stand unghiul de atac al sculei (3 poziŃii) dat de asemenea de
adjustments. reglarea standului.
Briefly, the experiment carried out is shown in table 3. Sumar, experimentul realizat se prezintă în tabelul 3.
Table 3
Basic data of the experiment carried out
Units of
Factors Levels Descriere
measurement
Position 3 mm Tools working position (vertical)
Tools 7 degrees Value of the sharpening angle of the tools
Chamfer 4 mm Value of the cutting edge chamfering of the tools
Angle of attack 3 degrees Value of the tool’s angle of attack
Force N Measured value of the drag resistance force of the tools
For each of the 252 tests performed, the measured Pentru fiecare din cele 252 de încercări efectuate s-
data was recorded, was further processed by au înregistrat datele măsurate care ulterior au fost
segmenting the appropriate values for starting and prelucrate prin segmentarea valorilor corespunzătoare
stopping the stand. To determine the average value, a pornirii şi opririi standului. Pentru determinarea valorii
low pass Butterworth filter of order 4 was applied with medii a fost aplicat un filtru Butterworth trece jos de
a cutting frequency of 0.1 Hz for all measurements ordinul 4 cu o frecvenŃă de tăiere de 0,1 Hz pentru toate
made. măsurătorile efectuate.
After processing the data from the experimental tests În urma prelucrării datelor încercărilor experimentale
conducted, the average values resulted for the efectuate au rezultat valorile medii ale forŃelor de
forwarding resistance forces for all (3x7x4x3) rezistenŃă la înaintare pentru toate cele 3x7x4x3
combinations of the modeled factor levels. combinaŃii ale nivelelor factorilor modelaŃi.
Tabelul 4
Output
Input New tool Worn tool
F i A K L Fw iw Aw Kw Lw S T U
a = f(α, ε, position);
[N] [mm] [mm2] [mm3] [g] [N] [mm] [mm2] [mm3] [g] [%] [%] [ha]
b = 20 [mm];
Iug = 3,24 [g/ha];
measured
measured
j = {2, 4, 6} [mm];
α = {60, 75, 90} [°];
ε = {15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120} [°];
[g/mm3].
Data was centralized and processed according to Datele au fost centralizate şi prelucrate conform
Table 4 where the index w refers to the used volume of tabelului 4 în care indicele w se referă la volumul uzat al
the cutting edge: F - the drag force; i - the height of the muchiei tăietoare: F - forŃa de rezistenŃă la înaintare; i -
triangle corresponding to the cutting edge volume înălŃimea triunghiului corespunzător volumului muchiei
(unused volume) respectively wasted volume; A - tăietoare (volum neuzat) respectiv volumului uzat; A - aria
triangular sectional area of the cutting edge; K - cutting secŃiunii triunghiulare a muchiei tăietoare; K – volumul
edge volume; L - mass of the volume of the cutting edge; muchiei tăietoare; L – masa volumului muchiei tăietoare;
S – mass of worn volume related to unused volume; T - S – masa volumului uzat raportată la masa volumului
the ratio of the worn tool’s drag relative to the unworn neuzat; T – raportul dintre rezistenŃa la înaintare a sculei
one; U- the equivalent value of the processed area of uzate raportată la cea neuzată; U – valoarea echivalentă
agricultural land. a suprafeŃei terenului agricol prelucrat.
116
RESULTS REZULTATE
Starting from the measured and processed data a Pornind de la datele măsurate şi prelucrate s-a
statistical model was performed to describe the impact of realizat un model statistic care să descrie impactul
the influence from the tool’s sharpening angle on the size influenŃei unghiului de ascuŃire al sculei asupra mărimii
of linear wear of the tools used in the experimental tests uzării liniare a sculelor utilizate în cadrul încercărilor
performed. Having as a dependent variable (Y) the linear experimentale efectuate. Având ca variabilă dependentă
wear parameter and as the independent variable (X) the (Y) parametrul uzare liniară şi ca variabilă independentă
values of the sharpening angles (ε) of the tools used in (X) valorile unghiurilor de ascuŃire (ε) a sculelor utilizate în
the experimental tests conducted, the general form of the cadrul încercărilor experimentale efectuate, forma
model selected from the models in the Statgraphics generală a modelului selectată dintre modelele aplicaŃiei
2
application which shows the maximum correlation and R Statgraphics ce prezintă valoarea maximă a corelaŃiei şi a
2
parameter has the shape (1), where n and m are the parametrului R are forma (1), unde n şi m sunt
coefficients of the regression equation equivalent to the coeficienŃii ecuaŃiei de regresie echivalenŃi ordonatei la
origin ordinate respectively the slope of a line. The results origine respectiv pantei unei drepte. Rezultatele
of the statistical procedure are presented in Table 5. procedurii statistice sunt prezentate in tabelul 5.
The regression curve equation obtained is presented EcuaŃia curbei de regresie obŃinută este prezentată în
in the relation (2). relaŃia (2).
Y = (n+m⋅ln(X))
2
(1)
Table 5
Results of simple regression procedure
Estimated value
Parameter Standard error T P
(smallest squares)
n 10.0625 0.428296 23.4943 0.0000
m -1.87473 0.103318 -18.1452 0.0000
Dispersion error
Source Sum of squares Diff. Square average F P
Model 548.199 1 548.199 329.25 0.0000
Residue 416.25 250 1.665
Total (Corr.) 964.45 251
Correlation coefficient= -0.753927
R2= 56.8407 %
Standard estimation error= 1.29035
Absolute error average= 0.935438
d (Durbin-Watson test)= 0.0252341 (P=0.0000)
h (D-W test for residue autocorrelation) = 0.970523
2
Linear wear = (10.0625 - 1.87473⋅ln(ε)) (2)
Having a value on the P coefficient from the ANOVA Având valoarea coeficientului P din tabelul ANOVA
table of less than 0.05 results in a link relation statistically mai mică decât 0.05 rezultă o relaŃie de legătură
significant between the linear wear and the tool’s angle of semnificativă din punct de vedere statistic între uzura
2 2
sharpening. Statistically adjusted R value indicates that liniară şi unghiul de ascuŃire al sculei. Valoarea R
the obtained regression curve equation explains 56.8% of ajustată statistic indică faptul că ecuaŃia curbei de
the variability for the linear wear parameter after the regresie obŃinută explică 56.8% din variabilitatea
linearization of the model. The value of the correlation parametrului uzare liniara după liniarizarea modelului.
coefficient indicates a moderate intensity of the link Valoarea coeficientului de corelare indică o intensitate
between variables. The standard error of the estimate moderată a legăturii între variabile. Eroarea standard a
shows the standard residue deviation and can be used to estimării arată deviaŃia standard a reziduurilor şi poate fi
define the limits of prediction of the new observations folosită pentru a defini limitele de predicŃie a noilor
where it is desired to make predictions on the basis of the observaŃii în cazul în care se doreşte a se face predicŃii
developed model. pe baza modelului dezvoltat.
The average absolute error shows the average of the Eroarea absolută medie arată media valorilor
residue values. The Durbin-Watson statistic test tests the reziduurilor. Testul statistic Durbin-Watson testează
residues to determine if there are significant correlations reziduurile pentru a determina dacă există corelaŃii
based on the order in which they occur in the data used. semnificative bazate pe ordinul la care apar în datele
Because the value of P coefficient is smaller than 0.05, utilizate. Pentru că valoarea coeficientului P este mai
this indicates the possibility of serial correlation to a mică de 0.05, aceasta indică posibilitatea unei corelaŃii
minimum confidence level of 95%. seriale la un nivel minim de încredere de 95 %.
2 2
Because the R value is only 56.8%, a discrepancy Pentru că valoarea R este de doar 56.8 % s-a aplicat
test was applied to determine whether the selected şi un test de neconcordanŃă pentru a determina dacă
model is appropriate to describe the measured data or if modelul selectat este adecvat pentru a descrie datele
it is necessary to use a different, more complex model. măsurate sau dacă este necesară utilizarea unui alt
The test is performed by comparing the waste dispersion model mai complex. Testul este realizat prin compararea
from the current model with the dispersion between dispersiei reziduurilor modelului curent cu dispersia între
measurements at the iterated values of the independent măsurători la valorile iterate ale variabilei independente X
117
variable X, and its results are presented in Table 6. iar rezultatele acestuia se prezintă în tabelul 6.
Table 6
Dispersion analysis for the discrepancy test
Model 548.199 1 548.199 329.25 0.0000
Residue 416.25 250 1.665
Discrepancy 10.027 5 2.0054 1.21 0.3052
Error 406.223 245 1.65805
Total (correlated) 964.45 251
The value of P coefficient is higher than 0.05 for the Valoarea coeficientului P este mai mare decât 0,05
discrepancy value which indicates that the model used is pentru valoarea neconcordanŃei ceea ce denotă faptul că
suitable for the measured data at a confidence level of at modelul utilizat este adecvat pentru datele măsurate la
least 95%. un nivel de încredere de minim 95%.
On the basis of the above, was passed to the graphic În baza celor de mai sus, s-a trecut la reprezentarea
representation of the regression equation, the limits of grafică a ecuaŃiei de regresie, a limitelor intervalului de
the confidence interval and the prediction limits, together încredere şi a limitelor de predicŃie, alături de datele
with the measured data (Fig. 4). măsurate (fig. 4).
Fig. 4 – The influence of the tool’s sharpening angle on their linear wear
From the figure above is easily observed the great Din figura de mai sus se observă cu uşurinŃă influenŃa
influence that the tool’s sharpening angle has on the mare pe care o prezintă unghiul de ascuŃire al sculelor
wear, respectively on the linear wear, so that it shows a asupra uzării respectiv asupra uzurii liniare, astfel încât
great importance the choice of this angle in order to prezintă o mare importanŃă alegerea acestui unghi în a
achieve a compromise between the tool’s drag force realiza un compromis între valoarea rezistenŃei la
(which increases with the increase of wear), and the înaintare a sculei (care creşte odată cu creşterea uzurii)
value of the volume of mobilized soil. şi valoarea volumului de sol mobilizat.
Taking into account the results presented by Tomescu Luând în considerare rezultatele prezentate de
et al. [13] for the witness furrows of the SPC-6 seed drill, Tomescu et al. [13] pentru brăzdarele martor ale
respectively the value for the average intensity of wear semănătorii SPC-6, respectiv valoarea intensităŃii medii a
on the working tool Iug = 3.24 g/ha, results in a set of data uzurii pe scula de lucru de Iug = 3.24 g/ha, rezultă o serie
in conformity with table X that expresses the used de date în conformitate cu tabelul X ce exprimă valoarea
volume mass and the equivalent value of processed masei volumului uzat şi respectiv valoarea echivalentă a
agricultural land area. Thus, another model was suprafeŃei terenului agricol prelucrat. Astfel, s-a realizat
developed to show the influence of equivalent processed un alt model care să arate influenŃa ariei prelucrate
area in relation to the linear wear of the tools used in the echivalente în raport cu uzura liniară a sculelor utilizate în
experimental tests of this paper. cadrul încercărilor experimentale din prezenta lucrare.
The general form of the model used that best Forma generală a modelului utilizat ce răspunde cel
responds to the measured data, chosen for the maximum mai bine datelor măsurate, ales pentru valorile maxime
2 2
values of the correlation coefficient and the R value is ale coeficientului de corelare şi a valorii R este dată în
given in the relation (3). relaŃia (3).
Following the introduction of measured data in the În urma introducerii datelor măsurate în cadrul
Statgraphics application revealed the following in aplicaŃiei Statgraphics au rezultat următoarele în
accordance with Table 7. conformitate cu tabelul 7.
The equation of the regression curve obtained is EcuaŃia curbei de regresie obŃinută este prezentată în
shown in the relation (4). relaŃia (4).
Y = (a+b⋅X)
2
(3)
Table 7
Result of the simple regression procedure
Estimated value
Parameter Standard error T P
(smaller squares)
118
n 0.886856 0.110713 8.01041 0.0000

m 0.224812 0.0060662 37.0598 0.0000
Dispersion analysis
Source Sum of suqres Diff. Square average F P
Model 3033.37 1 3033.37 1373.43 0.0000
Residue 552.151 250 2.20861
Total (correlated.) 3585.52 251
Correlation coefficient = 0.919785
R2= 84.6005 %
R2(adjusted for d.f.) = 84.5389 %
Standard estimation error = 1.48614
Absolute error average = 1.00157
d (Durbin-Watson test)= 0.62325 (P=0.0000)
h (D-W test for residue autocorrelation) = 0.645962
2
Processed area = (0.886856 + 0.224812⋅ linear wear) (4)
In this model also, the value of the P coefficient from Şi în acest model, valoarea coeficientului P din tabelul
the ANOVA table is less than 0.05 indicating a significant ANOVA este mai mică decât 0.05 ceea ce indică o relaŃie
relation form a statistical point of view between the semnificativă din punct de vedere statistic între aria
2 2
processed area and linear wear. The value of R prelucrata şi uzura liniară. Valoarea lui R ajustată
statistically adjusted shows a rate of 84.6% explaining statistic arată un procent de 84,6% care explică
the variability of the processed area parameter after variabilitatea parametrului aria prelucrata după
linearization of the model. The correlation coefficient of liniarizarea modelului. Coeficientul de corelare de 0,919
0.919 indicates a strong relation between the variables of arată o relaŃie puternică între variabilele modelului.
the model. The value of the P coefficient in the Durbin- Valoarea coeficientului P în cadrul testului Durbin-
Watson test indicates a possible serial correlation at a Watson arată o posibilă corelare serială la un nivel de
confidence level of at least 95%, for this being necessary încredere de minim 95%, pentru aceasta fiind necesar a
to test the level of discrepancy (Table 8). se testa şi nivelul de neconcordanŃă (tabelul 8).
Table 8
Dispersion analysis for the discrepancy test
Model 3033.37 1 3033.37 1373.43 0.0000
Residue 552.151 250 2.20861
Discrepancy 395.018 22 17.9553 26.05 0.0000
Error 157.134 228 0.689183
Total (correlated) 3585.52 251
The results of the above test show that although the Rezultatele testului de mai sus arată faptul că deşi
2 2
value of R is higher, there is a significant discrepancy valoarea lui R este mare, apare o neconcordanŃă
from a statistical point of view, by the value of the P semnificativă din punct de vedere statistic, prin valoarea
coefficient of less than 0.05, which imposes the selection coeficientului P mai mică de 0.05, ceea ce impune
of a different model that describes the influence of the selectarea unui alt model care să descrie influenŃa uzurii
linear wear on the processed area. liniare asupra suprafeŃei prelucrate.
Fig. 5 - Correspondence between the processed area and the tool’s linear wear
Figure 5 shows a logarithmic increase of the linear Din figura 5 se observă o creştere logaritmică a uzurii
wear according to the processed area, the utility of such liniare în funcŃie de aria prelucrată, utilitatea unui astfel
chart being that it shows the average area that can be de grafic regăsindu-se în a arăta suprafaŃa medie pe care
processed by a tool until it reach a limit value of linear o poate prelucra o sculă până să ajungă la o valoare
wear. limită a uzurii liniare.
119
CONCLUSIONS
The geometry of the cutting edge or of the work CONCLUZII
surface contour of a tool for processing soil shows a Geometria muchiei tăietoare sau a conturului suprafeŃei
particular importance in minimizing the necessary de lucru a sculelor pentru prelucrarea solului prezintă o
energy for the working process. importanŃă deosebită în minimizarea energieii necesare
Through wear, during the working process, the constructive în cadrul procesului de lucru.
parameters of the cutting edge corresponding to the soil Prin uzare, în timpul procesului de lucru, parametrii
processing tools change, having a negative influence on constructivi ai muchiei tăietoare aferente sculelor de
the technical-economic indicators of the process. prelucrat solul se modifică, având influenŃă negativă
Processing the experimental results obtained by asupra indicatorilor tehnico-economici de proces.
mathematical modeling highlights the correlation between Prelucrarea rezultatelor obŃinute experimental prin
the processed surface and the linear wear of tools. modelare matematică pune în evidenŃă corelarea între
The results obtained and presented can be used to suprafaŃa prelucrată şi uzura liniară a sculelor.
determine the area of the agricultural surface processed Rezultatele obŃinute şi prezentate pot fi folosite pentru
by a tool that has reached a certain value of linear wear. stabilirea ariei suprafeŃei agricole prelucrate de către o
sculă care a atins o anumită valoare a uzurii liniare.
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tillage quality. JAER, 72, p:171-176; plug asupra consumului de energie, rata calităŃii
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agriculture and food industry (tribological research), Iaşi; experimentale a maşinilor şi instalaŃiilor din agricultura şi
[9]. Nichols, M.L., Reed, I.F., Reeves, C.A. (1958) - Soil industria alimentară (cercetări tribologice), Iaşi,
reaction to plough share design. Agricultural Engineering, [9]. Nichols, M.L., Reed, I.F., Reeves, C.A. (1958) –
39 (6), p:336-339; ReacŃia solului la construcŃia plugului, Agricultural
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geometry. ASAE Paper No. 931091. Spokane, [10]. Roş, V. et al. (1993) – Analiza geometriei sculei de
Washington: ASAE; prelucrare a solului, ASAE Paper No. 931091. Spokane,
[11]. Shoji, K. (2004) - Forces on a model spot plough. Washington: ASAE;
Biosyst. Eng., 87 (1), p:39-45; [11]. Shoji, K. (2004) – ForŃele de la un stand de
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wear for parts from carboniferous machines, IDT Bucharest; [12]. Tenenbaum, M.M. et al. (1957) - ParticularităŃile
[13]. Tomescu, D. et al. (1971) - Reconditioning and uzurii pieselor de la maşinile carboniere, IDT Bucureşti;
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[15].*** http://www.statgraphics.com/
120
ANALYSIS OF WORK PROCESS OF SEEDING FURROWS EMBEDDING BY A CONICAL

ROLLER
/
АНАЛІЗ РОБОЧОГО ПРОЦЕСУ ЗАГОРТАННЯ ПОСІВНИХ БОРОЗЕН КОНІЧНИМ КОТКОМ
Shvedik M.
Lutsk National Technical University / Ukraine)
Tel: +38(0332)74-61-32; Fax: +38(0332)74-61-03; E-mail: lab-amb@ukr.net
Abstract: In the article the results of analysis of work Резюме: Наведено результати аналізу робочого
process of seeding furrows embedding and compaction процесу засипання посівних борозенок і ущільнення
of soil by the conical roller which is set at the angles α to ґрунту конічним котком, установленим під кутом α
direction of furrow, and also analytical expressions for до напрямку борозенки, а також аналітичні вирази
definition of resistance force of the roller by moving and для визначення сили опору котка при переміщенні
lateral force which provides a self-cleaning of soil, which та бічної сили, яка забезпечує самоочищення від
sticks to its surface are given. ґрунту, що прилипає до його поверхні.
Keywords: conical roller, furrow, shift, soil, compaction, Ключові слова: конічний коток, борозенка, зсув,
force, friction, self-cleaning ґрунт, ущільнення, сила, тертя, самоочищення.
INTRODUCTION ПЕРЕДУМОВА
One of the important factors that affect field seed Одним з важливих факторів, що впливає на польову
germination and simultaneous emergence of seedlings схожість насіння і появу дружніх сходів, є надійний його
is a reliable contact with the soil. That end, in soil is контакт з ґрунтом. З цією метою в ґрунті формують на
formed at the same depth a seeding furrow with однаковій глибині посівну борозну з ущільненим дном,
compactions bottom to which seed are sown and на яке висівають насіння і відразу ж його загортають
immediately embedded by ground. However, it is ґрунтом. Однак він є сильно розпушеним, що не забезпечує
greatly loosened that does not provide a reliable seed надійного контакту насіння з ґрунтом. Застосування котків
contact with the soil. The use of rollers for packing of для прикочування посівів дає позитивний результат,
crops gives positive results, but in moist soils they are однак на зволожених ґрунтах вони сильно залипають.
sticking greatly. Herewith the special devices installed При цьому спеціальні пристрої, що встановлюються для
to clean the roller surface are ineffective. очищення поверхні котка, малоефективні.
Therefore there is a need to develop highly efficient А тому виникає необхідність в розробці високоефективних
technical means for seed embedding and to improve технічних засобів для загортання насіння та в
seeding methods, which would provide herewith a high удосконаленні способів сівби, які забезпечили б при
field seed germination and simultaneous emergence of цьому високу польову схожість насіння та появу
seedlings. дружніх сходів.
Analysis of the literature dedicated to development of Аналіз літературних джерел, приурочених питанням
highly efficient means for seed embedding and for розробки високоефективних технічних засобів для
improve seeding methods, for enhance the field seed загортання насіння та удосконаленню способів сівби,
germination and simultaneous emergence of seedlings підвищенню польової схожості насіння та появи дружніх
shows that they are sufficiently studied [1,2,3,4,5,6,8]. сходів показує, що вони є достатньо вивчені
Based on research by the authors developed and [1,2,3,4,5,6,8]. На основі результатів досліджень авторами
proposed to agricultural production an appropriate розроблені і запропоновані сільськогосподарському виробництву
recommendations, in particular, to provide the required відповідні рекомендації, зокрема з метою забезпечення
density of stems is proposed to increase the seeding необхідної густоти стеблостою пропонується збільшувати
rate by factor of 1.5 ... 2, and to prevent the breakage of норму висіву в 1,5…2 рази, а щоб не допустити обриву
the root system after seeding – use the packing of кореневої системи після сівби - застосовувати
crops. прикочування посівів.
However, the analysis of work process of seeding Однак аналіз робочого процесу загортання
furrows embedding by the conical roller and elements of посівних борозен конічними котками, а також
the theory of their self-cleaning of soil, which sticks, in the елементи теорії їх самоочищення від налиплого
literature are not given. грунту, в літературних джерелах не наводиться.
MATERIAL AND METHOD МАТЕРІАЛ І МЕТОДИКА

One of the reserves of increase of spiked cereals yield Одним з резервів підвищення врожайності зернових колосових
is to create optimal conditions for seed germination and культур є створення оптимальних умов для проростання
for subsequent plant growth and development and насіння та наступного росту і розвитку рослин і, відповідно,
therefore the formation of crop. However, this формування врожаю. Однак такі умови, в силу багатьох
environments, for many reasons, not possible to create причин, не завжди вдається створити. Особлива гостро ця
always. Particularly acute this problem appears after a проблеми проявляться після збирання пізніх культур, коли
harvesting of late crops, when it is necessary to conduct необхідно проводити сівбу, а ґрунт після оранки ще не осів і
the seeding, and the soil after plowing is not yet settled висівати насіння у свіжозораний ґрунт не можна, оскільки
and it can not sow the seed in fresh tilled soil because of відбувається обрив кореневої системи. Тому після оранки
breakage of the root system. So after plowing must be обов’язково витримують необхідний час для повного
hold the necessary time of full soil self-compaction, which самоосідання грунту, який проходить протягом 3…5 тижнів,
runs for 3 ... 5 weeks and this leads to delaying seeding. а це призводить до затягування строків сівби. Для
To solve this problem, we have developed a new way of вирішення цієї проблеми нами розроблено новий спосіб
121
seeding of spiked cereals seed in fresh tilled soil with висіву насіння зернових колосових культур у свіжозораний
stabilization of water-air regime in the topsoil during грунт зі стабілізацією водно-повітряного режиму в кореневому
phase flowing-trough period from seed germination to the шарі на період протікання фази від проростання насіння до
tillage and suggest tillage and sowing section with настання кущіння, та запропоновано ґрунтообробно-
packing of crops [7]. Structural and technological scheme посівну секцію з прикочуванням посівів [7]. Конструктивно-
of this section is shown in Fig. 1. технологічна схема даної секції наведена на рис.1.
Fig. 1 - Structural and technological scheme of tillage and sowing section for seeding seeds in fresh tilled soil with packing of crops /
1 – ribbed roller ; 2 – frame ; 3 – strip ; 4 – drawbar; 5 – push rod; 6 – spring ; 7 – fertilizer funnel; 8 – conical roller
Its main working body is annular soil compactor Основним її робочим органом є кільцевидний ущільнювач-
furrow-making device. It consists of a rectangular frame борознооутворювач. Він складається з прямокутної рамки 2,
2, in which there are three ribbed rollers 1. Frame 3 is в якій встановлено три кільчатих котки 1. Рамка з’єднується
connected to the strip 3, which by means of radial з штабою 3, яка за допомогою радіального повідка 4 і
drawbar 4 and push rod 5 with spring 6 is connected to натискної штанги 5 з пружиною 6 з’єднується з рамою
the frame of sowing unit. Back of frame 2 in the center of посівного агрегату. Ззаду рамки 2 по центру кожного
each ribbed roller 1 is set a fertilizer funnels 7, coverers, кільчатого котка 1 встановлено тукопроводи 7, загортачі,
shoe openers and conical roller 8, which is set at the килевидні сошники та конічний коток 8, установлений під
angle α to the direction of furrow. It provides high-quality кутом α до напрямку борозенки. Він забезпечує якісне
seeding furrows embedding and soil compaction. засипання посівних борозенок і ущільнення ґрунту.
RESULTS РЕЗУЛЬТАТИ
Analysis of work process of such roller shows that it Аналіз робочого процесу такого котка показує, що
should take the form of a truncated cone and be directed він повинен мати форму зрізаного конуса і бути
by a smaller base of cone to direction of motion. For спрямованим меншою основою до напрямку руху. Для
interpretation of the interaction of roller with soil and вияснення взаємодії котка з грунтом і валком
swath we consider the scheme of work of conical roller in розглянемо схему роботи конічного котка у
the vertical and horizontal planes, Fig. 2. вертикальній і горизонтальній площинах, рис.2.
a) b)
122
c)
Fig. 2 - Scheme of the forces acting on the conical roller
1 – roller ; 2 – swath; 3 – furrow
From the scheme (Fig. 2c) can be seen that gravity З наведеної схеми (рис. 2c) видно, що сила ваги
force of roller mg (here m - weight of roller, g – котка mg (тут m – маса котка, g – прискорення
gravitational acceleration of the body) cause the frictional вільного падіння тіла) викликає силу тертя котка об
force of the roller against the soil: ґрунт:
F1 = fmg , (1)
where f – coefficient of friction of the roller against the де f - коефіцієнт тертя котка об грунт.
soil.
Ця сила спрямована протилежно напрямку
This force is directed opposite to the direction of
перекочування котка.
rollers rolling.
З наведеної схеми також видно, що в точці А
From the scheme is also seen that at point A of
дотику обода котка з валком виникає нормальна сила
N, яка відхилена від вертикалі на деякий кут γ і вона
contact of rollers rim with swath appears a normal force
N, which declined from the vertical at the angle γ and it
cause at this point the frictional force: викликає в цій точці силу тертя:
F2 = f ⋅ N . (2)
We expand the normal force N on the components - Розкладемо нормальну силу N на складові –
horizontal: горизонтальну:
N Г = N ⋅ sinγ (3)
and vertical: і вертикальну:
N B = N ⋅ cosγ . (4)
Analysis of the forces components shows that the Аналіз складових сил показує, що горизонтальна
horizontal force moves the swath in direction of the сила переміщує валок в напрямку вектора швидкості
velocity vector v, and the vertical force - compact the v, а вертикальна – ущільнює валок і викликає силу
swath and cause the friction force: тертя:
F3 = f1 ⋅ N B , (5)
which is directed opposite to direction of the velocity яка направлена протилежно напрямку вектора
vector v (here f1 – coefficient of friction of the swath швидкості v (тут f1 - коефіцієнт тертя валка об
123
against the soil surface). поверхню грунту).

From the scheme on Fig. 2c can be written condition З наведеної на рис. 2c схеми сил можна записати
of swath moving by the roller: умову переміщення валка котком:
F1 + F2 ⋅ cosγ + F3 < N Г . F1 + F2 ⋅ cosγ + F3 < N Г .
Using expressions (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) the last З урахуванням виразів (1), (2), (3), (4) і (5)
inequality can be written in this form: останню нерівність можна записати в такому вигляді:
fmg + fN ⋅ cosγ + f1 N ⋅ cosγ < N ⋅ sinγ . (6)
But mg = N B + F2 ⋅ sinγ and taking into account the Але mg = N B + F2 ⋅ sinγ і з врахуванням виразів
expressions (2) and (4), this expression has the form: (2) і (4) цей вираз матиме вигляд:
mg = N (cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ ) (7)
where we find that звідки знайдемо, що
mg
N= . (8)
cosγ + f ⋅sinγ
In terms of ensuring of swath shift in seeding З точки зору забезпечення зсування валка в
furrow and of efficient self-cleaning rollers surface посівну борозенку і ефективного самоочищення
from stuck-on soil it is of great interest the projection поверхні котка від прилиплого грунту, значний інтерес
of the normal force N in the horizontal plane Nг (Fig. викликає проекція нормальної сили N в
2b). From the above scheme is seen that this force горизонтальній площині NГ (рис. 2b). З наведеної
cause the lateral force F, which shifts the swath in the схеми видно, що саме ця сила викликає бічну силу F,
furrow and completely covering the seed with soil. яка зсуває валок в борозенку і повністю закриває
Thus the lateral force provides the rollers self-cleaning насіння ґрунтом. При цьому бічна сила забезпечує
from the soil that sticks to the surface. Its value can be самоочищення котка від ґрунту, що прилипає до його
determined by the formula F = f ⋅ N Г , which with поверхні. Її значення можна визначити за формулою
account of expressions (3) and (8) takes on the F = f ⋅ N Г , яка з врахуванням виразів (3) та (8)
following form: набуде наступного виду:
mg
F = f ⋅ N ⋅ sinγ = f ⋅ sinγ . (9)
cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ
To determine the draught of the roller we turn to the Для визначення тягового опору котка звернемося
scheme of forces (Fig. 2b), which act from the direction of до схеми сил (рис. 2b), що діють зі сторони валка на
swath on the roller in a horizontal plane. From the above коток в горизонтальній площині. З наведеної схеми
scheme is seen that the resistance force of the swath is видно, що сила опору валка визначається за такою
determined by the following formula: формулою:
Q = RY + F ⋅ sin α , (10)
where Ry - projection of the resultant resistance force де RY – проекція рівнодіючої сили R опору валка
R of the swath along the axis OY: по осі ОУ:
RY = R ⋅ cosψ = R ⋅ cos(α − ϕ ) , (11)
here ψ - the angle between the resultant resistance тут ψ – кут між рівнодіючою силою опору R валка
force R of the swath and its constituent Ry; і її складовою RY;
φ – angle of deflection of resultant resistance force R φ - кут відхилення рівнодійної сили R опору валка
of swath from the normal force Nг which is equal to the від нормальної сили NГ, рівний куту тертя котка об
rollers angle of friction against the swath; валок;
α - angle between the normal force Nг and direction α – кут між нормальною силою NГ і напрямком
of movement of the roller. руху котка.
NГ NГ
Given that R = , and the value of the force Nг Враховуючи те, що R = , а значення сили
cos ϕ cos ϕ
is defined by the formula (3), expression (11) can be NГ визначається за формулою (3), вираз (11) можемо
N ⋅ sinγ N ⋅ sinγ
written as RY = ⋅ cos(α − ϕ ) , which in view of записати так RY = ⋅ cos(α − ϕ ) , який з
cos ϕ cos ϕ
expressions (8) takes the form: врахуванням виразу (8) набуде виду:
124
mg ⋅ sinγ cos(α −ϕ )
RY = ⋅ . (12)
cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ cos ϕ
We substitute the obtained values of Ry and F in Підставимо отримані значення RY і F в вираз

expression (10), and get the draught resistance of the roller (10), і отримаємо тяговий опір котка
mg ⋅ sin γ cos(α − ϕ ) mg
Q= ⋅ + f ⋅ sin α ,
cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ cos ϕ cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ
which finally is written as: який остаточно запишеться так:

mg cos(α − ϕ )
Q= ⋅ sin γ ⋅ [ + f ]. (13)
cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ cos ϕ
Value of the angle γ of the line of frictional force Значення кута γ напрямку лінії дії сили тертя F2
action F2 of roller against the swath of soil we define as котка об валок грунту визначимо наступним чином.
follows. We substitute in expression (6) instead of mg the Підставимо в вираз (6) замість mg вираз (7) і
expression(7) and obtain the inequality: отримаємо нерівність:
fN ( cosγ + f ⋅ sinγ ) + fN ⋅ cosγ + f1 N ⋅ cosγ < N ⋅ sinγ ,
which after reduction on N can be written as follows: яку після скорочення на N можна записати в такому
вигляді:
fcosγ + f ⋅ sinγ + fcosγ + f1 ⋅ cosγ < sinγ .
2
After the arithmetic operations can be written as: Після проведення арифметичних дій її можна
записати так:
cosγ (2 f + f1 ) < sinγ (1 − f ) ,
2
where we define the angle γ of the line of frictional force звідки визначимо значення кута γ напрямку лінії дії
action F2 of roller against the swath сили тертя F2 котка об валок грунту
2 f + f1
γ > arctg . (14)
1− f 2
Calculations show that for light soils by f=0,5 and Розрахунки показують, що для легких ґрунтів при
f1=1,0, we have γ > 63 , and for heavy soils by f=0,8 f=0,5 і f1=1,0, маємо γ > 63 , а для важких при f=0,8 і
0 0
and f1=1,0, we have γ > 82 . f1=1,0, маємо γ > 82 .

0 0
Knowing the angle γ and the height h of the swath we Знаючи кут γ і висоту h валка можна визначити
can determine the minimum allowable rollers diameter. мінімально-допустимий діаметр котка. Для цього
To do this, we consider the triangle AOB (Fig. 1b) from розглянемо трикутник АОВ (рис. 1b), з якого можна
which we can write that OB = r ⋅ cos γ , записати, що OB = r ⋅ cos γ , а r − OB = h .
r − OB = h . Therefore r − r ⋅ cos γ = h and Отже r − r ⋅ cos γ = h і r (1 − cos γ ) = h , або
D D
r (1 − cos γ ) = h , or (1 − cos γ ) = h , whence (1 − cos γ ) = h , звідки
2 2
2h
D= . (15)
1− cos γ
Given that by the seeding of spiked cereals seed the Враховуючи те, що при висіві насіння зернових
shoe openers forming the swath heigt max 6 ... 10 cm, колосових культур сошники утворюють валок висотою
the rollers diameter should be 15 ... 35 cm. не більше 6…10 см, діаметр котка повинен становити 15-35 см.
CONCLUSIONS ВИСНОВКИ
1. During moving a conical roller which is installed at 1. Під час переміщення конічного котка, установленого
the angle α to the direction of seeding furrow on its під кутом α до напрямку посівних борозенок, на його
surface generator arise a lateral force F, which shifts the твірній поверхні виникає бічна сила F, яка зсуває
swath in the furrow and completely covers the seed with валок в борозенку і повністю закриває ґрунтом
the soil. насіння.
2. Efficient self-cleaning of the conical roller of soil 2. Ефективне самоочищення конічного котка від
that sticks to its surface is provided by the lateral force ґрунту, що прилипає до його поверхні, забезпечується
F. за рахунок бічної сили F.
REFERENCES БІБЛІОГРАФІЯ
[1]. Basin V.S, Bray V.V., Pogorely L.V. et al. (1987) - [1]. Басин В.С., Брей В.В., Погорелый Л.В. и др. (1987)
Machines for precise planting of row crops: design and - Машины для точного посева пропашных культур:
calculation, Technique, 151pg., Kiev; конструирование и расчет, Техника, - 151с., - Киев;
[2]. Kardashevsky S.V. (1973) - Seeding device of [2]. Кардашевский С.В. (1973) - Высевающие
125
sowing machines, Mechanical Engineering, 176 pg., устройства посевных машин, – М.:
Moscow; Машиностроение, – 176 с.;
[3]. Khaylis G.A., Ghelic L.A. (2002) - Analysis of the [3]. Хайлис Г.А., Гелич Л.А. (2002) - Анализ процесса
process of wheel rolling with the formation of wheel track, качения колеса с образованием колеи, Зб. наук.
Collection of scientific articles «Agricultural machines», статей «Сільськогосподарські машини», № 10.
№ 10, pg. 225-236, Lutsk; –с. 225-236, - Луцьк;
[4]. Khomenko M.S., Ziryanov V.A., Nasonov V.A. (1989) [4]. Хоменко М.С., Зырянов В.А., Насонов В.А. (1989)
- Mechanization of planting crops and grasses. Механизация посева зерновых культур и трав.
Handbook, Vintage, 168 pg., Kiev; Справочник, Урожай, -168 с., - Киев;
[5]. Kovbasa V.P., Pochka K.I. (2007) – Kinematics of [5]. Ковбаса В.П., Почка К.І. (2007) - Кінематика
interaction of compact roller with a layer of medium of взаємодії ущільнюючого котка з шаром середовища
finite depth, Collection of scientific articles «Agricultural обмеженої глибини, Зб. наук. статей
machines», № 15, pg. 139-147, Lutsk; «Сільськогосподарські машини», № 15. –с. 225-236,
[6]. Poletaev A.F. (1971) - Fundamentals of the theory of - Луцьк;
rolling resistance and traction of rigid wheel on [6]. Полетаев А.Ф. (1971) - Основы теории
deformable base, Mechanical Engineering, 68 pg., сопротивления качению и тяги жесткого колеса по
Moscow; деформируемому основанию, – М: Машиностроение,
[7]. Shvedyk M.S. (2013) - Analysis of single-operating 1971-68 с.;
working bodies for surface processing of the soil and [7]. Шведик М.С. (2013) - Аналіз одноопераційних
embedding of seed and their synthesis, Collection of робочих органів для поверхневого обробітку ґрунту і
scientific articles «Agricultural machines», № 24, pg. 426- заробки насіння та їх синтез, Зб. наук. статей
«Сільськогосподарські машини», № 24. –с. 426-440, -
440, Lutsk.
Луцьк.
[8]. Zaika P.M. (2001) - The theory of agricultural [8]. Заїка П.М. (2001) - Теорія сільськогосподарських
machines. Machines and tools for cultivation, Oko, V. 1 машин. Машини та знаряддя для обробітку ґрунту,
(p. 1), 444 pg., Kharkov. Т. 1 (ч. 1), Око, -444 с., - Харків.
126
ORGANIC APIARY DESIGN IN BULGARIA

/
ПРОЕКТИРАНЕ НА БИОЛОГИЧНИ ПЧЕЛИНИ В БЪЛГАРИЯ
1) 1) 1) 2)
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Atanasov At. ., Ph.D. Hristakov I. ., Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Lubenov L. ., Ph.D. Eng. Vladut V. .,
3) 4)
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Dochev V. ., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Biris St.S.
1) 2) 3)
Ruse University, Agro-industrial Faculty / Bulgaria; INMA Bucharest / Romania; IASS Obrzcov Chiflik Ruse /
4)
Bulgaria; University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania
E-mail: aatanasov@uni-ruse.bg
Abstract: Taken into consideration are several basic Резюме: Разгледани са някои основни етапи при проектиране
stages in the design of the organic apiary including: на биологични пчелини включващи: информационно осигуряване
information service – preliminary, current, computer, – предварително, текущо, електронно; практическа подготовка и
case studies of organic apiaries; practical preparation набиране на пчелари - курсове очни и задочни, практическа
and enrolling apiarists – fulltime and part-time courses, подготовка, оценка на знанията и уменията на кандидатите;
practical training, applicants’ knowledge and skills избор на място за биологичен пчелин; структура и организация
evaluation; selecting the place for organic apiary; на пчелина; определяне на броя на пчелните семейства
structure and organization of the apiary; determining зависимост от условията на района; сертифициране на
the number of bees colony in depending on the пчелина; избор на технологии за биологично отглеждане
conditions of the area; certification of the apiary; на пчели; необходими дълготрайни активи- избор на
organic beekeeping technologies selection; necessary порода пчели, пчеларски инвентар, сгради за центрофугиране
fixed assets- selection of breed of bees, beekeeping на меда и съхраняване на продукцията; финансово осигуряване-
implements, buildings for centrifugation of honey and пчеларски програми и възможности за кандидатстване;
storage; financial insurance – bee-keeping programs цени и реализация на получената продукция и др. С
and opportunities for application, prices and realization приложението на етапите при проектиране на биологични
and etc. Applying of such design approach for organic пчелини се създават благоприятни предпоставки за
apiary creates favourable conditions for full use of пълноценно използване на медоносната растителност,
honey plants, high yields of bee products, sustainable високи добиви на пчелни продукти, устойчиво развитие и
development and management of the apiary. управление на пчелина.
Key words: organic apiary, design, honey Ключови думи: биологичен пчелин, проектиране,мед
INTRODUCTION ВЪВЕДЕНИЕ
The extremely favorable natural and climatic conditions Изключително благоприятните природно-климатични
of Bulgaria characterized with diverse relief and условия на България характеризиращи се с разнообразен
microclimate are the reasons the country traditionally to релеф и микроклимат, са причината страната традиционно
develop agriculture as a main branch of its economy. The да развива земеделието като основен отрасъл на своята
beekeeping as a branch of the agriculture has a significant икономика. Пчеларството, като отрасъл на земеделието
contribution to the formation of a large part of the income заема значителен дял в формирането на голяма част от
of small and medium farmers. Taking into account these доходите на малките и средни земеделски производители.
favorable conditions, the development of the sector is one Имайки предвид тези благоприятни предпоставки, то
of the important priorities for the country for alternative развитието на сектора е един от важните приоритети
employment of the population in underdeveloped rural пред страната за алтернативна заетост на населението
areas under the common agricultural policy of the в слаборазвитите селски райони съгласно общата
European Union. селскостопанска политика на Европейския съюз.
Despite of the favorable natural conditions in recent Въпреки благоприятните природни дадености през
years a reduction in the number of bee colonies have последните години се наблюдава намаляване на броя
been observed. According to the data[3] in 2012, the на пчелните семейства. По данни на [3], през 2012 г.
existing bee families in the country were 3.4% less than наличните пчелни семейства в страната са, с 3,4 % по-
in 2011. The trend is similar in the number of farms малко в сравнение с 2011 г. Подобна е и тенденцията
breeding bee families – 11.9% less in comparison with при броят на стопанствата, отглеждащи пчелни
2011. семейства, което е с 11,9 % по-малко в сравнение с 2011 г.
Unlike the conventional beekeeping the number of bee За разлика от конвенционалното пчеларство броя на
families bred organically increased about 45% compared пчелните семейства отглеждани по биологичен метод нараства
to 2011. A prerequisite for that increase is the good с около 45 % повече в сравнение с 2011 г. Предпоставка
welcome of the produced organic honey on the international за това увеличение е добрият прием на биологично
markets. произведения пчелен мед на международните пазари.
Taking into account these changes, many beekeepers Отчитайки тези промени много пчелари се оказват
find themselves unprepared for the new production неподготвени за новите условия на производство.
conditions. The main question is: What do we need to Основния въпрос който се поставя е Какво е нужно да
have, in order to decide to do biological apiary, to certify имаме, за да решим да правим биологичен пчелин, да
the existing one? Database and methodologies for the сертифицираме съществуващия? Ползваните до сега
design of conventional apiaries, used until now, do not бази от данни и методики за проектиране на конвенционални
allow the objective changes in the transition to organic пчелини не позволяват да се вземат предвид настъпилите
production to be taken into account. Many authors обективни изменения при прехода към биологично
considering the changes happened - [5], [8], [13] partially производство. Много автори отчитайки настъпилите
propose a methodology for the design of organic apiaries промени [5], [8], [13] частично предлагат методика за
based on regulatory requirements governing the organic проектиране на биологични пчелини основавайки се на
beekeeping. Others offer solutions under specific нормативните изисквания регламентиращи биологичното
127
conditions [1], [2], but unfortunately there is a lack of a пчеларство. Други предлагат решения при конкретни условия
scientifically grounded methodology for the design of [1], [2] но за съжеление липсва научно обоснована
organic apiaries. методика за проектиране на биологични пчелини.
Efficiency requirements for the production can be Изискванията за ефективност на производството може да
performed only in complete solution of the problems. се изпълни само при цялостно решение на проблемите.
This means the main stages in the design of organic Това означава да се обосноват основните етапи при
apiary including: information security, practical training проектиране на биологичния пчелин включващи: информационно
and recruiting beekeepers, choice of location for creation осигуряване, практическа подготовка и набиране на пчелари,
of the apiary, structure and organization of the apiary, избор на място за създаване на пчелин, устройство и
apiary certification selection of technologies, организация на пчелина, сертифициране на пчелина, избор на
determination of necessary fixed assets, determination of технологии, определяне на необходимите дълготрайни активи,
the necessary consumptives and financial support to be определяне на необходимите консумативи, финансово
justified. осигуряване.
METHOD OF DESIGNING ORGANIC APIARY МЕТОД ЗА ПРОЕКТИРАНЕ НА БИОЛОГИЧEН ПЧЕЛИН

What do you need to have to decide to do biological Какво е нужно да имаме, за да решим да правим
apiary, to certify the existing one? биологичен пчелин, да сертифицираме съществуващия?
The creation of an apiary requires prior design. The aim Създаването на пчелин изисква предварително
is the most favorable conditions to be established for a проектиране. Целта е да се създадат най-благоприятни
sustainable development of bee families, high yields of условия за устойчиво развитие на пчелните семейства,
bee products to be obtained and the available resources постигане на високи добиви на пчелни продукти и най-
to be used most rationally. рационално използване на наличните ресурси.
RESULTS РЕЗУЛТАТИ
1. Information providing 1. Информационно осигуряване
Information providing involves the use of multiple Информационното осигуряване предполага използването
sources at all levels of development and implementation of на различни източници на всички нива на разработване
the project. The information providing can be pre и изпълнението на проекта. Информационното осигуряване
(literature overview acc. a list), from current and reference може да бъде предварително (литература за обща
literature, from the Internet, case of studies of organic представа по списък), от текуща и справочна
apiaries. литература, от интернет, казуси от биологични пчелини.
1.1. Pre - literature overview acc. a list 1.1. Предварително – литература за обща представа по списък
Includes scientific and popular scientific literature. Включва научна и научно популярна литература.
1.2. Current, reference literature acc. a list 1.2. Текуща, справочна по списък
The main current sources used for information Основните текущи източници използвани за информационно
providing in developing a project for organic beekeeping осигуряване при разработването на проект за биологично
are: official data of the NSI; NGOs consultancy, as пчеларство са: официални данни на НСИ; неправителствени
“Bioselena” a foundation for organic farming, Association организации за консултантска дейност, като фондация по биологично
for Organic Agriculture "Ecopharm", "Agrolink" association, земеделие - „Биоселена“, асоциация за екологично земеделие
information from national institutions - employment „Екофарм“, сдружение „Агролинк“, информация от национални
agency, agricultural statistics of the Ministry of Agriculture институции – агенция по заетостта, агростатистика към
and Food; information from regional sources; information министерството на земеделието и храните; информация от
from local sources - municipal administration, municipal регионални източници; информация от местни източници –
office of agriculture; data from scientific journals and общинска администрация, общинската служба по земеделие;
conferences, dissertations, successfully developed similar данни от научни списания и конференции, дисертации,
projects, information, collected information on a particular подобни успешно разработени проекти, информация
occasion - surveys and more. събирана по конкретен повод- анкетни проучвания и др.
1.3. Internet addresses 1.3. По Интернет: адреси
1.4. Case studies of organic apiaries 1.4. Казуси от биологични пчелини
Collection of information on case studies of organic Събирането на информация по казуси от биологични
apiaries may take the form of a questionnaire giving us пчелини може да стане под формата на въпросник даващ ни
information about the overall profile of the apiary (activity, информация за общия профил на пчелина (дейност,
number of hives, available inventory, annual production, брой кошери, наличен инвентар, годишно производство,
marketing of produce, etc.), technology of the organic реализация на продукцията и др.), технологията на
farming, necessary resources and problems to start the биологично производство, необходими ресурси и
organic beekeeping. проблеми, за да се започне биологично пчеларство.
2. Education, training and recruitment of beekeepers 2. Обучение, практическа подготовка и набиране на пчелари
Unlike of the other industries where staff training is За разлика от другите производства, където обучението на
relatively short-term and after the acquisition of certain кадрите е сравнително краткотрайно и след придобиване на
theoretical and practical knowledge are ready for the определени теоретични и практически познания са
implementation of production processes, in beekeeping готови за осъществяване на производствените процеси,
besides theoretical training, long-term practical training is то при пчеларството освен теоретично обучение се
been required. изисква дълготрайно практическо обучение.
The selection and the training of beekeepers are Избора и обучението на пчелари е свързано и със спецификата
related to the specifics of the production itself, as allergic на самото производство, като алергичност към ужилване, страх
to stings, fear of stings and other factors that influence to от ужилване и други фактори, които влияят при намирането на
finding suitable staff to pursue that profession. подходящи кадри да упражняват тази професия.
In organic beekeeping training the requirements and При биологичното пчеларство изискванията към
128
the selection of beekeepers increase taking into account обучението и избора на пчелари се повишава имайки
the requirements related to the organic production. предвид изискванията свързани с биологично производство.
The training may include the following steps: Обучението може да включва следните етапи:
2.1. Regular and correspondence courses 2.1. Курсове очни и задочни
Courses can be held at research institutes of organic Курсовете могат да се проведат в научни институти по
agriculture, universities, colleges and other specialized биологично земеделие, университети, колежи и други
scientific institutions having the necessary number of специализирани научни заведения разполагащи с необходимия
specialists, facilities and equipment. брой специалисти, материална база и оборудване.
2.2. Practice 2.2. Практика
After the completion of the appropriate course the След завършването на съответния курс се препоръчва
candidates are recommended to go through the practical кандидатите да преминат през практическо приложение
application of knowledge acquired in beekeepers with на придобитите знания при пчелари с дългогодишен
years of long experience in the field of organic beekeeping опит в областа на биологичното пчеларство.
2.3. Evaluate the knowledge and skills of candidates 2.3. Начин за оценка на знанията и уменията на кандидатите
In assessing the knowledge of the candidates their При оценката на знанията на кандидатите се
theoretical and practical knowledge is examined. проверяват техните теоретични и практически познания.
2.4. Information courses for training 2.4. Информационни курсове за повишаване на квалификацията
After selecting the beekeepers periodic courses for След избора на пчелари се препоръчва провеждането
information about innovations related to the production на периодични информационни курсове за информиране
and improvement the knowledge base are за новостите свързани с производството и подобряване
recommended. на базата от знания.
3. Selecting the place for organic apiary 3. Избор на място за създаване на биологичен пчелин
The choice of location for the creation of a organic Изборът на място за създаване на биологичен пчелин
apiary is of great importance for his return. The е от голямо значение за неговата доходност. От голяма
environment is of great importance, also and the важност е околната среда и наличието на медоносна
presence of honey plants in a range of 2 km. Honey растителност в радиус от 2 km. Медоносните растения
plants should be diverse during flowering to be able to трябва да са разнообразни по време на цъфтеж, за да
ensure prolonged grazing of bees. It is particularly могат да осигурят по продължителна паша на пчелите.
important in early spring pollen-bearing plants to be Особено важно е в ранна пролет около пчелина да има
grown around the apiary. Along with the selection of прашецодайна растителност. Наред с избора на райони
suitable grazing areas in the design of organic apiaries с подходяща паша при проектирането на биологични
the region has to be explored also and according to the пчелини трябва да се проучи района и по отношение на
requirements contained in the regulations governing изискванията, отразени в нормативните документи регламентиращи
organic production (the old ordinance № 35 replacing the биологичното производство (старата наредба №35, и
old one - Ordinance 1 January 2013 MAF). заместващата я Наредба 1 от Януари 2013 на МЗХ).
4. Structure and organization of the apiary 4. Устройство и организация на пчелина
Along with the choosing a place for biological apiary, С избора на място за биологичен пчелин важна стъпка в
the arrangement of hives in the apiary is an important step проектирането е подреждането на кошерите в пчелина. Най-
in the design. It is best if space permits hives be be добре е, ако мястото позволява кошерите да бъдат разположени
located at a greater distance from each other to avoid на по-голямо разстояние един от друг за избягване
honey robbing by bees to prevent diseases. налитания и кражби с цел предпазване от заболявания.
The scheme of arrangement of the hives must comply Схемата на подреждане на кошерите трябва да е
with the ground and the plants in it, sunshine, handiness съобразена с терена и насажденията в него, слънцегреенето,
of beekeepers and others. Usually arrangement schemes удобство при работа на пчеларя и др. Обикновено
that have been adopted in our country are staggered also схемите за подреждане, които са възприети у нас са
in groups. In staggered the distance is 3 - 4 m from row to шахматно и групово. При шахматното разположение
row and 2 - 3 m from hive to hive. In group arrangement разстоянието е 3 – 4 m ред от ред и 2 – 3 m кошер от
the available hives are placed by 2 – 3 together at a кошер. При груповото разположение кошерите се
distance of 0,5 m in the form of a triangle or half circle, разполагат по 2 – 3 заедно на 0,5 m един от друг във
with entrances facing slightly sideway. The distance формата на триъгълник или полукръг и се извиват малко
between the groups is 2 - 3 m, and between the rows – 4 - настрани с входовете. Разстоянието между групите е 2 –
5 m. 3 m, а между редовете – 4 – 5 m.
In group arrangement not only that bees and mothers При груповото разположение не само, че пчелите и
are better orientating, but also and the beekeeper is майките се ориентират по – добре, но и пчеларят е улеснен
facilitated too much in his work because some of твърде много в работата си, тъй като редица манипулации,
manipulations, as joining or strengthening of bee families, като присъединяване или подсилване на пчелни семейства,
moving honeycombs, artificial swarming, etc. can much преместване на пити, изкуствено роене и пр. може много по–
faster and convenient be carried out between adjacent бързо и удобно да се извършват между близкостоящите
hives within the individual group [12]. кошери в отделната група [12].
Some authors recommend U-shaped, V-shaped and Някои автори препоръчват U-образна, V-образна и
serpentine pattern Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. змиевидна схема фиг.1 и фиг.2.
Despite of the scheme of arrangement adopted an Независимо от приетата схема на подреждане важно
important condition is the entrances if it is possible to the условие е по възможност входовете на кошерите да са
hives to face the sunrise to activate the bees in the ориентирани към изгрева на слънцето за активиране на
morning. At the same time the hives to be placed under пчелите в сутрешните часове. В същото време кошерите
loose shade to avoid overheating in the midday and е добре да са разположени под рехава сянка за избягване
afternoon. прегряване през обедните и следобедните часове.
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The hives are placed on stands at a height of 15 - 20 Кошерите се поставят на стойки на височина 15-20
cm with a slight tilt forward. Weed infestation around the cm с лек наклон напред. Не се допуска буренясване
hives in the apiary is not allowed. It is important that около кошерите и в пчелина. Важно условие е поилката
drinkers in the apiary to be located on the sunlit place with в пчелина да е разположена на огрято от слънцето
running water. място с течаща вода.
5. Determination the number of bee colony depending 5. Определяне броя на пчелните семейства в зависимост
on the conditions of the area от условията на района
Typical for the organic beekeeping is that forest and Характерното за биологичното пчеларство е, че избраните райони
meadow vegetation are the dominant ones in the са с преобладаваща горска и ливадна растителност което е съобразено
selected areas which is consistent with the principles of с принципите на самото производство (без наличие на полски
production itself (without any field cultural species културни видове отглеждани конвенционално). Имайки предвид
grown conventionally). Considering this feature it is тази особеност е необходимо много точно да се определи максималния
necessary the maximum number of bee families bred in брой на пчелните семейства отглеждани в избрания район.
the selected area to be accurately determined. Изчисляването се прави на база на медоносните
The calculation is made on the basis of honey растения в радиус от 2 km около пчелина което обхваща
plants within a radius of 2 km around the apiary which площ около 12 500 da. За улесняване на изчисляването
covers an area of about 12 500 da. To facilitate the района може да се картографира, като се разделят
calculation the area can be mapped as the different отделните цъфтящи видове и се определи тяхната
flowering species are separated and their area to be площ. Изчисляването е по лесно в случаите когато
determined. The calculation is easier in cases when растенията са разположени от един и същ вид на
plants are located on one and the same type of area дадена площ (липова гора, акациева гора, ливадни и
(lime wood, acacia forest, grassland and forage plants) фуражни растения) и по трудно, когато са пръснати по
and more difficult when they are spread on different на различни смесени масиви. Съобразно с площите на
mixed arrays. According to the areas of honey crops медоносните култури и тяхната медопродуктивност се
and their honey productivity the possible amount of получава количеството мед което може да се получи.
honey yield can be calculated. Honey productivity of the Медопродуктивността на медоносните растения е
honey plants is variable depending on the weather променлива величина зависеща от климатичните
conditions during the year, but estimates are given in условия през годината, но приблизителни данни са
some books [12]. посочени в някои литературни източници [12].
Fig. 1 - U- figurative scheme Fig.2 - V-figurative and snake-shaping scheme
In determination the number of bee families should be При определяне броя на семействата трябва да се
taken into account that all the nectar of honey plants съобрази, че всичкия нектар отделян от медоносните
secreted is not being absorbed 100% by the bees as part растения не се усвоява на 100 % от пчелите, като част от
of it is being absorbed by other insects, and some may be него се усвоява от други насекоми, а друга част може да бъде
lost due to unfavorable meteorological conditions. изгубен поради неблагоприятни метерологични условия.
Conventionally it is assumed that 50% of the nectar is not Условно се приема, че 50 % от нектара не се усвоява. За
absorbed. A bee family needs 70-80 kg honey for its развитието си едно семейство се нуждае от 70-80 kg мед и
development and if 15 kg commodity honey is planned, ако се планува 15 kg стоков мед, то за всяко семейство ще
then each bee family will need 85-95 kg honey. When 50% е необходим 85-95 kg. мед. Когато се разделят 50 % от
of the stock of nectar for a given area Pn are divided to the запасите на нектар за дадената площ Pn на общото
total amount of honey Q we get N – the number of bee количество мед Q ще получим броя N на пчелните
families that can be grown in this area. семейства които могат да се отглеждат в дадения район.
6. Certification of apiary 6. Сертифициране на пчелина
In biological products, including honey, compliance is При биологичните продукти, включително и пчелният мед
required with strict legal rules and technological се изисква спазване на строго определени законови правила
processes in manufacturing, processing, packaging, и технологични процеси в производството, преработката,
storage and transport. It is necessary certification, опаковането, съхраняването и транспорта. Необходимо е
marking, providing access to public information, control, сертифициране, маркиране, осигуряване на достъп до
etc. [14], [15], [16] – all of them mandatory for all публична информация, контрол и др. [14], [15], [16] които са
processes in the food chain of organic products [10]. EU задължителни за всички процеси от хранителната верига
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has a common framework of Community with rules for на биологичните продукти [10]. ЕС има обща рамка на
organic production [6]. Общността с правила за биологичното производство [6].
Under current regulations, control and certification of Съгласно действащата нормативна уредба, контролът и
organic products in Bulgaria are performed by legal entities сертификацията на биологичните продукти в България се
- entrepreneurs and non-profit organizations approved by извършва от юридически лица – търговци и сдружения с нестопанска
the Minister of Agriculture and Food. цел одобрени от Министърът на земеделието и храните.
After the choice of a certification organization, the След избора на сертифицираща организация пчеларя
beekeeper shall submit an application and a statement of подава заявление и декларация за намерението си за
its intention for transition to organic production [7]. преход към биологично производство [7].
A declaration testifies to the concrete existence of the Декларация свидетелства за конкретното съществуване
apiary. It mentions about: the locations of the stationary на пчелина. В нея се упоменават местонахожденията на
hives, wintering places, places of transhumance, the стационарните кошери, на местата за зимуване, местата
location of the quarantine apiary. Application and за подвижно пчеларство, местонахождението на
declaration shall be submitted to the Bulgarian Agency карантинния пчелин. Заявлението и Декларацията се
for Food Safety (Food Safety Agency) and allows an подават в Българската агенция по безопасност на храните
identification (registration) number of the apiary and (БАБХ) и позволява определянето на идентификационен
hives. (регистрационен) номер на пчелина и кошерите .
The transitional period from conventional to organic Преходния период за преминаване от конвенционално
beekeeping is 1 year. During this period, complete към биологично пчеларство е 1 година. През този период
replacement of the wax combs with wax bases, derived се изисква пълна подмяна на восъчните пити с восъчни
from wax from organic apiaries is required. After основи получени от восък от биологични пчелини. След
authorization non-organic wax may be used, but to be разрешение може да се използва и восък от небиологично
produced by opening of honey combs or construction производство, но да е получен от разпечатки на питите с
frames. мед или далаци (строителни рамки).
N = Pn / Q (1)
These requirements impose beekeeper to be very well Тези изисквания налагат пчеларят много добре да
acquainted with the regulations and strictly to follow them. познава нормативните документи и стриктно да ги спазва.
Immediately after the certification of the production Веднага след сертификацията на производството му
record-keeping starts of the relevant documentation with започва и воденето на съответната документация, свързана
registration of all the activities of the apiary. с документиране на всички дейности на пчелина.
The certification ensures the achievement and Сертифицирането осигурява постигането и поддържането
maintenance of the required quality, consumer satisfaction на исканото качество, удовлетворяване на потребителите
and improves the competitive position of beekeepers. и подобряване на конкурентните позиции на пчеларите.
The consumers of organic honey can have Потребителите на биологичен мед могат да имат доверие
confidence in compliance with strict standards and в спазването на строго определени стандарти и надежден
reliable control through the application of certified and контрол чрез прилагането на сертифицирани и интегрирани
integrated systems for quality control throughout the системи за управление на качеството по цялата
food chain. Certification standards for organic farming хранителна верига. Сертифицирането по стандартите
will lead to preventive solvation of some problems of the за биологично земеделие ще доведе до превантивно
beekeepers, such as: решаване на редица проблеми на пчеларите, като:
- traceability and control of bee and honey products - проследяемост и контрол на пчелните продукти и мед
throughout the food chain from the apiary to the table; по цялата хранителна верига от пчелина до трапезата;
- ensuring the safety and quality of bee products; - осигуряване на безопасност и качество на пчелните продукти;
- improvement of the opportunities for realization of bee - подобряване на възможностите за реализация на пчелни
products and direct export to international markets; продукти и директен експорт на международни пазари;
- creation of bee products with high added value and - създаване на пчелни продукти с висока добавена
promotion of their own brands; стойност и утвърждаване на собствени марки;
- possibility for additional subsidies under the Common - възможност за допълнително субсидиране по линия
Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU; на общата аграрна политика (ОАП) на ЕС;
- compliance with laws and regulations; - спазване на законовата и нормативната база;
- sustainable development of the apiaries as a result of - устойчиво развитие на пчелините в резултат на
maintaining of a stable production quality throughout the поддържане на по-стабилно качество на продукцията
food chain. по цялата хранителна верига.
7. Technologies 7. Технологии
7.1. Possible technologies for organic beekeeping 7.1. Възможни технологии за биологично отглеждане на пчели
In conventional beekeeping honey bees are fed by При конвенционалното пчеларство обикновено пчелите
sugar or other sweetening substances. In organic се подхранват със захар или други подсладители. При
beekeeping the nectar of plants and organic honey, биологичното пчеларство единствената храна, с която се
which they have produced themselves, is the only food хранят пчелите е нектара от растенията и биологичен
for bees. пчелен мед, който те сами са си произвели.
To assess the effectiveness of the organic production За да преценим ефективността на биологичното производство
we must choose an appropriate technology of cultivation. трябва да изберем подходяща технология на отглеждане.
The final result of the design is reflected to the expenses Крайният резултат от проектирането се отразява в разходите за
for the particular technology and honey yield expected. конкретната технология и очакваните добиви на мед.
When using data from a study of the expected market Когато се използват и данните от проучване на очакваните
price for realization of the honey, organically produced, пазарни цени за реализация на биологично произведения
the potential revenue can be calculated. Then the пчелен мед може да се сметнат възможните приходи.
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difference between revenue and expenses represents the Тогава разликата между приходи и разходи представя
effectiveness of the particular technology. ефективността на конкретната технология.
The technology chosen should provide effective use of Избраната технология трябва да осигурява ефективното
available apiary and bee grazing, labor resources, използване на пчелина и наличната пчелна паша, трудовия
obtaining sufficient quantity and quality production, ресурс, получаването на достатъчно по количество и качество
acceptable income from the sale of the production. продукция, приемливи доходи от продажбата на продукцията.
The technology must be complied with the basic Технологията трябва да е съобразена с основните
principles of the organic beekeeping: принципи на биологичното пчеларство:
- In organic apiary it is worked if is possible as in a - В биологичния пчелин се работи по възможност като в затворена
closed system, relying entirely on their own resources. система, като се разчита изцяло на собствени ресурси.
- A permanent high productivity of bee colonies is - Поддържа се трайна висока продуктивност на
maintained. пчелните семейства.
- Qualitative organic bee products are being produced – - Произвеждат се качествени биологични пчелни
they are processed properly and stored as not to продукти – обработват се правилно и се съхраняват
deteriorate their quality. They are safe for humans and така, че да не се влошава качеството им. Те са
bees. безопасни за хората и за пчелите.
- Bees, their activities and the intervention of man to be - Пчелите, тяхната дейност и намесата на човека да
in a harmony. са в хармония.
- The surrounding environment is protected. - Опазва се околната среда.
- The use of energy sources and fuels is minimized . - Свежда се до минимум използването на източници
на енергия и горива.
7.2. Possible technologies for obtaining of bee products 7.2. Възможни технологии за добиване на пчелни продукти
In the extraction of organic honey and other bee При добиването на биологичния пчелен мед и другите
products the basic biological principles are: биологични пчелни продукти основни принципи са:
-The absence of any contamination in honey and honey - Отсъствието на всякакви замърсявания в пчелния
products. мед и пчелните продукти.
- The extraction of the products must take place in - Извличането на продуктите трябва да протича в
harmony with the life of the bee family - they should not be хармония с живота на пчелното семейство – пчелите
stressed. не трябва да се стресират.
8. Necessary fixed assets (except land) 8. Необходими дълготрайни активи (освен земята)
8.1. Choosing a breed of bees 8.1.Избор на порода пчели
When choosing a breed of bees the beekeeper takes При избор на породи пчели пчеларя взема предвид
into account the adjustment of the breed to the local приспособяването на породата към местните условия,
conditions, viability and sustainability of bees to disease жизнеспособността и устойчивостта на пчелите към
and pests. According to the regulation on organic farming болести и неприятели. Според наредбата за биологично
European breeds of Apis mellifera and their local ecotypes земеделие се препоръчват европейските породи от Apis
have been recommended. mellifera и техните местни екотипове.
8.2.Beekeeping equipment 8.2.Пчеларски инвентар
Beekeeping equipment in organic beekeeping is not Пчеларския инвентар при биологичното пчеларство не
significantly different from the conventional beekeeping. се различава съществено от конвенционалното пчеларство.
Hives and equipment for the production of honey is Кошерите и инвентарът за производство на мед се изработват
mainly made of natural materials presenting no risk of основно от естествени материали, които не представляват риск
contamination of the environment and bee products. In от замърсяване на околната среда и пчелните продукти. В
hives only natural products are used such as propolis, wax кошерите се използват само природни продукти като прополис,
and plant oils. For new foundations only bee wax from an восък и растителни масла. За нови основи се използва пчелен
organic farm is used восък от стопанство с биологично производство.
8.3. Premises for centrifugation and storage of honey 8.3.Сгради за центрофугиране на меда и съхраняване
production на продукцията
Premises for centrifugation of bee honey should be of Помещението за центрофугиране на мед трябва да е с
such sizes that workspace to allow completion of all такива размери, че работното пространство да позволява
activities according to the hygiene requirements; activities извършване на всички дейности, съгласно хигиенните изисквания;
to be carried out freely without causing cross contamination дейностите да се извършват свободно, без да се предизвиква
in importation, processing and export of combs, fresh кръстосано замърсяване при внасяне, преработка и изнасяне на
honey and other materials. The floorings to be smooth, the пити, мед и др. материали. Подовите настилки да са гладки;
walls to be covered with waterproof, non-absorbent, non- стените да са покрити с водоустойчиви, неабсорбиращи,
toxic materials; the ceilings and hanging constructions and нетоксични материали; таваните и прикрепените към тях
installations attached to them must be performed in a висящи конструкции и инсталации трябва да са изпълнени
manner that prevents the accumulation of dust, по начин, който не допуска натрупването на прах,
condensation and mold growth. образуването на конденз и развитие на плесени.
The surfaces that come into contact with the honey Повърхностите, които влизат в контакт с меда и
and other bee products to be kept clean and in good другите пчелни продукти, да се поддържат чисти и в
condition, the windows have to be such constructed and добро състояние, прозорците да са с конструкция и от
made from materials that allow effective cleaning; the материали, които позволяват ефективно почистване;
doors to have smooth surfaces covered with non- вратите да са с гладка повърхност, покрити с
absorbent materials [5]. неабсорбиращи материали [5].
The warehouses for the storage of honey must be Складовите помещения за съхранение на меда трябва
equipped with suitable shelves. For the proper storage of да са оборудвани с подходящи стелажи. За съхранение на
the honey therein, the temperature should not be higher пчелния мед температурата в тях не трябва да е по-висока
132
than 25 ° C and the humidity - not higher than 80%. от 25° С, а влажността на въздуха да не е по-висока от 80%
9. Financial providing in creation of the apiary and 9. Финансово осигуряване при създаването на
realization of the production пчелина и реализация на получената продукция
9.1. Business plan 9.1.Бизнесплан
The business plan is an absolutely necessary step in the Бизнес-планът е абсолютно необходима стъпка при
preparation of projects for the creation of biological apiaries изготвянето на проекти за създаването на биологични
and for the development of the apiary as a whole. пчелини и за развитието на пчелина като цяло.
The business plan is a document that must accompany Бизнес-планът е документ, който трябва да придружава
the documentation of the financing proposal, too often - the документацията на предложението за финансиране – твърде
main document. The business plan should answer a few често – основният документ. Бизнес-планът трябва да дава
questions that a funding organization or a bank usually отговор на няколко въпроса, които една финансираща
asks: What is the amount of the funding sought? 2. организация или банка обикновено поставят: 1. Какъв е размерът
Intended use of the funds? 3. How will be the funds на търсеното финансиране? 2. За какво ще се използват
utilized? средствата ? 3. Как ще бъдат оползотворени средствата?
9.2. Beekeeping programs and opportunities to apply 9.2. Пчеларски програми и възможности за кандидатстване
An important step for the successful implementation of Важна стъпка за успешно реализиране на бизнес идеята
the business idea to design biological apiary is the за проект на биологичен пчелин е търсенето и намирането
searching and finding funding sources. This can be на източници на финансиране. Това могат да бъдат
national apiculture program for the three year period 2014 Националната програма по пчеларство за тригодишния
- 2016, the Programme for Rural Development 2014 – период 2014-2016 г., Програмата за развитие на селските
2020, etc., published in the information pages of the райони 2014 – 2020 г и др., които се публикуват в
"Ministry of Agriculture and Food" and the State Fund информационните страници на „Министерство на
"Agriculture". земеделието и храните”и Държавен фонд „Земеделие”.
9.3. Opportunities for realization of the production 9.3. Възможности за реализация на получената продукция
The markets of organic honey in Europe and worldwide Пазарите на биологичен мед в европейски и световен
are the main generators to initiate its production. This мащаб се явяват основните генератори за иницииране на
indicates that the future production of organic honey would неговото производство. Това показва, че бъдещото производство
be a derivative of the trends and development in these на биологичен мед ще е производно на тенденциите и
markets. Legislative and regulatory base for the functioning развитието на тези пазари. Законодателната и нормативната
of the biological markets, including honey, provide a база за функциониране на биологичните пазари, включително
framework for all business processes that must comply the и на пчелният мед, задават рамката на всички бизнес
produce of organic honey - from the design of the apiary to процеси, с които трябва да се съобрази производството на
the end consumer. Therefore the producers of organic биологичен мед – от проектирането на пчелина до крайният
honey must adapt their activities and behavior considering консуматор. Следователно производителите на биологичен
not only of the market but also and regulatory conditions, мед трябва да приспособят действията и поведението си
and CAP of the EU should provide a sound basis for a отчитайки не само пазарните, но и нормативните условия, а
successful promotion and development of organic ОАП на ЕС трябва да осигури стабилна база за успешно
beekeeping. популяризиране и развитие на биологичното пчеларство.
Globally, organic markets will continue to grow В световен план биологичните пазари ще продължат устойчиво
sustainably in the coming decades, and together with them да растат в близките десетилетия, а заедно с тях и пазарът
the market for organic bee products and honey. Brazil is на биологични пчелни продукти и мед. Бразилия е един от
one of the largest producers of organic honey, as Argentina най-големите производители на биологичен мед, като
and Mexico also produce significant quantities. Timely and Аржентина и Мексико също произвеждат значителни количества.
reliable official data are still missing about the exact Все още липсват надеждни и актуални официални данни за точното
amounts of organic honey, but it is only a small part of the количество на произведеният биологичен мед, но то е само малка
honey production worldwide. The interest in organic част от световното производство на мед. Интересът към биологичното
beekeeping globally is great, because the organic honey is пчеларството в глобален план е голямо, защото биологичният
welcome on the world market. мед намира добър прием на световния пазар.
There is a good market of the organic honey in the В по-развитите и богати северни и средноевропейски
developed and wealthy northern and Central European страни, биологичният мед също има добър пазар, и преди
countries, and is been imported because the local organic всичко се внася, защото месния биологичен мед не
honey is insufficient. The largest market of organic honey достига. Германия е най-големият пазар на пчелен мед в
in Europe is in Germany, but the organic honey is less than Европа, но биологичният мед е под 8% от общия мед на
8% of the total honey production. Italy is the largest пазара. Италия е най-големият производител на
producer of certified organic honey in the EU. The organic сертифициран биологичен мед в ЕС. Биологичното
beekeeping in EU has a great potential and an important пчеларство в ЕС е с голям потенциал и важна роля в него
role there will be played by the countries of Southeast ще играят страните от югоизточна Европа, включително
Europe, including Bulgaria and Romania, which are among България и Румъния, които са едни от големите
the largest producers. The capricious market of United производители. Капризният пазар на Обединена Европа
Europe is hungry for quality and certified organic honey изпитва глад за качествен и сертифициран биологичен
and it is an important target market for Bulgarian мед, поради което той е важен целеви пазар за
beekeepers. българските пчелари.
10. Accounting and documentation 10. Отчетност и документация
The proper management and development planning of Правилното ръководство и планиране развитието
the apiary is reflected in the relevant documentation на пчелина се отразява в съответната документация
групирана в следните документи: дневник на пчелина;
grouped as follows: a journal of the apiary; Book of the книга на пчелина, инвентарна книга и др. Всички
133
apiary, inventory book, etc. All documents can be документи могат да бъдат автоматизирани с
automated with a spreadsheet or other software programs. електронни таблици или други софтуерни програми.
CONCLUSIONS ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ
With the implementation of the design stages of organic С приложението на етапите при проектиране на биологични
apiaries favorable conditions for full use of honey plants пчелини се създават благоприятни предпоставки за пълноценно
are been created, high yield of bee products, sustainable използване на медоносната растителност, високи добиви
development and management of the apiary. на пчелни продукти, устойчиво развитие и управление на пчелина.
Significantly improves the competitiveness of the Подобрява се значително конкурентоспособността
producers of organic bee products. на производителите на биологични пчелни продукти.
REFERENCES ЛИТЕРАТУРА
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[9]. Kanev K. (2014) - Organic Beekeeping - future and [9]. Кънев К. (2014) - Биологичното пчеларство - бъдеще и
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[10]. Lyubenov L. (2014) - Agricultural Marketing, studios, Ruse; [10]. Любенов Л. (2014) - Агропазари, студия, Русе;
[11]. Министерство на земеделието и храните (2013) -
[11]. Ministry of Agriculture and Food (2013) - Ordinance
Наредба № 1 от 7 февруари 2013 г. за прилагане на
№ 1 of 7 February 2013 on the application of the rules of правилата на биологично производство на растения,
organic production plants, animals, aquaculture, plant and животни и аквакултури, растителни, животински
animal products, aquaculture products and food, their продукти, продукти от аквакултури и храни, тяхното
labeling and control of the production and labeling, SG, етикетиране и контрола върху производството и
issue 16 of 19.02.2013; етикетирането, ДВ. бр. 16 от 19.02.2013;
[12]. Nedialkov St. et al. (1983) - Practical beekeeping, [12]. Недялков Ст., и др. (1983) - Практическо
Zemizdat, Sofia; пчеларство, Земиздат, София;
[13]. *** - Bees: choice for a apiary and its organization, [13]. Пчели: Избор за място за пчелин и организирането
http://biozemedelie.com/jivotni/miasto-pchelin/. му, http://biozemedelie.com/jivotni/miasto-pchelin/
[14]. European Union (2007) - Regulation (EC) № 834/2007 of [14]. Регламент (ЕО) № 834/2007 на Съвета от 28 юни
28 June 2007 on the organic production and labeling of the 2007 година относно биологичното производство и
organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) № етикетирането на биологични продукти и за отмяна на
2092/91; Регламент (ЕИО) № 2092/91;
[15]. Регламент (ЕО) № 1235/2008 на Комисията от 8
[15]. European Union (2008) - Regulation (EC) № 1235/2008 of
декември 2008 година за определяне на подробни
8 December 2008 laying down detailed rules for implementing правила за прилагането на Регламент (ЕО) №
Regulation (EC) № 834/2007 of the Council regarding the 834/2007 на Съвета по отношение на режима за внос
regime for import of organic products from third countries; на биологични продукти от трети държави;
[16]. European Union (2008) - Regulation (EC) № 889/2008 [16]. Регламент (ЕО) № 889/2008 на Комисията от 5 септември
of 5 September 2008 laying down detailed rules for 2008 година за определяне на подробни правила за прилагането
implementing Regulation (EC) № 834/2007 on organic на Регламент (ЕО) № 834/2007 на Съвета относно биологичното
production and labeling of organic products with regard to производство и етикетирането на биологични продукти по отношение
organic production, labeling and control. на биологичното производство, етикетирането и контрола.
134
DEFINITION OF BASIC PARAMETERS OF SMALL-SIZED FLEXIBLE HARROW

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ВИЗНАЧЕННЯ ОСНОВНИХ ПАРАМЕТРІВ МАЛАГАБАРИТНОЇ ГНУЧКОЇ БОРОНИ
PhD. Eng. Usenko M.
Tel: +38(0332)74-61-03; Fax: +38(0332)77-48-40; E-mail: rector@lutsk-ntu.com.ua
Abstract: The advantages and disadvantages of Резюме: Проаналізовано переваги та недоліки різних
different constructions of flexible harrows are analyzed. A конструкцій гнучких борін. Подана нова конструкція
new construction of the flexible chain harrow with tines гнучкої ланцюгової борони з зубами, що обертаються
that rotate in different planes by contact with the soil is в різних площинах при контакті з ґрунтом. Визначені
presents. The angles of outside links of the harrow and, кути нахилу крайніх ланок даної борони і, відповідно, її
accordingly, its working width are defined. The power to робоча ширина захвату. Визначена потужність на
work of flexible chain harrow is defined. роботу гнучкої ланцюгової борони.
Keywords: motoblock, harrow, chain, link, tine, angle, Ключові слова: мотоблок, борона, ланцюг, ланка, зуб,
width, force, power кут, ширина захвату, сила, потужність
Operation of basic soil tillage prior to all operations Операція основного обробітку ґрунту передує всім операціям з
for growing crops. Lately gets spread progressive вирощування сільськогосподарських культур. Останнім
system of minimum tillage which includes reducing of часом набуває поширення прогресивна система мінімального
обробітку ґрунту, яка передбачає скорочення кількості
the number of tillage and declining of their depth by обробітків та зменшення їх глибини за рахунок поєднання
combining of various working operations such as різних технологічних операцій, наприклад, оранки і
ploughing and harrowing. To ensure of this tillage, it боронування. Для забезпечення такого обробітку ґрунту
is necessary to use a combined tillage tools. необхідно застосування комбінованих знарядь.
Today for the operation of minimum tillage the Сьогодні для виконання операції мінімального обробітку
combined units are used. A lot of constructions of ґрунту використовують комбіновані агрегати. Розроблено
that plows with flexible rotary harrows are developed багато таких конструкцій, тобто плугів з боронами гнучкими
[1, 2]. These harrows are called modular, flexible, обертальними [1, 2]. Ці борони називають модульними,
chain and they are made in the form of chain with гнучкими, ланцюговими і вони виконані у вигляді ланцюга з
tines. Most of these harrows give good work results. зубами. В основному дані борони дають хороші
But they have disadvantages, namely, their working результати роботи. Але вони мають недоліки, а саме їх
parts (tines) cannot rotate by the contact with the робочі органи (зуби) не можуть обертатись при контакті з
soil in the longitudinal-vertical and horizontal planes ґрунтом в поздовжньо-вертикальній та в горизонтальній
and it is lead to faulty cultivation of different soil площинах, що призводить до неякісного обробітку різних
texture. за механічними складом ґрунтів.
In many scientific papers the parameters of working В багатьох наукових працях обґрунтовані параметри
tools for secondary tillage are substantiated and their робочих органів для передпосівного обробітку ґрунту та
constructions are discussed [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. But many розглянуті їх конструкції [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Але багато питань
questions are not still clearly understood. Accordingly, the ще повністю не вивчені. Відповідно, не розглянуті
questions of theoretical substantiation of working parts питання теоретичного обґрунтування параметрів
parameters of the new constructions of flexible harrows, робочих органів нових конструкцій гнучких борін,
particularly for small-sized equipment, are not discussed. зокрема, для малогабаритної техніки.
MATERIAL AND METHOD МАТЕРІАЛ І МЕТОДИКА

In works [6, 7] describes the construction of wheel- В роботах [6, 7] описана конструкція борони гнучкої
driven flexible harrow and a perspective of its з приводом від колеса та перспективність її
employment on the small-sized equipment. застосування на малогабаритній техніці. Теоретичні
Theoretical researches of these works allowed to дослідження даних робіт дозволили визначити
defining the motion trajectory of characteristic points траєкторію руху характерної точки зубу борони гнучкої і
of flexible harrows tine and the force acting on the силу, що діє на зуб. Але такі важливі параметри як кут
tine. But such important parameters as the angles of нахилу крайніх ланок борони і, відповідно, її ширина
outside links of the harrow and, accordingly, its захвату, а також тяговий опір гнучкої ланцюгової борони
operating width and also a draught of flexible chain не визначені. Дані параметри особливо важливі з точки
harrow are not defined. These parameters are зору використання гнучкої борони в агрегаті з
particularly important in terms of using of flexible малогабаритними тракторами і мотоблоками. Ширина
harrow with small-sized tractors and motoblocks. захвату малогабаритної гнучкої борони не повинна бути
Operating width of small-sized harrow should not be великою, оскільки це призведе до небажаного
large, since this would lead to an undesirable збільшення габаритів агрегату, а також до збільшення
increase of size of the unit, as well as to increase of його тягового опору. Тому максимальне використання
its draught. Therefore, the maximum use by the work при роботі довжини ланцюгової борони, тобто
of the chain harrows length, i.e. using by the work of залучення в роботу максимальної кількості її ланок або
maximum number of its units or giving it best possible
135
working width by a given number of links is very надання їй найбільш можливої робочої ширини захвату
important for such small-sized harrow. при даній кількості ланок є дуже важливим для такої
For qualitative tillage we proposed the flexible harrow малогабаритної борони.
with adjustable tines [8]. Here you can set the desired Для якісного обробітку ґрунту нами запропонована
position (angle) of loosening tines 6, which determines борона гнучка з регульованим зубами [ 8 ]. Тут можливо
their operation (Fig. 1). The angle of the tines 6 to the встановити необхідне положення (кут нахилу)
longitudinal axis of link provided by the appropriate розпушуючих зубів 6, що визначає їх режим роботи (рис.
position of the bases 3, which are fixed with bolt 2. By 1). Кут нахилу зубів 6 до поздовжньої осі ланки
turning the support 7 can be achieved the alignment of забезпечується відповідним положенням основ 3, яке
the supports 7 hole with the shaped sleeves 8 holes фіксується за допомогою болтів 2. Поворотом опори 7
and the bases 3 holes for the vertical pin 9 and fix it. можна досягти співпадання отвору даної опори з отворами
Vertical pin 9 can be fixed in position when loosening фігурної втулки 8 і основи 3 для вертикального пальця 9 і
tine 6 will take perpendicular position to the longitudinal закріпити його. Вертикальний палець 9 можна закріпити в
axis of the link, as shown on Fig. 1. To provide of more такому положенні, коли розпушуючий зуб 6 займе
qualitative cultivation of different types of soils, than перпендикулярне положення до поздовжньої осі ланки, як і
discussed above, we need to change the horizontal and показано на рис. 1. Для забезпечення більш якісного, ніж у
vertical angles of location of loosening tines 6 to the вищерозглянутому випадку, обробітку різних типів ґрунтів
longitudinal axis of the link. For this we need to rotate необхідно змінити горизонтальні і вертикальні кути
and fix by vertical pin 9 the support 7 in such position in розташування розпушуючих зубів 6 до поздовжньої осі
which it is able to achieve the desired tines 6 position in ланки. Для цього опору 7 необхідно провернути і
the horizontal plane. To change the angle of the tines 6 зафіксувати вертикальним пальцем 9 в такому положенні,
in the vertical plane it is necessary to change the щоб можна було досягти необхідного розташування зубу 6
location of the bases 3, for the purpose we tighten and у горизонтальній площині. Для зміни кута розташування
release each other bolts 2 as long as the bases 3 does зубів 6 у вертикальній площині необхідно поміняти
not lie completely by one of the faces of their розташування основ 3, для чого поперемінно відпускають
multifaceted surfaces on the link. In such position of two один і затягують іншій болти 2 до тих пір, поки основи 3 не
bases 3, which are attached to the same link, it is ляжуть повністю однією з граней своїх багатогранних
provided a stable angle of these bases and, поверхонь на ланку. При такому положенні двох основ 3,
accordingly, of tines 6 in the vertical plane. Optimum що закріплені на одній ланці, забезпечується стабільний
angles are selected according to external conditions of кут розташування цих основ і, відповідно, зубів 6 у
work. вертикальній площині. Оптимальні кути підбираються в
Fig. 2 presents a plow with flexible harrow, which is залежності від зовнішніх умов роботи.
aggregated to motoblock. На рис. 2 поданий плуг з гнучкою борною, яка
агрегатується до мотоблоку.
Fig. 1 - Flexible harrow with adjustable tins (excerpt)

1 – chain module with links; 2 – fasteners; 3 – bases ; 4 – washers; 5 – horizontal pins; 6 – loosening tines;
7 – supports; 8 – shaped sleeves; 9 – vertical pin
Fig. 2 – Motoblock with plow with flexible harrow /
136
To characterize the work of the harrow it is Для характеристики роботи даної борони
necessary to determine the angles of outside links and необхідно визначити кути нахилу її крайніх ланок і,
therefore, the depth of plunging of the tines in the soil відповідно, глибину занурення їх зубів в ґрунт і потім
and then the power to the work. We consider two потужність на роботу. Будемо розглядати дві крайні
outside links of the chain on each side, which does not ланки ланцюга з кожного боку, які не лежать
lie fully on the soil surface. We accept that other central повністю на поверхні ґрунту. Приймаємо, що інші
links are fully lying on the soil. As an attachment of the центральні ланки повністю лежать на ґрунті.
outside links to the frame is hinged, then we take the Оскільки кріплення крайніх ланок до рами шарнірне,
following fastening scheme of two outside links. At a то приймаємо наступну схему кріплення двох крайніх
hinge O is fixed homogeneous link (rod) OA of the ланок. На шарнірі О закріплена однорідна ланка
length 2l1 and of the weight Р1, at the point A with this (стрижень) ОА довжиною 2l1 і вагою Р1, в точці А з
link is connected by a hinge the second homogeneous даною ланкою з’єднана за допомогою шарніру друга
link (rod) AB of the length 2l2 and of the weight Р2, to однорідна ланка (стрижень) АВ довжиною 2l2 і вагою
end B of this link is applied a horizontal force P3. The Р2, до кінця В даної ланки прикладена горизонтальна
whole system is in balance in the vertical plane. It is сила Р3. Вся система знаходиться в рівновазі у
necessary to define the angles φ1 and φ2 of links OA вертикальній площині. Тут необхідно визначити кути
and AB with vertical (Fig. 3). φ1 і φ2 ланок ОА і АВ з вертикаллю (рис. 3).
Fig. 3 – Scheme to defining the angles φ1 and φ2 of links OA and AB with vertical /
We take the coordinate axes, as shown in Fig. 3. The Приймаємо осі координат, як вказано на рис. 3.
angles φ1 and φ2 we take for generalized coordinates that Кути φ1 і φ2 приймаємо за узагальнені координати, які
define the position of the system. From Fig. 3 we find that визначають положення даної системи. З рис. 3
the coordinates of the points C1 (x1, y1), C2 (x2, y2), B (x3, знаходимо, що координати точок С1 (x1, y1), С2 (x2, y2),
y3), where the forces applied, expressed by φ1 and φ2 as B (x3, y3), в яких прикладені задані сили, виражаються
follows: через φ1 і φ2 наступним чином:
x1 = l1 sin ϕ1 , 

x2 = 2l1 sin ϕ1 + l2 sin ϕ 2 , 
x3 = 2l1 sin ϕ1 + 2l2 sin ϕ 2 , 
 (1)
y1 = l1 cos ϕ1 , 
y 2 = 2l1 cos ϕ1 + l2 cos ϕ 2 , 

y3 = 2l1 cos ϕ1 + 2l2 cos ϕ 2 .
Hence we find the variations of the Cartesian Звідси знаходимо варіації декартових координат
coordinates of points С1, С2 and B, which determine the точок С1, С2 і B, які визначають можливі переміщення
possible movement of this points as full differential даних точок, як повні диференціали функцій xi та yi
functions of xi and yi of two independent variables φ1 and φ2: від двох незалежних змінних φ1 і φ2:
δx1 = l1 cos ϕ1δϕ1 , 

δx2 = 2l1 cos ϕ1δϕ1 + l2 cos ϕ 2δϕ 2 , 
δx3 = 2l1 cos ϕ1δϕ1 + 2l2 cos ϕ 2δϕ 2 , 
 (2)
δy1 = −l1 sin ϕ1δϕ1 , 
δy2 = −2l1 sin ϕ1δϕ1 − l2 sin ϕ 2δϕ 2 , 

δy3 = −2l1 sin ϕ1δϕ1 − 2l2 sin ϕ 2δϕ 2 .
137
Projections of forces Р1, Р2 and Р3 on the coordinate Проекції сил Р1, Р2 і Р3 на координатні осі
axes are equal: дорівнюють:
X1 = 0, Y1 = Р1, X2 = 0, Y2 = Р2, X3 = P3, Y3 = 0
The sum of the elementary works of all forces acting on Сума елементарних робіт всіх сил, що діють на
the system defined by the general formulas: систему, визначається за загальними формулами:
n
 ∂xi ∂y ∂z  
∑  X
i =1
i
∂q1
+ Yi i + Z i i  = Q1 , 
∂q1 ∂q1  

∂xi ∂yi ∂zi 
n

∑  X i + Yi + Zi  = Q2 ,
i =1 
∂q2 ∂q2 ∂q2   (3)

.......................................................... 
n
 
∂x ∂y ∂z 
∑  X i i + Yi i + Z i i  = Qk .
i =1 
∂qk ∂qk ∂qk  
Thus, using the general formulas (3) we can find the Таким чином, з використанням загальних формул
generalized forces Q1 and Q2, corresponding to the (3) можемо знайти узагальнені сили Q1 та Q2, що
generalized coordinates φ1 and φ2: відповідають узагальненим координатам φ1 і φ2:
3
 ∂xi ∂y  ∂y ∂y ∂x
Q1 = ∑  X
i =1
i
∂ϕ1
+ Yi i  = P1 1 + P2 2 + P3 3 =
∂ϕ1  ∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ1 ∂ϕ1
= -P1l1 sinφ1 – 2P2l1 sinφ1 + 2P3l1 cosφ1 = l1 [2P3 cosφ1 – (P1 + 2P2) sinφ1] (4)
∂xi ∂y  ∂x
3
 ∂y ∂y
Q2 = ∑  X
i =1
i
∂ϕ 2
+ Yi i  = P1 1 + P2 2 + P3 3 =
∂ϕ 2  ∂ϕ 2 ∂ϕ 2 ∂ϕ 2
= -P2l2 sinφ2 + 2P3l2 cosφ2 = l2 (2P3 cosφ2 – P2 sinφ2). (5)
Equating to null the generalized forces Q1 and Q2 we Прирівнюючи до нуля узагальнені сили Q1 та Q2,
have the following two equations: отримаємо наступні два рівняння:
2P3 cosφ1 – (P1 + 2P2) sinφ1 = 0 (6)
2P3 cosφ2 – P2 sinφ2 = 0 (7)
After some mathematical transformations from Після певних математичних перетворень з рівнянь
equations (6) and (7) we find: (6) та (7) знаходимо:
2 P3
tgϕ1 = . (8)
P1 + 2 P2
2 P3
tgϕ 2 = . (9)
P2
As the links OA and AB are the same length, i.e. 2l1 = Оскільки ланки ОА та АВ однакові за довжиною,
2l2 = 2l, we can take that their weights are also the same, тобто 2l1 = 2l2 = 2l, то можемо прийняти, що їх ваги
i.e. Р1 = Р2 = Р. Also we take that the power Р3 is equal to також однакові, тобто Р1 = Р2 = Р. Також приймаємо,
the sum of two forces Р1 and Р2, i.e. Р3 = Р1 + Р2 = 2Р, що сила Р3 дорівнює сумі двох сил Р1 та Р2, тобто Р3 =
because the power Р3 is created by two mid-links of chain Р1 + Р2 = 2Р, оскільки сила Р3 створюється двома
lying on the ground with all its length. From formulas (8) середніми ланками ланцюга, які лежать на ґрунті всією
and (9) we have tgφ1 = 4/3 and tgφ2 = 4, where φ1 ≈ 53° своє довжиною. З формул (8) і (9) отримуємо tgφ1 =
and φ2 ≈ 75°. 4/3, а tgφ2 = 4, звідки φ1 ≈ 53°, а φ2 ≈ 75°.
Now we can determine the size OD - height of the hinge Тепер можемо визначити величину OD – висоту
O or of the frame above the soil surface. From Fig. 3 we розташування шарніра О або рами над поверхнею
have: ґрунту. З рис. 3 маємо:
OD = OA cosφ1 + AB cos φ2 = 2l1 cosφ1 + 2l2 cos φ2 = 2l cosφ1 + 2l cos φ2 = 2l (cosφ1 + cos φ2) (10)
138
Taking constructive the links length of 2l = 10 cm we Приймаючи конструктивно довжину ланки 2l =

determine from the formula (10) the value of OD ≈ 8.6 10 см, визначаємо за формулою (10) величину OD ≈
cm. This value is acceptable in terms of free passage 8,6 см. Таке значення є прийнятним з точки зору
of frame in the presence of stitches on the soil surface забезпечення вільного проходу рами при наявності
and to setting of the necessary position of depth гребенів на поверхні ґрунту та для встановлення
wheel. необхідного положення опорного колеса.
Working width of harrow is approximately 50 cm in view Робоча ширина захвату борони становить
of the fact that the length of a link is equal to 15 cm (by the приблизно 50 см з врахуванням того, що довжина
outsides points of the tines) and in the work there are однієї ланки дорівнює 15 см (по крайніх точках зубів) і
involved two central links fully and two outsides (on each в роботі беруть участь дві центральні ланки повністю і
side) links in part. дві крайні (з кожного боку) ланки частково.
Now we can define the power to work of the harrow. Тепер можемо визначити потужність на роботу борони.
As the angle to the vertical of the link AB is φ2 ≈ 75°, we Оскільки кут нахилу ланки АВ до вертикалі становить φ2 ≈
have that the tines of this link plunge in the soil, but not 75°, то можемо прийняти, що зуби даної ланки входять в
fully. In the formula for defining of the power which is ґрунт, але не повністю. В формулі для визначення потужності,
supplied on work of harrows, such factors as a section що витрачається на роботу борони, такі коефіцієнти як
of soil chip c, tillage depth h, the mass of soil that is переріз ґрунтової стружки с, глибина обробітку h, маса ґрунту,
threw in 1 s Qs should be taken a little less. що відкидається за 1 с Qs слід прийняти дещо меншими.
Power which is supplied on work of harrow we can Потужність, що витрачається на роботу борони,
define from the known formula [4]: можна визначити за відомою формулою [4]:
-3 –4 –3 2
N = 10 f m g v + 10 k c h z n /6 + 10 δ Qsvc (11)
where f – rolling coefficient (0.2), де f – коефіцієнт перекочування (0,2),

m - mass of the harrow (8 kg), m – маса борони (8 кг),
2 2
g – gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s ), g – прискорення вільного падіння (9,81 м/с ),
v – speed of the harrow (0.4 m/s), V – швидкість руху борони (0,4 м/с),
k - soil resistivity (0.03 MPa), k – питомий опір ґрунту (0,03 МПа),
2 2
c - section of soil chip (50 cm ), с – переріз ґрунтової стружки (50 см ),
h - tillage depth (10 cm), h – глибина обробітку ґрунту (10 см),
z - number of tillage tools (16 pcs.), z – число робочих органів (16 шт.),
-1 –1
n – rotation frequency of the harrow (17 min ), n – частота обертання борони (17 хв ),
δ - coefficient of throwing, depending on the shape δ – коефіцієнт відкидання, що залежить від форми
of tillage tool (≈ 1), робочого органа (≈ 1),
Qs - mass of soil that is threw in 1 s (≈ 5 kg/s), Qs – маса ґрунту, що відкидається за 1 с (≈ 5 кг/с),
vc - linear speed of the harrow (0.4 m/s). vc – колова швидкість борони (0,4 м/с).
Substituting these datas in the formula (11) we get N ≈ Підставляючи значення в формулу (11) отримуємо N ≈
0.078 ≈ 0.1 kW. 0,078 ≈ 0,1 кВт.
Power of the motoblock for tillage operations (plowing Потужність мотоблока для виконання операції
with harrowing) is 5-6 kW. As seen from the calculation обробітку ґрунту (оранка з боронуванням) становить 5-
this power is sufficient for efficient conduct of this 6 кВт. Як видно з розрахунків така потужність є
operation. достатньою для якісного проведення даної операції.
CONCLUSIONS ВИСНОВКИ
Resulted higher analysis of work of the flexible chain Наведений теоретичний аналіз роботи гнучкої
harrow allows to defining the angles of outside links of the ланцюгової борони дає можливість визначити кути нахилу
harrow and, accordingly, it’s working width and the power крайніх ланок даної борони і, відповідно, її робочу ширину
to work of this harrow also. захвату, а також потужність на роботу даної борони.
It is established that the angle to the vertical of the Встановлено, що кут нахилу до вертикалі крайньої (з
outside (on each side) link with tines is 75°, so the tines of кожного боку) ланки з зубами становить 75°, і таким
this link plunge in the soil, but not fully. чином, зуби даної ланки входять в ґрунт, але не повністю.
It is established that working width of harrow is Встановлено, що робоча ширина захвату борони
approximately 50 cm. становить приблизно 50 см.
It is established that power which is supplied on work of Встановлено, що потужність, що витрачається на роботу
harrow is approximately 0.1 kW, and as the power of the борони становить приблизно 0,1 кВт і оскільки потужність
motoblock for tillage operations (plowing with harrowing) is мотоблока для виконання операції обробітку ґрунту (оранка
5-6 kW, so it is sufficient for efficient conduct of this з боронуванням) становить 5-6 кВт, то вона є достатньою
operation. для якісного проведення даної операції.
We developed a new construction of the flexible chain Розроблена нова конструкція гнучкої ланцюгової борони
harrow with tines which are rotated by the contact with the з зубами, що обертаються в різних площинах при контакті з
soil in the different planes. This allows providing more ґрунтом. Це дозволяє забезпечити більш інтенсивний
intensive tillage cultivation, to increase its quality and обробіток ґрунту, підвищити якість обробітку і зменшити
reducing the cost of power to work of harrows. витрати потужності на роботу даної борони.
Resulted higher method of calculation is the main for Наведена методика розрахунку є основною для
the flexible chain harrows of such construction and, гнучких ланцюгових борін такої конструкції і, відповідно,
accordingly, for the matching of its optimal parameters for для підбору її оптимальних параметрів для роботи в
work in various environmental conditions. різноманітних зовнішніх умовах.
139
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140
STUDY ON THE SHADE-TOLERANCE ABILITY OF GLECHOMA HEDERACEA

/
欧活血丹的耐荫能力研究
1) 2) 3) 4)
Lect. M. S. Agr. Wang J.Q. , Ph.D. Agr. Yang D.P. , Prof. Ph. D.Agr. Zhu N. , Prof. Ph. D. Yung Dmitry
1) 2)
College of Architecture and Urban Environment, Soochow University, Suzhou / China; Research Department, China Society for
Urban Studies, Beijing / China; 3) College of Landscape Architecture, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin / China; 4) Seoul Konghon
Service Center for Agricultural Flower Planting, Seoul / Republic of Korea
Tel: +8613013785751; E-mail: szwjq193@163.com
Abstract: Planting understory groundcover plants has

apparent ecological and agroforestrial economic benefits. 摘要：近年来，林下种植地被植物以其明显的生态和农林
摘要：
When planting intercrops under the forest, the 业经济效益被广泛推广。科学的林下套种实践中，植于下
herbaceous plants in the lower layer should have a
certain shade tolerance. This study examined the shade 层的草本植物应具有一定的耐阴能力。本文以欧活血丹为
tolerance of Glechoma hederacea by examining the light-
utilization characteristics of it including the rate and state 研究对象，从光能利用特性以及在不同光照条件下的生长
of its growth under different light conditions. The results
showed that, G. hederacea had the lower light 速度和生长状况等方面对其耐阴能力进行了研究，结果表
compensation point, the higher light saturation point, the
maximum apparent quantum efficiency, and the 明：欧活血丹具有较低的光补偿点，较高的光饱和点、最
maximum net photosynthetic rate, which reflected that G. 大表观量子效率和最大净光合速率，说明其对有效光能辐
hederacea had a wider use range of effective light
radiation and a stronger shade-tolerance ability. In 射的利用范围较宽，耐阴性强；在光线较强的情况下，欧
stronger light conditions, G. hederacea grew faster and
had longer stems, shorter internodes, also the rooting 活血丹生长速度较快，茎较长，节间较短，生根情况、分
and branching situations were better compared with that
in weaker light. However, this plant grew normally in 枝情况、均要好于光线较弱处的欧活血丹，但欧活血丹在
weaker light, and invasion of weeds was less prominent
光线很弱的情况下也能正常生长，且杂草不易侵入，长势
with well-growth. Thus, G. hederacea, as a kind of
shade-endurance groundcover plant, was also adaptable 良好。既可用于全光的环境，也可作为耐阴地被植物，用
to the full-light environment and could be used in the
plant practice of forest interplanting. 于林下套种生产实践中。
Keywords: G. hederacea; Interplanting Crops in Forests;

关键词：欧活血丹; 林下套种; 地被植物; 耐荫能力; 农林业
关键词
Groundcover Plants; Shade-tolerance Ability;
Agroforestry Extension 推广
INTRODUCTION
With the development of ecological recycling 引言
agroforestry, understory groundcover plants have
随着生态循环农林业的发展，林下地被植物的种植越来
received much attention in recent years owing to
groundcover plants which are suitable for interplanting 越受到社会各界的重视。林下套种适宜的地被植物，具有
have obvious ecological and agroforestrial economic
benefits [13]. Firstly, understory groundcover plants, with 明显的生态和农林业经济效益 [13] ：其一，林下地被植物
thick foliage covering on the surface recover yellow soil,
can effectively reduce the re-entrainment of dust and 以其茂密的枝叶覆盖于地表，使黄土不见天，可以减少二
prevent soil erosion. In addition, planting understory
groundcover plants can largely prevent the growth of 次扬尘，有效的防止水土流失。同时也可以在很大程度上
weeds, and this consequently can reduce the use of
pesticides, herbicides, and labor, thus meeting low- 避免杂草滋生，减少农药、除草剂和人工的使用，满足“低
carbon requirements. Secondly, planting understory
碳”的要求；其二，林下种植地被植物，能够显著增加绿
groundcover plants can significantly improve the green
cover and the ability to improve the environment. Thirdly, 量，增强植物对环境的改善效果；第三，林下种植地被植
these plants can increase species diversity and make the
forest ecological system more stable. The key to 物，可以增加物种多样性，使林地生态系统更加稳定。而
successful planting of understory groundcover plants in
forests lies in the shade tolerance of the groundcover 林下种植地被植物成功的关键，在于所选择的地被植物的
plants chosen for planting. Therefore, study on the shade
tolerance of groundcover plants has become the hot 耐阴能力。因而，对于地被植物的耐阴性研究，近年来成
issues of academic concerns at home and abroad, but
most of the current researches were focused on the 为国内外学者的研究热点，目前学界对耐阴性地被植物的
comparison of the shade tolerance among different
species regarding the shade-endurance groundcover 研究多限于不同种之间的耐阴性比较[1,5,9,11,12,15,16],
plants [1,5,9,11,12,15,16], there are few studies on the 而对于某一种耐阴植物的深入研究开展较少。
shade tolerance of specific groundcover plant.
Glechoma hederacea is a perennial herb of Labiatae, 欧活血丹（Glechoma hederacea L.），是唇形科，欧
Glechoma. The stems with four edges are slender,
branching. The kidney shaped or heart shaped leaves 活血丹属的多年生草本，茎细长、四棱，有分枝。叶对
141
with long petiole and serrated edges are opposite. Two or

six flowers are whorled in the leaf axils, and the corolla is 生，具长柄，肾形或心脏形，边缘有锯齿。花 2-6 朵轮生
bilabiate and lavender. Flowering occurs from May to 叶腋间，唇形，淡紫色。花期 5-6 月，小坚果四个，球形
June, and 4 small nuts are spherical [2]. G. hederacea is
a good ornamental plant, during the flowering season, [2] 。欧活血丹观赏性强，花开期间，蓝紫色小花点缀其
blue-purple flowers embellish among green leaves, it
looks very elegant and lovely, and after the flowering 间，十分淡雅可爱，花后匍匐茎叶覆盖地面，可以做林地
season, the stolon and leaves covers the ground and can
的背景。作为一种野生地被植物资源，其研究的深度和开
be used as the background of woodland. As a kind of
wild groundcover plants, there are still shortage in depth 发利用的广度还远远不够。目前，有关欧活血丹的研究资
and extent as to the exploration on G. hederacea. At
present, studies on G. hederacea are rare, and the 料很少，国外对欧活血丹的研究主要集中在研究它的克隆
studies abroad that have been conducted mainly focused
on its certain biological characteristics, such as its clonal 生长及生物量分配策略等方面 [4,6] ，国内除了对其的解剖
growth and the biomass allocation strategy and so on
学研究和核型分析之外 [3, 7]，张燕妮等人曾对包括欧活血
[4,6]. In addition to anatomical studies and karyotype
analyses in China [3,7], Zhang Y N, et al. [17] compared 丹在内的 5 种地被植物的耐阴能力进行过分析比较 [17] ，
the shade-tolerance abilities of 5 groundcover plants,
including G. hederacea, but further researches on its 但对欧活血丹的耐阴性的深入研究还未见详细报道。而
shade-tolerance are lacking in details. Moreover, in the
past, researchers have described the shade-tolerance 且，以往前辈们多凭经验，以“耐阴、耐半荫、喜侧方遮
ability of groundcover plants as shadow tolerance, semi-
荫、喜荫”等感性词汇描述植物的耐阴性，在进行绿地种植
shadow tolerance, and side shading-requiring, shade-
requiring and other emotional description. In planting, the 时，主要依靠对植物栽培经验的积累和观赏特性的掌握进
design relies mainly on the plant cultivation experience
and a thorough knowledge on its ornamental 行设计，缺乏理论指导，不具备科学性，在实践中经常会
characteristics. Because there is a lack of theoretical
guidance and scientific investigations, many problems 遇到各种各样的问题，难以达到最初的应用目的。本文从
are often encountered in practice. From the perspective 欧活血丹对光能的利用特性以及在不同光照条件下的生长
of light-utilization features of G. hederacea and its growth
under different light conditions, specified theoretical and 状况等方面，对其耐阴能力进行了具体的理论和实验分
experimental analysis were conducted in this paper
regarding the shade-tolerance ability of Glechoma 析，以期相关研究结论能够为林下套种欧活血丹的科学推
hederacea, in order to provide reliable data and technical
support for forest intercropping and to promote the 广、生态循环农林业的发展提供可靠的数据依据与技术支撑。
development of ecological recycling agroforestry.
材料与方法
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Study area 试验地概况
This research was conducted mainly in the Flower
Nursery of Flower Research Institute and the campus of 本研究主要是在东北林业大学校园及花卉研究所圃地完
Northeast Forestry University. The natural conditions of
Harbin in China are as follows. Harbin city is located in 成的。中国哈尔滨市的自然状况如下：哈尔滨市位于中国
the southwest region of Heilongjiang province at latitude
45° 41' and longitude 126° 37'. It is 171.7 m above sea 黑龙江省西南部，地处北纬 45°41′，东经 126°37′，海拔
level with annual average temperature 3.6 °C and th e
171.7m。年平均气温 3.6℃，年较差 41.6℃，年平均水气
annual range of air temperature is 41.6 °C. The ann ual
average water pressure is 7.8 hpa and the annual 压 7.8 hpa, 年平均相对湿度 37% ，年平均积水量
average relative humidity is 37%, with average annual
volume of water 462.9 mm. The annual average 462.9mm。年平均日照数 2745.7h, 年平均地面温度 5.3
sunshine time is 2,745.7 hours with annual mean ground
temperature is 5.3 °C. The annual frost-free period is 136 ℃。全年无霜期 136 天 [14] 。花卉研究所圃地的土壤性质
days [14]. The soil properties of the Institute of Flower
如表 1。
Nursery were shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Soil features at the Northeast Forestry University Flower Research Institute [15]
Depth of soil Organic matter (%) Ash (%) Hygroscopic water (%) Density (g/cm3) Total porosity (%)
0–5 cm 6.07 93.93 1.98 0.78 70.53
5–10 cm 5.43 94.57 1.50 0.74 72.23
10–15 cm 5.10 94.90 2.48 0.82 69.13
The determination of the characteristics of light

光能利用特性的测定
energy utilization
The photosynthetic rate was measured by the 光合速率利用 LI-COR 公司的 LI-COR6400 便携式光合
COR6400 portable photosynthesis system (LI–COR, Inc.,
Lincoln, NB, USA). The plant material was from the 作用系统测定，植物材料为东北林业大学花卉研究所圃地
Flower Institute of Northeast Forestry University. The
142
experiment was started at 9 A.M. on a sunny day, some

自然生长的欧活血丹植株。选择晴好天气，于上午 9 时开
healthy leaves were chose and three times were repeated
per team, lastly using LED artificial light of the photosynthesis 始测定，挑选健康叶片，每组重复 3 次，利用光合作用测
measurement system made the effective radiation (µmol
定系统的 LED 人工光源使光和有效辐射（umlo m s ）从
-2 -1 -2 -1
m s ) increasing from 0 to 1,500, in order to determine
the light-photosynthesis curve of G. hederacea (Figure
0 逐渐增加到 1500，测定欧活血丹的光-光合作用曲线
1), and then calculated the light compensation point, light
saturation point, the maximum apparent quantum （图 1），并计算出光补偿点、光饱和点、表观最大量子
efficiency and the maximum net light and rate.
The calculation method is as follow: The light 效率和最大净光和速率。
compensation point was determined from the logarithmic
curve fitting of the light-photosynthesis curve light; Wang 计算方法如下：以对数曲线拟和植物光—光合作用曲
Y’s method[10] was used to determine the light saturation
point of plant, namely, when the changes of the net 线，求得光补偿点；采用王雁[16]对植物光饱和点的测定
photosynthetic efficiency produced by the changes of
方法，即单位 umol m s 的光强变化所产生的净光合效率
-2 -1 -2 -1
each unit light intensity with µmol m s were less than
-2 -1
0.004 µmolCO2 m s , the light intensity was the the light
的变化小于 0.004 umolCO2 m s 时的光强为植物的光饱
-2 -1
saturation point of plant, and the net photosynthetic rate
at this time was the maximum net photosynthetic rate;
The apparent quantum efficiency is the slope of the light- 和点，光饱和点时的净光合速率即为最大净光合速率；表
photosynthetic rate curve, namely the ratio of the
photosynthetic rate and the photosynthetic active 观量子效率为光-光合速率曲线的斜率，即光合速率与光合
radiation(PAR). The initial curve slope of the light-
photosynthetic curve is the ratio of the photosynthetic 有效辐射的比值，光-光和速率曲线的初始斜率是在较低的
rate and the photosynthetically active radiation in the
lower range of photosynthetically active radiation (0–200
光合有效辐射（0-200umol photons m s ）下光合速率与
-2 -1
-2 -1
µmol photons m s ) when the light quantum has no
redundancy. Thus, the apparent quantum efficiency at
this time was the maximum quantum efficiency [10]. 光合有效辐射的比值，这时光量子没有冗余，所以此时的
Statistically significant differences were examined
表观量子效率也就是表观最大量子效率 [10]。
with SPSS 10.0 statistical analysis software (IBM
Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). Microsoft Excel 2003
数据差异显著分析采用 SPSS 10. 0 统计分析软件，数
software (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA)
was used to data reduction and plotting. 据的整理及绘图采用 Microsoft Excel 2003 软件完成。
Fig. 1 - The light intensity-photosynthetic diagram of Glechoma hederacea
Survey Method of the Growth Rate under Different

Light Conditions 不同光照条件下欧活血丹的生长速度调查方法
1) Investigation of the growth rates in different habitats 不同生境下的生长速度调查
1) 不同生境下的生长速度调查
Thirty G. hederacea plants were planted in two type
environments with full light and understory. The planting 于全光和林下两种生境下栽植欧活血丹各 30 株，株行
spacing is 70cm × 70 cm. There was a 100% survival
rate after one week; the first measurement was started 距 70*70cm，一周后成活率 100%，2 周后开始第一次测
two weeks later including the main branch length, the
number of branches and their length, and the number of 量，测量内容包括：主枝长度、分枝发生数量及其长度、
roots. Measurements were made every week for a total
of eight weeks. 生根数。以后每周测量 1 次，一共测量 8 次。
2) Survey of the coverage rate under different light intensities 2) 不同光照强度下的盖度增长率调查
Three kinds of shade net were created with black mesh,
and the light transmittance of each treatment was measured 采用黑色遮荫网搭设遮荫棚，共设置了 3 种遮荫处理，
with an illuminance meter (ST–85) on a sunny day. The
于晴天条件下用 ST-85 型照度计测定各处理的透光率，分
three shade types were an all-optical control CK (light
transmittance, 100%), T1 (light transmittance, 75%), and T2 别为全光对照 CK (100%) ，T1 (75%) ，T2 (10.42%) 。
(light transmittance, 10.42%). G. hederacea plants were
planted in each pole with a spacing of 15 cm × 15 cm with a 在已设置好的遮荫棚中分株栽植欧活血丹，株行距
randomized block design. They were repeated 3 times, and
143
2
the district area was 2 m . We began to measure the
15*15cm，随机区组设计，3 次重复，小区面积为 2 m ；
2
variation in the cover 2 weeks after survival and once every
two weeks, and this ended when the coverage was 100%. 成活 2 周后开始进行测量其盖度变化，每 2 周测量一次，
3) Investigation with Respect to the Growth Situation
under Different Light Conditions 至盖度为 100%。
In the growing season, 30 plants were dug up at south 3) 欧活血丹在不同光照条件下生长状况调查
of the forest edge and in the understory in the Institute of
Flowers of Northeast Forestry University, being careful 在欧活血丹的生长旺季，分别在东北林业大学花卉研究
not to damage the roots, stems, leaves, and stem length
and internode length were measured, The number of 所南侧林缘和林下挖取 30 株欧活血丹，不损伤根、茎、
leaves, buds, roots, and branches and the growth
situation were observed and recorded. The growth 叶，测量其茎长、节间长度，观察并记录叶、芽、根、分
conditions of G. hederacea under different environmental
枝的数量和生长情况，对不同环境条件下的欧活血丹的生
conditions were compared.
长情况进行比较。
RESULTS ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of Light Energy Use
1) Light Compensation Point (LCP) 结果分析与讨论
The value of light compensation point, which directly 光能利用特性
reflects the plant's ability to use weak light, is an 1) 光补偿点
important evaluation index of plant shade tolerance. The 光补偿点的高低，直接反映出植物对弱光的利用能力，
light compensation points of G. hederacea and other
herbaceous groundcover plants were compared shown in 是植物耐阴性评价的重要指标。我们把欧活血丹的光补偿
Table 2. As we can see that, G. hederacea had a lower 点与其他草本地被植物进行了比较，结果见表 2。从中可
light compensation point, suggesting that it can start the
forward synthesis of organic matterl under low light 以看出，欧活血丹的光补偿点较低，意味着它在较低的光
intensity and that it had a higher shade tolerance. 强下就可以开始有机物质的合成，说明此种植物具有较高
的耐荫能力。
Table 2
Comparation of Light Compensation Point (LCP) of several groundcover plants
-2 -1 2
Species LCP (µmol m s ) Regression equation Correlation coefficient (R )
Glechoma hederacea 23.9 y = 2.54369Ln( x) − 8.0789 0.9776
Hosta plantaginea * 65 y = 1.6418Ln( x) − 6.8506 0.9720
Trifolium repens * 76 y = 2.1003Ln( x) − 9.1083 0.9479
Liriope platyphylla * 26 y = 0.8229 Ln( x) − 2.6749 0.9683
Hemerocallis middendorfii * 17 y = 0.7275Ln( x) − 2.0522 0.9852
Orychophragmus violaceus * 53 y = 2.37 Ln( x) − 9.4082 0.9531
Note: y is the photosynthetically active radiation (µmol m-2s-1); x is the photosynthetic rate (µmolCO2 m-2s-1)
]
* Quoted from Wang Y’s paper [16
2) The light saturation point 2) 光饱和点

The light saturation point is another important index
that reflects the shade-tolerance ability of plants.. Above 光饱和点是除光补偿点外的又一个反映植物耐阴能力的
the light compensation point, the photosynthetic rate
increases linearly along with light intensity within a 重要指标。在光补偿点以上，光合速率在一定范围内随光
certain range. When added to a certain degree, the
photosynthetic rate increases slowly along with light 强呈线性增加，当增加到一定程度，随光强增加光合速率
intensity. Finally, when it no longer increases, this point
增加变慢，最后不再增加，表现出光饱和现象，饱和时的
shows the light saturation phenomenon, and the light
intensity at this point is called as light saturation point[16]. 光照强度称为光饱和点 [16] 。通过计算比较（表 3）可以
As shown in Table 3, the light saturation point of G.
hederacea was relatively higher, while the light 看出：欧活血丹的光饱和点相对较高，而光补偿点却较
compensation point was lower. This suggested that its
use range of the effective light radiation was wide. In 低，说明其对有效光能辐射的利用范围较宽，既具有较强
other words, it not only had a strong ability of shade
tolerance, but it also had a certain light-requiring ability, 的耐荫能力，同时又具有一定的喜阳性，表现出较宽的对
showing a wide scope of strong light adaptation.
光强的适应范围。
3) Maximum apparent quantum efficiency
The apparent quantum efficiency is the ratio of oxygen 3) 表观量子效率
evolution rate of the leaf in a certain light or CO2
assimilation rate and the photon flux density projected to 表观量子效率是叶片在某光照下的放氧速率或 CO2 同化
the leaf surface, which reflects the light utilization 速率与入射到叶表面的光量子通量密度两者的比值，它反
efficiency of the plant under different illumination
conditions. Table 3 showed that the maximum apparent 映了植物在不同光照条件下对光能的利用效率。从表 3 中
quantum efficiency of G. hederacea was larger than
144
those of the other species, and it had a high ability to

我们可以看到，欧活血丹的表观量子效率较大，说明它具
absorb weak light.
4) Maximum net photosynthetic rate 有较高的吸收弱光的能力。
The net photosynthetic rate at the light saturation point is
the maximum net photosynthetic rate, which represents the 4) 最大净光合速率
plant's maximum capacity to assimilate carbon dioxide 光饱和点时的净光合速率即为最大净光合速率，它表示
[8].Compared to the maximum net photosynthetic rates of
light-requiring plants; shade-tolerant plants have lower rates 植物同化二氧化碳的最大能力 [8] 。耐荫植物的光合作用
regarding the photosynthesis curve. As can be seen in Table
3, of all the 6 kinds of plants, the net photosynthetic rate of G. 曲线，在最大净光合速率上，亦表现出较喜阳植物低。由
hederacea was the second highest. These measurements
illustrated that the effective use of light energy utilization was 表 3 可以看出，6 种植物中，欧活血丹的最大净光合速率
stronger in G. hederacea.
较高。说明它的光能有效利用效率较高。
Table 3
The Light Saturation Point (LSP), Maximum Apparent Quantum Efficiency (MAQE), and Net Photosynthetic Rate of Several Species
Species LSP (µmol m-2s-1) MAQE (ф) Maximum net photosynthetic rate（umolCO2 m-2s-1）
G. hederacea 65 0.0353 8.40
H. plantaginea * 410 0.0172 4.5
T. repens * 530 0.0140 6.5
L. platyphylla * 210 0.0104 3.0
H. middendorfii * 290 0.0244 3.5
O. violaceus * 590 0.0172 8.5
Note:* Quoted from Wang Y’s paper [10]
Investigation Analysis about Growth Rates of G. 欧活血丹在不同光照条件下生长速度调查分析

hederacea under Different Light Conditions
1) Comparation of growth rate under different light conditions 1) 不同光照条件下生长速度比较
The growth curves under different light conditions in
从欧活血丹在不同光照条件下生长曲线（图 2）可以看
Figure 2 showed that it entered into a rapid growth phase
two weeks later after the transplant, during which the 出：欧活血丹在移植两周后即进入快速生长阶段，这期间
main branch extension length was up to 12.5 cm per
week. The growth gradually slowed down after six weeks, 主枝每周伸长长度最高可达 12.5cm，6 周后生长速度逐渐
but at that time, the branching growth increased (Figures
3 and 4). Thus, this period nearly reached its close 减慢，但此时分枝生长速度加快 (图 3，图 4) ，因此这一
canopy, which also was the peak growing season of G. 时期基本达到郁闭，是欧活血丹的生长旺季。
hederacea. Seventeen weeks later, its growing trend
gradually declined and meanwhile due to some man- 17 周后欧活血丹长势逐渐衰退，加上一些人为原因（踩
made causes (serious stampede), and the main branch 踏较多），主枝生长基本停滞，分枝仍在继续生长。10 月
growth almost stagnated while the branches continued to
grow. In early October, the growth period ended, and 上旬，欧活血丹的生长期结束，部分开始落叶。另外，与
some leaves began to drop. In addition, compared to 林下生境中的相比，全光下的匍匐茎每周伸长长度始终高
understory condition, the stretching length of stolon per
week in the full sunlight was much longer. 于林下生境。
90
80
70
Stolon length(cm)
60
50 Full Sunlight
40 Understory
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time(w eeks from the start of the experiment)
Fig. 2 - G. hederacea growth curves in different light-intensity conditions
145
Inc reas e Length of the ex periment(cm )

Increase Lehgth of the Stolon(c m) 14
12 6
10 5
8 Full Sunlight 4 Full Sunlight
6 Understory 3 Understory
4 2
2 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time(w eeks from the start of the experiment) Time(w eeks from the start of the experiment)
Fig. 3 - Main stolon increases of G. hederacea in different light conditions Fig. 4 - Branching increases of G. hederacea in different light conditions
2) Increase rate of coverage in different light conditions

2) 不同光照条件下盖度增长速度
As can be seen from the increase curve of coverage
under different light conditions in Figure 5, G. hederacea 从欧活血丹在不同光照条件下盖度增长曲线图（图 5）
grew more quickly under full light, and its coverage 可以看出，欧活血丹在全光下生长较为迅速，在株行距为
reached 100% about 45 days later with a planting
spacing of 15cm × 15 cm, while it needed two months 15*15cm 的情况下，45 天左右盖度可达 100%，而在相对
with respect to condition that the relative light intensity 光强为 43.56%的情况下，需要 2 个月，在相对光强为
was 43.56%, for the relative light intensity was 10.42%,
and the required time was much longer. 10.42%时，所需时间则更长。
120
100
80
C ov erage(% )
100%
60 43.56%
10.42%
40
20
0
5-12 5-19 5-26 6-2 6-9 6-16 6-23 6-6 7-7
Time
Fig. 5 - Coverage increase curves of G. hederacea in different light conditions
3)Growth Situation of G. hederacea under Different

3)欧活血丹在不同光照条件下生长状况
Light Conditions
As can be seen in Table 4, in stronger light condition, 从表 4 中可以看出：在光线较强的情况下，欧活血丹茎
the stem of G. hederacea was longer, the internode was
较长，节间较短，生根情况、分枝情况、均要好于光线较
shorter, and the conditions for rooting and bifurcation
were better than those in weaker light condition. The 弱处的欧活血丹。从生物量上看，光线较强处生长的欧活
biomass of G. hederacea growing in the stronger light
血丹各部分的生物量也要比光线弱处的欧活血丹高。说明
was higher than those in the weaker light. This suggested
that G. hederacea was not a shadow-requiring plant, as it 欧活血丹并非是喜荫植物，在光线较强的情况下长势较
not only can grew better in the stronger light, but also
好，但在光线较差的地段也能正常生长，反映出欧活血丹
grow normally in weaker light, this characteristics reflects
its better shade- tolerance ability. 较好的耐荫性能。
Table 4
Tiller and Branch of G. hederacea
Item Total Length(cm) Node Number (no.) Internode Length(cm) Rooting Ratio (%) Bifurcation Ratio(%)
main branch1 146.2 23.6 6.19 58 21.6
main branch2 130.3 19.2 6.28 42 15.8
1
lateral branch 326.6 52.7 5.19 76 6
2
lateral branch 122.5 21.1 4.93 67 5.7
Note: 1 represents for the forest edge, 2 represents for underforest
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 结论与建议

1) The experimental results with respect to the light
utilization characteristics of G. hederacea showed that, 1）对欧活血丹的光能利用特性实验结果表明：欧活血
146
G. hederacea had a lower light compensation point while the 丹具有较低的光补偿点，但光饱和点、最大表观量子效率

light saturation point, maximum apparent quantum efficiency,
and the maximum net photosynthetic rate were much higher, 和最大净光合速率却较高，说明其对有效光能辐射的利用
which reflected its wider use range of active light radiation. 范围较宽。既可在全光下生长，也可栽植于林下等荫处，
Owing to it can grow well in full light condition or be planted in
forests and so on, thus it can be prompted as shade-tolerance 可作为耐阴地被植物进行推广。同时，在复合式种植生产
groundcover plants. Meanwhile, it can be planted under the 中，也可栽于落叶类林木之下，可以显著提高土地利用效
deciduous trees during the compound planting pattern, which
can significantly improve the efficiency of land use and 率和农林业经济效益。
agroforestrial economic benefits. 2）不同光照条件下的生长速度对比实验结果也表明：
2) The comparisons of the growth rates under different
light conditions showed that G. hederacea had strong 欧活血丹具有很强的生命力，在任何光照条件下都能生
vitality, and it can grow in any lighting condition. In the
case of stronger light, it grew faster. In the appropriate 长。在光线较强的情况下生长速度较快，在适当遮阴
shade (43.56%), it grew well. When the planting spacing （43.56%）的情况下长势良好，15*15cm 株行距时 45 天
was 15 cm × 15 cm, the coverage reached 100% about 45
days later. It can be planted in stronger light conditions or 左右盖度可达 100%。既可用于光线较强的环境，也可作
be promoted as the understory groundcover plants.
3) From the perspective of growth situations of G. 为林下地被植物进行推广。
hederacea under different growing environments, In the case 3）从欧活血丹在不同生长环境下的生长情况来看，在
of stronger light, the stem of G. hederacea was longer, the
internode was shorter, and the conditions of rooting and 光线较强的情况下，欧活血丹茎较长，节间较短，生根情
bifurcation were better than those in weaker light. In addition, 况、分枝情况、均要好于光线较弱处的欧活血丹。但从实
we observed that whether under the forest or in other types of
shade, G. hederacea grew well with the dark green leaves, 际观察中我们也看到：在林下或庇荫处生长的欧活血丹，
and the weed invasion was difficult, so the attractiveness of 叶色深绿，杂草不易侵入，观赏价值很高。这进一步说明
this plant was higher. This further illustrated that the
stronger adaptability of G. hederacea to light. Thus, it was 欧活血丹对光照的适应能力很强，既可在全光下生长，在
suitable to be planted as groundcover plants in open forest 一定荫蔽的情况下也能生长良好，适于在疏林下做地被植
or intercropped with “Tree+Grass” pattern.
4) This experiment was completed in Harbin which is 物或进行林草间植。
located at the high altitude areas in China, where the 4）本实验是在处于高纬度地区的中国哈尔滨市完成
climate conditions are worse, few plant species can be
used, and species of understory groundcover plants are 的，当地气候条件较差，可以应用的植物种类不多，能够
rarer. During the experiments, we found that G.
hederacea peeped through the soil and turned green in 用于林下做地被植物的种类更是少之又少。实验中我们发
early April, and until late October, the leaves and stems
wilted. Thus, its green period is long with highly 现，欧活血丹从 4 月初即可出土返青，一直到 10 月下旬
ornamental value, meanwhile owing to it can adapt to
the climate of high and cold areas, it can be promoted in 茎叶才会枯黄，绿色期长，观赏性好，能够适应高寒地区
high and cold areas of North China. 的气候，可在中国北部高寒地区推广应用。
5) With the understory planting of G. hederacea, we can
improve the green quantity of agroforestrial ecological 5）林下种植欧活血丹，可以增加生态环境的绿量，更
environment, meanwhile covering the bare land and
making the woodlands more beautiful and more attractive 好的改善农林业生态环境，同时，遮盖了光秃秃的土地，
for people. The stolon of G. hederacea will root when it
meets soil with stronger covering capacity, it can reduce 使林地更加美观，增加了可游性。欧活血丹的匍匐茎遇土
weed invasion and prevent the loss of water and nutrients,
and also its leaves have a volatile oil that can repel 生根，覆盖力强，可以减少杂草的侵入，避免了水分和养
mosquitoes, effectively reducing the frequency of pests 分的流失，其叶片具有挥发油，可以驱赶蚊虫，有效的降
and diseases. Thus, it is a good groundcover plant that is
suitable for widely promotion. However, due to limited 低病虫害的发生频率，是一种不可多得的地被植物，适合
research time and conditions, this study only analyzed the
light utilization characteristics and growth of G. hederacea 广泛推广。但是因为研究时间及条件有限，本文仅对欧活
in different light conditions, failed to analyze the relevant
physiological mechanisms of shade-tolerance. In addition, 血丹的光能利用特性和在不同光照条件的生长情况进行了
in order to conduct scientific understory intercropping, we
also need to master the relevant knowledge about the 分析，对其相应的耐阴生理机制未做深入研究。此外，若
features of the soil fertilization and water that the plant 要进行科学的林下套种，还需要掌握植物对土肥水的需求
needs the root distribution characteristics and so on. A
follow-up study will therefore be commenced with an in- 特性以及根系分布特点，后续研究将对此展开深入分析。
depth analysis considering the mixed planting of multiple
understory plants and their interactions in order to provide 并考虑多种林下植物的混植及其交互作用，进而为科学的
technical support for scientifically conducting the
understory intercropping and the development of 进行林下套种提供技术支撑，为生态循环农林业的发展提
ecological recycling agroforestry.
供参考依据。
AKNOWLEGEMENT
This article was originally part of the author’s 致谢
Master's thesis (Study of the cover plants G. hederacea
and Viola yeodensis). The authors greatly appreciated 本文是对作者硕士论文《地被植物连钱草和紫花地丁的
the scholars from College of Landscape Architecture
147
and Institute of Forest Resources and the Environment

in Northeast Forestry University who provided help and 研究》的进一步拓展，论文研究期间得到了东北林业大学
guidance during the research. Funding was specially 园林学院和资源与环境学院的诸位老师的热忱帮助和指
supported from both the Suzhou Key Laboratory of
Architecture and Urban Environment and the Jiangsu 导，同时得到了苏州市建筑与城市环境重点实验室及江苏
Provincial Department of Education project
(10KJD210002). 省教育厅项目（10KJD210002）的资助，特此致谢。
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148
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE PNEUMATIC-SCREW CONVEYOR SCREW

MECHANISM OPERATION
/
МАТЕМАТИЧНА МОДЕЛЬ ФУНКЦІОНУВАННЯ ШНЕКОВОГО МЕХАНІЗМУ
ПНЕВМОШНЕКОВОГО ТРАНСПОРТЕРА
1) 2) 2)
Ph.D. Hevko R.B. , Ass. Prof. Ph.D. Stud. Dzyura V.O. , Romanovsky R.M.
1)
Ternopil National Economical University, Lvivska str., 11, Ternopil, Ukraine
2)
Ternopil Ivan Pul'uj National Technical University, Ruska str., 56, Ternopil, Ukraine
E-mail: volodymyr-dzyura@rambler.ru
Abstract: The paper contents a mathematic model of Анотація. Розроблено математичну модель
technological process of dry material transporting by the роботи пнемо шнекового транспортера для
screw conveyor. The mathematic model developed in the транспортування сипких матеріалів з шнеком, який
article, presents the movement of material particle of the встановлено консольно з зазором відносно кожуха.
dry medium in the screw feeder, mounted cantilever with Вихідними даними для побудови математичної
the gap relatively casing. Initial data for building the моделі були: кутова швидкість обертання шнека,
mathematic model were: screw rotation angle speed, діаметр шнека живильника, крок гвинтової лінії
feeder screw diameter, helicoidally line pitch of the feeder витків шнека живильника, параметри матеріальної
screw turn, material part parameters. This model can be частинки. Дана може бути використана для
used for interpreting the design-kinematic parameters of обґрунтування конструктивно-кінематичних параметрів
the pneumatic-mechanic transporter. Graphs of пнемо шнекового транспортера. Побудовані графіки
dependence the angle change deflection and the screw залежності зміни кута відхилення та кутової
angle speed on the time of the screw turn rotation under швидкості шнека від часу повороту витка шнека
vibration processes and without then, have been built. при вібраційних процесах та без них.
Keywords: technological process, mathematic model, Ключові слова: технологічний процес, математична
dry material, transporting, transporter модель, сипкий матеріал, транспортування, транспортер
Screw spiral conveyors as the individual technical Шнекові гвинтові конвеєри, як окремий технічний
part of transporting mechanisms have been widely елемент транспортних механізмів, знайшли широке
applied in the component schemes of machines used використання в компонувальних схемах машин для
for loading or transporting of small dry materials owing перенавантаження, або переміщення дрібносипких
to their simple design, easy technical maintenance and матеріалів у зв’язку з їх простотою конструкції, нескладністю
possibility to load and unload at any stage of технічного обслуговування та можливістю завантаження й
technological process of the transporting device розвантаження матеріалу в будь якому місці технологічного
operation [1]. процесу роботи транспортного пристрою [1].
General disadvantage of the screw mechanisms Загальним недоліком роботи шнекових механізмів
operation is not only the fact, that the spiral screw є надання спіральними витками гвинтового конвеєра не
conveyor turns transport the material along the axis тільки поступального осьового переміщення матеріалу, але
longitudinally, but can rotate and cause the damage of й обертового руху, що призводить не тільки до
material, which results in the decrease of the пошкодження матеріалу, але і зменшення продуктивності
mechanisms efficiency [2,3] The highest economic механізмів [2,3] і, як наслідок досягнення найвищої
efficiency or the maximum productivity is obtained by the економічної ефективності, або максимальної продуктивності
pneumatic-screw conveyor (PSC). пнемо шнекового транспортера (ПШТ) в цілому.
MATERIAL AND METHODE МАТЕРІАЛ І МЕТОДИКА

While optimizing the parameters of transporting- В процесі оптимізації параметрів транспортно-
technical systems, the operating members of which are технічних систем, які мають робочі органи гвинтових
screw mechanisms, at the stage of their design it is механізмів і на стадії їх проектування доцільно
worthy building the mathematic model of the спочатку побудувати математичну модель технологічного
technological process of the PSC screw feeder in order процесу роботи шнекового живильника ПШТ з метою
to obtain the regularities of operating of the screw отримання закономірностей процесу функціонування
feeder mechanism, which is mounted cantilever on its механізму шнекового живильника, який встановлено
support, depending on its main design-kinematic консольно на своїй опорі, залежно від його основних
parameters [4]. конструктивно-кінематичних параметрів [4].
To analyse and to build the mathematic model of the Для аналізу та побудови математичної моделі
technological process of the screw feeder operation, let технологічного процесу роботи шнекового живильника
us study the movement of the material particle of the dry розглянемо рух матеріальної частинки сипкого
medium, which can be treated as the combined material середовища, яку уявимо як зв’язане матеріальне тіло
body of mass mc, which is on the surface of the spiral приведеною масою mc, яка знаходиться на поверхні
turns 1 of the screw 2, which is mounted cantilever with спіральних витків 1 шнека 2, який встановлено
the gap relatively casing 3, the particle moving along the консольно з зазором відносно кожуха 3, при цьому
axis of rotation Ox with the longitudinal speed V0 towards частинка рухається вздовж його осі обертання Ox з
the pneumatic system PSC. поступальною швидкістю Vo до пневмосистеми ПШТ.
149
Fig. 1 – Sheme of calculation movement of the dry material particle of mass mc:
1 – screw turn; 2 – screw; 3 – screw casing ; 4 – screw tube
When the particle of the body with mass mc starts З початком контакту частинки тіла масою mc з
contacting with the surface of the spiral turns of the поверхнею спіральних витків шнека, вона за рахунок
screw, it slides along the surface of the screw turn and обертання спіральних витків шнекового живильника з
casing, travelling simultaneously along the vector кутовою швидкістю ω за проміжок часу ковзає по
direction of the axis displacement of the conveyor turns поверхні витка шнека і кожуха та одночасно
r r
Vm towards the vector of longitudinal speed Vo , owing to переміщується вздовж напрямку r вектора осьового
the rotation of the spiral turns of the screw feeder with the переміщення витків конвеєра
r Vm у напрямку вектора
angular speed ω during some time. (Fig.1). поступальної швидкості Vo (рис.1).
In this case we have a complicated movement of the У цьому випадку маємо складний рух фізичного
physical body, when the particle takes part in: relative тіла, коли частинка приймає участь: у відносному –
displacement – along the surface of the screw feeder вздовж поверхні витків шнекового живильника з
turns with speed V1c; transporting displacement together швидкістю V1c; у переносному – разом з витком з
with the turn with the speed V2c and simultaneously
r in the швидкістю V2c та одночасно rу горизонтальному
horizontal displacement towards the vector Vm . переміщенні у напрямку вектора Vm .
The material body, that is, the particle of the material На матеріальне тіло, тобто частинку матеріалу
with mass mk, which is on the surface of the screw приведеною масою mk,, яка знаходиться на поверхні
conveyor turn at the moment t=0 is subject to gravitation витка шнекового конвеєра у момент часу t = 0 , діє
mcg , reaction force of the turn surface N1 and casing N2, сила тяжіння mcg, сили реакції поверхні витка N1 і
and, correspondingly, to functional drag force F1m and кожуха N2 та, відповідно, сили тертя ковзання F1m і
F2m, when the material moves along these surfaces. Let F2m при русі коренеплоду по даним поверхням.
us introduce the stable three-dimensional coordinate Введемо нерухому просторову систему координат
system Oxyz (Fig.1), in which the axis Ox coincides with Oxyz (рис.1) у якій вісь Ox співпадає з віссю
the rotation axis of the screw feeder, and the axis Oy is обертання шнекового живильника, а вісь Oy
parallel to the horizontal surface. розташована паралельно горизонтальній площині.
During the period of time t, or at the moment of time t За проміжок часу t , або в момент часу t
the screw turn will be in the angular rotation ϕ(t), the виток шнека повернеться на кут повороту ϕ (t),
screw angular rotation being expressed in term of the при цьому кут повороту шнека виразимо залежністю
dependence [5]: [5]:
dϕ
ϕ (t ) = 2πω t + ϕ 1 = 2π + ϕ1 , (1)
dt
Where: ω - screw angular rotation speed, rad/sec; Де:ω – кутова швидкість обертання шнека, рад/с;
ϕ1 = const – initial screw angular rotation at ϕ1 = const – початковий кут повороту шнека при
t = 0 , rad. t = 0 , рад.
According to [6], simultaneously with the rotation movement Згідно з [6], поряд з обертальним рухом шнек
the screw is under the two-dimensional parallel movement in здійснює плоскопаралельний рух в площині zOy яка
the plane zOy, which is perpendicular to the rotation axis of перпендикулярна осі обертання труби 4 шнека 3,
the tube 4 of the screw 3, that is, to the screw shaft axis. тобто осі вала шнека.
When x = 0 , this displacement of the screw can be При x = 0 дане переміщення шнека можливо
expressed by the canonical equation of the axis 0 center задати канонічним рівняння руху центру осі O вала
movement of the screw feeder shaft: шнекового живильника:
[z 0 (t ); y 0 (t ); x0 (t )] = [z 0 (t ); y 0 (t );0],t ≥ 0 , (2)
150
where z0 and y0 according to [5] can be expressed as: де z0 і y0 згідно з [5] можна задати у вигляді:
z0 (t ) = − f [ϕ o (t )cosϕ A (t )] + g [ϕ o (t ) sinϕ o (t )];

. (3)
y0 (t ) = − f [ϕ A (t ) sinϕ A (t )] − g [ϕ A (t )cosϕ o (t )]
The equation of the movement of the particle of the Рівняння руху частинки матеріалу приведеною
material with the mass mc in the stable system of масою mc у нерухомі системі координат Oxy згідно
coordinates Oxy , according to the classic laws of з класичними законами механіки [7] у векторній формі
запишеться у наступному вигляді:
mechanics [7], in the vector form can be expressed as:
r
r& r d 2RA r 2 r 2 r
m c xi = m c a c = m c
& = G mc + ∑ N ni + ∑ Fmi , t > 0. (4)
dt 2 i =1 i =1
In this case the dependence components (4), that is, При цьому складові залежності (4), тобто біжучий
r r r
angular-momentum radius-vector RA , particle Gmc радіус-вектор RA , векторний запис сили ваги
r
force vector, vector value of the total reaction of surfaces частинки Gm , векторне значення сумарної реакція
c
2 r 2 r
∑ Ni and the total frictional drag force ∑ Fmi of the 2 r 2 r
поверхонь ∑ N і сумарної сили тертя ковзання ∑ F
i =1 i =1 i mi
particle along the surfaces is determined by: i =1 i =1
r частинки по поверхнях визначаються:
RA r
– momentum vector of the particle location in the - біжучий вектор RA положення частинки в
zOy
plane , or the combination of the vector and площині zOy , або зв'язок векторного и
coordinate manner of the particle movement:
координатного способу руху частинки:
r
R A ( t ) = [x A (t ); y A (t ); z A (t )] = ix( t ) + jy( t ) + kz( t ) (6)
Where: i, j, k - the cross-cuts of corresponding axis де i , j, k – орти відповідних осей системи

of the coordinate system; координат;
r r
– vector of the particle mass force Gmc : - векторний запис сили ваги Gmc частинки:
r
Gmc = (mc g ;0;− mc g ) ; (7)
r r
- vector value of the force reaction Ni of the contacting - векторне значення сили реакції Ni контактуючої
surface Pi, of the feeder according to [5]: поверхні Pi живильника згідно з [5]:
r r
N i = ni µ i , (8)
r r
where ni - unit vector, perpendicular to the plane of the де ni – одиничний вектор, перпендикулярний до
corresponding surface Pi, or unit normal to the surface Pi, площини відповідної поверхні Pi, або одинична
i = 1,2; нормаль до поверхні Pi, i = 1,2;
µi - corresponding plane sticking reaction: µi – реакція в’язі відповідної площини:
– vector value of the particle frictional drag force on – векторне значення сили тертя ковзання частинки
the Pi surface по Pi поверхні
r r
r r r r&
( r r&
)r r  dR A r  dR A r ,
Fmi = − f i mc aci = − f i N i R A − Vi / R A − Vi = − f1 N i  − Vi  / − Vi (9)
 dt  dt
Where: fi - frictional drag coefficient Pi of the surface; Vi - Де: fi – коефіцієнт тертя ковзання Pi поверхні;
r r
movement speed Pi of the surface in the point R A ( t ) at Vi – швидкість руху Pi поверхні в точці RA ( t ) і
the moment of time t. момент часу t.
If the screw feeder is mounted under angle α to the Якщо шнековий живильник встановлено під кутом
horizon, then the projection of the vector of the particle α до горизонту, тоді проекції вектора сили тяжіння
gravitation of the mass mc of the dry medium on the частинки приведеної маси mc сипкого середовища
coordinate axis will look like: на координатні осі матимуть вигляд:
r
Gmc = (mk g cos α ;0;− mk g sin α ) (10)
Solution of the task is reduced to finding the sticking Рішення задачі зводиться до знаходження реакцій
151
reaction µi of the corresponding plane Pi of the surface, в’язі µi відповідної площини Pi поверхні, або в
or in our case for finding µ1 and µ 2 - correspondingly, нашому випадку для знаходження µ1 та µ2 –
sticking reaction of the screw turn surface and the feeder відповідно, реакції в’язі поверхні витка шнека та
casing surface. поверхні кожуха живильника.
With this purpose let us write the location of unit Для цього запишемо положення одиничних
r r r r
vectors n1 and n2 , which are perpendicular to the векторів n1 і n2 , які перпендикулярні до площин
planes of corresponding surfaces of contact of the відповідних поверхонь контакту частинки
material particle, having written at first the equation, by матеріалу, записавши спочатку рівняння якими
which the screw surface and the PSC screw feeder задані поверхні шнека та кожуха шнекового
casing surface are presented. живильника ПШТ.
According to [7,8] canonical appearance of the equation of the Згідно з [7, 8] канонічний вигляд рівняння поверхні
screw surface P1, and casing surface P2 are presented as relations: шнека P1 та кожуха P2 задані відношеннями:
P1 (0,5D; R;ϕ ; x ) ≡ x +
T
(ϕ − ϕ 0 ) = 0; , (11)
2π 
P2 ( x; y; z ) ≡ z 2 + y 2 − 0,25D 2 = 0 

Where: D – feeder screw diameter, m; Де: D – діаметр шнека живильника, м;
T – turns spiral pitch of the screw feeder, m. T – крок гвинтової лінії витків шнека живильника, м.
r r r r
Then the location of unit vectors n1 and n2 will be Тоді положення одиничних векторів n1 і n 2 будуть
found: визначатися:
r  πD  
n1 =  − T sinϕ ;T cosϕ ; ; , (12)
 c(0,5D )  
n2 = (− cosϕ ; sinϕ ;0)
r 

Where: C screw parameter is: де параметр шнека;
c(0 ,5 D ) = T 2 + π 2 D 2 = πD tg 2 β + 1
T = πDtgβ
β -angle of pitch of the screw turns, (degree): β – кут підйому гвинтової лінії витків шнека, град.
Taking into account the canonic equation of the screw З врахуванням канонічного рівняння обертання
rotation (2) and its longitudinal movement we obtained: шнека (2) та його поступального руху одержано:
r d
V1 = [0,5 D cosϕ o (t );0 ,5D sinϕ o (t );0] + [zo (t ); yo (t );0],
d (13)
dt dt
or або
r  dϕ  dϕ 
⋅ y + z o′ (t ); y o′  + π D
(14)
V1 =  − π D ⋅ z ;0  
 dt  dt 
Then in order to find the sticking reaction of the screw Тоді для знаходження реакції в’язі поверхні витка
turn surface µ 1 and the sticking reaction of the feeder casing шнека µ1 та реакції в’язі поверхні кожуха живильника
µ 2 , let us multiply the written scalar values of corresponding µ2 помножимо записані скалярні значення
components of the equation (4) by the corresponding відповідних складових рівняння (4) на відповідні
r r r r
values of unit vectors n1 and n2 from the equation (12). значення одиничних векторів n1 і n 2 з рівняння (12).
As a result we will obtain: В результаті одержимо:
provided i = 1 : - при умові i = 1 :
T πD
0= − m c g cos α sin ϕ − m c g sin α + µ 1 −
c (0 ,5 D ) c (0 ,5 D ) (15)
− f2µ 2
π DT  dϕ  [− z o′ (t ) sin ϕ + y o′ (t ) cos ϕ ]
r&   + f 1 µ 1T r r
c (0 ,5 D ) 0 ,5 D  dt  c (0 ,5 D ) 0 ,5 D& − V1
or taking into account (14) and the fact, that або з врахуванням (14) і того, що
r
r dD , πD
D& = c(0,5D ) = πD tg 2 β + 1 =
dt cos β
152
π D sin β  d ϕ 
0 = − m c g (cos α sin ϕ sin β + sin α cos β ) + µ 1 − f 2 µ 2 r  + (16)
dD  dt 
dt
+ f 1 µ 1 sin β
[− z o′ (t ) sin ϕ + y o′ (t )cos ϕ ]
r
0 ,5
dD
−
d
[0 ,5 cos ϕ o (t );0 ,5 sin ϕ o (t )] − d [z o ]
dt dt dt
– provided i = 2: - при умові i = 2:

 dϕ 
2
mc ac = 0,5mc D(ϕ& ) = 0,5Dmc   =
2
 dt  , (17)
f µ [z ′ (t )cosϕ + yo′ (t ) sinϕ ]
= −mc g cosα cos ϕ + µ 2 − 1 1 o v r
0,5D& − V 1
or taking into account (14) and the fact, that або з врахуванням (14) і того, що
r
r& dD
D=
dt
 dϕ 
2
0 ,5 Dm c   = − mc g cos α cos ϕ + µ1 −
 dt  . (18)
f1 µ 2 [z o (t ) cos ϕ + y o (t ) sin ϕ ]
′ ′
− r
− [0 ,5 cos ϕ o (t );0 ,5 sin ϕ 0 (t )] − [z o (t ); y o (t );0 ]
dD d d
0 ,5
dt dt dt
Dependencies (17), (18) are the system of equations, Залежності (17), (18) є системою рівнянь, розв’язок
solution of which relatively the unknown reactions of якої відносно невідомих реакцій в’язі поверхні витка
sticking of the screw turn surface µ1 and the screw feeder шнека µ1 та поверхні кожуха µ2 шнекового живильника
casing surface µ2 can be expressed as: має вигляд:
πD sin β  d ϕ 
m c g sin β (cos α sin ϕ + m c g sin α ) − f 2 µ 2  
dD  dt 
0 ,5 (19)
dt
µ1 =
1 + f1 sin β r
[− z o′ (t ) sin ϕ + y o′ (t ) cos ϕ ]
− [0 ,5 cos ϕ o (t );0 ,5 sin ϕ o (t )] − [z o ]

dD d d
0 ,5
dt dt dt
  dϕ 
2

µ 2 = mc 0 ,5 D   + g cos α cos ϕ  +
  dt   (20)
+ f 1 µ1
[z o′ (t )cos ϕ + y o′ (t ) sin ϕ ]
r
 dD  d
 − [0 ,5 cos ϕ o (t );0 ,5 sin ϕ o (t )] − [z o (t ); y o (t );0 ]
d
0 ,5
 dt  dt dt
or, having substituted the value of the sticking reaction або підставивши значення реакцій в’язі поверхні
of the casing surface µ2 from the dependence (2) in the кожуха µ2 із залежності (20) у рівняння (19) одержимо
equation (19), we will obtain the dependence for finding залежність для визначення реакції в’язі µ1 поверхні
the sticking reaction µ2 of the screw-feeder turn surface витка шнека-живильника
  dϕ  
2
µ1 = m c  0 , 5 D   f 2 + g [ cos α sin ϕ sin β + sin α cos β + f 2 cos α cos ϕ ]

  dt  
r
 dD   
    (21)
+  ×
 dt  1
r 
 dϕ   
2π D sin β  dD d
 −  0 , 5 cos ϕ o ( t ) ; 0 , 5 sin ϕ o ( t )  −
d
  0 ,5 
 dt    z o ( t ) ; yo ( t ) ; 0  
  dt  dt dt 
{ }
× f1 sin β  − z o′ ( t ) sin ϕ + y o′ ( t ) cos ϕ  − f1 f 2  z o′ ( t ) sin ϕ + y o′ ( t ) cos ϕ 
Finally, from the equation of the material particle У кінцевому випадку з рівняння руху частинки
movement of the mass mc (4) we will find: матеріалу приведеною масою mc (4) знаходимо:
153
µ1 T (ϕ& − 2πω ) T (ϕ& − 2πω ) ,

mc T ϕ&& = 2π mc g sin α − ( 2π ) 0,5 D − f 2 µ 2 − f1 µ1 (22)
2
c ( 0,5 D )
r& r& r
0,5 D 0, 5D − V1
or або
 d 2ϕ   dϕ 
mcπ Dtg β  2  = 2π ( mc g sin α − µ1 cos β ) − 2π D ( tg β − 1)  ×
 dt   dt  (23)
 r −1 r −1
dD  dD d d  
× f 2 µ2
 − f1µ1  − 2  0 ,5 cos ϕo ( t ) ; 0 ,5 sin ϕo ( t )  − 2  zo ( t ) ; yo ( t ) ; 0   
 dt  dt dt dt  

If the vibration of the cantilever screw-feeder does not Якщо вібрація консольного шнека-живильника
occur, then dependencies (20) and (21) are sufficiently відсутня, тоді залежності (20) і (21) значно
simplified. Then we will obtain: спрощуються. При цьому одержимо:
 dϕ  
2π 0 ,5 D  T 
µ 1 = 0 ,5 m c f 2 D (ϕ& )2  dt  T
cos α sin ϕ + 
r& + m c g
c (0 ,5 D )
(24)
c (0 ,5 D ) 0 ,5 D 


 dϕ  
2π 0 ,5 D  
2π 0 ,5 D  dt  
+ mc g sin α + m c f 2 g r& cos α cos ϕ 
c (0 ,5 D ) c (0 ,5 D ) 0 ,5 D 

µ 2 = 0 ,5mc D(ϕ& )2 + mc g cos α cos ϕ , (25)
or, after the transformation and simplification of (24), або після перетворення та спрощення (24), (25)
(25), we will obtain: одержимо:
 dϕ  
2 π m c f 2 D sin β    
 dt  0 ,5 D  d ϕ  + g cos α cos ϕ +  ;
2
(26)
µ1 = r     
dD   dt   
dt 

+ m c g (cos α sin ϕ sin β + sin α cos β ) 
 dϕ 
2
µ 2 = 0 ,5 mc D   + m c g cos α cos ϕ (27)
 dt 
Thus, the obtained differential dependencies (20-23), Таким чином одержані диференціальні залежності
(26), (27) are the mathematic model, which specifies the (20-23), (26), (27) є математичною моделлю, яка
technological process of the screw feeder operation and характеризує технологічний процес роботи шнекового
can be used for the further interpreting of the живильника та може бути використана для подальшого
construction-kinematic parameters of PSC. обґрунтування конструктивно-кінематичних параметрів ПШТ.
To provide more complete description of the Для більш повного опису технологічного процесу
technological process of the PSC screw feeder operation роботи шнекового живильника ПШТ диференціальні
differential dependencies (20), (21), (23) must be залежності (20), (21), (23) необхідно доповнити
supplemented by the given initial conditions: заданими початковими умовами:
ϕ (0) = ϕ o ; ϕ& (0) = dϕ / dt = ϕ1 , (28)
But it must be noted, that the mathematic model (20- при цьому, необхідно зауважити, що математична
23) is correct only if µi > 0. If this condition is not provided модель (20-23) адекватна тільки при умові µi > 0.
and µi < 0, then the material particle breaks the contact Якщо дана умова не виконується і µi < 0, тоді
with the surface and equation (4) does not describe частинка матеріалу втрачає контакт з поверхнею і
correctly the real process of the screw feeder movement. рівняння (4) вже не адекватно описує реальний
It should be noted, that dependencies (23), (26) and процес руху шнекового живильника.
(27) can have fixed solutions as to the reaction of the Необхідно також додати, що залежності (23), (26) і
corresponding planes sticking µ iP and the angular (27) можуть мати стаціонарні рішення відносно
1
реакцій в’язі відповідних площин µ iP і кута повороту
rotation ϕ Pi , which correspond to the points of rest: 1
ϕ Pi , які відповідають точкам спокою:
T 2π 0 ,5 D
µ1 Pi = m c g cos α sin ϕ Pi + m c g sin α +
c (0 ,5 D ) c (0 ,5 D )
(29)
+ 2π m c f 2 g cos α cos ϕ Pi 0 ,5 D / c (0 ,5 D )
154
µ 2 Pi = m c g cos α cos ϕ P1 (30)

µ1Pi
0 = 2πm c g sin α − (2π )2 0 ,5 D + 2πf 2 µ 2 Pi + 2πf 2 µ 2 Pi T / c (0 ,5 D ) (31)
c (0 ,5 D )
or after the transformation and simplification (24), (25) або після перетворення та спрощення (24), (25)
we will obtain: одержимо:
µ 1 Pi = m c g (cos α sin ϕ Pi sin β + sin α cos β + f 2 cos α cos ϕ Pi cos β ); 

 (29)
µ 2 Pi = m c g cos α cos ϕ Pi ; 

m c g − µ 1 Pi cos β + f 2 µ 2 Pi sin β = 0 
To find ϕ Pi from the system of equations (29) µ iP1 will Для визначення ϕ Pi із системи рівнянь (29)
be excluded. виключимо µ iP1 .
( {
cos ϕ p i 1 + ctg ϕ p i ctg β + [π D sin β ( f 2 sin β − cos β )]− 1 }) = . (30)
{
= ctg β − [π D sin β ( f 2 sin β − cos β )]−1
}
In this case, when µ Pi > 0 the set of the acceptable У цьому випадку при умові µ Pi > 0 можна виділити
parameters of the model can be defined, because of its множину допустимих параметрів моделі, виходячи з
correctness and stability of the fixed solutions of the точки зору її адекватності і стійкості стаціонарних рішень
vibration-free process of the screw feeder operation. безвібраційного процесу роботи шнекового живильника.
Numerical investigation of the mathematic model (20), Числове дослідження математичної моделі (20),
(21), (23), (28) was carried out in the mathematic (21), (23), (28) проводили в математичному пакеті
package of the applied software for PC, as the result of прикладної програми для ПК, при цьому в результаті
change ϕ& (t ) = ψ (t ) the dependence (23) being reduced заміни ϕ& (t ) = ψ (t ) залежність (23) приводилася до
to the system of differential equations of the first degree. системи диференціальних рівнянь першого порядку.
In Fig.2 and Fig.3 typical graphs of the equation На рис. 2 і рис. 3 наведено типові графіки поведінки
system solution behavior (20), (21), (23), (28) or the dependence рішення системи рівнянь (20), (21), (23), (28), або
of the change of the deflection ϕ (t ) and the angular speed залежність зміни кута відхилення ϕ (t ) та кутової
of the screw ω (t ) on the time of the screw turn rotation, швидкості шнека ω (t ) від часу повороту витка шнека з
taking into account the vibration processes, which appear врахуванням вібраційний процесів, які виникають під
during the PSC screw feeder operation, are presented. час роботи шнекового живильника ПШТ.
Fig. 2 - Dependence of the angle of deflection and the screw angular speed change on the time of the screw turn rotation
Fig. 3 - Dependence of the angle of deflection and the screw angular speed change
on the time of the screw turn rotation under vibration.
Analysis of the graphic dependencies testifies the Аналіз графічних залежностей показує вплив на
effect of the increased vibration amplitudes on the рішення системи збільшених амплітуд вібрацій
system solutions, which are presented in Fig.3 compared коливного процесу, які наведено на рис. 3 в
with those in Fig.2. порівняння з рис. 2.
155
In Fig.4 some integrated results of numerical На рис. 4 приведені деякі інтегровані висновки
calculations of possible options of the system behavior числових розрахунків можливих варіантів поведінки
are presented. системи.
Fig. 4 - Dependence of the angle of deflection of the material particle on the screw radius
at Т= 0,66 м; α = π/36; ω = 0.68; f1 = f2 = 0.3
1 – amplitude value; 2 – fixed value
CONCLUSIONS Висновки
The obtained differential dependencies (20-23), (26), Одержані диференціальні залежності (20-23), (26),
(27) can be treated as the mathematic model, which (27) є математичною моделлю, яка характеризує
specifies the technological process of the screw feeder технологічний процес роботи шнекового живильника
operation and can be used for the further interpreting of та може бути використана для подальшого
the construction-kinematic parameters of the pneumatic- обґрунтування конструктивно-кінематичних
screw conveyer. параметрів пнемо шнекового транспортера.
[1]. Gevko B.M., Danil'chenko M.G., Rogatins'kij R.M. [1]. Гевко Б.М., Данильченко М.Г., Рогатинський Р.М.
(1993) - Mechanisms of helical devices, L'viv: Svit, р. т(1993) - Механiзми з гвинтовими пристроями, Львiв
208; : Свiт, 208 с;
[2]. Gevko R.B., Vіtrovij A.O. (2012) - Improving the [2]. Гевко Р.Б., Вітровий А.О. (2012) - Підвищення
technical level of flexible screw conveyors, Ternopіl: технічного рівня гнучких гвинтових конвеєрів,
Aston, p. 209; Тернопіль: Астон, 209 с;
[3]. Rogatins'kij R., Gevko І., Rogatins'ka L. (2013) - [3]. Рогатинський Р., Гевко І., Рогатинська Л. (2013) -
Optimization of parameters screw transport and Оптимізація параметрів гвинтових транспортно–
technological systems, Vіsnik TNTU, Tom 69. no 1. pp. технологічних систем, Вісник ТНТУ, № 1 (69), С.
116–125; 116–125;
[4]. Hevko R., Dzyura V., Romanovsky R. (2006) - [4]. Гевко Р.Б., Дзюра В.О., Романовський Р.М. (2006)
Screw pneumo-mechanic transporter, Patent №44544, - Шнековий пневмомеханічний транспортер, Пат.
IPC - G65B 53/00, Applicant and owner of the patent: №44544, МПК G65B 53/00, Заявник і власник патенту
Ternopil National Economical University.- № Тернопільський національний економічний університет. -
u200903515; Applied 13.04.2009; published 12.10.2009, № u200903515; заявл. 13.04.2009р., Опубл.
Bulletin № 19, – 3p. 12.10.2009. Бюл. №19, 3с.
156
INVESTIGATING A POWER TILLER HANDLE AND SEAT VIBRATION ON TRANSPORTATION MODE

/
mn ‫ و‬m
p qp ‫خ در‬t ‫ر دو‬u v‫ا‬w x"y ‫ و‬z ‫ش د‬w‫ ار‬x‫ر‬%
1 1 2
Hossein Ahmadian , Seyed Reza Hassan-Beygi* , Barat Ghobadian
1
Department of Agro-technology, College of Abouraihan, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2
Department of Mechanics of Agricultural machinery Engineering, Tarbiat Modaress University, Tehran, Iran
Tel. +98 935 1894879; E-mail: ahmadian77@ut.ac.ir
Abstract: In this paper, a power tiller vibration was ‫ در ا ارش

ار دو‬:
investigated at handle position as well as seat position of a ‫!
خ در دو د
ار و‬
trailer pulled by the power tiller. The experiments were )* ‫ در‬+& ‫ز‬% ." ‫
ر‬# ‫ن‬% &&
'

conducted at five levels of engine speed, four levels of -. /0‫ د‬-10 23 ‫ر‬+! ،‫ ر‬5
23
transmission gear ratio during transportation, and in three ‫ار‬0‫ وز‬89 :; .0" ‫م‬7‫ ا‬+. ‫ و در‬/0‫د‬
directions. Then the weighted 1/3rd octave spectrum was ‫ل ه> "ب‬A ‫ او از‬1/3 0# /"
calculated from the narrow band vibration acceleration ‫" از‬0 C% ‫ان‬D .0" -B ‫ارش‬
signals. The amount of vibration damage on operator's ‫ز‬E ‫ود‬F ‫ان‬D ‫
و‬#‫
رو> ر‬# ‫ارش‬
body and allowable exposure limits were calculated based -B ISO >‫ارد ه‬0‫> ا‬-
# +.‫ا‬
on ISO standards. The results showed that the vibration H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫&ن داد ارش‬0 ) 0 . ‫
د‬G
increased with increasing the engine speed for all the gear ‫ت‬+. KL ‫ و در‬/0‫ح د‬3 L ‫ ر در‬5

ratios and directions. The magnitude of vibration was the >‫د‬N5 +. ‫ ار ارش در‬.# H ‫ا‬DI‫ا‬
greatest at vertical direction in all the experiments. The ‫ز‬E ‫ زن‬.‫د‬# O&# ‫زش ه‬% ‫م‬L ‫در‬
vibration allowable exposure time was in the range of 2.32- 2.32 # ‫
ا> د‬# ‫ ارش‬# +.‫ا‬
5.7 years at the power tiller handle for the different engine >‫ ه‬5
‫ ه و‬/0‫ د‬-10 >‫
ا‬# ‫ ل‬5.7
speeds and gear ratios. The total equivalent vibration, A (8), ' H‫ ار ار‬.‫د‬#
P ‫ ر‬8'Q
at the trailer seat was in the range of 0.5 to 0.87 m/s2 and it 0.5 /‫ود‬B ‫
ا> در‬# A(8) 5 8 ‫دل‬
exceeded the allowable limits for the reduced comfort ‫ز‬E F ‫د و از‬# 0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 0.87
boundary, fatigue-decreased boundary and exposure limit
‫
ا‬I 5 8 G0‫ز را‬E F ‫ و‬C% ،F‫را‬
for 8 hours/day. So, it is necessary to reduce the vibration /" T ‫
ور> ا ارش‬U ‫زم و‬V .‫د‬#
transmitted to the operator’s hand and body by designing ‫ و‬F‫
ا‬9 '#
#‫ن ر‬# ‫ د و‬#
and developing adequate insulating system. .‫م "د‬7‫ ا‬C ' K1
Keywords: Vibration; operator; power tiller; 1/3rd octave; ‫

؛
ار دو!
خ؛‬#‫ ارش؛ ر‬: ‫ت‬
exposure limits ‫ز‬E ‫ود‬F ‫ او؛‬1/3
INTRODUCTION
Applications of agricultural machines especially those ‫ن د‬% ‫ص‬YZ >‫
د " ه> &ورز‬#‫ر‬
machines that were guided entirely by hand, have ‫^ ا ]د &\[ت‬5# 0" ‫ د ها‬#
caused many occupational safety and health problems
/" ‫&ن‬0‫
ا‬#‫
ا> ر‬# [ ‫ و‬N ‫د ا‬
for their operators. Operator of such equipment has been
‫ح‬3 ‫
ان ا ` و ' در
ض‬#‫ ر‬.0‫ا‬
exposed to high levels of noise and vibration. Long time
‫ ر‬.0‫ از ارش و
وا
ار دار‬V#
working with these machines can cause for movement
^5# 0‫ ا‬T ‫ ا و‬# ‫ ت‬0V9 ‫
دن‬
disorders, damage to various organs of the human body
including hearing loss, spine and gastrointestinal 8'Q >‫رن ه‬G‫ ار‬# C% ،
F >+ ‫ر‬N#
disorders and even neurological disorders. Continuous ‫
ات و‬I ‫ ن‬، ‫ "ا‬H‫' ه‬a ‫ن از‬10‫ن ا‬#
use of vibrating machinery can also cause various ‫ اوم از‬/‫د‬b‫ ا‬.‫
دد‬G 0‫> روا‬+ ‫ر‬N# F
diseases affecting blood vessels, nerves, muscles and >+ ‫ر‬N# ‫
وز‬# # 0‫ ا‬H
>‫" ه‬
tissues attached to hands and arms. Dr. Maurice ‫[ت و‬c5 ،‫ب‬Y5‫ ا‬،0d >+G‫' ر‬a ‫ از‬b'Q
Raynaud (1862) initially recognized the symptoms of : ‫ ر‬O‫ د‬.‫زو "د‬# ‫ د و‬# TY >‫ ه‬I#
these diseases. Therefore, the disease was called ! Kg[5 ‫ر‬# ‫او‬ (1862) ‫ر د‬
Raynaud's phenomenon or white finger (Barber, 1992). ‫
ا ا‬## .‫ داد‬hi& ‫ را‬+ ‫ر‬N#
Aside from these cases, the vibration reduces work /0 b &A0‫ ر د ا‬/ * >‫ر‬N#
efficiency and quality (Goglia et al., 2006). Economical ،‫
ا ارد‬# /‫[و‬5 .(1992
#‫ر‬#) ‫"د‬
features and user capabilities of power tillers in various ‫ ه‬H‫ن را ه‬% b ‫ ر> و‬/‫زد‬# ‫ارش‬
conditions are factors encouraging the increasing use of ‫د> و‬Y‫ ه> ا‬D .(2006 ‫\ران‬j ‫' و‬GG)
the machine on farm applications and also for k ‫
>
ار دو !
خ در "
ا‬#‫ت ر‬0\‫ا‬
transporting agricultural products and human beings on ‫ن‬% ‫ از‬/‫د‬b‫ون ا‬DI‫ش روز ا‬O1G ^5# ‫ن‬G0G
rural roads (Sam and Kathirvel, 2006; Hassan-Beygi et ‫ن و‬10‫ ا‬T0 ‫ و‬Tl 'a ‫ از‬8'Q >‫
ده‬#‫در ر‬
al., 2005). In transportation mode, the power tiller ‫" )م و
ول‬# ‫ ه‬/‫د‬. ‫دام در‬
operator’s is exposed to vibration transmitted to the Tl F ‫ در‬.(2005 ‫\ران‬j ‫ و‬A# 1F ‫؛‬2006
hands through the power tiller handle, as well as vibration ‫

ار دو!
خ در
ض از"ت‬#‫ ر‬T0‫و‬
transmitted to the whole body through trailer seat. Single # ‫
د
ار و‬9 ‫ د و از‬# '
cylinder diesel engine of a power tiller does not promise a ‫
ار
ار‬# TY
9 ‫ن از‬#
good balance. The forces acting on the piston during .‫دارد‬
compression and power strokes are transmitted to >‫
ار دو!
خ دارا‬D ‫ر 'ر د‬
crankshaft and engine block. Due to lack of vibration TF‫ن در
ا‬1* >‫
و‬0 .10 #d ‫دل‬
dampers between the engine and power tiller chassis, ‫ ر‬m'# ‫ و‬n T # K‫اق و
ا‬OF‫ا‬
the engine forces are entered to the tractor chassis as # ' K ‫د‬-0 '5 # .0" T
shock and then through the chassis are transmitted to the
# ‫
وه> ر‬0 ،‫ر و "
ار‬
157
power tiller handle as well as drawbar of a trailer ‫ار و‬D ‫ د‬# 7% ‫ و از‬T "
mounted to it. The power tiller handle also acts like a T ‫ن‬% ‫
'
و‬- # ‫ن‬Dj
cantilever beam so that one end is attached to the tractor ‫ رت‬# `j ‫ د
ار دو!
خ‬.‫"د‬
chassis and free vibration of the other end is high # ‫ن‬%
‫ و‬/‫
د‬TN5
G ‫

در‬
(Salokhe et al., 1995). In order to reduce the risks of ‫ن‬%
A ‫ و
د‬/‫د‬# TY ‫"
ار‬
working with such machines, the regulations have been ‫ و‬d ) "‫اه دا‬d > " ‫ار"ت‬
developed by international organizations to limit working # ‫
ات ر‬3d H‫
ا> ه‬# .(1995 ‫\ران‬j
hours and duration of vibration exposure. The ISO ‫ زو‬0+. >‫ا ` و ' زن ه‬
standard No. 2631 part 1 (1997) for whole body ‫ت ر> و‬5 0‫ ا‬I
G
p0‫ره را در‬
vibrations, ISO standard No. 5349 parts 1 and 2 (2001) .‫ ده‬H‫ ه> در
ض ارش را ه‬/‫دور‬
for hand-arm vibration, and ISO standard No. 8041 ‫ن و‬# T ‫
ا> ار"ت‬# ISO 2631 ‫ارد‬0‫ا‬
(2005) for vibration measuring instrumentation are the ‫زو‬# ‫
ا> ار"ت د و‬# ISO 5349 ‫ارد‬0‫ا‬
examples. /‫از‬0‫> ا‬+‫ه‬A‫
ا> د‬# ISO 8041 ‫اردر‬0‫و ا‬
The results of pervious research work showed that
.0‫ ا‬0q ‫
> از ا‬G
farm machinery drivers suffer from higher back pain than
‫
ان‬#‫ ر‬،‫&ن ه‬0 '- ‫ ) ت‬0
the other agricultural workers (Futatsuka et al., 1998).
Wang et al. (2004) reported that the spinal movements ‫ از‬O&# ‫
ات‬I ‫> &ورز> از درد ن‬+"
caused by vibration were the main reason for these F‫را‬0 ‫س‬1F‫ &ورز> ا‬HZ ‫
ان‬G‫
ا ر‬A ‫د‬
destructive injuries to the body, but the exact reasons n0‫و‬ .(1998 ‫\ران‬j ‫و‬ \I) \
have not been provided so far. In an investigation ‫
ات‬I ‫
ن‬F I ‫( در‬2004) ‫\ران‬j‫و‬
regarding the ergonomic conditions of an 8-hp power
# ‫
ب‬Q ‫
ات‬R‫ ا' ا ا‬T‫
ارش د‬R‫در ا‬
tiller, 200 farmers and 100 extension workers were /‫ داد‬2U ‫ ا' ن‬T‫ و د‬/‫د‬# ‫ن‬#
studied. The study revealed that noise and vibration of \0G‫ ار‬k ‫ در "
ا‬.‫ ا‬/&0
the power tiller played an important role in damages 100 ‫ &ورز و‬200 ‫ر‬Z C‫ ا‬8 ‫
ار دو !
خ‬
experienced by them (Kang et al., 1988). Mehta et al.
1+ ‫"\ر
د‬% .0" ‫
ر‬#
‫
ه‬G‫ر‬
(1997) measured vibration of a 7.5-kW power tiller seat.
# /‫ وارد‬C% ‫ ا در‬H0 ‫و ا و ارش‬
The results showed that the vibration acceleration ‫ و‬+ .(1988 ‫\ران‬j ‫ و‬n0) "‫ن دا‬0%
increases with increasing forward speed of the power ‫( ار"ت
ار‬1997) ‫\ران‬j
tiller. The vibration Root Mean Square (RMS) values on ‫&ن داد‬0 ) 0 .I
G /‫از‬0‫دو!
خ را ا‬
non-plowed farm were 2 to 2.5 times that of asphalt and ‫ *&
و>
ار‬5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫ار"ت‬
dirt rural roads. These researchers recommended that
‫ت‬#
& ‫ ر‬A0 .# H ‫ا‬DI‫دو!
خ ا‬
the vibration exposure time for the power tiller operator’s
2.5 2 /&0 Ki" ‫( در ز‬RMS) ‫ارش‬
should be less than 2.5 hours per day. Ahmadian et al.
(2013) determined the vibration acceleration envelope ‫ن‬B ‫ ا‬.‫د‬# " ‫ و‬b%
#‫
ا‬#
curves of a power tiller on transportation mode. The 2.5 ‫ از‬ON # +.‫ز ا‬E ‫ زن‬0‫
د‬
results showed that the maximum vibration amplitude (2013) ‫\ران‬j ‫ ن و‬l‫ ا‬."# ‫ در روز‬5
values at operator’s arm, wrist, chest, and head positions ‫;ش "ب ارش
ار دو!
خ‬j >‫ ه‬s
were occurred at 16 Hz, 40 Hz, 4 Hz, and 5 Hz, ) 0 .0‫
ر
د‬T0 ‫ و‬Tl F ‫را در‬
respectively. Taghizadeh-Alisaraei (2007) assessed the ‫ ار"ت در‬KN D ‫&ن داد دا‬0
vibrations of a 7.5-hp walking power tiller. Experiments ،40 ،16 ‫ و
در‬1b ،t ‫زوف‬#
were conducted at stationary condition and plowing '5 /‫ زاد‬.I‫ق ا‬b‫ ا‬D
‫ ه‬5 ‫ و‬،4
operation. The vibration acceleration was measured on ‫ را‬/‫( ارش
ار دو!
خ *د‬2007) ‫
ا‬
locations of chassis and handle of the power tiller as well Ki" ‫ و‬1 ‫ ا‬F ‫ در‬+& ‫ز‬% .‫
ر
د‬
as arm and chest of the driver. The results revealed that " >‫ "ب ارش در ه‬.0" ‫م‬7‫ا‬
the vibration RMS values increased in all locations with
#‫ ر‬1b ‫زو و‬# ‫و د
ار و‬
increasing engine speed. It was observed that the # ‫&ن داد‬0 +& ‫ز‬% ." >
G /‫از‬0‫ا‬
dominant frequency of vibration in all locations were ‫م ه ار‬L ‫ ر در‬5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ا‬
equal to engine speed (revolution per second). The
" /‫ &ه‬.# H ‫ا‬DI‫ "ب ارش ا‬RMS
vibration RMS values were decreased when transferring
#
#‫
ا‬# ‫م ه‬L ‫ در‬C :0
I
from the power tiller handle to the driver's chest. The
research work conducted by Tewari et al. (2004) on ‫ ب‬RMS
‫ د‬.‫د‬# ‫ ر‬0‫ دورا‬:0
I
power tillers with seat and without seat, showed that the ‫ در‬.I H‫ ه‬1b ‫ارش از د‬
greatest vibration RMS value was observed for the power >‫
رو‬# (2004) ‫\ران‬j ‫ ار> و‬k
tiller without seat (45 m/s2), whereas it was 20 m/s2 for ‫ون‬# ‫ و‬# ‫
ار ه> دو!
خ‬
the power tiller with seat. Dewangan and Tewari (2009) F >‫
ا‬# ‫ ار ارش‬O&# ‫&ن داد‬0
investigated vibration of a power tiller in transportation ‫د در‬# (0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 45) ‫ون‬#
mode on asphalt road as well as rotary tillage in dry and ‫
ا>
ار‬# 0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 20 F
submerged farm. Experiments were carried out in three (2009) >‫ن و ار‬A0‫ دوا‬.‫د‬# #
forward speed of 1.11, 1.71 and 2.31 m/s in T0 ‫ و‬Tl F ‫ارش
ار دو!
خ را در‬
transportation mode and forward speed of 0.3, 0.45 and ‫& و‬d md ‫رز> دوار در‬d ‫ و‬b% /‫د‬. ‫در‬
0.65 m/s in rotary tillage. The results showed that the ‫ در‬+& ‫ز‬% .0‫
ر
د‬# ‫
ق را‬P1 ‫ز‬
RMS value of vibration in the vertical direction was F ‫ در‬0R
# O 2.31 ‫ و‬1.71 ،1.11 5

greater than the other directions for all forward speeds on
# O 0.65 ‫ و‬0.45 ،0.3 5
‫ و در‬T0 ‫ و‬Tl
transportation and rotary tillage. Literature survey ." ‫م‬7‫رز> دوار ا‬d F ‫ در‬0R
showed that there is limited published data concerning
‫ "ب ارش در‬RMS ‫&ن داد‬0 ) 0
vibration characteristics of a 13-hp power tiller on
‫ و‬Tl ‫ ه> *&
و> در‬5
L ‫د> در‬N5 +.
transportation mode. In present study, vibration
characteristics of a 13-hp power tiller is evaluated in ‫ ار را در‬O&# ‫رز> دوار‬d ‫ و‬T0
transportation mode on asphalt rural road for various ‫&ن‬0 v# ‫
ر‬# ."‫ت دا‬+.
A ‫ د‬# 1
158
engine speeds and transmission gear ratios ‫ ز د> در رد‬/"

& ‫ت‬5[9‫ ده ا‬
simultaneously at three perpendicular directions at the ‫د‬.‫ر و‬Z C‫ ا‬13 ‫
ر ارش
ار دو!
خ‬#
power tiller handle position as well as seat position of a .‫ارد‬0
trailer pulled by the power tiller.
MATERIAL AND METHOD ‫اد و روش ه‬

In this research work, vibration acceleration of a 13-hp ‫ "ب ارش
ار‬، ‫در ا‬
power tiller (Mitsubishi CT-82) was measured at the right ‫( در د‬Mitsubishi CT-82) ‫دو!
خ‬
handle grip position as well as the seat position of a H& ‫ل‬F ‫
ار و
ار دو!
خ در‬
trailer attached with the drawbar and pulled by the power ‫ت
ار‬Yi&." >
G /‫از‬0‫
ار ا‬#
tiller. The power tiller specifications were given in Table k ‫
ا> ا \ "
ا‬# .‫ ا‬/" /‫ داد‬1 ‫ول‬. ‫در‬
1. In order to simulate practical use of the power tiller at ‫ر‬# ‫"د‬ K‫
اه‬I ‫
ار‬ # ‫ر‬ 'N5
transportation conditions, load of 9000 N was placed
." /‫ درون
'

ار داد‬09000
inside the attached trailer.
Table 1
Specifications of the power tiller
Combustion system Internal, diesel, Indirect injection
Stroke cycle Four-stroke
Rated power 13-hp at 2200 rpm
Air intake system Naturally aspirated
No. of cylinder Single, vertical
Cooling system Water cooled
Number of speeds Six-forward, two-reverse
Type of clutch Dry, multi-plates
Steering Side brake system
Tire size (pneumatic) 152.4-305 mm
Experiments were conducted at five levels of engine ،1600 ‫ف‬1400) ‫ ر‬5

23 5 ‫ در‬+& ‫ز‬%
speed (1400, 1600, 1800, 2000, and 2200 rpm), four 23 4 ،(‫
د‬# ‫ دور‬2200 ‫ و‬،2000 ،1800
levels of transmission gear ratio (2-light, 3-light, 2-heavy, -2 ،- -3 8\--2 ) /0‫ د‬-. /0‫ د‬-10
and 3-heavy), and at the three perpendicular directions K‫
ه‬# ‫د‬N5 +. ‫( و‬A 3 ‫ و‬A
(lateral, longitudinal and vertical) on asphalt rural road. ‫م‬7‫ ا‬b% /‫د‬. >‫د>( رو‬N5 ‫ و‬9 ،-0.)
Number of three CTC-AC192 types of accelerometers /‫از‬0‫
ا> ا‬# CTC-AC192 ) ‫د "ب‬5 .0"
was used to measure vibration of the power tiller at ‫
رو> د
ار و‬# ‫
> ارش‬G
handle grip and the trailer seat positions. The
3 >‫
رو‬# ‫ "ب ) ه‬.I‫ ر ر‬#
'

accelerometers were screwed on a 2×2×2 cm metallic
C\ ‫ و‬/" t* O 0 2 v'U # >D'I C\
cubic and the cubic glued at the power tiller right handle
grip (Fig. 1a) and the trailer seat (Fig. 1b). The ‫( و‬% 1 T\")‫ د را
ار‬--1! #
experiments were done while the operator was seated on ‫ در‬+& ‫ز‬% ." K\B (‫ ب‬1 T\")
'

the trailer seat and holding the handles to control the 1&0 >‫
رو‬#
#‫ ر‬0" ‫م‬7‫ ا‬F
power tiller. .‫ل
د‬O ‫ د
'
را‬# ‫د و‬#
a) b)
Fig. 1 - Mounting accelerometers: (a) the power tiller handle grip and (b) the trailer seat
A 24-volt battery and an electronic circuit supplied the ‫\ ان‬0‫و‬O\‫ و و ار> ا‬24 >
#
required power for this set up. Using an A/D converter, '‫ و‬# .‫
د‬K‫
اه‬I ‫ را‬/A‫ز د‬0 ‫رد‬
which was recognized and controlled by LABVIEW ‫گ‬0% ‫ وژ‬LABVIEW ‫ار‬DI‫
م ا‬0 ‫ و‬A/D
software program, the accelerometer analog output 40000 ‫
دار‬# 0q 5
# ‫
ه‬A1F .‫
و‬d
voltage was converted to digital ones with 40000 Hz
# ‫ و‬/" T - ‫ د ]ل‬# 0R ‫ در‬0q
sampling rate and recorded on lap-top computer hard 2 T\" .0" /
d‫ار ;
ذ‬DI‫ ا‬i >‫رو‬
disk. Fig. 2 shows the instrumentation setup used in this ‫&ن‬0 ‫ در ا را‬/‫د‬b‫ه رد ا‬A‫د‬
study. The power tiller vibration assessment in time # ‫ زن‬/‫ز‬F ‫
ر "ب ارش در‬# .‫ه‬
domain was carried out by the RMS values of vibration # " ‫م‬7‫ ارش ا‬RMS
‫ د‬1
acceleration. The RMS was calculated by e.q. (1): :‫ &د‬-B (1) ‫
ل‬I
159
1/2
1 
a (t ) dt 
T
a RMS =  ∫
2
T 0
 (1)
Fig. 2 - Vibration measurement and data acquisition set up.
Where: aRMS is root mean square of vibration ‫ت "ب‬#

A0 & ‫ ر‬aRMS :] ‫در ا‬
2
acceleration (m/s ), a(t) is measured vibration ‫ور‬SE
# O ) ‫ دا "ب ارش‬a(t) ،‫ارش‬
2
acceleration amplitude (m/s ), and T is duration of ‫
> ارش‬G /‫از‬0‫ ا‬0‫ ز‬/‫ دور‬T ‫( و‬0R
measured vibration acceleration (s). ."#
For a detailed investigation of the vibration signals ‫
ات‬R‫> ارش و ا‬zA O&# ‫
ر‬# >‫
ا‬#
and evaluation of operator health, it is necessary to do
‫ در‬zA ‫ ا‬T' ‫زم ا‬V
#‫
ر‬# ‫ن‬%
the analysis of the vibration signals in frequency domain.
The recorded time domain digital signals were converted ‫ ز‬/‫ز‬F >‫ه‬A .‫
د‬G ‫ رت‬:0
I /‫ز‬F
to frequency domain narrow band signals by fast Fourier ‫ل‬A # v
‫ر‬I T - K ‫ر‬A‫ ا‬#
transform (FFT) algorithm using MATLAB software ‫ار‬DI‫
م ا‬0 # ‫ و‬:0
I /‫ز‬F ‫ر‬# 0#
program. To overcome the sudden changes and ‫
ات‬P ‫
ار از‬I >‫
ا‬# .0" T - MATLAB
uncertainty of the narrow band signals, the narrow band ‫ر‬# 0# >zA 3 ‫م‬5 ‫ و‬0+G0
frequency domain signals were converted to 1/3rd octave ‫ او‬1/3 0# >‫ه‬A # zA ‫ا‬
frequency band signals by a subroutine computer ‫ود‬F -B +. zA ‫ ا‬:; .0" T -
program. The 1/3rd octave frequency spectrum was
‫ارد‬0‫ د
ا‬# 1 ‫ و‬+.‫ز ا‬E
weighed in order to calculate the allowable exposure
limits and compare with standard values. Then the total ' /" ‫ار‬0‫ "ب وز‬:; .0" ‫وزن دار‬
weighted vibration acceleration RMS values in frequency ." -B (2) ‫
ل‬I ‫ از‬/‫د‬b‫ ا‬# ‫ارش‬
domain calculated by Eq. (2):
[
aRMS ,T = (aRMS , X ) + (aRMS ,Y ) + (aRMS , Z )
2 2
]
2 1/ 2
(2)
Where: aRMS,T is the root mean square of total

2
weighted vibration acceleration (m/s ), aRMS,X is the root ‫ت "ب‬#
A0 & ‫ر‬ aRMS,T ] ‫در ا‬
mean square of weighted vibration acceleration in X +. ‫ ه
از‬X, Y, Z ‫ و‬،/" ‫ار‬0‫' وز‬
2
direction (m/s ), aRMS,Y is the root mean square of
2
weighted vibration acceleration in Y direction (m/s ), and 5 8 >‫
ا‬# ‫ "ب دل ارش‬."#
aRMS,Z is the root mean square of weighted vibration
2
acceleration in Z direction (m/s ). The equivalent vibration :.‫
دد‬G -B 3 3#‫ را‬#3 A(8)
acceleration for eight hours, A(8), was calculated, using Eq. (3):
A(8) = (a RMS ,T ) ×
t
(3)
T (8)
Where: t is the time that the body expose to the ‫ن در روز‬# ‫ ا‬0‫ ز‬t :] ‫در ا‬
vibration in a working day , T(8) is reference time (eight ‫ زن‬T(8) ،‫
د‬G ‫ر> در
ض ارش
ار‬
hours, s), aRMS,T is RMS of total weighted vibration A0 & ‫ ر‬aRMS,T ‫ و‬5 8 #
#‫
ا‬# v.

acceleration (m/s2) and A(8) is the equivalent vibration ‫ "ب دل‬،/" ‫ار‬0‫ت "ب ' وز‬#

acceleration for eight hours working per day (m/s2). ."# A(8) 5 8 >‫
ا‬# ‫ارش‬
The amount of vibration damage on operator's body #
#‫ ر‬+.‫ز ا‬E ‫ود‬F ‫ و‬C% ‫ان‬D
and the exposure limits were calculated in accordance 1 # ISO 2631 ‫ارد‬0‫ ا‬#3 ‫ارش‬
with the ISO standard No. 2631 (1997) by comparing the
‫دار‬q # ‫ او‬1/3 0# /"‫ار‬0‫"ب ه> وز‬
weighted 1/3rd octave acceleration signals with the ISO
>‫زو‬# ‫ را> د و‬." -B ‫ارد‬0‫ه> ا‬
diagrams. The vibration exposure time for the operator's
hand-arm was calculated using Eq. (4), accordance with ‫
ل‬I ‫ و‬ISO 5349 ‫ارد‬0‫ ا‬# #3
‫ر‬
the ISO standard No. 5349 (2001). ." -B +.‫( زن ا‬4)
160
(4)
where: Dy is time after which in 10% of operators ‫ از‬%10 ‫ن‬% ‫ ا دز‬0‫ ز‬Dy ] ‫در ا‬
exposed to the amount of hand-arm weighted vibration, C% ‫ د!ر‬0‫ ر روزا‬5 8 ‫ از‬:* ‫
ان‬#‫ر‬
A(8), various diseases and disorders, and depreciation
#) 0" >‫ر‬N# Kg[5 ‫&ن و‬A0‫در د و ا‬
on their fingers may occur (year). .(‫ ل‬C1F
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ‫ن و‬

1. The time domain vibration acceleration signals
The time domain vibration acceleration signals on ‫"ب ار ش در ز زن‬# $%&' .1
vertical direction for the engine speed of 2200 rpm and 3- ‫ زن در‬/‫ز‬F ‫ه> "ب ارش در‬A
light gear ratio at the trailer seat and power tiller handle ‫ دور ر‬2200 ‫ ر‬5
>‫
ا‬# ‫د> و‬N5 +.
positions are shown in Fig. 3a & 3b, respectively. As
‫ در ه> د‬--3 /0‫د و در د‬
depicted from parts of this Fig., the maximum peak
amplitude at the trailer seat and tractor handle positions /‫&ن داد‬0 3 T\" ‫
ار و
'
در‬
2 2
were ±10 m/s and ±45 m/s , respectively. It is clear that >‫
ا‬# '
‫ د‬T\" ‫ ا‬#3 .‫ ا‬/"
reduction of vibration energy in transmission path from O ±45 ‫ و‬±10 #
#‫
ا‬# C
# ‫ و د‬
the power tiller engine to the trailer seat is more than that
‫ ارش‬H‫ ا ه‬2U‫ وا‬.‫ ا‬0R ‫ور‬SE
#
of the power tiller engine to the handle; therefore, the
maximum peak amplitude at the seat position was lower ‫ از ر د‬O&# ‫از ر‬
than the handle position. ."# ‫
از‬
20 50
(a) (b)
Acceleration (m/s2 )
Acceleration (m/s2 )
10
0 0
-10
-20 -50
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 3 - The time domain vibration acceleration signals on vertical direction for the engine speed of 2200 rpm and 3-light gear ratio at:
(a) the trailer seat and (b) the handle positions.
Fig. 4 shows the RMS values of total vibration /‫ز‬F ‫ د> "ب ' ارش را در‬4 T\"
acceleration (sum of the three x, y, and z directions) in >‫ ه‬5
‫ و‬8'Q >‫ ه‬/0‫ د‬-10 >‫
ا‬# ‫زن و‬
time domain for the different engine speeds and gear

‫ د‬.‫&ن ده‬0 ‫وت در د و‬b
ratios at the power tiller handle position. The total
acceleration RMS values were in the range of 14-26 m/s
2
# O 26-14 /‫ود‬B ‫ ' "ب ارش در‬RMS
for the various engine speeds and gear ratios. The >‫ ه‬-10 ‫> ر و‬+5
>‫
ا‬# ‫ و‬0R ‫ور‬SE
vibration RMS values increased for all the gear ratios ‫م‬A‫ ه ه‬/0‫م د‬L ‫ در‬."# ‫وت‬b /0‫د‬
when the engine speed is increased from 1400 to 2000 ‫ان‬D 2000 1400 ‫ ر از‬5
rpm. With increasing the engine speed, number of
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# .# H ‫ا‬DI‫"ب ارش ا‬
combustion strokes and the piston blows per the unit time
were increased. Therefore, vibration at the base of the F‫ن در وا‬1* ‫ت‬#
U ‫اق و اد‬OF‫اد ا‬
handle that was attached to the power tiller chassis is H ‫ا‬DI‫ ر ارش در " ا‬5
‫زن و‬
increased, consequently the vibration at the free end of H ‫ا‬DI‫زاد د ا‬%
‫ ارش در‬:; ‫ و‬I
the handle is also increased. This trend is confirmed by D0 B
A ‫ در ت د‬0‫ ا> رو‬.#
the other researchers for similar investigations (Sam and ،2006 ‫ ا ) م و
ول‬/" /‫&ه‬
Kathirvel, 2006; Salokhe et al., 1995; Taghizadeh-
Alisaraei, 2007). However, the increasing trend is not /‫' زاد‬5 /‫ زاد‬،1995 ‫\ران‬j ‫ و‬d
observed at 2200 rpm engine speed because this speed 2200 ‫
ا> دور‬# 0‫
! ا رو‬G‫ ا‬.(2007 g‫
ا‬
is the rated engine speed. At this engine speed, the ‫ن ا ا ا دور دور‬% '5 ‫& و‬0 /‫&ه‬
engine and its components are dynamically balanced. ‫ ر ر و‬5
‫ در ا‬.‫ ر ا‬Yi&
The maximum and minimum increases in vibration .1‫ن دارا> دل د \ ه‬% m
s >‫ا‬D.‫ا‬
acceleration are observed for 2-light and 3- light gear
--2 /0‫ ارش در د‬H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬N ‫& و‬#
ratios, respectively when the engine speed ranges from
1400 to 2200 rpm. ." /‫ &ه‬--3 ‫و‬
161
Fig. 4 - The effect of engine speed on the RMS values of total vibration acceleration for the different
gear ratios at the handle position
Variations of the total vibration acceleration RMS ‫ ر در‬8'Q >‫ ه‬5

‫
ات ارش در‬P
values versus the engine speed at the trailer seat
position in time domain are shown in Fig. 5 for the .‫ ا‬/" /‫&ن داد‬0 5 T\" ‫ در‬1
different engine speeds and gear ratios. The total 4.8 2.8 /‫ود‬B ‫ "ب ارش در‬RMS
‫د‬
acceleration RMS values were in the range of 2.8-4.8 5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# .‫
ا‬P 0R ‫ور‬SE
# O
2
m/s . With increasing engine speed, the vibration RMS
values at the trailer seat position are increased for all the H ‫ا‬DI‫ ه ار ارش ا‬/0‫م د‬L ‫ر در‬
gear ratios. The reason for this increasing trend might be ‫ اد‬H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬0‫ن ا‬% '5 #
attributed to increasing number of combustion strokes -‫ا‬ ."# ‫زن‬ F‫وا‬ ‫در‬ ‫اق‬OF‫ا‬ TF‫
ا‬
and the piston blows per unit time. Of course, the
vibration RMS increase at this position is lower than the ‫از‬ ON ‫در‬ ‫ارش‬ H ‫ا‬DI‫ا‬
handle position that could be as a result of dissipation of 0‫ن ا‬% '5 ‫
ا> د ا‬# ‫ن‬% H ‫ا‬DI‫ا‬
vibration energy and structural damping. The maximum
/‫

ا ز‬R‫
ژ> ارش در ا‬0‫
ا "ن ا‬
and minimum increase in vibration acceleration is
observed for 2-heavy and 3-heavy gear ratios, -2 ‫ "ب ارش در‬N ‫& و‬# ."# >‫ا‬
respectively when the engine speed is increased in range ‫
ات "ب‬P ." /‫ &ه‬A 3 ‫ و‬A
of 1400-2200 rpm. The variations of vibration
‫ ه> ر‬5
‫ و‬8'Q >‫ ه‬/0‫ارش در د‬
acceleration in the different gear ratios for the engine
speeds of 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000 and 2200 rpm were ‫
د‬# ‫ دور‬2200 ‫ و‬2000 ،1800 ،1600 ،1400
2
about 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, 1.1, and 1.3 m/s , respectively. The O 1.3 ‫ و‬1.1 ،0.9 ،0.7 ،0.5 #
#‫
ا‬# C
#
reason for these variations might be attributed to the
‫
ات‬P ‫ ا‬T‫ د‬.‫د‬# 0R ‫ور‬SE
#
trailer oscillations due to changing forward speeds or in
other words, the effects of road unevenness. >‫ار‬j0 ‫ *&
و> و‬5
‫
ات‬P
R‫ در ا‬0‫ا‬
Investigation of vibration signals in time domain ."# /‫د‬. >‫ه‬
revealed that the accelerations for the vertical direction ‫"\ر‬% ‫ زن‬/‫ز‬F ‫ه> ارش در‬A ‫
ر‬#
were greater than the lateral and longitudinal directions, ‫ و‬-0. ‫ از‬O&# ‫د> ارش‬N5 +. ‫
د در‬
which could be attributed to vertical movement of piston >‫د‬N5
F
R‫د |\ ا در ا‬# 9
within the diesel engine cylinder. ."# ‫ن در 'ر‬1*
Fig. 5 - The effect of engine speed on the RMS values of total vibration acceleration for the different gear ratios at the trailer seat
162
2. The frequency domain vibration acceleration signals ()*+ ‫"ب ار ش در ز‬# ‫ل ه‬%&' .2
Fig. 6 shows the narrow band frequency spectrum of +.‫ر "ب ارش را در‬# 0# 89 6 T\"
vibration acceleration on vertical position for the trailer ‫
ا> د
ار و
'
و‬# >‫د‬N5
seat and power tiller handle positions at 2200 rpm engine
‫&ن‬0 --3 /0‫
د در د‬# ‫دور‬ 2200 ‫دور‬
speed and 3-light gear ratio. The maximum amplitude
peaks at the trailer seat and handle positions reached to ‫ور‬SE
# ‫ ر‬10 ‫ و‬1.5 # '
‫ د‬.‫ ده‬
2 2
1.5 m/s and 10 m/s , respectively. Structural damping
1 ‫ ا> در‬/‫
ا ز‬.‫ ر‬0R
and reduction of vibration energy in transmission path ."# ‫وت‬b ‫' ا‬5 0‫ل ارش ا‬0‫ا‬
might be responsible for peak amplitude reduction. At the >‫
ا‬# ‫ "ت‬# ‫در د دا ارش‬
handle position, the vibration acceleration amplitudes are
H‫ "ت ه‬# D
‫ ه‬200 ‫
از‬V# >‫ ه‬:0
I
damped strongly at frequencies greater than 200 Hz. The
acceleration value at the handle position was very high in .#
certain frequencies, which was due to free vibration of :0
I ‫ار "ب ارش در د در‬
the power tiller handle. The power tiller handle acts as a ‫
ار"ت‬R‫ در ا‬V# ‫ر‬1# ‫ص‬d ‫ه‬
cantilever beam with base excitation and free vibration at
0j "# ‫زاد د
ار‬%
the end (Salokhe et al., 1995). This phenomenon is also ‫\ران‬j‫ و‬d) TN5
G ‫
در‬
confirmed for a 7.5-hp power tiller vibration (Taghizadeh-
'5 /‫ زاد‬k `j / * ‫ ا‬.(1995
Alisaraei, 2007). At the handle position, the maximum
amplitude peak is occurred at 36.7 Hz which is related to ‫ در د‬." (2007) g‫
ا‬
rotational speed of the engine i.e. 2200 rpm. However, at I‫ق ا‬b‫ ا‬D
‫ ه‬36.7 ‫& ' در‬#
the trailer seat position, the maximum amplitude peak is ‫
د‬# ‫ دور‬2200 0‫ دورا‬5
# k-

observed at 73.3 Hz which is related to two times of ' ‫
! در ار‬G‫ ا‬.‫ر ا‬
engine speed.
.‫ ر ا‬5

#
# ‫د دو‬# D
‫ ه‬73.3 ‫در‬
Due to un-smoothed nature of narrow band frequency
‫ر‬# 0# >zA
P ‫' ه‬5 #
spectra, comparing the data for different conditions is not
so easy. Therefore, in order to explain the results and to ‫ ر‬8'Q F ‫ ه> دو‬89 # 1 ‫ارش‬
calculate the vibration allowable exposure limits and ‫ود‬F -B >‫
ا‬# >‫
ا‬# ‫
ا‬## .10 0%
rd ‫ارد از‬0‫ د
ا‬# 1 ‫ و‬+.‫ز ا‬E
compare with standard values, the smoother 1/3 octave
vibration frequency band is selected. .‫ "د‬/‫د‬b‫ او ا‬1/3 10
I 0#
1.5 12
(a) (b)
10
Acceleration (m/s )
Acceleration (m/s )
2
1 8
0.5 4
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Fig. 6 - The narrow band frequency domain vibration acceleration signals on vertical direction for 2200 rpm engine speed and 3-light
gear ratio at: (a) the trailer seat and (b) the handle positions.
rd
2.1. The 1/3 octave spectrum of vibration 0 1 ‫"ب‬# ‫ ا"و‬1/3 -..1.2
‫در‬ ‫ار ش‬
acceleration at the tractor handle position ‫د'" *ا"ر دو*خ‬
Fig. 7 shows the effect of engine speed on 1/3rd ‫
"ب‬# ‫ ر را‬0‫ دورا‬5
‫
ات‬R‫ ا‬7 T\"
octave total weighted vibration acceleration (sum of the .‫&ن ه‬0 ‫ در د‬/" ‫ار‬0‫' وز‬
three directions x, y and z) at the handle position for the >‫
ا‬# ‫&ن ه‬0 T\" ‫ ا‬8'Q >+N1
different gear ratios. Different parts of this Fig. showed
‫ار‬0‫ "ب وز‬D
‫ ه‬100 ‫
از‬V# >+10
I
that at frequencies more than 100 Hz, the vibration
2
acceleration was less than 1 m/s . However, at 8'Q >+5
‫
ات ز د> در‬P >‫ دارا‬/"
frequencies less than 100 Hz, the total weighted ."# q ‫وت‬b >‫ ه‬/0‫ د‬-10 ‫ر و‬
acceleration did not show uniform variations for the ،12.5 ‫ ارش دارا> ' ه در‬7 T\" #3
different engine speeds and gear ratios. As illustrated in >‫ ه‬/0‫ در د‬D
‫ ه‬40 ‫ و‬،31.5 ،25 ،20 ،16
Fig. 7, the vibration acceleration amplitude has some D‫ در
ا‬/" /‫ ' ه> &ه‬."# 8'Q
peaks at center frequencies of 12.5, 16, 20, 25, 31.5, and 0‫ ا‬D
‫ ه‬40 ‫ و‬D
‫ ه‬31.5 25 10
I
40 Hz for the different gear ratios. The peaks observed at 1800 ‫ دور رد و‬1600 1400 # ‫ط‬#

center frequency of 25, 31.5, and 40 Hz could be related
‫د در‬. >‫ ' ه‬."# ‫
د‬# ‫ دور‬200
to 1400 and 1600 rpm, 1800 to 2000 rpm, and 2200 rpm
163
engine speed, respectively. The peaks at center D

‫ ه‬20 ‫ و‬D
‫ ه‬16 ‫ و‬12.5 >‫ ه‬:0
I
frequencies of 12.5, 16 and 20 Hz could be related to the ‫اق و ار"ت‬OF‫ ا‬%DI # ‫ط‬#
0‫ا‬
combustion process frequency and frequency of engine ‫~ر‬0‫ ا‬N* ،n T 0 ‫ا> ر‬D.‫ا‬
components including camshaft and injection pump,
‫ ا‬#3 .‫ ر را دارد‬5
1/2 "#
which had one half speed of the engine crankshaft. As
depicted from this Fig., the greatest peak of vibration ‫د‬# D
‫ ه‬31.5 :&0
I ‫& ارش در‬# T\"
acceleration is observed in frequency of 31.5 Hz for all ‫ ار‬/0‫ در ا د‬.--2 /0‫
از د‬
the gear ratios except 2-light. The maximum amplitude \| ‫ رخ ده‬D
‫ ه‬40 :0
I ‫& در‬#
for 2-light gear ratio is observed at 40 Hz, which could be ' ‫ ار‬."# ‫ د‬:00‫ رزو‬# ‫ط‬#
‫ا‬
2
due to handle resonance. The maximum peak (11 m/s ) ‫ و‬D
‫ ه‬31.5 :0
I ‫( در‬0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 11)
at the frequency of 31.5 Hz is related to 2000 rpm engine ‫ رخ‬A-3 /0‫
د و د‬# ‫ دور‬200 ‫دور‬
speed and 3-heavy gear ratio. According to Fig. 7, the .‫ ا‬/‫داد‬
amplitude of total vibration acceleration in the frequency 10 /‫ود‬B ‫ ار دا ارش در‬7 T\" #3
range of 10 to 80 Hz is greater than the allowable
2
# O 2) ‫ز ارش‬E F ‫ از‬OG‫ر‬D# D
‫ ه‬80
vibration exposure limit (2 m/s ) for hand-arm.
Investigation of Sam and Kathirvel (2006) on a 7.5-hp ‫ در‬."# ‫زو‬# ‫
ا> د و‬# (0R ‫ور‬SE
power tiller at handle position and transportation mode ‫
رو>
ار‬# (2006) ‫ م و
ول‬
with an empty trailer showed that the measured vibration T0 ‫ و‬Tl F ‫ر در د در‬Z C‫ ا‬7.5 ‫دو!
خ‬
was more than that of the hand-arm allowable vibration ‫ز‬E F ‫ " ار"ت از‬hi& d
'

exposure limit. .‫
ا‬V#
2.2. The allowable exposure time for operator's hand-arm ‫زو‬3 ‫ و‬0'‫*ا د‬3 45‫ز ا‬6 ‫ زن‬.2.2
The equivalent vibration acceleration for eight hours, ‫ در‬A(8) 5 8 ‫"ب دل ارش‬
A(8), at the power tiller handle position for the different >‫ ه‬5
‫ و‬8'Q >‫ ه‬/0‫ د‬-10 >‫
ا‬# ‫د‬
gear ratios and engine speeds is shown in Fig. 8. The .‫ ا‬/" /‫&ن داد‬0 8 T\" ‫وت در‬b ‫ر‬
equivalent acceleration was increased with increasing the ‫ دور‬2000 1400 H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫"ب دل‬
engine speed from 1400 to 2000 rpm for all the gear H ‫ا‬DI‫ ه ا‬/0‫ د‬-10 j >‫
ا‬# ‫
د و‬#
ratios at the handle position. The equivalent acceleration

# ‫ دور‬2200 # O&# H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫ و‬.I#
was reduced with further increase in the engine speed to ‫ "ب دل در‬.# H‫د ارش ه‬
2200 rpm. The equivalent acceleration values in 2-heavy
2000 ‫ و‬1800 ،1600 ‫ ر‬5
‫ و‬A-2 /0‫د‬
gear ratio at the engine speeds of 1600, 1800 and 2000

‫ن در‬% ‫ از ار‬OG‫ر‬D# ‫
د‬# ‫دور‬
rpm are more than the other gear ratios. It seems that at
the 2-heavy gear ratio, the vibration generated at the -2 /0‫

در د‬p0 # .‫د‬# ‫ ه‬/0‫د‬
^5# :\#
G ‫ در‬/" ‫ ارش ا ]د‬A
power tiller gearbox caused for resonance in the handle.
.‫ ا‬/" ‫& د
ار‬
8
10
(a) (b)
6
Acceleration (m/s )
8
2
1400
1400
6 1600
4 1600
1800
1800
2000
2000 4
2200
2200
2
2
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
8
10
(c) (d)
6
Acceleration (m/s )
8
2
1600 1400
1600 6 1600
4
1800 1800
2000 4 2000
2200 2200
2
2
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Fig. 7 - 1/3rd octave frequency band of total weighted acceleration for the different engine speeds at the handle position for gear
ratios of: (a) 2-light, (b) 3-heavy, (c) 3-light, and (d) 2-heavy
164
Fig. 8 - The effect of engine speed on the equivalent vibration acceleration, A(8), for the different gear ratios at the handle position
Fig. 9 shows the vibration allowable exposure time of # ‫زو‬#‫ د و‬+.‫ز ا‬E ‫ زن‬9 T\"
the power tiller operator’s hand-arm versus engine speed .‫&ن ده‬0 ‫ارش د
ار دو!
خ را‬
for the different gear ratios. The allowable exposure time ‫ ل‬5.7 2.32 /‫ود‬B ‫ در‬+.‫ز ا‬7 ‫زن‬
was in range of 2.32 to 5.7 years for the different engine ‫ ر‬8'Q >‫ ه‬5
‫ ه و‬/0‫ د‬-10 >‫
ا‬#
speeds and gear ratios. The allowable exposure time ‫ ر‬5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# +.‫ز ا‬E ‫ زن‬."#
decreased for all the gear ratios when the engine speed .# H‫
د ه‬# ‫ دور‬2000 1400 ‫از‬
was increased from 1400 to 2000 rpm. The allowable ‫
د‬# ‫ دور‬2200 ‫ ه در‬/0‫ د‬-10 KL >‫
ا‬#
exposure time was increased at 2200 rpm engine speed
‫ در‬0‫ ا‬# H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬+.‫زن ا‬
for all the gear ratios, which could be related to more
‫ن‬% ‫ت‬3 ‫ د \ ر و‬O&# ‫
دل‬R‫ا‬
dynamic balance of the engine at the rated speed. The
Fig. illustrated that after 2.32 years (at 2000 rpm engine ‫ ل‬2.32 ‫ از‬:* ‫&ن ده‬0 T\" ‫ ا‬."#
speed and 2-heavy gear ratio) in 10% of the operators’ ‫( در‬A-2 /0‫
د و د‬# ‫ دور‬2200 ‫)در‬
exposed to the power tiller handle vibration the finger ‫ر> د و‬N# ‫
ان
ار دو!
خ‬#‫ از ر‬%10
worn could be expected. It was reported that the vibration /" ‫ارش‬DG .‫ رخ ده‬0‫&ن ا‬A0‫ ا‬G‫
د‬I
allowable exposure time of power tillers decreased with >‫ *&
و‬5
‫ دور ر و‬H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫ا‬
increasing the engine speed and travel speed. The >‫
ا‬# +.‫ زن ا‬.# H‫ ه‬+.‫زن ا‬
allowable exposure time is reported in the range of 1.2 ‫ ل‬12 ‫ ل‬1.2 /‫ل *د‬O ‫
ار دو!
خ‬
years for walking power tiller at tillage operation to 12
'
T0 ‫ و‬Tl ‫ل‬F ‫
ا>
ار دو!
خ در‬#
years for power tiller during pulling an empty trailer (Sam /‫ زاد‬،2006 ‫ارش " )م و
ول‬DG 'd
and Kathirvel, 2006; Taghizadeh-Alisaraei, 2007; Tewari .(2004 ‫\ران‬j ‫ ار> و‬،2007
et al., 2004).
Fig. 9 - The effect of engine speed on the vibration allowable exposure time of the power tiller operator’s hand-arm for the different
gear ratios
rd
2.3. The 1/3 octave spectrum of vibration acceleration 78%9 ‫ار ش‬ ‫"ب‬# .3.2
‫ا"و‬ 1 /3 -.
at the trailer seat position **
The effect of engine speed on 1/3rd octave total ‫ او "ب‬1/3 89
# ‫ ر‬5
‫
ات‬R‫ا‬
weighted vibration acceleration (sum of the three
/0‫
ا> د‬#
'
‫ ارش‬/" ‫ار‬0‫وز‬
directions x, y and z) at the trailer seat position for the
different gear ratios is shown in Fig. 10. Investigation of .‫ ا‬/" /‫&ن داد‬0 10 T\" ‫ در‬8'Q >‫ه‬
165
the 1/3rd octave spectra showed that the vibration ‫&ن ده دا‬0 ‫ او‬1/3 89 ‫
ر‬#
amplitude was not considerable for frequencies more
‫ و‬D
‫ ه‬100 ‫
از‬V# >+10
I >‫
ا‬# ‫ارش‬
than 100 Hz for all the gear ratios and engine speeds.
Meanwhile, the human body is sensitive to frequency .‫ ا‬D!0 ‫ ه> ر‬5
‫ و‬+‫ه‬0‫ن د‬L ‫در‬
range of 1 to 80 Hz (ISO 2631, 1997). Therefore, the Fig. 80 1 >‫ ه‬:0
I # ‫ن‬10‫ن ا‬# F ‫در‬
10 was drawn in the frequency range of 1 to 100 Hz. 1 ‫ از‬10 T\" ‫
ا‬## ‫س ا‬1F O&# D
‫ه‬
Different parts of Fig. 10 depicted that the total weighted T\" ‫ ا‬#3 .‫&ن ه‬0 ‫ را‬D
‫ ه‬100
vibration acceleration had some peaks at frequencies
smaller than 10 Hz, which could be attributed to the ON >+10
I ‫ارش دارا> اد> ' در‬
ground effects. At frequencies smaller than 10 Hz, the ‫
ات‬R‫" از ا‬0 0‫ ا ا‬D
‫ ه‬10 ‫از‬
investigations showed that the number of frequencies at ‫ اد‬D
‫ ه‬10
‫> ز‬+10
I ‫ در‬."# ‫ز‬
2
which the vibration amplitude exceeded 0.2 m/s for 3-
# O 0.2 ‫ از‬% ‫> ارش در‬+&0
I
light gear ratio were more than the other gear ratios (Fig.
10c), which could be attributed to more oscillation of the O&# ‫ ه‬/0‫
د‬A ‫ ا از د‬O&# 0R ‫ور‬SE
trailer seat due to faster forward speed of the trailer at ‫ *&
و> در ا‬5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫ط‬#
.‫ا‬
this gear ratio. ."# /0‫ د‬-10
1400 (a) (b)

0.6 0.6 1400
1600 1600
Acceleration (m/s )
0.5 1800 0.5

2
1800
2000 2000
0.4 2200 0.4 2200
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
1600 (d)
0.6 (c) 0.6 1400
1600
1800 1600
Acceleration (m/s )
0.5 0.5
2
2000 1800
2200 2000
0.4 0.4
2200
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
Fig. 10 - 1/3rd octave frequency band of total weighted acceleration for the different engine speeds at the trailer seat position for
gear ratios of: (a) 3-heavy, (b) 2-heavy, (c) 3-light, and (d) 2-light.
At frequencies greater than 20 Hz, the total weighted ' ‫ "ب‬D

‫ ه‬20 ‫ از‬OG‫ر‬D# >‫ ه‬:0
I ‫در‬
vibration acceleration had some peaks at center ،31.5 ،25 >‫ ه‬:0
I ‫ در‬/" ‫ار‬0‫ارش وز‬
frequencies of 25, 31.5, and 40 Hz, that is attributed to 5
# ‫ط‬#
‫ دارا> ' ا‬D
‫ ه‬40
the engine rotational speed. The maximum peak 31.5 :0
I ‫& ' در‬# .‫ ر ا‬0‫دورا‬
observed at center frequency of 31.5 Hz for all the gear ‫ط‬#
0‫ ه ا ا‬/0‫م د‬L ‫ در‬D
‫ه‬
ratios, which could be related to 1800 and 2000 rpm ‫
د‬#‫ دور‬2000‫ و‬1800 ‫ ر در‬5
#
engine speeds. The maximum vibration amplitude is ‫ و‬A-2 /0‫& "ب ارش در د‬# ."#
observed for 2-heavy gear ratio at frequency of 31.5 Hz ‫ور‬SE
# O 0.69 ‫ دا‬# D
‫ ه‬31.5 :0
I
2
with amplitude of 0.69 m/s (Fig. 10b). The vibration ." /‫ &ه‬0R
acceleration for frequency range of 25-40 Hz had 40-25 10
I /‫ود‬B >‫
ا‬# ‫"ب ارش‬
2
amplitude greater than that of 0.3 m/s for all the gear ‫ ا‬0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 0.3 ‫ از‬O‫ر‬D# D
‫ه‬
ratios, which was in the range of a little uncomfortable ISO standard No. 2631, ) F‫را‬0 N /‫ود‬B ‫در‬
(ISO standard No. 2631, 1997). The vibration for 2-heavy OG‫ر‬D# A-2 0‫ دا ارش در د‬.(1997
2
gear ratio had amplitude greater than of 0.5 m/s for D
‫ ه‬40-25 /‫ود‬B ‫ در‬0R
# O 0.5 ‫از‬
frequency range of 25-40 Hz that was in the range of ISO standard No. ) ‫
ار دارد‬F‫را‬0 F0 ‫در‬
almost uncomfortable (ISO standard No. 2631, 1997). .(2631, 1997
166
2.4. The allowable exposure time for operator's whole body ‫ن‬3 : 45‫ز ا‬6 ‫ زن‬.4.2
The total equivalent vibration acceleration for eight >‫
ا‬# 5 8 ‫"ب دل ارش‬
hours, A(8), at the trailer seat position for the different T\" ‫ ر در‬8'Q >‫ ه‬5
‫ه و‬0‫ و د‬
gear ratios and engine speeds is shown in Fig. 11. The # ‫ ار "ب دل‬.‫ ا‬/" /‫&ن داد‬0 11
total equivalent vibration was in the range of 0.5 to 0.87 ‫ "ب ل‬.‫ ا‬0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 0.87 0.5
2
m/s . The seat equivalent acceleration is increased with 2000 # 1400 ‫ ر از‬5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬#
increasing the engine speed from 1400 to 2000 rpm. The --3 /0‫ "ب ارش در د‬.# H ‫ا‬DI‫ا‬
seat equivalent acceleration at 3-light gear ratio was the '5 # 0‫& ا ا‬# ‫دارا> ار‬
maximum value for all the engine speed levels except for ‫
ات "ب ل‬P ."# >‫ *&
و‬5
2200 rpm that could be caused by an increase in the >‫ ه‬5
>‫
ا‬# ‫ و‬8'Q >‫ ه‬/0‫ارش در د‬
power tiller forward speed. The variations of vibration # 2200 ‫ و‬،2000 ،1800 ،1600 ،1400 ‫ر‬
acceleration in the different gear ratios at the engine O 0.25 ‫ و‬0.2 ،0.3 ،0.13 ،0.11 #
#‫
ا‬# C

speeds of 1400, 1600, 1800, 2000 and 2200 rpm were ‫ت‬00 ‫ ا‬T‫ د‬.‫د‬# 0R ‫ور‬SE
#
2
about 0.11, 0.13, 0.3, 0.2, and 0.25 m/s , respectively.
P
R‫ت
'
در ا‬00 # ‫ط‬#
0‫ا‬
The reason for these variations might be attributed to the
12 T\" ‫ در‬."# /‫د‬. ‫
ات‬R‫ *&
و> ا‬5

trailer oscillations due to changing the forward speed, in
‫ود‬F # A(8) ‫"ب ل
ار دو!
خ‬
other words the ground effect. The equivalent trailer seat
/" 1 ‫ار‬0‫ن در ا‬# T +.‫ز ا‬E
acceleration, A(8), is compared with the standard
‫ ل‬/" ‫ار‬0‫ "ب وز‬T\" ‫ ا‬#3 ..‫ا‬
exposure limits for whole body vibration in Fig. 12. As
"SG C% F ‫ و‬F‫ را‬H‫ز ه‬E F ‫ از‬
depicted in this Fig., the weighted acceleration at the
trailer seat exceeded the allowable limits for the reduced 8 G0‫ز را‬E F ‫" از‬SG ‫ل‬F ‫ در‬-
‫و‬
comfort boundary and fatigue-decreased boundary as ‫ارش‬DG D0 (2006) ‫ م و
ول‬.‫ ا‬5
well as it is about surpass the exposure limit for eight ‫
ار‬# ‫ز ر‬E ‫ت‬5 ‫ اد‬0‫
د‬
hours working per day. Sam and Kathirvel (2006), have 5 8 #
#‫
ا‬# d
'
Tl ‫ل‬F ‫دو!
خ در‬
also reported that the allowable exposure time was eight 4 ‫ و‬b% /‫د‬. ‫ در‬T0 'l >‫
ا‬# ‫در روز‬
hours for a power tiller pulling an empty trailer in transportation .‫ ا> ا‬5‫ر‬D /‫د‬. >‫
ا‬# 5
on asphalt rural road, and four hours in farm road.
Fig. 11 - The effect of engine speed on the total equivalent acceleration, A(8), for the different gear ratios at the trailer seat position.
Fig. 12 - The equivalent acceleration for eight hours exposure to the trailer seat vibration, A(8), and its
comparison with standard limits
167
Fig. 13 shows the maximum and minimum values of ‫ او‬1/3 89 ‫ "ب‬N ‫& و‬# 13 T\"
1/3rd octave acceleration of the trailer seat position at the 5
>‫
ا‬# >‫د‬N5 +. ‫
ار دو!
خ در‬
vertical direction for the different engine speeds and gear 1 ‫ و‬8'Q >‫ ه‬/0‫ د‬-10 ‫ه> ر و‬
ratios which are compared to standard allowable driving (ISO ‫ارد‬0‫ ا‬+.‫ز ا‬E ‫ود‬F # %
time (ISO standard No. 2631, 1997) in the frequency 1 10
I /‫ز‬# ‫ را در‬standard No. 2631, 1997)
range of 1 to 80 Hz. As shown in this Fig., the standard ‫ زن‬T\" ‫ ا‬#3 .‫&ن ه‬0 D
‫ ه‬80
allowable driving time at frequency ranges of 4-6.3 Hz 31.5 ‫ و‬D
‫ ه‬6.3-4 10
I /‫ز‬# ‫ز در‬E +.‫ا‬
and 31.5-40 Hz was shorter than eight hours per day. 5 8 G0‫ز را‬E ‫ از زن‬ON D
‫ ه‬40
The maximum acceleration was in frequency range of 10
I /‫ز‬# ‫& "ب در‬# .‫در روز ا‬
31.5-40 Hz that could be related to the power tiller engine ‫ ر‬# ‫ط‬#
0‫ و ا‬D
‫ ه‬40 31.5
speed. ."# ‫
ار‬
For the longitudinal direction, the vibration +10
I L ‫ "ب ارش در‬9 +. ‫در‬
acceleration was less than standard eight hours limit at
‫ ر در روز‬5 8 >‫
ا‬# ‫ز‬E ‫ از ار‬ON
any frequency. Unlike the vertical direction, the vibration
‫ ار‬9 +. ‫د> در‬N5 +. ‫[ف‬d
# .‫د‬#
levels for the longitudinal direction was not considerable
‫ر‬ # ‫ط‬#
>+10
I ‫در‬ ‫ارش‬
at frequencies related to the engine speed, which could >
G ‫
ار‬/ # 0‫ ا‬/‫د‬-0‫ز د‬
be attributed to the placement of the engine related to # - ‫ل‬Y‫د ا‬.‫ " و و‬# -10 ‫ر‬
chassis as well as existence of the trailer connection with +. ‫ن در ا‬% ‫

ا‬R‫
'
و
ار و ا‬
drawbar and their effects on the damping of vibrations in ‫ از‬ON D0 -0. +. ‫ "ب ارش در‬."#
this direction. The vibration acceleration in lateral L ‫ن در‬%
‫ و د‬/‫د‬# ‫ارد‬0‫ ا‬F
direction was also less than standard eight hours limit
2 .‫ ا‬0R ‫ور‬SE
# O 0.1 ‫ از‬ON ‫ ه‬:0
I
and its value at all frequencies was less than 0.1 m/s . 9 ‫د> و‬N5 >‫ ه‬+. >‫
ا‬# +.‫ز ا‬E ‫زن‬
The allowable exposure time for the longitudinal and
8 ‫وت‬b >‫ ر‬k ‫
ان و در "
ا‬A ‫در ت د‬
lateral directions is reported eight hours per day for 8-hp
and 11-hp power tillers in different working conditions C‫ ا‬11 ‫
ا>
ار دو!
خ‬# ‫ در روز‬5
(Sam and Katirvel, 2009; Tewari and Dewangan, 2004). ،2006 ‫ ا )م و
ول‬/" /‫ورد‬% ‫ر‬Z
.(2004 ‫ن‬A0‫ار> و دوا‬
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions drawn from this research work are *; <")
as follows:
[d ‫ر‬9 # ‫ا‬ ‫از‬
'F ) 0
1. At the power tiller handle position, the vibration
acceleration peaks were occurred in the frequency of the :‫ر از‬-5
engine rotational speed. ‫ در د
ار ' "ب ارش‬.1
2. The vibration acceleration increased with increasing 0‫ دورا‬5
#
#‫
ا‬# >‫ ه‬:0
I ‫در‬
engine speed throughout the experiments. .‫ر رخ ده‬
3. The vibration acceleration depends on measurement
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ر ا‬5
H ‫ا‬DI‫ ا‬# ‫ ارش‬.2
direction. The experimental results indicated that the
maximum and minimum values belong to vertical and .#
longitudinal directions, respectively. 1#‫
> وا‬G /‫از‬0‫ ا‬+. # ‫ "ب ارش‬.3
4. The amplitude of total vibration acceleration at the # ‫ ارش‬N ‫& و‬#
‫ د‬.‫ا‬
power tiller handle position was greater than the .‫د‬# 9 ‫د> و‬N5 >‫ ه‬+. ‫ در‬C

allowable vibration exposure limit in the frequency range 80 10 /‫ز‬# ‫ ار دا ارش در‬.4
of 10-80 Hz.
+.‫ز ا‬E F ‫ از‬O&# ‫
ا> د‬# D
‫ه‬
5. The vibration acceleration at the trailer seat in the
frequency ranges of 4-6.3 Hz and 31.5-40 Hz was more .‫د‬#
than the standard limit. 6.3-4 10
I /‫ود‬B ‫ "ب ارش در‬.5
6. The vibration allowable exposure time for hand-arm of .‫د‬#
‫
ار‬I ‫ارد‬0‫ اا‬F ‫ از‬40-31.5‫و‬
the power tiller operator’s at eight hours working day ‫ ارش‬# ‫زو‬# ‫ د و‬+.‫ز ا‬E F .6
were between 2.32 to 5.7 years for the different gear
2.32 # ‫ در روز و‬5 8 ‫
ار دو!
خ‬
ratios and engine speeds.
7. The allowable exposure time in the heavy gears was >‫ ه‬5
‫ ه و‬/0‫ د‬-10 >‫
ا‬# ‫ ل‬5.7
greater than the lighter gears. .‫د‬# ‫ ر‬8'Q
8. It is necessary to reduce the vibration transmitted to A >‫ ه‬/0‫ در در د‬+.‫ز ا‬E ‫ زن‬.7
the user’s hand and body by designing and developing .‫د‬# - >‫ ه‬/0‫ از د‬OG‫ر‬D#
adequate insulating systems or isolators. ' K1 ‫ و‬F‫
ا‬9 # ‫زم ا‬V .8
# H‫ ارش
ار دو!
خ ه‬C
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to express their appreciation ‫د ار از‬d
\& C‫
ا‬0 [5 ‫ن‬G1 0
to University of Tehran and National Bioenergy Research >‫
ژ‬0‫ ا‬# ‫ ت‬1 ‫
ان و‬/A&0‫دا‬
Center (NBERC) of Tarbiat Modaress University authorities ‫م ا‬7‫ در ا‬l +. ‫ رس‬#
/A&0‫دا‬
for their full support to carry out this research work. . q ‫م‬V5‫ ا‬
168
0.7
max
0.6 min
0.5
Acceleration (m/s )
s
0.4
8hr
0.3
16hr
0.2
24hr
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 6.3 8 10 16 20 30 40 80
Frequency(Hz)
Fig. 13 - Comparing the maximum and minimum values of 1/3rd octave acceleration of the seat position at the vertical direction for
the different engine speeds and gear ratios with standard allowable driving time.
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Agricultural Engineering Research 66,169-176. Agricultural Engineering Research 66,169-176.

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170
DESIGN OF AQUACULTURE SYSTEM BASED ON WIRELESS MONITORING AND ITS

TESTING
/
无线监控水产养殖系统设计与试验
1) 1) 1) 1) 2)
Prof. Ph.D. Lijia Xu , Prof. Zhiliang Kang , Stud. Danni Bao , Stud. Yu Feng , Prof.Ph.D. K. Jorshin
1)
College of Information and Engineering Technology, Sichuan Agriculture University, Ya’an / China; 2) Dept. of Agricultural Engineering,
New South Tesee Corporation of Technology, Auckland / New Zealand
Tel: 0835-2882035; E-mail: lijiaxu13@163.com
Abstract: Aiming at the Chinese aquaculture’s status quo

摘要：针对目前中国水产养殖自动化程度低、水产管理落
摘要
that the automation degree is low and the management is
backward, this paper designed a set of wireless aquaculture 后的情况, 本文设计了一套无线监控水产养殖系统，该系统
monitoring system that can not only monitor the pond’s
parameters of temperature, level, dissolved oxygen and pH 由信息采集模块、控制模块、无线通信模块3个部分组成，
value etc. in real time, but also monitor the fish condition
through wireless camera in real time. This system consists of 不仅能实现对养殖池的温度、水位、溶氧量和PH值等参数
three parts of information acquisition module, control module
的实时监控, 而且通过无线摄像头能实时监控鱼情。测试结
and wireless communication module. The testing result
shows that the independently designed feeding device can 果表明，投饵机的最大抛料面积可达24m2，本系统能准确
realize automatic feeding with the feeding area up to 24m2.
This system can realize 24h monitoring of fish growth 检测饵料余量，实现水质、水位和投饵机的无线控制, 其监
condition through image capture, accurate detection of
residual amount of feed and wireless control of water 控距离可达1000m。与人工养殖相比，本系统减少30%的
temperature, level, water quality and feeding device and
饵料浪费，鱼的总产量是人工养殖的1.5倍。研究结果可为
monitoring distance is up to 1000m. This system avoids low
efficiency of artificial culture and untimely control to water 广大的水产养殖户提供操作简便、控制准确的智能养殖模
quality and fish diseases and it has features of easy
operation, accurate control and high economic benefit, so its 式。
applicability is wide.
Keywords:Aquaculture system, Wireless monitoring, 关键词：水产养殖；无线监控；投饵机； STC89C52

关键词：
feeding machine, STC89C52
INTRODUCTION
引言
China is a giant of agriculture. As an important sector
of China’s agriculture, fishery is faced with challenges 中国是农业生产大国，渔业是中国农业中的重要产业之
from resource, environment, market and
一，但也面临着资源、环境、市场、科技等各方面的挑战
technology[11,12]. These all restrict development of
fishery. At present, China’s aquiculture management is [11,12]。这些因素均不同程度地制约着渔业的发展。目前
primarily guided by aquiculture experience, which hardly 中国的水产养殖管理主要是以养殖经验为指导，在产量和
guarantees output and safety. Factory aquiculture and
cage culture play the main part in China’s existing 安全性方面上难以得到保障。中国现在水产养殖方式主要
aquiculture [2,5,15]. On the whole, China’s aquiculture 集中在两大领域，即工厂化养殖和网箱养殖[2,5,15]。中国
features diverse culture, unreasonable structure, outdated
水产养殖整体体现如下特点：养殖分散经营，结构不合
facility, low-level intelligence and culture safety needing
improvement[6-8]. 理；养殖设施落后，智能化程度低；养殖安全有待提高[6-
In China’s “factory aquiculture”, there are only basic
8]。
facilities (e.g. filter, heating, water running, aerator) and
outdated water treatment technology. With expansion of 中国的“工厂化养鱼”设施，大多只有过滤、加温、流水和
aquiculture scale, culture technology is being gradually 增氧设备等基本设施，水处理技术落后。随着中国水产养
improved while environmental pollution gets more
severe[10,16]. At present, most domestic aquatic farms 殖规模不断扩大，养殖的技术也在逐渐提高，对环境的污
depend on experience, and adopt low monitoring 染也更严重[10,16]。目前，国内多数水产养殖场是依靠人
technology. For large area, many monitoring points and
工经验养殖，养殖监控技术还很低，当养殖面积较大时，
complicated wiring have to be provided. Wireless sensor
network technology is being introduced to some 监测点较多、布线复杂。目前，一些养殖监控系统开始引
aquiculture monitoring systems, and partly solves the 入无线传感器网络技术，并且一定程度上解决了上述问题
problem above [7]. Automatic monitoring of water level,
temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO) in existing [7]。目前已有的水产养殖监测系统，实现水位、温度、
171
aquiculture monitoring system [4,6,13,14] is of important pH、溶解氧的自动化监测，对养殖户科学养殖具有重要意

significance for scientific aquiculture. However, such
monitoring needs high cost, and its intelligence and 义 [4,6,13,14]，但成本较高，智能化程度和科学化管理都
scientific management are imperfect. 有待提高。
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The system designed in the paper is made up of 研究方法与材料
information acquisition module (comprised of water level
本文设计的无线监控水产养殖系统主要由信息采集模块
measurement, pH measurement, water temperature
measurement, DO measurement and wireless camera), （包括水位检测、PH 值检测、水温检测、溶氧量检测以及
control module (comprised of water level control, aerator 无线摄像头）、控制模块（包括水位控制、增氧机控制、
control, bait thrower control and upper computer) and
wireless communication module (comprised of APC220, 投饵机控制以及上位机）和无线通信模块（由 APC220、
USB receiver and relay base station). General structure of USB 接收机和中转基站构成）组成。本系统的总体结构如
the system is shown in Figure 1.
图 1 所示。
Fig. 1 - Overall structure of system
Working principle of the system: (1) Information 本系统的工作原理描述如下：（1）信息采集模块对养殖

acquisition module collects water quality parameters and
image information of fishpond. All information about water 池的水质参数以及图像信息进行实时采集，水位、pH 值、
level, pH, water temperature, DO and residual bait quant. 水温、溶氧量以及余料量均通过 APC220 发送给上位机，
are sent to upper computer via APC220, while image
图像信息通过 USB 接收机发送到上位机；（2）上位机对
information is sent to upper computer via USB receiver;
(2) Upper computer analyzes and processes collected 采集数据进行分析处理（如温度补偿、误差校正等），通
data (temperature compensation, error correction, etc.).
过图像处理可自动判断鱼池中鱼的健康状况，并将处理的
Health of fish can be automatically determined based on
image processing, result of which is displayed on HMI. If a 结果在人机界面显示，若参数值不在设定范围内则通过预
parameter doesn’t fall in established range, alarm will be 警模块报警；（3）上位机同时将控制信息通过 APC220 发
given via pre-warning module; (3) Upper computer sends
control information to STC89C52 (SCM) via APC220, and 送到单片机 STC89C52，并利用 STC89C52 来控制养殖池
controls water level, aerator and bait thrower with the 的水位、增氧机和投饵机。
SCM.
Hardware etructure of bait thrower 投饵机的硬件结构

Bait thrower designed in the paper is made up of
charging device, bait valve, throwing device, delivery pipe, 投饵机包括装料装置，饵料阀门，抛料装置，输料管，
control unit, power configuration room and other 控制单元，电源配置室和其它设备室。投饵机的结构如图 2
equipment room. For its structure, see Figure 2.
In Figure 2, STC89C52 acts as the core processor of 所示。
control unit, and sends information to upper computer via 在图 2 中，控制单元以单片机 STC89C52 为核心处理
APC220. Residual bait measurement sensor is built in 器，经 APC220 实现与上位机之间的信息传送。装料装置
charging device. Bait valve is used as the leakage switch.
内置余料检测传感器，饵料阀门用作漏料开关，饵料经饵
Baits are sent to throwing device through bait valve and
172
delivery pipe. Opening and closing of bait valve are 料阀门通过输料管输送到抛料装置被抛撒出去。饵料阀门

controlled by valve motor M1. Bait valve can be
由阀门电机 M1 控制开闭，阀门电机 M1 逆时针转动 1s 停
opened/closed by 1s anticlockwise/clockwise rotation of
the motor. Model of M1 is LT37GB90 with reduction ratio 止，饵料阀门打开；反之，则饵料阀门关闭。M1 采用的是
of 1:90, rated voltage of 12V, load speed of 40r/min, load LT37GB90，减速比为 1:90，额定电压 12V，负载转速
current of 450mA and torque of 0.343N.m. Its driving 40r/min，负载电流为 450mA，扭矩为 0.343N.m，此电机
circuit is L298N dual H-bridge type.
的驱动电路采用 L298N 双 H 桥驱动电路
Fig. 2 - Structure sketch of feeding machine
The distance of throwing device is controlled by

抛料装置的抛料距离由抛料电机 M2 控制，M2 采用的是
throwing motor M2. Model of M2 is R775 with rated voltage
of 12V, load speed of 3500r/min and load current of 3A. Its R775，额定电压 12V，负载转速 3500r/min，负载电流为
driving circuit is also L298N dual H-bridge type. Throwing
3A，其驱动电路同样采用 L298N 双 H 桥驱动电路。抛料
port of throwing device is shown in Figure 3. Considering
small part of bait can be leaked to the chassis of throwing 装置的抛料口如图 3 所示。考虑到少部分饵料易从抛料盘
bin from the gap between throwing disc and cylindrical
throwing bin, the chassis is inclined backwards and at 45 与圆柱形抛料仓的缝隙处漏至抛料仓的底盘，故设计该底
degree angle, thus the baits leaked to the chassis can slip 盘向后倾斜且与水平面成 45 度角，这样漏至底盘的饵料也
into the fish pond through throwing port.Voltages of 5V,
12V, 24V and 220V are available in power configuration 能从抛料口滑进鱼池。电源配置室提供 5V、12V、24V 和
room, which supports control center and bait thrower. 220V 电压，为控制中心、投饵机等设备提供电源。其他设
Other equipment room has aerator, waterproof device and
sun protection device. 备室内置增氧机、防水防晒器件等设备。
Fig. 3 - Design of throwing port
When control unit that controls aerator receives signal

当控制投饵机的控制单元接收到上位机的信号后，控制
from upper computer, it will control M1 and M2 for
commencement of baiting, timed bating or bating stopping, 单元控制电机 M1、M2 完成开始投饵、定时投饵、停止投
meanwhile send information about residual bait quant. to
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upper computer on which whether lower limit of residual

饵等操作，同时控制单元将饵料剩余量发送给上位机判断
bait quant. is reached. If the limit is reached, bating
stopping signal will be sent, and alarm will be given to 其是否达到饵料剩余量下限，如是，发送停止投饵信号停
management. If the limit is not reached, baiting will be
finished as timed. For performance parameters of bait 止投饵并报警提醒管理人员，反之则投饵完成定时的时
thrower, see Table 1. 长。投饵机性能参数如表 1 所示。
Table 1
Performance parameters of feeding machine
Performance Net weight Dimension Blind zone Rated Rated Rated
of bait of overall of overall Capacity Throwing Range for residual voltage current power
thrower unit [kg] unit[cm] [kg] area [m2] [m] bait quant. [V] [A] [W]
test [cm]
Parameter
index 15 40×30×100 10 24 1-6 2 12 3.5 42
Design of information acquisition and control module 信息采集与控制模块的设计

Information collected by the system provides data
reference and basis for control decision-making, covering 本系统中所采集的信息对系统的控制决策提供数据参考和
water level, pH, water temperature, DO and image of 依据，本系统采集的信息主要有水位、pH 值、水温、溶氧
fishpond. The control system primarily controls water level,
值和鱼池图像，控制系统主要是对水位、增氧机、投饵机的
aerator and bait thrower. Collected information is sent to
upper computer via APC220. APC220 provides wireless 控制。采集到的信息经 APC220 发送至上位机。该模块的
transmission as far as 1000m, and has strong immunity
无线传输距离最远可达 1000m，抗干扰能力强。该模块负
from interference. It undertakes wireless transmission of
parameters monitored in real time to upper computer, 责把实时监测的一些参数无线传输至上位机。上位机通过
which is connected to APC220 via serial port RS232. The RS232 串行口与 APC220 连接，串口初始化为 9600 波特
port is initialized as 9600 in baud rate, 8 in data bit and 0 in
check bit. 率、8 数据位和 0 校验位。
Water quality inspection

水质检测
Measurement results are sent to upper computer via
the wireless transmission module APC220.Polarogram 本系统对鱼池水温、PH 值和溶氧值进行实时监测，检
oxygen electrode acts as DO sensor in the system. For 测结果经无线传输模块 APC220 传送到上位机。本系统溶
measuring oxygen content, polarization voltage of
0.6~0.8v is applied between anode and cathode of oxygen 氧传感器采用极谱氧电极。测定氧含量时，在氧电极的阳极
electrode. Current measured on DO electrode is at the 和阴极之间加上 0.6~0.8v 的极化电压。溶氧电极上测得的
level of µA , and shall be converted to voltage of 0~5V.
电流值是 µA 级，需经过电流-电压转换为 0~5v 的电压值
PH sensor in the system is EUTTCH 405-60. Change in
electromotive force is measured by means of 后。PH 传感器采用 EUTTCH 405-60，通过采用电位测定
potentiometry to conclude pH. Weak voltage signal (-
法，测量原电池的电动势变化测出 pH 值。pH 传感器输出
414mv~414mv) is output by pH sensor, and converted to
0~5v (corresponding to pH of 0~14) upon magnification 的是微弱的电压信号(-414mv~414mv)，需经过放大和偏移
and deviation. Water pH and permeability of permeable 将其转换为 0~5v，对应 pH 值为 0~14。水的 pH 值和溶氧
membrane of DO sensor are influenced by change in
water temperature, needing temperature compensation. 传感器渗透膜的渗透性受水温变化影响，需要进行温度补
Temperature value collected by DS18B20 is sent to 偿。将 DS18B20 采集到的温度值送入 STC89C52 预处理
STC89C52 for pre-processing, and sent via APC220 to
后，经 APC220 传送到上位机显示，同时根据温度值对溶
upper computer for display. At the same time, DO and pH
are compensated as temperature. 氧值和 pH 值进行补偿。
Image information acquisition and processing 图像信息采集及处理

USB2.4G digital wireless camera (450A) is adopted in
the system. The camera is made up of 2.4G wireless 本系统摄像头采用 USB2.4G 数字无线摄像头 450A，该
camera, digital USB wireless receiver and power supply, 监控设备由数字 2.4G 无线摄像头、数字 USB 无线接收机
free of demerit of complicated wiring compared to wired
和电源组成，与有线摄像头相比避免了布线复杂的缺点。无
camera. Real-time photo of fishpond is taken by wireless
camera, and transmitted to digital USB wireless receiver 线摄像头拍摄鱼池的实时画面，经过无线通信协议传输给数
as wireless communication protocol. Monitoring system of
字 USB 无线接收机，上位机监控系统进行定时截取图像。
upper computer snaps image regularly. Image processing
program combines MATLAB and JAVA. Acquired image is 图像处理程序采用 MATLAB 与 JAVA 混合编程，获取的图
true-color, and projected to gray space for median filtering. 像为真彩色，故将其投影到灰度空间上进行中值滤波。这是
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An image is often interfered during input, transmission and 因为图像在输入、传送、处理过程中常有干扰，降低图像质

processing, thus gets lower in quality. Median filtering can
inhibit interference and eliminate noise. For median-filtered 量，而中值滤波可以抑制干扰，消除噪声。中值滤波处理后
image, see Figure 4. 的图像如图 4 所示。
Fig. 4 - Image after median filtering
The key for gray level image binarization is selecting 灰度图像二值化处理的关键是选择好最佳分割阈值，把

optimal segmentation threshold to separate target image
from background. Given the system is suitable for 目标图像与背景分割开。本系统所应用的环境为户外，因
outdoors, optimal threshold is worked out by means of 此采用迭代算法求取最佳阈值，并通过多次试验，效果良
iterative algorithm, which is effective upon multiple tests.
好。根据迭代算法所得阈值 T 对灰度图像进行二值化处
Gray level image is binarized as threshold from iterative
algorithm. Given there are not a few white spots on binary 理，由于二值图像中还含有不少白色斑点，显然这些斑点
image, and such spot is obviously not caused by diseased
不是病变的鱼造成的，因此在统计白色像素点前需对二值
fish, it is necessary to smooth binary image before
statistics of white pixel point. The system removes small 图像进行平滑处理。本系统采用先腐蚀后膨胀的方法，去
spots by means of corrosion followed by expansion, to 除小的斑点减小干扰。平滑处理后的图像如图 5 所示。
reduce interference. For smoothed image, see Figure 5.
Fig. 5 - Image after smooth processing
Based on the processing above, number of pixel point 通过以上处理后，首先计算出整幅图片的像素点数，再

all over an image is first worked out, followed by extraction
of target matrix and statistics of pixel point on target 提取目标矩阵，统计出目标矩阵的像素点。本系统目标区
matrix. Target area of the system is white area, namely 域为白色区域，即统计白色像素之和，最后计算出白色区
the system is aimed to summing white pixel and working
域占整幅图的百分比。当某时刻白色区域所占比例大于设
out percent of white area in overall image. Sometime the
percent is higher than established threshold (25%, 定的阈值（在本系统中，经多次试验此阈值设为 25%），
established upon multiple tests), which indicates
表示鱼情可能出现异常，软件自动设定获取图片时间的间
abnormality of fish. Interval of image acquisition is
automatically shortened. Increase of the percent in a 隔缩短。如果在连续的时间段内得到的白色区域所占比例
continuous time interval indicates communicable disease 数呈上升趋势，则认为鱼得了传染性急病或中毒，需要紧
or poisoning. In the case, emergency alarm is needed.
急报警。
Water level control
Water level control module is made up of water level 水位控制
measurement circuit, 2 pumps, APC220, STC89C52 and
水位控制模块主要由水位检测电路、2 个水泵、
upper computer. Water level measurement circuit is
designed as electrical conductivity of water. STC89C52 APC220、STC89C52 和上位机构成。水位检测电路是根
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finishes water level data acquisition as measured high/low 据水的导电性来设计的，STC89C52 根据检测到的高低电

electrical level. APC220 undertakes communication
between upper computer and STC89C52. STC89C52 平完成水位数据采集， APC220 则完成上位机和
controls pump by connecting/disconnecting relay to STC89C52 之间的通信。STC89C52 通过控制继电器的通
control water level in normal range, and sends information
断来控制水泵，使鱼塘的水位控制在正常范围内，同时水
about water level to upper computer for display. Normal
range of water level and water changing frequency can be 位传送至上位机显示。可根据不同的季节在上位机的人机
modified as season on HMI of upper computer. Specially,
界面中修改水位的正常范围以及换水频率。特别地，当检
when 2 or more water quality parameters exceed
established ranges, the system will automatically change 测到有 2 个或以上的水质参数超出设定范围时，系统自动
water. 进行换水。
Aerator control
According to water standard of fishery, in continuous 增氧机的控制
24h, DO in aquaculture water body shall exceed 5 mg/L 根据渔业用水标准规定，养殖水体溶解氧连续 24 h 中应
within more than 16h [3], otherwise healthy growth of fish
当有 16 h 以上大于 5 mg/L[3]，否则就会影响鱼类的健康生
can be impacted. Aerator in the system oxygenizes water
body by means of fine bubble aeration, high-efficiency and 长。本系统中的增氧机采用微孔曝气增氧方式，增氧效率
energy-saving. When DO lower than lower limit is 高而且节能。通过溶氧传感器检测到水中的溶解氧浓度低
detected by DO sensor, upper computer will automatically
send command on starting aerator. When receiving the 于下限值时，上位机自动发送打开增氧机的指令，
signal via APC220, STC89C52 will immediately close STC89C52 经 APC220 接收到该指令后，随即控制继电器
normally-open contact of relay and start aerator. When
的常开触头闭合，使增氧机开始工作。当检测到水中氧气
DO up to upper limit is detected, upper computer will
automatically send command on shutting down aerator to 的含量达到系统设定的上限值时，上位机自动发送关闭增
recover normally-open contact of relay to open state and
氧机信号，控制电路中继电器的常开触头恢复断开状态，
shut down aerator.
增氧机停止工作。
Bait thrower control
Bait thrower supports 2 control modes. In mode 1, 投饵机的控制
user sets the parameters of daily baiting times, time point
of each baiting, baiting duration (baiting quant.), lower limit 投饵机的控制可以选择 2 种控制方式。选择方式 1 时，
of residual bait quant. and baiting distance on HMI of 用户在上位机的人机界面上设置如下参数：每天投喂次
upper computer. After setting, when established time point
数、每次投喂的时间点、投喂时长（投食量）、饵料剩余
(e.g. AM 8:00) arrives, upper computer will send
command on starting baiting via APC220 to STC89C52. If 量的下限值以及投饵距离等。设置完成后，当到达设定时
receiving the command, STC89C52 will return baiting
间点时（如早上 8:00），上位机将通过 APC220 把开始投
response signal to upper computer. If not receiving the
response signal, upper computer will re-send the 饵的指令发给 STC89C52，若 STC89C52 接收到该指令就
command every 1s. If not receiving the response signal in 会向上位机返回投饵应答信号，若上位机未接收到此应答
3s, upper computer will give alarm until receiving the
response signal. When STC89C5 receives the command, 信号，则每隔 1s 再次发送开始投饵的指令，若 3s 后仍没
throwing motor will start, and 2s later baiting valve will 收到应答信号则报警，直至上位机接收到应答信号为止。
open meanwhile information about residual bait quant. will
STC89C5 接收到来自上位机的开始投饵指令后，抛料电机
be sent by STC89C52 via APC220 to upper computer for
display. If baiting time is 10min, when baiting ends 打开，延时 2s 后饵料阀门打开，与此同时，将饵料剩余量
(namely at 8:10), upper computer will automatically send 经 STC89C52 通过 APC220 无线发送至上位机并显示。若
command on stopping baiting. If STC89C52 detects that
residual bait quant is lowered than established lower limit 投饵时长为 10min，则投饵时间到后（即 8:10），上位机
during baiting, upper computer will automatically send 将自动发送关闭投饵的指令。若在投料的过程中
command on stopping baiting and give alarm, meanwhile
STC89C52 检测到饵料的剩余量低于设定的下限值时，上
record residual baiting time. When supplementation of bait
ends, upper computer will re-send baiting command to 位机自动发送停止投饵的指令并报警，同时记下投饵剩余
finish residual baiting. When upper computer sends
时长，待加料完毕，上位机重新发送投饵指令，完成剩余
command on stopping baiting, baiting valve will close, and
2s later throwing motor will be stopped to stop baiting. In 投饵时间；当上位机发送停止投饵信息时，饵料阀门关
mode 2, user sets baiting start time, baiting duration 闭，2s 后抛料电机关闭，停止投饵。选择方式 2 时，用户
(baiting quant.), baiting stop, lower limit of residual bait
quant. and baiting distance on HMI of upper computer. 在上位机的人机界面上设置的信息有：开始投饵、投喂时
Baiting control process in mode 2 is identical to that in 长（投食量）、停止投饵、饵料剩余量的下限值以及投饵
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mode 1. In mode 2, operator can intervene baiting 距离等。投饵控制过程与方式 1 相同，方式 2 便于操作人

anytime. For control process of bait thrower, see Figure 6.
员随时干预投饵过程。投饵机的控制流程如图 6 所示。
Fig. 6 - Controlling flow chart of feeding machine
Design of software system 软件系统的设计

Software system is made up of 5 modules (data
display, data storage & inquiry, hardware control, site video 软件系统的设计主要包括功能模块和人机界面的设计。本
monitoring, alarm control). Hardware control module 软件系统主要包括 5 个功能模块:数据显示模块,数据存储查
controls water level, aerator and bait thrower. Site video
询模块,硬件控制模块,现场视频监控模块,报警控制模块。硬
monitoring module monitors image of fishpond via wireless
camera installed above fishpond and will capture video 件控制模块包括对水位、增氧机和投饵机的控制；现场视频
image in a timing way and carry out timing analysis for
监控模块通过安装在养殖池上方的无线摄像头对养殖池进行
such image. Alarm control module judges abnormality
alarm by monitoring data information passed back by 图像监控，该模块将定时获取视频图像并对其进行实时分
STC89C52 in real time and image processing result of 析。报警控制模块通过实时监控 STC89C52 传回来的数据
upper computer.
Interfaces of upper computer are main interface, video 信息和上位机图像处理结果，判断出现异常情况时报警。
monitoring interface and baiting control interface. Main 上位机界面主要包括主界面、视频监控界面和投喂控制界
interface is made up of system menu bar, system quick
面。主界面由系统菜单栏、系统快捷工具条、鱼池环境数据
toolbar, fishpond environment data real-time display area,
dynamic curve chart display area and hardware control 实时显示区、动态曲线图显示区、硬件控制区等五个部分组
area. Video monitoring interface can display multiple 成。视频监控界面可以显示多个鱼池画面，全方位监控鱼池
fishpond images, and monitor site of fishpond in all-round
的现场情况，同时还显示视频截图图像处理的结果，即现场
way. Result of captured picture processing can be
displayed to show situation of fishpond and whether there’s 鱼池的状况以及是否有死鱼等信息。投喂控制界面主要包括
dead fish. Baiting control interface supports baiting mode 投喂方式选择，饵料设置，余料剩余显示，上次投喂时间等
selection, bait setting, residual bait quant. display and
信息的设定。
setting of last baiting time.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 结果与讨论

After designed, the system was put into use in a fishery 本系统设计完成后应用于某渔场实验园区，取园区中
experiment park. Two neighbored 5m×5m fishponds in the
5m×5m 且相邻的 2 个鱼池进行对比试验并分别标记为鱼池
park are marked as A and B, respectively, for comparative
test. Carp fries from the same batch were put into the 2 A 和鱼池 B，在 2 个鱼池分别放入同一批次的鲤鱼鱼苗。
fishponds. Fishes in fishpond A were fed with the system. A、B 池分别使用本系统和人工养殖方式进行饲养，经实测
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Those in fishpond B were fed by means of artificial culture. 监控室到鱼池距离约 1000m。试验时间为 2013 年 1 月 1 日
As measured, distance between monitoring room and
至 2013 年 6 月 30 日。为了测试结果的客观性，饲养人员每
fishpond was about 1000m. The test was carried out from
Jan 1, 2013 to June 30, 2013. To test objectiveness of 周随机抽取一天并在该天的 8:00、14:00、20:00 测定 A、B
result, feeder randomly selected one day of each week. 池塘的 PH 值、溶氧值、水位。其中，PH 值、溶氧值传感
PH, DO and water level were measured at AM 8:00,
器安装在距离池塘水面约 1.2m 的深度，按照每 100m2 安装
PM2:00 and PM 8:00, in fishpond A and B. PH sensor and
DO sensor were installed (2 every 100m2) at depth about 2 个传感器的标准分别安装在距离池塘两端 2.5m 处，水位
1.2m, installed 2.5m from ends of fishpond. Water level 检测装置安装在距离排水水泵池塘端 2.5m 处，摄像头安装
measurement device was installed 2.5m from end of
在池塘一端距离池塘水面约 5m 处，投饵机安装在池塘另一
drainage pump pond. Camera was installed on one end of
pond, about 5m above water surface. Bait thrower was 端。本次试验主要对系统的水质检测，图像处理，水质
installed on the other end of pond. The test covered water （PH 值、溶氧值）、投饵机以及水位的控制系统进行了测
quality inspection, image processing, water quality (PH,
试。整个测试系统的结构示意图如图 7 所示。
DO), bait thrower and water level control system. For
structure of the whole test system, see Figure 7.
Fig. 7 - Structure diagram of testing system
Miss ratio of data transmission in Table 2 refers to

times of error every 100 times of data transmissions. 表 2 中的数据传输错失率为数据传输 100 次中出现错误的
Accuracy of image judgment refers to times of conformity
with actual conditions in 100 times of image processing on 次数，图像正确判断率为上位机处理图像 100 次中与实际相
upper computer. The wireless communication system
features transmission distance up to 1000m, short control 符的次数。该无线通信系统传输距离可达 1000m，控制响应
response time, low and stable miss ratio of data
时间短，数据传输错失率低且稳定，图像正确判断率高，能
transmission and high accuracy of image judgment, and
can meet requirements for control and information
够满足该系统的控制和信息通讯要求。
communication in the system.
Table 2
TESTING RESULTS ON PERFORMANCE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Monitoring distance Aerator response time Water level control response time Miss ratio of data transmission
[m] [ms] [ms] [%]
100 16 15 0.05
300 18 19 0.08
500 22 22 0.12
700 27 25 0.18
1000 48 49 0.36
DO was tested under different temperatures. The test 在不同温度环境下对溶氧值进行测试，结果如表 3 所示。

result is shown in Table 3. Learned from the table, test 由该表数据可知，溶氧值检测系统测试值与现有溶氧值变送
value from DO measurement system is close to that from
器 DO6309 测试值相近，但所用极谱氧电极价格相对较低，
existing DO transmitter DO6309. However, polarogram
oxygen electrode adopted on DO measurement system is 且现有溶氧值变送器一般采用有线方式采集数据，不能满足
inexpensive. Existing DO transmitter collects data in wired 本系统的要求。
way, thus can’t meet requirements of the system.
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Table 3
Testing results on performance of detection system for DO value
Temperature Test value from DO-BTA /DO-BTA [ppm] Test value from the system [ppm]
5ᴼ 5011.81 11.77
15ᴼ 9.52 9.40
25ᴼ 7.70 7.82
35ᴼ 6.48 6.51
PHs of acid, neutral and alkali solution were tested 在不同温度环境下对酸性、中性、碱性等 3 种溶液进行
under different temperatures, as shown in Table 4. Learned
from the table, the system is slightly higher than existing PH 值测试，结果如表 4 所示。从该表数据可知，其测试精
pH transmitter CPI-505 in test accuracy. Learned from the 度与现有 PH 值变送器 CPI-505 相比略高。由上述实验数据
experimental data above, the designed water quality
可知，设计的水质检测系统能够满足水产养殖的需求。
inspection system can meet demands in aquiculture.
Table 4
Testing results on performance of detection system for pH value
Temperature Standard solution Test value from CPI-505 Error Test value from the system Error
20ᴼ 3.000 2.997 0.003 2.996 0.004
25ᴼ 3.000 3.008 0.008 3.004 0.004
20ᴼ 7.020 7.013 0.007 7.021 0.001
25ᴼ 7.020 7.015 0.005 7.025 0.005
20ᴼ 10.500 10.490 0.010 10.485 0.015
25ᴼ 10.500 10.495 0.005 10.505 0.005
Livable temperature, pH, optimal pH, DO, optimal DO 鲤鱼适宜的温度为 25℃～32℃，PH 值为 6.5～8.5，最佳
and water depth for carp are 25ᴼ~32ᴼ, 6.5~8.5, 7.5,
>4.5mg/L, 6.5 mg/L and 1.2~1.5m, respectively. Mean of PH 值为 7.5，溶氧量为 4.5mg/L 以上，最佳溶氧量值为 6.5
each parameter of the system and manual-control fishpond mg/L，水深为 1.2～1.5m，采用本系统和人工控制鱼池内各
is shown in Table 5. Learned from Table 5, each parameter
参数的平均值如表 5 所示。由表 5 可知，在人工控制下各参
under manual control significantly fluctuates. Control result
of the system was accurate and stable within 180 days of 数波动较大，而本系统的控制结果在试验的 180 天之内准
the test.
确、稳定。
Table 5
Water quality parameters of A and B ponds
pH DO [ml/L] Water level [m]
Time
Fishpond A Fishpond B Fishpond A Fishpond B Fishpond A Fishpond
8:00 7.8 7.2 7.2 6.7 1.31 1.10
14:00 7.5 8.3 6.5 4.4 1.30 1.55
20:00 7.7 7.8 6.7 5.8 1.30 1.60
CONCLUSION 结论
The wireless monitoring aquiculture system designed in
the paper monitors temperature, pH and DO of fishpond in 本文设计的无线监控水产养殖系统，对鱼池水温、pH 值
real-time way, and automatically controls them. It controls
和溶氧值进行无线实时监测和自动控制。图像采集实现全天
fish growth in full-time way by means of image acquisition,
and implements real-time monitoring of fish health. 候掌握鱼类的生长情况并实现了对鱼类健康状况进行实时监
Learned from test, net weight of bait thrower, maximum
测。经测试可知投饵机净重 15kg，最大抛料面积为 24m2，
throwing area and rated power are 15kg, 24m2 and 42W,
respectively. Supporting automatic baiting, the bait thrower 额定功率 42W。该投饵机的自动投饵功能，实现了及时、准
can bait fishes timely and accurately. APC220 wireless
data transmission module is 20MW in transmitting power 确的投饵。APC220 无线数传模块，发射功率为 20MW，无
and 1000m in maximum wireless monitoring distance, 线监控的距离可达 1000m，实现了有效的无线监控养殖，为
effective in aquiculture under wireless monitoring. These
provide intelligent aquiculture mode where operation is 广大的水产养殖户提供操作简便、控制准确的智能养殖模
easy under accurate control. The system avoids problems 式。该系统避免了人工养殖效率低，对水质和鱼类病害控制
of low efficiency in artificial aquiculture and untimely and
unreliable water quality and fish disease control. 不及时、不可靠的情况。
179
AKNOWLEGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledges the supported by
the key natural science project of Sichuan education 致谢
department （grant number：12ZA277 ）and the national
本研究受到四川省教育厅自然科学重点项目（项目号：
innovation experiment fund of china.
12ZA277）和大学生创新实验基金的资助。
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180
CHOPPING OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

/
TOCAREA PLANTELOR MEDICINALE SI AROMATICE
1) 1) 2)
Eng. Muscalu A. , Biol. Pruteanu A. Prof. Phd. Eng. David L.
1) 2)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; P.U. Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 021/269.32.50; Fax: 021/269.32.73; E-mail: amuscalis@yahoo.com
Abstract:. Rezumat:
Mechanical processing of medicinal and aromatic Prelucrarea mecanică a plantelor medicinale si
plants include various operations that are applied after aromatice cuprinde diverse operatii ce se aplică după
harvesting of them. This may have the purpose to remove recoltarea acestora. Acestea pot avea scopul de a
the unwanted components from the vegetal material elimina componentele nedorite din materialul vegetal
collected, to adjust its shape, to refine it, to prepare under colectat, de a-i ajusta forma, de a-l rafina, de a-l pregăti
the best conditions for the further processing etc. Among în cele mai bune conditii pentru prelucrarea ulterioară
the mechanical processing operations of medicinal and etc. Dintre operatiile de prelucrare mecanică a plantelor
aromatic plants belong and the dimensional reduction. medicinale si aromatice fac parte si cele de reducere
These apply to the vegetal material as a result of the dimensională. Acestea se aplica materialului vegetal ca
market demands, or may apply as operations or phases urmare a cerintelor pietei, sau se pot aplica ca operatii
from technological processes of obtaining of certain sau faze din cadrul unor procese tehnologice de
products. obtinere a unor anumite produse.
The paper is a synthesis about states of art by the Lucrarea prezinta o sinteza cu privire la stadiul actual
technical achievements together with the trends in the field al realizarilor tehnice impreuna cu tendintele din
of chopping of medicinal and aromatic plants. domeniul tocarii plantelor medicinale si aromatice.
Keywords: chopping, mechanical processing, medicinal Cuvinte cheie: tocare, prelucrare mecanica, plante
and aromatic plants. medicinale si aromatice.
Generically, shredding can be defined as the operation Generic, mărunŃirea poate fi definită ca operaŃia care are
that aims at reducing the size of the raw materials or of the ca obiect reducerea dimensiunilor materiilor prime sau
materials under the action of mechanical forces. [5] materialelor sub acŃiunea unor forŃe mecanice. [5]
In the case of medicinal and aromatic plants, "the size In cazul plantelor medicinale si aromatice, "reducerea
reduction" is a mechanical machining process. Is usually dimensiunii" este un proces de prelucrare mecanica. De
performed after conditioning - sorting, to get the right size obicei se execută după condiŃionare - sortare, pentru a se
for the market of the products (the tea), or as an additional obtine mărimea potrivită a produselor pentru piată (ceaiul),
processing procedure, by which the useful parties (folium, sau ca o procedura de procesare suplimentara, prin care
herba, radix, cortex, etc.) acquire the suitable sizes for the părŃile utile (folium, herba, radix, cortex etc) dobândesc
processing by other specific operations (extraction, dimensiunile potrivite în vederea procesării prin alte operaŃii
maceration, etc.) specifice (extracŃie, macerare etc.)
Generally, there are three different methods of In general, exista trei procedee diferite de reducere
mechanical size reduction of this type of material: mecanica a dimensiunilor acestui tip de material:
- cutting / chopping; - tăiere / tocare;
- smashing / crushing; - zdrobire/sfaramare;
- grinding.[4] - macinare.[4]
Chopping of medicinal and aromatic plants is a Tocarea plantelor medicinale si aromatice este un
complex and expensive technological process, as well as proces tehnologic complex si costisitor, ca si cea a
of the forages. Chopping of forages is predominantly a furajelor. Tocarea furajelor este predominant un proces
process of shearing, conducted by moving of an de forfecare, realizat prin miscarea unui instrument tip
instrument type cutting blade / knife. In order to be cut, the lama taietoare/ cutit. Pentru a putea fi taiat, materialul
plant material is supported on a support, which often vegetal este sustinut pe un suport, care frecvent este
consists of even the counterknife blade. Cutting is done constituit chiar de catre lama contracutit.Tăierea se
between the two blades that act like scissors and begins realizează între cele două lame care se comporta ca o
when the downforce exceeds the shearing strength. The foarfeca si incepe atunci cand forta de apasare depăseste
plants sectioning is complex opperation, the first stage rezistenta la forfecare. Sectionarea plantelor este o
being thet of compressing. Resistance to cutting depends operatie complexa, prima faza fiind cea de comprimare.
on the physical characteristics of the plants, of the Rezistenta la taiere depinde de caracteristicile fizice ale
geometric and kinematic cutting organs, of those of the plantelor, de cele geometrice si cinematice ale organelor
material flux etc.[1, 2, 3]. de taiere, de cele ale fluxului de material etc. [1, 2, 3].
To achieve an efficient chopping process in the Pentru realizarea unui proces de tocare eficient in
feedingstuffs case, pressing the material is very important, cazul furajelor, presarea materialului este deosebit de
because it involves the dispersion of the particles of cut importanta, deoarece implica dispersia particulelor de
material immediately after cutting and a lower energy material taiat imediat dupa taiere si un consum mai
consumption. redus de energie.
In the case of medicinal and aromatic plants, the press In cazul plantelor medicinale si aromatice, presarea nu
should not be so strong because of the negative influence trebuie sa fie atat de puternica, datorita influentei negative
on the bioactive compounds. This causes a higher energy asupra compusilor bioactivi. Aceasta determina un consum
consumption, which in this case is less important mai mare de energie, care, in acest caz, este mai putin
compared to the quality of the material obtained.[4] important fata de calitatea materialului obtinut.[4]
181
MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODA

The medicinal and aromatic plants can be chopped into Plantele medicinale si aromatice pot fi tocate in stare
fresh state or dried, with specialized equipment for this prospata sau uscata, cu utilaje specializate pentru această
operation, called chipperi. Many of them were made operaŃie, numite tocători. Multe dintre ele au fost realizate
starting from the forage or tobacco choppers, by modifying plecandu-se de la tocatorile de furaje sau tutun, prin
of some assemblies. modificarea unor subansambluri.
For the medicinal and aromatic plants there are 2 types Pentru plantele medicinale si aromatice exista 2 tipuri
of cutting systems: with free cutting and with accurate de sisteme de taiere: cu taiere libera si cu taiere exacta. In
cutting. In the case of systems with free cutting, the length cazul sistemelor cu taiere libera, lungimea materialului care
of the material that comes in contact with the knife is vine in contact cu cutitul nu este nici ajustata nici
neither adjusted nor controlled. The accurate cutting controlata. Sistemele cu taiere exacta sunt dotate cu
systems are fitted with auxiliary systems for regulating and sisteme auxiliare pentru reglarea si controlul alimentarii cu
controlling the material supply, as well as of the cutting material, precum si a lungimii de tăiere a stratului de
length of the layer of vegetal material. material vegetal.
The device of accurate cutting type flywheel in Figure 1 Dispozitivul de taiere exacta tip volant din figura 1 este
is equipped with knives mounted in spiral. They will make dotat cu cutite montate in spirala. Acestea vor realiza o
a clean cut and mild, especially for sensitive medicinal and tăietură netedă si blânda, mai ales in cazul plantelor
aromatic plants. This type of cutting device has been medicinale si aromatice sensibile. Acest tip de aparat de
modifiedt; some elements and assemblies have been tăiere a fost modificat; unele elemente si ansambluri au
redesigned and used for cutting of fresh material, intended fost reproiectate si folosite pentru taierea materialului
for drying. proaspăt, destinat uscarii.
Fig. 1 - Device for accurate cutting type flywheel: 1 - flywheel, Fig. 2 - Special chipper with knives with parallel motion: 1 - knife,
2 - knife, 3 - counterknife, 4 - the section of the material layer, 5 2 - perpendiculars knives, 3 – counterknife, 4 - distance adjustment parts,
- feed conveyor, 6 - pressing band;.[4] 5 - the section of the material layer,6 - upper and lower feed bands [4]
Figure 2 shows schematically a special type of In figura 2 este prezentat schematic un tip special de
chopper with accurate cutting, with knives with parallel tocatoare cu taiere exacta, cu cutite cu miscare paralela,
motion, used mainly for the processing of tobacco, but utilizata în principal pentru prelucrarea tutunului, dar care
which was redesigned for medicinal and aromatic plants. a fost reproiectata pentru plante medicinale şi aromatice.
The knife with vertical motion has a particular trajectory, Cutitul cu miscare verticala are o traiectorie aparte,
moving very close to counter knife, but moving away miscandu-se foarte aproape de contra-cutit, dar
upward much farther from it, thus enabling an unhindered deplasand-se in sus mult mai departe de el, facand posibila
supply with material. There is still a knife whose plan is astfel o alimentare neingradita cu material. Mai exista un
perpendicular to the plan of the "main" knife moving cutit , al carui plan este perpendicular pe planul cutitului
simultaneously with it. The perpendicular knives are made "principal", deplasandu-se odata cu acesta. Cutitele
of metallic bars, being placed under the main knife. The perpendiculare sunt realizate din bare metalice, fiind
space between knives is adjustable to get the required plasate sub cutitul principal. DistanŃa dintre cutite este
size of the particlesr. Following the combined action of the reglabila pentru a obtine mărimea necesară a particulelor.
two knives, the "main" one performes the longitudinal In urma actiunii combinate a celor doua cutite, cel
reduction of the material, and the perpendicular knives "principal" realizeaza reducerea longitudinala a materialului,
perform a cutting along the material layer. The resulting iar cutitele perpendiculare efectueaza o taietura de-a lungul
particles are rectangular or square, the machine being stratului de material. Particulele rezultate au forma
called "the square cutting machine". The feeding system dreptunghiulara sau patrata, masina fiind denumita "masina
consists of two conveyor belts made of soft rubber, the de taiat patrat". Sistemul de alimentare este constituit din
position and load of the upper being adjustable, both doua benzi transportoare realizate din cauciuc moale,
having an intermittent motion of advance. During the pozitia si sarcina celei superioare fiind reglabile, ambele
cutting process, the bands are stationed and the supply avand o miscare de avans intermitenta. In timpul
with material occurs within the timeframe in which the procesului de taiere, benzile stationeaza iar alimentarea
knife moves up. Although it has a high cost due to the cu material are loc in intervalul de timp in care cutitul se
quality of the cutting operation that it performs misca in sus. Desi are un pret de cost ridicat datorita
(appropriate dimensions of the resulting particles and calitatii operatiei de taiere pe care o realizeaza (dimensiuni
minimum losses of active principles, especially of adecvate ale particulelor rezultate si pierderi minime de
essential oils), this machine is commonly used in the principii active, mai ales de uleiuri esentiale), aceasta
profile companies [4]. masina este utilizata frecvent in companiile de profil. [4]
182
Fig. 3 - Chipper with free cutting and free fall of material: Fig. 4 - Chipper with free cutting with sieve. 1 -rotor, 2 - knives,
1 - rotor, 2 - knives, 3 - counterknife 4 - supplying platform [4] 3 - left counterknife, 4 - right counterknife 5 - pivotally framework, 6
- interchangeable sieve 7 - positioning system of the sieve [4]
The chippers with free cutting can be of the type with Tocatorile cu taiere libera pot fi de tipul cu cadere libera
free fall of the material or with sieve. Figure 3 presents a a materialului sau cu sita. In figura 3 este prezentata o
chipper with free fall of the material that can be used to tocatoare cu cadere libera a materialului care poate fi
prepare the raw material consisting of aromatic and folosita la pregătirea materiei prime constituita din plante
medicinal plants, for extraction or distillation. medicinale si aromatice, pentru extractie sau distilare.
In Figure 4 is shown in detail the rotor of the chipper In figura 4 este prezentat in detaliu rotorul tocatorii cu
with free cutting with sieve. It has two sets of taiere libera cu sita. Acesta este prevazut cu doua
counterknife left (3) and right (4). The adjustment of the ansambluri de contracutit stanga (3) si dreapta (4).
distance between knives and counterknkves is very Reglarea distantei intre cutite si contracutite este foarte
important. It should be between 0.1 mm and 0.15 mm to importanta. Ea trebuie sa fie cuprinsa intre 0,1mm si
ensure an efficient cutting. The knives and 0,15mm pentru a se asigura o taiere eficienta. Cutitele cat
counterknives may move longitudinally. Different types si contracutitele se pot deplasa longitudinal. Diferite tipuri
of sieves (6) made of perforated sheet or wire mesh are de site (6) realizate din tabla perforata sau plasa de
fixed on a swing frame (5). The distance between the sarma sunt fixate pe un cadru pivotant(5). Distanta dintre
edge of the knife and sieve is adjustable to allow the marginea de cutitului si sită este reglabila pentru a
flow of different quantities of material, limited to a permite fluxul a diferite cantităti de materiale, limitate la un
certain minimum level. anumit nivel minim.
In the case of this type of rotor the unwanted In cazul acestui tip de rotor actiunea mecanică
mechanical action on the plant material of medicinal and nedorită asupra materialului vegetal din plante
aromatic plants is reduced to minimum by the lack of medicinale si aromatice este redusa la minim, lipsind
pressing. The use of the pairs of knives adjusted has as presarea. Utilizarea perechilor de cutite ajustate are ca
final result a smooth cut. The choice of a suitable type of rezultat final o taietura neteda. Alegerea unui tip adecvat
sieve (from the point of view of the holes openings), as de sita (din punct de vedere al deschiderii orificiilor),
well as the distance between the edges of knives and precum si a distantei dintre muchiile cutitelor si sita,
sieve, can determin the achieving of a controlled reduction poate determina realizarea unei reduceri controlate a
in the size. dimensiunii.
In Figure 5 are shown special devices for chopping In figura 5. sunt prezentate dispozitive speciale de
with two cylinders. One is equipped with disc knives, and tocare cu doi cilindri. Unul este prevazut cu cutite disc, iar
in the other are executed grooves, whose edges have the in celalalt sunt executate caneluri, ale caror muchii au rol
role of counterknives (fig. 5.a and b). The feeding is done de contracutite (fig. 5.a si b). Alimentarea se face prin
by dropping, which enables a gentle treatment of the cadere, ceea ce permite un tratament blând al materialului
vegetal material from medicinal plants. For different vegetal din plante medicinale. Pentru diferite lungimi de
cutting lengths are used different pairs of cylinders. To cut taiere se folosesc perechi diferite de cilindri. Pentru
large pieces (fig.5.c) the disc knives are farther away, and taierea de bucati mari (fig.5.c) cutitele disc sunt mai
the counter-cylinder is a smooth cylinder on which were departate, iar contracilindrul este un cilindru neted pe care
mounted supporting fingers. s-au montat degete de sprijin.
The use of different pairs of cylinders for various Utilizarea diferitelor perechi de cilindri pentru diferite
lengths of cutting generates high costs, as well as lungimi de tăiere genereaza costuri mari, precum si
repeated reassemblies. reasamblari repetate.
Fi- g. 5 Special cutting device of medicinal and aromatic plants with two cylinders
a) operation of the cutting device: 1 - cylinder with disc knives (top), 2 - smooth cylinder with grooves (bottom); b) Set of cylinders for a
cutting length of 20mm; c) Set of cylinders for a cutting length of 40mm [4].
183
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS REZULTATE SI CONCLUZII

The choppers for medicinal and aromatic plants which Tocatorile destinate plantelor medicinale si aromatice,
are produced and sell at this time largely are equipped ce se produc si comercializeaza in acest moment, sunt
with the cutting systems described above. We shall dotate in mare parte cu sistemele de taiere descrise
present some representative models. anterior. Vom prezenta cateva modele reprezentative.
The company WINICKER & Lieber (Germany) [6] Firma WINICKER &LIEBER (Germania) [6] produce o
produces a mincer (Figure 6) available in 4 typo maşină de tocat (fig.6) disponibilă în 4 tipodimensiuni,
dimensions, designed for precision cutting and grinding of destinată tăierii de precizie şi mărunŃirii plantelor
medicinal and aromatic plants, mushrooms, dried medicinale şi aromatice, ciupercilor, legumelor uscate,
vegetables, spices as well as of other vegetal products condimentelor, precum şi altor produse vegetale crude
raw or dried, related to those listed above. sau uscate înrudite cu cele mentionate anterior.
The operating diagram is shown in Fig.7. The raw Schema de functionare este prezentată în fig.7.
material is compressed with 5 rolls of pressure, without a Materia primă este comprimată cu ajutorul a 5 role de
pressing force from the spring, then being pushed out presare, fara o forta de presare din arc, fiind apoi împinsă
step-by-step through the hopper, with uniform pitch and pas-cu-pas afară prin gura de alimentare, cu pas uniform
constant width. Cutting is performed by means of si lăŃime constantă. Tăierea se realizează cu ajutorul a
two knives of different sizes, simultaneously două cuŃite de dimensiuni diferite, care realizează
performing the splitting respectively cutting by shearing. simultan despicarea, respectiv tăierea prin forfecare.
Fig. 6- The chipper WINICKER [6] Fig. 7- The operating diagram of the chipper WINICKER [6]
In front of the mouth of feed (fig. 7) the blades moves În partea din faŃă a gurii de alimentare (fig. 7) cuŃitele
up - down with a rotating elliptical movement synchronized se mişcă sus - jos având o mişcare de rotaŃie eliptică,
with the movement of the step-by-step transport of the sincronizată cu mişcarea de transport pas-cu-pas a
raw material. When the knives descend the cutting is materiei prime. Când cuŃitele coboară se realizează
performed, consequently the transport stops, (the advancement) tăierea, deci se opreşte transportul, (avansul) materiei
of the raw material, when the knives ascend, continuing prime, când cuŃitele urcă, se continuă transportul
the transportation of the material. The processed product materialului. Produsul prelucrat este colectat în partea
is collected in the lower part of the machine (fig.7). The inferioară a maşinii (fig.7). Materialul vegetal este tăiat
vegetal material is cut uniformly to the cutting size for uniform la dimensiunea de tăiere pentru care a fost
which was adjusted the machine. The machine provides a reglată maşina. Maşina realizează o tăiere curată fară
clean cut without burrsi, resulting in uniform particles. The bavuri, rezultând particule uniforme. Produsele uscate nu
dried products are not broken by cutting, and the fresh sunt sfărâmate prin tăiere, iar cele prospete pot fi
ones can be processed directly, even if they are long and prelucrate direct, chiar dacă sunt lungi şi fibroase,
fibrous, no longer being needed a pre-cutting. Following nemaifiind necesară o pretăiere. În urma tăierii, materialul
the cutting, material does not heat up, so the operation nu se încălzeşte, deci operaŃia nu generează pierderi de
does not generate losses of active principles. principii active.
The company Jin Zhu (China) manufactures the Firma Jin Zhu (China) realizeaza masina QYJ (fig.8.9),
machine QYJ (fig.8,9), intended to cut of medicinal plants, destinata tăierii plantelor medicinale, frunzelor de ceai şi
of tea leaves and tobacco, of rhizomes or plant products de tutun, rizomilor sau produselor vegetale utilizate pentru
used for animal feed etc., in two constructive variants. The hrana animalelor etc., in doua variante constructive.
material is compressed into a compact block between two Materialul este comprimat într-un bloc compact între două
conveyor belts, then is cut to the appropriate size by a benzi transportoare, apoi este tăiat la dimensiunea
guillotine knife moving with a very high frequency. This adecvată de un cuŃit ghilotină care se mişcă cu frecvenŃă
chipper uses the classical driving principle of the guillotine foarte mare. Aceasta toacătoare utilizeaza principiul clasic
knife consisting of the transformation of the rotation de actionare a cutitului tip ghilotina care consta din
movement in translational motion, through a crank - gear tranformarea miscarii de rotatie in miscare de translatie,
mechanism and of an mechanism with eccentric. The prin intermediul unui mecanism bielă - manivelă si a unui
plants are cut by guillotine, between the knife and counter mecanism cu excentric. Plantele sunt tăiate prin
knife. The material advances intermittently, this being ghilotinare, între cuŃit şi contra cuŃit. Materialul avansează
achieved when the knife rises under the action of the intermitent, aceasta realizându-se în momentul ridicării
mechanism of advance. By the mechanical stroke cuŃitului sub acŃiunea mecanismului de avans. Prin
adjustment of the intermittently advance, is adjusted the reglarea cursei mecanice de avans intermitent, se
length of the chips.[7] reglează lungimea tocăturii.[7]
184
Fig. 8- The chipper model QYJ-200 (Jin Zhu) China [7] Fig. 9- Detail conveyor belt of the chipper QYJ-200 [7]
The conveyor belt and that of pressing can operate in Banda de transport şi cea de apăsare pot funcŃiona în
both directions (back and forth), taking action easily in the ambele sensuri (înainte şi înapoi), acŃionându-se cu
event of clogging. The machine is made of stainless steel, uşurinŃă în caz de înfundare. Masina este realizata din
to meet the hygienic conditions imposed by the otel inoxidabil, pentru a se respecta conditiile de igiena
processing of medicinal and aromatic plants. The impuse de prelucrarea plantelor medicinale si aromatice.
technical characteristics are presented in Table 1 Caracteristicile tehnice sunt prezentate in tabelul 1 [7]
Table 1
Technical Characteristics
Working Capacity Cutting length Engine power Overall dimensions Mass
Model
[kg h-1] [mm] [kW] L×l×h [mm] [kg]
QYJ-200 300 0.5-25/ 0,5-25 2.2/ 2,2 1900×780×960 500
QYJ-300 450 0.5-25/ 0,5-25 3 1900×880×960 600
HK Company Rongchine Trading Co., Ltd (China) Firma HK Rongchine Trading Co., Ltd (China) produce
produces a high-speed chopper (model QYJ-1000 - o tocatoare de mare viteză, (modelul QYJ-1000 - fig.10)
Figure 10) intended to shred of medicinal plants and destinata maruntirii plantelor medicinale şi a frunzelor de
tobacco leaf using a cylindrical drum, whereon there are tutun cu ajutorul unei tobe cilindrice, pe care sunt montate
mounted 4 or 8 knives. The technical characteristics are: 4 sau 8 cutite. Caracteristicile tehnice sunt:
Overall dimensions :......................... 2330×950×1900mm; Dimensiuni de gabarit:...................... 2330x950x1900mm;
Engine power actuation conveyor:........................ 2.2 kW; Putere motor acŃionare transportor:..................... 2,2 kW;
Main engine power:............................................... 5.5 kW; Putere motor principal:........................................ 5,5 kW;
-1 -1
Rotation frequency of chopping drum:............... 440 min ; FrecvenŃa de rotaŃie toba de tocare:................. 440 min ;
Size cutting mouth (l×h):................................ 280×54 mm; Dimensiuni gură de tăiere (lxh):..................... 280x54 mm;
Supply voltage:..........................................................380V; Tensiunea de alimentare:........................................380V;
Number of knives:..................................................4 sau 8; Număr de cuŃite:..................................................4 sau 8;
Mass:.....................................................................1400 kg. Masa:.................................................................1400 kg.
For chopping of the leaves the cutting drum is Pentru tocarea frunzelor toba de taiere este dotata cu 4
equipped with 4 knives, obtaining strips with a width of cutite, obtinandu-se se fâşii cu latimea de 0,8-2mm, la o
0.8-2mm, at a working capacity of 1.000÷2.000 kg/h. For capacitate de lucru de 1.000÷2.000 kg/h. Pentru tocarea
the chopping of stalks are used all the 8 knives, obtaining tulpinilor se folosesc toate cele 8 cutite, obŃinandu-se
thickness between 0.1÷0.5 mm, at a working capacity of grosimi între 0,1÷0,5 mm, la o capacitate de lucru de
150÷200 kg/h. The engine speed can be varied by means 150÷200 kg/h. Turatia motorului poate fi variata cu
of a frequency converter. The machine is equipped with a ajutorul unui convertizor de frecventa. Masina este dotata
knives sharpener [8]. si cu un sistem de ascutit cutite[8].
The company Timatic (Italy) made the chipper HerbCut Firma Timatic (Italia) realizeaza masina de tocat
(fig.11), designed for shredding of medicinal and aromatic HerbCut (fig.11), destinată mărunŃirii plantelor medicinale
plants, herbs, vegetables, fruits and other vegetable şi aromatice, ierburilor, legumelor, fructelor şi altor
products, fresh or dried. [9] produse vegetale, proaspete sau uscate. [9]
The product is conveyed to the hopper by means of a Produsul este transportat spre gura de alimentare prin
conveyor belt actuated by rollers, so that the material is intermediul unei benzi transportoare acŃionată de role, astfel
oriented properly when it reaches the guillotine type knife. că materialul este orientat corespunzător atunci când ajunge
The removable knife, with a length of 30 cm and inclined în dreptul cuŃitului de tip ghilotină. CuŃitul detaşabil, cu o
at a certain cutting angle, has a plane parallel movement lungime de 30 cm si inclinat la un anumit unghi de taiere, are
from top to bottom, in the desired rhythm, in order to o mişcare plan paralela de sus în jos, în ritmul dorit, pentru a
ensure the proper sizing of the resulting material. asigura dimensionarea potrivită a materialului rezultant.
Fig. 10- The chipper model QYJ- [8] Fig. 11 - HerbCut Model TS 1340 [9]
185
Thanks to the automated command and control that Datorită sistemului automat de comandă şi control, cu
endows the equipment, can adjust and programme: care este dotat echipamentul, se pot regla şi programa:
feeding with material, the cutting length or the time of alimentarea cu material, lungimea de tăiere sau timpul de
operation. The shredded material is discharged into a funcŃionare. Materialul tocat este descărcat într-un
collection chamber, portable, on wheels. The equipment is compartiment de colectare, portabil, pe roŃi. Echipamentul
made entirely of stainless steel, being equipped with este construit în întregime din oŃel inoxidabil, fiind dotat cu
removable protective devices, which provides the easy aparatori de protectie detaşabile, ce asigura accesul facil
access for cleaning and maintenance. Safety magnetic pentru curatare si intretinere. Senzori magnetici de
sensors command the stopping of the operation, if the siguranŃă comandă oprirea funcŃionării, daca aparatorile
protectors are not fixed to their positions. nu sunt fixate pe pozitiile lor.
HerbCut has the following technical characteristics [9]: HerbCut are urmatoarele caracteristici tehnice [9]:
- Power supply: 220/240 V in single phase system, or -Tensiune de alimentare: 220/240 V în sistem monofazat,
380/415 in three phase system (also available with 110V); sau 380/415 în sistem trifazat (disponibil şi cu110V);
- Power:................................................................0.37 kW; - Putere:................................................................0,37 kW;
-1 -1
- Advance speed:...............................................0.5 m/ s ; - Viteză de avans:...............................................0,5 m/ s ;
- Cutting time:.........................................................0.5 s; - Timp de taiere:.........................................................0,5 s;
- Cutting mouth dimensions (l×h):.................. 300×40 mm; - Dimensiuni gura de tăiere (lxh):....................300x40 mm;
- The length of the cuts:..... adjustable between 6...40 mm; - Lungimea bucăŃilor tăiate:.........reglabila intre 6...40 mm;
- Production capacity:........... dried material: 80÷130 kg /h; - Capacitatea de producŃie:...material uscat: 80÷130 kg /h;
fresh material: 130÷400 kg /h; material proaspăt: 130÷400 kg /h;
- Overall dimensions (L×l×h):....................145x56x110 cm; -Dimensiuni de gabarit (Lxlxh):................145x56x110 cm;
- Mass:.......................................................................75 kg. - Masa:.................................................................75 kg.
The company Mc Swiat S.C. (Poland) produces shredders Firma Mc Swiat S.C. (Polonia) produce tocatori care
using the special system with 2 cylinders, previously utilizeaza sistemul special cu 2 cilindri, prezentat
presented. The equipment is designed for shredding the anterior. Echipamentele sunt destinate tocarii plantelor
aromatic and medicinal plants (leaves and herba), tobacco medicinale si aromatice (frunze si herba), frunzelor de
leaves, pastes leaves and medicinal plants (leaves and tutun, pastelor etc. Ele pot fi actionate manual sau
herba), etc.. They can be operated manually or electrically. electric.
The T160 model (fig. 12) is a professional hand Modelul T160 (fig. 12) este o masina manuala
machine designed for shredding tobacco leaves and profesionala destinata tocarii frunzelor de tutun si
medicinal plants which are cut into strips of about 1 mm. plantelor medicinale (frunze si herba), care sunt taiate in
Working width of the machine (the length of cylinders) is fasii de aproximativ 1 mm. Latimea de lucru a masinii
of 160 mm. The shaft diameter is of 21.5 mm. The knives (lungimea cilindrilor) este de 160 mm. Diametrul axului
and the grooved cylinder conjugate are made of stainless este de 21,5 mm. Cutitele si cilindrul canelat conjugat sunt
steel, as the whole machine. It has a rugged construction realizate din otel inoxidabil, ca intreaga masina. Aceasta
and stable that used properly, can chop up to several are o constructie robusta si stabila incat utilizata corect,
hundreds of kilograms. The model T100 (fig.12) is a poate toca pana la cateva sute de kilograme. Modelul
lighter version of this manual machine being made of T100 (fig.12) este o varianta mai usoara a acestei masini
duralumin, with a weight of only 1.5 Kg. and a working manuale fiind realizat din duraluminiu, avand o masa de
width of 100mm [10] numai 1,5 kg. si o latime de lucru de 100mm [10].
Fig. 12 - T160 and T100 manual choppers [10] Fig. 13 - T180 Electrical Chopper [11]
The model T180 (fig.13) is a professional herb mincer, Modelul T180 (fig.13) este o masina de tocat ierburi
electrically operated. Used correctly can have a working profesionala, actionata electric. Utilizata corect poate
capacity of 15 kg / h. The working width is of 180 mm. The avea o capacitate de lucru de 15 kg/h. Latimea de lucru
machine is equipped with two types of cylinders, allowing este de 180 mm. Masina este dotata cu doua variante de
obtaining of strips with the width of 0.8mm and 1mm. The cilindri, care permit obtinerea unor fasii cu latime de
cylinders are made of high alloy steel with chrome which 0,8mm si de 1mm. Cilindrii sunt confectionati din otel inalt
gives them a high resistance to abrasion. The whole aliat cu crom care le confera o rezistenta ridicata la
machine is enclosed in a solid casing, ensuring the full abraziune. Intreaga masina este inchisa intr-o carcasa
security of the user during the operation. For a smooth solida, asigurand deplina securitate a utilizatorului in
operation, the machine is equipped with rubber bumpers timpul functionarii. Pentru o functionare lina, masina este
[11]. dotata cu amortizoare de cauciuc [11].
The company Anyang Sino-Shon Machinery Co. Ltd Firma Anyang Sino-Shon Machinery Co. Ltd (China)
(China) produces tobacco chippers (fig. 14) for shredding produce masini de tocat tutun (fig. 14) destinate tocarii
of tobacco leaves, of tea leaves, of ginkgo leaves, of frunzelor de tutun , frunzelor de ceai , frunzelor de ginko ,
medicinal plants leaves etc. The knives rotation frequency frunzelor de plante medicinale etc. Frecventa de rotatie a
can be varied by means of a frequency converter. The cutitelor poate fi variata cu ajutorul unui convertizor de
186
technical characteristics of the machine are [12]: frecventa. Caracteristicile tehnice ale masinii sunt [12]:
- Driving engine power............................................1,5 kW; -Putere motor de actionare:....................................1,5 kW;
- Power supply…………………………......................380 V; -Tensiune de alimentare:..........................................380 V;
- Width of strips:.........................................................1mm; -Latimea fasiilor:.........................................................1mm;
- Working Capacity:.............................................1000kg/zi; -Capacitate de lucru:...........................................1000kg/zi;
- Number of knives :.............................................10 seturi; -Număr de cutite :................................................10 seturi;
- Length of knives:..................................................300mm; -Lungime cutite:......................................................300mm;
-1 -1
- The knives rotation frequency:......................0- 285min ; -Frecventa de rotatie a cutitelor:…..................0- 285min ;
- Overall dimensions:.........................780 x 650 x 925mm; -Dimensiuni de gabarit:.....................780 x 650 x 925mm;
- Mass:....................................................................180 kg. -Masa:....................................................................180 kg.
Fig. 14 - Tobacco grinder [12] Fig. 15 - Forages chopper TF - 2 [13]
The company SC PROPAL INVEST SRL, Piatra- Firma SC PROPAL INVEST SRL, Piatra-NeamŃ,
NeamŃ, România, produces forages choppers. The România, produce tocători de furaje. Utilajul din figura 15
machine of figure 15 is intended for the production of este destinat obŃinerii de furaje din coceni/ paie etc.
feedingstuffs from cobs / straws etc. necessary in animal necesare hranei animalelor. De asemenea poate fi utilizat
nutrition. It can also be used for chopping of: tillers, stalks la tocarea de: lăstari, vrejuri - tulpini de plante tehnice,
- strains of technical plants, medicinal plants, vegetables plante medicinale, legume etc. se utilizeaza împreună cu
etc. The equipment is used together with a hammer mill in o moară cu ciocanele în industria ceaiurilor. Este dotat cu
the tea industry. Is equipped with auto-feed system, type sistem de auto-alimentare, "tip greifer". Produsul debitat
claw". The product has cut lengths of about 5-10 mm, are lungimi de aproximativ 5-10 mm, in functie de numarul
depending on the number of knives. The equipment is de cutite. Utilajul se executa din otel inoxidabil, in cazul
made of stainless steel, in the case of specific aplicatiilor specifice industriei de medicamente sau
applications of medicines or food industry [13]. alimentare [13].
The technical characteristics of the chopper TF - 22 are: Caracteristicile tehnice ale tocatorii TF - 22 sunt:
-1 -1
- productivity:.................................... approx 300 kg h ; - productivitate:..................................... cca. 300 kg h ;
-1 -1
- Electric motor driving:................. 2,2 kW x 1500 min ; - acŃionare motor electric:............. 2,2 kW x 1500 min ;
- Power supply:................................................... 230 V; - tensiunea de alimentare:.................................. 230 V;
- number of knives:.............................................. 3 buc; - număr cuŃite:...................................................... 3 buc;
- number of porting-knives..........................................1; - număr portcuŃite :..................................................... 1;
- overall dimensions:.... approx. 1000 × 600 × 900 mm; - dimensiuni de gabarit:...... cca. 1000 x 600 x 900 mm;
- mass:...................................................approx. 125 kg. - masa: cca................................................cca. 125 kg.
From this analysis it is found that the chippers are Din aceasta analiza se constata ca tocatorile sunt
equipment with a quite complex construction, some of the echipamente cu o constructie destul de complexa, unele
assemblies requiring a particular precision, and for some dintre ansambluri necesitand o precizie deosebita, iar
components, the cutting ones especially, it requires the pentru unele componente, mai ales cele de taiere, se
use of special steels, elements that are found in the cost impune utilizarea otelurilor speciale, elemente ce se
price. regasesc in pretul de cost.
On the other hand, the chippers for medicinal and Pe de alta parte, tocatorile pentru plante medicinale
aromatic plants belong from the profile companies si aromatice fac parte din dotarea companiilor de profil,
endowment, because the quality conditions imposed to deoarece condiŃiile de calitate impuse produsului finit
the finished product represents a reflection of the quality reprezinta o reflectare a calitătii tuturor operatiilor la
of all operations at which has been subjected the vegetal care a fost supus materialul vegetal, începând cu
material, starting with the harvesting. recoltarea.
Due to the multitude of factors involved in the the Datorita multitudinii de factori ce intervin in procesul de
chopping of medicinal and aromatic plants, its theoretical tocare al plantelor medicinale si aromatice, studiul teoretic
and practical study in order to optimizing, continues to be si practic al acestuia in vederea optimizarii, continua sa
a challenge for specialists. In this case, finding the most reprezinte o provocare pentru specialisti. In acest caz,
appropriate ways of driving the knife, sitting angles or of gasirea celor mai adecvate modalitati de actionare ale
cutting of it, feeding systems etc., in order to reduce the cutitului, unghiuri de asezare sau de taiere ale acestuia,
energy consumption, of increase the quality of the finished sisteme de alimentare etc., in vederea reducerii consumului
product, of the productivity etc. is made mandatory in the de energie, a cresterii calitatii produsului finit, a productivitatii
context of minimum losses from the content of active etc. se realizeaza obligatoriu in contextul unor pierderi
principles of the vegetal material. minime din continutul de principii active al materialului vegetal.
[1]. Caba I.L. & col. (2013) - The analysis of the cutter [1]. Caba I.L & col. (2013) - Determinarea profilului
187
profile in slide cutting at fodder self-loading trailers, cutitului la remorcile autoincarcatoare furaje fibroase la
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Bucharest; ENGINEERING, Vol.40, Bucuresti;
[2]. Caba I.L. & col. (2013) - Researches on improvement [2]. Caba I.L & col. (2013) - Cercetari privind
of working process of fibrous forages shredding parts, imbunatatirea procesului de lucru al organelor de maruntit
INMATEH - – AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Vol.39, furaje fibroase, INMATEH - AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING,
Bucharest; Vol.39, Bucuresti;
[3]. Neculăiasa V., Dănilă I. (1995) - Working processes and [3]. Neculăiasa V., Dănilă I. (1995) - Procese de lucru şi
agricultural harvesting machines, Publishing House A92, Iaşi; maşini agricole de recoltat, Editura A92, Iaşi;
[4]. Öztekin S., Martinov M. (2007) - Medicinal and [4] Öztekin S. Martinov M. (2007) - Culturi de plante
aromatic crops – Harvesting, Drying, Processing Haworth medicinale si aromatice - Recoltare, Uscare, Procesare,
TM
Food &Agricultural Product Press , New York; Trustul de Presă Haworth Agricultură &AlimentaŃie, New York;
[5]. Thompson M. (2007) - Course Notes: Material size [5]. Thompson M. (2007) - Note de curs: Utilaje pentru reducerea
reduction equipment, Lower Danube University, Galati; dimensiunilor materialelor, Universitatea Dunarea de Jos, GalaŃi;
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[7]. www.alibaba.com/product-detail/High-quality-and- [7]. www.alibaba.com/product-detail/High-quality-and-
best-price-Food_431342517.html; best-price-Food_431342517.html;
[8]. www.made-in-china.com/showroom/rc-tobacco/product [8]. www.made-in-china.com/showroom/rc-tobacco/product
-detailoMRJytPEaCcY/China- -detailoMRJytPEaCcY/China-
High-Speed-Herb-Tobacco-Cut-Machine-QYJ-1000-.html; High-Speed-Herb-Tobacco-Cut-Machine-QYJ-1000-.html;
[9]. www.timatic.it/download/Timatic_ENG-herbCut.pdf; [9]. www.timatic.it/download/Timatic_ENG-herbCut.pdf;
[10]. www.weiku.com/products/7756103/Tobacco_hand [10]. www.weiku.com/products/7756103/Tobacco_hand
_machine_Tobacco_cuter.html; _machine_Tobacco_cuter.html;
[11]. www.weiku.com/products/7756101/Tobacco_electric [11]. www.weiku.com/products/7756101/Tobacco_electric
machine_Tobacco_cutter.html; machine_Tobacco_cutter.html;
[12]. sino-shon.sell.everychina.com/p-97555783-tobacco- [12]. sino-shon.sell.everychina.com/p-97555783-tobacco-
cutting-machine-used-for-cutting-tobacco-leaf-tea-leaf- cutting-machine-used-for-cutting-tobacco-leaf-tea-leaf-
with-small-volume.html; with-small-volume.html;
[13]. www.moara-de-porumb.ro/Tocatori-de-furaje.php; [13]. www.moara-de-porumb.ro/Tocatori-de-furaje.php;
188
OPTIMIZATION OF THE ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION IN INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS

/
OPTIMIZAREA CONSUMULUI DE ENERGIE ELECTRICA AL UNEI HALE INDUSTRIALE
Eng. Pop F., Eng. Marian M.
Tel: 0767731577; E-mail: popflorino@yahoo.com
Abstract: The problem of optimizing the power Rezumat: Problema optimizarii consumului de energie
consumption has emerged as a result of an increase of electrica s-a impus ca urmare a tendintei de crestere a
the energy needs at the same time correlated with necesarului de energie corelata in acelasi timp cu
increased energy costs, a situation that leads to cresterea costurilor energiei, situatie care duce in mod
increased efforts urgently to develop drive systems to imperios la eforturi sporite de a dezvolta sisteme de
work at a power on the optimum performance and actionare care sa lucreze la o putere data cu un
therefore with minimal energy consumption. randament optim si deci cu un consum minim de energie.
This is supported nationally by Law no. 199 of 13 Aceasta este sustinuta pe plan national de Legea nr.
November 2000 on the efficient use of energy, which 199 din 13 noiembrie 2000 privind utilizarea eficienta a
provides extensive action at all levels for this purpose. energiei, care prevede actiuni ample la toate nivelurile in
There are a variety of engineering solutions able to acest scop. Exista o varietate de solutii ingineresti
ensure the efficient use of energy, in this article tried to capabile sa asigure o utilizare eficienta a energiei electrice,
point out some of them. in articolul de fata punctându-se parte din acestea.
Keywords: power factor, reactive power, reactive Cuvinte cheie: factor de putere, putere reactiva, energie
energy, capacitor batteries reactiva, baterii de condensatoare
The main consumers of electricity in Romania are: Principalii consumatori de energie electrică din
economy, accounting for 63% - 65% of the total, the Romania sunt: economia, cu o pondere de 63% - 65%
population, with a share of 15.7% - 16.5% of total din consumul total, populaŃia, cu ponderea de 15,7% -
consumption and public lighting, with a share of about 16,5% din consumul total şi iluminatul public, cu o
12% of total consumption [1]. pondere de aproximativ 12% din consumul total [1].
Electricity production in Romania during 2000 - 2007 is ProducŃia de energie electrică a Romaniei în perioada
presented in Table 1.1. and Figure 1.2 2000 - 2007 este prezentată în tabelul 1.1. şi în figura 1.2
Electricity continues to be a growing percentage of Energia electrică continuă să reprezinte un procent tot
final energy consumption, both as a result of the increase mai mare din consumul final de energie, atât ca rezultat al
in household electrical appliances and services, and as a creşterii numărului de aparate electrice în domeniul casnic şi
result of using common industrial production processes al serviciilor, cât şi ca rezultat al utilizării mai frecvente a
based on electricity. proceselor de producŃie industriale bazate pe energie electrică.
It is estimated that electricity production will be an Se estimează că producŃia de energie electrică va
increasing trend of 2-3%, while the production of heat avea o tendinŃă de creştere de 2 - 3%, în timp ce
energy will keep the downward in recent years due to producŃia de energie termică va păstra cursul descendent
the transition from centralized to the individual din ultimii ani, datorită trecerii, de la sistemul centralizat,
heating. la cel individual de încălzire.
For next year, the main strategic objective in terms of Pentru următorii ani, principalul obiectiv strategic în
energy is to promote energy production based on ceea ce priveşte energia este promovarea producerii
renewable resources, so the share of electricity produced energiei pe baza de resurse regenerabile, astfel încât
from these sources, the total gross electricity ponderea energiei electrice produse din aceste surse, în
consumption to be 33% in 2010, 35 % in 2015 and 38% totalul consumului brut de energie electrică, să fie de
in 2020. From the gross domestic energy consumption, 33% în anul 2010, 35% în anul 2015 şi 38% în anul 2020.
11% was provided provided from renewable sources in Din consumul intern brut de energie, 11% a fost asigurat
2010 [2]. din surse regenerabile în anul 2010 [2].
Table 1
Electricity production in the period 2000 – 2008 [4]
Production of
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
electricity
Total (mil.
51.935 53.866 54.935 56.645 56.482 59.413 62.696 61.673 64.956
kWh)
Thermo
37.157 38.943 38.889 43.386 39.969 39.206 44.341 45.704 47.755
electric
Hydro
14.778 14.923 16.046 13.259 16.513 20.207 18.355 15.969 17.201
electric
Per capital
2.315 2.404 2.521 2.606 2.606 2.748 2.905 2.864 3.021
(kWh)
189
Fig. 1 - The production of electricity, 2000-2008 [4]
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALE ŞI METODĂ

The directive 2006/32 / EC on efficiency of end-used Directiva nr. 2006/32/CE privind eficienŃa energetică la
energy and energy services, provides, in accordance utilizatorii finali şi serviciile energetice, prevede, în
with Art. 14 (2) that the EU member states commit to conformitate cu prevederile art. 14(2), că statele membre
reduce final energy consumption by at least 9% in a UE se angajează să realizeze reducerea consumului de
period of nine years (2008-2016) compared to the energie finală cu cel puŃin 9% într-o perioadă de nouă ani
average consumption in recent years for which data are (2008 - 2016) comparativ cu media consumului din ultimii
available. ani pentru care există date disponibile.
Romania intermediary target for 2012 was 940 łinta intermediară stabilită pentru România pentru
thousand toe, which corresponds to 4.5% of the average anul 2012 a fost de 940 mii tep, ceea ce corespunde unui
of recent years. procent de 4,5 % din media ultimilor ani.
In determining the target had the potential for energy La stabilirea Ńintei s-a avut în vedere potenŃialul de
savings in Romania, on the economic sectors in the economii de energie din România, pe sectoarele economiei
scope of the Directive. 2006/32 / EC on efficiency end- din sfera de acŃiune a Directivei nr. 2006/32/CE privind
used energy and energy services. eficienŃa energetică la utilizatorii finali şi serviciile energetice.
Table 2
The national target for energy saving
Target of 9% energy savings by 2016 (thousand toe) 1.876*
Energy saving target adopted by Romania in 2016 (thousand toe) 2.800**
Intermediate target for 2010 (thousand toe) 940
Source: First National Action Plan for Energy Efficiency 2007-2010
* Minimum under Directive 2006/32 / EC
** 13.5% of the average consumption from 2001 to 2005 and 1.5% annually
*** 4.5% of average consumption from 2001 to 2005 and 1.5% annually
In this respect, they adopt various energy efficiency In acest sens, se vor adopta diverse masuri in domeniul
measures, among them the purchase of equipment from eficientei energetice, intre care si achizitionarea de echipamente
the lists containing specifications on energy efficiency, pe baza listelor ce contin specificatiile privind eficienta
minimal cost analysis, life cycle, or comparable methods energetica, analiza costului minim, durata ciclului de viata,
to ensure cost effectiveness. sau metode comparabile, pentru a asigura rentabilitatea.
This article aims definite proposal for solution based Articolul de faŃă se doreşte a veni cu o propunere de soluŃie
on electrical drives with increased energy efficiency, bazată pe echipamente electrice de actionare cu o eficienta
meeting energy goals outlined at national and EU energetica sporita, venind in intampinarea obiectivelor
level. energetice trasate pe plan national si la nivelul UE.
RESULTS REZULTATE
Optimization of energy consumption Optimizarea consumului de energie
• Reactive power compensation • Compensarea puterii reactive
Power factor of particular interest for both Factorul de putere prezintă un interes deosebit atât pentru
electricity producer and the carrier, supplier and end producătorul de energie electrică, cât şi pentru transportator,
user because it affects the performance and costs of furnizor şi utilizatorul final, deoarece el influenŃează
electricity supply. In AC circuits meet three types of performanŃa si costurile de furnizare a energiei electrice. In
power: circuitele de curent alternativ intalnim trei tipuri de puteri:
- Apparent power (S = U * I) - allows the user to - Puterea aparenta (S = U*I) - permite determinarea
determine the boundaries of a facility; limitelor de utilizare a unei instalaŃii;
- Active power P = U * I * cos φ - is the electrical - Puterea activa, P = U*I*cos φ - reprezintă puterea
power that can be converted into useful power; electrică ce poate fi transformată în putere utilă;
- Reactive power, Q = U * I * sin φ accompanying - Puterea reactiva, Q = U*I*sin φ însoŃeşte transportul,
transmission, distribution and consumption of active power. distribuŃia şi consumul de putere activă.
190
The ratio of active power (P) and apparent power (S) Raportul între puterea activa (P) si puterea aparenta
is the power factor and is equal to the cosine of the (S) reprezinta factor de putere si este egal cu cosinusul
phase angle between voltage and current can vary unghiului de defazaj dintre tensiune si curent, putând
between: 0-1. varia în intervalul: 0 - 1.
Operation with low power factor unfavorable economic FuncŃionarea cu un factor de putere redus are efecte
effects being taken into account in determining the tariff economice nefavorabile, fiind luat în considerare la
for electricity consumption. stabilirea tarifului pentru energia electrica consumata.
• Reasons decreasing power factor (reactive power • Cauzele scăderii factorului de putere (creşterea
consumption growth) consumului de putere reactiva)
Power consumption is specific active and reactive Consumul de putere activa si putere reactiva este specific
power many electric cars, and electric lines as follows: multor masini electrice, dar si liniilor electrice aeriene, astfel:
- Electric motors: the idling motors increases reactive - Motoare electrice: prin functionarea in gol a motoarelor
power consumption; asincrone creste consumul de putere reactiva;
- Transformers: overhead lines consume reactive - Transformatoarele electrice: liniile electrice aeriene pot
power due to their inductance, or because of their consuma putere reactiva datorita inductantei proprii, sau
ability to generate reactive power to the ground. poate genera putere reactiva datorita capacitatii lor fata
Reduce consumption of reactive power by electric de pamânt. Reducerea consumului de putere reactiva
cars, is obtained by careful use of them so that de catre masinile electrice, se obtine prin utilizarea
should be loaded at a power of at least 0.75 in their rationala a acestora, astfel încât sa fie încarcate la o
nominal power, as follows: putere de cel putin 0,75 din puterea lor nominala, astfel:
replacing motors and transformers derated with inlocuirea motoarelor si transformatoarelor subîncarcate
engines or smaller power transformers, load as cu motoare sau transformatoare de putere mai mica,
close to full load; încarcate cât mai aproape de sarcina nominala;
discontinuing operation for extended engine intreruperea functionarii motorului pentru durate de
idling more than 10 seconds; mers în gol mai mari de 10 s ;
use synchronous motors to power more than folosirea motoarelor sincrone la puteri peste 100
100 kW, if speed adjustment is required. kW, daca nu este necesara reglarea turatiei.
Currently, the power required by the power system În prezent, puterile cerute de întreprinderi de la
enterprises is increasingly higher. Consequently, the sistemul energetic sunt din ce în ce mai mari. În consecinta,
problem of power factor is very important. If a new problema factorului de putere are o importanta deosebita.
installation designed taking all measures that the power În cazul unei instalatii noi proiectate, luând toate masurile
factor to be possible, the facility is designed to be more ca factorul de putere sa fie cât mai mare, instalatia
economical (section conductors smaller transformer less proiectata va fi mai economica (sectiunea conductoarelor
power) [3]. mai mica, puterea postului de transformare mai mica) [3].
Increasing power factor or, as they say, improve the Marirea factorului de putere sau, cum se spune,
power factor for an installation date will result in reducing îmbunatatirea factorului de putere pentru o instalatie data va
the total current absorbed and thereby the ability to duce la micsorarea curentului total absorbit si prin aceasta, la
connect new receptors to the same network. posibilitatea de a conecta noi receptori la aceeasi retea.
Improving the power factor can be done in two Îmbunatatirea factorului de putere se poate face pe
ways: doua cai:
- The organizational measures, with which the power - Prin masuri organizatorice, cu ajutorul carora factorul de
factor is increased without any investment; putere este marit fara nici un fel de investitii;
- The production of reactive power on site through the - Prin producerea puterii reactive la fata locului prin
use of specialized sources of reactive power. utilizarea unor surse specializate de putere reactiva.
The main source of reactive power consumption is Sursa principala a consumului de putere reactiva este
given by the use of motors and transformers under low data de utilizarea motoarelor asincrone si a transformatoarelor
load. în regim de încarcare redusa.
Reactive power compensation methods: Metode de compensare a puterii reactive:
- Individual: installing capacitor (battery) beside each - Individual: instalând condensatoare (baterii) lânga
individual handset; fiecare receptor în parte;
- Centralized: installing capacitors in the main transformer - Centralizat: instalând bateria de condensatoare în statia
station company. de transformare principala a întreprinderii.
Minimum power factor that it must ensure the Factorul de putere minim pe care trebuie sa-l asigure
consumer at the point of separation of provider network consumatorul la punctul de delimitare cu reteaua
to not pay reactive energy consumed is called neutral; is furnizorului pentru a nu plati energia reactiva consumata
set at 0.92. se numeste neutral; este stabilit la 0,92.
Reducing the negative effects of power factor is Reducerea efectelor negative ale factorului de putere se face
the use of equipment and automatic reactive power si prin utilizarea echipamentelor de compensare automata a
compensation, made the following basic components: energiei reactive, realizate cu urmatoarele componente de baza:
Compensation capacitors; condensatoare de compensare;
Contactor connection / disconnection of capacitors; contactoare de conectare/deconectare ale condensatoarelor
Power factor controller. regulatorul factorului de putere.
Compensation is achieved by constantly calculating Compensarea este realizata prin calculul permanent al
reactive power consumed based on direct measurement puterii reactive consumate, pe baza masurarii directe a
of voltage phase / line voltage and phase using an tensiunii de faza/linie si a curentului de faza cu ajutorul
external current transformer. Depending on the unui transformator de curent extern. In functie de valoarea
calculated power factor controller command or out of calculata a factorului de putere, regulatorul comanda
gear compensation circuit after a predetermined control introducerea sau scoaterea din circuit a treptelor de
191
program. compensare, dupa un program de reglare prestabilit.

Main technical characteristics of switchboards Caracteristici tehnice principale ale tablourilor electrice
reactive power compensation: de compensare a puterii reactive:
Nominal: Putere nominala:
- 22.5 ... 100 kVAr in enclosure; - 22,5 …100 kVAr in cofret;
- 100 ... 300 kVAr in closet; - 100 …300 kVAr in dulap;
Nominal voltage: Tensiune nominala:
- 230 ... 240 V / 50 ... 60 Hz; - 230 …240 V / 50 …60 Hz;
- 400 ... 415 V / 50 ... 60 Hz; - 400 …415 V / 50 …60 Hz;
Number of control steps: Numar de trepte de reglaj:
- 1 ... 6 Varlogic regulator R6; - 1 …6 cu regulator Varlogic R6;
- 1 ... 12 Varlogic regulator R12; - 1 …12 cu regulator Varlogic R12;
Dimensions picture: Dimensiuni tablou:
- Minimum 500x500x250 mm; - minim 500x500x250 mm;
- Maximum 600x800x2000 mm; - maxim 600x800x2000 mm;
Operating temperature: 0 ... + 45 grd.C; Temperatura de lucru: 0…+45 grd.C;
Degree of protection: IP30 ... IP55. Grad de protectie: IP30 …IP55.
Equipment implemented EETim SA for reactive power Echipamente implementate de EETim SA pentru
compensation: compensarea puterii reactive:
Modules pole capacitor VarPlusCan / VarPlusBox Module tripolare de condensatoare VarPlusCan /
- Schneider Electric, or Enerlux; VarPlusBox – Schneider Electric, sau Enerlux;
Power factor controllers Varlogic R6 / Varlogic Regulatoare de factor de putere Varlogic R6 /
R12 (Schneider Electric); Varlogic R12 (Schneider Electric);
Contactors LC1-DK series (Schneider Electric). Contactoare din seria LC1-D-K (Schneider Electric).
Capacitor shows the advantages: Bateriile de condensatoare prezinta ca avantaje:
- Specific losses small and constant (about 2...5 W / kVAr); - pierderi specifice mici si constante(cca 2...5 W/kVar);
- Possibility of installing decentralized; - posibilitatea montarii descentralizate;
- Limited mounting space; - spatiu de montare restrans;
- Relatively small weight; - greutate relativ mica;
- No moving parts; - lipsa partilor in miscare;
- Ease of removal and replacement. - usurinta demontarii si remontarii.
The choice of reactive power compensation capacitor Alegerea compensarii puterii reactive prin baterii de
batteries voltage is high or low depending on local condensatoare de inalta sau joasa tensiune este in functie
conditions and the needs of the power system network de conditiile locale si de necesitatile functionarii retelei
operations or facilities that consumer. sistemului energetic sau instalatiile consumatorului respectiv.
An efficient solution for optimizing power consumption O solutie eficienta pentru optimizarea consumului de
is the use of centralized power factor compensation, in energie electrica este folosirea compensarii centralizate
this case the capacitor will be provided with opportunities a factorului de putere, in acest caz bateria de condensatoare
to connect and disconnect from the network, the speed, va fi prevazuta cu posibilitati de conectare si deconectare
preferably with automatic switching based on reactive de la retea, in trepte, de preferinta cu comutarea automata in
power to be compensated. functie de puterea reactiva ce trebuie compensata.
At consumers with their own transformation stations, La consumatorii cu posturi de transformare proprii, prima
the first step will be designed for a capacitive current treapta se va dimensiona pentru un curent capacitiv mai
lower than idle current of the transformer. mic decat curentul de mers in gol al transformatorului.
Until voltages of 500 V, all sections are connected Până la tensiunile de 500 V, toate sectiile de condensatoare
in shunt capacitors for each phase. Capacitor will be sunt legate in derivatie pe fiecare faza. Bateriile de
provided with special protection against overvoltage, condensatoare vor fi prevazute cu dispozitive speciale de
shutting down or environmental temperature protectie impotriva supratensiunilor, a punerilor la pamant
increases. sau a cresterii temperaturii mediului inconjurator.
The reactive power produced by the capacitor Puterea reactiva produsa prin baterii de condensatoare se
batteries is adjusted by varying the speed of the number regleaza prin variatia in trepte a numarului de condensatoare
of capacitors in use, using contactors. Contactor control in functiune, cu ajutorul unor contactoare. Contactoarele
can be operated manually or automatically. pentru reglaj pot fi comandate manual sau automat.
Automatic adjustment capacity into operation capacitor Reglarea automata a capacitatii in functiune a bateriilor de
according to reactive power can be achieved using a condensatoare in functie de puterea reactiva, se poate realiza si
"reactive power limiter" which works on the principle of cu ajutorul unui “limitator de putere reactiva”, care functioneaza pe
single phase reactive power meter. principiul contorului monofazat de putere reactiva.
The torque limiter is proportional to the measured Cuplul motor al limitatorului este proportional cu puterea
reactiva masurata si actioneaza asupra unui arbore cu came.
reactive power and act on a camshaft. It produces close Acesta produce inchiderea sau deschiderea circuitelor
or open circuit control relays or contactors that place out releelor de comanda a contactoarelor care introduc sau scot
of circuit capacitors certain powers. din circuit condensatoare de anumite puteri.
În continuare voi prezenta compensarea factorului de
I will present power factor correction capacitor banks putere cu ajutorul bateriilor de condensatoare comandate
ordered with automatic regulators. de regulatoare automate.
This is the most effective solution to optimize Aceasta este si cea mai eficienta solutie a optimizarii consumului
electricity consumption by power factor. de energie electrica prin compensarea factorului de putere.
Order automatic capacitor switching gear is made with Comanda automata a comutarii treptelor bateriilor de condensatoare
the automatic RA6 (six steps) -or RA12 (twelve steps). It se face cu regulatorul automat RA6 (sase trepte sau RA12
measures the installation parameters: voltage, current (doisprezece trepte). Acesta masoara parametrii instalatiei:
192
cosj according to their values and order of introduction or tensiune, curent cosϕ si în functie de valorile acestora comanda
taken out of usage circuit capacitor steps in the reactive introducerea sau scoterea din circuit a treptelor de condensatoare
power contactors. prin intermediul contactoarelor de energie reactiva.
Power factor correction controller is designed to Regulatorul pentru compensarea factorului de putere
achieve a correct measurement of electrical quantities este proiectat astfel încât sa realizeze o masurare
and to be able to view the alphanumeric characters corecta a marimilor electrice si sa se poata vizualiza prin
measured electrical quantities. caractere alfa-numerice marimea electrica masurata.
Using digital techniques for filtering of signals, it can Utilizând tehnici digitale de filtrare a semnalelor,
be separated from other components sinusoidal acesta poate separa de celelalte componente armonice
harmonic components of voltage and current, which is componentele sinusoidale ale tensiunii si curentului , pe
measured the shift phase. The screen of the device care este masurata defazarea. Pe ecranul aparatului
appears the size to reference is made while the bottom apare marimea la care se face referinta iar pe rândul de
row the corresponding value. jos valoarea corespunzatoare.
The controller is installed as follows: Regulatorul se instaleaza astfel:
- INPUT: line current is measured by a current - INTRARE: curentul de linie se masoara printr-un
transformer (CT mounted on phase R) connected to the transformator de curent (TC montat pe faza R) conectat
terminal and line voltage directly to the remaining phases la borne iar tensiunea de linie direct pe fazele ramase (S si T);
(S and T); - IESIRE: contacte pentru comanda treptelor bateriilor de
- Output: Order capacitor steps (6 and 12 account for condensatoare (6 contate pentru RA6 si 12 contacte
RA6 contacts RA12) are normally open type ND and pentru RA12) sunt de tip ND-normal deschis si un
alarm contact (which can be set normally closed or contact pentru alarma (care se poate seta normal inchis-
normally open-NC-ND independent). NÎ sau normal deschis-ND independent).
Technical characteristics of the controllers: Caracteristici tehnice ale regulatoarelor:
- Input on current transformer ammeter, standard / 5A; - intrarea ampermetrica pe transformatorul de curent,
- Setting primary current from 5A to 10,000; standard / 5A;
- Frequency of 50Hz power; - setarea curentului primar de la 5A la 10000A;
- Measuring the effective values of voltage and - frecventa de alimentare 50Hz;
current; - masurarea valorilor eficace ale tensiunii si curentului;
- Setting the power factor cosj from 0,85 capacitive to - setarea factorului de putere cosϕ de la o,85 inductiv
0.95 inductive; la 0,95 capacitiv;
- Setting for each battery kvar from 0.1 to 6000; - setarea kvar pentru fiecare baterie de la 0,1 la 6000;
- Setting the reconnection; - setarea timpului de reconectare;
- Display with 16 characters, 2 lines with retroluminare; - ecran cu 16 caractere, 2 rânduri cu retroluminare;
- Load contacts 8A, 250Vac; - sarcina contacte 8A, 250Vca;
0 0
- Operating temperature 00 - 550C; - temperatura de funcionare 0 - 55 C;
- Degree of protection IP41 front; IP54 dome - grad de protectie frontala IP41; cu calota IP54.
Power factor correction modules: Module pentru compensarea factorului de putere:

For a good flexibility in capacitor batteries arrays with Pentru o buna flexibilitate în realizarea tablourilor cu baterii
modular groups propose completely independent consist de condensatoare propunem grupuri modulare, complet
of: bank of capacitors, contactors and fuse protection, independente compuse din: baterie de condensatoare,
these modules are equipped with connectors for power contactoare si sigurante de protectie, aceste module sunt
and control and is installed in metal cabinets set prevazute cu conectori de putere si comanda si se monteaza
themselves connectors. în dulapuri metalice prevazute la rândul lor cu conectori.
It can do so any configutatie paintings (Fig. 2). The Se pot realiza astfel orice configutatie de tablouri (fig.
withdrawable modules it offers the advantage of easy 2). Sistemul cu module debrosabile ofera avantajul
replacement in case of failure without the rest of the înlocuirii acestuia usor în cazul unui defect fara ca restul
painting to be affected or disconnected from the network. tabloului sa fie afectat sau decuplat de la retea.
Total power of the array is equal to the sum of Puterea totala a tabloului fiind egala cu suma puterilor
independent modules installed in panel. moduleleor independente instalate în tablou.
Fig. 2 - Automatic mode independent (composed of capacitors, contactors, fuses and signal lights) a) panel equipped with four
modules, controller and switch RA6; b) Automatic Regulator RA6
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUZII:
Economically and in terms of functionality by applying La nivel economic si din punct de vedere functional
reactive power compensation solutions proposed in this prin aplicarea solutiilor de compensare a energiei
article will get: reactive propuse in prezentul articol se va obtine:
- Reduce electricity consumption by 20-30% by using - reducerea consumului de energie electrica cu 20-30%
prin utilizarea actionarilor cu turatie variabila;
193
variable speed shareholders; - micsorarea duratei de recuperare a investitiilor din

- Reducing investment payback in energy savings; economia de energie;
- cresterea gradului de automatizare a proceselor
- Increasing automation of technological processes by tehnologice prin cuplarea facila a convertizoarelor
easy coupling static frequency converters to PLC; statice de frecventa la automate programabile ;
- Implementation of additional protective functions of - realizarea unor functii suplimentare de protectie a
electric motors fed by inverters; motoarelor electrice alimentate prin intermediul convertizoarelor;
- Operation at power factor close to 1, which reduces - functionare la factor de putere apropiat de 1, ceea ce reduce
pierderile in ansamblul retelei de distributie a energiei electrice ;
losses in all electricity distribution network;
- dinamica de reglare buna cu posibilitatea de obtinere
- Good dynamic control with the possibility of a unor viteze ridicate, reglabile continuu ;
obtaining high speeds, continuously adjustable; - eliminarea pornirilor bruste, generatoare de defectiuni ale
- Elimination of sudden impulses generating mecanismelor antrenate si ale bobinajelor motoarelor
mechanisms involved and the failure of motors asincrone ;
windings; - reducerea uzurii mecanismelor antrenate ca urmare a
- Reducing the wear mechanisms involved due to their functionării acestora la viteze mai mici decat viteza nominala;
operation at speeds lower than rated speed; - marirea duratei de viata a motorului prin functionarea
- Increasing the life of the engine by its operation at acestuia la curenti mai mici decat curentul nominal ;
currents lower than the rated current; - reducerea pierderilor mecanice in motoare datorita
- Reducing mechanical losses due to engine operating functionarii la turatii mai mici decat cea nominala si
at speeds lower than the nominal and iron loss reducerea pierderilor in fier prin scaderea frecventei; in
reduction by decreasing frequency; this increases acest fel creste randamentul motoarelor asincrone.
efficiency motors.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
REFERENCES [1]. Institutul National de Statistica (2008) - Anuarul
[1]. Institutul National de Statistica (2008) - Romanian Statistic al României;
Statistical Yearbook, 2008; [2]. Institutul National de Statistica (2009) - Anuarul
[2]. Institutul National de Statistica (2009) - Statistical Statistic al României;
Yearbook of Romania; [3]. Ivaşcu C.E. (1998) - Automatizari si protectia
[3]. Ivaşcu C.E. (1998) - Automation and protection of sistemelor electroenergetice, Ed. Orizonturi Universitare,
power systems, Academic Horizons Publishing, Timisoara, pag. 3-5;
Timisoara, pg. 3-5. 1998; [4]. *** - Strategia energetică a României pentru perioada
[4]. *** - Romanian Energy Strategy for the period 2007 – 2007 – 2020.
2020.
194
SECTION 2
ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
195
196
MODELING FOR USE OF WATER IN AGRICULTURE

/
MODELLAZIONE PER L’USO DELLE ACQUE IN AGRICOLTURA
1), 2) 3)
Prof. Eng. Trulli E. Prof. Eng. Ph.D. Torretta V. , Dr. Eng. Ph.D. Rada E.C. ,
4) 2)
Lect. Eng. Ph.D. Istrate I.A. , Prof. Eng. Papa E.A.
1)
University of Basilicata, Potenza / Italy; 2) University of Insubria/ Italy, 3) University of Trento/Italy, 4) University POLITEHNICA
Bucharest/Romania
Tel: +39-0971205153; E-mail: ettore.trulli@unibas.it
Abstract: The present paper examines and evaluates Sommario: Il presente lavoro esamina e valuta i risultati
the results of a survey carried out to define the criteria di un'indagine effettuata per definire i criteri per
for restoring the surface water of the karstic stream ripristinare l'acqua superficiale del torrente carsico
“Gravina” (Southern-Italy). The stream runs through a "Gravina" (Sud-Italia). Il ruscello scorre attraverso uno
watershed including several agricultural areas. The spartiacque tra cui diverse aree agricole. Il flusso mostra
stream shows an environmental heterogeneity which is una eterogeneità ambientale che è di grande valore per la
of great value to the conservation of biodiversity. The conservazione della biodiversità. L'analisi supporta una
analysis supports a more general water pollution strategia di controllo dell'inquinamento delle acque più
control strategy aimed at safeguarding natural water generale volta a salvaguardare la qualità dell'acqua
quality in the urbanized watershed with the aim, also, to naturale spartiacque urbanizzata, con l'obiettivo, inoltre, di
reuse partially the water in agriculture. The riutilizzare parzialmente l'acqua in agricoltura. La
methodology was based on the surface water sampling, metodologia si è basata sul campionamento superficie
quality parameter analysis and simulation by modelling. dell'acqua, l'analisi dei parametri di qualità e di
The variation and compatibility of wastewater discharge simulazione modellistica. La variazione e la compatibilità
and water stream quality were verified by using a model delle acque reflue sono state verificate utilizzando un
available in literature in function of biodegradable modello disponibile in letteratura in funzione del carico
pollutant load and dissolved oxygen. Several scenarios inquinante biodegradabile e ossigeno disciolto. Diversi
based on the fixed yield of treatment plants were scenari basati sul rendimento fisso di impianti di
examined. trattamento sono stati esaminati.
Keywords: modeling, water quality, wastewater Parole chiave: modellazione, qualità delle acque,
treatment, planning, agriculture trattamento delle acque reflue, pianificazione, agricoltura
INTRODUCTION INTRODUZIONE
The issues related to the quality of surface water Le questioni relative alla qualità dei corpi idrici
bodies and the strategies to adopt for limiting the impact superficiali e le strategie da adottare per limitare l'impatto
from the discharge of the effluents of urban, agricultural degli effluenti di origine urbana, agricola e industriale, sono
and industrial origin are extremely interesting and topical, estremamente interessanti e di attualità, non solo a causa
not only because of an increasing environmental sensitivity di una crescente sensibilità ambientale, ma anche e
but also and mainly in order to meet the legal requirements, soprattutto al fine di soddisfare i requisiti di legge, sia a
both on the Community and on the national scale [1]. livello comunitario che nazionale [1].
In this respect, several studies analysed the anthropic A questo proposito, diversi studi hanno analizzato le
influences on the quality of surface waters crossing influenze antropiche sulla qualità delle acque superficiali
urbanized basins and the analysis of the main pressure che attraversano bacini urbanizzati e l'analisi dei
components suited to the study of the quality of the waters componenti principali di pressione adatte per lo studio della
themselves and consequently, the whole environment [2]. qualità delle acque stesse [2].
Among the several pressure sources, the impacts due Tra le varie fonti di pressione, gli impatti dovuti alla
to the input of civil and industrial wastewaters are immissione dei reflui civili ed industriali sono
particularly important to the flow of the receiving body and particolarmente importanti per il flusso del ricevente e la
its diluting capacity. In order to protect the quality of sua capacità di diluizione. Al fine di tutelare la qualità delle
surface water it is crucial to prevent and reduce pollution acque superficiali è fondamentale per prevenire e ridurre
and implement the restoration of water bodies by l'inquinamento e attuare il ripristino dei corpi idrici
controlling all the anthropic factors, among which the controllando tutti i fattori antropici, tra cui risultano
correct management and functioning of wastewater fondamentali la corretta gestione e il funzionamento degli
treatment plants is very important. In a methodological impianti di trattamento delle acque reflue. In un approccio
approach of applied research, the development of metodologico di ricerca applicata, lo sviluppo di reti di
monitoring networks as well as modelling constitute monitoraggio e modellazione costituiscono strumenti
fundamental tools to analyze and assessing actions for fondamentali per l'analisi e valutazione delle azioni per la
the protection of water [3,4]. tutela delle acque [3,4].
The present study examines the results of a survey Il presente studio esamina i risultati di un monitoraggio
aimed at examining the basic elements of an action to volto a esaminare le azioni da intraprendere per
safeguard the quality of the stream “Gravina”, in the urban salvaguardare la qualità del torrente "Gravina", nell'area
urbana della città di Matera. La rete di flusso si trova
area of the town of Matera. The stream network is located
all'interno di una importante area naturale, importante dal
inside an important natural area, important under the
punto di vista turistico e dell'agricoltura.
touristic and agriculture point of view.
197
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIALI E METODI

The study area L’area di studio
The watershed of the stream “Gravina” in the urbanized Lo spartiacque del torrente "Gravina" nell'area
area of Matera is the object of the present survey; it is urbanizzata di Matera è l'oggetto della presente indagine; è
schematically represented in Figure 1. schematicamente rappresentato in figura 1.
The stream “Gravina” develops in the north-east area Il torrente "Gravina" si sviluppa nella zona nord-est
of the main watershed of the river Bradano, and crosses dello spartiacque principale del fiume Bradano, e attraversa
the border area between Apulia and Basilicata. The area la zona di confine tra Puglia e Basilicata. L'area di studio si
of study is mainly located in the territories of the town of trova principalmente nei territori del comune di Matera, in
Matera in Basilicata and the towns of Altamura and Basilicata e le città di Altamura e Santeramo in Puglia.
Santeramo in Apulia. All along the urbanized part of the Lungo tutta la parte urbanizzata del torrente, il suo letto
stream, its river-bed is extremely narrow and deep. fluviale risulta estremamente stretto e profondo.
Downstream from the town of Matera, the hydraulic A valle della città di Matera, la sezione idraulica è molto
section is greatly variable; in dry periods, hydraulic heights variabile; in periodi di siccità, le altezze idrauliche variano
vary between 0.1 and 1.5 metres, with flows between 0.1 tra 0,1 e 1,5 metri, con flussi tra 0,1 e 0,6 m3/ .
and 0.6 m3/sec. Il torrente "Jesce", alimentato dalle acque della Murgia,
The stream “Jesce”, fed by the waters of the Murgia, sfocia in questo tratto; è il principale affluente del torrente
flows into this area; it is the main tributary of the stream "Gravina". Il bacino idrografico a monte della città di Matera
“Gravina”. The catchment basin above the town of Matera è costituito principalmente da materiali argillosi, che
is mainly made up of clay materials, which favour the favoriscono il flusso superficie delle acque che,
surface flow of waters that, successively, collect in the successivamente, raccolgono negli anfratti della "Gravina".
ravines of the “Gravina”. The watershed surface can be La superficie spartiacque può essere valutata in circa 490
assessed here in about 490 km2 with a length of the main km2 con una lunghezza dell’asta principale di 27 chilometri.
line of 27 kilometres. The river-bed sections of the Le sezioni dell’alveo dei torrenti sono adeguati e
streams are adjusted and standardized with reinforced standardizzati con lastre di cemento armato per formare
concrete slabs to form a typical trapezoidal section. una tipica sezione trapezoidale.
The surface water bodies object of present study, I corpi idrici oggetto del presente studio, che
which cross a semi-dry climate area, show a stream-like attraversano una zona di clima semi-secco, mostrano un
regime, characterised by sudden floods due to short and regime di flusso simile, caratterizzato da improvvise
intense rainfalls. inondazioni dovute a piogge brevi e intense.
In the long dry periods, the flow is mainly made up of Nei lunghi periodi di siccità, il flusso è principalmente
the point sources produced in the urban and industrial costituito delle sorgenti puntiformi prodotte nelle aree
areas. The drainages of urban wastewaters originate in urbane e industriali. Gli scarichi di acque reflue urbane
the treatment plants serving the town of Matera, which sono originari di impianti di trattamento che servono la città
dump the treated effluents directly into the river-bed of the di Matera, che iscarica effluenti trattati direttamente nel
stream “Gravina”, and the urban plant serving the town of letto del torrente "Gravina", e l'impianto urbano che serve la
Altamura, which dumps into the stream “Jesce”. città di Altamura, che scarica nel torrente "Jesce".
Overall, a population of around 150,000 inhabitants is Nel complesso gli impianti di trattamento in questione
served. Only some of the commercial and industrial areas sono al servizio di una popolazione di circa 150.000 abitanti.
operating in the area are served by treatment plants. Solo alcune delle aree commerciali e industriali che operano
nell'area sono serviti da specifici impianti di trattamento.
Survey
The main activities of the survey are summarized as Il monitoraggio
follows. Le principali attività di monitoraggio ambientale che
• field measurements sono state svolte nel’ambito del presente lavoro sono:
• surface water quality analyses. • misure di campo
Water quality was determined on several samples • analisi della qualità delle acque superficiali.
collected at 20 stations located along the rivers. The La qualità dell'acqua è stata determinata su diversi
survey was carried out in a period of about 150 days. The campioni prelevati in 20 stazioni situate lungo i fiumi.
main physical and chemical parameters were: L'indagine è stata effettuata in un periodo di circa 150 giorni. I
temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, principali parametri fisici e chimici sono stati: temperatura, pH,
suspended solids, COD, total nitrogen, ammonia, nitrates, conducibilità elettrica, ossigeno disciolto, solidi sospesi, COD,
and orthophosphate. azoto totale, ammoniaca, nitrati, e ortofosfato.
Hydraulic flow measurement Flusso idraulico

The hydraulic flow was defined by using the data Il flusso idraulico è stato definito utilizzando i dati disponibili
available at the territory’s management bodies and the presso gli organi di gestione del territorio e raccogliendo i dati
data collected on the streams examined through a turbine raccolti sui flussi esaminati attraverso una turbina flussometro.
flow-meter. The hydraulic flow was directly measured at Il flusso idraulico è stato direttamente misurato in due momenti
two different times, at two sections located downstream of diversi, in due sezioni che si trovano a valle del principale
the main municipal wastewater treatment plant operating impianto di trattamento delle acque reflue municipali che
in the towns of Matera and Altamura. In figure 1 the study operano nei comuni di Matera e Altamura. Nella figura 1 è
area: the watershed of the stream “Gravina” in the town of presentata l'area di studio: lo spartiacque del torrente
Matera is presented. "Gravina", nel comune di Matera.
198
Fig. 1 - The study area: the watershed of the stream “Gravina” in the town of Matera
QUAL2K software-based modelling Modellazione basata su software QUAL2K

The main aim of modelling was the representation of L'obiettivo principale della modellazione era la
the current conditions of water quality observed during the rappresentazione delle attuali condizioni di qualità
measurement period. The simulation was useful in dell'acqua osservati durante il periodo di misurazione. La
assessing the state of qualitative parameters for a stretch simulazione è stata utile per valutare lo stato di parametri
of the river-bed of the stream “Gravina”, not easily qualitativi per un tratto di alveo del torrente "Gravina", non
accessible, for which it was not possible to acquire facilmente accessibili, per i quali non è stato possibile
measurements. effettuare misurazioni.
Simulations were carried out for the following Le simulazioni sono state effettuate per i seguenti
parameters: temperature, dissolved oxygen, parametri: temperatura, ossigeno disciolto, materia
biodegradable organic matter (as COD), ammonia and organica biodegradabile (come COD), ammoniaca e azoto
nitrate nitrogen. In order to carry out the modelling, the nitrico. Al fine di effettuare la modellazione, il software
QUAL2K software, version 2.07, was used [5]. QUAL2K, versione 2.07, è stato utilizzato [5].
Representation of the hydraulic scheme Rappresentazione del sistema idraulico

The hydraulic system taken into account is made up of Il sistema idraulico preso in considerazione è costituito
the stream “Gravina” and its tributary, the stream “Jesce”, dal torrente "Gravina" e il suo affluente, il flusso "Jesce",
for a river-bed length of about 3 km and 22 km per una lunghezza dell’alveo rispettivamente di circa 3 km
respectively. The modelling representation involved the e 22 km. La rappresentazione modellistica ha comportato il
splitting up of the two river branches into 75 reaches, frazionamento dei due rami del fiume in 75 tratti, che
which represent stretches of river that have constant rappresentano porzioni di fiume che hanno caratteristiche
199
hydraulic characteristics (e.g., slope, bottom width, etc.). idrauliche costanti (ad esempio, pendenza, larghezza
The hydraulic sections were considered with regular fondo, ecc). Le sezioni idrauliche sono state considerate
trapezoidal shapes. con forme trapezoidali regolari.
The model calibration was carried out on the basis of La calibrazione del modello è stata effettuata sulla
the data related to the geometry of the river, the headwater base dei dati relativi alla geometria del fiume, le
characteristics, the discharges and with reference to the caratteristiche dei punti sorgente, degli scarichi e con
measures collected in the campaign phases. riferimento alle misure raccolte nelle fasi campagna.
Table 1 reports the values adopted for the main La tabella 1 riporta i valori adottati per le principali
coefficients ruling the chemical variables of the model. In coefficienti che regolano le variabili chimiche del modello.
order to calculate the re-aeration process, the O'Connor- Per calcolare il processo di riaerazione, è stato utilizzato il
Dobbins model was used [6]. Assumed the morphology of modello O'Connor-Dobbins [6]. Assunta la morfologia del
stream, which is constituted by concrete trapezoidal torrente, che è costituito dal canale trapezoidale in
channel with low water height and natural small hydraulic calcestruzzo con altezza ridotta di acqua e modesta sezione
section with high water velocity, application of model does idraulica naturale con alta velocità di acqua, l’applicazione del
not take in account an increase of biological activity modello non ha tenuto in conto dell’aumento di attività
promoted by algal growth. biologica promossa dalla crescita delle alghe.
Table 1
Applied values of the kinetic parameters of the model
Parameters unit Value
Slow CBOD hydrolysis rate d -1 0.4
-1
Fast CBOD oxidation rate d 3.2
Organic nitrogen hydrolysis rate d -1 0.2
Nitrification rate for ammonia nitrogen d -1 1.2
Stream water quality Qualità dell'acqua

The stream “Gravina” downstream of the urban Il torrente "Gravina" a valle dello scarico urbano della
discharge of the town of Matera città di Matera
Downstream of the treatment plant serving the town A valle del depuratore che serve la città di Matera,
of Matera, the concentrations of the pollutant le concentrazioni dei parametri inquinanti mostrano
parameters usually show substantial increases with solitamente aumenti sostanziali rispetto alle
respect to the concentrations measured in the samples concentrazioni misurate nei campioni a monte dello
upstream from the same discharge. stesso scarico.
Values vary from 16,7÷20,7 to 51,5÷73,6 mgO2/l for I valori variano da 16,7÷20,7 a 51,5÷73,6 mgO2/l per il
the COD, from 0,50÷0,52 to 14,5÷30,8 mgN/l, for COD, da 0,50÷0,52 a 14,5÷30,8 mgN/l, per l'azoto
ammonia nitrogen. Electrical conductivity shows a ammoniacale. La conducibilità elettrica mostra una
sensible reduction, with values included between 733 sensibile riduzione, con valori compresi tra 733 e 967
and 967 µs/cm. ms/cm.
The processes of dilution and concentration of I processi di diluizione e la concentrazione degli
pollutants are strongly affected by the amount of inquinanti sono fortemente influenzati dalla quantità di
hydraulic flows of the treatment plant discharges, which, flussi idraulici degli scarichi dell'impianto di trattamento,
in the measurement period, constitute most of the water che, nel periodo di misurazione, costituiscono la maggior
outflow along the river-bed. parte del deflusso dell'acqua lungo il letto del fiume.
Further downstream, we observed a restoration of Più a valle, abbiamo osservato un ripristino delle
qualitative conditions, the concentrations of pollutants condizioni qualitative, le concentrazioni di inquinanti
tend to decrease, clearly because of diffusion and re- tendono a diminuire, chiaramente a causa di processi di
aeration processes . diffusione e riaerazione.
Immediately downstream of the discharge, we Immediatamente a valle dello scarico, abbiamo
observed a nearly instantaneous decrease in the osservato una riduzione quasi istantanea della
concentration of dissolved oxygen ascribable to the concentrazione di ossigeno disciolto ascrivibile alla
mixing of waters with greater flows characterised by miscelazione di acque con maggiori flussi caratterizzati da
lower concentration values. valori di concentrazione inferiori.
Immediately upstream of the confluence with the Immediatamente a monte della confluenza con il
stream “Jesce”, the concentration of the dissolved torrente "Jesce", la concentrazione dell'ossigeno
oxygen further tends towards a decrease, evidently disciolto tende verso una ulteriore diminuzione,
because of the process of degradation of the evidentemente a causa del processo di degradazione
biodegradable organic matter present in the secondary della sostanza organica biodegradabile presente negli
effluents, both in particulate and in dissolved forms. The effluenti secondari, sia nel particolato e in forme
average rates of oxygen consumption are about 0.02 disciolte. I tassi medi di consumo di ossigeno sono circa
mg/l*m. 0,02 mg/l*m.
The COD rises downstream of the discharge from the Il COD si rivela a valle dello scarico del depuratore e
treatment plant and then decreases. poi diminuisce.
The concomitant reduction of ammonia La concomitante riduzione delle concentrazioni di
concentrations with the increase of nitrate nitrogen ammoniaca con l'aumento di azoto nitrico evidenzia lo
highlights the development of nitrification processes. sviluppo di processi di nitrificazione.
The stream “Jesce” Il torrente "Jesce"
Downstream of the discharge of the treatment plant A valle dello scarico dell'impianto di depurazione che
serving the town of Altamura, the waters show a worse serve la città di Altamura, le acque mostrano una qualità
quality. peggiore.
200
The COD values reach 95,6 mgO2 /l, ammonia I valori di COD raggiungono 95,6 mgO2/l, l’azoto ammoniacale
nitrogen stabilizes at 57,7 mgN/l. Electrical conductivity si stabilizza attorno a 57,7 mgN/l. La conducibilità elettrica
shows values between 1123÷1182 µs/cm. mostra valori compresi tra 1123÷1182 ms/cm.
Dissolved oxygen shows a remarkable decrease L’ossigeno disciolto mostra una notevole diminuzione a
downstream of the plant serving the town of Altamura; valle dell'impianto che serve la città di Altamura; bassi livelli
low levels of dissolved oxygen are also recorded di ossigeno disciolto vengono registrati anche a valle della
downstream of the industrial area of “Jesce”, with zona industriale di "Jesce", con concentrazioni prossime a
concentrations next to 1÷2 mg/l. The average rates of 1÷2 mg/l. I tassi medi di consumo di ossigeno sono
oxygen consumption are between 0.01÷0.02 mgO2 /l*m. compresi tra 0,01÷0,02 mgO2/l*m.
We noticed a re-oxygenation of the waters further Abbiamo notato una riossigenazione delle acque più a valle
downstream and near the confluence with the stream e in prossimità della confluenza con il torrente "Gravina"; questa
“Gravina”; this was due to the adjustment of the large- situazione era dovuta alla regolarizzazione della sezione
section river-bed and of the hydraulic falls realised dell’alveo che risultava più larga e alla presenza di cascate
through water withdrawals works. The average rates of idrauliche realizzate attraverso opere di derivazione e prelievo
oxygenation are between 0.001÷0.003 mgO2 /l*m. idrico. I tassi medi di ossigenazione sono tra 0,001÷0,003 mgO2/l*m.
In other sections downstream, the COD stays almost In altre sezioni a valle, il COD rimane quasi costante,
constant, except for a reduction in the stretches of river- eccetto per una riduzione nei tratti di alveo in cui sono
bed where hydraulic falls are present. presenti alcuni salti idraulici.
Downstream of the treatment plant, ammonia nitrogen A valle del depuratore, l’azoto ammoniacale rimane
remains substantially constant, as well as the values of sostanzialmente costante, così come i valori di azoto
nitrate nitrogen; in the following stretches we observed a nitrico; nei seguenti tratti abbiamo osservato una lieve
slight reduction in ammonia and an increase in nitrate riduzione di ammoniaca e un aumento dell’azoto
nitrogen. nitrico.
Electrical conductivity, in the central and final fluvial La conducibilità elettrica, nei tratti fluviali centrale e
branches, remains steady with values between 1152 and finale, rimane stabile con valori compresi tra 1152 e 1156
1156 µs/cm. ms/cm.
The stream “Gravina” downstream of the confluence Il torrente "Gravina" a valle della confluenza con il
with the stream “Jesce” torrente "Jesce"
Downstream of the confluence with the stream A valle della confluenza con il torrente "Jesce",
“Jesce”, we found remarkable increases in the values of abbiamo riscontrato notevoli aumenti nei valori dei
pollutant parameters: COD concentrations vary from parametri inquinanti: le concentrazioni di COD variano dal
25.8÷29.9 to 43.8÷47.4 mgO2/l, those of ammonia 25,8÷29,9 a 43,8÷47,4 mgO2/l, quelli di azoto ammoniacale
nitrogen from 13.4÷13.5 to 26.7÷38.5 mgN/l. Electrical da 13,4÷13,5 fino a 26,7÷38,5 mgN/l. La conducibilità
conductivity increased weakly. elettrica è aumentata debolmente.
As far as dissolved oxygen is concerned, we Per quanto riguarda l'ossigeno disciolto, per questo
observed an effect of re-oxygenation, favoured by the parametro abbiamo osservato un effetto di riossigenazione,
mixing with the waters of the stream “Jesce”, favorito dalla miscelazione con le acque del torrente "Jesce",
characterised by a higher concentration of dissolved caratterizzata da una maggiore concentrazione di ossigeno
oxygen since, before the confluence, they cross natural disciolto in quanto, prima della confluenza, il torrente affluente
falls. The consumption rates of oxygen are included the è caratterizzato dalla presenza di alcune piccole cascate
stretches where it is required, between 0.02 ÷ 0.12 naturali. I tassi di consumo di ossigeno sono compresi i tratti in
mg/l*m and for the stretches where there is re- cui è richiesto, tra 0,02÷0,12 mg/l*m e per i tratti in cui vi è la
oxygenation between 0.001÷0.006 mg/l*m. riossigenazione tra 0,001÷0,006 mg/l*m.
RESULTS RISULTATI
The diagrams in Figure 2 represent the results. The I diagrammi di Figura 2 rappresentano i risultati.
diagram related to the flow reports the values assumed Il diagramma relativo al flusso riporta i valori assunti come
as the basis of the calculation: two increases are evident, base del calcolo: due aumenti sono evidenti, uno in
one in correspondence with the discharge of the treatment corrispondenza dello scarico del depuratore che serve la
plant serving the town of Matera, the other in città di Matera, l'altro in corrispondenza della confluenza
correspondence with the confluence of the stream “Jesce”. del torrente "Jesce".
Both the effects of the inflow of the wastewater Entrambi gli effetti del flusso dell'impianto di trattamento
treatment plant serving the town of Matera and the delle acque di scarico che serve la città di Matera e
inflow of the stream “Jesce” are clear. l'afflusso del torrente "Jesce" sono molto evidenti.
More specifically, the waters of the stream “Gravina”, Più in particolare, le acque del torrente "Gravina", a
downstream from the discharge of the plant of Matera, valle dello scarico dell'impianto di Matera, evidenziano una
show decreases in the values of dissolved oxygen and diminuzione nei valori di ossigeno e aumenti delle
increases in the concentrations of COD and ammonia concentrazioni di COD e azoto ammoniacale disciolto.
nitrogen. Oxygen is consumed by the processes of self L'ossigeno viene consumato dai processi di auto
purification of the water body. purificazione del corpo idrico.
After the confluence of the stream “Jesce”, the analysis on Dopo la confluenza del torrente "Jesce", l'analisi sul
the stream “Gravina” makes evidence an increases in torrente "Gravina" rende testimonianza di un aumento delle
the concentrations of oxygen, COD and ammonia. concentrazioni di ossigeno, COD e ammoniaca.
201
3
flow ( m / hour )
1500
1000
500
water temperature ( °C )
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
dissolved oxygen ( mg O 2 / l )
12
10
2
COD ( mgO2 / l )
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
ammonia nitrogen ( mg N / l )
50
40
30
20
10
0
nitric nitrogen ( mg N / l )
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 10 Sep 20 Sep 30 Sep 10 Oct 20 Oct
wastewater treatment plant discharge stream "Jesce"

distance ( m )
KEY 2007 / 09 / 13 05:20 P.M. 2007 / 10 / 13 00:45 P.M. simulated values

2007 / 09 / 20 10:15 A.M. 2007 / 10 / 13 03:00 P.M. stream “Jesce ” at the confluence with stream “Gravina ”
2007 / 09 / 20 05:00 P.M. 2007 / 10 / 16 10:20 A.M. wastewater treatment plant discharge
Fig. 2 - Observed and simulated water quality data of the stream “Gravina”, during the months of September and October 2007; diagrams
at the right side report the observed data of the Matera treatment plant discharge and the stream “Jesce” upstream the confluence with
stream “Gravina”
Increase of oxygen is due to the aeration from the L’aumento di ossigeno è dovuto alla aerazione legata
morphology of the confluence area, the increase in alla morfologia della zona di confluenza; l'aumento dei
polluting parameters is caused by the bad quality of parametri inquinanti è causato invece dalla cattiva qualità
drainage waters in the stream “Jesce” from urban delle acque di scarico ricevuto dalle correnti del fiume
202
effluents which are not sufficiently treated and from "Jesce" e costituite da effluenti urbani non sufficientemente
wastewaters from illegal point sources. trattati e da reflui non trattati e, con tutta probabilità, illegali.
In general, the simulated values of the analysed water In generale, i valori simulati dei parametri di qualità
quality parameters represent the observed data well. In dell'acqua analizzati rappresentano bene i dati osservati. In
particular, the simulated results satisfactorily represent particolare, i risultati simulati rappresentano soddisfacentemente
the variations in biodegradable organic matter and le variazioni di materia organica biodegradabile e ossigeno
dissolved oxygen. Nitrification processes are well traced disciolto. I processi di nitrificazione sono ben tracciate quando
when there are no sensible variations in ammonia non ci sono sensibili variazioni nella concentrazione di
concentration. Main problems of modelling process can ammoniaca. I principali problemi di processo di modellazione
be summarize as follows: possono riassumere come segue:
- applied values of oxidation rate do not allow to - i valori del tasso di ossidazione utilizzato nella simulazione non
represent the more strong path of stabilization of organic consentono di rappresentare il sensibile processo di stabilizzazione
matter; values higher than those described in literature della sostanza organica; valori superiori a quelli descritti in
(lower 3÷4) could be more suitable to represent the letteratura (inferiori di 3÷4) potrebbero essere più adatti a
process of readily biodegradable compounds; rappresentare il processo di composti facilmente biodegradabili;
- use of higher values of nitrification rate does not - l’uso di valori elevati del tasso di nitrificazione non consente
permit a good interpretation of more intensive observed una buona interpretazione del processo osservato nelle fasi
process, associated to an increase of nitrate; we in cui il processo è più accentuato, associato ad un
observe that oxygen concentration presents observed aumento di nitrato; osserviamo valori osservati di
value up to 60÷70 % of saturation. concentrazione di ossigeno fino al 60 ÷ 70% di saturazione.
Water restoration and use Recupero e uso dell’acqua
In order to manage the quality of surface waters in the Al fine di gestire la qualità delle acque di superficie nel
watershed studied, an analysis of a series of peculiar bacino studiato, è necessaria l'analisi di una serie di aspetti
aspects is required. peculiari.
Control pollution from point and non-point sources Controllo inquinamento da fonti puntuali e non puntuali
The first actions concern the control of pollution of Le prime azioni riguardano il controllo dell'inquinamento
urban wastewater and in particular: delle acque reflue urbane e in particolare:
• the assessment of how the treatment plants serving • la valutazione di come gli impianti di trattamento che
the urban areas of the towns of Matera and servono le aree urbane delle città di Matera e Altamura
Altamura are functioning; as far as the plant of funzionano; per quanto riguarda l'impianto di Altamura
Altamura is concerned, it is important to consider è interessante e importante considerare che lo scarico
that the discharge occurs in the territory of a nearby avviene nel territorio di una regione vicina con effetti
region with negative effects on the Lucanian territory; negativi sul territorio lucano;
• management control of treatment plants, with special • il controllo di gestione degli impianti di trattamento, con
reference to the discharge of effluents that were not particolare riferimento allo scarico di effluenti che non
depurated as envisaged by the rules and the discharge sono stati depurati come previsto dalle norme e allo
into river-beds of sludge in excess by the effluent. scarico in alvei di fanghi di supero.
Further specific aspects are: Ulteriori aspetti specifici sono:
• the collection of point discharges presently not • l’intercettazione e la raccolta degli scarichi puntuali
collected; attualmente non trattati;
• the control of pollution from diffused sources • il controllo dell'inquinamento da fonti diffuse drenanti
draining off from the urban areas and from the fuori dalle aree urbane e dalle aree utilizzate per le
areas used for agricultural and farming activities; attività agricole e di allevamento; durante i periodi
during rainy periods, these waters bring organic piovosi, queste acque portano inquinanti organici e
and inorganic pollutants, also through fertilizers and inorganici, anche per l’uso estensivo di fertilizzanti e
pesticides. pesticidi.
The remedial actions that mainly must be undertaken Le azioni correttive che devono essere intraprese
on the watershed scale are: prevalentemente su scala di bacino sono:
• the determination of the polluting loads produced by • la determinazione dei carichi inquinanti prodotti da aree
urban areas and collected by the sewage systems; urbane e raccolti dai sistemi fognari;
• the determination of polluting loads produced by • la determinazione dei carichi prodotti da aree industriali
industrial areas; inquinanti;
• the adjustment of sewage networks, for their • l'adeguamento delle reti fognarie, per il loro corretto
correct functioning during rainfall events. funzionamento soprattutto durante eventi piovosi.
• action for wastewater treatment: in order to obtain a • azioni per il trattamento delle acque reflue: per ottenere
better treatment of wastewaters, it is worth: un miglior trattamento dei reflui, risulta consigliabile;
• verifying the depurative capacity of the existing • verificare la capacità depurativa degli impianti esistenti
plants serving the urban areas; destinati alle aree urbane;
• checking the management activities of the existing • il controllo delle attività di gestione degli impianti di
treatment plants; depurazione esistenti;
• building new plants and upgrade the existing ones • costruzione di nuovi impianti e aggiornare quelli
in the industrial and commercial areas; esistenti nelle aree industriali e commerciali;
• assessing the solution to refine treated municipal • valutare la soluzione per affinare il trattamento di
secondary effluents in order to protect the quality of effluenti secondari comunali al fine di tutelare la qualità
surface waters and restore natural habitats; in this delle acque superficiali e ripristinare gli habitat naturali;
respect we should consider that the existing a questo proposito si deve considerare che l'impianto di
treatment plant of the secondary effluents is not yet trattamento esistente degli effluenti secondari non
used. viene ancora utilizzato.
203
A second aspect concerns the treatment of Un secondo aspetto riguarda il trattamento degli scarichi
discharges produced by industrial and commercial prodotti dalle aree industriali e commerciali. A questo
areas. In this respect we observe that the existing plants proposito si osserva che gli impianti esistenti spesso non
are not running. sono in esercizio.
An operational approach could envisage the refining Un approccio operativo potrebbe prevedere il trattamento
of the secondary effluents of the treatment plants with degli effluenti secondari degli impianti di trattamento con
techniques of phyto-treatment and lagoons, to be carried tecniche di fito-trattamento e lagune, da effettuare
out either in or outside the river-bed. The interventions in all'interno o al di fuori del letto del fiume. Gli interventi in
the river-bed could involve actions of re-oxygenation in alveo potrebbero comportare azioni di riossigenazione in
river-bed based on hydraulic techniques. As for the alveo basati su tecniche idrauliche. Per quanto riguarda la
feasibility of a constructed wetland plant, the main fattibilità di un impianto di fitodepurazione, i principali
problems concern the localization of the treatment area problemi riguardano la localizzazione della zona da trattare
(in and outside the river-bed) and the need to modify the (dentro e/o fuori il letto del fiume) e la necessità di
hydraulic flow. modificare artificialmente il deflusso idraulico.
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSIONI
In order to safeguard surface water quality in the Al fine di salvaguardare la qualità delle acque superficiali
urbanized area of Matera (Basilicata region, Southern nella zona urbanizzata di Matera (Basilicata, Italia
Italy) a survey was carried out to evaluate the basic meridionale) un monitoraggio è stato condotto per valutare
elements of planning action. gli elementi di base per la pianificazione degli interventi.
The negative effects of water pollution originating in Gli effetti negativi dell’inquinamento delle acque
the anthropic pressure are widely evident in the provenienti dalle aree urbanizzate sono ampiamente
watershed of the stream “Gravina”. During the summer evidenti nel bacino del torrente "Gravina". Durante l'estate e
and early autumn season, the effluent flows from inizio autunno, i flussi di effluenti dall’impianto municipale di
municipal wastewater treatment plant constitute the trattamento delle acque reflue costituiscono la maggior
largest part of the stream water. Furthermore, the parte del flusso del corso d’acqua. Inoltre, l'acqua inquinata
polluted water of the influent stream “Jesce” increases del torrente affluente "Jesce", aumenta ulteriormente il
the load to be controlled. carico di contaminanti da tenere sotto controllo.
Most of the measured parameters are characterized La maggior parte dei parametri misurati sono
by a value higher than the limits envisaged by law. The caratterizzati da un valore superiore ai limiti previsti dalla
conditions occurring in waters, above all the low legge. Le condizioni che si verificano nelle acque, soprattutto
concentrations of dissolved oxygen, nullify the presence le basse concentrazioni di ossigeno disciolto, annullano la
of most aquatic species. presenza della maggior parte delle specie acquatiche.
Simulation carried out by using the model QUAL2K La simulazione effettuata utilizzando il modello QUAL2K ha
allowed a good representation of water quality observed permesso una buona rappresentazione della qualità dell'acqua,
in field measures. con una buona corrispondenza fra valori calcolati e misurati in campo.
The described conditions clarify the necessity to Le condizioni descritte chiariscono la necessità di salvaguardare
safeguard the natural environment by understanding l'ambiente naturale attraverso la comprensione delle cause e di
the causes and eliminating the effects. An improvement eliminare gli effetti. Un miglioramento della qualità dell'acqua può
of the water quality could mainly be obtained through principalmente essere ottenuto attraverso il controllo del flusso
the control of the discharged polluted flow from inquinato scaricato dal bacino urbanizzato con il contributo di aree
urbanized watershed and agricultural and industrial agricole e industriali, sia durante il periodo secco che nel periodo
areas, during both the dry and the rainy period. Phyto- delle piogge. I trattamenti di fitodepurazione o l’uso di lagune per
treatment and lagoons of municipal secondary effluents depurare gli effluenti degli impianti di depurazione municipali,
could be an effective solution. When properly realized, potrebbero costituire una soluzione efficace. Se correttamente
such a system allows a reduction in the environmental realizzato, tale sistema consente una riduzione dell'impatto
impact and an improvement in the quality of the stream ambientale e un miglioramento della qualità delle acque del torrente,
waters to be used in safe way, also in agriculture. per poter essere utilizzate in sicurezza, anche per usi agricoli.
REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAFIA
[1]. EU (2000) - EEC Directive 2000/60, “Single Text on [1]. EU (2000) - EEC Directive 2000/60, “Single Text on
Environment”, Legislative Decree n. 152/2006, n. 4/2008, Environment”, Legislative Decree n. 152/2006, n. 4/2008,
Bruxelles, Belgium Bruxelles, Belgium
[2]. Simeonov V., Stratis J.A., Samara C., Zachariadis G., [2]. Simeonov V., Stratis J.A., Samara C., Zachariadis G.,
Voutsa D., Anthemidis A., Sofoniou M., Kouimtzis T. (2003) Voutsa D., Anthemidis A., Sofoniou M., Kouimtzis T. (2003)
- Assessment of the surface water quality in Northern - Assessment of the surface water quality in Northern
Greece, Water Research, 37, 4119-4124; Greece, Water Research, 37, 4119-4124;
[3]. Boyacioglu H., Boyacioglu H. (2007) - Surface Water [3]. Boyacioglu H., Boyacioglu H. (2007) - Surface Water
Quality Assessment, Methods Environ Monit Assess. 131, Quality Assessment, Methods Environ Monit Assess. 131,
371–376; 371–376;
[4]. Ouyang Y. (2005) - Evaluation of river water quality [4]. Ouyang Y. (2005) - Evaluation of river water quality
monitoring stations by principal component analysis. Water monitoring stations by principal component analysis. Water
Research, 39, 2621–2635; Research, 39, 2621–2635;
[5]. Chapra S.C., (1997) - Surface Water-Quality Modeling. [5]. Chapra S.C. (1997) - Surface Water-Quality Modeling.
WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston, USA. WCB/McGraw-Hill, Boston, USA.;
[6]. O'Connor D.J., Dobbins W.E. (1958) - Mechanism of [6]. O'Connor D.J., Dobbins W.E. (1958) - Mechanism of
Reaeration in Natural Streams. ASCE Transactions. Paper Reaeration in Natural Streams. ASCE Transactions. Paper
N. 2934. N. 2934.
204
A COMPARISON BETWEEN DIESEL AND FUEL OBTAINED FROM RECICLED WASTE

PLASTICS USED FOR FUELED DIESEL ENGINES
/
COMPARAREA MOTORINEI CU COMBUSTIBILI OBłINUłI DIN MASE PLASTICE
RECICLATE UTILIZABILI LA ALIMENTAREA MOTOARELOR DIESEL
1) 1) 2)
As. Ph.D. Eng. Popescu G.L. , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Filip N. , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Popescu V.
1)
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering / Romania
2)
Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Faculty of Materials and Environmental Engineering / Romania
Tel: 0743174196; E-mail: george.popescu@chem.utcluj.ro; georgepopescu60@gmail.com
Abstract: The paper presents the possibility to Rezumat: Lucrarea prezintă posibilitatea obŃinerii
obtain of some fuels resulted from plastic materials unor combustibili rezultaŃi din reciclarea deşeurilor de
waste recycling, the determination of some mase plastice, determinarea unor proprietăŃi fizico-
physicochemical properties of those and a comparison chimice ale acestora şi compararea rezultatelor obŃinute
of the obtained results with those specific to cu cele specifice motorinei comerciale. Acest concept de
commercial diesel fuels. This concept of recycling is a reciclare este o prioritate în unele Ńări cu un avans
priority in countries with an important technological tehnologic important şi care au în acelaşi timp preocupări
advanced and having in the same time major concerns majore legate de protecŃia mediului. Dacă procesarea
regard environment protection. Rrigorously controlling prin metoda pirolizei a materialelor plastice polimerice
the pyrolysis of plastic polymeric materials [1, 2, 3, 4, este atent controlată [1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12], în urma
9, 10, 11, 12], following the degradation reaction one reacŃiilor de degradare termică se obŃine în final:
can obtain at the final: • un amestec gazos care conŃine hidrocarburi saturate şi
• a gaseous blend that contains saturated and nesaturate;
unsaturated hydrocarbons; • un lichid care conŃine un amestec de hidrocarburi
• a liquid that contains a mixture of saturated and saturate, nesaturate şi aromatice;
unsaturated hydrocarbons; • un reziduu solid care conŃine în principal carbon;
• a solid residue that contains mainly carbon; • faza lichidă având proprietăŃi apropiate motorinelor, ea
• the liquid phase having properties close to the diesel putând fi utilizată ca şi combustibil la alimentarea
fuel, that can be used as fuel for diesel engines. motoarelor diesel.
Keywords: plastic materials, fuels, properties, viscosity, Cuvinte cheie: mase plastice, combustibili, proprietăŃi,
calorific power, diesel engine. viscozitate, putere calorifică, motor diesel.
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) waste are heated Deşeurile de polietilenă de joasă densitate (LDPE)
o
at temperatures of about 500 C in a pyrolysis installation sunt încălzite la temperaturi de cca. 500ºC într-o instalaŃie
[1, 2, 3, 4]. According to specialty literature, thermal de piroliză [1, 2, 3, 4]. Conform literaturii de specialitate,
degradation of polyethylene takes places in two stages, degradarea termică a polietilenei are loc în două etape,
after the first one viscous products are obtained (C5- C43, după prima etapă se obŃin produşi viscoşi (C5- C43, ~87%
~87% weight percent), while following the second one procente de masă), iar după a doua rezultă hidrocarburi
liquid hydrocarbons are formed (~74% weight percent) [1, lichide (~74% procente de masă) [1, 2, 9, 10, 12].
2, 9, 10, 12]. În figura 1 este prezentată diagrama experimentelor
Figure 1 presents the experiments diagram followed desfăşurate pentru obŃinerea combustibilului din LDPE,
in order to obtain the fuel from LDPE, data acquisition achiziŃionarea datelor legate de aceste procese şi analiza
regarding those processes and both the analysis of atât a datelor experimentale cât şi a produşilor rezultaŃi,
experimental data and of the resulted products, including incluzând aici şi caracterizarea acestora [5, 6, 7, 8].
here duels characterization [5, 6, 7, 8]. O valorificare superioară a deşeurilor de mase
A superior recovery of plastic materials wastes, such plastice, cum ar fi producerea de combustibili
as the production of fuels resembling diesel fuel have an asemănători motorinelor, are un rol important în
important role in natural resources conservation [11]. conservarea resurselor naturale [11].

The experimental stand and the description of Standul experimental şi descrierea echipamentelor
laboratory equipment used for fuel obtaining. de laborator utilizate la obŃinerea combustibilului
A pyrolysis installation has been realized on a Pe un stand de laborator s-a realizat o instalaŃie de
laboratory stand using a heating mantle Raypa X-250 piroliză încălzită electric cu ajutorul unui cuib de încălzire
with thermosetting stage system, with a maximum Raypa X-250 cu termostatare în trepte, cu o temperatură
o o
temperature heating stage of 450 C (fig. 2). maximă de încălzire de 450 C (fig. 2).
In order to determine with the best accuracy the În vederea determinării cât mai corecte a
conversion yield of solid LDPE in liquid phase, the parts randamentului de conversie din LDPE solidă în fază
used for installation have been weighted previously with lichidă, componentele utilizate la alcătuirea instalaŃiei au
a KERN EMB 200-3 weightings scale with a resolution of fost cântărite în prealabil cu ajutorul unui cântar KERN
1 mg and an analytical balance Precisa XT-220A with EMB 200-3 cu rezoluŃia de 1 mg şi o balanŃă analitică
resolution of 0.1 mg. The temperature control during Precisa XT-220A având o rezoluŃie de 0,1 mg. Controlul
pyrolysis process has been made using a digital temperaturii în procesul de piroliză s-a făcut utilizând un
o o
thermometer HI-95350 with a resolution of 0.1 C. termometru digital HI-95350 cu o rezoluŃie de 0,1 C.
For cooling and temperature control from Pentru răcirea şi controlul temperaturii din zona de
205
condensation area, a recirculation thermostatic bath condensare s-a utilizat o baie de apă termostatată cu
model DC-1006 with the temperature range between - recirculare model DC-1006 cu domeniul de păstrare al
o o o o o
10 C....95 C and a resolution of 0,05 C, will be used. As temperaturii între -10 C....95 C şi cu o rezoluŃie de
o
cooling agent it was used antifreeze with the 0,05 C. Ca agent de răcire s-a folosit lichid antigel cu
o o
recommended concentration for -20 C. concentraŃia recomandată pentru -20 C.
Fig. 1 - Pyrolysis process diagram, its control, data acquisition and data processing.
Fig. 2 - The electrically heated pyrolysis installation used [6]

1. Heating mantle; 2. Pyrolysis Flask; 3. Condenser; 4. Erlenmeyer flask;
5. Pyrolysis gas recovery bag; 6. Hose coolant; 7. Polyethylene waste.
In the first stage the conversion yield of solid LDPE În prima fază s-a calculat randamentul de conversie din
into liquid phase, residues and gases was calculated. fază solidă a granulelor de LDPE în fază lichidă, reziduuri
The following are the initial values of the masses solide şi gaz. In continuare sunt prezentate valorile iniŃiale
obtained by weighing the pyrolysis installation ale maselor obŃinute prin cântărirea componentelor
components and LDPE granules on which the yield was instalaŃiei de piroliză şi a granulelor de LDPE pe baza cărora
determined after conversion to the different phases of s-a determinat ulterior randamentul de conversie pentru
pyrolysis products [6]. diferitele faze ale produşilor de piroliză [6].
- condenser initial weight Gic = 221.8 g - masa iniŃială refrigerent Gir = 221,8 g
- Erlenmeyer glass initial weight Gie = 122.6 g - masa iniŃială pahar Erlenmeyer Gie = 122,6 g
- pyrolysis flask initial weight Gif = 122.8 g - masa iniŃială balon piroliză Gib = 122,8 g
- LDPE granules weight GLDPE = 100.015 g - masa granule LDPE GLDPE = 100,015 g
The weighting made at the final stage of pyrolysis Cântărirea făcută la finalul procesului de piroliză ne dă
process conducted to the following values: următoarele valori:
- condenser final weight Gfc = 222.3 g - masa finală refrigerent Gfr = 222,3 g
- Erlenmeyer glass final weight Gfe = 211.9 g - masa finală pahar Erlenmeyer Gfe = 211,9 g
- pyrolysis flask final weight Gff = 127.4 g - masa finală balon de piroliză Gfb = 127,4 g
206
Making the difference between the final weights and Făcând diferenŃele dintre masele finale şi cele iniŃiale,
the initial ones and knowing at the same time the weight cunoscând totodată masa de LDPE supusă procesului de
of LDPE subjected to pyrolysis we will obtain the final piroliză vom obŃine în final randamentul de conversie în fază
conversion yield in liquid phase, by relation (1); lichidă, cu relaŃia (1):
Where: Unde:
Gfr - Gir = 0.5 g Gfr - Gir = 0,5 g
Gfe – Gie = 89.3 g Gfe – Gie = 89,3 g
 [(G - G ic ) + (G fe - G ie )]  * 100
η liquid =  fc  [%] (1)
 G LDPE 
- it results the yield of conversion in liquid phase: - de unde rezultă randamentul de conversie în fază lichidă:
ηliquid = 89.787 [%] ηlichid = 89,787 [%]
Applying the mass conservation law, based on the Aplicând legea conservării masei, însumând la cele
data presented previously tacking into account the solid enumerate anterior şi masa reziduurilor solide am
weight the conversion yield in solid residue and gaseous determinat randamentul de conversie în reziduu solid şi în
phase has been also determined. fază gazoasă.
For solid residue we use relation (2): Pentru reziduul solid folosim relaŃia (2):
Where: Unde:
Gff - Gif = 4,6 g Gfb - Gib = 4,6 g
G ff − G if
η res = * 100 [%] (2)
G LDPE
ηres = 4,599 [%] ηrez = 4,599 [%]

The quantity of gas was determined by relation (3), Cantitatea de gaz se determină cu relaŃia (3), făcând
making the difference between the quantity of LDPE diferenŃa dintre cantitatea de LDPE introdusă în instalaŃia de
introduced into the pyrolysis installation and the sum of piroliză şi suma cantităŃilor de lichid şi reziduu solid rezultate
the liquid and solid residue resulted from the process. în proces.
 [(G fc - G ic ) + (G fe - G ie ) + (G ff − G if )]
η gas =   * 100 [%] (3)
 G LDPE 
ηgas = 5.614 [%] ηgaz = 5,614 [%]
Based on the measurements and the calculus it Pe baza măsurătorilor făcute şi a calculelor
resulted a superior conversion yield in liquid phase of efectuate a rezultat un randament superior la conversia
LDPE, comparing to the one found in the literature [5, 6], în fază lichidă a LDPE, faŃă de cel găsit în literatura de
the most probable cause being the low temperature specialitate [5, 6], cauza cea mai probabilă fiind
maintained into the condensation installation. menŃinerea zonei de condensare a instalaŃiei la
temperaturi mai coborâte.
RESULTS
The determination of the density and the REZULTATE
calculation of the relative density of the obtained fuel Determinarea densităŃii şi calculul densităŃii relative
The volume V occupied by the liquid phase measured a combustibilului obŃinut
with a measuring cylinder at ambiental temperature ta = Volumul V ocupat de faza lichidă măsurat cu cilindrul gradat
0
o
27.6 C was of 114 ml, in this case the density of liquid la temperatura ambientală ta = 27,6 C a fost de 114 ml, în
phase has been calculated with relation (4): acest caz densitatea fazei lichide a fost calculată cu relaŃia
(4):
ρ=
[(G fc - Gic ) + (G fe - G ie )] 3
[kg/m ] (4)
V
t t
ρ = 783,33 [kg/mc] or else ρ 4 = 0,78333 [kg/l] ρ = 783,33 [kg/mc] sau ρ 4 = 0,78333 [kg/l]
Because the temperature at which the determination Deoarece temperatura la care s-a făcut determinarea
o o
has been made is higher than 20 C it has been pentru calculul densităŃii este mai mare de 20 C s-a calculat
calculated the relative density of liquid phase obtained densitatea relativă a fazei lichide obŃinute din LDPE prin
from LDPE by pyrolysis with relation (5). piroliză cu relaŃia (5).
4 = ρ 4 + c (t − 15 )
ρ15 t
(5)
Where: în care:
ρ t4 - represents the relative density at the temperature of ρ t4 - reprezintă densitatea relativă la temperatura la care
the measurement; s-a efectuat determinarea;
t – is the working temperature; t - este temperatura de lucru;
c – is the correction coefficient c - este coeficientul de corecŃie a temperaturii
207
ρ 15
4 = 0 , 7933 ρ 15
4 = 0 , 7933
Comparing the density obtained in this way with the Comparând densitatea obŃinută prin metoda de calcul
density presented in table 1, we were able to estimate that arătată anterior, cu densităŃile prezentate în tabelul 1 am
the density of liquid phase obtained from LDPE by pyrolysis putut estima că densitatea fazei lichide obŃinute din LDPE
are situated between the density of gasoline and diesel prin piroliză se încadrează între densitatea benzinelor şi a
fuels. motorinelor.
Table 1
The relative density values of some fuels.
Fuel The relative density [kg/l]
Gasoline 0,682 – 0,767
Diesel 0,820 – 0,910
Experimental determination of density and viscosity Determinarea experimentală a densităŃii şi viscozităŃii

For experimental determination of the density and Pentru determinarea experimentală a densităŃii şi
viscosity we used the SVM viscometer, an apparatus that viscozităŃii s-a folosit viscozimetrul SVM 3000, aparatul
measure the dynamic and cinematic viscosity of fuels măsoară viscozitatea dinamică şi densitatea
and oils respectively, and the results are provided as combustibililor, respectiv a uleiurilor, iar rezultatele le
tables. redă tabelar.
The determination were made in the same conditions Determinările s-au efectuat în aceleaşi condiŃii pentru
for diesel fuel as for the liquid pyrolysis product from motorină şi faza lichidă a produsului obŃinut prin piroliză
4 4
LDPE, namely atmosphere pressure of Pa = 9.74⋅10 [Pa] din LDPE, adică presiunea atmosferică de Pa = 9,74⋅10
o o
and environment temperature of tma = 27,6 C. [Pa] şi temperatura mediului ambiant tma = 27,6 C.
The results obtained following the measurements for Rezultatele obŃinute în urma măsurătorilor pentru
dynamic and cinematic viscosity for diesel fuel and the viscozităŃile dinamice şi cinematice ale motorinei şi
fuels from LDPE are presented in figure 3 and 4. The combustibilului din LDPE sunt prezentate în figurile 3 şi
variation of the density of the studied fuels as a function 4. VariaŃia densităŃii combustibililor studiaŃi în funcŃie de
o o
of temperature, including the density calculated for 15 C temperatură, inclusiv a densităŃii calculate la 15 C pentru
for the obtained by LDPE pyrolysis is presented in the combustibilul obŃinut prin piroliză din LDPE, este redată
figure 5. în figura 5.
Fig. 3 - Variation of dynamic viscosity of fuels analyzed by temperature [6].
Fig. 4 - Variation of kinematic viscosity of fuels analyzed by temperature [6].
208
Fig. 5 - Fuel density variation analyzed by temperature [6]
Experimental determination of the flash point Determinarea experimentală a temperaturii de

(Penski-Martens) inflamabilitate (Pensky-Martens)
For the determination of this parameter it was used Pentru determinarea acestei mărimi s-a utilizat
Automated Pensky Martens Closed Cup Flash Point analizorul cu creuzet închis HFP 339, aparatul
Analyzer HFP 339. The determination was made funcŃionând după metoda Persky-Martens. Determinarea
according to ISO 2719A norms. If during the duration of s-a făcut conform normelor ISO 2719A. Dacă pe durata
measurements the atmospheric pressure differ from101.3 efectuării determinărilor presiunea atmosferică este
kPa (760 mmHg), it is necessary a correction of the diferită de 101,3 kPa (760 mmHg), este necesară
determined values with the relation (6): corectarea valorii determinate cu relaŃia (6):
Tinf = Tinf mas + 0,25 ⋅ (101,3 − p atm ) (6)
where: unde:
Tinf mas is the measured inflammability temperature, in Tinf mas este temperatura de inflamabilitate măsurată, în
Celsius degrees. grade Celsius;
patm is the atmospheric pressure, express in kPa. patm este presiunea atmosferică exprimată în kPa.
After the recalculation of the flash point in this way, the După recalcularea în acest mod a temperaturii de
o
resulted values will be rounded with a 0.5 C. Table 2 inflamabilitate, valorile rezultate se vor rotunji cu o
o
presents the data resulted following the measurements precizie de 0,5 C. În tabelul 2 sunt prezentate datele
and data correction. rezultate în urma măsurătorilor şi datele corectate.
Table 2
The values obtained for flashpoint.
Tested fuel Flash point measured Atmospheric pressure Flash point corrected
[oC] [kPa] [oC]
Diesel fuel 55 97,3 56,5
LDPE fuel 44 97,3 45,5
Experimental determination of cetane number Determinarea experimentală a cifrei cetanice

Experimental determination was made with the help of Determinarea experimentală s-a făcut cu ajutorul
the stand for the evaluation of cetane number standului pentru evaluarea cifrei cetanice WAUKESHA
WAUKESHA CFR-F5, according to norms ASTM D613 CFR-F5, în conformitate cu normele ASTM D613 şi ISO
and ISO 5165, those being the standards for the 5165, acestea fiind standardele de determinare a cifrei
determination of cetane number of fuels for Diesel cetanice din combustibilii pentru motoarele Diesel.
engines. Cetane number (CN) determined for the fuel Cifra cetanică (CC) determinată a combustibilului obŃinut
obtained by LDPE pyrolysis is: prin piroliza din LDPE este:
CN=66 CC=66
The diesel engines function well with diesel fuel with Motoarele diesel funcŃionează bine cu motorină cu CC
CN varying in the range 40 and 55. A higher cetane cuprinsă între 40 şi 55. O cifră cetanică mai mare
number means a faster self-ignition that allows the înseamnă o autoaprindere mai rapidă, ceea ce permite
realization of engines with higher speed rate or, at the sau realizarea unor motoare cu turaŃii mai mari, sau, la
same speed rate, offer longer time for burning aceeaşi turaŃie, oferă mai mult timp pentru completarea
209
completion, resulting smaller noxious emissions. arderii, rezultând emisii de noxe mai mici.
Experimental determination of sulfur content Determinarea experimentală a conŃinutului de sulf

For the determination of sulfur content from the Pentru determinarea conŃinutului de sulf din
fuel resulted following the pyrolysis process of LDPE combustibilul rezultat în urma procesului de piroliză din
it was used the UV-fluorescence (UVF) Antek 9000 LDPE s-a folosit analizorul de sulf prin fluorescenŃa UV
Analyzer. ANTEK 9000.
The used method is based on pyrochemiluminescence. Metoda folosită fiind piro-chemiluminescenŃă,
In this case, the apparatus measure the content of sulfur aparatul măsoară conŃinutul de sulf în concentraŃii
in very small quantities in gasoline, diesel fuel, light oils foarte mici în: benzină, motorină, uleiuri uşoare şi alte
and other light hydrocarbons, including GPL, according to hidrocarburi uşoare, inclusiv în GPL, în concordanŃă cu
ASTM D-5453, ASTM D-4629 şi SR EN ISO 20846-04. ASTM D-5453, ASTM D-4629 şi SR EN ISO 20846-04.
The sulfur quantity determined in the analyzed product Cantitatea de sulf determinată în produsul analizat a
was: fost:
S = 2 [mg/kg] sau 2 [ppm] S = 2 [mg/kg] sau 2 [ppm]
Experimental determination of Cold Filter Plugging Determinarea experimentală a temperaturii limită de
Point filtrabilitate
For this determination it was used the apparatus FPP Pentru această determinare s-a folosit aparatul FPP
5Gs, which provide results according to the testing 5Gs, care livrează rezultatele în conformitate cu
methods EN 116, 309 IP şi ASTM D 6371. The value metodele de testare EN 116, 309 IP şi ASTM D 6371.
Temperatura limită de filtrabilitate obŃinută pentru
obtained for cold filter plugging point: combustibilul LDPE a fost:
0 0
CFPPLDPE = +4 [ C] TLFLDPE = +4 [ C]
Experimental determination of calorific power Determinarea experimentală a puterii calorifice
For the determination of calorific power of the La determinarea puterii calorifice a combustibilului
analyzed fuel it was used calorimeter with mantle analizat s-a folosit calorimetrul cu mantaua menŃinută la
maintained at constant temperature, model PARR temperatură constantă PARR CALORIMETER 6200. În
CALORIMETER 6200. Following the measurements for urma măsurătorilor efectuate pentru determinarea puterii
the determination of calorific power for the fuel obtained calorifice a combustibilului obŃinut din LDPE a rezultat
from LDPE the resulted value was obtained: valoarea:
Qs LDPE = 45735,35 [kJ/kg] Qs LDPE = 45735,35 [kJ/kg]
For diesel fuel, the usual value of calorific power is: Pentru motorină valoarea uzuală a puterii calorifice este:
Qs M = 44800 [kJ/kg] Qs M = 44800 [kJ/kg]
Table 3 presents the results for the determinations În tabelul 3 sunt prezentate rezultatele determinărilor
undertaken for the fuel resulted by the pyrolysis of LDPE efectuate pentru combustibilul rezultat prin piroliza LDPE
comparing to some quality specifications of diesel fuel. comparativ cu unele specificaŃii de calitate ale motorinei.
Table 3
The specifications of diesel fuel compared with those of the LDPE fuel analyzed [6].
Value
Properties UM
Diesel fuel LDPE fuel
Density @ 15˚C kg/m3 820 ÷ 845 793,3
Cetane number, min. - 51,0 66
Cetanic index, min. - 46,0 -
Classes Classes Classes
Classes
(summer) (winter) (summer)
Cold Filter Plugging Point ˚C (winter)
ABC DE ABC
DE
+5 0 -5 -10 -15 +4------
Flash point (Pensky-Martens), min. ˚C > 55 > 44
Sulphur content, max. mg/kg 10 2
Viscosity @ 40 ˚C mm2/s 2.00 ÷ 4.50 2,0384
Copper strip corrosion clasa/
1 (1)
(3 h @ 50 ˚C) class
The most used method for the obtaining of liquid Metoda cea mai utilizată pentru obŃinerea
fuels from plastic materials waste, and from LDPE also combustibililor lichizi din deşeurile de mase plastice,
is pyrolysis in the absence of oxygen in the presence or implicit şi din LDPE, este piroliza în absenŃa oxigenului
in the absence of catalysts. cu utilizarea sau nu a catalizatorilor.
Following the experiments there were obtained În urma experimentelor s-au obŃinut combustibili lichizi
liquid fuels with properties close to the fuels used in cu proprietăŃi apropiate de ale combustibililor utilizaŃi în
internal combustion engines. motoarele cu ardere internă.
The obtained yield of conversion in liquid phase Randamentul de conversie în fază lichidă obŃinut prin
obtained by the reduction and the control of the reducerea şi controlul temperaturii din zona de
temperature from the condensation area is superior condensare este superior datelor întâlnite în literatura de
comparing to the data from scientific literature. specialitate.
210
The calculated and corrected density to the relative Densitatea calculată şi corectată la densitatea relativă
density of fuel is fitted between the specific density of a combustibilului obŃinut se încadrează între densităŃile
gasoline and diesel fuel. specifice benzinei şi motorinei.
The calorific power of the new fuel is higher than the Puterea calorifică a noului combustibil este mai mare
one of diesel fuel with 935,35 kJ/kg, due to the decât cea a motorinelor cu 935,35 kJ/kg, cauzele cele
presence in the fuels from LDPE of light hydrocarbons mai probabile fiind prezenŃa în compoziŃia combustibilului
specific to gasoline with higher energetic power and to din LDPE a hidrocarburilor uşoare specifice benzinelor cu
hydrocarbon with carbon number between C24 - C35 valoare energetică mai mare şi a hidrocarburilor cu
which increase the concentration of carbon that enter număr de carbon cuprins între C24 - C35 care măresc
into the combustion process. concentraŃia carbonului intrat în procesul arderii.
The determinations and measurements undertaken Determinările şi măsurătorile făcute evidenŃiază faptul
put into evidence the fact that this fuel obtained in the că acest combustibil obŃinut în laborator poate fi utilizat în
laboratory can be used in Diesel engines. motoarele Diesel.
The production of the fuels from plastic material ProducŃia combustibililor din deşeuri de mase plastice
waste save the stocks of fossil fuels and reduce the conservă stocurile de combustibili fosili şi reduc emisiile
emissions of carbon in the case of the utilization of de carbon în cazul utilizării acestora la obŃinerea de
those materials to the obtaining of alternative fuels. combustibili alternativi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT MULłUMIRI
This paper was supported by the Post-Doctoral Această lucrare a beneficiat de suport financiar prin
Programme POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137516, project co- programul Post-Doctoral POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137516, proiect
funded from European Social Fund through the Human cofinanŃat din Fondul Social European prin Programul
Resources Sectorial Operational Program 2007-2013. OperaŃional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane.
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212
RESEARCH ON COPPER IONS REMOVAL FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER

USING ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLY NANOMATERIALS
/
CERCETĂRI PRIVIND ÎNDEPĂRTAREA IONILOR DE CUPRU DIN APA UZATĂ INDUSTRIALĂ
UTILIZÂND NANOMATERIALE NEPOLUANTE
1) 2) 1)
Lect. Ph. D. Eng. Covaliu C. , Ph. D. Chim. Bunghez I.R. , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Biriş S.Şt. ,
1)
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Paraschiv G.
1)
2)
INCDCP-ICECHIM Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0722791791; E-mail: cristina_covaliu@yahoo.com
Abstract: In the context of heavy metals pollution, Rezumat: În contextul poluării cu metale grele,
environmental friendly adsorbants having nanometer adsorbanŃii nepoluanŃi având dimensiuni nanometrice
size represent an important alternative to conventional reprezintă o alternativă importantă faŃă de metodele
wastewater treatment methods from both economical convenŃionale de epurare a apelor, atât din punct de
and efficiency points of view. Thus, was evaluated the vedere economic, cât şi din punctul de vedere al
potential of two nanomaterials (maghemite, γ-Fe 2O3 eficienŃei. În acest sens, a fost evaluat potenŃialul a două
and its corresponding hybrid, γ-Fe 2O3- poli-DL- nanomateriale (maghemită, γ-Fe 2O3 şi hibridul
alanine) for copper ions removal from wastewater, at corespunzător, γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanină) de îndepărtare a
room temperature. ionilor de cupru dintr-o apă uzată, la temperatura camerei.
Keywords: wastewater treatment, nanomaterials, heavy Cuvinte cheie: epurarea apei, nanomateriale, metale
metals, copper ions grele, ioni de cupru
Industrial wastewater is considered the larger source Apa uzată industrială este considerată cea mai mare
of water environment pollution. sursă de poluare a mediului acvatic.
The increase of industrial activities has conducted to Creşterea activităŃilor industriale a generat volume
the generation of large volumes of wastewater containing mari de apă uzată cu conŃinut de metale grele, care,
heavy metals which were discharged into rivers and deversate în râuri şi în lacuri, au condus la apariŃia unor
lakes causing serious problems to water environment probleme grave ale mediului acvatic, cu efecte negative
with negative effects with respect to the ecosystems and asupra ecosistemelor şi a sănătăŃii oamenilor. Câteva
humans health. Some of the main sources of pollution dintre sursele principale de poluare cu metale grele sunt
with heavy metals are presented in Fig. 1. prezentate în Fig. 1.
The improper treatment applied generally to these Tratamentul necorespunzător aplicat în general
wastewaters has lead to the pollution of surface and acestor ape uzate a condus la poluarea apei de
underground water with various heavy metals like: suprafaŃă şi a celei subterane cu diferite metale grele ca,
cadmium, copper, mercury, zinc, nickel, lead, etc. de pildă, cadmiu, cupru, mercur, zinc, nichel, plumb, etc.
Copper is used for manufacture of alloys and wires for Cuprul este utilizat pentru obŃinerea aliajelor şi a firelor
various industries such as: electrotechnics, electrical, etc. pentru multe industrii, ca de exemplu: electrotehnică,
According to statistics, electronics and electrical electronică etc. Conform statisticilor, industriile
engineering industries use approximately 60% of the total electrotehnică şi inginerie electrică utilizează circa 60% din
quantity of copper processed in industry. cantitatea de cupru procesată în industrie.
Fig. 1 – The main sources of pollution with heavy metals
213
Fig. 2- The distribution of copper production in the world [4]
At a global level, the distribution of copper production La nivel global, distribuŃia producŃiei de cupru este
is represented in Fig. 2. reprezentată în Fig.2.
Effluents containing copper as pollutant results from EfluenŃii cu conŃinut de cupru drept poluant rezultă din
various industries such as: mining and metallurgy, diferite industrii, cum ar fi minerit, metalurgie, fabricarea
explosives manufacturing, pesticides manufacturing, explozibililor, fabricarea pesticidele, petrochimie, industria
petrochemistry, dyes manufacturing, etc. Other sources vopselurilor, etc. Alte surse de poluare sunt efluenŃii
of copper pollution are: effluents from tailing and flotation rezultaŃi de la celulele de decantare sau de flotaŃie,
cells, bled electrolyte from electro-refining plant, electroliŃii uzaŃi de la electrorafinare, de la staŃiile de
wastewater treatment plants, acid spillage from sulphuric epurare, de la instalaŃiile de acid sulfuric, de la depozitarea
acid plant, and mine tailing disposal of fly ash, disposal of cenuşilor zburătoare provenite din industria minieră, de la
municipal and industrial waste, etc. [1]. depozitarea deşeurilor municipale şi industriale [1].
Taking into account the major concern regarding Având în vedere preocuparea majoră legată de
heavy metals toxicity and carcinogenicity and the toxicitatea metalelor grele şi de cerinŃele stricte referitoare
stringent requirements for removal of heavy metals from la îndepărtarea metalelor grele din apele uzate industriale,
industrial wastewater it is necessary the development of este necesară dezvoltarea unor metode de tratament, care
efficient, cost-effective and innovative ways of treatment. să fie eficiente, economice şi noi.
As a result of the efforts of researchers over the world Ca urmare a eforturilor depuse de cercetătorii din
in the field of wastewater treatment, have been întreaga lume, care activează în domeniul epurării apelor,
discovered and developed many technologies with au fost descoperite şi dezvoltate mai multe tehnologii de
varying degrees of success, but recently studies succes în acest sector, dar studii recente au avut ca scop
published have as their primary goal the removal of principal eliminarea metalelor grele din apele uzate cu
heavy metals from wastewater using nanomaterials. The ajutorul nanomaterialelor.
adsorption technique for wastewater treatment has Tehnica bazată pe adsorbŃie în scopul epurării apelor a
become more popular in recent years owing to its devenit mai cunoscută în ultimii ani datorită eficienŃei sale
efficiency in the removal of pollutants very stable in water de îndepărtare a poluanŃilor foarte stabili şi imposibil de
and impossible to be decomposed by biological methods. eliminat prin metode biologice.
Among the various technologies for water depollution, FaŃă de alte tehnologii utilizate în scopul depoluării
adsorption is consider better because of convenience, apei, adsorbŃia este considerată mai bună deoarece
easy operation and simplicity of design. implică o proiectare simplă şi o operare facilă.
Further, this process can remove/minimize different Mai mult decât atât, acest procedeu poate
type of pollutants and thus it has a wider applicability in elimina/minimaliza diferiŃi agenŃi poluanŃi, având, astfel, o
water pollution control. Some general procedures for aplicabilitate mai largă în domeniul controlului poluării apei.
copper ions removal from wastewater are presented in În Tabelul 1 sunt descrise câteva proceduri generale de
Table 1. îndepărtare a ionilor de cupru din apa uzată.
Sources of heavy metals and their cycling in the Sursele de metale grele şi circuitul lor în ecosistem sunt
ecosystem are presented in Fig. 3. It should be noted prezentate în Fig. 3. Se poate remarca tendinŃa de
that the content of heavy metals generally builds up from acumulare a conŃinutului de metale grele de sus în jos; cei
up to bottom, indicating the vulnerability of humans to mai vulnerabili la acŃiunea toxică a metalelor grele fiind
heavy metal toxicity. oamenii.
In this study were investigated two environmental friendly În acest articol au fost investigate două nanomateriale
nanomaterials in order to demonstrate their efficiency as nepoluante, în scopul demonstrării eficienŃei de
adsorbants for removal of copper ions from wastewater. îndepărtare a ionilor de cupru dintr-o apă uzată.
214
Fig. 3 - The cyle of heavy metals into the the ecosystem components including soil-water-air
Table 1
General procedures for copper ions removal from wastewater
Procedures Description
Is based on the effectively removal from aqueous solution of copper ions with lime as hydroxides
according to the following reaction:
Cu2+ + 2(OH)- → M(OH)2
1. Precipitation The reaction is influenced by the concentration of the copper ions and the pH of the solution.
The precipitation takes place over a range of pH values with the formation of hydrate oxides.
This technique is often use in industry for removal of copper ions from solution [5].
Moreover for the precipitation of copper ions could be used several organic compounds [8].
It is used for removal of copper ions from wastewater.
It is economical only for recovery of copper and recycling of water in the electroplating processes.
2. Ion exchange
Otherwise, it is expensive because involves the regeneration of the resin and the disposal and
depollution of large volumes of the solution used for regeneration.
The recovery of copper ions from solution by transformation to its elemental metallic state through
3. Electrochemical
electrochemical reduction [6].
reduction
An example which describes this procedure is the reaction of copper ions with iron:
(Cementation)
Cu2+ + Fe0 → Cu0 + Fe2+
One of the most important thing in flotation is the choosing of suitable surfactants.
4. Flotation The suitable surfactants have distinct advantages when dealing with large volume of highly
contaminated wastes that are quite dilute in the copper ions [8].
When a substance is transferred from one liquid into another liquid phase form a process is called
solvent extraction. The liquid-liquid partition of this process is form in the equilibrium stage.
A substance with solvent properties used in a solution of a suitable diluent is named extractant.
5. Solvent extraction A substance that is used to dissolve the extractant and improve its physical properties is named
diluent. The solvent is formed by the mixing of extractant and diluent together.
In usually systems an aqueous solution is mixed with an organic solvent capable of dissolving the
substance of the interest.
The adsorption process occurs at the interface of an adsorbate (the substance being adsorbed) and
an adsorbant or adsorbent (adsorbing material) [7].
6. Adsorption The list of adsorbant materials is very wide and contains activated carbon, clay, flyash etc.
For copper removal from water some of the adsorbants used are: polyvinyl benzene trimethyl
ammonium chloride [9], kaoline and montmorillonite [3] etc.
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALE ŞI METODE

The adsorbants used for testing of copper ions AdsorbanŃii utilizaŃi pentru testarea îndepărtării ionilor
removal from wastewater were maghemite, γ-Fe2O3 and de cupru din apele uzate au fost maghemita, γ-Fe2O3 şi
its corresponding hybrid, γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanine. Their hibridul corespunzator, γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanina. Sinteza
synthesis and characterization published elsewhere [2]. şi caracterizarea lor a fost publicată într-un alt jurnal [2].
215
2+ 2+
Adsorption of copper ions (Cu ) from wastewater was AdsorbŃia ionilor de cupru (Cu ) din apele uzate a fost
investigated at different periods of time by using ICP-MS investigată la diferite intervale de timp prin tehnica ICP-
technique. MS.
For the evaluation and comparison of the adsorption În scopul evaluării şi comparării capacităŃii de
capacity of the two studied samples, a synthetic solution adsorbŃie a celor două probe studiate, s-a utilizat o
of wastewater prepared in the laboratory has been used, soluŃie sintetică de apă uzată preparată în laborator,
2+ 2+
having an initial concentration of 1 g Cu /L. The având o concentraŃie iniŃială de 1 g Cu /L. Investigările
o o
investigations were done at room temperature (25 C). s-au realizat la temperatura camerei (25 C).
0
Wastewater samples were filtered and stored at 4 C. Probele de apă uzată au fost filtrate şi depozitate la
0
Before ICP-AES analysis, in the samples was added 4 C. Înainte de efectuarea analizei ICP-AES, în probe s-a
(1ml) HNO3. Water samples were analyzed without adăugat (1ml) HNO3 concentrat. Probele de apă s-au
dilutions. analizat fără a se mai face diluŃii.
A Varian Liberty 110 Series spectrometer was used for S-a utilizat pentru analizele ICP-AES un spectrometru
the ICP-AES analysis. Varian Liberty 110.
ICP - AES is a method requiring disaggregation ICP–AES este o metodă ce necesită dezagregarea
(mineralization) samples. Inductively coupled plasma (mineralizarea) probelor. Plasma cuplată inductiv este o
atomic emission is a source that can be used, in sursă de emisie atomică, ce poate fi utilizată, în principiu,
principle, to determine the concentration of elements in pentru determinarea concentraŃiei elementelor din probe.
the samples. This method has a linearity range spanned Metoda prezintă un domeniu de linearitate întins pe 5-
5-6 orders of magnitude, so it can theoretically be used to 6 ordine de mărime, astfel încât ea poate fi, teoretic,
determine both major components and impurities from folosită pentru determinarea atât a componenŃilor majori,
the sample. cât şi a impurităŃilor din probă.
Samples were nebulized and the aerosol was Probele sunt nebulizate, iar aerosolul obŃinut, transportat
transported in plasma. Characteristic spectral emission în plasmă. Liniile spectrale de emisie caracteristice sunt
lines are produced by a radio frequency generator produse de un generator de radiofrecvenŃă cu plasmă
inductively coupled plasma (ICP). The spectra are cuplată inductiv (ICP). Spectrele sunt dispersate de un
recorded by a spectrometer and the intensity of lines are spectrometru, iar intensităŃile linilor, monitorizate de
monitored by detectors. The signals from the detectors detectori. Semnalele de la detectori sunt procesate şi
are processed and controlled by a computer. controlate de către un computer.
The radiation intensity is proportional to the Intensitatea radiaŃiei este proporŃională cu
concentration of each element in the sample and is concentraŃia fiecărui element în probă şi se recalculează
recalculated using a set of calibration curves in order to intern dintr-un set de curbe de calibrare pentru a se
obtain directly the measured concentrations. obŃine direct concentraŃiile măsurate.
Standard used for the testing of the copper ions Standardul utilizat pentru determinarea îndepărtării
removal from synthetic wastewater was: SR EN ISO ionilor de cupru din apa uzată a fost SR EN ISO 11885-
11885-2009 "Water Quality. Determination of selected 2009 "Calitatea apei. Determinarea elementelor selectate
elements by optical emission spectrometry with inductively prin spectroscopie de emisie optică cu plasmă cuplată
coupled plasma (ICP-AES). The analyses were recorded inductiv (ICP-OES)". Analizele au fost înregistrate
using spectrometer ICP-AES Varian Liberty 110. folosind spectrometru ICP-AES Varian Liberty 110.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REZULTATE ŞI DISCUłII

The adsorption capacity evaluation of the two samples Evaluarea capacităŃii de adsorbŃie a celor două probe
was done by measuring the evolution of copper ions s-a realizat prin măsurarea concentraŃiilor ionilor de cupru
concentrations during 140 min. timp de 140 de minute.
2+
For both investigated adsorbants, the values of Cu Pentru ambele probe de adsorbanŃi investigaŃi, valorile
2+
concentration measure during the experiments show a concentraŃiilor Cu măsurate pe parcursul desfăşurării
2 2
linear evolution, having R values of 0.975 and 0.989, experimentelor prezintă o evoluŃie liniară, valorile lui R
respectively (Fig. 4). fiind 0.975 şi, respectiv, 0.989 (Fig.4).
2+ 2+
The Cu removal efficiency from wastewater of the EficienŃa de îndepărtare a Cu din apa uzată, pentru
two studied nanomaterials was calculated using the cele două nanomateriale studiate, a fost calculată cu
formula 1: Ei =[ (Ci – Cf,t)/ Ci x100 formula 1: Ei=[ (Ci – Cf,t) ]/ Ci x 100
Where: Unde:
2+ 2+
Ei – Cu removal efficiency from wastewater, (%); Ei – eficienŃa de îndepărtare a Cu din apa uzată, (%)
2+ 2+
Ci – initial concentration of Cu in wastewater, (mg/L); Ci – concentraŃia iniŃială a Cu în apa uzată, (mg/L)
2+ 2+
Cf,t – final concentration of Cu measure at time t, (mg/L). Cf,t – concentraŃia finală a Cu înregistrată la timpul t, (mg/L)
As can be seen from Fig. 5, the higher efficiency of După cum se poate observa din Fig. 5, cea mai mare
removal of copper ions from wastewater was obtained for valoare a eficienŃei de îndepărtare a ionilor cuprului din
Fe2O3- γ-poly-DL-alanine hybrid nanomaterial. This can apa uzată a fost obŃinută în cazul nanomaterialului hibrid
be explained by the presence of poly-DL-alanine γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanine. Acest lucru se poate explica
component in hybrid nanomaterial composition that prin prezenŃa componentei poli-DL-alanine în compoziŃia
contributes by its functional groups to the retention of the nanomaterialului hibrid, care contribuie prin grupările
2+ 2+
of copper (Cu ) from wastewater. funcŃionale la reŃinerea cuprului (Cu ) din apa uzată.
216
Fig. 4 - Variation of Cu2+ concentration values vs. time for γ-Fe2O3 (a) and γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanine (b)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5 - Variations of copper (II) removal efficiency (%) vs. time for γ-Fe2O3 (a) and γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanine (b)
A new route for removing toxic copper ions from O noua metodă eficientă şi care constă în utilizarea unor
wastewater that is effective, involving reusable and adsorbanŃi reutilizabili şi nepoluanŃi a fost dezvoltată în
ecofriendly adsorbants has been developed. It implies scopul îndepărtării ionilor de cupru din apa uzată. Aceasta
the using of two nanomaterials: maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) implică utilizarea a două nanomateriale: maghemita (γ-
and its corresponding hybrid (γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanine Fe2O3) şi hibridul corespunzător (γ-Fe2O3- poli-DL-alanina),
for obtaining 85% and 89% copper ions removal în scopul obŃinerii unor eficienŃe de îndepărtare a ionilor de
efficiencies from a synthetic wastewater. The behavior cupru din apa uzată de 85%, respectiv 89%. Comportarea
of these two adsorbant nanomaterials offers promising acestora nanomateriale adsorbante oferă perspective
perspectives regarding wastewater treatment. Further promiŃătoare în ceea ce priveşte epurarea apelor. Se vor
217
studies will be done for investigation of the potential of efectua studii suplimentare în scopul investigării potenŃialului
applying these adsorbants for the depollution of de aplicare a acestor adsorbanŃi în scopul depoluării apelor
wastewater containing other heavy metals. uzate care conŃin alte metale grele.
[1]. Bhatia S. C. (2002) - Handbook of Industrial Pollution [1]. Bhatia S. C. (2002) - Manual de control al poluării
Control in Chemical Process and Allied Industries, (vol. II), industriale în procesului chimic şi ale industriilor conexe,
New Delhi., p. 68-69; (vol. II), New Delhi., p. 68-69;
[2]. Covaliu C. I., Paraschiv G., Biriş S.-Şt., Jitaru I., [2]. Covaliu C. I., Paraschiv G., Biriş S.-Şt., Jitaru I.,
Vasile E., Diamandescu L., Cirkovic Velickovic T., Krstic Vasile E., Diamandescu L., Cirkovic Velickovic T., Krstic
M., IoniŃă V., Iovu H., Matei E. (2013) - Maghemite and M., IoniŃă V., Iovu H., Matei E. (2013) – Nanohibrizi
Poly-dl-alanine Based Core–shell Multifunctional multifuncŃionali pe bază de maghemită şi poli-dl-alanină
Nanohybrids for Environmental Protection and pentru aplicaŃii în protecŃia mediului şi biomedicină, 285,
Biomedicine Applications, Applied Surface Science, 285, Part A, 86-96;
Part A, 86-96; [3]. Griffin R.A., Frost R.R., Shimp N.F. (1976) –
[3]. Griffin R.A., Frost R.R., Shimp N.F. (1976) – Water Simpozionul cercetării apei, 256-68 (Report). EPA-
Research Symposium, 256-68 (Report). EPA-600/9-76- 600/9-76-015;
015; [4]. Imre-Lucaci F. (2011)- Procedee electrochimice de
[4]. Imre-Lucaci F. (2011)- Electrochemical procedures of recuperare a cuprului din ape reziduale şi din deşeuri
copper recovery from residual waters and solid wastes, solide, Teză doctorat, Universitatea ”Babeş-Bolyai” Cluj–
Phd thesis, ”Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj–Napoca; Napoca;
[5]. Moore W. A. (1972) - Interaction of Heavy Metals and [5]. Moore W. A. (1972) - Interaction of Heavy Metals and
Biological Sewage Treatment Process, Public Health Biological Sewage Treatment Process, Public Health
Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Pub., no. 99, wp-22; Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Pub., no. 99, wp-22;
[6]. Patterson J. W., Juncuk W.A. (1977) - Cementation [6]. Patterson J. W., Juncuk W.A. (1977) – Tratarea
nd
Treatment of Copper in Wastewater, 32 Industrial cuprului din apele uzate prin cementare, A 32-a
Waste Conference, Perdue University, Proceeding, p. conferinta a deşeurilor industrial, Universitatea Perdue,
853; Proceeding, p. 853;
[7]. Shrivastava A. K. (1998) - Studies on the Pollution of [7]. Shrivastava A. K. (1998) – Studii privind poluarea
Water by Lead and Other Heavy Metals Being Studies of apei cu plumb şi alte metale grele investigate in râurile
River Ganga and Varuna River. Water Quality and Ganga şi Varuna. Calitatea apei cu cercetari axate pe
Special Emphasis on Lead and Other Heavy Metals., Ph. plumbului şi alte metale grele, teză de doctorat,
D., Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi; Universitatea Banaras Hindu, Varanasi;
[8]. Thackson E. L. (1980) - Lead Removal with [8]. Thackson E. L. (1980) - Lead Removal with
Adsorbing Colloidal Floatation, Water Poll. Cont., Fed., Adsorbing Colloidal Floatation, Water Poll. Cont., Fed.,
52, p.317-328; 52, p.317-328;
[9] Wing R.E. et al., (1974) - Starch Based Products in [9] Wing R.E. et al., (1974) - Produsele pe bază de
Heavy Metal Removal, J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed., 46, amidon utilizate pentru îndepărtarea metalelor grele, J.
p.2043. Water Poll. Cont. Fed., 46, p.2043.
218
THE USE OF PELARGONIUM FOR THE REMEDIATION OF ORGANIC CONTAMINATED SOIL

/
UTILIZAREA PLANTELOR PELARGONIUM PENTRU REMEDIEREA SOLURILOR
CONTAMINATE ORGANIC
1) 2) 2)
Lect. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Istrate I.A. , Ph.D. Eng. Rada E.C , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Ragazzi M.
1)
University Polytechnic of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering/Romania
Tel: 0723542609; E-mail: ia_istrate@yahoo.com
2)
University of Trento, Civil Environmental and Mechanical Engineering Department/Italy
Abstract: Soil pollution is considered a very important Rezumat: Poluarea solului este considerată o problemă
environmental problem and has been attracting de mediu foarte gravă şi a atras considerabil atenŃia în
considerable attention over the last decades. One of ultimele decenii. Unul din principalele dezavantaje este
the main disadvantge is that the physicochemical reprezentat de faptul ca soluŃiile fizico-chimice ce ar
solutions that could be applied for the removal of the putea fi aplicate pentru înlăturarea poluanŃilor implică
polutants, involve enormous costs and that is why the costuri mari şi de aceea companiile ignoră problema.
companies ignored the problem. Phytoremediation is an Fitoremedierea este o tehnologie în curs de dezvoltare
emerging technology that uses plants to clean up şi foloseşte plantele pentru a curăŃa poluanŃii din mediu.
pollutants in the environment. This is a technology that Aceasta este o tehnologie care are un raport bun
has a good ratio regarding results/costs, that is as rezultate/costuri, adică rezultatele pozitive au devenit
overwhelmingly positive results have become available disponibile în funcŃie de abilitatea plantelor de a
regarding the ability of plants to degrade certain organic degrada anumiŃi compuşi organici, şi de aceea din ce în
compounds, more and more people are getting involved ce mai mulŃi oameni se implică în aplicarea
in the phytoremediation of organic contaminants. fitoremedierii pentru contaminanŃii organici.
Phytoremediation of organics appears a very promising Fitoremedierea compuşilor organici pare să fie o
technology for the removal of these contaminants from tehnologie promiŃătoare pentru remedierea acestor
polluted sites. This type of method can remove the contaminanŃi din solurile poluate. Aceasta metodă
contaminant or can storage it in the plant. poate înlătura sau stoca contaminantul în plantă.
Keywords: soil treatment, organic pollutant, plants Cuvinte cheie: tratamentul solului, poluant organic,
phytoremediation plante, fitoremediere
In the last years there have been more and more cases În ultimii ani au fost din ce în ce mai multe cazuri de
of organic contamination and the main toxic contaminants contaminare organică şi principalii poluanŃi toxici erau
were phthalic esters (PAEs), Polycyclic Aromatic esteri ftalici (PAE), hidrocarburi policiclice aromatice
Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PAH), eteri difenili polibromuraŃi (PBDE), policlorobifenili
(PBDEs), Polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), Petroleum (PCB), hidrocarburi petroliere (PHC), pesticide, etc.
Hydrocarbons (PHC), pesticides, etc [1,4,11]. Remediation [1,4,11]. Remedierea solurilor poluate organic devine o
of organic-polluted soils is becoming an increasing provocare continuă la nivel mondial [4,6]. Fitoremedierea
challenge worldwide [4,16]. Phytoremediation is an este o tehnologie în curs de dezvoltare, care utilizează
emerging technology that utilizes plants to clean up organic plantele pentru a curăŃa poluanŃii organici şi metalele
pollutants and toxic metals in water, sediments, or soils toxice din apă, sedimente sau soluri [4,5]. Fitoremedierea
[4,5]. Phytoremediation has been accepted and utilized a fost acceptată ca şi alternativă şi a fost utilizată la scară
widely because it is a cost-effective and environmental mare deoarece este o tehnologie fără efecte negative
friendly green technology with permanently removing the asupra mediului, cu un raport bun costuri-eficienŃă şi
pollutants [3,4]. A large number of plant species have been înlătură permanent poluanŃii [3,4]. Un număr mare de
found to be promising candidates for the phytoremediation specii de plante au fost descoperite ca fiind canditate
of organic pollutants [4,10]. In general there are two promiŃătoare pentru fitoremedierea poluanŃilor organici
approaches for the phytoremediation of organic-polluted [4,10]. În general sunt două abordări pentru fitoremedierea
soils based on the difference in remediative mechanism. poluării organice a solurilor în funcŃie de mecanismul de
First, organic pollutants can be taken up directly by plants, remediere. În primul rând poluanŃii organici pot fi preluaŃi
resulting in the sequestration or degradation of pollutants direct de plante, rezultând sechestrarea sau degradarea
inside of plants [2,4], which is called phytoextraction. poluanŃilor în interiorul plantelor [2,4], proces numit
Second, organic pollutants can be degraded by plant- fitoextracŃie. În al doilea rând poluanŃii organici pot fi
secreted enzymes or plant-modified microbial community in degradaŃi de enzimele secretate în plante sau de
rhizosphere [2,4,10], which is called plant-assisted microbiocenoză din rizosferă [2,4,10], care se numeşte
rhizoremediation. rizoremediere asistată de plante.
The present paper presents the results obtained during Această lucrare prezintă rezultatele obŃinute în urma
a research that involved the use of plants for the unei cercetări ce implică folosirea plantelor pentru
remediation of petroleum contaminated soil. These results remedierea solului contaminat cu produse petroliere.
are compared with the ones obtained after the application Aceste rezultate sunt comparate cu cele obŃinute după
of a physico-chemical treatment,that is the electrochemical aplicarea unui tratament fizico-chimic, şi anume electro-
oxidation. The soil pollution is an hystorical one. oxidarea chimică. Poluarea solului este una istorică.
MATERIAL AND METHODES MATERIAL ŞI METODE
219
Legislation Regarding Soils LegislaŃia privind solurile

An important legislative document at european level si Un document legislativ important atât la nivel naŃional cât şi
the Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection. The Thematic la nivel internaŃional este reprezentat de Strategia Tematică
Strategy for Soil Protection consists of a Communication pentru ProtecŃia Solului. Această Strategie Tematică pentru ProtecŃia
from the Commission to the other European Institutions, a Solului constă într-o Comunicare de la Comisia Europeană
proposal for a framework Directive (a European law), and către celelalte InstituŃii Europene, o propunere de directivă
an Impact Assessment [7]. cadru (o lege europeană) şi o evaluare a impactului [7].
The Communication (COM(2006) 231) sets the frame. Comunicarea (COM(2006)231) stabileşte cadrul.
It explains why further action is needed to ensure a high Explică de ce sunt necesare acŃiuni viitoare pentru a
level of soil protection, sets the overall objective of the asigura un nivel înalt de protecŃie a solului, stabileşte
Strategy and explains what kind of measures must be obiectivul general al Strategiei şi explică ce fel de măsuri
taken. It establishes a ten-year work program for the trebuiesc luate. Fixează un program de lucru pe zece ani
European Commission [7]. pentru Comisia Europeană [7].
Contaminated sites could pose significant Zonele contaminate ar putea să prezinte un pericol de
environmental hazards for terrestrial and aquatic mediu pentru ecosistemele acvatice şi terestre deoarece
ecosystems as they are important sources of pollution ele sunt o sursă importantă de poluare ceea ce ar putea
which may result in ecotoxicological effects [12]. rezulta în apariŃia unor efecte ecotoxicologice [12].
Soil contamination is mainly located close to waste Poluarea solului este localizată în principal în apropierea
landfills, industrial/commercial activities diffusing heavy gropilor de gunoi, activităŃilor industriale / comerciale care
metals, oil industry, military camps, and nuclear power poluează cu metale grele, industria petrolieră, zone militare
plants. As European society has grown wealthier, it has şi centrale nucleare. Cum societatea europeană a
created more and more rubbish. Each year in the EU, 3 prosperat, are din ce în ce mai mult gunoi. În fiecare an în
billion tonnes of solid wastes are thrown away (some 90 UE, 3 miliarde de tone de deşeuri solide sunt aruncate
million tonnes of them are hazardous). This amounts to (circa 90 de milioane de tone din ele sunt periculoase). Se
about 6 tonnes of solid waste for every man, woman, aproximează circa 6 tone de deşeuri solide pentru fiecae
and child (Eurostat, Environmental Data Centre on bărbat, femeie şi copil (conform Eurostat, Centrul pentru
Waste) [8]. date de mediu despre deşeuri) [8].
Estimates for the extent of local soil contamination are Estimările în ceea ce priveşte extinderea contaminării
available for about one third of the countries surveyed; an locale a solului sunt disponibile pentru o treime dintre Ńările
average of about 4.2 Potentially Contaminated Sites are supravegheate, este raportată o medie de 4,2 Situri
reported per 1,000 inhabitants and about 5.7 PotenŃial Contaminate per 1000 de locuitori şi aproximativ
Contaminated Sites per 10,000 inhabitants (figure 1 and 5,7 Situri Contaminate per 10 000 de locuitori (figura 1 şi
figure 2). A tentative extrapolation to the whole of Europe figura 2). O tentativă de extrapolare pentru toată Europa
produces an estimate for the total number of Potentially duce la o estimare pentru totalul Siturilor PotenŃial
Contaminated Sites of 2.5 million, of which about 14 % Contaminate de aproape 2,5 milioane, din care 14%
(340,000 sites) are expected to be contaminated and likely (340.000 situri) sunt considerate a fi contaminate şi cel
to require remediation [7,8,12]. Soil clean-up is a difficult mai probabil necesită remediere [7,8,12]. CurăŃarea solului
operation with very high costs. Expenditure for este o operaŃiune dificilă cu costuri ridicate. Cheltuielile cu
decontamination of contaminated sites greatly varies decontaminarea siturilor contaminate variază foarte mult
between Member States. In 2000 the Netherlands între Statele Membre. În 2000 Olanda a investit 550
invested EUR 550 m in decontamination, Austria 67 and milioane de euro pentru decontaminare, Austria 67 de
Spain 14. Such disparities reflect different perceptions of milioane de euro şi Spania 14. Asemenea diferenŃe
the severity of the contamination, different remediation reflectă: percepŃiile diferite în legatură cu gravitatea
policies and targets, and different ways of estimating contaminării, diferite politici de remediere şi Ńinte, şi
expenditure. metode diferite de estimare a cheltuielilor.
The European Environment Agency has estimated the AgenŃia Europeană de Mediu a estimat costuri totale
total costs for the cleanup of contaminated sites in Europe pentru curăŃarea siturilor contaminate din Europa între 59
to be between EUR 59 and 109 billion. şi 109 miliarde de euro.
a) b)
Fig. 1 – (a) Number of identified remediated (RS), potentially (PCS), and contaminated Sites (CS) reported by 33 countries. (b) Number
of estimated potentially (PCS) and contaminated sites (CS) extrapolated to 38 countries [8].
220
Fig. 2 – Density (identified PCS/1,000 capita) in 33 countries [8]
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODE

In order to compare the results obtained after applying Pentru a compara rezultatele obŃinute după aplicarea
phytoremediation on an organic contaminated soil, we fitoremedierii pe un sol poluat organic, vor fi prezentate şi o
present also a serie of results obtained after applying serie de rezultate obŃinute după aplicarea electro-oxidării
electrochemical oxidation as a remediation treatment. chimice ca tratament de remediere.
Phytoremediation Fitoremedierea
Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that Fitoremedierea este o tehnologie în plină dezvoltare, o
utilizes plants to clean up organic pollutants and toxic tehnologie ce foloseşte plantele pentru a curăŃa poluanŃii
metals in water, sediments, or soils [5]. Phytoremediation organici şi metalele toxice din apă, sedimente sau soluri
has been accepted and utilized widely because it is a [5]. Fitoremedierea a fost acceptată şi utilizată la scară
cost-effective and environmental friendly green mare deoarece are un raport bun costuri/ eficienŃă şi este
technology with permanently removing the pollutants [3,4]. considerată o tehnologie fără impact asupra mediului
A large number of plant species have been found to be putând să înlăture permanent poluanŃii [3,4]. Au fost
promising candidates for the phytoremediation of organic identificate un număr mare de specii de plante care sunt
pollutants [2,4,10]. In general there are two approaches candidate promiŃătoare pentru a le folosi în fitoremedierea
for the phytoremediation of organic-polluted soils based poluanŃilor organici [2,4,10]. În general sunt două abordări
on the difference in remediative mechanism: plant- pentru remedierea solurilor poluate organic în funcŃie de
assisted rhizoremediation and phytoextraction. diferenŃa mecanismului de remediere: rizoremediere asistantă
Phytoextraction depends on the absorption, translocation, de plante şi fitoextracŃie. FitoextracŃia depinde de absorbŃie,
and metabolism of organic pollutants in plants. translocaŃie şi metabolismul poluanŃilor organici din plante.
ElectroChemical oxidation Electro-Oxidarea chimică

Chemical Oxidation is a patented technology to Oxidarea chimică este o tehnologie patentată pentru
remediate hydrocarbon and/or halocarbon contamination remedierea contaminării cu hidrocarburi şi/sau hidrocarburi
in groundwater and soil, and it can be ex-situ or in situ. halogenate din apă şi sol, şi poate fi aplicată ex-situ sau in-situ.
Ex-situ chemical oxidation involves mixing an oxidizing Oxidarea chimica ex situ implică amestecarea unui
compound with contaminated groundwater or soil in a oxidant cu apa sau solul contaminat într-un vas. Oxidantul
vessel. The oxidizing compound can be a solution (e.g., poate fi o soluŃie (hipoclorit de sodiu în apă) sau gaz
sodium hypochlorite in water) or a gas (e.g., ozone). The (ozon). AgenŃii oxidanŃi cei mai des folosiŃi pentru
oxidizing agents most commonly used for the chemical tratamentul chimic a compuşilor organici sunt ozonul,
treatment of organic contaminants are ozone, hydrogen peroxidul de hidrogen, hipocloriŃi, clor şi dioxid de clor.
peroxide, hypochlorites, chlorine, and chlorine dioxide. SubstanŃele chimice folosite pentru tratament
The treatment chemicals typically mineralize most organic mineralizează majoritatea compuşilor organici în dioxid de
compounds to carbon dioxide, water, and salts. The main carbon, apă şi săruri. Principalul avantaj al tratamentului ex
advantage of ex situ treatment is that it generally requires situ este acela că în general necesită mai puŃin timp decât
shorter time periods than in situ treatment, and there is tratamentul in situ, şi există o siguranŃă mai mare
more certainty about the uniformity of treatment because referitoare la uniformitatea acestuia datorită posibilităŃii de
of the ability to homogenize, screen, and continuously mix omogenizare, monitorizare şi amestecare continuă a
the soil. Ex situ treatment, however, requires excavation solului. Totuşi, tratamentul ex situ necesită excavarea
of soils, leading to increased costs and engineering for solului, ceea ce duce la creşterea costurilor cu manevrarea
equipment, possible permitting, and material handling/ echipamentelor, cu aprobările necesare şi cu condiŃiile de
worker exposure conditions [9,14]. expunere a materialelor/ personalului [9,14].
221
In order to improve the results obtained normaly with Pentru a îmbunătăŃi rezultate obŃinute în mod normal cu
this technique it was decided to combine chemical această tehnologie s-a hotărât combinarea oxidării chimice
oxidation with electrochemical technique that involves the cu tehnica electrochimică care implică aplicarea unei
application of a constant voltage to a pair of electrodes tensiuni constante unei perechi de electrozi poziŃionaŃi pe
situated at the border of the contaminated area. graniŃa zonei contaminate.
Analytical procedures Procedurile analitice

Several parameters were investigated during this Pe durata acestei cercetări au fost monitorizaŃi o serie
study, both to determine the contaminant content and to de parametri pentru a determina atât cantitatea de
characterize the main features of the investigated soils contaminant cât şi pentru a caracteriza principalele
and sediments. caracteristici ale sedimentelor şi solurilor.
In particular, to perform the study about the petroleum În particular, pentru a realiza studiul despre solurile
products contaminated soils, the following parameters poluate cu produse petroliere, au fost măsuraŃi următorii
were measured: pH, temperature, redox potential (ORP), parametri: pH, temperatura, potenŃialul redox (ORP),
soil humidity, soil granulometry, total petroleum umiditatea solului, granulometria solului, hidrocarburi totale
hydrocarbons (TPH). petroliere (HTP).
The ORP, pH and temperature was taken in a ORP, pH şi temperatura au fost măsurate într-un
soil/water suspension using sensors IQ SENSOR NET amestec de sol/apă folosind senzorii IQ SENSOR NET
pH/ORP that were attached to a multiparameter pH/ORP care au fost ataşaŃi la un echipament
instrument 2020XT. multiparametru 2020XT.
Soil humidity was determined using a dry kiln, where a Umiditatea solului a fost determinată folosind o etuvă
weighted quantity of wet soil was introduced for 24 h at unde a fost introdusă o cantitate cântărită anterior de sol
0
1050C. After this procedure the dried soil was weighted umed pentru o perioadă de 24 de ore la 105 C. După
again and was determinate the humidity of soil. această procedură solul uscat a fost cântărit din nou şi s-a
Soil granulometry was determined using a series of determinat umiditatea solului.
sieves. The diameters of the sieves ranged from 56 mm to Granulometria solului a fost determinată folosind o serie
0.8 mm. The TPH was determined accordingly with the de site. Diametrele sitelor a variat de la 56 mm la 0.8 mm.
procedure described in SR 13511. For this analysis a Valoarea HTP a fost determinată cu ajutorul procedurii
SOXHLET and a Heildolph Hei VAP Advantage together prezentate în procedura descrisă în SR 13511. Pentru
with pH, redox and temperature sensors were obtained această analiză s-a folosit un SOXHLET şi Heildolph Hei
with the funds from a project co-financed under the VAP Advantage care împreună cu senzorii de temperatură,
Sectorial Operational Programme “Increase of Economic pH şi ORP au fost obŃinuŃi cu ajutprul fondurilor dintr-un
Competitiveness” POSCCE - A2 – O 2.1.2. – 2009 - 2, proiect co-finanŃat din programul OperaŃional Sectorial
RECOLAND ID519, SMIS-CSNR: 11982, Nb. „Creşterea CompetitivităŃii Economice”, POSCCE - A2 – O
182/18.06.2010 (2010-2013). 2.1.2. – 2009 - 2, RECOLAND ID519, SMIS-CSNR: 11982,
Nb. 182/18.06.2010 (2010-2013).
Experimental research
The soil used for the experimental study was Cercetare experimentală
excavated from an ex industrial area, where for several Solul folosit pentru studiul experimental a fost excavat
years the oil industry processed different product. The dintr-o fostă zonă industrială, unde pentru câŃiva ani industria
contaminated area is situated near a main road on one petrolieră a procesat diferite produse. Zona contaminată
side and near an industrial road on the other side. For the este situată lângă un drum principal pe de o parte şi un
initial characterization was decided to take samples from drum industrial pe cealaltă parte. Pentru caracterizarea
9 different points at two different depths, 0.2 m and 0.4 m. iniŃială s-a decis prelevarea de probe din 9 puncte diferite
The initial characterization of the soil showed the following la două adâncimi diferite, 0,2 m şi 0,4 m. Caracterizarea
3
data: the density of the soil was 1.5 g/cm , the humidity iniŃială a solului a arătat următoarele date: densitatea
3
was around 20% and from the granulometry point of view solului a fost de 1,5 g/cm , umiditatea în jus de 20% şi din
it could be noticed more than 55% was composed by punct de vedere a granulometriei s-a putut observa că mai
particle with a diameter smaller than 0.08 mm. The mult de 55% e format din particule cu un diametru mai mic
contamination could be observed at the first look. The soil de 0,08 mm. Contaminarea se putea observa la o simplă
for the laboratory tests had been taken from different parts privire. Solul folosit pentru testele la nivel de laborator a
of the selected area in order to better represent the fost luat din diferite zone din suprafaŃa selectată pentru a
studied area. putea reprezenta mai bine toată aria afectată.
The monitored parameters for these exerimental tests Parametrii monitorizaŃi pentru aceste experimente au
were: pH, ORP (oxidation reduction potential), fost: pH, ORP (potentialul redox), conductivitate,
conductivity, humidity and pollutant concentration. umiditatea şi concentraŃia de poluant.
For pH and ORP determination, a 15 to 20 g of soil Pentru pH şi ORP, a fost folosită o probă de 15 până la
sample was used combined with distilated water after 20 g de sol combinată cu apă distilată după care a fost
which a measurement electrod was inserted for a period introdus un electrod de măsură pentru o perioadă de 3
of around 3 minutes before the reading. minute înainte de citire.
From the initial characterization of the soil it was noticed Din caracterizarea iniŃială s-a observat ca solul era
that the soil was preponderant composed from clay and had preponderent format din argilă şi avea o concentraŃie a
a high concentration of contaminant of around 42,000 mg/kg contaminantului de 42.000 mg/kg de HTP pentru
for TPH for the electrochemical treatment and around 26,000 tratamentul electrochimic şi 26.000 mg/kg de HTP pentru
mg/kg for phytoremediation treatment. Taking into account tratamentul de fitoremediere. Luând în calcul faptul că în
the fact that in the normative (Order 756/1997) we have the normativă (Ordinul 756/1997) avem cea mai mare valoare
highest value mentioned of about 2000 mg/kg (the menŃionată de aproape 2.000 mg/kg (limita de intervenŃie
intervention point in the case of less sensible areas), it is pentru zonele mai puŃin sensible) este evidentă
obvious the need of a treatment for this soil. necesitatea de tratarea a solului.
222
For the experimental research, two types of plants Pentru cercetarea experimentală au fost folosite două tipuri
were used: pelargonium and kalanchoe. These two types de plante: pelargonium şi kalanchoe. Aceste două tipuri au
were used because the idea was to find to possible fost folosite deoarece idea a fost să se găsească două
candidates for the experiments, that can be found very candidate pentru experimente ce pot fi găsite destul de
easy and can have a satisfactory efficiency. For each uşor şi care pot avea o eficienŃă satisfăcătoare. Pentru
type, we used two plants that are presented also in figure fiecare categorie s-au folosit două tipuri de plante care
3: sunt prezentate şi în figura 3:
• normal pelargonium (test identified as P1); • pelargonium normală (test identificat ca P1);
• pelargonium grandiflorum (test identified as P2); • pelargonium grandiflorum (test identificat ca P2);
• kalanchoe blossfeldiana – red (test identified as K1); • kalanchoe blossfeldiana – red (test identified as K1);
• kalanchoe blossfeldiana – pink (test identified as K2); • kalanchoe blossfeldiana – pink (test identified as K2);
Air humidity for the pelargonium is minimum 50%. The Umiditatea aerului pentru pelargonium este de minim
0 0
ideal temperature is around 18-21 C, by day and 12 C by 50%. Temperatura ideală este în jur de 18-210C, ziua şi
night. 120C noaptea.
Kalanchoe is a plant with a diameter and a high of Kalanchoe este o plantă cu un diametru şi o înălŃime de
about 30 cm that needs a soil with a pH between 6 and 7 aproape 30 cm şi are nevoie de un sol cu un pH între 6-7
0
and a temperature that can vary between 12-30 C. şi o temperatură ce poate varia între 12-300C.
Each plant was planted in a hystorical contaminated Fiecare plantă a fost plantată într-un sol contaminat
soil with petroleum products and was periodically istoric cu produse petroliere şi care a fost monitorizat
monitored for the main parameters that can determine the periodic pentru principalii parametri pentru a determina
effectiveness of the treatment. eficienŃa tratamentului.
a) b) c) d)
Fig. 3 – The plants used for phytoremediation treatment: a) normal pelargonium; b) pelargonium grandiflorum; c) kalanchoe
blossfeldiana – red; d) kalanchoe blossfeldiana – pink
ElectroChemical Oxidation Electro-oxidarea chimică

This treatment was applied at laboratory level on an Acest tratament a fost aplicat la nivel de laborator pe o
3 3
experimental pilot plant that had the capacity to treat 0.5 m instalaŃie pilot care a avut capacitatea de a trata 0,5 m (în
(around 750 kg of contaminated soil but only a quantity of 550 jur de 750 kg de sol contaminat însă a fost tratată doar o
kg was treated). The experimental setup (figure 4) has been cantitate de 550 kg). InstalaŃia experimentală (figura 4) a
done with the funds from a project co-financed under the fost realizată cu fondurile de la un proiect finanŃat din
Sectorial Operational Programme “Increase of Economic Programul OperaŃional Sectorial „Creşterea competitivităŃii
Competitiveness” POSCCE - A2 - O2.1.2.- 2009 - 2, economice”, POSCCE - A2 - O2.1.2.- 2009 - 2,
RECOLAND ID519, SMIS - CSNR: 11982, Nb. 182/ RECOLAND ID519, SMIS - CSNR: 11982, Nr. 182/
18.06.2010 (2010-2013). 18.06.2010 (2010-2013).
The test had a specific voltage of 1 V/cm and a Testul a avut o tensiune specifică de 1V/cm şi o
treatment period of 28 days. The main parameters that perioadă de tratament de 28 zile. Principalii parametri ce
were monitored during the experiment were (as already au fost monitorizaŃi în timpul experimentului (aşa cum s-a
mentioned before): pH, ORP, current, conductivity, and the menŃionat deja): pH, ORP, curentul, conductivitatea şi cel
most important parameter can be considered the pollutant mai important parametru poate fi considerat concentraŃia
concentration. de poluant.
Fig. 3 – Experimental setup used for the application of electro-chemical oxidation
RESULTS REZULTATE
For the phytoremediation treatment the monitoring was Pentru tratamentul de fitoremediere monitorizarea a fost
done on the left side of the plant and on the right side. The făcută pentru partea stângă a plantei şi pentru cea dreaptă.
results obtained are presented in the following figures. The Rezultatele obŃinute sunt prezentate în următoarele figuri.
223
monitoring was done after 3 weeks of treatment and after 4 Monitorizarea a fost făcută după 3 săptămâni de tratament
weeks. For test P1 it was noticed that the plant resistent şi după 4 săptămâni. Pentru testu P1 s-a observat că
longer than the other ones, more than 8 weeks (it is still planta a rezistat mai mult decât celelalte, mai mult de 8
resisting today). The plants that correspond to the tests K2 săptămâni (rezistă şi azi). Plantele care corespund testelor
and P2, resisted only 3 weeks, and K1 resisted 4 weeks. K2 şi P2, au rezistat doar 3 săptămâni, şi K1 a rezistat 4
That means the capacity of the plant to adapt in a new săptămâni. Acest lucru înseamnă că plantele au o
environment higly toxic is quite reduced.The analysis were capacitate redusă de a se adapta în noul mediu toxic.
done after 4 weeks of treatment also for the plants that did Analizele au fost realizate după 4 săptămâni şi pentru
not resisted. plantele care nu au rezistat.
It can be noticed that the variation of the monitored Se poate observa că variaŃia parametrilor monitorizaŃi nu
parameters is not so high between the plants after 3 variază prea multe între plante după 3 săptămâni de
weeks of treatment. Compared to the results obtained tratament. Comparativ cu rezultatele obŃinute după încă o
after another week of monitoring it can be observed that săptămână de monitorizare se poate observa că solul are
the soil tendency is to acidify both in the left side and tendinŃa de acidifiere atât în partea stângă cât şi în partea
right side. Also the ORP increased significantly from the dreaptă. De asemenea ORP a crescut semnificativ de la
monitoring performed after 3 weeks. That means that monitorizarea realizată după 3 săptămâni de tratament. Ceea
the oxidation processes in the soil, intensified. ce înseamnă ca procesele de oxidare din sol s-au intensificat.
Fig. 4 – pH variation for phytoremediation after 3 weeks and 4 Fig. 5 – Conductivity variation for phytoremediation after 3 weeks
weeks
Fig. 7 – Hydrocarbon concentration before and after

Fig. 6 – Conductivity variation for phytoremediation after 3
fitoremediation
weeks and 4 weeks
Fig. 8 – Treatment efficiency after applying phytoremediation
Electro-chemical Oxidation Electro-oxidarea chimică

In this experiment, samples were made to carry out În acest experiment, probele au fost realizate astfel
intermediate monitoring in three areas of concern (anode, încât monitorizarea intermediară să se facă în trei zone de
middle and cathode) in order to observe the pollutants interes (anod, mijloc, catod) pentru a se observa mişcarea
movement. It was decided to make such sampling because poluanŃilor. S-a decis să se facă o astfel de prelevare
it was observed that sometimes there is a variation deoarece s-a observat că uneori există o variaŃie între
between the three samples from each area. probele din fiecare zonă.
Since a part of the oxidant was added at the beginning Cum o parte din oxidant a fost adăugat la începutul
of each week in the anode area and the rest in all the fiecărei săptămâni în zona anodului şi restul în toată celula
224
electrochemical cell (about 1 L for the anode and about 1 L electrochimică (aproape 1 L pentru anod şi 1 L în restul
for the rest of the cell), the pH clearly formed an acid front celulei electrochimice), pH a format în mod evident un front
managing to descend to the value of 4.32 at the anode, acid ce a reuşit să scadă la valoarea de 4,32 la anod şi la
and at the cathode increased until reached the value of catod a crescut până a ajuns la valoarea de 11,86.
11.86. Corresponding with pH variation, there was an ORP Corespunzător cu variaŃia de pH, a existat şi o variaŃie a
variation, so that after 12 days of experiment, the ORP was ORP, astfel încât după 12 zile de experiment, ORP era sub
below zero in the cathode, and thus it was decided to valoarea zero la catod, şi astfel s-a hotărât schimbarea
change polarity. After this episode, there was not any polarităŃii. După acest episod nu a mai fost o scădere a
decrease in redox potential. potenŃialului redox.
A treatment efficiency of about 42.5% was obtained in S-a obŃinut o eficienŃă a tratamentului de 42,5% la o
the intermediary analysis in the middle area (equal analiză intermediară pentru zona de mijloc (zona la egală
distance from the anode and the cathode) due to the distanŃă de anod şi de catod) datorită migrării
hydrocarbons migration in the first part of the treatment. At hidrocarburilor în prima parte a tratamentului. La finalul
the end of the treatment, after 28 days, it was noticed an tratamentului, după 28 de zile, s-a observat o scădere a
decrease of the efficiency, around 20% as an average eficienŃei, în jur de 20% ca medie (între zona anodului, de
(between anode area, middle area and cathode area). This mijloc şi cea a catodului). Acest lucru se poate datora şi
can be also due to the formation of sub-products. formării produşilor secundari.
The experimental activity performed in this research a Activitatea experimentală realizată în această cercetare
hystorical polluted soil that camed from a petroleum a folosit un sol poluat istoric ce a provenit dintr-o zona de
processing area. The main purpose was to present the procesare a produselor petroliere. Principalul scop a fost
results obtained after applying a biological treatment, să prezinte rezultatele obŃinute după aplicarea
phytoremediation in comparison with a physico-chemical tratamentului biologic, fitoremedierea în comparaŃie cu un
one, electrochemical oxidation. tratament fizico-chimic, electro-oxidarea chimică.
Regarding phytoremediation it was observed that not all În ceea ce priveşte fitoremedierea s-a observat că nu
the plants can adapt to the new toxic environment, but toate plantele se pot adapta unui mediu nou şi toxic, dar
even so, they succeed to extract a quite important quantity chiar şi aşa, au reuşit să extragă o cantitate destul de
of pollutant from soil. In the tests K1, K2 and P2, the plants importantă de poluant din sol. În testele K1, K2 şi P2
died after 3 weeks or even 4 weeks. The only one that plantele s-au uscat după 3 sau 4 săptămâni. Singura care
survived was the plant from test P1 that after 8 weeks of a supravieŃuit a fost planta din testul P1 care după 8
treatment had a treatment efficiency of about 64%. This săptămâni de tratament a avut o eficienŃă a tratamentului
plant adapted to the new environment and survived for de aproape 64%. Această plantă s-a adaptat la noul mediu
another 8 weeks (is still surviving). şi a supravieŃuit alte 8 săptămâni (încă supravieŃuieşte).
There have been a series of experimental researches Au existat o serie de cercetări experimentale în legătură
regarding this type of treatment, applied as single cu aplicarea acestui tip de tratament, aplicat singur sau în
treatment or combined with another one (like combinaŃie cu alt tratament (precum electroremedierea).
electroremediation).The obtained results after a combined Rezultatele obŃinute după aplicarea unui tratament
treatment with the same type of plant, pelargonium, combinat cu acelaşi tip de plantă, pelargonium, a ajuns la o
reached an efficiency of 59%. eficienŃă de 59%.
Instead for the electrochemical treatment is noted În schimb pentru electro-oxidarea chimică s-a observat
that should be a correlation between the amount of soil că ar trebui să existe o corelaŃie între cantitatea de sol ce
being treated and the application time of the treatment. urmează a fi tratată şi perioada de aplicare a tratamentului.
There were obtained similar results to those in the S-au obŃinut rezultate similare cu cele din literatură, şi
literature, the fact that the efficiency of electrochemical anume că eficienŃa tratamentului a crescut o dată cu
treatment increases with the increase of application of the creşterea perioadei de aplicare a tratamentului, şi nu a
treatment period, and no specific voltage increases. creşterii voltajului specific. În ceea ce priveşte tratamentul
Regarding the combined treatment it was observed that combinat, s-a observat că atunci când avem de-a face cu
when we are dealing with excessive pollution, the first trend poluare excesivă, prima tendinŃă a poluantului este de a fi
of the pollutant is to be transported to an electrode or transportat către un electrod sau altul datorită fluxului
another due to electroosmotic flow, after which oxidation electroosmotic, după care apar reacŃiile de oxidare şi
and reduction reactions occur. reducere.
Comparing the two technologies it is obvious that is Comparând cele două tehnologii este evident că este
cheaper to use the biological one due to the results mai ieftin să aplicăm tehnologia biologică datorită
obtained and also to the cost that can be estimated that are rezultatelor obŃinute şi de asemenea datorită costurilor care
lower than the ones involved with the physico-chemical pot fi estimate ca fiind mai mici decât cele implicate cu
treatment. tratamentul fizico-chimic.
Aknowlegement MulŃumiri
This work was supported under FSE – European Această cercetare a fost realizată cu ajutorul fondurilor
Structural Funds POSCCE-A2-O2.1.2.-2009-2, RECOLAND europene FSE – Fonduri structurale europene POSCCE-
ID519, SMIS-CSNR: 11982, Nb. 182/18.06.2010 (2010- A2-O2.1.2.-2009-2, RECOLAND ID519, SMIS-CSNR:
2013) and under the Capacities Programme, Romanian- 11982, Nb. 182/18.06.2010 (2010-2013) şi cu ajutorul
Turkish Bilateral Agreement, RISKASSESS, contract no. Programului CapacităŃi, Bilaterală România – Turcia,
606/01.01.2013 (2013 - 2014). RISKASSESS, contract nr. 606/01.01.2013 (2013 - 2014).
Also, the authors would like to thank you Mrs. Bucaciuc De asemenea autorii ar dori să-i mulŃumească drei
Elena Daniela for the involvement during the experimental Bucaciuc Elena Daniela pentru implicarea în cercetarea
research. experimentală.
225
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226
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION AND CLIMATE CONTROL IN VEGETABLE

GREENHOUSES
/
TEHNOLOGIE INOVATIVĂ DE IRIGAłII ŞI CONTROLUL CLIMEI ÎN SERELE LEGUMICOLE
Ph.D. Eng. Marin E., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Pirnă I., Ph.D. Eng. Manea D., Ph.D. Stud. Matache M.
Tel: 0749176922; E-mail: marin_43eu@yahoo.com
Abstract: Irrigation and proper fertilization humidity and Rezumat: Irigarea şi fertilizarea adecvată, reglarea
climate control are key factors in creating an optimal umidităŃii şi controlul climatic sunt factori cheie în crearea
environment for growing vegetable crops in unui mediu optim de creştere a culturilor în serele legumicole.
greenhouses. This paper presents the results of Lucrarea prezintă rezultatele unor cercetări experimentale
experimental research conducted at INMA Bucharest to desfăşurate la INMA Bucureşti pentru determinarea a trei
determine the three most important indicators of the dintre cei mai importanŃi indicatori ai sănătăŃii zonei
health of the root zone of vegetable crops (water rădăcinii a culturilor legumicole (conŃinutul de apă (%),
content (%), pore water conductivity (CEp) and conductivitatea apei din pori (CEp) şi temperatura (°C),
temperature (°C), while monitoring of temperature a nd concomitent cu monitorizarea temperaturii şi conŃinutului în
CO2 content inside a greenhouse covered with double CO2 din interiorul unei sere acoperită cu folie dublu inflată.
foil flourish. The results and conclusions of this study Rezultatele şi concluziile acestei lucrări sunt utile în
are useful in identifying optimal parameters for water identificarea parametrilor optimi pentru aprovizionarea cu
supply vegetable crops in greenhouses permanent and apă a culturilor din serele legumicole permanent şi cu o
adequate quality in terms of salts and temperature and calitate corespunzătoare din punct de vedere al sărurilor şi
also in establishing a controlled environment for a temperaturii şi de asemeni în stabilirea unui microclimat
uniformity of crop conditions . controlat pentru uniformitatea condiŃiilor de cultură.
Keywords: irrigation, climate, greenhouse, vegetable Cuvinte cheie: irigaŃii, climă, seră, legumicultură
Essential for life and vital source of human progress Element esenŃial pentru viaŃă şi sursă vitală a
and development, fresh water has become a problem of progresului şi dezvoltării umane, apa dulce a devenit o
the contemporary world. problemă a lumii contemporane.
The report submitted in September 2011 in the Raportul prezentat în septembrie 2011 în cadrul celui
framework of the XIV International Congress of Water de-al XIV-lea Congres InternaŃional al Apei (Pernambuco,
(Pernambuco, Brazil) stated that improving water Brazilia) precizează faptul că îmbunătăŃirea distribuŃiei apei
distribution in the Earth will have a significant impact on la nivelul Terrei va avea un impact semnificativ şi asupra
food production for the population as freshwater is producŃiei de hrană pentru populaŃie, deoarece apa dulce
distributed to ensure food needs of the planet. It is nu este distribuită astfel încât să asigure necesarul de
estimated that water scarcity and its distribution will affect hrană al planetei. Se estimează că deficitul de apă şi
at least half of the world population since 2030. [1] distribuŃia ei va afecta cel puŃin jumătate din populaŃia
The water crisis could also lead to major conflicts globului, începând cu anul 2030.[1]
among affected populations. According to the National Astfel, criza apei poate determina şi conflicte majore în
Report on Water Security Intelligence US, freshwater may rândul populaŃiilor afectate. Conform Raportului privind
become a less common cause of war, which may occur in Securitatea Apei al National Intelligence din SUA, apa
the Middle East, South Asia and North Africa. According to dulce poate deveni un motiv de război mai puŃin obişnuit,
American experts, the water will become in the future a care poate apărea în Orientul Mijlociu, Asia de Sud şi
possible weapon of war or a terrorist threat. [2] Africa de Nord. În opinia experŃilor americani, apa va
Climate change has led to periods of drought in many deveni în viitor o posibilă armă de război sau o ameninŃare
years in a row, combined with catastrophic floods and lack teroristă. [2]
of fresh water. All these issues can lead to instability and Schimbările climatice au condus la perioade de secetă
în mai mulŃi ani consecutiv, cumulate cu inundaŃii
conflict in the coming decades globally in developing catastrofale şi lipsa apei dulce. Toate aceste aspecte pot
countries, faced with a population explosion, and the conduce la instabilităŃi şi conflicte la nivel global în
serious effects that lead to major climate changes. Water următoarele decenii, în Ńările în curs de dezvoltare, care se
scarcity is obviously one of the key factors that will limit confruntă şi cu o explozie demografică, dar şi cu efecte
food production. [3] serioase care duc la schimbări climatice majore. Deficitul
The need to irrigate vegetable greenhouses efficient, de apă este în mod evident unul dintre factorii cheie care
vor limita producŃia de alimente. [3]
economic and sustainable is essential for food security.
Necesitatea de a iriga serele legumicole eficient,
Vegetable plant water consumption varies according to the economic şi durabil este esenŃială pentru securitatea
growing phase, increasing the germination stage to the alimentară. Consumul de apă al plantelor legumicole
harvesting stage. variază în funcŃie de faza de vegetaŃie, fiind în creştere de
In Romania, the problem of irrigation in protected areas la faza de germinare până la faza de recoltare.
is not resources, but the distribution and efficient water În România, problema irigaŃiilor în spaŃiile protejate nu
este una de resurse, ci modul de distribuŃie şi gestionare
management.
eficientă a apei.
In this respect, it should find ways to increase food În acest sens, trebuie găsite metode pentru creşterea
production so that the sustainable management of water producŃiei de alimente astfel încât gestionarea durabilă a
227
and other resources are optimized. apei şi a altor resurse să fie optimizată.
Seeking to meet the above requirements, in the paper Căutând să răspundă cerinŃelor de mai sus, în cadrul
were carried out experimental research to determine the lucrării au efectuate cercetări experimentale pentru
three most important indicators of the health of the root determinarea a trei dintre cei mai importanŃi indicatori ai
zone of vegetable crops (water content (%), pore water sănătăŃii zonei rădăcinii a culturilor legumicole (conŃinutul
conductivity (ECp) and temperature (°C) while monit oring de apă (%), conductivitatea apei din pori (ECp) şi temperatura
temperature and CO2 content in order to promote (°C), concomitent cu monitorizarea temperaturii şi conŃinutului
innovative technologies for irrigation and climate control in în CO2 în scopul promovării unei tehnologii inovative de
vegetable greenhouses that provides a higher recovery of irigaŃii şi controlul climei în serele legumicole care
irrigation water. realizează o valorificare superioară a apei de irigaŃie.
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODĂ

The research was conducted inside innovative technology Cercetările au fost efectuate în cadrul tehnologiei inovative
for irrigation and climate control in vegetables pentru irigaŃii şi controlul climei în sere legumicole (fig. 1)
greenhouses (fig. 1) which is intended water use efficiency care este destinată eficientizării consumului de apă şi
and crop productivity growth in protected areas. This creşterii productivităŃii culturilor în spaŃii protejate. Aceasta
comprises the following main assemblies: are în componenŃă următoarele ansambluri principale:
- Automated installation of extraction ground water with - InstalaŃie automatizată de extragere a apei din pânza
solar submersible pump (fig. 1, item 1); [4] freatică cu pompă submersibilă solară (fig. 1, poz. 1); [4]
- Automated installation drip and sprinkler irrigation and - InstalaŃie automatizată de irigare şi fertirigare prin
fertigation (fig. 1, item 2); [5] picurare şi microaspersie (fig. 1, poz. 2); [5]
- An automatic system for controlling the climate in a - Sistem automat pentru controlul climei într-o seră
vegetable greenhouse (fig. 1, item 3). legumicolă (fig. 1, poz. 3).
Fig. 1 – Innovative technology for irrigation and climate control in vegetable greenhouses
Installation of groundwater extraction (fig. 2) InstalaŃia de extragere apă din pânza freatică (fig. 2)
operates under automatic management of a DC funcŃionează în regim de gestionarea automată a unei
powered pumps. pompe alimentată în curent continuu.
Fig. 2. – Installation of ground water extraction with solar submersible pump
All the necessary energy supply system is obtained Toată energia necesară sistemului de alimentare se
by converting solar energy into electrical energy using obŃine prin convertirea energiei solare în energie electrică,
228
solar batteries for storing excess. The system consists utilizând acumulatori solari pentru stocarea surplusului.
of a water well drilled PVC tube (Item 1) solar pump InstalaŃia se compune dintr-un puŃ de apă forat cu tuburi PVC
(Item 2) a solar pump controller (Item 3), HDPE pipe (poz. 1), o pompă solară (poz. 2), un controller pompă solară
(Item 4) to contact a reservoir (Item 5) water storage, a (poz. 3), o Ńeavă HDPE (poz. 4) pentru legătura cu un
water level sensor in the shaft (item 6), a water level rezervor (poz. 5) de stocare a apei, un senzor de nivel a apei
sensor in the retention basin (item 7), two solar panels în puŃ (poz. 6), un senzor de nivel a apei în bazin de retenŃie
of 240 W (item 8), a solar charge controller current (poz. 7), două panouri fotovoltaice de 240 W (poz. 8), un
(item 9), two solar batteries (item 10), a fuse (Item 11), controller solar încărcare curent (poz. 9), două acumulatoare
an electrical panel (item 12), a solar pump electrical solare (poz. 10), o siguranŃă fuzibilă (poz. 11), un panou
cable (Item 13 ), an electrical water level sensor in the electric (poz. 12), un cablu electric pompă solară (poz. 13), un
well (Item 14), an electrical sensor in the water level of cablu electric senzor de nivel a apei în puŃ (poz. 14), un cablu
the retention basin (pos. 15), a photovoltaic cable (Item electric senzor de nivel a apei în bazin de retenŃie (poz. 15) şi
16). un cablu panouri fotovoltaice (poz. 16).
The main technical characteristics of the automated Caracteristicile tehnice principale ale instalaŃiei
installation of ground water extraction with solar automatizată de extragere a apei din pânza freatică cu
submersible pump are shown in Table 1. pompă submersibilă solară sunt prezentate în tabelul 1.
Table 1
Characteristic UM Value
Water well drilled :
- diameter m 0.150
- depth m 49
Solar pump
- electric power W 150
- rated voltage Vcc 12
3
- flow m /s 0.0013
Solar panel
- maximum electrical power W 240
- voltage at the maximum power Vcc 30.8
Automatic installation of drip and sprinkler irrigation InstalaŃia automatizată de irigare şi fertirigare prin
and fertigation (fig 3) performed under the direction and picurare şi microaspersie (fig. 3) realizează conducerea şi
control of the irrigation and fertilization process,. controlul în regim automat a procesului de irigaŃie şi fertilizare.
Fig. 3. - Automatic installation of drip and sprinkler irrigation and fertigation [6]
The system consists of a branch (Item 1) for InstalaŃia se compune dintr-un branşament (poz. 1)
connecting a water storage reservoir (Item 2) and a pentru legătura între un rezervor (poz. 2) de stocare a apei
self-priming electric pump (Item 3), a counter (Item şi o electropompă (poz. 3) autoamorsantă, un contor (poz.
4), water pressure manometer (item 5), some route 4) de apă, un manometru (poz. 5) de presiune, nişte
items (item 6), head PVC tank control fertilization elemente (poz. 6) de traseu, un cap control PVC cu tanc
(Item 7), a filter (Item 8), a pipe (Item 9) with bands de fertilizare (poz. 7), un filtru (poz. 8), o conductă (poz. 9)
(Item 10) equipped with a built-dropping span (Item cu benzi (poz. 10) prevăzute cu picurătoare încorporate
11), another pipe (Item 12) with sprinklers (Item 13), într-o travee (poz. 11), o altă conductă (poz. 12) prevăzută
a moisture transducer (Item 14), conductivity and cu microaspersoare (poz. 13), un traductor (poz. 14) de
temperature WET-2, a Data Logger GP2 (Item 15), a umiditate, conductivitate şi temperatură WET-2, un Data
frequency inverter (Item 16) and two water valves Logger GP2 (poz. 15), un convertizor (poz. 16) de
(Item 17). frecvenŃă şi două electrovane de apă (poz. 17).
Equipment tape dropping and sprinklers nozzle (the Echiparea benzilor cu picurătoare şi microaspersoarelor
flow, pressure, fairness assembly), the number of bays cu duză (valoarea debitului, presiunii, echidistanŃei de montaj),
229
and sprinklers bands nozzle and the distance between numărul benzilor din travee şi microaspersoarelor cu duză şi
rows of plants was performed according to the distanŃa dintre rândurile de plante s-a efectuat în funcŃie de
pedotehnic study and requirements of the crop. studiul pedotehnic şi cerinŃele specifice plantei de cultură.
The constituents of the loop of automation are: WET- Elementele constituente ale buclei de automatizare sunt:
2 encoder mounted vertically to a certain depth of traductorul WET-2 montat în poziŃie verticală la o anumită
irrigation / fertigation in the root zone, the GP2 Data adâncime de irigare/fertirigare în zona rădăcinii, Data Logger-
Logger for analysis and control parameters monitored ul GP2 pentru analiza şi controlul parametrilor monitorizaŃi de
WET-2 encoder, frequency converter for controlling and traductorul WET-2, convertizorul de frecvenŃă pentru
controlling the speed of rotation of the self-priming comanda şi controlul vitezei de rotaŃie a electropompei
solenoid and provided with an inlet and an outlet autoamorsantă şi electrovanele prevăzute cu o intrare şi
respectively positioned upstream of the belts and respectiv o ieşire poziŃionate în amonte de benzile cu
sprinklers dropping nozzle. picurătoare şi microaspersoarele cu duză.
Solenoid functions singular, simultaneously or in a Electrovanele funcŃionează singular, concomitent sau
certain order according to the command sent from the într-o anumită ordine în funcŃie de comanda transmisă de la
Data Logger GP2. Data Logger GP2.
The Data Logger GP2 receives information in the Data Logger-ul GP2 primeşte informaŃii sub formă de
form of electrical signals from the sensor WET-2, and semnale electrice de la senzorul WET-2 şi operează cu
wet-operating with specialized software designed un software specializat creat în funcŃie de cerinŃele de
according to the requirements of the water conductivity apă, conductivitate şi temperatură specifice plantei de
and temperature specific crop plant. cultură.
Information transmitted by the transducer WET-2 InformaŃiile transmise de traductorul WET-2 se referă la
refers to the most important indicators of the health of cei mai importanŃi indicatori ai sănătăŃii zonei rădăcinii:
the root zone: water content (%), electrical conductivity conŃinutul de apă (%), conductivitatea electrică (ECp) şi
(ECp) and temperature (°C). temperatura (°C).
The main technical characteristics of automatic Caracteristicile tehnice principale ale instalaŃiei
installation of drip and sprinkler irrigation and fertigation automatizată de irigare şi fertirigare prin picurare şi
are shown in Table 2. microaspersie sunt prezentate în tabelul 2.
Table 2
Water storage reservoir:
3
- volume m 6
- diameter m 1,83
Self-priming electric pump
- electric power W 370
- rated voltage Vca 220
3 -6
- flow m /s 83…8,3·10
Head PVC tank control fertilization
3
- fertilizer tank capacity m 0,06
- filter size m 0,0508
The automatic climate control system(fig. 4) provide Sistemul automat pentru controlul climei (fig. 4) asigură
ventilation and forced air ventilation, air-conditioned aerisirea şi ventilaŃia forŃată a aerului în seră cu aer
greenhouse - temperature, CO2 and optimum air condiŃionat – temperatură, CO2 şi umiditate atmosferică
humidity. optime.
Fig. 4 - Automatic climate control system
Automatic climate control system consists of an Sistemul automat pentru controlul climei se compune
engine greenhouse openings (Item 1), a control panel for dintr-un motor deschideri seră (poz. 1), un panou de control
greenhouse openings (Item 2), a rain sensor (Item 3), a pentru deschideri seră (poz. 2), un senzor de ploaie (poz. 3),
temperature sensor (Item 4 ), a wind sensor (Item 5), a un senzor de temperatură (poz. 4), un senzor de vânt (poz.
230
CO2 sensor (item 6), an axial fan (item 7), an electric 5), un senzor de CO2 (poz. 6), un ventilator axial (poz. 7),
cable openings engine emissions (item 8), cable axial cablu electric motor deschideri seră (poz. 8), cablu ventilatoare
fans (item 9), sensor cable (item 10), a Data Logger GP 2 axiale (poz. 9), cablu pentru senzori (poz. 10), un Data
(item 11) and an electrical panel (item 12). Logger GP 2 (poz. 11) şi un panou electric (poz. 12).
The main technical characteristics of the automatic Caracteristicile tehnice principale ale sistemului automat
climate control system are presented in Table 3. pentru controlul climei sunt prezentate în tabelul 3.
Table 3
Engine greenhouse openings
-1
- speed rot·s 0.033…0.150
- power W 370
Axial fan
- lectric power W 300
- rated voltage Vca 220
3
- flow m /s 1.591
Data Logger receives information in the form of Data Logger-ul primeşte informaŃii sub formă de semnale
electrical signals from the CO2 sensor and operates electrice de la senzorul de CO2 şi operează cu un alt
other specialized software created by the content of software specializat creat în funcŃie de conŃinutul în dioxid de
carbon dioxide (CO2) is an essential component of carbon (CO2) care este o componentă esenŃială a
photosynthesis. According to information received Data fotosintezei. În funcŃie de informaŃia primită Data Logger-ul
Logger command to start a circulating fan creates a comandă pornirea unui ventilator de recirculare care
constant airflow around the plant recycled to provide an creează un curent de aer constant reciclat în jurul plantelor
optimal climate for culture. pentru a oferi un climat optim de cultură.
To perform experimental research of innovative Pentru efectuarea cercetărilor experimentale ale
technology for irrigation and climate control in real tehnologiei inovative pentru irigaŃii şi controlul climei în
organized an experimental group (Fig. 5) in a condiŃii reale a fost organizat un lot experimental (fig. 5)
greenhouse covered with double foil flourish inside într-o seră acoperită cu folie dublu inflată din incinta INMA
INMA Bucharest. Bucureşti.
The experimental group was prepared for drip Lotul experimental a fost pregătit pentru irigaŃie prin
irrigation and climate control of a Cornichon Cucumbers picurare şi controlul climei a unei culturii de CastraveŃi
of Paris culture - Cucumis Sativus cycle II. cornichon de Paris - Cucumis Sativus din ciclul II.
To establish a culture of cucumbers was performed to În vederea înfiinŃării culturii de castraveŃi s-a practicat o
determine irrigation home field capacity, excessive irigare de start pentru a determina capacitatea de câmp,
wetting a portion of the experimental plot and setting the umezind în exces o porŃiune din parcela experimentală şi
amount of water remaining after excess gravitational stabilind cantitatea de apă rămasă după ce s-a pierdut
lost. gravitaŃional excesul.
Knowledge of field capacity is of great importance Cunoaşterea capacităŃii de câmp are o mare importanŃă,
because it represents the upper limit of water useful for deoarece reprezintă limita superioară a apei utile pentru
plants. Soil found at field capacity is the optimum plante. Solul aflat la capacitatea de câmp se găseşte în
moisture, plants finding the best conditions for condiŃii optime de umiditate, plantele găsind cele mai bune
development. condiŃii de dezvoltare.
Fig. 5. - Experimental group in a greenhouse covered with double foil flourish
RESULTS REZULTATE
The diagram in Figure 6 is the variation of soil În diagrama din figura 6 este reprezentată variaŃia
moisture from start irrigation. umidităŃii solului la irigarea de start.
231
Fig. 6. - Graphical representation of the variation of soil moisture from start irrigation
The analysis of data obtained from start irrigation Din analiza datelor obŃinute la irigarea de start se
capping moisture is observed at a rate of 58% water in observă stabilirea plafonului de umiditate la un procent de
the soil, it reached saturation. 58 % apă în sol, acesta atingând saturaŃia.
The diagram in Figure 7 is the variation of the În diagrama din figura 7 este reprezentată variaŃia
electrical conductivity ECp of soil start irrigation. conductivităŃii electrice ECp a solului la irigarea de start.
Fig. 7. - Graphical representation of the variation of electrical conductivity ECp at soil start irrigation
According to the results, the start irrigation is an Conform datelor rezultate la irigarea de start se
increase in the electrical conductivity of ECp, which observă o creştere a conductivităŃii electrice ECp, care
reflects the total amount of total dissolved salts or ions reflectă cantitatea totală de săruri dizolvate sau totalul
- -1
dissolved in water up to 225 mS·m 1 at the same time ionilor dizolvaŃi în apă, până la 225 mS·m concomitent cu
increasing the soil moisture to 58% or a decrease by mărirea umidităŃii solului la 58 % şi o scădere până la 120
-1 -1
120 mS·m while soil moisture remained the same. mS·m în timp ce umiditatea solului a rămas aceeaşi. Unii
Some ions such as those of sodium or chloride those ioni, ca de exemplu, cei de sodiu sau cei de clorură,
contribute more than others in the ECP, e.g., the contribuie mai mult la ECp decât alŃii, de exemplu, cei de
phosphorus and potassium. Some high level of ions, fosfor sau de potasiu. Unele niveluri ridicate de ioni, cei de
the chloride, for example, are undesirable and in large clorură, de exemplu, sunt nedoriŃi, iar în cantităŃi mari pot
quantities may even endanger the plant. chiar periclita dezvoltarea plantelor.
temperature at start irrigation. temperaturii solului la irigarea de start.
Fig. 8. - Graphical representation of variation of soil temperature at start irrigation
Analyzing the data shown above is a decrease from Analizând datele reprezentate mai sus se observă o
40 °C to 19°C soil temperature throughout the start scădere de la 40°C la 19°C a temperaturii solului pe t oată
irrigation. Soil temperature regime in protected areas is perioada irigării de start. Regimul de temperatură a solului
critical in growing vegetables. It is therefore necessary în spaŃiile protejate este factorul decisiv în cultura
to maintain soil temperature control (optimum legumelor. De aceea este necesar să se menŃină sub
232
conditions are 20...22 ° C) through proper ventilat ion control temperatura solului (condiŃiile optime sunt
and irrigation. 20…22°C) printr-o aerisire şi irigare corectă.
Before carrying out research on the experimental Înainte de efectuarea cercetărilor pe lotul experimental
group Cornichon Cucumbers of Paris cultivated software cultivat cu CastraveŃi cornichon de Paris, în softurile de
control of their GP2 Data Logger were introduced: comandă ale Data Logger-lor GP2 au fost introduse:
- Minimum 20% and maximum 30% soil moisture - valoarea minimă de 20 % şi maximă a umidităŃii solului de 30
control Automatic Drip irrigation system; % pentru comanda instalaŃiei automată de irigat prin picurare;
- The minimum concentration of 400 ppm CO2 in the air - valoarea minimă a concentraŃiei de CO2 în aer de 400
to control the automatic control greenhouse ppm pentru comanda sistemului automat de control al
microclimate. microclimatului în seră.
Figure 9 is the START window of the software În figura 9 este reprezentată fereastra de START a
control of drip irrigation. softului de comandă a irigării prin picurare.
Fig. 9. - Program drip irrigation - START window
The measured values of sensors can be viewed in real Valorile măsurate de senzori pot fi vizualizate în timp real
time using a software based control, as in Figure 10. folosind o funcŃie a softului de comandă, ca în figura 10.
Fig. 10. Window viewing parameters measured by the sensor in real time
Data recorded and stored in the internal Data Logger Datele înregistrate şi stocate în memoria internă a Data
memory GP2 were imported into a laptop and using an Logger-lor GP2 au fost importate pe un Laptop şi cu
Excel spreadsheet software were processed resulting in ajutorul unui soft de calcul tabelar Excel au fost prelucrate
variation diagrams parameters over time. rezultând diagramele de variaŃie a parametrilor în timp.
moisture in a given period of time. umidităŃii solului pe un anumit interval de timp.
233
Fig.11. - Graphical representation of variation of soil moisture in a given period of time
The analysis of the data shown in Figure 8, there is Din analiza datelor reprezentate în figura 8, se observă
inclusion of moisture values within the limits imposed by încadrarea valorilor umidităŃii în limitele impuse prin softul
the control software, such as between 20% and 30%. de comandă, respectiv între 20 % şi 30 %. Depăşirea
Exceeding maximum inertia due process. valorii maxime se datorează inerŃiei procesului.
From the results obtained from the experimentation of Din analiza rezultatelor obŃinute în urma experimentării
innovative technology that technology provides: tehnologiei inovative rezultă că tehnologia asigură:
- Irrigation water required to conservatory with fully - apa necesară irigaŃiei în seră cu un instalaŃie
automated installation and energy independent by using automatizată complet şi independentă energetic prin
a combination photovoltaic panel - submersible pump; utilizarea combinaŃiei panou fotovoltaic - pompă sumersibilă;
- Monitor and control the process under irrigation / - monitorizarea şi controlul în regim automat a procesului
fertigation drip and / or sprinkler by leading health de irigare/fertirigare prin picurare şi/sau microaspersie în
indicators root zone of vegetable crops in greenhouses funcŃie de cei mai importanŃi indicatori ai sănătăŃii zonei
and solariums (water content (%), pore water rădăcinii a culturilor legumicole din sere şi solarii (conŃinutul de
conductivity (CEp) and temperature (°C); apă (%), conductivitatea apei din pori (CEp) şi temperatura (°C);
- Maintaining a controlled environment inside a - menŃinerea unui microclimat controlat în interiorul unei
greenhouse covered with double foil flourish monitoring sere acoperită cu folie dublu inflată prin monitorizarea şi
and control in automatic mode microclimate parameters controlul în regim automat a parametrilor de microclimat
(CO2 content). (conŃinutul în CO2) programaŃi.
[1]. http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/news/t/developpement- [1]. http://www.futura-sciences.com/fr/news/t/developpement-
durable-1/d/dans-le-monde-les-ressources-en-eausont- durable-1/d/dans-le-monde-les-ressources-en-eausont-
suffisantes-mais-mal-distribuees_33641/; suffisantes-mais-mal-distribuees_33641/
[2]. Intelligence Community Assessment on Global Water [2]. Intelligence Community Assessment on Global Water
Security, http://www.state.gov/e/oes/water/ica/index.htm; Security, http://www.state.gov/e/oes/water/ica/index.htm
[3]. European Institute of Romania (EIR) (2013) - [3]. Institutul European din România (IER) (2013) -
Conference " Food security and water resources: from ConferinŃa „Securitatea alimentară si a resurselor de apă:
European perspective and national realities" , Bucharest, între perspective europene si realităŃi naŃionale” Bucureşti,
http://www.ier.ro/webfm_send/5181; http://www.ier.ro/webfm_send/5181;
[4]. Marin E. (2014) - Automatic installation of extraction [4]. Marin E. (2014) - InstalaŃie automatizată de extragere a
of ground water pump solar powered submersible DC apei din pânza freatică cu pompă submersibilă solară
power captured, converted and stored using a alimentată în curent continuu cu energie captată, convertită
photovoltaic system, TechnoMarket No. 2, ArTech şi stocată cu ajutorul unui sistem fotovoltaic, TechnoMarket
Bucharest; Nr. 2, ArTech Bucureşti;
[5]. Marin E., Pirnă I., Manea D., Matache M., Sorică C. [5]. Marin E., Pirnă I., Manea D., Matache M., Sorică C.
(2014) - Automatic installation of drip and / or sprinkler (2014) - InstalaŃia automatizată de irigare şi fertirigare prin
irrigation and fertigation, TechnoMarket No. 3, ArTech picurare şi/sau microaspersie, TechnoMarket Nr. 3, ArTech
Bucharest; Bucureşti;
[6]. Marin E., Pirnă I, Manea D., Matache M., Sorică C. [6]. Marin E., Pirnă I, Manea D., Matache M., Sorică C.
(2014) - Automatic installation of drip and / or sprinkler (2014) -InstalaŃia automatizată de irigare şi fertirigare prin
irrigation and fertigation, Patent Application no. A00567 / picurare şi/sau microaspersie, Cerere brevet de invenŃie nr.
28.07.2014, OSIM Bucharest. A00567/28.07.2014, OSIM Bucureşti.
234
PRODUCTION OF POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS BIOMASS IN SUBMERGED CULTURE WITH

ALTERNATIVE CARBON SOURCE
/
OBłINEREA DE BIOMASĂ DIN POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS ÎN CULTURĂ SUBMERSĂ CU
SURSE DE CARBON ALTERNATIVE
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Ferdeş M., Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Dincă M.
Tel: 0729821256; E-mail: marianaferdes@yahoo.com
Abstract: Production of biomass from edible Rezumat: ObŃinerea de biomasă din ciuperci comestibile
mushrooms like Polyporus squamosus, dryads saddle, cum este Polyporus squamosus, buretele de nuc, în
in submerged cultures is influenced by the type of culturi submerse este influenŃată de tipul sursei de
utilised carbon source. The aim of this paper was to carbon utilizate. Scopul lucrării a fost testarea mai multor
test several culture media containing different sugars medii de cultură conŃinând diferite zaharuri pentru
in order to obtain biomass from this known fungus. obŃinerea de biomasă din acest fung cunoscut. Tulpina
The fungal strain was cultivated on the orbital fungică a fost cultivată pe un incubator orbital pe mediile
incubator on malt extract broth, potato dextrose broth, malt extract broth, potato dextrose broth, Czapek Dox
Czapek Dox broth and molasses. The largest amount broth şi melasă. Cea mai mare cantitate de miceliu şi cel
of mycelium and the highest biomass yield were mai bun randament de producŃie s-au înregistrat pe
registered for the culture medium containing sugar mediul cu melasă din sfeclă de zahăr şi săruri care au
beet molasses and salts that favored the growth of favorizat creşterea hifelor şi acumularea de biomasă
hyphae and thus the accumulation of biomass. proteică fungică.
Keywords: microbial biomass, Polyporus squamosus, Cuvinte cheie: biomasă microbiană, Polyporus squamosus,
submerged culture, carbon source cultură submersă, sursa de carbon
Many biotechnological processes have been Un mare număr de procese biotehnologice au avut ca
developed to isolate microorganisms able to use scop izolarea microorganismelor capabile să utilizeze
organic material as a source of carbon and energy and diferite substrate organice ca sursă de carbon şi energie şi
to convert inorganic nitrogen into high-food-value să transforme azotul anorganic în biomasă proteică cu
proteins. These can be used in human foodstuffs or valoare nutritivă ridicată. Acest tip de proteine pot fi utilizate
animal feed to replace traditional plant or animal în alimentaŃia omului şi în furajarea animalelor şi pot înlocui
sources [1, 2, 8]. The main criteria for selection of sursele conventionale provenite din plante şi animale [1, 2,
microorganisms are the nature of the raw material, the 8]. Principalele criterii de selecŃie a microorganismelor sunt
nutritional value, protein content, amino acid balance of natura materiilor prime, valoarea nutritivă, conŃinutul de
biomass, the type of culture, nutritional requirements, proteină şi aminoacizi, tipul culturii, cerinŃele nutriŃionale,
type of separation, toxicological characteristics, the high modul de separare din mediul de cultură, caracteristicile
specific growth rate, the ability to develop high cell toxicologice, viteza maximă specifică de creştere, proprietatea
density [2, 5, 6]. de a dezvolta densităŃi celulare ridicate [2, 5, 6].
The principal properties of fungi are their ability to use Principala caracteristică a fungilor este capacitatea lor
a large number of complex growth substances such as de a utiliza un mare număr de substanŃe complexe de
sugars, cellulose and starch and easy recovery by simple creştere cum sunt zaharurile, celuloza şi amidonul, de a fi
filtration, reducing production costs. uşor separate prin filtrare şi un preŃ scăzut.
The most important aspects of the quality of fungal Cea mai importantă calitate a biomasei fungice se
biomass relate to: nutritional value of the product, safety referă la valoarea sa nutritivă, siguranŃa şi obŃinerea de
of the product, production of protein concentrate with low concentrate proteice cu conŃinut scăzut de acizi nucleici
content of nucleic acid and toxic substances. şi substanŃe toxice.
Wild mushrooms are becoming more and more Ciupercile devin din ce în ce mai importante pentru
important in our diet for their nutritional, organoleptic, and dieta omului datorită caracteristicilor nutriŃionale,
pharmacological characteristics. Based on their high organoleptice şi farmacologice. Având în vedere
mineral content, low fat, and low calories, the nutritional concentraŃia optimă de minerale, valoarea scăzuta a
values of mushrooms have already been reevaluated. lipidelor şi conŃinutului caloric, valoarea nutriŃională a
Additionally, mushrooms have been known to have an ciupercilor este reevaluată. În plus, se pare că unele
effect on preventing several diseases such as cancer, ciuperci pot preveni unele boli cum sunt forme de cancer,
hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension. hipercolesterolemia şi hipertensiunea.
Many studies have focused on biotechnological Au fost efectuate numeroase studii privind procesele
processes for artificial cultivation of mushrooms. biotehnologice de cultivare artificială a ciupercilor.
Polyporus squamosus is one of the most important Polyporus squamosus este una din cele mai importante
cultivated mushrooms for food purpose and also it is a ciuperci cultivate în scop alimentar implicate şi în
well studied white-rot fungus [1, 3]. putrezirea materialului lemnos [1, 3].
Polyporus squamosus belongs to the family Polyporaceae Polyporus squamosus face parte din familia
and grows on dead wood of various trees especially walnut, Polyporaceae şi creşte în natură pe diferite specii de
235
but several species are found on other substrates [7, 9, 10]. arbori în special nuc, dar unele specii pot utiliza şi alte
Polyporus squamosus is an edible mushroom that has a substrate [7, 9, 10]. Polyporus squamosus are aromă şi
desirable aroma and taste and adds texture to a meal [4]. gust plăcute şi conferă textură alimentelor [4].
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODE

Fungal strain Tulpina fungică
The biomass production was performed using a fungal Producerea de biomasă a fost efectuată cu o tulpină
strain of Polyporus squamosus from the culture collection fungică de Polyporus squamosus din colecŃia de culturi a
of Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnical Laboratorului de Microbiologie din Facultatea de Ingineria
Systems Engineering. The strain was cultured in tubes Sistemelor Biotehnice. Tulpina a fost cultivată în eprubete
o o
on potato agar medium and preserved at 4 C. pe mediul potato dextrose agar şi conservată la 4 C.
Culture media Medii de cultură
Several liquid culture media were used for the fungal Pentru creşterea microorganismului au fost folosite
grow: malt extract broth (Merck), potato dextrose broth câteva medii de cultură lichide: malt extract broth
(Difco), Czapek Dox broth (Oxoid) and a medium (Merck), potato dextrose broth (Difco), Czapek Dox broth
containing sugar beet molasses 100.g/L, ammonium (Oxoid) şi un mediu conŃinând melasă din sfeclă de zahăr
nitrate 3 g/L, ammonium phosphate 1 g/L. The fungal 100 g/L, azotat de amoniu 3 g/L şi fosfat de amoniu
strain was kept as stock culture in tubes on agar slant 1 g/L. Cultura stoc pentru tulpina fungică a fost păstrată
medium. în slanturi pe medii agarizate.
Fungal growth and biomass development Creşterea fungică şi dezvoltarea biomasei
To estimate the growth rate on solid medium, the Rata de creştere a tulpinii de Polyporus s-a
Polyporus strain was inoculated in Petri dishes onto determinat pe mediul potato dextrose agar în cutii Petri
potato dextrose agar medium and the diameter of colony prin măsurarea zilnică a diametrului coloniei. Rata de
was measured each day. The growth rate was calculated creştere a fost calculata ca diametrul coloniei (mm) /
as diameter of colony (mm) / time (hours). timp (ore).
Biomass production was carried out in 500 mL Producerea biomasei a fost efectuată în flacoane
o o
Erlenmeyer flasks, on a rotary shaker, at 25 C, 150 rpm, Erlenmeyer de 500 mL pe un incubator rotativ la 25 C,
for 72 hours. The samples were collected every day and 150 rpm timp de 72 de ore. Au fost recoltate zilnic probe
the amount of wet biomass, the dry matter (using a în care s-a determinat cantitatea de biomasă umedă,
o o
thermobalance at 103 C), the total soluble solids biomasa uscată (la termobalanŃă la 103 C), substanŃele
(refractometer method), the pH were analyzed. The solubile totale (prin metoda refractometrică) şi pH. Pentru
microscopic aspect of cultures after 72 hours of growth toate mediile de cultură a fost descris aspectul
was described for all culture media using a FLUO 2 microscopic al culturilor utilizand un microscop FLUO 2
microscope (BEL Engineering). (BEL Engineering).
RESULTS REZULTATE
Polyporus squamosus strain developed onto potato Tulpina de Polyporus squamosus dezvoltată pe potato
o o
dextrose agar at 25 C forms white, fluffy colonies, with a dextrose agar la 25 C formează colonii albe, pufoase, cu
growth rate of 0.57 mm/h. The growth and the aspect of o viteză de creştere de 0,57 mm/oră. Creşterea şi
Polyporus colony are shown in figure 1. aspectul coloniei de Polyporus sunt prezentate în figura 1.
100
80
Colony 60
diameter,
mm 40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
day day day day day
Fig. 1 – The growth of Polyporus colony (a) and the morpho-colonial aspect on potato dextrose agar medium/Cresterea coloniei de
Polyporus (a) si aspectul morfo-colonial pe mediul potato-dextrose-agar
In liquid culture media, the accumulation of fungal În medii lichide acumularea de biomasă fungică a
biomass has started from day 1, correlated with the început din prima zi, proces corelat cu epuizarea
depletion of solid soluble substances. For each culture substanŃelor solide solubile. Pentru fiecare mediu de
medium the dry biomass, the total soluble solids and pH cultură valorile biomasei uscate, substanŃei solide
values are presented in figure 2. solubile totale şi pH-ului sunt prezentate în figura 2.
236
Malt extract broth

3 DW, g/200mL
Potato dextrose broth
2
Czapek broth
1
Molasses
0
0h 24 h 48 h 72 h
Time
a)
6TSS %
Malt extract broth
4
Potato dextrose broth
2 Czapek broth
Molasses
0 Time
0h 24 h 48 h 72 h
b)
8
6 Malt extract broth
pH 4 Potato dextrose broth
Czapek broth
2 Molasses
0
0h 24 h 48 h 72 h
Time
c)
Fig. 2 - Variations of the average values of dry biomass,(a), total soluble solids (b) and pH (c) during the growth of
Polyporus squamosus strain on malt extract broth, potato dextrose broth, Czapek Dox broth and molasses/Variatia valorilor medii pentru
biomasa uscata (a), substante solubile totale (b) si pH (c) in timpul cresterii tulpinii de Polyporus squamosus pe malt extract, Czapek Dox
si melasa
The culture media used in this experiment contain Mediile de cultură utilizate în experiment conŃin diferite
different amounts of carbon sources: in malt extract cantităŃi de substanŃe sursa de carbon: în mediul cu
medium the main carbon source is represented by extract de malŃ principala sursă de carbon este
maltose and glucose; potato dextrose broth contains reprezentată de maltoză şi glucoză; mediul potato
potato infusion and glucose; in Czapek Dox medium the dextrose broth conŃine infuzie de cartof şi glucoză; în
unique carbon source is sucrose. The molasses medium mediul Czapek Dox zaharoza este unica sursă de
is more complex because of the variable composition of carbon. Mediul cu melasă este mai complex din cauza
sugar beet molasses,with a content of about 50% sugar, compoziŃiei variabile a melasei din sfeclă de zahăr, cu un
minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, conŃinut de aproximativ 50% sucroză, minerale (calciu,
magnesium), amino acids, organic acids, betaine, other fosfor, potasiu, sodiu, magneziu), aminoacizi, acizi
compounds. organici, betaină, alŃi compuşi.
The wet biomass was easily separated from culture Biomasa umedă a fost uşor separată prin filtrare din
medium by filtration (an obvious technological mediul de cultură (un avantaj tehnologic evident);
advantage) and the results for dry biomass determined rezultatele pentru biomasa uscată determinată la o
using a thermobalance are shown in figure 2a. termobalanŃă sunt prezentate în figura 2a.
As can be seen in this figure, the micelial growth După cum se poate observa din figură, creşterea
begins from the first day. The Polyporus fungus is miceliului începe din prima zi. Fungul Polyporus se
characterised by a rapid growth, a short lag phase and a caracterizează printr-o creştere rapidă, o fază de lag
short generation time. The previous studies have scurtă şi un timp de generaŃie mic. Studiile anterioare au
demonstrated that for a longer culture time (in this case demonstrat că pentru un timp de dezvoltare mai lung (în
72 hours), the fungal biomass accumulation slows, and acest caz 72 de ore), acumularea de biomasă fungică
the texture of mycelium is altered. încetineşte şi textura miceliului este alterată.
The values of substrate content were recorded as TSS Valorile concentraŃiei substratului au fost înregistrate
(total soluble solids, refractometric) and are presented in ca TSS (substanŃe solide solubile, refractometric) şi sunt
figure 1b. The consumption of nutrients begins in the first prezentate în figura 2b. Consumul de nutrienŃi începe din
24 hours and it is significant increased in the last day. primele 24 de ore şi este semnificativ crescut în ultima zi.
The pH values in culture liquid differ considerably Valorile pH în lichidul de cultură diferă considerabil în
depending on the composition of media, but the funcŃie de compoziŃia mediului, dar variaŃiile se situeaza
variations are in neutral and acid area (figure 2c). în zona neutra si slab acida (figura 2c).
In table 1 the values of biomass (g/L), substrate In tabelul 1 sunt prezentate valorile biomasei ((g/L),
consumption (g/L) and biomass yield are shown. The dry consumului de substrat (g/L) si ale randamentului în
237
biomass (g/L) varied considerably for each culture biomasă. Biomasa uscată variază considerabil pentru
medium with different carbon source: in potato dextrose fiecare mediu de cultură cu diferite surse de carbon: în
broth containing glucose and infusion of potato as main potato dextrose broth conŃinând glucoză şi infuzie de cartof
carbon source the determined value was 4.3 g/L (the ca sursă principală de carbon valoarea determinată a fost
lowest amount). For sucrose in molasses as carbon 4,3 g/L (cea mai mică valoare). Pentru zaharoza din melasă
source, the dry biomass was 9.8 g/L. ca sursă de carbon biomasa uscată a fost 9,8 g/L.
The highest yield (biomass / consumed substrate), Cel mai bun randament (biomasa / substrat consumat),
29% is recorded for the molasses medium, containing 29% s-a înregistrat pentru mediul cu melasă conŃinând
water, molasses and salts. In the malt extract apă, melasă şi săruri. În mediul cu extract de malŃ
medium the growth was poor. Thus, to produce large creşterea a fost slabă. Astfel, pentru a produce cantităŃi
amount of fungal biomass the use of cheap culture mari de biomasă fungică utilizarea unui mediu de cultură
media like sugar beet molasses represents an ieftin ca melasa din sfeclă de zahăr reprezintă o
effective way. modalitate eficientă.
Table 1
Values of wet and dry biomass (after 72 hours), substrate consumption and biomass yield
Substrate
Culture medium Wet biomass (g/L) Dry biomass (g/L) Biomass yield (%)
consumption (g/L)
Czapek Dox broth 36.95 7.66 27 28.3
Potato dextrose broth 23.55 3.27 13 25.1
Malt extract broth 22.5 4.32 19 22.7
Molasses 61.25 9.86 34 29.0
The images of Polyporus squamosus mycelium Imaginile miceliului de Polyporus squamosus

shown in figure 2 demonstrate a good growth on all the prezentate în figura 2 demonstrează o creştere bună
substrates, but the best conditions seems to be the pentru toate substratele, dar cele mai bune condiŃii par
molasses culture medium. The hyphae form filamentous să fie în cazul mediului cu melasă. Hifele formează
structures that facilitate the filtration of biomass as can structuri filamentoase care facilitează filtrarea biomasei
see in the first 4 images (a, b, c, d). On microscopic după cum se poate vedea în primele 4 imagini (a, b, c,
slides the fungal mycelium consists of numerous d). Pe lamele microscopice miceliul fungic se prezintă
vegetative hyphae, 1-5 µm in diameter, that extend ca numeroase hife vegetative cu diametrul de 1-5 µm,
continously at their extreme tips. Especially in molasses care se extind continuu prin vârfurile extreme. Asocierile
culture medium the hyphal associations are visible hifale sunt vizibile în special în mediul de cultură cu
figure 2h). melasă (figura 2h).
a b c
d e f
g h
Fig. 2 - Images of fungal biomass produced in malt extract broth (a, e), potato dextrose broth (b, f), Czapek Dox broth (c, g) and
molasses (d, h) media (a, b, c, d – mycelium in liquid media, e, f, g, h – hyphae on microscope camera
238
In all liquid media, Polyporus squamosus formed În toate mediile lichide, Polyporus squamosus
white cotton-like micelium and increased the viscosity formează miceliu cu aspect de fibre de bumbac şi
of culture medium (figure 2 a, b, c, d). This fungus has determină creşterea vâscozităŃii (figura 2 a, b, c, d).
a high grow rate and produces large amounts of Fungul are o rată de creştere înaltă şi produce cantităŃi
biomass in culture media containing sugars as carbon mari de biomasă în mediile de cultură conŃinând zaharuri
source. ca sursă de carbon.
The metabolic versatility of the genus Polyporus Versatilitatea metabolică a genului Polyporus face ca
makes this fungal group can be grown in most varied fungii din acest grup să poată fi crescuŃi în cele mai
conditions and in different nutritive media. variate condiŃii şi în diferite medii nutritive.
Microorganisms such as bacteria, algae and fungi Microorganismele ca bacteriile, algele şi fungii sunt
have been considered as protein sources. Culture of considerate ca surse de proteine. Cultura fungilor
fungi for its nutritional value using carbon substrates pentru valoarea lor nutritivă utilizând surse de carbon ca
such as molasses is well known and best accepted by melasa este cunoscută şi cel mai bine acceptată de
consumers. consumatori.
Polyporus squamosus is a edible mushroom with a Polyporus squamosus este o ciupercă comestibilă cu
good taste and flavor that can be grown in submerged un gust şi aromă bune, care poate fi crescută în cultură
culture on nutritive media. submersă pe medii nutritive.
Polyporus squamosus strain was cultivated to O tulpină de Polyporus squamosus a fost cultivată în
produce microbial biomass using different carbon scopul producerii de biomasă utilizând diferite surse de
sources: glucose, maltose, sucrose, potato infusion, carbon: glucoză, maltoză, zaharoză, infuzie de cartof,
molasses contained in four culture media. melasă conŃinute în patru medii de cultură.
The dry weight, pH, total soluble solids values were Valorile biomasei uscate, pH-ului, substanŃelor solubile
analyzed for: malt extract broth, potato dextrose broth, totale au fost analizate pentru următoarele medii de
Czapek Dox broth and molasses culture medium. The cultură: malt extract broth, potato dextrose broth, Czapek
o
fungal strain was grown on an orbital shaker, at 25 C, Dox broth şi melasă. Tulpina fungică a fost crescută pe un
o
150 rpm, for 72 hours. incubator orbital la 25 C, 150 rpm timp de 72 ore.
The mycelium was easily separated from the culture Miceliul a fost separat din cultură şi apoi uscat pentru
and then dry to obtain a biomass used in food industry obŃinerea de biomasă utilizată în industria alimentară şi
and in feedstuff. în furajarea animalelor.
The highest value of biomass yield (29%) was Cea mai mare valoare a randamentului în biomasă
recorded for molasses culture, containing sucrose as (29%) s-a înregistrat pentru mediul de cultură cu melasă,
carbon source, ammonium nitrate and ammonium conŃinând zaharoză ca sursă de carbon, azotat de
phosphate. amoniu şi fosfat de amoniu.
On microscopic slides, the fungal culture consists of Pe preparatele microscopice, cultura fungică constă
vegetative hyphae with 1-5 µm in diameter that forms din hife vegetative cu diametrul de 1-5 µm, care formează
thicker filaments especially in molasses medium. filamente mai groase în special în mediul cu melasă.
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Cultivation of Polyporus squamosus for pectinase Cultivarea Polyporus squamosus pentru producerea de
production in aqueous two-phase system containing pectinază în sistem bifazic apos conŃinând deşeuri de la
sugar beet extraction waste, Journal of biotechnology extracŃia sfeclei de zahăr, Journal of biotechnology 91(1),
91(1), pg. 83-7; pag. 83-7;
[2]. Archer D.B., Connerton I.F., MacKenzie D.A. (2008) - [2]. Archer D.B., Connerton I.F., MacKenzie D.A. (2008) –
Filamentous Fungi for Production of Food Additives and Fungi filamentoşi pentru producŃia de aditivi alimentari şi
Processing Aids, Adv. Biochem. Engin/Biotechnol, amelioratori de procesare, Adv. Biochem.
Springer-Verlag Berlin; Engin/Biotechnol, Springer-Verlag Berlin;
[3]. Peričin D.M., Radulović L.M. and Ćurčin S.S. (2004) (2004) [3]. Peričin D.M., Radulović L.M. and Ćurčin S.S. (2004)
– Extraction of endo-pectinase activity from the culture – ExtracŃia de endo-pectinaze din filtratul de cultură de
filtrate of Polyporus squamosus by aqueous two-phase Polyporus squamosus în sistem bifazic compus din
systems composed of low molecular mass polyethylene polietilen glicol şi fosfat cu masă moleculară mică,
glycol and phosphate salt, APTEFF Journal, vol. 35, 215-224; Jurnalul APTEFF, vol. 35, pag. 215-224;
[4]. Ergönül P., Akata I., Kalyoncu F., Ergönül1 B., (2013) [4]. Ergönül P., Akata I., Kalyoncu F., Ergönül B. (2013) –
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240
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF CLEAN ROOMS

/
MONITORIZAREA MEDIULUI DIN SPAłII STERILE
1) 2)
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Safta V.V. , Eng. S.R. Ciucă V.C.
1)
2)
N.S. ‘’Pasteur Institute” Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0724017310; E-mail: saftavictorviorel@yahoo.com
Abstract: The paper presents current methods Rezumat: În lucrare sunt prezentate metode actuale,
indicated by international regulations environmental indicate de reglementările internaŃionale de monitorizare
monitoring in cleanrooms [3, 4] and how they have a mediului din spaŃiile sterile [3, 4], precum şi modul de
been applied in the Vaccines Liquid Conditioning - aplicare a acestora în cadrul SecŃiei CondiŃionare Lichidă
Aseptic Filling Department of the National Society – Umplere Aseptica Vaccinuri din cadrul SocietăŃii
"PASTEUR INSTITUTE" Bucharest, in the case of NaŃionale “INSTITUTUL PASTEUR” S.A. din Bucureşti în
avian live vaccines series conditioning. cazul condiŃionării unor serii de vaccinuri aviare vii.
Keywords: cleanrooms, monitoring, environment, Cuvinte cheie: spaŃii sterile, monitorizare, mediu,
vaccines vaccinuri
Injectable biological products (hyper-immune serums, Produsele biologice injectabile (seruri hiperimune,
vaccines, diagnostic reagents) must be sterile, free of vaccinuri, reagenti de diagnostic) trebuie să fie sterile,
bacterial and fungal contaminants. In addition, live fără contaminanŃi bacterieni şi fungici. În plus, la
influenza vaccines, besides that they must be sterile, vaccinurile aviare vii, pe lângâ faptul că trebuie să fie
they must also be free of mycoplasma. sterile, acestea trebuie să fie şi lipsite de mycoplasmă.
The manufacture of sterile biological products require FabricaŃia de produse biologice sterile impune cerinŃe
special requirements in order to minimize the risk of speciale în vederea minimizării riscurilor de contaminare
microbial contamination [1]. microbiană [1].
To the manufacture of medicinal and biological sterile Pentru fabricaŃia de produse medicamentoase si
products, four grades of cleanliness of their production biologice sterile, se diferentiaza in mod normal 4 clase de
areas can be normally differentiate, namely: curatenie a spaŃiilor de producere a acestora, şi anume:
- grade A: the working points with high-risk operations, - clasa A: punctele de lucru pentru operaŃii cu înalt
eg: the filling area, the plugs application area, open grad de risc, ca de exemplu: zona de umplere, zona de
ampoules and vials, aseptic connection points; aplicare a dopurilor, fiole şi flacoane deschise, puncte de
- grade B: the environment for grade A areas, in the conexiune aseptică;
case of aseptic preparation and filling; - clasa B: mediul inconjurator pentru zonele de clasa
- grades C / D: the areas where less critical stages in A, în cazul preparării si umplerii aseptice;
the manufacture of sterile products are performed. - clasele C/D: zonele de curaŃenie pentru efectuarea
Recommended limits for microbial contamination by etapelor mai puŃin critice, în fabricaŃia produselor sterile.
GMP [3] are shown in Table 1. Limitele recomandate pentru contaminarea microbiană
de către normele G.M.P. [3] sunt prezentate în tabelul 1.
Table 1
Microbiological Contamination Recommended Limits for Clean Room Grades [WHO 2002]
MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION RECOMMENDED LIMITS
CLEAN ROOM Sedimentation on Petri plates (φ=90
Aerobiological sampling Fingerprints
GRADES mm)
[CFU/m3 air] [CFU/fingerprint]
[CFU/4h]
A <1 <1 <1
B 10 5 5
C 100 50 -
D 200 100. -
CFU - colonies forming unit
UFC - unităŃi formatoare de colonii
The control of the efficiency of the decontamination Controlul eficienŃei mijloacelor de decontaminare aplicate
means applied in the areas of production, conditioning în ariile de producŃie, condiŃionare şi control a vaccinurilor
and control of avian vaccines produced by National aviare produse de SocietăŃii NaŃionale “INSTITUTUL
Society "PASTEUR INSTITUTE", namely the second PASTEUR” S.A. şi anume pe linia a II-a de condiŃionare a
conditioning sterile liquid products line of Vaccines Liquid produselor lichide sterile a SecŃiei CondiŃionare Lichidă –
Conditioning - Aseptic Filling Department, to ensure Umplere Aseptica Vaccinuri, în vederea asigurării
compliance with cleanliness levels, was performed by the conformităŃii cu nivelele de curăŃenie, s-a realizat folosind
air volume sampling method using SARTORIUS AirPort metoda prelevării volumetrice de probe de aer utilizând
MD8 sampler and by Koch sedimentation method on prelevatorul SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 şi metoda de
culture media Petri plates. sedimentare Koch pe plăci Petri cu medii de cultură.

The air sampler (see Figure 1) SARTORIUS AirPort Prelevatorul de probe de aer (vezi figura 1)
241
MD8 [5] operates on the principle of air aspiration and SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 [5] functioneaza pe principiul
retention of the microorganisms on gelatin filters or aspirarii aerului si a retentiei microorganismelor pe filtre
culture media filtrable plates. de gelatina sau pe plăci filtrante cu medii de cultură.
Fig. 1 – The portable air sampler SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 [5] (general view - left, control panel - right)
It has a plastic housing with a ergonomical shaping Acesta are carcasa din plastic având un mâner
handle to easy carrying. ergonomic pentru transportarea sa cu uşurinŃă.
In its front the instrument has the air inlet opening with La partea sa frontală aparatul are gura de admisie a
a female bayonet-type connection for attaching adapters aerului, dotată cu un sistem cuplare a adaptoarelor pentru
for gelatin filters or culture media filtrable plates disposal. fixarea filtrelor cu gelatină sau a plăcilor filtrante cu
At the back of the sampler is situated the air outlet which medii de cultură. La partea posterioară a prelevatorului
is in such a way designed and shaped to allow the se găseşte orificiul de evacuare a a aerului prelevat
instrument to operate in a vertical position when it is care este astfel conceput şi profilat încât să permită
supported on its back. funcŃionarea aparatului şi în poziŃie verticală, atunci
The top of the instrument holds the control panel which acesta este sprijinit pe partea sa posterioară.
allows a easily setting of: the sample air volume [l], which Pe partea superioară a prelevatorului se găseşte panoul
can take the values: 25 l,50 l,100 l,250 l,500 l,750 l and de comandă prin intermediul căruia se poate seta cu
1000 l and the air sampling flow rate [l/min], which can uşurinŃă volumul de aer al probei prelevate [l], care poate
take the values 30 l/min, 40 l/min, 50 l/min and 125 l/min. lua valorile: 25 l, 50 l, 100 l, 250 l , 500 l, 750 l şi1000 l
Sampler is powered by a rechargeable battery. şi debitul de prelevare al probei [l/min], care poate lua
The gelatin filters (see Figure 2 left) have the following valorile: 30 l/min, 40 l/min, 50 l/min şi 125 l/min.
characteristics: diameter 80 mm, 3 µm filter pores Prelevatorul este alimentat cu un acumulator
2
diameter, specific flow rate of air flow 2.2-3.2 l/min.cm , reîncărcabil.
0
operating conditions: 30 C maximum temperature and Filtrele de gelatină (vezi figura 2 stânga) au
and 80% maximum relative humidity (for example for următoarele caracteristici: diametru 80 mm, pori cu
Bacillus subtilis niger the retention capacity is 99.9995%, diametre de 3 µm, debitul specific al fluxului de aer de
2 0
at an air flow speed of 0.25 m/s). 2,2-3,2 l/min.cm , condiŃii de utilizare: 30 C temperatură
The culture media filtrable plates (see Figure 2 right) maximă şi 80% umiditate relativă maximă (de exemplu,
have the following characteristics: diameter 116 mm, pentru Bacillus subtilis niger capacitate de retenŃie este
height 24 mm, 400 holes with a diameter of 0.47 mm and 99,9995%, la o viteză a fluxului de aer de 0,25 m/s).
retain particles with dimensions >0.65 µm at an air flow Plăcile filtrante cu medii de cultură (vezi figura 2
speed of 0.3 m/s. The culture medium filtrable plates are dreapta) au următoarele caracteristici: diametru 116
of two types, as follows: mm, înălŃime 24 mm, 400 orificii cu diametre de 0,47
- with Sabouraud Agar media, for detecting the mm şi reŃin particule cu dimensiuni >0,65 µm la o viteză
contamination with fungus (for example: Candida a fluxului de aer de 0,3 m/s. Plăcile filtrante cu medii de
albicans and Aspergillus niger) [6]; cultură sunt de doă tipuri şi anume:
- with Tryiptic Soy Agar media (TSA), for detecting the - cu mediu Sabouraud Agar, destinate detectării
contamination with bacteries and fungus (for example: contaminării cu fungi (de exemplu: Candida albicans şi
Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas Aspergillus niger)[6];
aeruginosa, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger) [7]. - cu mediu Tryiptic-Soy Agar (TSA), destinate detectării
In order to harvest sanitation samples with the air contaminării cu bacterii şi fungi: (de exemplu: Bacillus
sampler SARTORIUS AirPort MD8, the methodology is subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas
as follows: aeruginosa, Candida albicans şi Aspergillus niger) [7].
Fig. 2 – Gelatin filters (left) and culture media plates (right) for portable air sampler SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 [5]
242
- the air sampler is placed in the tested sterile area În vederea recoltării probelor de sanitaŃie cu
(clean room); prelevatorul de probe de aer SARTORIUS AirPort
- a gelatin filter or a culture media filtrable plate is MD8, metodologia de lucru este următoarea:
connected to the air inlet opening of the sampler as - se amplasează prelevatorul de probe de aer în
follows: the gelatin filter or the culture media filtrable plate spaŃiul steril care se testează;
is removed from the envelope in which it was packed, in - se cuplează la gura de admisie a prelevatorului un
sterile conditions (in a laminar flow hood ), is fixed at the filtru de gelatină sau o placă filtrantă cu mediu de
inlet of the sampler through its adapter and is covered cultură astfel: se scoate filtrul de gelatină sau placa cu
with sterile aluminum foil which will detach only in the mediu de cultură din plicul în care au fost ambalate, în
place to be sampled; condiŃii sterile (în hotă cu flux laminar), se fixează la
- from the control panel are set the values of the gura de admisie a prelevatorului prin intermediul
sample air volume and of the air sampling flow rate; adaptoarelor acestora şi se acoperă cu folie de aluminiu
- the sampler is turn on and is timed the duration of air sterilă care se va detaşa doar la locul unde se vor
sampling; preleva probe;
- after the sampler stops operating, the gelatin filter or - se setează de la panoul de comandă valorile volumului
the culture media filtrable plate is detached under sterile probei de aer şi debitul de prelevare a probei de aer;
conditions; - se pune în funcŃiune prelevatorul şi se cronometrează
- if a gelatin filter has been used, that will be deposited durata de preluare a probei de aer;
on Petri plates with TSA and Sabouraud culture media, - după ce prelevatorul se opreşte din funcŃionare, se
which are incubated for 24-48 hours at a temperature of detaşează filtrul de gelatină sau placa cu mediu de
0
30-35 C, in the case of deposition on TSA media plates cultură în condiŃii sterile;
for bacteries detection, or are Incubated for 14 days at a - dacă s-a folosit un filtru de gelatină acesta se va
0
temperature of 20-25 C, in the case of deposition on depune pe plăci Petri cu medii de cultură TSA sau
Sabouraud media plates for fungus detection; Sabouraud, care se incubează timp de 24-48 ore la o
0
- if a TSA culture media filtrable plates has been used, temperatură de 30-35 C, în cazul depunerii pe plăci cu
that will be incubated for 22 ± 2 hours at a temperature of mediu TSA pentru detecŃia bacteriilor, sau se incubează
0 0
30-35 C for the development of the following bacteria: timp de 14 zile la o temperatură de 20-25 C, în cazul
Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas depunerii pe plăci cu mediu Sabouraud pentru detecŃia
aeruginosa and for 3 - 5 days at a temperature of 30- fungilor;
0
35 C for the development of fungi Candida albicans and - dacă s-a folosit o placă filtrantă cu mediu de cultură
Aspergillus niger; TSA, aceasta se incubează timp de 22±2 ore la o
0
- if a Sabouraud culture media filtrable plates has temperatură de 30-35 C, pentru dezvoltarea urmatoarelor
been used, that will be incubated incubated for 3-5 days bacterii: Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus,
0
at a temperature of 20-25 C; Pseudomonas aeruginosa şi timp de 3 - 5 zile la o
0
- after the end of the prescribed incubation period the temperatură de 30-35 C, pentru dezvoltarea fungilor
colonies developed on rich media are numbered, these Candida albicans şi Aspergillus niger;
representing the number of viable organisms which were - dacă s-a folosit o placă filtrantă cu mediu de cultură
collected in the air sample and then the number of viable Sabouraud, aceasta se se incubează timp de 3 - 5 zile
3 0
organisms is reported to the number of m of the air la o temperatură de 20-25 C;
sample. - după terminarea perioadei de incubare prescrise
In order to harvest the sanitation samples using the se numără coloniile dezvoltate pe mediul imbogăŃit, ele
Koch sedimentation sampling method sanitation, which is reprezentând numărul de microorganisme viabile care
the traditional method, the methodology is as follows: au fost prelevate în proba de aer şi se raportează la
3
- there are identified the areas with the greatest numărul de m de aer ai probei.
contamination risk of the sterile space (clean room), in La recoltarea probelor de sanitaŃie prin metoda de
which will be placed Petri plates; sedimentare Koch, care este metoda clasică,
- it will be used Petri plates with the following culture metodologia de lucru este următoarea:
media: blood-agar and Sabouraud-agar; - se identifică zonele cu cel mai înalt grad de risc la
- after the Petri plates are placed in the designated contaminare din spaŃiul steril, acolo unde se vor plasa
places is timed the exposure duration of the plates, which plăcile Petri;
can vary in the range: 30 minutes to 4-6 hours (the - se vor utiliza plăci Petri cu medii de cultură: agar-
standard duration: 4 hours), depending on the sânge şi agar-Sabouraud;
immediately intended use of the sterile space; - după plasarea plăcilor Petri se cronometrează
- at the expiration of the exposure period, the Petri durata de expunere a plăcilor, care poate varia de la 30
plates are covered with lids and packaged in protective minute până la 4– 6 ore (standard 4 ore), în funcŃie de
foil; destinaŃia imediată a spaŃiului steril;
- the processing of the sanitation samples collected - la expirarea perioadei de expunere, se acoperă plăcile
by Koch sedimentation method is as follows: Petri cu capace şi se ambalează în folie protectoare;
- the blood-agar Petri plates are thermostated for 48 - prelucrarea probelor de sanitaŃie recoltate prin
0
hours at a temperature of 35-37 C and the Sabouraud- metoda de sedimentare Koch este următoarea:
agar Petri plates are thermostated for 10-14 days at a - plăcile Petri cu agar-sânge se termostatează
0 0
temperature of 27 - 28 C; timp de 48 ore la o temperatură de 35-37 C, iar plăcile
- the colonies developed on blood-agar (nutritive Petri cu agar-Sabouraud se termostatează timp de 10-
0
agar) are counted and represent the number of viable 14 zile la o temperatură de 27 - 28 C;
bacteria which were harvested in the analysed sterile - se numără coloniile dezvoltate pe agarul-sânge
space (clean room); (agar nutritiv), care reprezintă numărul de bacterii
- from the colonies developed on the nutritive-agar viabile care au fost recoltate din spaŃiul steril analizat;
Is made a Gram stained smear in order to identify the - din coloniile dezvoltate pe agarul nutritiv se execută
243
type of contaminant; un frotiu colorat Gram, pentru identificarea tipului de contaminant;

- the developed on Sabouraud-agar are counted - se numără coloniile dezvoltate pe agarul
and represent the number of viable fungi which were Sabouraud, care reprezintă numărul de fungi viabili care
harvested in the analysed sterile space (clean room); au fost recoltate din spaŃiul steril analizat.
3 3
- the number of bacteria or fungi expressed per m of - numărului de bacterii sau de fungi exprimat pe m de
air from the analyzed sterile space (clean room) can be aer din spaŃiul steril analizat se poate calcula folosind
calculated by Omeliansky's formula (Equation 1): formula lui Omeliansky (relaŃia 1):
10000 ⋅ N
no. germs per m 3 air =
S⋅T 5
(1)
10000 ⋅ N
nr. germeni pe m aer =
3
S⋅ T 5
in which: în care:
N - number of counted colonies; N - numărul de colonii numărate;
2 2
S [mm ] - the surface of the Petri plates; S [mm ] - suprafaŃa cutiilor Petri;
T [min] - exposure time (5 minutes or multiples of 5 T [min] - timpul de expunere (5 minute sau multiplu de
minutes). 5 minute).
RESULTS REZULTATE
The sanitation samples were conducted on the second Probele de sanitaŃie au fost efectuate pe linia a II-a de
conditioning sterile liquid products line of Vaccines Liquid condiŃionare a produselor lichide sterile a SecŃiei CondiŃionare
Conditioning - Aseptic Filling Department of the National Lichidă - Vaccinuri din Societatea NaŃională “INSTITUTUL
Society "PASTEUR INSTITUTE" in May-June 2014 PASTEUR” S.A., în perioada mai-iunie 2014 în vederea
period, for the conditioning of two series of avian condiŃionării a două serii de vaccinuri aviare şi anume:
vaccines, namely: Newvac La Sota, series 38 and Newvac La Sota, seria 38 şi Newvac LS, seria 79.
Newvac LS series 79. Sterilitatea spaŃiului controlat s-a făcut în atât prin
The sterility of the controlled space (clean room) was metoda prelevării volumetrice de probe de aer utilizând
made both by the method of air volumetric sampling prelevatorul SARTORIUS AirPort MD8, cât şi prin metoda
using SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 sampler and by Koch de sedimentare Koch pe plăci Petri.
sedimentation method in Petri plates. În vederea efectuării probelor de aer cu prelevatorul
In order to carry out air samples with Sartorius AirPort SARTORIUS AirPort MD8, acesta a fost echipat succesiv
MD8 sampler, it was successively fitted with culture cu plăci filtrante cu mediu de cultură, atât de tip TSA cât
media filtrable plates, both of TSA and Sabouraud types; şi de tip Sabouraud; în conformitate cu volumul incintei,
In accordance with the volume of the clean room, the aparatul a fost setat să preia un volumul de aer al probei
device was set to take sample with collected air volume prelevate de 500 l la un debit de prelevare al probei de
of 500 l at a air flow rate of 125 l/min. The sanitation test 125 l/min. Rezultatele testelor de sanitaŃie cu prelevatorul
results with SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 sampler are SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 sunt prezentate sintetic în
synthetically presented in Tables 2 and 4. tabelele 2 şi 4.
In order to carry out the air samples by means of Koch În vederea efectuării probelor de aer prin metoda de
sedimentation method it were concomitantly used Petri sedimentare Koch s-au utilizat concomitent plăci Petri cu
plates both with blood-agar culture media and with mediu de cultură agar-sânge şi plăci Petri cu mediu de
Sabouraud-agar culture mediua; the locations of the Petri cultură agar Sabouraud; locurile de amplasare a plăcilor
plates were situated in the critical points of the vaccines Petri au fost situate în puncte critice ale liniei de
conditioning line, concerning the bacterial and fungal condiŃionare a vaccinurilor din punct de vedere al
sterility, namely: to the dosing machine on the rotating sterilităŃii bacteriene şi fungice şi anume: la maşina de
disc, along the conditioning line, at the level of the plugs dozat pe discul rotativ, de-a lungul liniei de condiŃionare,
vibrator, at the level of the capsules vibrator and at the la nivelul vibratorului de dopuri, la nivelul vibratorului de
level of the encapsulation device. Note that the choice of capsule şi la nivelul corpului de capsulare. De menŃionat
the locations of the Petri plates was made respecting the că alegerea locurilor de amplasare a plăcilor Petri s-a
recommendations of [2]. The sanitation test results by făcut respectând recomandările din [2]. Rezultatele
sedimentation on Petri plates are synthetically presented testelor de sanitaŃie prin sedimentare pe plăci Petri sunt
in Tables 3 and 5. prezentate sintetic în tabelele 3 şi 5.
Table 2
Air samples in the aseptic filling area of Newvac La Sota vaccine, series 38
Number of germs developed
Number of culture Type of Date and time Clean room
Incubation after incubation
media plate culture media of sampling grade
[UFC/m3 ]
0
29.05.2014 22±2 h at 30-35 C
1 TSA 0 A
11:00 - 11:04 3-5 days at 30-350C
29.05.2014 22±2 h at 30-350C
2 TSA 0 A
11:05 - 11:09 3-5 days at 30-350C
29.05.2014
3 Sabouraud 3-5 days at 20-250C 0 A
11:10 - 11:14
29.05.2014
11:15 - 11:19
0
29.05.2014 22±2 h at 30-35 C
5 TSA 0 A
13:00 - 13:04 3-5 days at 30-350C
244
29.05.2014
13:10 - 13:14
29.05.2014
13:15 - 13:19
Table 3
Sediment samples in Petri plates with culture media in the aseptic filling area of Newvac La Sota vaccine, series 38
Number of germs
Incubation developed after incubation
media plate culture media of sampling 3 grade
[UFC/m ]
06.05.2014 0
1 agar-sânge 48 h at 35-37 C 0 A
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014
2 agar-sânge 48 h at 35-370C 0 A
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014 0
12:00 - 14:00
06.05.2014
12:00 - 14:00
06.05.2014
12:00 - 14:00
Table 4
Air samples in the aseptic filling area of Newvac LS vaccine, series 79
Number of germs
Incubation developed after incubation
media plate culture media of sampling grade
[UFC/m3 ] / [CFU/m3 ]
03.06.2014 22±2 h at 30-350C
1 TSA 0 A
11:00 - 11:04 3-5 days at 30-350C
0
03.06.2014 22±2 h at 30-35 C
2 TSA 0 A
11:05 - 11:09 3-5 days at 30-350C
03.06.2014
11:10 - 11:14
03.06.2014 0
4 Sabouraud 3-5 days at 20-25 C 0 A
11:15 - 11:19
0
03.06.2014 22±2 h at 30-35 C
5 TSA 0 A
13:00 - 13:04 3-5 days at 30-350C
0
03.06.2014 22±2 h at 30-35 C
6 TSA 0 A
13:05 - 13:09 3-5 days at 30-350C
29.05.2014 0
7 Sabouraud 3-5 days at 20-25 C 0 A
13:10 - 13:14
29.05.2014
13:15 - 13:19
Table 5
Sediment samples in Petri plates with culture media in the aseptic filling area of Newvac LS vaccine, series 79
Number of germs
Number of culture Type of Date and time
Incubation developed after incubation Clean room grade
media plate culture media of sampling
[UFC/m3 ]
06.05.2014
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014 0
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014
10:00 - 12:00
06.05.2014 0
12:00 - 14:00
06.05.2014
12:00 - 14:00
06.05.2014
12:00 - 14:00
06.05.2014
12:00 - 14:00
On the second conditioning sterile liquid products line Pe linia a II-a de condiŃionare a produselor lichide
of Vaccines Liquid Conditioning - Aseptic Filling sterile a SecŃiei CondiŃionare Lichidă - Vaccinuri din
Department of the National Society "PASTEUR Societatea NaŃională “INSTITUTUL PASTEUR” S.A., au
INSTITUTE", sanitation tests were conducted during fost efectuate probe de sanitaŃie în perioada mai-iunie
May-June 2014 period, for the conditioning of two series 2014, în vederea condiŃionării a două serii de vaccinuri
245
of avian vaccines, namely: Newvac La Sota, series 38 aviare şi anume: Newvac La Sota, seria 38 şi Newvac
and Newvac LS series 79. LS, seria 79
The sanitation samples were conducted using two Probele de sanitaŃie au fost efectuate utilizând două
methods, namely: the method of air volumetric sampling metode şi anume: metoda prelevării volumetrice de
using SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 sampler and Koch probe de aer utilizând prelevatorul SARTORIUS AirPort
sedimentation method on Petri plates with culture media MD8 şi metoda de sedimentare Koch pe plăci Petri cu
(which is the traditional method). medii de cultură (care este metoda clasică).
The results showed the following: Rezultatele obŃinute au arătat următoarele:
- the analyzed avian vaccines conditioning line is a - linia analizată de condiŃionare a vaccinurilor aviare
sterile space (clean room), the results of conducted este un spaŃiu steril, rezultatele probelor efectuate
tests fits it in A grade clean room; încadrându-se în clasa A de curăŃenie;
- the results obtained by the two methods were - rezultatele obŃinute prin cele două metode au fost
similar, thus confirming their accuracy; similare, confirmându-se astfel corectitudinea acestora;
- when the methods aer compared, each with the - dacă se compară metodele între ele se poate
other, it can be seen that the method of air volumetric observa că metoda prelevării volumetrice de probe de
sampling is much more relevant than the conventional aer este mult mai relevantă decât metoda clasică de
Koch sedimentation method, becuase it is analyzed a sedimentare Koch, deoarece se analizează un anumit
certain amount of air specified by the size of the sterile volum de aer, specificat în funcŃie de mărimea spaŃiului
area (clean room), which is taken from the whole site steril, care se preia din întreaga incintă şi nu doar din
and not just in certain places; also, using the anumite locuri; de asemenea utilizarea prelevatorului
SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 sampler fitted with gelatin SARTORIUS AirPort MD8 dotat cu filtre de gelatină sau
filters or culture media filtrable plates, for taking air plăci filtrante cu mediu de cultură pentru preluarea
samples provide both shorter sampling times and probelor de aer asigură atât durate de prelevare a
shorter incubation periods (of the order of 60 times probelor mai scurte, cât şi perioade de incubare mult mai
shorter in the case of sampling and up to 2 times scurte (de ordinul 60 ori în cazul prelevări şi pâna la de 2
shorter for incubation) than the ones required for similar ori în cazul incubării) decât cele necesare pentru fazele
phases by Koch method sedimentation; in addition, to similare de la metoda sedimentării Koch; în plus, la
the use of the air sampler, the air flow passing through utilizarea prelevatorului de aer, trecerea fluxului de aer
culture media filtrable plates allows the capture of micro- prin placile filtrante cu mediu de cultură permite captarea
organisms larger in size than 0.65 µm, which are not microorganismelor cu dimensiuni de peste 0,65 µm, care
detectable by the conventional method, of Koch nu sunt decelate prin metoda clasică, de sedimentare
sedimentation. Koch.
[1]. Buttner M., Stetzenbach Linda (1993) – Monitoring [1]. Buttner M., Stetzenbach Linda (1993) - Monitorizarea
Airborne Fungal Spores in an Experimental Indoor sporilor fungici din aerul unui spaŃiu interior experimental
Environment To Evaluate Sampling Methods and the în scopul evaluării metodelor de monitorizare şi efectele
Effects of Human Activity on Air Sampling, Applied and activităŃii umane asupra monitorizării aerului,
Environmental Microbiology, p. 219-226; Microbiologie aplicată si a mediului, p. 219-226;
[2]. *** (2012) - Environmental Monitoring of Clean [2]. *** (2012) - Monitorizarea mediului din spaŃiile sterile
Rooms in Vaccine Manufacturing Facilities, World Health în instalaŃiile de producŃie a vaccinurilor, OrganizaŃia
Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland; Mondială a SănătăŃii (OMS), Geneva, ElveŃia;
[3]. *** (2002) - Good Manufacturing Practices for Sterile [3]. *** (2002) - Bune practici de fabricaŃie pentru produse
Pharmaceutical Products, World Health Organization farmaceutice sterile, OrganizaŃia Mondială a SănătăŃii
(WHO), Geneva, Switzerland, 2012; (OMS), Geneva, ElveŃia, 2012;
[4]. *** - European Pharmacopoeia, Edition 8.0 (online); [4]. *** - Farmacopeea Europeană, ediŃia 8,0 (on-line)
[5]. *** - Portable Air Sampler AirPort MD8 - Brochure, [5]. *** - Prelevator de probe de aer AirPort MD8 - Brosură de
Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmBH, Goetingen, Germany; prezentare, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmbH, Goetingen, Germania;
[6]. *** - BACair Culture Media Plate Sabouraud Agar - [6]. *** - Placă filtrantă cu mediu de de cultură Sabouraud
Quality Certificate, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmBH, Agar - BACair - Certificat de Calitate, Sartorius Stedim
Goetingen, Germany; Biotech GmbH, Goetingen, Germania;
[7]. *** - BACair Culture Media Plate Tryptic-Soy Agar - [7]. *** - Placă filtrantă cu mediu de de cultură Tryiptic
Quality Certificate, Sartorius Stedim Biotech GmBH, Soy Agar (TSA) - BACair - Certificat de Calitate, Sartorius
Goetingen, Germany. Stedim Biotech GmbH, Goetingen, Germania.
246
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON MICROGREENHOUSE AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM BASED

ON ARDUINO
/
STUDIU EXPERIMENTAL PRIVIND CONTROLUL AUTOMAT IN MICROSERE BAZAT PE
ARDUINO
1) 1) 1) 1)
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Ipate G. , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Voicu G. , Ph.D. Eng. Manea D. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Nutescu C.
1)
Politehnica University of Bucharest / Romania
E-mail: puiuipate@yahoo.com
Abstract: This paper presents a method used to grow Rezumat: Această lucrare prezintă o metodă utilizată in
plants under controlled climatic conditions for optimum creşterea plantelor în condiŃii climatice controlate pentru o
production. Greenhouses are considered as complex producŃie optimă. Serele sunt considerate ca procese
processes. They are non linear, multi-input multi-output complexe. Ele sunt sisteme neliniare de tip MIMO, care
(MIMO) systems, they present time-varying behaviors and prezintă comportamente ce variază în timp şi sunt supuse
they are subject to pertinent disturbances depending unor perturbaŃii pertinente în funcŃie, în general, de
generally on meteorological conditions. The achieved condiŃiile meteorologice. Rezultatul testelor realizate
tests result concludes that the system is working properly. concluzionează că sistemul funcŃionează în mod
Based on this model, the process of grow crop has been corespunzător. Pe baza acestui model, procesul de
optimal controlled. creştere a culturilor a fost controlat in mod optim.
Keywords: greenhouse, network sensors, automatic Cuvinte cheie: sera, retea senzori, control automat,
control, monitoring, temperature, humidity, soil moisture. monitorizare, temperatura, umiditate , umiditate sol.
Greenhouses form an important part of the agriculture Serele constituie o parte importantă a sectoarelor
and horticulture sectors in our country as they can be agricol şi horticol în Ńara noastră, deoarece acestea pot fi
used to grow plants under controlled climatic conditions folosite pentru cresterea plantelor in conditii climatice
for optimum produce. Automating a greenhouse controlate pentru productii optime. Automatizarea unei
envisages monitoring and controlling of the climatic sere prevede monitorizarea şi controlul parametrilor
parameters which directly or indirectly govern the plant climatici care influenteaza în mod direct sau indirect
growth and hence their produce. Automation is process creşterea plantelor şi, prin urmare, produsele lor.
control of industrial machinery and processes, thereby Automatizarea este procesul de control al maşinilor şi
replacing human operators. proceselor industriale, înlocuind astfel operatorii umani.
Advances in computer technology have made owning Progresele realizate în tehnologia informatică au făcut
and operating greenhouses easier than ever before. ca proprietarii serelor sa le administreze mai uşor decât
Microcontroller environmental control options can aid the oricând înainte. OpŃiunile de control al mediului cu
home gardener or professional horticulturist by microcontrolere pot ajuta grădinarul obisnuit sau
automatically adjusting temperature, humidity, and light horticultorul profesionist prin reglarea automată a
intensity from within the greenhouse or from a remote temperaturii, umidităŃii si intensitatii luminii din interiorul
location. An environmental control system will improve serei sau de la o locaŃie la distanŃă. Un sistem de control
plant life within greenhouses by providing a constantly al mediului va îmbunătăŃi viaŃa plantelor în sere, oferind o
monitored atmosphere, producing a more uniform atmosferă monitorizata în mod constant, cultivând un
product. produs mai uniform.
Fig. 1 - Microgreenhouse Fig.2 - Green Pepper (Capsicum annuum)
247
As the sun warms the greenhouse, the temperature Pe măsură ce soarele încălzeşte sera, temperatura din
inside can rise rapidly. Without a method of ridding the interiorul acesteia poate creşte rapid. Fără o metodă de
excess heat the temperature can rise to a level that is eliminare a excesului de căldură, temperatura se poate ridica la
fatal to the crops within. It is the primary function of the un nivel fatal pentru plantele din sera. FuncŃia principală a
ventilation system to prevent that drastic buildup of heat sistemului de ventilaŃie este de a preveni acumularea drastică
by replacing the hot air with cooler outside air (Clayton, de căldură prin înlocuirea aerului cald interior cu aer mai rece
2014). Mechanical ventilation systems are primarily a din exterior (Clayton, 2014). Sistemele de ventilaŃie mecanică
fan, a control system and a vent, to allow air movement. sunt alcatuite in principal dintr-un ventilator, un sistem de control
Fans used in conjunction with adequate air-intake şi un orificiu de ventilaŃie, care să permită mişcarea aerului.
systems may enhance temperature control over natural Ventilatoarele utilizate împreună cu sisteme adecvate de
ventilation systems. This ventilation acts both on the aspiraŃie a aerului pot îmbunătăŃi controlul temperaturii in comparatie
heat, humidity and CO2 exchange rates with the cu sistemele de ventilatie naturale. Aceasta ventilare acŃionează
outside, effecting significantly their balance inside the asupra schimbului de căldură, umiditate şi de CO2 cu exteriorul,
greenhouse (Boulard and Baille,1995). A secondary si contribuie în mod semnificativ la echilibrul acestora in
role of the ventilation system is to eliminate excess interiorul serei (Boulard şi Baille, 1995). Un rol secundar al
humidity. If not properly vented, excess humidity sistemului de ventilaŃie este de a elimina excesul de umiditate.
condenses on the leaf surface where it can enhance Dacă ventilatia nu este corespunzătoare, excesul de umiditate
disease problems. It can also condense on the condensează pe suprafaŃa frunzelor, si poate produce diverse
greenhouse structure where it can reduce light boli. Acesta poate condensa şi pe structura serei reducand
transmission and encourage rust and/or rot of the transmiterea luminii, încurajand rugina şi/sau putrezirea
structure itself. Greenhouse humidity levels can be structurii în sine. Nivelul de umiditate din seră poate fi redus prin
reduced by removing the moist air around the plants and eliminarea aerului umed în jurul plantelor şi înlocuirea acestuia
replacing it with the cooler and drier outside air. The cu aerul exterior mai rece şi mai uscat. În practicile culturale o
cultural practices high relative humidity, it is not desirable umiditate relativa ridicată, nu este de dorit pentru creşterea
for most plant growth in a greenhouse. This is one of the majoritatii plantelor dintr-o seră. Acesta este unul dintre factorii
major factors that cause a variety of plant diseases. majori care produc o mare varietate de boli ale plantelor.

Agreed requirements for our system have been: CerinŃele convenite pentru sistemul nostru au fost:
· low unit cost; • cost unitar redus;
· small form factor; • factor de formă mic;
· non-intrusive in the domestic environment. • non-invaziv în mediul domestic.
We also took the approach of designing around open De asemenea, abordarea de proiectare a sistemului a
source hardware and software in order to reduce the fost aceea de "open source" hardware şi software pentru
development time of this instrument. Late we conducted a reduce timpul de dezvoltare a acestuia. Apoi am
a review of suitable low-cost components available and efectuat si o analiza a componentelor adecvate low-cost
settled upon an initial design concept. şi am stabilit un concept iniŃial de design.
Arduino is one of the most easy to use microcontroller Arduino este una dintre cele mai uşor de folosit
platforms. The hardware consists of an open-source platforme microcontroler. Hardware-ul constă dintr-o
hardware board designed around an 32-bit Atmel ARM placă hardware open-source proiectat în jurul unui
microcontroller. Current models feature a USB interface, microcontroler de 32 biŃi Atmel ARM. Modelele actuale
6 analog input pins, as well as 14 digital I/O pins that sunt dotate cu o interfaŃă USB, 6 pini de intrare analogici,
accommodate various extension boards. The Arduino precum şi 14 pini I/O digitali care pot găzdui diverse placi
integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross- de extensie. Mediul de dezvoltare integrată Arduino (IDE)
platform application written in Java, and derives from the este o aplicaŃie cross-platform scrisă în Java, şi derivă de
IDE for the Processing programming language and the la IDE-ul pentru limbajul de programare Processing şi
Wiring projects. Arduino programs are written in C or proiectele Wiring. Programele Arduino sunt scrise în C
C++. The Arduino IDE comes with a software library sau C ++. Mediul Arduino IDE are o bibliotecă de
which makes many common input/output operations programe care usureaza operaŃiunile comune cu mai
much easier. multe intrari/ieşiri.
The proposed system (fig.1) is an embedded system Sistemul propus (fig.1) este un sistem integrat care va
which will closely monitor and control the microclimatic monitoriza şi controla atent parametrii microclimatici ai unei
parameters of a greenhouse on a regular basis round the sere, periodic, non-stop, pentru cultivarea unor culturi sau
clock for cultivation of crops or specific plant species specii de plante specifice, care poate maximiza producŃia
which could maximize their production over the whole acestora pe parcursul întregului sezon de creştere şi va
crop growth season and to eliminate the difficulties elimina dificultăŃile întalnite in procesul de crestere a
involved in the system by reducing human intervention to plantelor prin reducerea intervenŃiei umane în cea mai bună
the best possible extent (Ipate,2014). măsură posibilă (Ipate,2014).
When any of the climatic parameters cross a safety Atunci când oricare dintre parametrii climatici trece un
threshold which has to be maintained to protect the prag de siguranŃă care trebuie să fie menŃinut pentru a
crops, the sensors sense the change and the proteja culturile, senzorii simt modificarea si
microcontroller reads this from the data at its input ports microcontrolerul citeşte acest lucru din datele de la
after being converted to a digital form by the ADC. The porturile de intrare după ce au fost convertite într-o formă
microcontroller then performs the needed actions by digitală de către ADC. Microcontrolerul efectuează apoi
employing relays until the strayed-out parameter has acŃiunile necesare prin utilizarea releelor, până când
been brought back to its optimum level (Kumar, 2010). parametrul a fost adus înapoi la nivelul său optim (Kumar,
The system also employs an simple LCD (text with 16 2010). Sistemul are, de asemenea, un ecran LCD (text cu
characters) to display information retrieved from sensors 16 caractere) pentru afisarea informatiilor preluate de la
and continuously alerting the user about the condition senzori si alertarea continuua a utilizatorului despre starea
248
inside the greenhouse. Thus is designed as an easy to din interiorul serei. Prin urmare, este conceput ca o soluŃie
maintain, flexible and low cost solution. Figure 3 shows flexibila, cu un pret scazut şi uşor de întreŃinut. Figura 3
the block diagram of the system. prezintă schema bloc a sistemului.
Parts/ components of the system: Piese / componente ale sistemului:

• Arduino Uno Board • Arduino Uno Board
• Grove Base Shield v1.2 • Grove Base Shield v1.2
• Sensors (Data acquisition system) • Senzori (Sistem achizitie date)
Temperature and Humidity sensor (DHT22) Senzor Temperatura si Umiditate (DHT22)
Soil Moisture sensor Senzor Umiditate Sol
Liqiud Flow sensor Senzor debit apa
MicroSD Card MicroSD Card
Digital Clock (DS3231) Digital Clock (DS3231)
Potentiometer Potentiometre
• Liquid Crystal Display (Hitachi’s HD44780) • Liquid Crystal Display (Hitachi’s HD44780)
• Actuators - Relays • Actuatori - Relee
• Devices controlled • Echipamente controlate:
Water Pump Pompa de apa
Heater Rezistenta electrica incalzire
Cooler. Ventilator.
The variety of plant tested was the Green Peppers Soiul de planta testata a fost ardeiul verde (Capsicum
(Capsicum annuum), which is sensitive to water annuum), care este sensibil la o penurie de apă în timpul
shortage during cultivation period (fig.2). The pepper perioadei de cultivare (fig.2). Ardeiul a fost crescut in
was grown by bed culture inside the microgreenhouse. rasad în interiorul microserei. Sistemul dezvoltat a fost
The developed system has been installed to control the instalat pentru a controla climatul. SeminŃele au fost
enviromental climate. The seeds have been sown semănate în data de 06 iunie 2014 iar experimentele
started in June 6th, 2014 and the climate control tests pentru controlul factorilor climei a început în data de 02
was started in July 2th 2014. The experiments was iulie 2014. Experimentele au fost efectuate folosind
conducted using devices as follow: Arduino Uno board, urmatoarele dispozitive: platforma Arduino Uno, micro SD
micro SD-card, variable resistors, sensor network card, rezistenŃe variabile, reŃea de senzori şi relee
devices and relay actuation. Variable resistors is acŃionare. Rezistoarele variabil sunt considerate ca
considered as the reference input of air temperature intrare de referinta pentru temperatura şi umiditatea
and relative humidity that can be changed as scenario relativă aerului, si pot fi modificate după diverse scenarii.
condition. Variable resistor operated manually to set the Acestea sunt acŃionate manual pentru a seta valoarea de
value of input as well as behavior of climate factore intrare, precum şi comportamentul factorilor climatici în
during cultivation. Furthermore, changing of system timpul cultivării. In plus, schimbarea setărilor sistemului
settings (delay reading sensor, limit of minimum value, (timpul de întârziere a citirii senzorilor, limita valorii
etc.) was also tested. minime) au fost, de asemenea, testate.
Fig. 3 - Block diagram of system
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION REZULTATE SI DISCUTII

The greenhouse environmental control system, Sistemul de control al factorilor de mediu din seră,
adjusted the ventilation, heating and soil condition regleaza ventilaŃia, încălzirea şi umiditatea solului în
according to new samples once in 15 seconds. funcŃie de noile valori achizitionate o dată la 15 secunde.
Fast response time, low power consumption and Timpul rapid de răspuns, consumul redus de energie
tolerance against moisture climate made DHT22 relative şi toleranŃa la schimbările climatice fac din senzorul de
humidity and temperature sensor a perfect solution for temperatură si umiditate relativă DHT22 o soluŃie
249
the microgreenhouse environment. Temperature perfectă pentru mediul din microsera. Precizia
accuracy of the sensor is ±0.3 °C and the accuracy of the temperaturii senzorului este de ± 0,3 °C, iar a umi ditatii
relative humidity under ±2 %. The temperature values relative sub ± 2%. Valorile de temperatură măsurate cu
measured by DHT22 sensor are shown in figure 4. senzorul DHT22 sunt prezentate în figura 4. Temperatura
Reference temperature is shown by the green line and de referinŃă indicată de linia albastră are o valoare de 22
has a value of 22°C. Maximum temperature values wer e °C. Valorile maxime de temperatur ă au fost puternic
strongly influenced by the sunshine at the beginning and influenŃate de soare atat la începutul cat şi la sfârşitul
the end of the experiment period. Thus, the temperature perioadei de experimentare. Astfel, temperatura a rămas
stayed stable in its area (27 °C) for most of the t ime. stabila în aceasta zona (27 °C) în majoritatea timp ului.
Fig. 5 shows the ditribution of the soil moisture along Fig. 5 prezinta distributia umiditatii solului în timp
OX axis in time domain (2014/8/25, 9:44:10 - 2014/8/ 27, (2014/8/25, 09:44:10 - 2014/8/27 09:25:10). Umiditatea
9:25:10). Soil moisture reference (red line) has a value of de referinŃă a solului (linia roşie) are valoarea de 35%;
35 %; average value of the measurements is 57% with a valoarea medie a măsurătorilor este de 57%, cu o
standard deviation of ±1.5%. deviaŃie standard de ± 1,5%.
Fig. 4 - Air temperature evolution Fig. 5 - Soil moisture evolution
Plants must absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) in Plantele trebuie sa absoarba dioxidul de carbon (CO2) în
combination with water, soil nutrients and sunlight to combinaŃie cu apa, substanŃele nutritive din sol şi lumina
produce the sugars vital for growth. A shortage of any of soarelui pentru a produce zaharuri vitale pentru creştere.
these requirements will retard the growing process. Un deficit din oricare dintre acestea vor întârzia procesul
Normally there are approximately 300 parts per million of de creştere. În mod normal, concentratia de CO2 în
CO2 in the atmosphere; when this level is increased to atmosferă este de aproximativ 300 ppm; atunci când acest
over 1.000 ppm, results are higher production and better nivel creste la peste 1.000 ppm, rezulta o producŃie mai
plant quality. mare şi o calitate mai bună a plantelor.
Fig. 6 shows the evolution of the CO2 (ppm) in the Fig. 6 prezintă evoluŃia CO2 (ppm) în microsera în
microgreenhouse along OX axis in time domain. The domeniul timp. Măsurătorile au fost efectuate cu ajutorul
measurements were carried out using MQ135 type gas senzorului de gaz tip MQ135. Acesta se utilizează în
sensor. This are used in air quality control equipments for echipamentele de control a calitatii aerului pentru
buildings/offices, and is suitable for detecting of CO2, cladiri/birouri, şi este potrivit pentru detectarea de CO2,
NH3,NOx, alcohol, benzene, smoke,etc.. The response of NH3, NOx, alcool, benzen, fum, etc.. Răspunsul senzorului
the CO2 sensor were highly consistent and correlated with de CO2 a fost extrem de consistent şi corelat cu
much more expensive instruments. We are also instrumente mult mai scumpe. De asemenea, avem în
considering the option to implement the CO2 sensor to the considerare opŃiunea de a implementa senzorul de CO2 in
network by connecting it to the Arduino UNO board. reŃea prin conectarea la placa Arduino UNO.
On a warm day builds greenhouse air humidity; night În timpul unei zile calde aerul din sera acumulează
as the outdoor temperature drops, the indoor air umiditate; deoarece seara temperatura exterioară scade,
temperature decreases, reducing the water retention temperatura aerului intern scade, reducandu-se
capacity thereof until the dew point is reached at which capacitatea de retinere a apei a acestuia până cand este
time the plants and the water condenses on the surfaces atins punctul de rouă, timp în care apa condensează pe
of the greenhouse. To minimize this problem, it must be plante şi pe suprafeŃele serei. Pentru a minimiza această
exchanged to remove the air inside the greenhouse air, problemă, trebuie să aibă loc schimburi de aer pentru a
laden with moisture, and replaced with outdoor air dry elimina aerul interior din seră, încărcat cu umiditate, şi
and cooler. This process may be repeated several times înlocuit cu aer exterior uscat, si mai rece. Acest proces ar
in an hour, to effectively reduce the level of relative trebui să fie repetat de mai multe ori intr-o oră, pentru a
humidity. reduce în mod eficient nivelul de umiditate relativă.
In Humidity Control Mode the sensor will În modul de control a umiditatii aerului senzorul va
automatically turn the fan ON upon detecting excess porni automat ventilatorul "ON" la detectarea excesului de
humidity. The sensor will continue to monitor the umiditate. Senzorul va continua să monitorizeze aerul
ambient air and automatically turn the fan OFF when înconjurător şi va opri ventilatorul "OFF" atunci când
the humidity level has dropped. The sensor also nivelul de umiditate a scăzut. Senzorul, de asemenea,
helps reduce energy usage by automatically ajută la reducerea consumului de energie prin operarea în
operating the fan only when needed to control mod automat a ventilatorului, numai atunci când este
excess humidity. necesar, pentru a controla excesul de umiditate.
250
Fig. 6 - Evolution of CO2 in grenhouse
Fig. 7 shows the evolution of the air relative humidity Fig. 7 prezinta evolutia procentuala a umidităŃii relative
along OX axis in time domain. In this figure, the maximum a aerului în timp. În această figură, valoarea maximă de
reference value is set to 79% humidity, mean data from referinŃă a umiditatii este setată la 79%, valoarea medie
measurements is 72.4 % with a standard deviation of rezultata din măsurători este 72.4%, cu o deviaŃie
±5%. standard de ± 5%.
In Figure 8 there is shown a typical graph resulting from In figura 8 este prezentat un grafic tipic rezultat din
the changeover control. On the graph sizes are shown in controlul bipozitional. Pe grafic mărimile sunt afişate cu
colors: the command u (power) - red, and the reaction y culorile: comanda u (puterea) – rosu, şi reacŃia y
(relative humidity) - blue. Control system performance are (umiditatea relativa) – albastru. Performantele sistemului
the oscillation range, ∆Humid = 16%, the oscillation period de reglare sunt : domeniul de oscilatie ∆Humid = 16%,
of 8.19 min and 18 sec pulse duration. perioada de oscilatie 8.19 min si durata impulsului 18 sec.
Fig. 7 - Air humidity evolution Fig. 8 - Humidity control
Proper ventilation and adequate internal greenhouse VentilaŃia adecvată şi o circulatie corespunzătoare a
airflow are critical to the success of managing relative fluxului de aer sunt puncte critice ale succesului
humidity in a greenhouse. gestionarii umiditatii relative într-o seră.
In this study, the automatic control system was In acest studiu, un sistem de control automat a fost
developed to determine the optimal and economic control dezvoltat pentru a stabili controlul optim şi economic
in a greenhouse. Automatic control of the greenhouse într-o seră. Controlul automat al mediului din seră va
environment will make a huge difference in the success of face o diferenŃă imensă în succesul serelor în Ńara
the greenhouses in our country. Following suggestions on noastră. Urmând sugestiile disponibile în această
this paper, it is possible to minimize the environmental lucrare, este posibil să se reducă la minimum
problems and frustrations often encountered in plant problemele de mediu şi frustrările întâlnite frecvent în
growth in greenhouses. creş terea plantelor în sere.
Continuously decreasing cost of hardware and software Costurile în scădere continuă a partilor hardware şi
251
parts, wide acceptance of the electronic systems in software, larga acceptare a sistemelor electronice în
agriculture, and the development of agricultural industrial agricultură, şi dezvoltarea unor sisteme de control
control systems in many areas of agricultural production, industrial agricol în mai multe domenii ale producŃiei
will lead to the development of reliable control systems that agricole, va conduce la realizarea unor sisteme de control
will put more many aspects of quantity and quality of de incredere, care se vor adresa mai multor aspecte ale
agricultural production. cantităŃii şi calităŃii producŃiilor agricole.
Aknowlegement Aknowlegement
The work has been funded by the Sectoral Operational Rezultatele prezentate in acest articol au fost obtinute cu
Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013 sprijinul Ministerului Fondurilor Europene prin Programul
of the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Operational Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane
Agreement POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132397. 2007-2013, Contract nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132397.
[1]. Clayton, L. (2014) - Controlling the Greenhouse [1]. Clayton, L. (2014) - Controlul Mediului in Seră,
Environment, University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension
Extension Service Service
[2]. Ipate, G., et al. (2014) - Micro Greenhouse Climate [2]. Ipate, G., et al. (2014) - Managementul Climatic in
Management Based On The Arduino, Proceedings of "3nd Microseră bazat pe Arduino, Proceedings of "3nd
International Conference of Thermal Equipment, International Conference of Thermal Equipment,
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[3]. Nugroho, A.P., et al. (2012) – Development of [3]. Nugroho, A.P., et al. (2012) – Dezvoltarea unui Sistem
Intelligent Control System for Greenhouse, 8th Asian de Control Inteligent pentru Seră, 8th Asian Conference for
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Based Automatic Switch for Home Appliances, Automat pentru Aplicatii Casnice Bazat pe un
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Elsevier, Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 15, p. Elsevier, Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 15, p.
1016–1028; 1016–1028;
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[7]. Trivedi, R., Vora, V. (2013) - Real-Time Monitoring and [7]. Trivedi, R., Vora, V. (2013) - Sistem de Control si
Control System for Industry, International Journal for Monitorizare in Timp Real-pentru Industrie, International
Scientific Research & Development, Vol. 1, Issue 2, Journal for Scientific Research & Development, Vol. 1,
p.142–147; Issue 2, p.142–147;
[8]. Moldovan, G.I. (2008) - Contributions To Improvement [8]. Moldovan, G.I. (2008) - ContribuŃii la PerfecŃionarea
Of The Green Pepper Culture Metod On Organic Metodei de Cultură a Ardeiului pe Substrat Organic in
Substratum In Cold Greenhouse, PhD Thesis, USAMV Solarii, PhD Thesis, USAMV ClujNapoca;
ClujNapoca; [9]. Kumar, S., Kumar,M., Kumar, A., Garg, P. (2010) -
[9]. Kumar, S., Kumar,M., Kumar, A., Garg, P. (2010) - Monitorizarea şi Controlul Mediului din seră, Bharat
Monitor and Control of Greenhouse Environment, Bharat Institute of Technology Meerut.
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exchange rate in a greenhouse equipped with continuous in Acoperiş, J. Agric. Engng. Res. 61: 37-48.
roof vents, J. Agric. Engng. Res., 61, p. 37-48. [11].***Generator de Dioxid de Carbon Gaz Johnson;
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CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING THE TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS FOR BIOLOGICAL

FILTRATION WITHIN RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
/
CONTRIBUłII PRIVIND SOLUłII TEHNICE PENTRU FILTRAREA BIOLOGICĂ
ÎN CADRUL SISTEMELOR ACVACOLE RECIRCULANTE
PhD. Stud. Eng. Andrei S.G., Ph.D. Eng. Pop A., PhD. Stud. Eng. David E., Eng. Ştefanov C.
Tel: 0769473681; E-mail: andrei_sg85@yahoo.com
Abstract: For a proper operation of a recirculating Rezumat: Pentru funcŃionarea corectă a unui sistem
aquaculture system (RAS) for fish breeding it is acvacol recirculant (SAR) de creştere a peştilor este
necessary to maintain optimal water quality necesară menŃinerea calităŃi apei recirculate la parametri
parameters. The paper presents technical solutions optimi. În lucrare sunt prezentate soluŃii tehnice privind
to carry out a biological filter in the RAS, in order to realizarea unui filtru biologic în cadrul SAR, cu scopul
improve water biological filtration process. Designing îmbunătăŃirii procesului de filtrare biologică a apei.
a biological filtration installation has to be performed Proiectarea unei instalaŃii de filtrare biologică trebuie
so that to satisfy the system requirements on the realizată astfel încât să satisfacă cerinŃele sistemului cu
conversion of ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate, privire la conversia amoniacului în nitriŃi şi apoi în nitraŃi,
less toxic products for the fish population. The produşi mai puŃin toxici pentru populaŃia piscicolă.
presence of ammonia and metabolites in water is a PrezenŃa amoniacului şi a metaboliŃilor în apă reprezintă
stress factor for concentrations higher than 0.05 un factor de stres pentru concentraŃii mai mari de 0,05
mg/nitrogen ammonia (NH3 - N) and this will be felt mg/l azot amoniacal (NH3 – N), acest lucru se va resimŃi
in the growth of fish and in their resistance to în ritmul de creştere al peştilor dar şi în rezistenŃa lor
disease. scăzută la boli.
Keywords: biologic filter, modular, recirculating Cuvinte cheie: filtru biologic, modular, sistem acvacol
aquaculture system recirculant
Worldwide aquaculture has been recorded the fastest La nivel mondial acvacultura a înregistrat cea mai rapidă
growing compared to other branches of agriculture, creştere comparativ cu celelalte ramuri ale agriculturii,
something that has led to significant impact that it has on aspect ce a dus la accentuarea impactului pe care aceasta
the environment by increasing the amount of wastewater o are asupra mediului înconjurător, prin creşterea
that is released to environment [3]. cantităŃii de apă uzată ce este eliberată în mediu [3] .
Having in view this aspect and the need to maintain łinând cont de acest aspect, dar şi de necesitatea
optimum water quality in aquaculture systems, the menŃinerii calităŃii apei la parametrii optimi în cadrul
continuous upgrading of wastewater treatment equipment sistemelor acvacole, este nevoie de o continuă de
in order to improve the biological filtration should be modernizare a echipamentelor de tratare a apei uzate cu
compulsory. scopul de a îmbunătăŃi procesul de filtrare biologică.
In our days, in our country the super-intensive and În Ńara noastră, sistemele intensive şi superintensive
intensive systems have not known yet a scale la ora actuală nu cunosc încă o dezvoltare de amploare,
development, but worldwide in recent years they gained însă la nivel mondial în ultimi ani acestea au câştigat
great importance comparative to traditional pond teren în faŃa acvaculturi tradiŃionale de heleşteu [4].
aquaculture [4]. One of the major advantages of the Unul din avantajele majore pe care le are utilizarea
aquaculture systems is given by increasing the sistemelor acvacole e dat de creşterea productivităŃii în
productivity comparative to necessary of used water, and raport cu necesarul de apă utilizat, acest lucru se şi
this aspect is due to possibility to control the physical and datorează faptului că putem avea control asupra
chemical parameters of the water, changing them as parametrilor fizico-chimici ai apei, modificându-i după
appropriate. caz.
In aquaculture recirculating systems (RAS) the În cadrul sistemelor acvacole recirculante (SAR)
main limiting factor in terms of fish welfare is water principalul factor limitativ în ceea ce priveşte bunăstarea
quality. Due to the low percentage of feed assimilation peştilor este calitatea apei. Datorită procentului redus de
by fish, in a proportion of 20-30%, the unconsumed asimilare a hranei de către peşti în proporŃie de 20-30%,
leftover food along with other toxic compounds, în masa apei rămân resturile de hrană neconsumată
resulting from fish metabolic processes, remain within alături de alŃi compuşi toxici, compuşi rezultaŃi în urma
water mass [1]. proceselor metabolice ale peştilor [1] .
Toxic nitrogen compounds present in the water culture Compuşii toxici ai azotului prezenŃi în apa de cultură
should be rapidly removed from the system for not trebuie eliminaŃi cu rapiditate din cadrul sistemului, pentru
endangering the culture material in the ponds [5], their a nu pune în pericol materialul piscicol din bazinele de
removal being possible using nitrifying bacteria present in cultură [5], eliminarea acestora fiind posibilă utilizând
the biological filtration equipment. bacteriile nitrificatoare prezente în echipamentele de
Biological filtration is one of the basic processes of filtrare biologică.
wastewater treatment systems within aquaculture Filtrarea biologică reprezintă unul din procedeele de
systems along with mechanical filter compartment and bază în tratarea apelor uzate din cadrul sistemelor acvacole
UV treatment. On the worldwide there is an intense focus pe lângă compartimentul de filtrare mecanică şi tratare cu
253
on improving the biological filtration used in recirculating raze UV. Pe plan mondial există o preocupare intensă
aquaculture systems. privind îmbunătăŃirea procesului de filtrare biologică utilizat
As for biological filtration a number of constructive and în cadrul sistemelor acvacole recirculante. În ceea ce
functional solutions for aquaculture sector such as: priveşte filtrarea biologică sunt cunoscute o serie de soluŃii
biological filter with drum, submerged bio-filter, biological constructive şi funcŃionale destinate sectorului acvacol
filter with disc (RBC), fluidized bed bio-filter and bio-filter cum ar fi: filtrul biologic cu tambur, filtrul biologic submersat,
with sand, are known [2]. Among renowned companies filtrul biologic cu disc (RBC), filtrul biologic cu paturi
that perform biological filters for recirculating aquaculture fluidizante şi filtrul biologic cu nisip [2]. Printre firmele
systems can be mentioned: FISHGUT PRIMUS - consacrate ce realizează filtre biologice pentru sisteme
Germany, FIAP - Germany, AQUACULTURE - France acvacole recirculante amintim: FISHGUT PRIMUS -
[7]. Germania, FIAP – Germania, AQUACULTURE – FranŃa [7].
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

Biological filter as part of the water treatment system Filtrul biologic ca şi parte componentă a sistemelor de tratare
within recirculating aquaculture systems need to operate a apei din cadrul sistemelor acvacole recirculante, trebuie să
24 hours/24 hours, without the operator intervention. funcŃioneze 24 h/24 h, fără a fi necesară intervenŃia operatorului
However, a regular monitoring should be performed, uman. Cu toate acestea trebuie realizată o supraveghere periodică,
regarding operating conditions to obtain the results for a modului în care sunt îndeplinite condiŃiile de funcŃionare, în
which have been accomplished [6]. vederea obŃinerii rezultatelor pentru care a fost realizat [6].
Regarding biological filtration equipment, new În ceea ce priveşte echipamentele de filtrarea biologică
technical solutions regarding the construction of the s-a urmărit adoptarea de noi soluŃii tehnice în ceea ce
filter to improve the quality of recycled water in the priveşte construcŃia filtrului pentru a îmbunătăŃii calitatea
system, were adopted. To improve the biological apei recirculate în cadrul sistemului. Pentru a îmbunătăŃi
filtration of RAS were implemented several technical procesul de filtrare biologică din SAR au fost implementate
solutions on achieving bio-filter construction. A first câteva soluŃii tehnice privind realizarea construcŃiei filtrului
solution consisted in partitioning the biological filter biologic. O primă soluŃie a constat în compartimentarea
basin into two compartments (A) and (B) bazinului filtrului biologic în două compartimente (A) şi (B) ce
communicating with each other in the lower comunică între ele în partea inferioară, compartimentul (A)
compartment (A) being provided with a connection (C) fiind prevăzut cu un racord (C) de alimentare cu apă, iar
water supply, and compartment (B) with a connection compartimentul (B) cu un racord (D) de evacuare a apei
(D) filtered water outlet, each of these compartments filtrate, fiecare din aceste compartimente dispune de cate doua
being endowed with two grills, one upper and the other grătare, unul superior si altul inferior, grătarele superioare
lower, the upper grills being provided with one visiting fiind prevăzute cu câte o uşa de vizitare. Datorită modului
door. As a result of the grates arrangement, has been de dispunere a grătarelor s-a creat posibilitatea ca
created the possibility that the filter element to be elementul filtrant să fie aşezat în spaŃiul dintre grătarele
placed in the space between the lower and upper inferioare şi cele superioare, uşurând în acest fel sarcina
grills, thus enabling the human operator to intervene to operatorului uman, atunci când trebuie să intervină pentru
wash the filter element with water jet [7]. spălarea elementului filtrant cu jet de apă [7].
Another solution designed to improve filtration O altă soluŃie menită a îmbunătăŃii randamentul filtrării
efficiency comes from the fact that both compartment (A) este dată de faptul că atât compartimentul (A) cât şi
and section (B) of the basin have the bottom composed compartimentul (B) ale bazinului filtrului au fundul alcătuit din
of inclined walls forming some funnel collectors (E) with a pereŃi înclinaŃi, care formează nişte pâlnii colectoare (E) cu
socket (F) in the lower part, thus increasing removal un racord (F) în partea inferioară, mărindu-se astfel eficienŃa
efficiency by periodically draining of the sedimentation eliminării prin drenare periodică a reziduurilor sedimentate în
residues in the lower collecting hopper [7]. partea inferioară a pâlniei colectoare [7].
During the biological filter operation, the operator Pe durata funcŃionării filtrului biologic, operatorul uman
should periodically perform the deposit cleaning, and trebuie să realizeze periodic şi operaŃia de purjare a
when is necessary, the filtering element must be depunerilor, iar ori de câte ori este nevoie trebuie
washed. intervenit pentru spălarea elementului filtrant.
In figure 1 is shown the section image of modular În figura 1 este prezentată imaginea în secŃiune a
biological filter designed and manufactured. filtrului biologic modular proiectat şi executat.
Fig. 1 – Modular biofilter for recirculating aquaculture systems - Longitudinal section
254
The biological filter from figure 1 is a modulated Filtrul biologic din figura 1 este o construcŃie modulară
construction, being endowed with connection elements fiind prevăzut cu elemente de legătură pentru a face
which enable to connect in parallel several modules, the posibilă legare în paralel a mai multor module, numărul
number of modules being calculated depending on crop de module se calculează în funcŃie de specia de cultură
type and system loading with biological material. şi de încărcarea sistemului cu material biologic.
One of the most significant advantages for filtration Unul din cele mai semnificative avantaje în ceea ce
efficiency of this biological modulated filter for priveşte eficienŃa filtrării a acestui tip de filtru biologic
aquaculture recirculating systems consists in mounting it modular pentru sisteme acvacole recirculante constă în
in a system of „n” modulated filters. By performing a posibilitatea montării acestuia într-un sistem de „n” filtre
biological filtering system with „n” modules, we shall be modulare. Prin realizarea unui sistem de filtrare biologică
able to increase the filtering capacity by „n” types cu „n” module, vom putea creşte şi capacitatea de filtrare
comparing to a module capacity and, thus, it is created de „n” ori faŃă de capacitatea unui modul şi se creează
the possibility of successively and individually interrupting astfel posibilitatea scoaterii individuale succesive din
one module in order to clean and replace the filtering funcŃiune a câte unui modul în vederea curăŃirii sau
element, the others always being active, ensuring the înlocuirii elementului filtrant, celelalte fiind active în
normal running of the whole aquaculture recirculating continuare, asigurând funcŃionarea normală a întregului
system. sistem acvacol recirculant.
The technical and functional characteristics of Caracteristicile tehnico-funcŃionale ale filtrului biologic
biological filter shown in figure 1, are the following: modular prezentat în figura 1 sunt următoarele:
3 3
• Filtering capacity: 30... 50 m /h water, • Capacitatea de filtrare: 30... 50 m /h apă,
(depending on filtration quality) (în funcŃie de calitatea filtrării)
3 3
• Useful volume: 2.4 m • Volumul util: 2,4 m
2 3 2 3
• Surface of filtering element: 870 m /m • SuprafaŃa desfăşurată element filtrant: 870 m /m
• Overall dimensions: • Dimensiuni de gabarit:
- length: 2200 mm - lungime: 2200 mm
- width: 1630 mm - lăŃime: 1630 mm
- height: 1570 mm - înălŃime: 1570 mm
• Dimensions of connecting nozzles • Dimensiuni ştuŃuri de legătură
- water supplying: Ø75 mm - alimentare apă: Ø75 mm
- air supplying: Ø19 mm - alimentare aer: Ø19 mm
- oxygen supplying: Ø6 mm - alimentare oxigen: Ø6 mm
- filtering water evacuation: Ø 160 mm - evacuare apă filtrată: Ø 160 mm
Operation FuncŃionarea
For starting-up, the biological filter has to be placed in Pentru punerea în funcŃiune, filtrul biologic trebuie să
final position and connected to residual water supplying fie amplasat în poziŃia finală şi conectat la reŃeaua de
system within SAR. alimentare cu apă uzată din SAR.
The biological modulated filter operation is FuncŃionarea filtrului biologic modular se realizează prin
achieved by its supplying with residual water through a alimentarea acestuia cu apă uzată din cadrul sistemului
nozzle placed at filter upper part. The water circuit in printr-un ştuŃ amplasat la partea superioară a filtrului.
the first compartment of filter is downward, the residual Circuitul apei în primul compartiment a filtrului este unul
water, after passing through the upper grate, through descendent, apa uzată după ce se trece prin grătarul
filtering element layer and through the lower grate by a superior, prin stratul de element filtrant şi prin grătarul
lower slot endowed for this very purpose in the second inferior trece printr-o fantă inferioară prevăzută în acest
compartment, where water circuit is upward passes scop în compartimentul al doilea, unde traseul apei de
step by step through the lower grate, filtering element data aceasta este unul ascendent, iar pe principiul
layer and upper grate, finally reaching the outlet. The vaselor comunicante, aceasta trece pe rând prin grătarul
biological filtering process of residual water takes inferior, stratul de element filtrant şi grătarul superior, ajungând
place during its circuit within the filtering element [8], la gura de evacuare. Procesul de filtrare biologică a apei
this one being made of special cylindrical filtering uzate are loc în timpul străbaterii elementului filtrant [8],
elements made of plastic on which the nitrification acesta fiind alcătuit din elemente filtrante speciale
bacteria of types Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, cilindrice din plastic pe care se dezvoltă bacteriile
develop [2]. nitrificatoare din genurile Nitrosomonas şi Nitrobacter [2].
In order to ensure an appropriate biological Pentru ca procesul de filtrare biologică să aibă loc în
filtering process, the water should be very strongly bune condiŃii este necesară o puternică aerare a apei, iar
aerated, and in certain cases also oxygenated. Water în anumite cazuri şi oxigenare. Aerarea apei, cât şi
aeration and oxygenation are performed by blowing oxigenarea ei se realizează prin insuflare sub presiune
the air and oxygen under pressure and, if necessary atât a aerului cât şi a oxigenului, dacă e necesar, şi
dispersing them by outlets especially mounted at dispersarea acestora prin intermediul unor difuzoare
filter lower part. special montate la partea inferioara a filtrului.
Sediments resulting after the nitrification processes as Sedimentele care rezultă în urma proceselor de
well as dead bacteria are deposited in biological filter nitrificare, cât şi bacteriile moarte se depun pe fundul
compartments bottom, where they are evacuated through compartimentelor filtrului biologic, de unde sunt evacuate
the purging outlet. prin intermediul gurii de purjare.
In figure 2 is shown the technological operating În figura 2, este prezentată schema tehnologică de
scheme of modular biological filter, where can be noticed funcŃionare a filtrului biologic modular, unde se poate
the water circuit within, which is possible after mounting observa circuitul apei în interiorul acestuia, lucru posibil
the filter within a RAS. Chemical reactions within the după montarea filtrului în cadrul unui SAR. ReacŃiile
biological filter during nitrification are represented in chimice ce au loc în biofiltru în timpul procesului de
following figure 3 [4]. nitrificare sunt reprezentate prin figura 3 [4].
255
Fig. 2 – Technological operating scheme of modular biological filter Fig. 3 – Nitrogen cycle through the biofilter
Tests running Încercări

The operating tests to which the biological filter was Încercările de funcŃionare la care a fost supus filtrului
subjected were developed within a RAS made of 9 biologic, au avut loc în cadrul unui SAR compus din 9
3 3
basins with total capacity of 36.3 m . The 9 functional bazine cu capacitatea totală de 36,3 m . Cele 9 bazine
basins of RAS have the following useful volumes: basins funcŃionale din SAR au următoarele volume utile: bazine
3 3 3 3
of 16 m – 1 pc, basins of 5.65 m – 2 pcs and basins of de 16 m – 1 buc., bazine de 5,65 m – 2 buc şi bazine
3 3
1.5 m – 6 pcs. For assuring the water necessary de 1,5 m – 6 buc. Pentru asigurarea parametrilor
parameters from breeding basins, only one water necesari ai apei din bazinele de creştere este necesară o
recirculating process per hour is necessary. Within this singură recirculare pe oră. În cadrul acestui SAR se mai
RAS, other 2 recirculating pumps, a UV sterilization regăsesc 2 pompe de recirculare, o instalaŃie de
installation, biological filter with filtering capacity of 30 – sterilizare cu UV, filtrul biologic cu capacitatea de filtrare
3 3
50 m /h, as well as a mechanical filter with a water de 30 – 50 m /h, precum şi un filtru mecanic cu o
3 3
filtering capacity of 50 – 70 m /h, can be found. capacitate de filtrare a apei cuprinsă între 50 – 70 m /h.
Determination of filtered water flow rate Determinarea debitului de apă filtrată
After 7 measurements performed for determining the În urma a 7 măsurători efectuate pentru determinarea
re-circulated and respectively filtered water flow rate, an debitului apei recirculate şi implicit a apei filtrate, s-a
3 3
average flow rate of Q = 34.2 m /h, was calculated. calculat un debit mediu de Q = 34,2 m /h
Determining the useful volume Determinarea volumului util
For obtaining the necessary quantity of bio filtering În vederea determinării cantităŃii necesare de material
material, there were taken into account its quality biofiltrant s-a Ńinut cont de calităŃile lui (material şi
(material and surface developed on volume unit), quantity suprafaŃa desfăşurată pe unitatea de volum), de
of fodder supplied according to fish weight, biological cantitatea de furaj administrată în funcŃie de greutatea
3 3
material(fish) supplied per m of water, number of water peştilor, de încărcarea cu material biologic (peşti) pe m
recirculating times per hour. Among the existing tenders de apă, de numărul de recirculări pe ora a apei din
it has been chosen a bio-filtering material of an as big as sistem. Din ofertele existente s-a ales un material
possible surface developed per volume unit, namely of biofiltrant cu o suprafaŃă desfăşurată cât mai mare pe
2 3 2 3
859 m / m , resulting a necessary material volume of 2. 4 unitate de volum şi anume de 859 m / m , rezultând un
3 3
m. volum necesar de material biofiltrant de 2,4 m .
The useful volume of modular biological filter, Volumul util al filtrului biologic modular, reprezentat de
represented by bio-filtering material has been determined spaŃiul ocupat de materialul biofiltrant, a fost determinat
by measuring the thickness of filtering element layer in prin măsurarea grosimii stratului de element filtrant în
both compartments and multiplied by compartments ambele compartimente şi înmulŃit cu secŃiunea
section compartimentelor.
3
Vutil = S1 * h1 + S2 * h2 = 2,4 m (1)
2 2
where: Vutil – useful volume; S1=S2 = 1.437 m - unde: Vutil – volumul util; S1=S2 = 1,437 m - reprezintă
represents the area of a compartment surface; h1 = 0.87 aria suprafeŃei unui compartiment; h1 = 0,87 m -
m – thickness of filtering element in the first grosimea elementului filtrant în primul compartiment; h2 =
compartment; h2 = 0,80 m - thickness of filtering element 0,80 m - grosimea elementului filtrant în al doilea
in the second compartment. compartiment.
3 3
The filter total volume is 3.75 m , which means that Volumul total al filtrului este 3,75 m , ceea ce
the useful volume occupies only 64% out of total volume, înseamnă că volumul util ocupă doar 64% din volumul
the rest of 36% being taken by water, air, deposits and total, restul de 36% fiind ocupat de apă, aer,depuneri şi
grates. grătare.
RESULTS REZULTATE
After achieving the modular biological filter and După realizarea filtrului biologic modular şi punerea
putting it into operation within RAS, a series of tests were acestuia în funcŃiune în cadrul SAR, au fost derulate o
developed in order to demonstrate the filter operation serie de experimente care să ateste funcŃionalitatea
state and the results obtained have been shown in tables filtrului, iar rezultatele obŃinute în urma experimentelor
below. au fost centralizate în tabelele de mai jos.
Measurements performed for obtaining the qualitative Măsurătorile efectuate în vederea obŃinerii
parameters of biological filtration have been performed at parametrilor calitativi ai filtrării biologice s-au efectuat la
inlet and outlet of biological filter. intrarea şi la ieşirea din filtrul biologic.
The main parameters monitored and which are Principalii parametrii monitorizaŃi şi care prezintă o
256
important in terms of nitrification process, with direct importanŃă deosebită în cadrul procesului de nitrificare şi
consequences on fish welfare are: pH, as well as the cu consecinŃe directe asupra materialului piscicol sunt :
concentrations of oxygen, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites and pH-ul, precum şi concentraŃiile în apă a oxigenului,
ammonium in water [8]. amoniacului, nitraŃilor, nitriŃilor şi a amoniului [8].
Graphic with values (diagram) is shown in figure 4. Ilustrarea grafică a valorilor este prezentată în figura 4.
Table 1
The physico-chemical properties of the water before and after biological filtration
No. Physico-chemical parameter M.U. Average input values Average output values
1. pH upH 7.8 7.5
2. Oxygen mg/l 4.5 6.5
3. Ammonia (NH+3) mg/l 0.05 0
-
4. Nitrates (NO 3) mg/l 5.5 0.1
5. Nitrites (NO-2) mg/l 0.2 0.05
6. Ammonium (NH+4) mg/l 0.4 0.0
Fig. 4 – The physico-chemical properties of the water before and after biological filtration
Comparing the results from table above, it can be noticed Comparând rezultatele din tabelul de mai sus, se poate
the difference between input values of residual water and observa diferenŃa dintre valorile de intrare ale apei uzate şi
output values of filtered water from biological filter, so it can be valorile de ieşire ale apei filtrare din filtrul biologic, în felul
affirmed that the nitrification process has been taken place acesta se poate afirma că procesul de nitrificare are loc, iar
and biological filtration has been efficient and it has reduced filtrarea biologică este eficientă şi reduce compuşii azotului
the nitrogen compounds up to the allowable limit. până la limita admisibilă.
Following the experiments performed it has been found that În urma experimentelor efectuate se poate afirma că filtrul
the biological filter fulfills the technological function for which it biologic îndeplineşte funcŃia tehnologică pentru care a fost
was designed, and nitrification process has been run within proiectat, iar procesul de nitrificare se desfăşoară la parametrii
optimum parameters. By using the modular biological filter optimi. Prin experimentarea filtrului biologic modular în cadrul
within RAS, two big advantages have been noticed: SAR s-a constatat că acesta prezintă două mari avantaje:
- n module can be connected, thus increasing the filtering - pot fi conectate n module crescând astfel capacitatea de
capacity by n times, according to necessities of RAS system; filtrare de n ori, conform cu necesităŃile sistemului SAR;
- It is possible to put a module out of operation for cleaning - posibilitatea scoaterii unui modul din funcŃiune în vederea
the filtering material, the others remaining in operation curăŃării materialului filtrant, celelalte rămânând active
without endangering the system functioning. fără a perturba funcŃionarea sistemului SAR;
Following the tests, it has been noticed the great De asemenea în urma experimentelor efectuate s-a constatat
importance of purging and washing of filtering element. importanŃa deosebită a purjării şi a spălării elementului filtrant.
[1]. Avnimelech Y. (2005) – Bio-filters: The need for an new [1]. Avnimelech Y. (2005) – Bio-filters: The need for an new
comprehensive approach, Aquacultural Engineering, Elsevier, comprehensive approach, Aquacultural Engineering, Elsevier,
vol. 34 (3), pag. 172 – 178; vol. 34 (3), pag. 172 – 178;
[2]. Bura M. (2008) – Manual de prezentare şi utilizare a [2]. Bura M. (2008) – Manual de prezentare şi utilizare a
tehnologiei de creştere a sturionilor în sistem superintensiv cu tehnologiei de creştere a sturionilor în sistem superintensiv cu
apă recirculată, Editura EUROBIT, Timişoara, pag. 327-329; apă recirculată, Editura EUROBIT, Timişoara, pag. 327-329;
[3]. Crab R., Avnimelech Y., Defoirdt T., Bossier P., Verstraete [3]. Crab R., Avnimelech Y., Defoirdt T., Bossier P., Verstraete
W. (2007) - Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a W. (2007) - Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a
sustainable production, Aquaculture, Elsevier, vol. 270 (1-4), sustainable production, Aquaculture, Elsevier, vol. 270 (1-4),
pag. 1-14; pag. 1-14;
[4]. Cristea V., Grecu I., Ceapa C. - (2002) – Ingineria [4]. Cristea V., Grecu I., Ceapa C. - (2002) – Ingineria
Sistemelor Recirculante din acvacultură, Editura Didactică şi Sistemelor Recirculante din acvacultură, Editura Didactică şi
pedagogică, R.A; pedagogică, R.A;
257
[5]. Malone R.F., Pfeiffer T.J. (2006) - Rating fixed film [5]. Malone R.F., Pfeiffer T.J. (2006) - Rating fixed film
nitrifying biofilters used inrecirculating aquaculture systems, nitrifying biofilters used inrecirculating aquaculture systems,
Aquacultural Engineering, Elsevier, vol. 34 (3), pag. 389-402; Aquacultural Engineering, Elsevier, vol. 34 (3), pag. 389-402;
[6]. McGee M. and Cichra Ch. (2000) - Principles of Water [6]. McGee M. and Cichra Ch. (2000) - Principles of Water
Recirculation and Filtration in Aquaculture, FA-12, University Recirculation and Filtration in Aquaculture, FA-12, University
of Florida, http://www.aces.edu/; of Florida, http://www.aces.edu/;
dept/fisheries/education/documents/Principlesofwaterrecirc.pdf dept/fisheries/education/documents/Principlesofwaterrecirc.pdf
[7]. Pop A., Ştefanov C., Andrei S.G. (2011) - Filtru biologic [7]. Pop A., Ştefanov C., Andrei S.G. (2011) - Filtru biologic
modular pentru sisteme acvacole recirculante, Patent modular pentru sisteme acvacole recirculante, Cerere de
Application A01435 / 22.12.2011, INMA Bucharest; brevet de invenŃie A01435 / 22.12.2011, INMA Bucureşti;
[8]. Ştefanov C. (2011) - Technical equipment for biological [8]. Ştefanov C. (2011) - Echipamente tehnice pentru filtrarea
water filtration systems superintensive acvacole recirculating biologică a apei în sisteme acvacole recirculante de creştere
fish growth (Biological Filter 2.4), Testing Report, contr. no. 15 superintensivă a peştelui (Filtru Biologic 2,4), Raport de
N/27.02.2009, INMA Bucharest. experimentare, contr. nr. 15 N/27.02.2009, INMA Bucureşti.
258
UTILIZATION OF LABVIEW PROGRAM FOR ACQUIRING AND PROCESSING THE

VIBRATIONS OF AN OSCILLATING CONE-SHAPED SIEVE WITH VERTICAL AXLE USED
FOR CLEANING THE AGRICULTURAL CROPS SEEDS
/
UTILIZAREA PROGRAMULUI LABVIEW PENTRU ACHIZIłIA ŞI PRELUCRAREA
VIBRAłIILOR UNEI SITE CONICE OSCILANTE CU AX VERTICAL
1) 1) 1) 2)
PhD. Eng. Stoica D. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Lect. PhD. Eng. Covaliu C. , PhD. Eng. VlăduŃ V.
1) 2)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest; INMA Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0724917143; E-mail: dorelstc@yahoo.com
Abstract: There were performed experimental Rezumat: Au fost realizate cercetări experimentale privind
reasearches on vibration of a conical sieve with vertical vibraŃia unei site conice cu ax vertical suspendată
axle equiangular suspended by three thin elastic cables echiunghiular a trei cabluri elastice subŃiri atât de la partea
both at upper and lower part, The sieve driving was made de sus cât şi la partea de jos. AcŃionarea sitei s-a făcut cu
by a driving mechanism with oscillating slideway through a un mecansim de acŃionare cu culisă oscilantă printr-un
connecting arm rigidly fixed at conical sieve edge and braŃ de legătură fixat rigid de marginea sitei conice şi
spherically articulated at the mechanism rod. The paper articulat sferic la biela mecanismului. În lucrare se prezintă
presents the components of acquisition program and componentele programului de achiziŃie şi se descriu
describes the vibrations parameters for several parametrii vibraŃiilor pentru mai multe variante geometrico-
geometrical and functional variants of driving mechanism. funcŃionale ale mecanismului de acŃionare. Rezultatele
Results presented and utilization method of LabView prezentate şi modul de utilizare a programului Labview pot
program can be a model for the researchers studying fi luate ca model de alŃi cercetători ai vibraŃiilor
vibrations of equipment working surfaces from agriculture suprafeŃelor de lucru ale utilajelor din agricultură şi
and food industry. industria alimentară.
Keywords: cone-shaped sieve, oscillating movement, Cuvinte cheie: sită conică, mişcare oscilantă, programul
Labview program Labview
Driving sieves used for cleaning the agricultural crop AcŃionarea sitelor utilizate la curăŃirea seminŃelor
seeds can be performed with different mechanisms, of culturilor agricole se poate realiza cu mecanisme din cele
rod-handle, exccentric, or vibrating motors with balance mai diverse, de tip bielă-manivelă, de tip excentric,
weight type. motoare vibratoare cu contragreutăŃi, etc.
Therefore, the separating surface vibrating movement Astfel mişcarea vibratorie a suprafeŃelor de separare se
is tramsmitted to particles of material, which give a certain transmite particulelor de material, ceea ce imprimă o
state of sieving process, able to achieve the passage of anumită stare de cernere materialului capabilă să
small particles through sieve holes. realizeze trecerea particulelor mici prin orificiile sitei.
A sieve with an external conical separating surface, O sită cu suprafaŃă de separare conică exterioară, suspendată
suspended in three equidistant points both at upper and în trei puncte echidistante, atât la partea de sus, cât şi la
bottom part, with elastic matallic cables, was used for partea de jos, cu cabluri metalice elastice flexibile, a fost utilizată
cleaning the rape seeds from big foreign bodies. la curăŃirea seminŃelor de rapiŃă de corpuri străine mari.
The sieve driving mechanism was designed so that it Mecanismul de acŃionare al sitei a fost astfel conceput
mainly ensures a circular alternative movement with a încât să asigure în principal o mişcare circulară alternativă
certain amplitude, measured at the edge of the sieve, from cu o anumită amplitudine, măsurată la marginea sitei
one hand, and from the other- the neutral oscillation conice, de o parte şi de cealaltă a poziŃiei neutre de
position in which the connecting of d length is fixed to oscilaŃie în care este fixat un braŃ de legătură de lungime
operating mechanism (of pendular-type saw). d, la mecanismul de acŃionare (de tip ferăstrău pendular).
The driving mechanism is made of an electric engine of Mecanismul de acŃionare este compus dintr-un motor
alternative current of 710 W and a driving system of worm electric de curent alternativ cu puterea de 710 W şi un
I
type-spiral wheel with oscillating slideway( 3, 3 , 6, 8 fig.1), sistem de acŃionare de tip melc roată melcată cu culisă
I
with acting button placed excentrically on spiral wheel of oscilantă, ( 3, 3 , 6, 8 fig.1) cu butonul de acŃionare dispus
mechanism transmission, [1, 2]. excentric pe roata melcată a transmisiei mecanismului, [1, 2].
The lift of oscillating slideway of driving system is of Cursa culisei oscilante a sistemului de acŃionare este
I I
16 mm, the slideway arm 3 being articulated by a de 16 mm, braŃul culisei 3 fiind articulat printr-o articulaŃie
spherical joint to arm 7 fixed with sieve 1, placed in radial sferică la braŃul 7 rigidizat cu sita 1 dispus pe direcŃie
direction to cone base cercle. The experimental stand is radială la cercul de bază al conului. Standul experimental
endowed with a system of regulating the oscillating este prevăzut cu posibilitatea reglării parametrilor mişcării
movement parameters, namely the oscillation frequency, oscilante, şi anume a frecvenŃei de oscilaŃie, F şi a
F and oscillation amplitude, Ai. amplitudinii oscilaŃiei, Ai.
The oscillation frequency can be modified from electric FrecvenŃa de oscilaŃie se poate modifica de la motorul
engine by varying the electric current parameters, and electric prin variaŃia parametrilor curentului electric, iar
oscillation amplitude can be modified by changing the amplitudinea oscilaŃiei se poate modifica prin schimbarea
arrangement position of driving mechanism comparing to poziŃiei de dispunere a mecanismului de acŃionare în
sieve radial arm, articulated between them by spherical raport cu braŃul radial al sitei, articulate între ele prin
articulation 6, (fig.1). articulaŃia sferică 6, (fig.1).
259

Sieve movement is limited by metallic cables elasticity, Deplasarea sitei este restricŃionată de elasticitatea cablurilor
which do not seems to be extendible, but due to their very metalice, care par inextensibile, dar datorită deplasărilor
small displacements, the movement can be considered foarte mici ale acestora mişcarea poate fi considerată
mostly oscillating around sieve central axle. preponderent oscilantă în jurul axei centrale a sitei.
Therefore, for experimental researches of vibrations Pentru cercetările experimentale de vibraŃii şi de proces
and process have been used oscillating frequencies of au fost utilizate frecvenŃe de oscilaŃie de 250, 520, 790
250, 520, 790 osc/min and amplitudes (3.58; 3.74; 3.91; osc/min şi amplitudinile (3,58; 3,74; 3,91; 4,10 mm), prin
4,10 mm), by modifying the distance d at values 480, 460, modificarea distanŃei d la valorile 480, 460, 440 şi 420
440 and 420 mm. mm.
By excentric driving mechanism arm tangential layout Prin dispunerea excentrică, tangenŃială a articulaŃiei braŃului
to cone-shaped sieve, it performs approx. circular mecanismului de acŃionare la sita conică, aceasta realizează
oscillations, related to cone vertical axle. oscilaŃii aproximativ circulare faŃă de axa verticală a conului.
Fig. 1 – Scheme of experimental stand with suspended conical sieve [6]

1.conical sieve with circular holes; 2.supplying hopper; 3.driving mechanism with spiral wheel and oscillating slideway; 3’.arm of
oscillating slideway; 4.collecting box of separated material; 5.metalic suspension cables; 6.spherical joint; 7.radial connecting arm to
sieve driving mechanism, 8.worm pinion
For performing the experimental vibrations Pentru efectuarea determinărilor de vibraŃii

determinations, a measuring chain comprising the experimentale s-a utilizat un lanŃ de măsură compus din
following devices, was used: următoarele dispozitive:
1) National Instruments data acquisition system with the 1) placă de achiziŃie de date NaŃional Instruments având
following characteristics: următoarele caracteristici:
- 24 –bit resolution - rezoluŃie de 24 biŃiâ
- sampling rate of 50 kS/s, - rată de eşantionare de 50 kS/s,
- 4 simultaneous analogous input channels, - 4 canale simultane de input analog, domeniu
dynamic domain 102 dB, input domain +/- 5 V dinamic 102 dB, domeniu de input +/- 5 V
- USB 2.0 interface for computer connecting - interfaŃă USB 2.0 pentru conectare la calculator
2) four accelerometers Brüel & Kjær 4508B with magnetic 2) patru accelerometre Brüel & Kjær 4508B cu sistem de
fixing system and by metalic clamp, each with magnetic fixare magnetic şi prin clemă metalică, fiecare cu cablu de
connecting fixing cable; conectare, de fixare magnetic;
260
3) computer with Labview data acquisition and 3) calculator cu soft de achiziŃie şi prelucrare de date
processing; Labview;
For performing the measurements, the 4 Pentru realizarea măsurătorilor cele 4 accelerometre
accelerometers used were placed two by two, folosite au fost amplasate două câte două diametral opus
diametrically opposed to sieve centre, able to determine faŃă de centrul sitei având posibilitatea determinării
the vibrations both on tangential direction and radial vibraŃiilor atât pe direcŃie tangenŃială, cât şi pe direcŃie
direction.(fig.1) radială, (fig.1).
Mounting scheme corresponds to specialty literature Schema de montare corespunde cu indicaŃiile din
indications related to acquisition of vibration signals of literatura privind achiziŃia semnalelor de vibraŃii ale
circular oscillating surfaces. [ 4, 5]. suprafelelor cu mişcare oşcilantă circulară, [ 4, 5].
Accelerometers 2 and 4 have the possibility to Accelerometrele 2 şi 4 au posibilitatea determinării
determine the parameters of vibrations comparing to parametrilor vibraŃiilor după direcŃia radială la baza
radial direction from cone base (sieve), while the conului (sitei), în timp ce accelerometrele 1 şi 3 au
accelerometers 1 and 3 can determine vibration posibilitatea determinării parametrilor vibraŃiei după
parameters according to tangential direction. direcŃie tangenŃială.
In figure 2 is shown the block scheme of measuring În figura 2 este prezentată schema bloc a lanŃului de
chain used for determining variations of accelerations and măsură utilizat pentru determinarea variaŃiilor
speed measured by the 4 accelerometers, respectively acceleraŃiilor şi vitezelor măsurate de cele patru
the signal spectra. accelerometre, respectiv spectrele de semnal.
Fig. 2 – Block scheme of measuring chain used to experimental determinations [6]
It comprises the vibration transducers (1), located Aceasta cuprinde traductoarele de vibraŃii (1),
two by two diametrically opposed, on the separating amplasate două câte două diametral opus, pe suprafaŃa
surface of sieve with oscillating movement, the signal de separare a sitei cu mişcare oscilantă, amplificatorul de
amplifier (2), National Instruments acquisition semnal (2), placa de achiziŃie de date NaŃional
system(3), for acquiring the vibration signals from the 4 Instruments (3), pentru achiziŃia semnalelor de vibraŃii de
transducers and laptop (5), for processing tha data la cele patru traductoare, şi calculatorul laptop (5), pentru
acquired. prelucrarea datelor achiziŃionate.
In order to trace the acquired signals, a printer which În vederea trasării semnalelor achiziŃionate se poate utiliza
may be connected to laptop (5), can be also used. şi o imprimantă ce poate fi conectată la calculatorul laptop (5).
Processing the experimental data was achieved with Prelucrarea datelor experimentale s-a realizat cu
Labview program. Signals acquired were processed programul Labview. Semnalele achiziŃionate au fost
2 2
and transformed into acceleration units (m/s ), for prelucrate şi transformate în unităŃi de acceleraŃie (m/s ),
being integrated in order to obtain the speed values of care apoi au fost integrate în vederea obŃinerii valorilor
sieve points on the sieve where transducers were vitezelor punctelor de pe sită în care au fost amplasate
placed. traductoarele.
In fig. 3 is shown the structure of LabView written În fig. 3 este prezentată structura programului scris sub
program for processing the signals acquired by the four LabView pentru prelucrarea semnalelor achiziŃionate de
accelerometers. către cele patru accelerometre.
Block “Read From Measurament File” (fig.3) Blocul “Read From Measurament File” (fig.3) reprezintă
represents the data acquisition board, the signal placa de achiziŃie de date, semnalul înregistrat de cele
registered by the four accelerometers being catched by it. patru accelerometre fiind captat de acesta.
Blocks "Simulate Signal" are introduced for generating Blocurile "Simulate Signal" sunt introduse pentru a
four steady signals (one for each accelerometer), genera patru semnale constante (câte unul pentru fiecare
necessary to correct the errors introduced by accelerometru), necesare pentru a corecta erorile pe care
accelerometers: when nothing is measured, le introduc accelerometrele: când nu se măsoară nimic,
accelerometers still indicate a constant small acceleration accelerometrele indică totuşi o acceleraŃie constantă,
but other than zero (noted with a0 mică, dar diferită de 0 (notată a0).
As a result, for each signal measured, a constant signal Drept urmare, pentru fiecare semnal măsurat, se generează
equal to „-a0”, is generated, which is added to measured un semnal constant, egal cu „-a0”, care se adună la
signal, for restoring zero value. semnalul măsurat, pentru a restabili valoarea zero.
After registering the signal in data acquisition board and După ce semnalul a fost înregistrat în placa de achiziŃie
corrected in "Simulate Signal"blocks, it was multipled by de date şi corectat în blocurile "Simulate Signal" s-a
9.81, gravity acceleration. multiplicat cu 9,81, acceleraŃia gravitaŃională.
Multiplication by 9.81 is performed because the signal ÎnmulŃirea cu 9,81 este efectuată pentru că semnalul
acquired is measured in g units (gravity acceleration), and achiziŃionat este măsurat în unităŃi de g (acceleraŃia
261
in subsequent processings, it should be expressed in S.I. gravitaŃională), iar în prelucrările ulterioare este nevoie ca
2 2
(m/s ) units, [7]. el să fie exprimat în unităŃi S.I. (m/s ), [7].
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) function from program FuncŃia FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) din structura de
structure calculates and displays the signal spectrum. program calculează şi afişează spectrul semnalului.
For each of four accelerometers a FFT block is used, Pentru fiecare din cele patru accelerometre se
so four signals. utilizează câte un bloc FFT, deci patru semnale.
Frequencies and amplitudes of harmonic components FrecvenŃele şi amplitudinile componentelor armonice
(of Acosωt or Asinωt type which the periodic signal is (de tip Acosωt sau Asinωt din care se compune semnalul
made of) are obtained by means of spectra. periodic) se obŃine cu ajutorul spectrelor.
These frequencies and amplitudes give information on Aceste frecvenŃe şi amplitudini dau informaŃii despre
oscillating (vibrating) system movement, in this case on mişcarea sistemului oscilant (vibrator), în cazul de faŃă
suspended conical oscillating sieve movement. despre mişcarea sitei conice oscilante suspendate.
Fig. 3 – LabView program written for signals acquisition and graphical representation of sieve acceleration
Data measured are generally affected by different Datele măsurate sunt în general afectate de diferitele
types of errors, determined by causes such as: apparata tipuri de erori, datorate unor cauze precum: etalonarea
calibration (sensors, acquisition board, etc); numerical aparatelor (senzori, placă de achiziŃie, etc); metode de
processing methods (numerical integral, decimal number prelucrare numerică ( integrală numerică, trunchiere a
truncating etc). numerelor cu zecimale etc).
Such errors determine periodical phenomena that lead Astfel de erori fac ca fenomene periodice să conducă
to measured periodical signals, but which are displaced la semnale măsurate periodice, dar deplasate faŃă de linia
comparing to zero line (fig.4.a), or even non periodical de zero (fig.4.a), sau chiar neperiodice (fig.5.a). Drept
262
signals (fig.5.a). Therefore, appears the necessity of urmare, apare necesitatea corectării valorilor măsurate,
correcting the measured values, by repositioning comparing prin repoziŃionarea faŃă de linia zero (fig. 4.b) sau prin
to zero line (fig. 4.b) or by tilting the middle line (fig.5.b). înclinarea liniei de mijloc (fig.5.b).
Correction of „0” degree, aims to place again the CorecŃia de gradul „0”, vizează repoziŃionarea datelor
measured data related to zero line. măsurate în raport cu linia de zero.
Data measured are replaced by data corrected: Datele măsurate sunt înlocuite cu cele corectate:
ymas ← ycor = ymas − a (1)
Fig. 4 –Example regarding the correction of „0” degree[2, 3]
Value of correction parameter is determined from the Valoarea parametrului de corecŃie a se determină din
condition of minimizing the average square meter error [5]: condiŃia de minimizare a erorii pătratice medii [5]:
n
ε (a ) = ∑ ( yi − a )
2
(2)
i =1
This condition is equal to derivative annulation Această condiŃie echivalează cu anularea derivatei
dε
=0 (3)
da
From where, the correction parameter results De unde rezultă parametrul de corecŃie
n
∑y i
a= i =1
(4)
n
Correction of „1”degree CorecŃia de gradul „1”
Correction of „1” degree aims to „make the CorecŃia de gradul „1” vizează „orizontalizarea” liniei de
horizontalization of” middle line. Data measured are mijloc. Datele măsurate sunt înlocuite cu cele corectate:
replaced by the corrected ones:
ymas ← ycor = ymas − at − b (5)
Fig. 5 – Example regarding correction of „1”degree
Values of correction parameters a and b are Valorile parametrilor de corecŃie a şi b se determină

determined from condition of minimizing the average din condiŃia de minimizare a erorii pătratice medii
square meter error
n
ε (a, b ) = ∑ ( yi − a t i − b )
2
. (6)
i =1
This condition is equivalent to annulations of partial Această condiŃie echivalează cu anularea derivatelor
derivatives parŃiale
263
∂ε ∂ε
=0; = 0, (7)
∂a ∂b
The correction parameters are obtained Se obŃin parametrii de corecŃie
n n n n n n n
∑ t i ∑ yi − n ∑ ti yi ∑ ti ∑ ti yi − ∑ ti2 ∑ yi
a = i =1 i =1 i =1 , b = i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1 . (8)
 n  2 n   n  2 n 
 ∑ t i  − n ∑ t i2   ∑ t i  − n ∑ t i2 
 i =1  i =1   i =1  i =1 
   
In fig 6, are presented the signals and spectra În fig 6, sunt prezentate semnalele şi spectrele de
appropriate to four accelerometers mounted on cone- vibraŃii corespunzătoare celor patru accelerometre
shaped sieve surface montate pe suprafaŃa sitei conice
f2 = 8.6 Hz şi braŃul d1= 480 mm f2= 8.6 Hz şi d3= 420 mm
Fig. 6 - Vibration spectra corresponding to four accelerometers for 8.6 frequency and two length of sieve arm/Spectrele de vibraŃii
corespunzătoare celor patru accelerometre pentru frecvenŃa 8.6 Hz şi două lungimi ale braŃului sitei.
Application exemple Exemplu de aplicaŃie

By means of acquisition system achieved and Labview Cu ajutorul sistemului de achiziŃie realizat şi a programului
written program, vibration signals were acquired at the realizat în Labview, au fost achiziŃionate semnale de vibraŃii,
four accelerometers, placed on sieve separation surface. la cele patru accelerometre, poziŃionate pe suprafaŃa de
Two accelerometers acquire the signal on arm direction, separare a sitei. Două accelerometre achiziŃionează semnalul
264
and the other two on a direction perpendicular to arm pe direcŃia braŃului, iar celelalte două, pe o direcŃie perpendiculară
connected to driving mechanism rod. pe braŃul de legătură cu tija mecanismul de acŃionare.
Determinations for no-load run have been performed Determinările la mersul în gol au fost efectuate numai
for oscillation frequency of f2=8.6 Hz, for three different pentru frecvenŃa de oscilaŃie f2=8,6 Hz, la trei lungimi
lengths of sieve arm,while the determinations for load run diferite ale braŃului sitei, în timp ce determinările la mersul
have been made with rape seeds for three oscillating în sarcină au fost efectuate cu seminŃe de rapiŃă pentru
frequencies (f1 = 4.1 Hz, f2 = 8.6 Hz, f3 = 13.1 Hz) and trei frecvenŃe de oscilaŃie (f1 = 4,1 Hz, f2 = 8,6 Hz, f3 = 13,1
three different lengths of sieve arm (d1 = 480 mm, d2 = Hz) şi trei lungimi diferite ale braŃului sitei (d1 = 480 mm,
460 mm, d3 = 420 mm). d2 = 460 mm, d3 = 420 mm).
Based on analysis of acceleration signal acquired and Pe baza analizei semnalelor de acceleraŃie
shown in fig 6, the oscillation sinusoidal variation for the achiziŃionate şi prezentate în fig 6, se constată variaŃia
four accelerometers is found out. The variation can be sinusoidală a oscilaŃiilor pentru cele patru accelerometre.
very well noticed at accelerometer 1 mounted near the Aceasta este profund vizibilă la accelerometrul 1 montat
sieve arm, which gets the signal on tangential direction în apropierea braŃului sitei care achiziŃionează semnal pe
(perpendicular on oscillating average position direction of direcŃie tangenŃială (perpendiculară pe direcŃia poziŃiei
sieve arm). medii de oscilaŃie a braŃului sitei).
For no-load running, the amplitude of signal acquired at Pentru mersul în gol, amplitudinea semnalului
the oscillating frequency of f2=8.6 Hz, is inversely achiziŃionat, la frecvenŃa de oscilaŃie f2=8,6 Hz, este invers
proportional, as value, to length of sieve arm d. Thus, at proporŃională, ca valoare, cu lungimea braŃului sitei d.
accelerometer 1, the oscillation acceleration reaches Astfel la accelerometrul 1, mărimea acceleraŃiei oscilaŃiei
2 2
maximum values, of 100 m/s , the general oscillation atinge valori maxime, de ordinul a 100 m/s , oscilaŃia
being of sinusoidal type with minimum disturbances related generală fiind de tip sinusoidal cu perturbaŃii minore legate
to elastic suspension system and sieve own vibration. de sistemul elastic de suspendare şi vibraŃia proprie a sitei.
The bigger the arm’s length is, the smaller will be the Cu cât lungimea braŃului creşte, cu atât mărimea
2 2
sieve acceleration size, reaching values under 50 m/s at acceleraŃiei sitei scade, până la valori sub 50 m/s la o
an arm’s length of 480 mm, but with more profound disturbating lungime a braŃului de 480 mm, dar cu mai profunde vibraŃii
vibrations superposed on the general oscillation. perturbatoare suprapuse peste oscilaŃia generală.
At accelerometer 3, which acquires the signal always La accelerometrul 3, care achiziŃionează semnalul tot
on tangential direction (perpendicular to sieve arm) de pe direcŃia tangenŃială (perpendiculară pe braŃul sitei)
placed at a bigger distance comparing to operating point, aflat însă la o distanŃă mai mare faŃă de punctul de
the general oscillation,even though of sinusoidal type, is acŃionare, oscilaŃia generală, deşi este evident de tip
not anymore so evident as at accelerometer 1, being sinusoidal, nu mai este la fel de pronunŃată ca la
much more flatten, but also in this very case, the accelerometrul 1, fiind mult mai aplatisată, dar şi în acest
oscillation acceleration size decreases with sieve’s arm caz, mărimea acceleraŃiei oscilaŃiei, descreşte cu
length increment from average values of approx.100 creşterea lungimii braŃului sitei, de la valori medii de circa
2 2 2 2
m/s to values under 50 m/s , for an arm’s length of 420 100 m/s la valori sub 50 m/s , pentru o lungime a braŃului
mm. de 420 mm.
It has been also found out the existance of oscillations Se constată, de asemenea, existenŃa oscilaŃiilor
determined by other factors than the ocillation printed on perturbatoare cauzate de alŃi factori decât oscilaŃia
driving mechanism. imprimată de mecanismul de acŃionare.
At accelerometers 2 and 4 acquiring the signal on La accelerometrele 2 şi 4 care achiziŃionează semnal
radial direction (namely, in parallel with sieve’s arm) pe direcŃie radială (adică paralel cu braŃul sitei) aflate,
placed at about the same distance from the operating aproximativ la aceeaşi distanŃă faŃă de punctul de
point, the general sinusoidal oscillations are not so visible acŃionare, oscilaŃiile sinusoidale generale nu mai sunt aşa
as at accelerometers 1 and 3, and disturbing vibrations de vizibile, ca la accelerometrele 1 şi 3, iar vibraŃiile
are stronger. perturbatoare sunt mult mai pronunŃate.
But, it has been noticed the same tendency of reducing Se constată, însă, aceeaşi tendinŃă de scădere, a
the sieve oscillation acceleration size along with arm’s mărimea acceleraŃiei oscilaŃiei sitei, cu creşterea
length increasing, namely diminishing the sieve movement lungimii braŃului, adică cu scăderea amplitudinii
amplitude. deplasărilor sitei.
For the sieve presented, with suspension wires length Pentru sita prezentată, cu lungimi ale firelor de suspendare
of 240 mm on top and 180 mm under the sieving surface, de 240 mm deasupra şi 180 mm sub suprafaŃa de
with sieve diameter of 410 mm and a tilting cone cernere, cu diametrul sitei de 410 mm şi o înclinarea a
o o
generator to horizontal surface of 8 , the acceleration of generatoarei conului faŃă de suprafaŃa orizontală de 8 ,
sieve hade values of ± 150m / s for the arm connected to
2
acceleraŃia sitei a avut valori de ± 150m / s pentru un braŃ
2
the driving mechanism of d=480 mm. When the arm’s de legătură cu mecanismul de acŃionare de d=480 mm. În
length d decreases, the sieve accelerations are modified, situaŃia în care lungimea braŃului d scade, acceleraŃiile
reaching values of ± 300m / s on tangential direction and sitei se modifică la valori de ± 300m / s pe direcŃie
2 2
± 200m / s 2 on radial direction, which demonstrates a tangenŃială şi la valori de ± 200m / s pe directie radială,
2
better movement on tangential direction and a quicker ceea ce arată o mişcare mai bună pe direcŃie tangenŃială
falling of seeds. şi o cădere mai rapidă a seminŃelor.
The oscillating movement of separating surfaces is Mişcarea oscilatorie a suprafeŃelor de separare este
characterized by its basic prameters: oscillations caracterizată prin parametri săi de bază: frecvenŃa
frequency and amplitude; at the same time, other oscilaŃiilor şi amplitudinea oscilaŃiei; trebuie avuŃi în
parameters related to the process and material features vedere şi alŃi parametri care Ńin atât de proces, cât şi de
have to be taken into account: sieves tilting angle, caracteristicile materialului ce trebuie prelucrat : unghiul
265
friction coefficients, optimum sieving speed and limit de înclinare a sitelor, coeficienŃii de frecare, viteza optimă
speed imposed by passing through sieves, particles de cernere şi viteze limită impuse de trecerea prin site,
interactions with sieving surfaces, processing power interacŃiunile dintre particule, interacŃiunile cu suprafeŃele
consumption, dimensions and shape of separating de cernere, consumul energetic la prelucrare,
holes. dimensiunile şi forma orificiilor de separare.
In order to avoid the unefficient sieving areas, Pentru a evita zonele cu cernere ineficientă, ar trebui,
restrictions related to sieve binding or a symmetrical cumva introduse restricŃii în ceea ce priveşte legarea sitei
driving system, should be introduced. There is also the sau o acŃionare simetrică. Există, de asemenea,
possibility of operating by means of a generator of posibilitatea acŃionării cu ajutorul unui generator de vibraŃii
vibrations with non balanced masses, which should be cu mase neechilibrate care să fie plasat pe axa de
placed on simmetry axle of sieve. simetrie a sitei.
[1]. Bratu P. – Vibrations of elastic systems, Editura [1]. Bratu P. – VibraŃiile sistemelor elastice, Editura
Tehnică Publishing, Bucureşti, 2000; Tehnică, Bucureşti, 2000;
[2]. Ion C., Crăifăleanu A. (2002) – Dynamics and analytical [2]. Ion C., Crăifăleanu A. (2002) – Sinteze de dinamică şi
mechanics syntheses, Matrix-Rom Publishing, Bucharest; mecanică analitică, Editura Matrix-Rom, Bucureşti;
[3]. MagheŃi I., Voiculescu L. (2000) – Elements of applied [3]. MagheŃi I., Voiculescu L. (2000) – Elemente de
mechanics, Printech Publishing, Bucureşti; mecanică aplicată, Editura Printech, Bucureşti;
[4]. Munteanu M. (1969) – Some problems related to vibrating [4]. Munteanu M. (1969) - Unele probleme ale dinamicii
monomassic sieves dynamics, driven by exccentric sitelor vibratoare monomasice acŃionate prin volant
flywheel, Machinery manufacturing, vol. 21 (1), pag. ...; excentric, ConstrucŃia de maşini, vol. 21 (1), pag. ...;
[5]. Segărceanu M., Căsăndroiu T. (1968) - Contributions [5]. Segărceanu M., Căsăndroiu T. (1968) – ContribuŃii la
to seeds movement on plane sieves surface, Studies and studiul mişcării seminŃelor pe suprafaŃa sitelor plane,
researches of agricultural mechanics Journal, vol II (4), Revista - Studii şi cercetări de mecanică agricolă, vol II
pag. ...; (4), pag. ...;
[6]. Stoica D. (2011) - Contributions to vibrating [6]. Stoica D. (2011) - ContribuŃii la studiul fenomenelor
phenomena study regarding the equipment of processing vibratorii privind utilajele din domeniul prelucrării
agricultural products, Ph.D. Thesis, U.P.B.; produselor agricole, Teza de doctorat, U.P.B.;
[7]. Voinea R., Voiculescu D. (1979) – Mechanical [7]. Voinea R., Voiculescu D. (1979) - VibraŃii mecanice;
vibrations, I.P. Bucureşti. I.P. Bucureşti.
266
THE USE OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS IN STUDYING THE SPRAYING PROCESS

THROUGH NOZZLES AT PHYTOSANITARY TREATMENT MACHINES
/
PREZENTAREA METODEI ANALIZEI DIMENSIONALE ÎN STUDIUL PROCESULUI DE
PULVERIZARE PRIN DUZE LA MAŞINILE DE APLICAT TRATAMENTE FITOSANITARE
1) 1)
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Dumitraşcu A ., Ph.D. Eng. Manea D. ,
2)
Univ. Em. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Căsăndroiu T.
1)
National Institute of Research-Development for Machines and Installations designed to Agriculture and Food Industry - INMA, Bucharest
2)
E-mail: a.dumi@yahoo.com
Abstract: The quality of phytosanitary treatments Rezumat: Calitatea tratamentelor fitosanitare efectuate în
performed in crops is largely determined by how culturile agricole este determinată în mare măsură de
substances are sprayed on the plant, by the droplets modul cum sunt pulverizate substanŃele fitosanitare pe
size, the coverage of the plant and the reduction of the plantă, mărimea picăturilor, gradul de acoperire a plantei
phenomenon of drift. The main elements responsible şi reducerea fenomenului de derivă. Principalele elemente
for the quality of working process of phytosanitary responsabile de calitatea procesului de lucru al maşinilor
treatment machines are the nozzles, which are the de aplicat tratamente fitosanitare sunt duzele, care se
main elements of any sprayers. This explains the great constituie ca elemente principale ale oricărei maşini de
variety of spraying systems. In this paper are detailed stropit. Acest fapt explică şi marea diversitate de sisteme
some theoretical issues regarding the spraying process de pulverizare. În această lucrare sunt aprofundate unele
through nozzles as the basis for experiments to be aspecte teoretice privind procesul de pulverizare prin
carried out using the machine for high precision duze, ca bază pentru experimentările ce vor fi efectuate
application of phytosanitary treatments in orchards, folosind Maşina pentru aplicarea cu precizie ridicată a
MSL. Analysis and modeling of this process is achieved tratamentelor fitosanitare în plantaŃiile pomicole, MSL.
using as main working instrument the dimensional Analiza şi modelarea acestui proces se fac utilizând ca
analysis theory. instrument principal de lucru teoria analizei dimensionale.
Keywords: spraying process, nozzles, droplets, Cuvinte cheie: proces de pulverizare, duze, picături,
dimensional analysis analiză dimensională
The gas-liquid two-phase fluid flow is widely found in Curgerea fluidelor bifazice lichid-gaz este întâlnită pe
nature such as, for example, in raindrops fall. In practical scară largă în natură, ca, de exemplu, în căderea picăturilor
applications, an important type of such process is the de ploaie. În aplicaŃiile practice, un tip important de astfel de
flow of a two-phase fluid with an initial impulse, which proces este curgerea unui flux bifazic având un impuls
leads to liquid cleavage in droplets. iniŃial, care conduce la scindarea lichidului în picături mici.
This spraying process often takes place by passing Acest proces de pulverizare are loc adesea prin
the liquid through a diffuser - a nozzle. Spraying is the trecerea lichidului printr-un ajutaj divergent - o duză.
process that leads to the conversion of liquid flow in Pulverizarea este procesul care conduce la conversia
droplets by passing liquid under pressure through a vânei de lichid în picături, prin trecerea lichidului sub
nozzle. The forces of surface tension of the liquid, which presiune printr-o duză. ForŃele de tensiune superficială a
provide it homogeneousness, are canceled by internal lichidului, care îi conferă omogenitatea, sunt anulate de
and external factors. factori interni şi externi.
Figure 1 schematically illustrates the structure of a Figura 1 ilustrează schematic structura unui jet de lichid
liquid spray jet. pulverizat.
Fig. 1 – The structure of a liquid spray jet [3]
In the initial zone, liquid fraction is dominant, the liquid În zona iniŃială, fracŃiunea lichidă e dominantă, lichidul
being decomposed into bubbles and ligaments (liquid fiind descompus în bule şi ligamente (particule de lichid
non-spherical particles). In the intermediate, dense non-sferice). În zona intermediară, de pulverizare densă,
267
spraying zone, liquid fraction has a smaller share, but fracŃiunea lichidă are o pondere mai mică, dar
significant. Here takes place side fragmentation and semnificativă. Aici are loc o fragmentare secundară şi
droplet/droplet interactions, such as collision and apar interacŃiuni picătură/picătură, cum ar fi coliziunile şi
coalescence, occur. In the diluted spraying zone spherical coalescenŃa. În zona de pulverizare diluată predomină
well formed droplets, strongly interacting with turbulent air picăturile sferice, bine formate, care interacŃionează
jet are prevailing. In general, the spraying depends on the puternic cu jetul turbulent de aer. În general, pulverizarea
injection pressure through nozzle, the flow of fluid, the depinde de presiunea de injecŃie prin duză, de debitul de
geometric characteristics of the nozzle, the viscosity and lichid, de caracteristicile geometrice ale duzei, de
density of the liquid. vâscozitatea şi densitatea lichidului.
Fragmentation or hydraulic spraying is accomplished by FragmentaŃia sau pulverizarea hidraulică se realizează
forcing the passing of liquid through calibrated orifices, prin trecerea forŃată a lichidelor de stropit prin orificii
called nozzles. In the case of phytosanitary treatment calibrate, denumite duze. În cazul maşinilor de aplicat
machines fragmentation is achieved by means of: tratamente fitosanitare fragmentaŃia se realizează:
- hydraulic spraying nozzles with projected jet (either flat - prin duze de pulverizare hidraulică cu jet proiectat (fie
or conical directly projected jet, or jet making an impact jet plat sau conic direct proiectat, fie jet care face un
with a lamination surface, which changes the direction of impact cu o suprafaŃă de laminare, care schimbă direcŃia
the jet, i.e. nozzles with indirectly projected jet); jetului, adică duze cu jet indirect proiectat);
- swirling nozzles, also called tangential nozzles (with - prin duze de turbionare, denumite şi duze tangenŃiale
helical deflector or swirling pad), where fluid is inducted (cu deflector elicoidal sau pastilă de turbionare), unde
into a circular motion in a room placed before the lichidului i se imprimă o mişcare circulară într-o cameră
calibrated orifice; plasată înaintea orificiului calibrat;
- twinjet hydraulic nozzles where jets hit each other, - prin duze hidraulice cu două jeturi care se lovesc între
thus achieving dispersion. ele, realizându-se astfel dispersia.
Some of the most utilized nozzles (at vineyards and Unele dintre cele mai utilizate duze (la maşinile de
orchards spraying machines) are those tangential with stropit în vii şi livezi) sunt cele tangenŃiale cu deflector
helical deflector and conical jet. The deflector imparts a elicoidal şi jet conic. Deflectorul imprimă o mişcare
swirling motion to the liquid. The resulting turbulence splits turbionară lichidului. TurbulenŃa rezultantă scindează jetul
the jet into droplets that form a cone, when leaving the în picături, care se constituie într-un con, când ies din
calibrated orifice. The swirling chamber may be with orificiul calibrat. Camera de turbionare poate fi cu volum
constant volume or adjustable volume. The swirling constant sau cu volum reglabil. Reglarea volumului
chamber volume adjustment is done by shifting the camerei de turbionare se face prin deplasarea
deflector. deflectorului.
Depending on the average droplet size and the amount În funcŃie de dimensiunea medie a picăturilor şi de
of liquid applied per unit of surface area, most authors use cantitatea de lichid aplicată pe unitatea de suprafaŃă,
a classification system of the types of treatment shown in majoritatea autorilor folosesc un sistem de clasificare al
table 1. tipurilor de tratament prezentat în tabelul 1.
Table 1 [7]
The classification of phytosanitary treatments
The diameter of The treatments The dose of The treatment classification
The assignment to
sprayed liquid classification depending applied liquid depending on the volume of
grades of fineness
droplets [µm] on particle fineness [l/ha] applied liquid
0-5 aerosols atomization < 0,5 UULV - Ultra Ultra Low Volume
5-50 mist atomization 0,5-5,0 ULV - Ultra Low Volume
50-100 very fine spraying 5-50 LV - Low Volume
100-200 fine aspersion 50-150 MV - Medium Volume
200-300 medium aspersion 150-600 HV - High Volume
300-1000 coarse aspersion >600-2500 VHV - Very High Volume
The quantitative distribution of the pulverized liquid RepartiŃia cantitativă a volumului de lichid pulverizat
is influenced by a number of factors such as the este influenŃată de o serie de factori cum ar fi presiunea
working pressure of the sprayer, the initial speed of the de lucru a pulverizatorului, viteza iniŃială a jetului de lichid
atomized jet, the flow rate of the sprayer, the spraying pulverizat, debitul pulverizatorului, sistemul de pulverizare
system used [5]. folosit [5].
The diversification of spraying types and of Diversificarea tipurilor de pulverizare şi a sistemelor de
phytosanitary application systems aims to improve the aplicare a tratamentelor fitosanitare are ca scop
effectiveness of treatment. îmbunătăŃirea eficacităŃii tratamentului.
MATERIAL AND METHODS MATERIAL ŞI METODE

Up to now it was not possible to establish the complex Până în prezent nu a fost posibilă stabilirea legilor
spray laws. Although the phenomenon of fluid pulverizării complexe. Deşi fenomenul descompunerii
decomposition was the subject of a series of theoretical vânei de lichid a constituit obiectul unei serii de cercetări
and experimental research in the last 100 years, however teoretice şi experimentale în ultimii 100 de ani, totuşi nu s-
a general theory, on which is possible to determine a priori a elaborat încă o teorie generală, pe baza căreia să fie
the degree of pulverization for different types of nozzles, posibilă determinarea apriorică a gradului de pulverizare
features of the liquid and working conditions has not yet pentru diferite tipuri de duze, caracteristici ale lichidului şi
developed. condiŃii de lucru.
268
Applying mathematical analysis confines generally to Aplicarea analizei matematice se mărgineşte, în

the formulation the problem, i.e. the establishment of general, la formularea problemei, adică la stabilirea
differential equations and contour conditions. ecuaŃiilor diferenŃiale şi a condiŃiilor de contur.
Solving these equations is possible only in a few Rezolvarea acestor ecuaŃii este posibilă numai în
special cases and with a whole range of simplifying câteva cazuri speciale şi cu o serie întreagă de ipoteze
assumptions. A complete analytical solution to the simplificatoare. O soluŃie analitică completă a problemei
problem of droplet sizes present considerable difficulties referitoare la dimensiunile picăturilor prezintă greutăŃi
for two reasons: considerabile din două motive:
a. There are not accurately known the wavelength a. Nu se cunoa ş te cu precizie lungimea undelor ş i
and the intensity of oscillations that exist in jet and intensitatea oscila Ńiilor care există în jet ş i care depind
which depend on the initial conditions of flow through de condi Ńiile ini Ń iale ale scurgerii jetului prin duz ă , de
nozzle, the nozzle design, the machining and surface construc Ńia duzei, de prelucrarea ş i starea
condition, etc. suprafe Ńelor, etc.
b. The droplets obtained are the result of a complex b. Picăturile ce se obŃin sunt rezultatul unui proces
process of sprinkling the droplets formed in the substitution complex de granulare a picăturilor formate în spaŃiul de
area [2]. schimb [2].
For the reasons given above, the possibility of a Din motivele arătate mai sus, posibilitatea unei
complete analytical solving of the problem is rezolvări analitice complete a problemei este exclusă. De
excluded. Therefore, studying the spraying is done aceea, studierea pulverizării se face pe cale
experimentally, and the results, based on the experimentală, iar rezultatele obŃinute, în baza teoriei
similarity theory, are generalized to similar dynamic similitudinii, sunt generalizate pentru sisteme dinamic
systems. asemenea.
For establishing physical relations, the relationship Pentru stabilirea relaŃiilor fizice, a legăturii care există
between the values used for the description of physical între mărimile utilizate la descrierea fenomenelor fizice,
phenomena, the dimensional analysis may be used. This poate fi utilizată analiza dimensională. Această metodă se
method is based on the fundamental theorem of bazează pe teorema fundamentală a analizei
dimensional analysis, Π theorem, of Vaschy-Buckingham. dimensionale, teorema Π, a lui Vaschy-Buckingham.
According to this theorem, the physical processes or Conform acestei teoreme, procesele fizice sau procesele
physicochemical processes can be described by functions fizico-chimice pot fi descrise prin funcŃii ale criteriilor de
of independent similarity criteria that can be formed of similitudine independente ce se pot forma cu variabilele
controlling process variables. It is considered that those care controlează procesul. Se consideră că sunt
criteria are independent which can not be expressed independente acele criterii care nu pot fi exprimate prin
through arithmetic combinations of other criteria. combinaŃii aritmetice ale altor criterii.
Thus, if a process is determined by n dimensional Astfel dacă un proces este determinat de n variabile
variables: dimensionale:
X1, X2, X3... Xn X1, X2, X3... Xn
it can be expressed by means of a general form criteria acesta poate fi exprimat printr-o funcŃie criterială de
function: forma generală:
f(Π1, Π2, Π3... Πn-m) = 0 f(Π1, Π2, Π3... Πn-m) = 0
The Π theorem reads as follows: the number of Teorema Π are următorul enunŃ: numărul de criterii
independent criteria from the criteria function is the independente din funcŃia criteriala este dat de diferenŃa n-
difference n-r, where n is the number of dimensional r, unde n este numărul variabilelor dimensionale iar r este
variables and r is the rank of the dimensional matrix, which rangul matricei dimensionale, care este egal cu numărul
is equal to the number of fundamental values depending mărimilor fundamentale în funcŃie de care se pot exprima
on which may be expressed the analyzed variables [6]. variabilele luate în analiză [6].
In the case of the spraying process through nozzles, În cazul procesului de pulverizare prin duze, analiza
dimensional analysis takes into account the following dimensională ia în considerare următoarea funcŃie de m =
function of m = 7 variables: 7 variabile:
f ( D, v, ρ l , d ,ηl , σ , ρ g ) = 0 (1)
where: D – nozzle diameter, v – the relative velocity of unde: D – diametrul duzei, v – viteza relativă a lichidului
the liquid to the surrounding gas, ρl – the liquid density, d faŃă de gazul înconjurător, ρl – densitatea lichidului, d –
– the droplet diameter, ηl – the dynamic viscosity of the diametrul picăturii, ηl – vâscozitatea dinamică a lichidului, σ
liquid, σ – the surface tension of the liquid, ρg – the gas – tensiunea superficială a lichidului, ρg – densitatea
density gazului
D, v, ρl are fundamental values. D, v, ρl sunt mărimile fundamentale.
Dimensionless complexes (independent criteria) are: Complexii adimensionali (criteriile independente) sunt:
d η σ ρg
Π1 = ; Π 2 = x xl x3 ; Π 3 = ' ' x ' ; Π 4 = (2)
D D 1 v 2 ρl D x 1 v x2 ρ l 3 ρl
The dimensional matrix of variables for d = 3 Matricea dimensională a variabilelor pentru d = 3 mărimi
fundamental values, L (length), M (mass), T(time), is: fundamentale, L (lungime), M (masă), T(timp), este:
269
D v ρ l d η l σ ρ g
(3)
L 1 1 − 3 1 −1 0 − 3
M 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
T 0 −1 0 0 −1 − 2 0
The dimensional linear system of equations, expressing Sistemul de ecuaŃii dimensionale liniare care exprimă
the condition of homogeneity, for the dimensionless condiŃia de omogenitate, pentru complexul adimensional
complex Π2 , is: Π2 , este:
(L) x1 + x 2 - 3 x 3 = - 1
(M) x 3 = 1 (4)
(T) x 2 = 1
The solutions obtained are x1 = 1 ; x2 = 1 ; x3 = 1 and results: Se obŃin soluŃiile x1 = 1 ; x2 = 1 ; x3 = 1 şi rezultă:
η
Π2 = l (5)
Dvρ l
The dimensional linear system of equations, expressing Sistemul de ecuaŃii dimensionale liniare care exprimă
the condition of homogeneity, for the dimensionless condiŃia de omogenitate, pentru complexul adimensional
complex Π3 , is: Π3 este:
(L) x1' + x '2 - 3 x 3' = - 1
(M) x 3' = 1 (6)
(T) - x = - 1
'
2
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
The solutions obtained are x1 = 1; x2 = 2; x3 = 1 and results: Se obŃin soluŃiile x1 = 1 ; x2 = 2 ; x3 = 1 şi rezultă:
σ
Π3 = (7)
Dv 2 ρ l
so that: φ 1 ( Π1 , Π2 ,Π 3 , Π4 ) = 0 or Π1 = φ 1 ( Π2 , Π3 ,Π 4 ), astfel încât: φ1(Π1,Π2,Π3,Π4) = 0 sau Π1 = φ1(Π2,Π3,Π4),
i.e: adică:
d η σ ρg
= ϕ2 ( l ⋅ 2 ⋅ ) (8)
D Dvρ l Dv ρ l ρ l
The dimensionless complex Π1 can be put in the form of: Complexul adimensional Π1 poate fi pus sub forma:
Π1 = kΠ Π Π c4 a
2
b
3
(9)
Combinations between dimensionless complexes are Se fac combinaŃii între complexii adimensionali, astfel
made, so that appears a physical value, easy to vary in a încât să apară o mărime fizică uşor de variat într-un singur
single complex, i.e. v, the relative velocity of the liquid to complex, în cazul în speŃă v, viteza relativă a lichidului faŃă
the surrounding gas. So, dimensionless complexes are de gazul înconjurător. Astfel, se combină complexii
combined Π2 şi Π3 , to remove v, and result the new adimensionali Π2 şi Π3 , pentru a elimina v, şi apar noii
’ ’ ’ ’
complexes Π2 şi Π3 : complexi Π2 şi Π3 :
Π 22 η2 Dv 2 ρ l ηl2
Π '2 = = 2 l2 2 ⋅ = (10)
Π 3 D v ρl σ Dρ l σ
Π3 σ ρ σ
Π 3' = ⋅ ⋅ l = (11)
Π 4 Dv ρ l ρ g Dv 2 ρ g
2
The relation (9) becomes: RelaŃia (9) devine:

Π1 = k1Π '2a Π '3b Π c4 (12)
but dar
ρ ρ
Π 4 = a = const. ⇒ k1 ( a ) c = k (13)
ρl ρl
and results: şi rezultă:
a b a b
 η  σ   σ 
 ⇒ d = k  ηl
d
2
  2

= k  l 
 ⋅ 2  Dρ σ

 ⋅ 2  D (14)
 Dv ρ   Dv ρ 
D  Dρ lσ   g   l   g 
270
The scientific literature [4] indicates the following În literatura ştiinŃifică [4] se indică următoarele formule
formulas for the size of the average diameter, d, of the pentru mărimea diametrului mediu, d, al picăturilor de
spraying droplets, obtained by generalizing the results of lichid pulverizat, obŃinute prin generalizarea rezultatelor
experimental measurements, where fluids were water and unor măsurători experimentale, unde fluidele au fost apa şi
air. aerul.
2 2
- for the domain ηl : ρlσD < 0,0333 - pentru domeniul ηl : ρlσD < 0,0333
σ ηl2
d = D( ) 0,52 [1,24 + 0,0128 ⋅ (ln + 12)] (15)
ρ g v2 D ρl σD
2 2
- for the domain ηl : ρlσD > 0,0333 - pentru domeniul ηl : ρlσD > 0,0333
σ η 2
d = D( ) 0,52 ( 2,25 + 0,24 ⋅ ln l
) (16)
ρgv D 2
ρ l σD
The experiments to be performed, in 2015, with the Machine În experimentă rile ce urmează a fi efectuate, în anul
for the application with high accuracy of phytosanitary 2015, cu Ma şina pentru aplicarea cu precizie ridicată a
treatments in orchards, MSL (Figure 2) will determine the tratamentelor fitosanitare în planta Ńiile pomicole, MSL
coefficients k, a, b, which intervene in relation (14), for (Figura 2) se vor stabili coeficien Ńii k, a, b, care intervin
different phytosanitary substances, varying the velocity of în relaŃia (14), pentru diverse substanŃe fitosanitare,
the liquid and the diameter of the nozzles. variind viteza lichidului şi diametrul duzelor.
Fig. 2 – The machine for high accuracy application of phytosanitary treatments in orchards MSL [8]
1 - the frame with rolling system; 2 - the spraying device; 3 - the liquid installation; 4 - the angular gear; 5 - the detection system of the
presence / absence of the tree canopy; 6 - the automatic control system
The ultrasonic sensors detect the existence of vegetal Senzorii cu ultrasunete sesizează existenŃa masei vegetale.
mass. The information is transmitted to a programmable logic InformaŃia este transmisă unui automat programabil PLC care
controller PLC that controls the feeding power-on/off of the comandă pornirea sau întreruperea alimentării dispozitivului de
spraying device by means of electrovalves. In the absence of pulverizare, prin intermediul unor electrovalve. În cazul lipsei de
vegetal mass the flow of solution is stopped. Depending on masă vegetală fluxul de soluŃie este oprit. În funcŃie de distanŃa
the distance that exists between the sensors and the spraying existentă între senzori şi rampa de stropit, cât şi de viteza de
ramp and the speed of the unit equipment, the PLC applies a înaintare a agregatului echipamentului, PLC-ul aplică o corecŃie
correction for opening the electrovalves, at the moment when de timp pentru deschiderea electrovalvelor, în momentul când
ramp passes the objective to be sprayed [1]. rampa trece prin dreptul obiectivului ce trebuie stropit [1].
For the determination of droplet diameter will be Pentru determinarea diametrului picăturilor se va folosi
applied the LDPS (Laser Diffraction Particle Sizing) metoda LDPS (Laser Diffraction Particle Sizing), bazată pe
method, based on laser technology and electronic data tehnica laserului şi a prelucrării electronice a datelor. Tehnica
processing. Laser diffraction technique is based on the de difracŃie cu laser se bazează pe principiul că particulele
principle that particles passing through a laser beam care trec printr-un fascicul laser împrăştie lumina la un unghi
scatter light at an angle that is directly related to their care este în legătură directă cu mărimea lor. Pe măsură ce
size. As the particle size decreases, the spreading dimensiunea particulelor scade, unghiul de împrăştiere
angle increases logarithmically. The intensity of the the creşte logaritmic. Intensitatea dispersiei este de asemenea
dispersion is also dependent on the particle size and dependentă de mărimea particulelor şi se diminuează proporŃional
decreases proportionally to the cross-sectional area of the cu suprafaŃa secŃiunii transversale a particulei. Prin urmare,
particle. Therefore, large particles disperse light at small particulele mari dispersează lumina la unghiuri mici, cu
angles, with high intensity, while small particles disperse intensitate mare, în timp ce particulele mici dispersează
light at greater angles, but at a lower intensity [9]. lumina la unghiuri mai mari, dar cu o intensitate redusă [9].
Following the experiments will be obtained the shape of În urma experimentărilor se va obŃine forma ecuaŃiei (14),
271
equation (14), which describes the variation of droplets care descrie variaŃia diametrului picăturilor. EcuaŃia (14) va
diameter. Equation (14) will replace equations (15) and înlocui ecuaŃiile (15) şi (16), obŃinute cu mijloace tehnice
(16), limited by the fact that only water was considered as inferioare celor actuale, în condiŃiile limitării dictate de
pulverized fluid and obtained by technical means inferior to faptul că nu s-a luat în considerare decât apa, ca fluid
those modern . pulverizat.
Due to the multiple interactions between droplets and Datorită interacŃiunilor multiple între picături şi faza
turbulent gas phase, spraying is an extremely complex gazoasă turbulentă, fenomenul pulverizării este deosebit
phenomenon. To describe it, quasi-empirical methods de complex. Pentru a-l descrie s-a apelat, până la
were used until the recent development of digital dezvoltarea recentă a tehnologiei digitale (creşterea
technology (the exponential growth of computer exponenŃială a performanŃelor calculatoarelor), la metode
performance). Technological advances allow a deeper cvasi-empirice. Avansul tehnologic permite o înŃelegere
understanding of this phenomenon and, what is relevant, mai profundă a acestui fenomen şi, ceea ce este relevant,
to the development of practical applications. In particular, it la perfecŃionarea aplicaŃiilor practice. În particular, este
is important to know which type of nozzle is suitable for a foarte important să se ştie care este tipul de duză indicat
certain type of spraying and how its performance is pentru un anume tip de pulverizare şi cum sunt influenŃate
affected by liquid properties and operating conditions. performanŃele acestuia de proprietăŃile lichidului şi de
Numerical simulation through CFD algorithms condiŃiile de operare. Simularea numerică prin algoritmii
(Computational Fluid Dynamics, a branch of fluid CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics, ramură a mecanicii
mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to fluidelor ce utilizează metode numerice şi algoritmi pentru
analyze and solve problems involving the flow of fluids) analiza şi rezolvarea problemelor implicate de curgerea
allows the study of the process, of the state variables at all fluidelor) permite studierea procesului, a variabilelor de
spatial and temporal coordinates. stare în orice coordonate spaŃiale şi temporale.
The study results carried out on an experimental basis Rezultatele studiului pulverizării efectuat pe bază
spray will be presented as generalized. This way of experimentală vor fi prezentate sub formă generalizată.
working will allow the setting of very important relations Acest mod de lucru va permite stabilirea unor relaŃii
between the average diameter of the droplets, geometric deosebit de importante, între diametrul mediu al picăturilor,
characteristics of the nozzles and physical parameters of caracteristicile geometrice ale duzelor şi parametrii fizici ai
the fluid the nozzles spray relationships that can be the fluidului pulverizat, relaŃii care pot constitui punctul de
starting point for the the optimal sizing of the nozzles. plecare pentru dimensionarea optimă a duzelor.
[1]. Bolintineanu Gh., VlăduŃ V., Voicea I., Matache M., [1]. Bolintineanu Gh., VlăduŃ V., Voicea I., Matache M.,
Savin L., Langenakens J. (2010) - Integration of Savin L., Langenakens J. (2010) - Integrarea unui sistem
centralized monitoring and warning system on technical centralizat de monitorizare şi avertizare pe echipamentele
equipment for phytosanitary treatments in the concept of tehnice destinate tratamentelor fito-sanitare in conceptul
precision agriculture, Scientific Papers (INMATEH), Vol. de agricultura de precizie, Lucrări ŞtiinŃifice (INMATEH),
31, Nr.2, p. 55 - 63; Vol. 31, Nr.2, p. 55 - 63;
[2]. Dukowicz J.K., (2006) - A particle-fluid numerical [2]. Dukowicz J.K., (2006) - Un model numeric particulă-
model for liquid sprays, Journal of Computational Physics, fluid pentru spray-uri lichide, Journal of Computational
Vol. 35, p. 229 - 253; Physics, Vol. 35, p. 229 - 253;
[3]. Jiang X., Siamas G.A., Jagus K., Karayiannis T.G., [3]. Jiang X., Siamas G.A., Jagus K., Karayiannis T.G., (2010) -
(2010) - Physical modeling and advanced simulation of Modelarea fizică şi simularea avansată pentru curgerea
two-phase fluid flow spraying processes, Progress in fluidelor bifazice în procesele de pulverizare, Progress in
Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 36, p. 131 - 167; Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 36, p. 131 - 167;
[4]. O’Rourke P.J., Bracco F.V., (1980), Modeling the [4]. O’Rourke P.J., Bracco F.V. (1980), Modelarea
interaction between droplets and comparison with interacŃiunii dintre picături şi comparaŃia cu experimentele,
experiments, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Engineers, No. 9, p. 101-116; No. 9, p. 101-116;
[5]. Popescu M., Gângu V., Cojocaru I., Brătucu Gh., Aurel [5]. Popescu M., Gângu V., Cojocaru I., Brătucu Gh., Aurel
M. (2007) - Research on optimization work quality indices M. (2007) - Cercetări privind optimizarea indicilor calitativi
of field crops sprayers, Scientific Papers (INMATEH), Vol. de lucru ai maşinilor de stropit culturile de câmp, Lucrări
21, Nr.3, p. 63 - 69; ŞtiinŃifice (INMATEH), Vol. 21, Nr.3, p. 63 - 69;
[6]. Staicu C. I., (1976) - General dimensional analysis, [6]. Staicu C. I. (1976) - Analiza dimensională generală,
Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti, 1976; Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti, 1976;
[7]. Stahli W. (2003) - Machines for applying phytosanitary [7]. Stahli W. (2003) - Maşini pentru aplicarea
treatments and foliar fertilization of crops, Editura tratamentelor fitosanitare şi fertilizarea foliară a culturilor,
AGROPRINT, Timişoara; Editura AGROPRINT, Timişoara;
[8]. *** (2011) - Machine for the high precision application [8]. *** (2011) - Maşina pentru aplicarea cu precizie ridicată
of phytosanitary treatments in orchards MSL, a tratamentelor fitosanitare în plantaŃiile pomicole MSL,
Memorandum for presentation, Nepublicat; Memoriu de prezentare, Nepublicat;
[9]. ***http://malvern.bsky/laser_diffraction/particle_sizing.htm. [9]. *** http://malvern.bsky/laser_diffraction/particle_sizing.htm.
272
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW METHOD FOR VOLUME MEASUREMENT BASED ON MOIRÉ

TECHNIQUES
/
DESENVOLVIMENTO DE UM NOVO MÉTODO PARA MEDIDA DE VOLUME BASEADO EM
TÉCNICAS DE MOIRÉ
(1) (2) (1)
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Marcos V. G. Silva , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Adilson Enes , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Inácio M. D. Fabbro ,
Researcher Celina de Almeida
(1)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil (2)Department of Agricultural Engineering, UFS, Aracaju, SE, Brazil
Abstract: This research work reports a shadow moiré Resumo: Este trabalho relata o uso do método de Moiré de
method applied in generating spatial dimensions of Projeção com Deslocamento de Fase aplicado na geração de
solid figures. The focus of this work is to study as well dimensões espaciais de figuras sólidas. O foco deste trabalho
as to turn feasible a new method of measuring object é estudar e tornar viável um novo método de medir a forma de
shape as plant organs. Selected experimental setup objetos tais como órgãos de plantas. A configuração
included four Ronchi optical grids out of phase by ¼ of experimental selecionada consistiu em quatro grades ópticas
period, a conventional white light source and a digital Ronchi fora de fase por ¼ do período, uma fonte de luz branca
camera. The samples were hold by a support, following convencional e uma câmera digital. As amostras foram detidas
by data acquisition process generating four elevation por um suporte, seguido pela aquisição de dados e gerar
digital models (EDM). EDM were employed to create quatro modelos digitais de elevação (EDM). EDM foram
the tridimensional Model (TM) which, in turn, was also utilizados para criar o modelo tridimensional (TM) que, por sua
applied to generate the object volume. The method of vez, também foi aplicado para gerar o volume do objeto. O
water volume displacement has been used for data método de deslocamento de volume de água foi utilizado para
comparison in which the change of liquid volume is a comparação de dados, tendo em conta que a variação do
equal the object volume. The results allowed to state volume de líquido é igual ao volume do corpo de prova. Os
that moiré techniques can be used for volumetric resultados permitiram afirmar que as técnicas de moiré podem
determination of irregular objects as fruits and others ser empregadas para determinar o volume de objetos
vegetable organs. The work includes error irregulares como frutas e outros órgãos vegetais. O trabalho
determination. inclui a determinação de erro.
Keywords: fruit shape determination, shadow moiré Palavras-chave: fruit shape determination, técnica de
technique, fruit classification moiré de sombra, classificação de frutas
Nowadays the techniques devoted in measuring Hoje em dia as técnicas consagradas na medição de
volume, shape and surface profile of irregular objects volume, forma e perfil de superfície de objetos irregulares
are supported by optical phenomena and no longer on são auxiliadas por fenômenos ópticos e não tanto por
instruments requiring physical contact. .The pertinent instrumentos baseados em contato físico. A literatura revela
literature discloses a group of methods named moiré, in um grupo de métodos denominados moiré, em que os
which the authors emphasize the simplicity, low cost autores enfatizam a simplicidade, baixo custo e baixa
and short time demand. Shape measuring techniques demanda de tempo. As técnicas medição de superfícies
are close associated to the medical science, reverse estão normalmente associadas à ciência médica, nos
engineering process, stress-strain analysis, quality processos de engenharia reversa, análise de tensão-
control, mathematical modeling, thermal science, soil – deformação, controle de qualidade, modelagem matemática,
tire contact area determination, plant-machine ciências térmicas, determinação da área de contato de pneu
mechanical relationship, vegetable shape -solo, relação mecânica máquina-planta, determinação da
determination, etc. The geometric representation of an forma vegetal, etc. A representação geométrica da forma do
object shape in a Xi coordinate system within an objeto em um sistema de coordenadas Xi dentro de um limite
acceptable tolerance limit is of unquestionable de tolerância aceitável é de aplicação inquestionável em
application in many subjects associated to research muitos assuntos relacionados com a pesquisa e
and technology developments, including within the desenvolvimentos tecnológicos, inclusive dentro do processo
agricultural process, since seedling up to harvesting, agrícola, desde o plantio até a colheita, transporte e
transportation and storage, as emphasized by the armazenamento, conforme enfatiza a literatura, [9], [5] e [8]
literature, [9], [5]; and [8] present a comprehensive apresentam um estudo abrangente sobre as aplicações
study on moiré techniques applications in agriculture. técnicas de moiré em engenharia agrícola. [6] relataram a
[6] reported the application of a moiré technique in utilização de uma técnica de moiré no estudo das
studying the mechanical interactions of sugarcane interações mecânicas dos caules de cana com discos de
stalks with cutting disks. [5] presented a study on fruit corte. [5] apresentam um estudo sobre embalagens de
packing by means of a moiré method. [2] presented a frutas por meio de um método de moiré. [2] apresentou um
moiré model to describe plant architecture. Three modelo moiré para descrever a arquitetura da planta. O
dimensional shape surveys of fruits became a thematic levantamento tridimensional da forma de frutas tornou-se
subject, as reported by [8]; [5]; [17]. The pertinent um assunto temático, conforme relatado por [8]; [5]; [17]. A
literature also discloses applications of moiré literatura pertinente também revela aplicações das técnicas
techniques associated to mechanical properties of de moiré associadas às propriedades mecânicas dos
vegetative materials, bamboo, composites, etc, as [5]; materiais vegetais, bambu, compósitos, etc, [5]; [11]; [17] e
[11]; [2]; [17]. Moiré technique applied to strain as well [2]. A técnica de moiré aplicada a deformações, bem como
as stress distributions in a diversity of systems, as a distribuição de tensões em uma diversidade de sistemas,
273
wood structure, soil-tire, soil mechanical test, etc, has como estrutura de madeira, solo-pneu, testes em mecânica
been reported by [2] and [7]. Applications of moiré de solo, etc, tem sido relatada por [2] e [7]. Aplicações de
methods in animal material have reported by [5]. [13] métodos de moiré em material animal já foi relatado por [5].
reported the application of moiré methods in thermal [13] relataram a utilização de moiré em métodos de análise
analysis. A recent research work reported by [9] térmica. Um trabalho de investigação recente relatada por
emphasizes the association of the ANSYS software [9] enfatiza a associação do programa ANSYS utilizando a
with phase translation moiré technique in generating técnica moiré com variação de fase para gerar as
the three dimensional coordinates of solid bodies. coordenadas tridimensionais de corpos sólidos.
The name moiré has its origin in the French language, O nome moiré tem sua origem na língua francesa,
referring to wave like pattern. When screens of same referindo-se a onda como padrão. Quando grades de mesma
mesh density are superposed, fringes are generated densidade de malha são sobrepostas, franjas são geradas
which move when its relative positions are displaced que se movem quando suas posições relativas são
[16]. Lord Rayleigh, 1874 [12] proposed the application deslocadas [16]. Lord Rayleigh, 1874 [12] propuseram a
of a moiré technique in testing diffraction grids. Mulot aplicação de uma técnica de moiré em grades de difração.
(1925) [12] applied that technique in studying Mulot (1925) [12] aplicou essa técnica para estudar as
deformations of mica layers. Later on, Tollenar (1945) deformações de camadas de mica. Mais tarde, Tollenar
[12] reported that moiré fringes could be used to magnify (1945) [12] relatou que a defasagem da franja pode ser
displacements, being also suitable as a photoelastic utilizada para ampliar os deslocamentos, sendo também
method. apropriado como um método fotoelástico.
Recent reports present comprehensive classifications Relatórios recentes apresentam classificações completas dos
of the methods termed as moiré. Moiré methods include métodos denominados como moiré. Métodos de moiré incluem
a large number of techniques as shadow moiré, um grande número de técnicas como moiré sombra, projeção
projection moiré and others as reported by Meadows et moiré e outros, conforme relatado por Meadows et al e Takasaki
al and Takasaki [4]. Projection moiré consists in [4]. Moiré de projeção consiste em projetar uma grade
positioning a pair of grids in front of a light source and by utilizando uma fonte de luz em um plano de referencia e
moving the reference grid to modulate the light beam posteriormente no objeto, a sobreposição das duas grades
amplitude will generate interference pattern fringes on gera padrão de franjas na superfície do objeto. Moiré Projeção
the object surface. Projection moiré with phase shift is a com deslocamento de fase é uma técnica de alta precisão,
high precision technique, consisting in shifting the que consiste no deslocamento da fase de alimentação da
camera grid phase against the projecting grid [4]. [8] câmara em relação à grade que se projeta [4]. [8] relata uma
reports a successful application of a projection moiré aplicação bem-sucedida de uma técnica de moiré de
technique in surveying plant organs shape. A digital projeção no levantamento da topográfica da planta. No
projection moiré would employ a direct grid projection moiré de projeção digital emprega-se uma projeção de grade
and superimposition onto the object surface by means of direta e sobreposição na superfície do objeto por meio de
multimedia equipment following by image capturing and equipamentos de multimídia seguidos por captura de
demodulation. imagens e demodulação.
[4] states that two images are necessary, being one [4] afirma que duas imagens são necessárias, sendo uma
on the reference plane and the second one on the no plano de referência e a segunda na superfície do objeto,
object surface, however when a spatial parallel phase no entanto, quando uma mudança de fase em paralelo
shift is used only one interferogram is required for espacial apenas um interferograma é necessário para a
image analysis. If a grid is positioned between the análise das imagens. Se uma grade é posicionada entre o
object and the light source, its shade will be observed objeto e a fonte de luz, a sua sombra vai ser observada na
onto the object surface, in which the interference superfície do objeto, em que a interferência entre as linhas
between grid lines and the shade grid will generate da grade e a grade sombra irá gerar as franjas de moiré,
the moiré fringes, which reproduces the object que reproduz o contorno do objeto sendo essa técnica
contour. denominada moiré de sombra.
A phase shift is generated by changing the distance Uma mudança de fase é gerada alterando a distância
between the object and the grid or by the translation of the entre o objeto e a grade ou a translação da grade no seu
grid on its own plane. A useful tool consists in generating próprio plano. Uma ferramenta útil consiste na geração de
a grid with varying gray level [4]. uma grade com diferentes níveis de tons de cinza [4].
Grid modulation intensity is given by: A intensidade de modulação da grade é dada por:
1 1 2 *π * x
T ( x) = + * sen( ) (1)
2 2 p
Where T(x) the modulation intensity and p is the grid Onde T (x) é a intensidade da frequência e p é o período
period. Meadows et al (Degrieck, 2001) present the de grade. Meadows et al (Degrieck, 2001) apresentam a
following equation for light intensity distribution in (x, y, z) seguinte equação para a distribuição da intensidade de
point considering a sinusoidal grid. luz em (x, y, z), considerando uma grade senoidal.
Where I is light intensity, r is the distance between Onde I é a intensidade da luz, r é a distância entre a
the light source and the surface being illuminated, φ is fonte de luz e a superfície a ser iluminada, φ é o ângulo
the angle between the incident light beam and the entre o feixe de luz incidente e a normal à superfície, p é o
normal to the surface, p is the reference grid period, hl período de grade de referência, hl é a distância entre a
is the distance between light source and the reverence fonte de luz e a grade de referência, h2 é a distância do
grid, h2 is the distance the observer and the reference observador e da grade de referência. [15] relata que o
grid. [15] reports that system non-linearity and noise sistema de não linearidade e a ocorrência de ruído podem
274
occurrence might generate edge errors due to surface gerar erros nas bordas devido a descontinuidade da
discontinuity in relation to the plane. The same author superficie em relação ao plano. O mesmo autor também
also reports that three or four images with different and relata que três ou quatro imagens com grades diferentes e
continuous grids and sinusoidaly spaced fringes are contínuas e franjas espaçadas senoidalmente são
needed to obtain object surface and contour. For three- necessários para obter o contorno e a superfície do objeto.
dimensional contour determination it is generally Para a determinação tridimensional do contorno são
necessary four sinusoidal grids projected onto the geralmente necessárias quatro grades senoidais
object surface with fringes phase varying as 0, π/2, π e projetadas sobre a superfície do objeto com a fase
3π/2 , [15]. Image light intensity distribution for these variando de 0, π/2, π e 3π/2, [15]. As equações de
phases is: distribuição de intensidade de luz para estas fases são:
I1 ( x, y ) = a ( x, y ) + b( x, y ) cos(ϕ ( x, y )) (3)
I 2 ( x, y ) = a ( x, y ) + b( x, y ) cos(π / 2 + ϕ ( x, y )) (4)
I 3 ( x, y ) = a ( x, y ) + b( x, y ) cos(π + ϕ ( x, y )) (5)
I 4 ( x, y ) = a ( x, y ) + b( x, y ) cos(3π / 2 + ϕ ( x, y )) (6)
Where a (x, y) is the average light intensity, or Onde a (x, y) é a intensidade média da luz, ou fundo,
background, b (x, y) is the modulation intensity and ϕ(x,y) b (x, y) é a intensidade da demodulação e ϕ(x, y) da fase
the phase to be determined. Phase can be obtained from a determinar. A demodulação pode ser obtida a partir da
the following equation: seguinte equação:
I 4 ( x , y ) − I 2 ( x, y )
ϕ ( x, y ) = arctan( ) (7)
I1 ( x , y ) − I 3 ( x , y )
Fringes of same period can be adjusted by changing Franjas de igual período podem ser obtidas ajustando o
pixel number of a projector with liquid crystal display número de pixels de um projetor com a tela de cristal líquido
(LCD). This fringe projection method makes easier the (LCD). Esse método de projeção de grades torna mais fácil a
object contour determination [15]. Uncertainties in determinação do contorno objeto [15]. Incertezas na
phase-depth conversion can generate errors on the final conversão da fase empacotada pode gerar erros na
measurement, which limits the application of that method medição final, o que limita a aplicação desse método para
for some cases. Digital camera distortion also generates alguns casos. Distorção da câmera digital também gera
significant errors (Liu, 2003) apud [8]. By using a erros significativos (Liu, 2003) apud [8]. Usando uma única
unique sinusoidal grid instead of a full grid and by grade senoidal no objeto em vez de um conjunto de quatro
translating only 1/4 of the wave period keeps the light grades sendo as grades defasadas em um quarto do
intensity variation tendency in the same sense, período de onda no plano de referência, minimizam os erros
minimizing the errors due to surface discontinuity in devidos a descontinuidade da superfície em relação ao
relation to the reference plane [2]. Based on what it has plano de referência [2]. Baseado no que foi explicado acima
been explained above the objective of this work is to o objetivo deste trabalho é aplicar o método de
apply the Phase Translation Method in obtaining the deslocamento de fase na obtenção das coordenadas
three dimensional coordinates of fresh fruits. tridimensionais de frutos

The experimental phase of this research work was A fase experimental deste trabalho de pesquisa foi
carried in the Laboratory of Optics at Faculty of levada a cabo no Instituto Agronômico de Campinas, em
Agricultural Engineering of UNICAMP, Campinas, as well Jundiaí, como também na Faculdade de Engenharia
as at the Laboratory of Optics at the IAC, Jundiaí, SP, Agrícola da UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brasil. O aparato
Brazil. As is displayed on Figure 1, the experimental setup experimental selecionado, como mostrado em Figura 1,
included a PC with Windows XP and GNU/Linux systems, incluiu um PC com Windows XP associado ao sistema
a LCD NEC VT560 projector, a SAMSUNG SDC312 CCD GNU/Linux, um projetor LCD NEC VT560, uma câmera
digital camera with 640 columns and 480 lines, a digital SAMSUNG SDC312 CCD com 640 colunas e 480 linhas,
calibrator with 0.001 mm of precision and 04 Ronchi grids, um calibrador digital com 0,001 mm de precisão e quatro
out of phase by π/2 one from each other, including the grades Ronchi fora de fase π/2 um de um ao outro.
software Scilab, IMAGEJ, Rising Sun Moiré, Sisvar and Software empregado incluiu Scilab, IMAGEJ, Rising Sun
AUTO CAD 2000. Moiré, Sisvar e AUTO CAD 2000.
Volume determination by submersion Determinação do volume por imersão

Five testing fruits were selected for shape and volume Foram feitas várias repetições na medição volumétrica
determination. The fruits were firstly submerged in a através de imersão das sementes de mamonas em
graded testing tub of 25 ml with 2 ml of of unit scale filled solução de Álcool Anidro Hidratado de 99,3º INP em uma
with 99,3º INP alcohol, holding a replication number of five. Proveta de 25ml cuja graduação variava de dois em 2ml.
275
Fig. 1 - Adopted moiré experimental setup
Moiré tests Ensaios com moiré

Out phase grids were denoted as Gi (i =1, 2, 3, 4), fig. Grades defasadas nomeadas como Gi (i = 1, 2, 3, 4),
2 were projected onto an white opaque panel, generating fig. 2 foram projetadas em um painel branco opaco,
the images Pi. However, the objected was divided into gerando as imagens Pi. No entanto, foi dividida em quatro
four faces, named Fi, on which the grid Gi was projected, faces, nomeado Fi, em que a grade Gi foi projetada,
generating the image Oi. Those images Pi and images Oi gerando a imagem Oi. Aquelas imagens Pi e imagens Oi
were converted to gray gradient by means of the software foram convertidas em gradiente cinza por meio do software
ImageJ. The subtraction of images Oi from Pi will generate ImageJ. A subtração das imagens Oi de Pi gerou um
a set of sixteen images Mi which was forwarded for conjunto de imagens Mi, que foram encaminhados para o
filtering process by means of the ImageJ software, processo de filtragem por meio do software ImageJ, produzindo
yielding images presented in gray gradient as well as with imagens apresentadas no gradiente cinza, sendo essas as
moiré fringes. The ImageJ software filtration process franjas de moiré. O processo de filtragem utilizando o
applies the Gaussian Blur method to eliminate the original software ImageJ aplicando o método de Gaussian Blur
grid, preventing, that way, undesirable interferences. The para eliminar a grade original, evitando, dessa forma, as
set o images Mi were then forwarded to the SCILAB interferências indesejáveis. As imagens do Mi foram então
software to generate the final matrix form expressed in Xi encaminhadas para o software SCILAB para gerar a forma
coordinates, refereeing to a unique origin O, expressed in matricial final expresso em coordenadas Xi, arbitragem
millimeters. para uma única origem O, expressa em milímetros.
Fig. 2 - Ronchi grids named G1, G2, G3 and G4, out of phase by π/2 and referred as Gi (i= 1,2,3,4)
RESULTS RESULTADOS
(A) (B)
Fig. 3 - Wrapped phase map, having the phase varying from -π to π. (A) Face 1 of castor bean 2. (B) Top view with contour lines
276
(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 4 - (A) Mde of The Castor Bean Fruit in Gray Gradient. (B) Profile Line at The Midle Point and (C) Topographic Representation
Table 1
Fruit volume values obtained from liquid displacement
Calibrator
Seed1 weight Seed 2 weight Seed 3 weight
4.5 ml 0.689 5ml 0.778 5 0.9334
4.5ml 0.688 5ml 0.778 5 0.9323
4.5ml 0.688 5ml 0.777 5 0.9310
Table 1 indicates that the volume determination A Tabela 1 mostra os valores obtidos volumetricamente
shows high precision keeping the human subjectivity at através de ensaios envolvendo comparação de deslocamento
a minimum level, as indicated by the coefficient of de liquido, onde a influencia da subjetividade humana, foi
variation with three repetitions. Figure 2 exhibits an mínima como indicado pelo coeficiente de variação efetuadas
image of the castor bean fruit generate from the pelas três repetições. A Figure 2 exibe uma imagem da
unwrapped moiré fringes as processed by the Rising semente de mamona, onde foi gerada a franja de moiré que
Sun Moiré software presented in gray scale, which vary desempacotam por meio do programa Rising Sun Moiré,
from zero for dark color and 255 for white color to que é representado em gradiente cinza. Intensidades cinza
represent the body topography. Moiré results can be variam do zero (cor escura) para 255 (cor branca) que inclui
further generating the tridimensional view of the fruit, um plano de gradiente cinza representando a topografia de
as it is shown on Figure 4. That data can lead to the objeto. Resultado do fruto gerado por moiré pode ser visto
volume calculation and compared with the submersion tridimensionalmente, na Figura 4. Esses dados podem levar
technique. ao cálculo do volume e comparado com a técnica de imersão.
Fig. 5 - Volume representation as generated by the moiré method
CONCLUSION CONCLUSÕES
Based on what is explained before, it can be Com base no que foi explicado anteriormente, pode se
concluded that the moiré techniques is highly precise in concluir que as técnicas de moiré são altamente precisas
measuring object topography, however some human na medição topográfica de objetos, no entanto, alguns
factors can be inserted in the process during setup fatores humanos podem ser inseridos no processo
preparation as well as during the experimental data durante a preparação do setup, bem como durante o
surveying. levantamento dos dados experimentais.
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278
BASIC PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE FERMENTATION OF BIOMASS IN ORDER TO

OBTAIN BIOGAS – A REVIEW
/
PARAMETRI DE BAZĂ CARE INFLUENłEAZĂ PROCESUL DE FERMENTARE A BIOMASEI
ÎN VEDEREA OBłINERII BIOGAZULUI - REVIEW
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Dincă M., Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Ferdeş M., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Voicu Gh., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Paraschiv
G., Ph.D. Eng. Moiceanu G., Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Muşuroi G.
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering / Romania
Tel: 0761938017; E-mail: mirela_dilea@yahoo.com
Abstract: Reduction of conventional energy resources Rezumat: Diminuarea la nivel mondial a resurselor
worldwide, as well as the restrictive legislation energetice convenŃionale, precum şi legislaŃia restrictivă
regarding the level of environmental pollution, have privind nivelul de poluare a mediului, au creat premize
created premises for the identification and exploitation pentru identificarea şi exploatarea de noi surse de
of new sources of economic and clean energy. energie economice şi nepoluante. Biomasa este
Biomass is considered to be one of the base renewable considerată una dintre resursele regenerabile de bază
resources of the future that can be used for small and ale viitorului ce poate fi folosită la scară mică şi mare. În
large scale. In the present paper, there are presented lucrarea de faŃă, sunt prezentate aspecte cu privire la
some aspects concerning the basic parameters parametri de bază care influenŃează procesul de
influencing the fermentation process of biomass in order fermentare a biomasei în vederea obŃinerii biogazului.
to obtain biogas.
Cuvinte cheie: biomasă, biogaz, fermentare anaerobă,
Keywords: biomass, biogas, anaerobic fermentation, parametri
parameters
INTRODUCERE
INTRODUCTION În prezent, resursele de energie regenerabilă, printre
Currently, the renewable energy resources, including care se numără energia solară, eoliană, hidraulică, a
solar, wind, hydro, wave, geothermal and biomass, valurilor, geotermală şi biomasa, reprezintă aproximativ
represents about 14% of primary energy consumption in 14% din consumul primar de energie din lume, biomasa
the world, biomass having major contribution by about având contribuŃia majoră, cu aproximativ 10%, [3].
10%, [3 ]. Conform legislaŃiei Uniunii Europene, “biomasa
According to the European Union legislation, “biomass reprezintă fracŃia biodegradabilă a produselor, deşeurilor
represents the biodegradable fraction of products, waste şi reziduurilor din agricultură (inclusiv substanŃele
and residues from agriculture (including vegetal and vegetale şi cele animale), domeniul forestier şi industriile
animal substances), forestry and related industries, as conexe acestuia, precum şi fracŃia biodegradabilă din
well as the biodegradable fraction of industrial and deşeurile municipale şi cele industriale”, [9].
municipal waste”, [9]. Dintre metodele utilizate la conversia materiei prime
Among the methods used to convert biomass constituită din biomasă în bioenergie, conversia biologică
feedstock in bioenergy, biological conversion proved to s-a dovedit a fi cea mai eficientă soluŃie nu numai pentru
be the most effective solution not only for energy producŃia de energie, ci şi pentru tratarea deşeurilor, [1].
production but also for waste treatment, [1]. Scopul acestui review este de a analiza influenŃa
The aim of this review is to analyze the influence of principalilor parametri (temperatura, pH-ul, amoniacul,
the main parameters (temperature, pH, ammonia, heavy metalele grele, raportul C/N) asupra procesului de
metals, the C / N ratio) on the process of anaerobic fermentare anaerobă a biomasei în vederea obŃinerii
digestion of biomass for obtaining biogas. biogazului.

Regarding the basic parameters influencing the Referitor la parametrii de bază care influenŃează
fermentation process of biomass in order to obtain biogas procesul de fermentare a biomasei în vederea obŃinerii
numerous studies have been conducted, in the present biogazului au fost realizate numeroase cercetări, în
paper being presented some aspects from the literature lucrarea de faŃă fiind prezentate o serie de aspecte din
that had the interest in this topic. literatura de specialitate care au avut ca interes această
tematică.
RESULTS
The process of anaerobic fermentation for producing REZULTATE
biogas Procesul de fermentare anaerobă pentru producerea
The anaerobic fermentation is a biological treatment biogazului
method that can be used to recover both fertilizing Fermentarea anaerobă este metoda de tratare
elements and the energy contained in biodegradable biologică care poate fi folosită pentru a recupera atât
waste, representing the decomposition process of elementele fertilizante, cât şi energia conŃinută în
organic matter, taking place in enclosed spaces, in deşeurile biodegradabile, reprezentând procesul dirijat de
controlled environmental conditions, in the absence of descompunere a materiei organice umede, care se
molecular oxygen and light, in the presence of several desfăşoară în incinte închise, în condiŃii controlate de
species of bacteria, [14]. mediu, în absenŃa oxigenului molecular şi a luminii, în
The anaerobic fermentation process [4], includes four prezenŃa mai multor specii de bacterii, [14].
main stages, namely: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, Procesul de fermentare anaerobă [4], cuprinde patru
acetogenesis and methanogenesis, as shown in Figure etape importante, şi anume: hidroliza, acidogeneza,
279
1. acetogeneza şi metanogeneza, aşa cum se poate

In the first stage, the polysaccharides are hydrolyzed observa în figura 1.
into smaller units by microorganisms such Clostridia, În prima etapă, polizaharidele sunt hidrolizate în unităŃi
Micrococci, Bacteroides, Butyrivibrio, Fusobacterium, mai mici de către microorganisme de tipul Clostridia,
Selenomonas and Streptococcus, [7]. Micrococci, Bacteroides, Butyrivibrio, Fusobacterium,
The acidogenesis is always the fastest stage in the Selenomonas şi Streptococcus, [7].
anaerobic conversion process of complex organic matter. Acidogeneza este întotdeauna cea mai rapidă etapă în
During the acidification process of the sugar, the long procesul de conversie anaerobă a materiei organice
chain fatty acids and amino acids resulting from the complexe. În timpul procesului de acidificare a
hydrolysis stage are used as substrates for the zaharurilor, acizii graşi cu catenă lungă şi aminoacizii
fermentative microorganisms (Streptococcus, rezultaŃi din etapa de hidroliză sunt utilizaŃi ca substrat
Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella), pentru microorganismele fermentative (Streptococcus,
which are intended to produce organic acids (acetic acid, Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella) care
propionic, butyric), short-chain fatty acids, alcohols, H2 au ca scop producerea de acizi organici (acid acetic,
and CO2, [11]. propionic, butiric), acizi graşi cu catenă scurtă, alcooli, H2
The acetogenic bacteria are strictly anaerobic and şi CO2, [11].
have the role to convert the volatile fatty acids in acetate, Bacteriile acetogene sunt strict anaerobe,şi au rolul de
carbon dioxide and hydrogen which represent the a converti acizii graşi volatili în acetat, dioxid de carbon şi
substrate for the final stage of the process, hidrogen, care reprezintă substratul pentru ultima fază a
methanogenesis, [19]. procesului, metanogeneza, [19].
Among the bacteria that act in the process of Dintre bacteriile care acŃionează în procesul de
anaerobic fermentation, the methanogenic one are the fermentare anaerobă, cele metanogene sunt cele mai
most sensitive to changes in the environmental factors sensibile la schimbările factorilor de mediu, cum sunt pH-
such as pH and temperature. Under these conditions, the ul şi temperatura. În aceste condiŃii, bacteriile
methanogenic bacteria are considered to be the factor metanogene sunt considerate a fi factorul care limitează
that limits the ongoing rate of the anaerobic fermentation viteza de desfăşurare a procesului de fermentare
process, [6]. anaerobă, [6].
Fig. 1 – Stages in anaerobic digestion process of organic substrates
Basic parameters that influence the anaerobic Parametri de bază care influenŃează procesul de
fermentation process fermentare anaerobă
The anaerobic fermentation process of biomass in Procesul de fermentare anaerobă a biomasei în
order to obtain biogas, is a complex process that is vederea obŃinerii biogazului, este un process complex
influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, care este influenŃat de o serie de factori, cum sunt:
pH and volatile fatty acids, ammonia, heavy metals and temperatura, pH-ul şi acizii graşi volatili, amoniacul,
C/N ratio. metalele grele, raportul C/N.
1. Temperature represents the most important 1. Temperatura reprezintă cel mai important parametru
parameter in the process of anaerobic fermentation, this în procesul de fermentare anaerobă, aceasta influenŃând
influencing the activity of enzymes and co-enzymes, the activitatea enzimelor şi co-enzimelor, producŃia de
production of methane as well as the quality of the metan, precum şi calitatea digestatului, [4]. Astfel, viteza
digestate, [4]. Thus, the growth rate of the methanogenic de creştere a metanobacteriilor, şi prin urmare
bacteria and therefore the production of biogas depend producerea biogazului, depinde de temperatura din
on the temperature in the digester. Theoretically, the fermentator. Deşi teoretic obŃinerea biogazului este
biogas production is possible in the temperature range posibilă in domeniul de temperaturi de la zero la 60°C,
from zero to 60°C, the growth of methanogenic bacteria creşterea metanobacteriilor este mult încetinită sub 6°C
being much slowed down under 6°C and over 55°C, [14]. şi peste 55°C, [14].
Although there have been observed a series of Deşi au fost observate o serie de avantaje în cazul
advantages in the case of thermophilic regime, the procesării substratului în regim termofilic, cercetătorii au
researchers have found that it is very sensitive to the constatat că acesta este foarte sensibil la schimbările
changes in environmental conditions, as opposed to the condiŃiilor de mediu, spre deosebire de domeniul
mesophilic regime, [12]. mezofilic, [12].
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The anaerobic fermentation process of the substrate Procesul de fermentare anaerobă al substratului
used for biogas obtaining can be inhibited when the utilizat în obŃinerea biogazului poate fi inhibat atunci când
temperature values exceed 1°C/day. In order to maintain modificările parametrului temperatură depăşesc 1°C/zi. Pentru
a stable process, it is proved that changes in temperature menŃinerea unui process stabil, s-a demostrat că modificările
should be less than 0.6 ° C / day, [4]. de temperatură trebuie să fie mai mici de 0.6 °C/zi [4].
The high temperature, in the thermophilic domain,
Temperatura ridicată, în domeniul termofil, determină
determine higher rates of chemical reactions, and hence
rate mai mari ale reacŃiilor chimice, de unde rezultă o
a high efficiency of the methane production. It is
eficienŃă mai ridicată a producŃiei de metan. Este
important to keep a constant temperature during the
importantă păstrarea constantă a temperaturii, în timpul
anaerobic fermentation process, because the changes or
procesului de fermentare anaerobă, deoarece
fluctuations in temperature will negatively affect the
schimbările sau fluctuaŃiile de temperatură vor afecta
biogas production, [2]. Table 1 shows the thermally field
negativ producŃia de biogaz, [2]. În Tabelul 1 este indicat
of anaerobic fermentation and the corresponding
tipul termic al procesului de fermentare anaerobă şi timpii
retention times.
de retenŃie corespunzători .
Table 1
Thermally field of anaerobic fermentation and the corresponding retention times, [2]
Thermally field Temperatures Minimum time of retention
Psychrophilic < 20 °C 70 - 80 days

Mesophilic 30 - 42 °C 30 - 40 days
Termophilic 43 - 55 °C 15 - 20 days
2. pH and volatile fatty acids are also two important 2. pH-ul şi acizii graşi volatili sunt de asemenea doi
parameters in the process of anaerobic fermentation of parametri importanŃi în procesul de fermentare anaerobă a
biomass. The optimum pH range for the anaerobic biomasei. Intervalul de pH optim pentru fermentarea
fermentation in the mesophilic domain is between 6.5 anaerobă în domeniul de temperatură mezofil este situat între
and 8, and the process is inhibited if the pH value falls 6,5 şi 8, iar procesul este inhibat dacă valoarea pH-ului scade
below 6.0 or increases over the 8.3. The pH value can be sub valoarea 6,0 sau creşte peste valoarea 8,3. Valoarea pH-
increased by ammonia during decomposition of proteins, ului poate fi crescută de către amoniac, în timpul descompunerii
or by its presence in the feed flow, while the proteinelor, sau prin prezenŃa acestuia în fluxul de alimentare,
accumulation of volatile fatty acids decreases the pH în timp ce acumularea de acizi graşi volatili scade valoarea
value, [2]. The volatile fatty acids comprising mainly pH-ului, [2]. Acizii graşi volatili care includ în principal acidul
acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and valeric acid acetic, acidul propionic, acidul butiric şi acidul valeric, sunt
are the intermediate compounds that arise during the compuşii intermediari care apar în timpul procesului de
anaerobic fermentation of the organic fraction. Generally, fermentare anaerobă a fracŃiei organice. În general, acizii
volatile fatty acids produced during the anaerobic graşi volatili produşi în timpul procesului de fermentare
fermentation, can be finally transformed into CH4 and anaerobă, pot fi în cele din urmă transformaŃi în CH4 şi CO2
CO2 by acetogenic or methanogenic bacteria, [5, 13]. de către bacteriile acetogene, respectiv metanogene, [5, 13].
3. Ammonia is another parameter that must be taken 3. Amoniacul constituie un alt parametru care trebuie luat
into account in the process of anaerobic fermentation of în considerare în procesul de fermentare anaerobă a
biomass for obtaining biogas. It is formed during the biomasei, în vederea obŃinerii biogazului. Acesta se formează
decomposition of the proteins and other nitrogen în timpul procesului de descompunere a proteinelor sau a
containing substrates, existing in the form of ammonium altor substraturi bogate în azot, existând sub formă de
+ +
(NH4 ) and free ammonia (NH3). Ammonia can be used amoniu (NH4 ) şi amoniu liber (NH3). Amoniacul poate fi
as a nutrient essential for the growth of bacteria involved utilizat ca nutrient esenŃial pentru dezvoltarea bacteriilor
in the anaerobic fermentation, while on the other hand, if implicate în procesul de fermentare anaerobă, deşi pe de
it is found in high concentrations can become toxic, altă parte, dacă se regăseşte în concentraŃii mari, poate
inhibiting the activity of bacteria, [16,18]. It is also well deveni toxic, inhibând activitatea bacteriilor [16,18]. De
known that ammonia has an important role in balancing asemenea, este foarte cunoscut faptul că amoniacul are
the ratio C / N, which may affect the performance of the un rol important în echilibrarea raportului C/N, care poate
anaerobic fermentation process, [17]. The concentration afecta performanŃa procesului de fermentare anaerobă,
of free ammonia increases with increasing temperature [17]. ConcentraŃia amoniacului liber creşte o dată cu
and the pH value (See Fig. 3). creşterea valorii temperaturii şi a pH-ului (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 – The ammonium percentages present in solution at different temperatures and varying pH, [21]
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4. Heavy metals 4. Metalele grele

The presence of heavy metals in the anaerobic PrezenŃa metalelor grele în procesul de fermentare
fermentation process of the substrate composed of anaerobă a substratului constituit din culturi energetice,
energy crops, organic fraction of municipal waste and fracŃia organică a deşeurilor municipale şi a celor
from agricultural sector has a very important role in the provenite din sectorul agricol, are un rol foarte important
performance and stability of digesters where biogas is în performanŃa şi stabilitatea fermentatoarelor unde se
produced. Depending on the concentrations who find produce biogazul. În funcŃie de concentraŃia în care se
themselves, heavy metals may have a stimulatory, regăsesc, metalele grele pot avea un rol stimulator,
inhibitory or toxic role for the anaerobic fermentation inhibitor sau chiar toxic în procesul de fermentare
process, [8]. anaerobă, [8].
The researches in this area have shown that the Studiile în domeniu au arătat că elementele Co, Fe,
elements such as Co, Fe, Mo, Ni and Se are very important Mo, Ni şi Se sunt foarte importante în stabilitatea
in the stability of anaerobic fermentation process, [10]. procesului de fermentare anaerobă, [10].
Ernestas Zaleckas et al., [20] investigated the effect of Ernestas Zaleckas şi colab., [20], au investigat efectul
heavy metals on biogas production in the presence of Ni, metalelor grele asupra producŃiei de biogaz în prezenŃa
Cu and Zn ions, using as substrate sludge from ionilor de Ni, Cu şi Zn, utilizând ca substrat nămoluri provenite
wastewater treatment plants mixed with rapeseed cakes. de la staŃiile de epurare a apelor uzate în amestec cu
From Fig. 4 it can be seen that increasing the Zn content turte de rapiŃă. Din Fig. 4 se poate observa că o creştere
in the substrate processing, has a negative impact on the a conŃinutului de Zn în substratul procesat, prezintă un
production of biogas. The lowest amount of biogas (3300 impact negativ asupra producŃiei de biogaz. Cea mai
ml) was registered when the concentration of Zn scăzută cantitate de biogaz (3300 ml) a fost înregistrată
increased to 8000 mg / kg. Ernestas Zaleckas et al. have în momentul în care concentraŃia de Zn a crescut la 8000
found that after 14 days of anaerobic fermentation, in the mg/kg. Ernestas Zaleckas şi colab., au concluzionat că
anaerobic digester in which was added Zn, it was după 14 zile de fermentare anaerobă, în reactorul
registered a decrease of biogas amount to 12% anaerob în care s-a adăugat Zn, s-a înregistrat o scădere
compared with the control anaerobic digester in which a cantităŃii de biogaz cu 12% comparativ cu reactorul
heavy metals have not been added. anaerob martor în care nu s-au adăugat metale grele.
In addition, these researchers reported that Ni and Cu De asemenea, aceştia au raportat că ionii de Ni şi Cu
ions do not have a negative impact on the anaerobic nu au produs efecte negative asupra procesului de
fermentation process, thus not affecting the production of fermentare anaerobă, neafectând astfel producŃia de
biogas. After 14 days, the contents of methane (CH4) in biogaz. După o periodă de 14 zile, conŃinutul metanului
the biogas ranged between 64.5 and 70%. (CH4) în biogaz a variat între 64.5 şi 70%.
Fig. 4 - Biogas production during 14 days of anaerobic digestion at various Zn(II) concentrations, [20]
5. C/N ratio of the substrate or mixture of substrates 5. Raportul C/N al substratului sau amestecului de
used in the process of anaerobic fermentation, greatly substraturi, utilizate în procesul de fermentare anaerobă,
influences the production of biogas, [17]. A large C/N influenŃează în mare măsură producŃia de biogaz, [17].
ratio, indicating a rapid consumption of nitrogen by Un raport C/N mare, indică un consum rapid al azotului
methanogenic bacteria, leading to reduced production de către bacteriile metanogene, ceea ce duce la
of biogas. An optimal C/N ratio is required for scăderea producŃiei de biogaz. Un raport C/N optim este
anaerobic fermentation, this being important in necesar pentru fermentarea anaerobă, acesta fiind
methanogenic bacteria growth. For a good important în dezvoltarea bacteriilor metanogene. Pentru
performance of the anaerobic fermentation process, o bună desfăşurare a procesului de fermentare anaerobă
the C/N ratio of the substrate should be in the range of valoarea raportului C/N al amestecului trebuie să fie
20-30 [15]. cuprinsă între 20 – 30, [15].
According to experiments conducted by Tong Zhang Conform experimentelor realizate de Tong Zhang şi
et al. [22], the optimal ratio C / N is in the range of 20-35. colab. [22], raportul optim C/N este cuprins între 20 – 35.
282
Table 2
C/N ratio for different types of feedstock
Feedstock C/N ratio
Green grass 25
Leaves of trees 41
Alfalfa 18
Cereals straw 56 - 87
Soybean stalks 32
Sheep waste 12
Cattle waste 12
Swine waste 9
Renewable energy present a significant role to Energiile din surse regenerabile prezintă un rol deosebit
satisfy the EU targets for 2020, and biogas is one of de important pentru satisfacerea Ńintelor Uniunii Europene
them. The Strategy objectives "202020" are: obligatorii pentru 2020, iar biogazul este una dintre acestea.
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by at least Obiectivele Strategiei “202020” sunt: reducerea emisiilor de
20% below 1990 levels, 20% of EU energy gaze cu efect de seră cu cel puŃin 20% sub nivelurile din
consumption to come from renewable sources, a 20% 1990, 20% din consumul UE de energie să provină de la
reduction in primary energy use compared with surse regenerabile, o reducere de 20% în consumul de
projected levels, to be achieved by improving energy energie primară comparativ cu nivelurile prognozate, să
efficiency. fie atinsă prin îmbunătăŃirea eficienŃei energetice.
Regarding the parameters that influence the process Referitor la parametrii care influenŃează procesul de
of anaerobic fermentation, to maintain the process fermentare anaerobă, pentru a se menŃine stabilitatea
stability, it is recommended to maintain the pH in the procesului, este recomandat să se menŃină pH-ul în
range of 6.8 - 7.2 and the temperature should be kept domeniul 6.8 – 7.2 iar valoarea temperaturii să fie
constant in the mesophilic or thermophilic fields. For a menŃinută constantă în domeniile mezofil sau termofil.
good performance of the anaerobic fermentation process, Valoarea raportului C/N al amestecului supus procesului
the C/N ratio of the substrate should be in the range of de fermentare anaerobă este recomandat să fie cuprinsă
20-30. Depending on the concentration, heavy metals între 20 – 30. Metalele grele pot avea un rol stimulator,
may have a stimulatory, inhibitory or toxic role in the inhibitor sau chiar toxic în procesul de fermentare
anaerobic fermentation process. anaerobă.
Acknowledgement MulŃumiri
Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013 sprijinul Ministerului Fondurilor Europene prin Programul
of the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Operational Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane
Agreement POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134398. 2007-2013, Contract nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134398.
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DEVELOPMENT TRENDS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR SEEDLING PRODUCTION

FORM SMALL AND SMALLER SEEDS
/
TENDINłE DE DEZVOLTARE A TEHNOLOGIILOR AVANSATE PENTRU PRODUCEREA
MATERIALULUI SĂDITOR DIN SEMINłE MICI ŞI FOARTE MICI
Eng. Bogdanof C.G., Eng. Milea D., Ph.D. Eng. Vişan A.L.
Tel: 021.269.32.49; E-mail: bogdanof@inma.ro
Abstract: In the paper are presented the development Rezumat: În lucrare sunt prezentate tendinŃele de
tendencies of advance technologies to produce seedling dezvoltare a tehnologiilor avansate pentru producerea
material. This domaine has a greate importance in materialului săditor. Acest domeniu are o importanŃă
agriculture because in the national statistics, Romania deosebită în agricultură, deoarece în statisticile naŃionale,
appers to be underdeveloped, the production from this România figurează ca sectorul legumicol subdezvoltat,
crops register a significant decrese. Taking in to respectiv că producŃia acestor culturi scade semnificativ.
consideration the vegetable importance in agriculture and Avand în vedere importanŃa legumelor în industria
food industry, is intyended to make this study in order to agricolă şi alimentară, se doreşte a se realiza acest studiu
support the Romanian farmers. pentru a veni în sprijinul fermierilor din România.
Keywords: thechnic progress, seedling material, seedling Cuvinte cheie: progres tehnic, material săditor, tehnologii
technologies, alveoli, quality seedling de semănat, alveole, răsad de calitate
In Romania, in cordance with National Institute of În România, conform Institutului NaŃional de Statistică,
Statistics, the agriculture from the vegetable field register agricultura din domeniul legumicol înregistrează o scădere
a decres both in therms of the cultivated areas (263 atât din punct de vedere al suprafeŃelor cultivate (263 mii
thousand hectars in 2011 to 254 thousand hectars in hectare în 2011 la 254 mii hectare în 2012) cât şi al
2012) and also of production that is aproximativ 17.2 % producŃiei cu aproximativ 17.2% (de la 4176 mii tone în
(from 4176 thousand of tons in 2011 to 3457 thousand of 2011 la 3457 mii tone în 2012). Scăderea producŃiei medii
tons in 2012). The decrease of average vegetable la hectar pentru leguminoase (tomate - 28.2%, castraveŃi -
production per hectare (tomato -28.2%, cucumber -25.5%, 25,5%, ardei -20.1%, morcovi - 18.7%) este influenŃată
peppers – 20.1%, carots – 18.7%) is affected by: climate de: schimbările climaterice, calitatea solului, tehnologiile
change, soil quality, applied technologies and seedling aplicate şi calitatea materialului semincer. Mai mult decât
quality. More then that in 2012 the cultures watermelons atât în anul 2012 culturile de pepeni verzi şi galbeni au
and melons shwoed a decrese in production with 14 %, înregistrat o scădere a producŃiei cu 14%, care de
which are also cultivated using small and very small asemenea sunt înfiinŃate prin seminŃe mici şi foarte mici.
seeds. In conclusion, this decline must be stopped and În concluzie această scădere trebuie să fie oprită şi
prevented, because the national agriculture on this market prevenită, pentru ca agricultura naŃională pe acest
sere to sadifay the internal market request, that in this segment de piaŃă, să poată satisface cerinŃele pieŃei
moment know a intens influx of goods from neighboring interne, care în momentul acesta cunoaşte un aflux intens
countries. de produse din Ńările învecinate. [5]
In order to reduce the climate change influence on crop Pentru a diminua influenŃa schimbărilor climaterice asupra
is encouraged the alveolar seedling operations, in this culturilor se încurajează utilizarea semănării seminŃelor în
way it can obtained a higer quality seedlings using alveole, astfel se obŃin răsaduri de o calitate superioară
efficient the energetyic resources, the nutrients and a utilizând eficient resurse energetice, substanŃe nutritive şi
lower germination space, which can then be replanted in spaŃiu de germinare mai redus, care apoi pot fi replantate
the field when weather conditions are optimal. Moreover, in câmp atunci când condiŃiile climaterice sunt optime. De
applaing advanced technologies supports the asemenea, aplicarea tehnologiilor avansate susŃin implementarea
implementation of perfomant management systems on unor sisteme de management performante asupra răsadurilor
seedlings or plugs that influence crop yield,as it can be sau a micro-răsadurilor ce influenŃează direct productivitatea
see in fig.1. culturilor, asa cum poate fi observat in fig.1.
From the agronomic research activities conducted, the Din cercetările agronomice realizate, semănatul
manual sowing in nutritive layers has certain manual în pat nutritiv prezintă anumite dezavantaje faŃă
disadvantages regarding the alveolar tray sowing: the de semănatul în tavă alveolară: stadiul de dezvoltare a
plant development stage is uniform (as it can be observed plantelor este uniform (cum se poate observa in fig.1.a), şi
in fog.1.a) and easily monitored; higer surface density, uşor de monitorizat; densitatea pe unitatea de suprafaŃă
saves seeds, peat and necessary energy to heat este mai mare; se economisesc seminŃe, turbă şi energia
greenhouses; uniform feeding and watering of root system necesară încălzirii serelor; hrănirea şi irigarea uniformă a
and stem; reduces growth period and presents the sistemului radicular şi a tulpinii; reduce timpul de cultivare
possibility to palt earlier in the field. şi posibilitatea de sădire mai timpurie în câmp.
Considering that cellular seeding has other advantages Având în vedere că semănatul alveolar reprezintă şi
besides thouse presented above, it falls into the category alte avantaje în afară de cele prezentate, acesta se
of crop optimization technologies (as shown in fig.1.b) and încadrează în categoria de tehnologii de optimizare a
their management, also in the precision agriculture, which culturilor (cum se poate observa în fig.1.b) şi managementul
aims to reduce production costs and in the same time to acestora, precum şi în domeniul agriculturii de precizie,
grow th e production, which it can be reflected on the care are ca obiectiv reducerea costurilor de producŃie
obtained profit and supporting the intensive and concomitent cu creşterea economică a acesteia, ce se reflectă
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sustainable agriculture. în profitul obŃinut şi sprijinirea agriculturii intensive şi sustenabile.

So far these crops have not been encouraged Până în prezent aceste tipuri de culturi nu au fost
because requires a greate amount of manual labor and încurajate, deoarece necesitau un volum mare de muncă
on internal market not presented the advanced manuală iar pe piaŃa internă nu există echipamente
equipment, to allow handling small and very small performante care să permită manipularea seminŃelor mici
seeds, and also no means of positioning and adjusting şi foarte mici, si nici a mijloacelor de poziŃionare şi
planting depth. reglarea adâncimi de plantare a acestora.
From literature it was observed the need to develop Din literatura de specialitate s-a observat necesitatea de a
the alveolar seding equipment and technologies to crea echipamente şi tehnologii de semănare în alveole,
assist farmers and small entrepreneurs in the pentru a venii în sprijinul agricultorilor şi a micilor
vegetable, floricultural, orchards and forests field, to întreprinzători din domeniu: legumicol, floricol, pomicol şi
obtain high quality seedlings, which can easily be sold forestier, pentru obŃinerea unor răsaduri de o calitate
on internal market and / or planted in a very short superioară, ce pot fi comercializate cu uşurinŃă pe piaŃa
time. internă şi/sau plantate într-un interval foarte scurt de timp.
a) plugs b) seedling
Fig. 1 – The development palnt sate from plugs trays a) and the seedlings afer subculturing b).
In European Union crontries, emphasis is laid on În Ńările Uniunii Europene, se pune accent pe dezvoltarea
intensive and sustemable agriculture development by agriculturii intensive şi sustenabile prin implementarea de
implementing innovative policies and technologies with a politici şi tehnologii inovative cu un grad ridicat de automatizare
high automation and precision grade to obtain: greate şi precizie, pentru a obŃine: productivitate ridicată, protejarea
productivity, environment protection, high food quality and mediului, produse alimentare de calitate superioară, precum
alsorational use of natural resources. şi utilizarea raŃională a resurselor naturale.
Currently, machine and equipments development La ora actuală, societăŃile constructoare de maşini şi
companies for alveolar sowing of small and smaller echipamente pentru semănatul alveolar a seminŃelor de
seeds, presents a real interes, area that is at the dimensiuni mici şi foarte mici, prezintă un real interes, in
beginning because there are only a few technologies for acest domeniu, care este la început, deoarece există doar
planting material or semi-automatic autiomate made by câteva tehnologii pentru producerea materialului saditor
firms: URBINATI, MOSA, SEEDERMAN and semi-autiomate sau automate, realizate de firmele:
BLACKMORE. URBINATI, MOSA, SEEDERMAN si BLACKMORE.
As can be seen, these devices have been developed in După cum se poate observa, aceste echipamente au fost
industrialized and tradition countries, which have clear dezvoltate în Ńările puternic industrializate şi cu traditie, care
directions for agriculture development and them are key au direcŃii clare de dezvoltare în domeniul agriculturii şi
drivers of RDI activities on worldwide. reprezintă motoarele activităŃilor de CDI pe plan mondial.

Most research activities in the seedling equipments field Majoritatea cercetărilor din domeniu echipamentelor de
for small and very small seeds, were made to develop the însămânŃat seminŃe mici şi foarte mici, au fost realizate în
field sowing machines using distribution mechanical scopul dezvoltării maşinilor de însământat pe câmp utilizând
systems, respectively shaped rotary discs or cups adapted sisteme mecanice de distribuŃie, respectiv discuri rotative profilate
for each type of seed, for 1 to 12 rows (such as: hand sau cupe adaptate pentru fiecare categorie de seminŃe, pe 1 până
seeding machine M1R, K1, M4R, and BEKER pneumatic la 12 de rânduri (precum sunt: maşinile de semănat manuale
seeder). M1R, K1, M4R, şi semănătoare pneumatică BEKER). [6]
One of the most important developing company from Una dintre cele mai importante companii dezvoltatoare
Europe that produce planting material technology is the de tehnolgii pentru producerea materialului săditor din
URBINATI company, that has tradition in this area Europa este compania URBINATI, cu tradiŃie în acest
from1980. [4] domeniu din 1980. [4]
This technologies ususlay are composed from the next Aceste tehnologii sunt formate deobicei din următoarele
components: componente:
• abrushing group, that perfectly cleans the plugs trays • un grup de perii, care curŃă foarte bine tăvile alveolare de
from the exceeding soil and is completely; solul excedentar şi îl recuperează;
• a drivening dibbler, that ensures a centered positioning • un sistem de presare profilat, care asigură creearea de cavităŃi
in the cell and a perfectly regular shape of the hole; centrale în alveole cu forme regulate şi bine definite;
• a seeding group, that produce a perfect seeding • un grup de semanare, care efectuează operaŃia pentru
operation for every trype in part, be it large or small. A fiecare seminŃă în parte, fie ea mare sau mică. Un al doilea
second seeding group can be added for multiseeding or grup poate fi adaugat în caz că se doreşte o semănare
chemical grains dispensing; multiplă sau dispersarea de chimicale granulate;
286
• the drum coverer for vermiculite or other grains performs • tamburul de acoperire cu vermiculită sau alte cereale,
a great uniformity and enables to choose the working efectuează operaŃia de uniformizare şi permite să fie
width and the quantity of product distributed, to reduce aleasă laŃimea de lucru şi cantitatea de produse
any wasting; distribuite, pentru a reduce pierderile. [4]
Each component of the machine is designed to Fiecare componentă în parte este proiectată pentru a
improve the operators work conditions as: fast îmbunatăŃi condiŃiile de lucru a operatorului, datorită
adjustments, low noise, high quality and fiability to reglajelor rapide, nivel scăzut de zgomot, calitate şi fiabiliate
reduce maintenance. ridicată pentru a reduce mentenaŃa.
The maine conponents of SIGMA seeding line are: Principalele componente ale liniei de semănare SIGMA sunt:
1. Pneumatic single tray denester with 2 movements with 1. Un sistem de distribuire pneumatic cu două mişcări a tăvilor
empty tray stacks feeding belt length 3300 [mm]; goale pe banda tramsportoare cu lungimea de 3300 [mm];
2. Soil hopper capacity 1500 [l] with agitator; 2. Buncăr de sol cu capacitatea de 1500 [l] cu agitator;
3. Soil elevator with cups-system width 690 [mm] with double chain; 3. Elevator de pământ cu cupe de 690 [mm] şi lanŃ dublu;
4. Tray filler with longitudinal 4 blades-rotor with rotation 4. Alimentator pentru tăvi longitudinal cu 4 palete şi grup
reversing gear; reversibil de antrenare;
5. Tray cleaning brush and double auger; 5. Perie de curaŃare a tăvii şi melc dublu;
6. Recovery system for exceeding soil. 6. Sistem de recuperare pentru solul excedentar;
7. Driven dibbler with cleaning brush. 7. Sistem de presat profilat prevăzut cu perii de curăŃat;
8. Driven seeding drum diameter 169 [mm] that has holes 8. Tambur de semăntat cu diametrul de 169 [mm] ce are
of minimum diameter 0,15 [mm[ and that has a cleaning orificii cu diamentrul minim de 0,15 [mm], prevăzut cu un
system. Also it has air bars with double row of nozzles and sistem de curăŃare. De asemenea acesta are bare cu două
oscillating seed holding plate with adjustable speed rânduri de duze şi tavă vibratoare pentru seminŃe si ghidaje
slideways that improve the seed positioning in the center of cu viteză reglabilă pentru a îmbunătăŃii poziŃionarea
the hole. seminŃei pe centrul găuri;
9. Electric panel and touch screen 9. Panou electric şi touch screen;
10. First watering unit with 3 drilled bars. 10. Prima unitate de udare cu 3 Ńevi găurite;
11. Drum coverer for vermiculite, with adjustable speed and 11. Tambur de acoperire cu vermiculită ce are viteza şi
dosage, capacity 430 [l]. dozarea reglabilă, de capacitate 430 [l];
12. Second watering unit with 3 drilled bars. 12. A doua unitate de udare cu 3 Ńevi găurite;
13. Electromechanical balance stacker with automatic tray 13. Stivuitor electromecanic masic prevăzut cu un sistem
advancement. automat de avans al tăvii;
14. Rapid adjustment system of tray width with self- 14. Sistemul de reglare rapidă a tăvii şi mânere de
centering handles. autocentrare.
Fig. 2 - SIGMA seedling lineup 1800 trays/hour. [4]
KAPPA SEEDING LINE, the automatic row seeding Linia de semănat KAPPA, este un grup automat de
group, with electronic control, allows to deposit one or more semănare pe rânduri prevazut cu un control electronic ce
seeds in the same cell with a perfect singularisation of both permite amplasarea unei seminŃe sau unui grup de seminŃe în
small and big seeds. aceiaşi celulă individualizând perfect seminŃele mici şi mari.
The control panel and data display can offer the Panoul de comandă şi display-ul, oferă posibilitatea de
possibility to programm and store the seedling line a programa şi memora parametrii de funcŃionare a liniei de
parameters, up to 99 seeding programs. The maine semănat, până la 99 de programe. Componentele
componets of this technology are: principale ale acestei tehnologii sunt:
1. Pneumatic tray denester with 2 movements for 1. Sistem de distribuire pneumatic cu două mişcări a
expanded polystyrene trays; tăvilor expandate din poliester;
2. Soil hopper capacity 700 [l] with bottom belt; 2. Buncăr pentru sol cu capacitate de 700 [l] ce are în
3. Soil elevator with a double chain; partea inferioară o bandă trasportoare;
4. Trayfiller with linear rotor with 4 blades; 3. Elevator de sol cu lanŃ dublu;
4. Alimentator pentru tăvi longitudinale cu 4 palete;
5. Tray cleaning brush and double auger; 5. Perie de curăŃare a tăvii şi melc dublu;
6. Automatic seeding head with nozzles and dibbler; 6. Sistem de semănat automat cu duze şi de presat;
7. Electric control panel integrated in the machine with 99 7. Panou de comandă şi control electric integrat pe maşina
storable seeding programs, multiseeding programs from 2 to care conferă posibilitatea de a memora 99 de programe de
99 seeds per cell and diagnostic; semanat, programe de semănat multiplu de la 2 până la 99
8. Drum coverer for vermiculite, with dosage adjusting, de seminŃe pe celulă;
8. Tambur de acoperire cu vermiculită ce are capacitatea de
hopper capacity 170 [l]; dozare reglabilă, 170 [l];
9. Water unit with 1 drilled bar; 9. Unitate de udare cu o bară găurită;
10. Automatic balance stacker. 10. Stivuitor automat masic.
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Fig. 3 - KAPPA SEEDING LINE up to 2400 trays/hour. [4]
In table 1. presents the technical characteristics of the În tabelul 1, sunt prezentate caracteristicile tehnice ale
most performant production technology of planting celor mai perfomante tehnologii de producere a materialului
material made by URBINATI. săditor specifice firmei URBINATI.
Tabel 1.
Tehnical data sheet of URBINATI seedling lines [4]
Technical data/Model SIGMA KAPPA KAPPA E
Production/ hour from 200 to 1800 trays adjustable to 2400 rows adjustable to 2400 rows
Max. tray dimension 600 x 400 [mm] 750 x 400 [mm] 750 x 500 [mm]
Dimensions (L x W x H) 13013 x 2810 x 2271 [mm] 5599 x 2344x 2251 [mm] 5599 x 2344x 2251 [mm]
Weight 2470 [kg] 980 [kg] 980 [kg]
Vacuum pump 1800 PVA mod. venturi system venturi system
Air consumption Max. 300 [l/min] Max. 290 [l/min] Max. 290 [l/min]
Water consumption Max. 25 [l/min] at 2 [atm]. Max. 20 [l/min] at 2 [atm] Max. 20 [l/min] at 2 [atm]
12 [kW], 400 [V], 3F, 50/60 4,5 [kW], 400 [V], 3F,
Installed power 4,5 [kW], 400 [V], 3F, 50/60 [Hz]
[Hz] 50/60 [Hz]
Different kinds of nozzles (silicone,
Options SIGMA
multiseeding, etc.).
The Hight Automation Seeding line, made by MOSA Linia de semănat cu grad ridicat de automatizare, fabricată
company- Italy, has the next parts: tray denester – I; de firma MOSA – Italia, are următoarele componente:
compost hooper – II; nutritive cubes seeding unit with echipament de distribuŃie a tăvilor alveolare – I; echipament de
alimentare cu compost – II, echipament de semănat în cuiburi
drum or needs – III; compost drum coverer and water unit nutritive cu tambur sau ace – III; echipament de acoperit
– V, fig.3. [2] sămânŃa cu compost şi unitate de udare – IV, precum şi un
The advantages of this technology are: a design echipament de paletizare şi ambalare – V, fig.3. [2]
optimization of the traditional drum line in order to reach Avantajele acestei tehnolgii sunt: optimizare din punct
the higest precision; a greater compacting to rich de vedere constructiv a liniei cu tambur pentru a atinge
maximum working capacity; easy electronic control of all cea mai înaltă precizie; dimensiuni de gabarit reduse
working components, and a well-known exclusive pentru a atinge capacitatea maximă de lucru; un control
modularity. facil al unităŃilor de lucru şi o foarte bună modularitate.
Fig. 4 – MOSA hight automation seeding line [2]
TO 55 model has is made from several equipments: Modelul TO 55, are în componeŃă următoarele echipamente:
1 - tray filler, 2. – needle row seeder; 3- drum coverer 1 - alimentator cu compost al tăvilor, 2 – echipament de semănat
of vermiculite and water dispencer; 4 – end rolling cu ace; 3 – tambur de acoperire cu vermiculită şi unitate de
trable. udare, 4 - masă rulantă de stocat tăvi.
The standard model includes 8 different sizes of Modelul standard include: 8 seturi de ace de diferite
needles, a complete seeding kit. A suction filter and a dimensiuni; un kit de semănat complet; un filtru de
collector for leftover seeds. aspiraŃie şi un colector de seminŃe.
A fully electric seeding machine that does not need Totodată această maşină este complet electrică şi nu
an air compressor, based on the needle seeder system. necesită o surasă de aer comprimat deoarece sistemul de
A special system for naked seed it was created, for semănat este cu ace. A fost creat un sistem special pentru
many different seed shapes: from the smallest (like: seminŃe decorticate cu forme neregulate: de la cele mai
lobelia, petunia, tobacco) to the most irregularly-shaped mici (ca de exemplu: lobelia, petunia, tutun) până la cele
(like: marigold, zinnia, celery, pepper) or different types mai neregulate forme (ca de exemplu: gălbenele, zinnia,
(like: cactus plants, and even water melon or coated Ńelină, piper) sau de tipuri diferite (ca: plante de cactus şi
seeds). [2] chiar de pepene roşu sau seminŃe tratate). [2].
288
Fig. 5 - Row seeding line TO 55.S [2]
In table 2 were centralized the technical characteristics În tabelul 2, au fost centralizate caracteristicile tehnice
of these technologies to highlight technical differences ale acestor tehnologii pentru a scoate în evidenŃă
and performance. diferenŃele tehnice şi de perfomanŃă.
Tabel 2
Tehnical data sheet of MOSA seedling lines [2]
Technical data/Model Drum seeding line 1400 Row seeding line TO 55.S
Production 1400 trays/hour 2 secons /row
Max. tray dimension - -
Dimensions (L x W x H) 11150 x 2790 x 2000 [mm] 7820 x 1980 x 2000 [mm]
Weight 1905 [kg] 828 [kg]
Vacuum pump - -
Air consumption Max. 140 [l/min] -
Water consumption - -
Installed power 8.89 [kW], 400 [V], 3F, 50 [Hz] 3.07 [kW], 400 [V], 3F, 50 [Hz]
Options SIGMA Container cleaning brush; Tray denester; Duble vacuum pump
The newest SEEDERMAN machine, made in 2014, it Cea mai noua maşină a companiei SEEDERMAN,
was developed as a result of a demand from growers to fabricată în 2014, a fost realizată ca urmare a unei cereri din
sow an even layers of seed in an open tray for the partea producătorilor pentru a semăna straturi de seminŃe în
production of Micro-Greens, a new granstronomic trant I tăvi alveolare pentru producerea de micro-legume cu frunze,
the gratest restorants. The GS3-HD debut at the un nou curent gastronomic în marile restaurante. Modelul
AmericanHort "Cultivate 14" trade show held in Columbus GS3-HD a debutat în cadrul târgului AmericanHort "Cultivate
- Ohio and received high praise. [3] 14" Ńinut în Columbus – Ohio şi a primit premiul I. [3]
Fig. 6 - Automatic Needle Seeder Model GS3-HD. [3] Fig. 7 - Blackmore Company Cylinder Seeders [1]
Another American seedling technology is the Stretch O altă tehnologie de semănat este „Stretch PLC Cylinder
PLC Cylinder Seeder, made by BLACKMORE company, Seeder”, fabricată de firma BLACKMORE şi utilizată în
used by most major plug farmers in North America (82 % principal de marii producatirii de material săditor alveolar
market share among top 100 growers) is an integral part din America de Nord (ce au o cotă de piaŃă de 82 % din
of seeding lines in many greenhouse seeding operations primii 100 de producători) şi este o linie completă de
around the world as well. The advantages of this semănat pentru majoritatea lucrărilor în seră pe plan
technology are: mondial. Avantajele acestei tehnologii sunt:
- True in-line operation/control with tray filler, label - Sincronizarea operaŃiilor/ controlul cu buncărul de alimentare
applicator, Water All a tăvi alveolare cu aplicatorul de etichete şi umidificatorul;
- Quick seed and tray changes facilitated when are - SeminŃele şi tava sunt uşor schimbabile atunci când
placed four, three and two option cylinder heads, sunt montaŃi 4, 3 sau 2 cilindrii de semănat, pentru a
to obtaine higher throughputs. obŃine o productivitate mai ridicată;
- High accuracy, and excellent placement - Precizie ridicată şi o poziŃionare precisă;
- the PLC can ease the operation and quick - PLC-ul poate uşura funcŃionarea şi schimbările rapide
change-overs of the opration parameters. ale regimului de funcŃionare.
In table 3, are presented the technical properties of În tabelul 3, sunt prezentate caracteristicile tehnice
USA technologic lines, but as it can be noticed regarding ale liniilor tehnologice din USA, dar după cum se poate
the Cilinder seeder are not presented many technical observa pentru semănătoarea cu cilindru nu sunt
data. specificate multe date tehnice.
289
Tabel 3
Tehnical data sheet of American seedling lines [1, 3]
Technical data/Model Automatic Needle Seeder GS3 Cylinder Seeders line
Production 120 – 512 trays/hour 1200 trays/hour
Max. tray dimension 50 - 512 cells/tray -
Dimensions (L x W x H) 203 x 609 x 711 [mm] -
Weight 31.75 [kg] -
Vacuum pump 1800 PVA mod. -
Air consumption 4 [bar] -
Water consumption - -
Installed power - -
Options Dibbler attachment standard; Vermiculite dispencer available Multy-sow unit
From this paper the following conclusions can be drawn. Din această lucrare se pot desprinde următoare concluzii:
1. Stage of development of advanced technologies for 1. Stadiul de dezvolatare a tehnologiilor avansate pentru
planting material production depends on the level producerea materialului săditor depinde de gradul de
complexity and users requirements, namely the agriculture complexitate şi de cerinŃele utilizatorului, respectiv al pieŃii
market - production of planting material for greenhouses din domeniul agriculturii - producerea materialului săditor
and protected areas. pentru sere şi spaşii protejate.
2. The level of automation of these technologies depends 2. Gradul de automatizare a acestor tehnologii depinde de
on the tradition of machine production firms and their tradiŃia firmelor constructoare de maşini precum şi de
absorption on the national/international market, which is gradul de absorbiŃie a acestora pe piaŃa naŃională/
dependent on the farmers requirements who own large internaŃională, ce este dependentă de cerinŃele fermierilor
cultivars areas as well as major manufacturers of top care deŃin suprafeŃe mari de cutivare precum şi a marilor
quality seedlings. producători de răsăduri de calitate superioară.
3. At these advanced technologies the seeding 3. La aceste tehnologii avansate de semănat precizia
precision can reach 99.9%, which is correlated with poate să ajungă la 99,9 %, valoare corelată cu tipul
seed type and size. Once the tuning parameters, seminŃei şi cu dimensiunile acesteia. Odată stabiliŃi
repeatability of this process is very high and constant parametri de reglare, repetabilitatea acestui proces este
in time. foarte ridicată şi constantă în timp. [6]
4. The plugs obtained using those technologic lines have 4. Răsadurile alveolare produse de aceste linii tehnologice
a uniform level of development, fully using the materials, au un grad uniform de dezvoltare, utilizând la maxim
energy and nutrients from the soil resources. resursele: materiale, energetice şi nutritive din sol.
5. The plugs selling can cover the seedling manufacturers 5. Prin comercializarea mini-răsadurilor se pot acoperi
major material and production costs and can get attractive cheltuielile materiale şi de producŃie ale marilor producători
profits. de material săditor şi se poate obŃine un profit atractiv.
6. Europe emphasis is laid on the development of 6. În Europa se pune accent pe dezvoltarea de linii
compete and complex lines for sowing small and smaller compete şi complexe pentru semănatul seminŃelor mici şi
seeds udsed in agricultural industry, respectively on foarte mici necesare în industria agricolă, respectiv în cea
vegetable and flower fileds, in roder to obtain planting legumicolă ăi floricolă, pentru obŃinerea materialului săditor
material for producing farmers and for commercial atât pentru uzul fermierului producător cât şi pentru
purpoase. comercializare.
7. In USA, manufacture companies in this industry focused 7. În USA firmele producătoare din domeniu s-au axat în
mainly on developing modular sowing equipments in principal pe dezvoltarea de echipamante modulare de
nutrients cubes that can be incorporated into technologic semănat în cuiburi nutritive ce pot fi incorporate în linii
lines for seedlings production, in compliance with the tehnologice de producere a răsadurilor. în conformitate cu
farmers requirements, semi-automatic or automatic. cerinŃele cultivatorilor, semi-automate sau automate.
This study was conducted to highlight current Acest studiu a fost realizat pentru a evidenŃia tendinŃele
developed trends in agricultural industry, and to encourage actuale de dezvoltare în industria agricolă, precum şi a încuraja
local farmers to develop activities in this area, offering an fermierii autohtoni să dezvolte activităŃi în acest domeniu,
adegvate choice according to there needs and automation oferind posibilitatea unei alegeri adegvate în funcŃie de nevoi şi
state, especially now when it is put a greate importance gradul de automatizare, mai ales acum când se pune un
accesing the European funds to develop susutenabile and accent deosebit în accesarea Fondurilor Europene în vederea
intansive agriculture at national level. dezvoltării agriculturii intensive şi susutenabile la nivel naŃional.
[1]. *** - Blackmore Company Cylinder Seeders, catalog data [1]. *** - Blackmore Company Cylinder Seeders, fisa de produs,
sheet, BLACKMORE Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com; BLACKMORE Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com;
[2]. *** - Machine Catalog „OrtoFloroVivaismo”, MOSA [2]. *** - Catalog de masini „OrtoFloroVivaismo”, MOSA
Green SRL, http://www.mosagreen.it; Green SRL, http://www.mosagreen.it.;
[3]. *** (2003) - Seederman Catalog „Products GS2/GS3 [3]. *** (2003) - Catalog Seederman „Products GS2/GS3
Automatic Needle Seeder Owners Manual and Operating Automatic Needle Seeder Owners Manual and Operating
Guide”, SEEDERMAN , www.seederman.com; Guide”, SEEDERMAN, www.seederman.com;
[4]. *** (2014) - Nursery technology Catalog, URBINATI, [4]. *** (2014) - Catalog „Nursery technology”, URBINATI,
www.urbinati.com; www.urbinati.com;
[5]. *** (2013) - ProducŃia agricolă vegetală la principalele [5]. *** (2013) - ProducŃia agricolă vegetală la principalele culturi, în
culturi, în anul 2012 (date provizorii)”, Press release no. 71 from anul 2012 (date provizorii), Comunicat de presă nr. 71 din 29
29 March 2013 of Statistic Nastional Institute from Romania; Martie 2013 al Institutului NaŃional de Statistică din Romania;
[6]. Bogdanf G.C., Vişan A.L. (2014) - Trends in the field of drills [6]. Bogdanf G.C., Vişan A.L. (2014) - TendinŃe în domeniul maşinilor
for small and very small seeds, TechnoMarket, no.3, pg.8-10. de semănat seminŃe mici si foarte mici, TechnoMarket, nr.3, pag.8-10.
290
ECONOMIC RISK ANALYSIS IN THE AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITY

/
ANALIZA ECONOMICĂ A RISCULUI ÎN ACTIVITATEA AGRICOLĂ
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Ec. David O., Lect. PhD. Eng. Voicu P.
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Faculty of Entrepreneurship, Business Engineering and Management / Romania
Tel: 0722126432; E-mail: davidgioana@yahoo.com
Abstract: The paper presents the notion and the Rezumat: Lucrarea prezintă noŃiunea şi modul de calcul
calculation mode of the risk involved in capital al riscului implicat de investiŃiile de capital existent în orice
investments that exist in economic activity. Because a activitate economică. Deoarece o lume fără risc nu există
riskless world does not and cannot exist, some method of şi nu poate exista, unele metode de analiză a riscului
analyze for risk must be used. In the agriculture activity, trebuie folosite. În activitatea agricolă, riscul există atât din
the risk exists from the man activity (using the activitatea omului (utilizarea fertilizatorilor, a irigaŃiilor
fertilizations, the irrigations etc.) and the nature influence etc.), cât şi din influenŃa naturii (inundaŃii, schimbări
(floods, climacteric changes, drought etc.). climatice, secetă etc.).
Keywords: economic risk, agricultural activity, Cuvinte cheie: risc economic, activitate agricola,
management, environmental risk, decisions under risk and management, risc de mediu, decizii în condiŃii de risc şi
uncertainty incertitudine
The definition of certainty is that the occurring events Certitudinea înseamnă că evenimentele care au loc
cannot be different than the already assumed ones. If nu pot fi altele decât cele pe care ni le-am imaginat. Dacă
given the opportunity to derive more than one result in the avem posibilitatea de a obŃine mai mult de un rezultat în
future and the probability of each such outcome is known viitor şi probabilitatea fiecărui rezultat viitor este cunoscută
or can be forecast, any decision on these results will then sau poate fi estimată, atunci orice decizie cu privire la
take place under risk conditions. aceste rezultate se va face în condiŃii de risc.
The possibility to derive more results in a set of others Posibilitatea de a obŃine mai mult de un rezultat într-
that mutually exclude one another is valid, as the set un set de rezultate care se exclud reciproc există, setul
includes all the potential results and the probability of such incluzând toate rezultatele posibile şi probabilitatea
result is unknown and cannot be estimated. A decision acestui rezultat este necunoscută şi nu poate fi estimată.
thus taken will occur under uncertainty conditions. O decizie luată în aceste condiŃii se face în condiŃii de
Agriculture is directly affected by the critical weather incertitudine.
phenomena in all its segments and their impact is beyond Agricultura, în toate segmentele ei, este afectată
the bounds of being minimized or overlooked. To this direct de fenomenele meteo periculoase, iar efectele lor,
purpose, the evaluation of the risk of the agricultural land nu pot fi minimalizate sau ignorate. În acest scop,
and cultivated species to the occurrence of the extreme evaluarea riscului suprafeŃelor agricole şi a speciilor
climate phenomena is done via establishing the cultivate la producerea fenomenelor climatice extreme se
vulnerability degree of such species to the agro climatic realizează prin stabilirea gradului de vulnerabilitate a
phenomena of thermal stress (hoarfrost, frost, heat, speciilor agricole faŃă de fenomenele agroclimatice de
freeze), water (pedological drought/humidity excess, stres termic (brume, îngheŃuri, arşiŃă, ger), hidric (secete
downpour) and mechanical (storm, squall, hail) and pedologice/excese de umiditate, ploi torenŃiale) şi mecanic
delineating the features of intensity and duration, at a (furtună, vijelie, grindină) şi delimitarea caracteristicilor de
local, regional and national scale. intensitate şi durată la scară locală, regională şi naŃională.
Investment in agriculture involves a certain risk degree. InvestiŃia în agricultură implică un anumit grad de risc.
For a correct evaluation, the potential investors should Pentru o evaluare corectă a acesteia, potenŃialii investitori
analyze the economic and environment risks that may ar trebui să analizeze riscurile economice şi de mediu
emerge. care pot apare.

The development of the civil society from the industrial Dezvoltarea societăŃii civile din punct de vedre
and technological perspectives has pointed out at the industrial şi tehnologic a pus în evidenŃă prezenŃa unor
presence of new risks, which exceed the circle of the riscuri noi, care depăşesc sfera riscurilor naturale
natural risks (earthquakes, flooding, etc) as they have (cutremure, inundaŃii etc.) cunoscute din vechime. Între
been known to the humankind since old times. These new aceste noi riscuri se înscriu cele rezultate din activitatea
risks will include the ones deriving from the economic economică şi a căror frecvenŃă de apariŃie este mai
activity and which emergence frequency is higher than for ridicată decât a celorlalte pe o perioadă determinată de
those on a determined period of time. timp.
In [2] Popescu C. says that the risk has more În [2] Popescu C, arată că riscul are mai multe
meanings, among which are the below ones: accepŃiuni, printre care:
1. the sacrifice of an immediate advantage or the 1. sacrificiul unui avantaj imediat sau absenŃa unui
absence of an immediate consumption in consum imediat în schimbul unor avantaje
exchange for future benefits; viitoare;
2. the loss of a certain and immediate advantage in 2. pierderea unui avantaj cert şi imediat dintr-o
an investment; investiŃie;
3. the uncertainty about the value of a financial 3. incertitudinea asupra valorii unui bun financiar
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asset that will be registered at a later date [2]. care se va înregistra la o dată viitoare [2].
From the economic viewpoint, the risk can be defined Din punct de vedere economic, riscul poate fi definit
as a state involving the probability of different variations ca o stare pentru care există probabilitatea unei variaŃii
compared to a company goal, and it is linked to the diferite în raport cu obiectivul urmărit de o firmă, fiind legat
changes taking place at the level of revenues, costs or the de modificările produse la nivelul veniturilor, costurilor sau
production volume, as a result of the modifications on the volumului de producŃie, ca urmare a modificărilor pe piaŃa
market of raw materials or finite products, etc. [1] The risk materiilor prime sau a produselor finite etc. [1] Riscul
could also evaluate the possibility of deriving an poate evalua şi posibilitatea obŃinerii unui rezultat
insufficient result or a loss. insuficient sau a unor pierderi.
From the financial perspective, the risk requires a Din perspectivă financiară, riscul implică o relaŃie între
relation between an individual (or a company) and an un individ (sau o firmă) şi un activ (sau o categorie de
asset (or a revenue category) that can be lost or venituri) ce poate fi pierdut sau poate fi deteriorat. Pentru
damaged. A risk has a financial nature when it includes ca un risc să fie de natură financiară, trebuie să cuprindă:
the individual/company subjected to loss, the asset or the individul/firma expus pierderii, activul sau categoria de
revenue category that affects a financial loss and the risk venituri care cauzează o pierdere financiară şi sursa de
source. risc.
In the insurance sector, the risk is defined as a product Având în vedere domeniul asigurărilor, riscul este definit
between the possible loss and its emergence probability. ca fiind un produs între pierderea posibilă şi probabilitatea de
The result of this product is called risk exposure. The loss apariŃie a acesteia. Rezultatul acestui produs este numit
risk stands out for the possibility of having an event expunere la risc. Riscul asigurat reprezintă posibilitatea
mentioned under insurance conditions, namely the întâmplării unui eveniment menŃionat în condiŃiile de
probability of the random natural phenomena being asigurare, adică probabilitate de manifestare a fenomenelor
manifest. [5] naturale cu caracter aleatoriu. [5]
For the environment sciences, the risk is the În domeniul ştiinŃelor mediului, riscul reprezintă
possibility of having negative effects upon the posibilitatea apariŃiei de efecte negative asupra
environment components, as a consequence of certain componentelor mediului, ca urmare a unor agenŃi
pests or natural phenomena with catastrophic impact. [1] dăunători sau a unor fenomene naturale cu efecte
dezastruoase. [1]
RESULTS
In comparison with the other branches of the national REZULTATE
economy, the agricultural sector is more subjected to the Sectorul agricol este supus într-o măsură mai mare, în
influence of the risk-deriving factors. comparaŃie cu celelalte ramuri ale economiei naŃionale,
The main risks in agriculture are as follows: influenŃei factorilor ce pot provoca apariŃia riscurilor.
1. The production risk that emerges due to the incertitude Principalele riscuri ce pot avea loc în agricultură sunt:
regarding the manifestation of the natural factors which 1. Riscul de producŃie apare datorită incertitudinii privind
the development of cultures and animals (weather, manifestarea factorilor naturali de care depinde
diseases, quantity and quality of the production means) dezvoltarea culturilor şi animalelor (vremea, bolile,
and the safety of the agricultural stock depend on. cantitatea şi calitatea mijloacelor folosite în producŃie)
2. Price and market risk – concerns the uncertainty şi siguranŃa inventarului agricol.
about the price of products and the prices linked to 2. PreŃul şi riscul de piaŃă - se referă la incertitudinea
the inputs, foreign exchange risk, and placement risk privind preŃul produselor şi a preŃurilor plătite pentru
for the current funds. inputuri, riscul valutar, riscul de plasare a capitalurilor
3. The financial risk comes up when the farmers are existente.
making loans to support the production, from the 3. Riscul financiar rezultă când fermieri trebuie să ia
possibility of changing the interests, the foreign credite pentru susŃinerea producŃiei, din posibilitatea
exchange rate and the leasing rates. modificării dobânzilor, a cursului valutar, a ratelor de
4. The institutional risk derives from the actions of leasing.
government or parliament by tax imposition, 4. Riscul instituŃional apare datorită acŃiunilor guvernului
decisions regarding the environment protection, sau parlamentului prin impunerea de taxe, prin decizii
rules for animal breeding, decisions about privind protecŃia mediului, reguli pentru creşterea
production subvention or supporting the agriculture animalelor, decizii privind subvenŃionarea producŃiei
insurance, etc. sau susŃinerea asigurărilor pentru agricultură etc.
5. The human risk refers to the human factor involved in 5. Riscul uman se referă la factorul uman implicat în
the agricultural activity, the staff health condition, their activitatea agricolă, sănătatea personalului, răspunderile
responsibilities, accidents, diseases, death rate, acestuia, accidente, boli, mortalitate, migraŃia
population migration, etc. populaŃiei etc.
It is essential to handle the risks above very well, as it Tratarea acestor riscuri este foarte importantă şi se
is done to the purpose of developing a healthy agriculture, face în scopul dezvoltării unei agriculturi sănătoase,
able to secure food safety, a normal life standard for the capabilă să asigure: securitatea alimentară, un nivel
people in the rural areas, environment protection, fresh normal de viaŃă populaŃiei din mediul rural, protecŃia
food for the entire population and the increase of the mediului, alimentaŃia sănătoasă a populaŃiei şi creşterea
agriculture contribution to GDP. [3] aportului agriculturi la P.I.B. [3]
The evaluation of the risk for the agricultural land and Evaluarea riscului suprafeŃelor agricole şi a speciilor
of the cultivated species to the extreme weather cultivate la producerea fenomenelor climatice extreme se
phenomena emergence is carried out by establishing the realizează prin stabilirea gradului de vulnerabilitate a
vulnerability level of the agricultural species to the agro speciilor agricole faŃă de fenomenele agroclimatice de
climatic phenomena of thermal stress (hoarfrost, frost, stres termic (brume, îngheŃuri, arşiŃă, ger), hidric (secete
heat, freeze), water (pedological drought/humidity excess, pedologice sau excese de umiditate, ploi torenŃiale) şi
292
downpour) and mechanical (storm, squall, hail) and mecanic (furtună, vijelie, grindină) şi delimitarea
delineating the features of intensity and duration, at a caracteristicilor de intensitate şi durată la scară locală,
local, regional and national scale. regională şi naŃională.
The ecological agriculture has developed as a normal Agricultura ecologică a apărut ca o reacŃie normală,
and natural reaction to the negative impact that has had firească, la impactul negativ pe care l-a avut şi îl are
and still does upon the environment, food health and well- asupra mediului înconjurător, sănătăŃii alimentare şi a
being in general and the life of the human communities in bunăstării vieŃii, în general, şi vieŃii comunităŃilor umane, în
particular. This type of agriculture is considered to have no special. Se consideră că acest tip de agricultură nu ar fi
connections to any risk, which is partially true. For însoŃit de nici un risc, lucru parŃial adevărat. De exemplu,
instance, should we take into account the economic risk, dacă este luat în considerare riscul economic, determinat
coming from the higher and not affordable productions de costurile de producŃie mai mari şi preŃul destul de
costs for the largest part of the population; we will see the ridicat şi neatractiv pentru marea majoritate a populaŃiei,
disappointment of the manufacturers. apare descurajarea producătorilor.
Under these circumstances, the investments in În aceste circumstanŃe, investiŃiile în agricultură sunt
agriculture are limited and they are done with caution by limitate şi se fac cu precauŃie de producătorii agricoli.
the agricultural manufacturers. Any investment is sensitive Orice investiŃie este sensibilă la condiŃiile economice din
to the economic conditions in the country and abroad, Ńară şi străinătate, preŃul produselor agricole având un rol
since the price of the agricultural products plays an semnificativ, precum şi la cele politice existente în lume la
important role, as well as to the current worldwide political un moment dat. De asemenea, o persoană care
situation at a certain time. Similarly, a person aiming to urmăreşte obŃinerea unor venituri speculative nu va putea
obtain speculative gains will not be able to invest in investi în agricultură, unde realizarea de numerar din
agriculture, as cash deriving from the economic activity is activitatea economică este anevoioasă. Un factor de risc
troublesome. A very important risk factor in the agricultural foarte important în investiŃiile agricole îl reprezintă
investments is the natural phenomena (rain, hail, drought, fenomenele naturale (ploile, grindina, seceta, dăunătorii şi
pests and plants diseases, etc), which can advantage or bolile plantelor etc.), care pot avantaja sau distruge un
disadvantage an agriculture worker. [4] agricultor. [4]
To assist this sector of the national economy, the state Pentru ajutorarea acestui sector al economiei naŃionale,
has provided the possibility to access certain special statul a creat posibilitatea accesării unor fonduri speciale
funds for agriculture in order to manage the risks in pentru agricultură în vederea gestionării riscurilor în
agriculture, to grant certain financial aids in case of agricultură, de acordare a unor compensaŃii financiare în
diseases or pests on plants or animals or of harmful cazul unor boli sau dăunători la plante şi animale sau a
environment incidents for agriculture. unor incidente de mediu dezastruoase pentru agricultură.
Accessing such funds by the agriculture workers ObŃinerea acestor fonduri de către agricultori
involves the existence of a damage coming from a presupune existenŃa unui prejudiciu rezultat dintr-o boală,
disease, pest or an environment incident previously un dăunător sau incident de mediu definit anterior de către
defined by the competent state authorities. organele competente ale statului .
In dependence on the weather conditions, either profit În funcŃie de condiŃiile climatice, în agricultură se poate
or substantial loss (during and after a prolonged drought) obŃine atât profit, cât şi pierderi substanŃiale (în condiŃii de
can be obtained. The man plays an important part in secetă prelungită). Omul joacă un rol important în
fighting such conditions by building the irrigation systems combaterea acestor condiŃii prin realizarea sistemelor de
that can compensate for the dry times in an agricultural irigaŃii care pot compensa perioadele secetoase dintr-un
year, thus having a risk management relevant to the an agricol, prin desfăşurarea unui management al
agriculture sector. riscurilor corespunzător sectorului agricol.
For a good risk management in agriculture, a number Pentru a se realiza o buna gestionare a riscurilor în
of measures can be taken, among which the following agricultură se pot întreprinde mai multe măsuri între
ones are mentioned: care:
Substantiating a risk policy for the rural Fundamentarea unei politici de risc pentru
development in Romania, similar to other dezvoltarea rurală din România, aşa cum există
countries; şi în alte Ńări;
Imposition of accreditation to the companies in Impunerea acreditării societăŃilor care practică
agriculture insurance on criteria of tariff bonuses, asigurări agricole pe criterii de fundamentare a
specialists, territory coverage, etc.; primelor tarifare, specialişti, acoperire teritorială etc.;
Substantiating the bonus tariffs by the Fundamentarea tarifelor de prime de către
companies requiring accreditation and for societăŃile care cer acreditarea şi pentru riscurile
catastrophic risks; catastrofale;
Accessing certain European funds in order to Accesarea unor fonduri europene în vederea
open a reinsurance company for taking over a creării unei societăŃi de reasigurare pentru
part of the catastrophic risks from the accredited preluarea unei părŃi din riscurile catastrofale de la
companies and for guaranteeing a certain societăŃile acreditate şi garantarea unui anumit
damage level towards these companies; nivel a ratei daunelor către aceste societăŃi;
Providing grants should be conditioned by the Acordarea subvenŃiilor să fie condiŃionată de
existence of an insurance contract with one of existenŃa unui contract de asigurare cu una din
the accredited companies; societăŃile acreditate;
Impulse of the agriculture crediting system by Impulsionarea sistemului de creditare a
using the guarantee funds and insurance for agriculturi prin folosirea fondurilor de garantare şi
these credits by the approved companies; asigurarea acestor credite de societăŃile agreate;
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Stimulation of the marketing system development Stimularea dezvoltării sistemului de marketing în

in agriculture. agricultură.
[1]. Ciocoiu N.C. (2006) – Managementul riscului în [1]. Ciocoiu N.C. (2006) – Managementul riscului în
afaceri şi proiecte, Editura ASE; afaceri şi proiecte, Editura ASE;
[2]. Popescu C., Ciucur D., Morega D.I. (1997) – [2]. Popescu C., Ciucur D., Morega D.I. (1997) –
Microeconomia concurenŃială, Editura Economică; Microeconomia concurenŃială, Editura Economică;
[3]. Vintilă G. (2006) – Gestiunea financiară a [3]. Vintilă G. (2006) – Gestiunea financiară a
întreprinderii, Editura Didactică şi pedagogică; întreprinderii, Editura Didactică şi pedagogică;
[4]. http://www.dictionar-economic.contabilitateafirmei.ro; [4]. http://www.dictionar-economic.contabilitateafirmei.ro;
[5]. http://www.banknews.ro/dictionar_financiar-bancar. [5]. http://www.banknews.ro/dictionar_financiar-bancar.
294
EXPERIMENTAL ARGUMENTATION OF PRESS PARAMETERS FOR SQUEEZING JUICE

FROM PLANT STEMS
/
ARGUMENTAREA EXPERIMENTALĂ A PARAMETRILOR PRESEI PENTRU STOARCEREA
SUCULUI DIN TULPINILE PLANTELOR
As Membru cor. AŞM, PhD., Eng. Hăbăşescu I., Dr.,Eng. Cerempei V., Eng. Balaban N.
Institute of Agricultural Machinery „Mecagro”, Chisinau/ Moldova
Tel: (37322) 49-21-31, 44-00-87 E-mail: institut@mecagro.md, www.mecagro.md
Abstract: This paper presents the obtained results of Rezumat: În lucrare sunt prezentate rezultatele
experimental research from the squeezing juice process cercetărilor experimentale ale procesului de stoarcere a
from sweet sorghum stems. Mathematical models have sucului din tulpinile sorgului zaharat. Modelele
allowed to obtain optimized values of functional press matematice obŃinute au permis optimizarea valorilor ale
with rollers parameters: in the original game from the parametrilor funcŃionali ai presei cu tăvălugi: jocului iniŃial
squeezing force passage of pressing speed rollers. în pasajul de stoarcere, forŃei de presare, turaŃiilor
tăvălugilor.
Keywords: plant steams, press rollers, squeezing, juice,
Cuvinte cheie: presa cu tăvălugi, stoarcere, suc,
parameters, mathematical models, optimization.
parametrii, modele matematice, optimizare
INTRODUCTION
The theoretical argument veracity of the squeezing INTRODUCERE
juice parameters from the press plant stems can be Veridicitatea argumentării teoretice a parametrilor
confirmed by experimental research. However, existing presei pentru stoarcerea sucului din tulpinile plantelor
sources of information [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9] do not contain poate fi confirmată prin cercetări experimentale. Însă
virtually experimental data on the effective values of the sursele existente de informaŃie [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9] practic nu
press parameters for squeezing juice. The aim of this conŃin date experimentale privind valorile eficiente ale
paper is argumentation of the experimental parameters parametrilor presei pentru stoarcerea sucului.Prin urmare,
for optimization press resulted as mechanical juice scopul prezentei lucrări este argumentarea experimentală şi
extraction from sweet sorghum stems. optimizarea parametrilor presei, destinate stoarcerii
mecanice a sucului din tulpinile de sorg zaharat.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In paper [1] are being described the design scheme
În lucrarea [1] sunt descrise schema constructivă şi
and general technical parameters of the mills with rollers,
parametrii tehnici cu caracter general ale preselor cu
but there are missing the calculation method and
tăvălugi, însă lipsesc metodica calculării şi argumentarea
argumentation technological parameter process of parametrilor tehnologici ai procesului de stoarcere
mechanical squeezing the juice. Therefore, were mecanică a sucului. De aceea, Ńinând cont de
calculated, taking into account, the theoretical and recomandări teoretice, au fost calculaŃi parametrii
constructive technological parameter recommendations. tehnologici şi constructivi. Ulterior pentru obŃinerea
Subsequently to obtain optimal values of the s game in valorilor optime ale jocului s în pasajul de stoarcere,
the squeezing passage, pressing force P and n speeds forŃei de presare P, turaŃiilor n ale tăvălugilor au fost
of rollers were measured the degree of juicing GE, măsuraŃi gradul de extragere a sucului GE,
productivity and power consumption N. Preliminary productivitatea , puterea consumată N. Rezultatele
research results have allowed to assume the existence of
cercetărilor prealabile permit a presupune existenŃa
nonlinearity response function and the existence of
nelinearităŃii a funcŃiei de replică şi existenta acŃiunilor
reciprocity factor interaction. For this reason it was used
reciproce ale factorilor. Din această cauză a fost folosit
a plan (Box-Benkin)[3].
Varying levels of factors are shown in Table 1, where plan (Box-Benkin) [3].
- initial game in spin passage, mm; - Pressing Niveluri de variere ai factorilor sunt prezentaŃi în tabel
-1 1, unde - jocul iniŃial în pasajul de stoarcere, mm;
force, P, kN; - Speeds rollers n, min .
-1
For researches were used and chopped whole stems – forŃa de presare, P, kN; – turaŃiile tăvălugilor n,min
of sorghum, defoliated without panicles, with humidity of Pentru cercetări au fost utilizate tulpinile întregi şi
71% and mass fraction of 12% sugar juice. The press tocate ale sorgului zaharat, defoliate şi fără panicule, cu
was uniform fed with strains, providing the required umiditatea 71% şi fracŃia masică a zahărului în suc 12%.
values of the factors. Presa a fost alimentată uniform cu tulpini, asigurând
valorile necesare ale factorilor.
Table 1
Levels of factor variation (plan B3)
Factor values
Levels Code
X1 [mm] X2, [kN] X2 [min-1]
Base 0 6.5 120 11
Superior +1 10 150 15
Inferior -1 3 90 7
Interval - 3.5 30 4
295
The research have been performed on the press Cercetările au fost efectuate pe macheta presei cu 3
model with 3 rollers (Figure 1 a), the exploitation tests - tăvălugi (fig.1, a), încercările de exploatare – pe linia
on the technological line for processing sorghum, which tehnologică pentru procesarea sorgului zaharat, care
comprises 3 blocks for compression (figure 1, b, c). include 3 blocuri de presare (fig.1, b,c).
The model machine for squeezing juice (Figure 1 a) Macheta utilajului pentru stoarcerea sucului (fig.1, a)
includes hopper container 1, block 2 with two power include buncărul recipient 1, blocul 2 cu doi tăvălugi de
rollers and crushing strains, transporter 3, block 4 with alimentare şi strivire a tulpinilor, transportorul 3, blocul de
presare 4 cu trei tăvălugi, mecanismul de acŃionare 5,
three pressed rollers, operating mechanism 5 and
sistemul de dirijare 6.
guidance system 6.
Fig.1 - Equipment ITA „Mecagro” for pressing sweet sorghum

a - model press (1 – hopper container, 2 – the power supply, 3 – transporter, 4 – pressing block, 5 – mechanism of action, 6 – routing
system, 7, 9 – bearings, 8 - nuts, 10 - the guide rods, 11 – screw, 12 - container, 13 – pump);
b,c – technological line ( 1 – receiving aggregate, 2 – conveyer -slug, 3 – feed conveyor, 4 – aerodynamics separator, 5 – dispenser
vibrant, 6,7,8, - presses rollers, 9 – scraper conveyor)
In the pressing block 4 of the upper pressure roller is În blocul de presare 4 tăvălugul superior este
being placed on two bearings 7, each one of those are amplasat pe două lagăre 7, fiecare din acestea fiind
installed on two vertical guide rods. On the superior side instalat pe două tije verticale de ghidare. Pe partea
7 of the bearings operates arc-disc collection camps superioară a lagărelor 7 acŃionează arc-discuri,
which are being adjusted with nuts 8. Each of the strângerea cărora este reglată cu piuliŃe 8. Fiecare din
following rollers is installed on two bearings 9, mobile tăvălugii de jos este instalat pe două lagăre 9, montate
mounted horizontally with guide rods 10. mobil pe tije orizontale de ghidare 10.
Adjusting the clearance between rollers is obtained Reglarea jocului dintre tăvălugi se obŃine prin
by moving the lower rollers on the guide lines with the deplasarea tăvălugilor inferiori pe ghidaje cu ajutorul
help of screw mechanisms 11. The speed control is mecanismelor cu şurub 11. Reglarea turaŃiilor tăvălugilor
performed by changing the gear ratio and electric de presare se efectuează prin schimbarea raportului de
frequency current with the help of an inverter. Squeezed transmisie şi a frecvenŃei curentului electric cu ajutorul
juice accumulates in the vessel 12, where it is invertorului. Sucul stors se acumulează în recipientul 12,
discharged with pump 13. de unde este evacuat cu pompa 13.
The technology line for squeezing juice from sweet Linia tehnologică pentru stoarcerea sucului din sorg
sorghum is composed by (Figure 1, b, c) the aggregate 1 zaharat are în componenŃa sa (fig.1, b,c) agregat 1
3 3
(Volum-15 m ) for the reception and distribution of raw (Volum-15 m ) pentru recepŃia şi distribuirea materiei
materials, worm - conveyor 2, power scraper system prime,transportor-melc 2, transportor de alimentare cu
conveyor 3, aerodynamic separator 4, vibrant dispenser raclete 3, separator aerodinamic 4, dozator vibrant 5,
5, press 6, 7, 8 with three rollers each for squeezing prese 6, 7, 8 cu trei tăvălugi fiecare pentru stoarcerea
juice, discharge conveyor 9 for evacuating and putting in sucului, transportor 9 pentru evacuarea bagasei în
transport vehicles. mijloace de transport.
296
During the experiments, there have been determined În cadrul experimentelor au fost determinate gradul de
the squeezing degree (extraction) of juice GE, stoarcere (extragere) a sucului GE, productivitatea Qmv,
productivity Qmv, specific energy consumption Ce consumul specific de energie Ce în dependenŃă de forŃa
depending on the pressure force P, the clearance de presare P, jocul dintre tăvălugi s, viteza de rotaŃie a
between rollers s and rollers rotation speed n, various tăvălugilor n, gradul de încărcare a presei Gî modalitatea
laden conditions of Gî press, how fragmented passages de înaintare a tulpinilor fragmentate în pasajele de
strains go forward into spin (longitudinal, transverse, mixed). stoarcere (longitudinal, transversal, mixt).
The squeezing juice was determined using the Gradul de stoarcere a sucului a fost determinat după
formula: formula:
ms m − mb
GE = ⋅100% = v ⋅100%, (1)
mv mv
where: mv - the amount of green mass, kg; unde: mv - cantitatea de masă verde, kg;
ms - mass of juice, kg; ms - masa sucului, kg;
mb - bagasse mass (squeezed stems), kg. mb - masa bagasei (tulpinilor stoarse), kg.
Productivity media was calculated using the formula: Productivitatea presei a fost calculată după formula:
mv mv
Q= (kg / s ) = 3,6 (t / h), (2)
τ τ
where: τ - pressing duration, s. unde: τ – durata presării, s.
The specific energy consumption: Consumul specific de energie:
E E ⋅ 1000
Ce = (kWh / kg ) = (kWh / t ), (3)
mv mv
where E - energy consumption, kWh. unde E – consum de energie, kW·h.
Press force P was determined by the size of ForŃa de presare P a fost determinată după mărimea
deformation arc - disc standard (calibrated) above. The deformării arc – discurilor etalonate (calibrate) anterior.
clearance between the rollers was spy measured by Jocul dintre tăvălugi s-a măsurat cu lere spioni. Pentru
feeler gauge. In order to determine the mass of samples determinarea masei probelor s-au utilizat balanŃe
were used electronic balance scales Alex, Kern with ±1% electronice Alex, Kern cu incertitudinea de măsurare
error. Power and energy consumption were determined ±1%. Puterea şi energia consumate au fost determinate
with inverter (model EI–S9001) and K505 measuring cu invertor (model EI–S9001) şi blocul de măsurare
block, length of time - with timer (model SOP type pr-2a- K505, durata de timp - cu cronometru (model SOP pr-2a-
2-010). 2-010).
The pressing force P depends on the arc-deflection ForŃa de presare P depinde de gradul deformării arc-
degree of the discs, which are located in the lateral discurilor, care sunt amplasaŃi în suporturi laterali ai
supports of the upper roller (fig. 1) and can be assembled tăvălugului superior (fig. 1) şi pot fi asamblaŃi câte unul (fig.
one by one (fig. 2, a) or in package couples (fig. 2, b). 2,a) sau mai multe cupluri în pachet (fig. 2,b). Modulul de
Compressive modulus of each arc disc E = 57.5 kN / mm. elasticitate la compresiune al fiecărui arc-disc E = 57,5
Researches were performed with three different arc-disc kN/mm. Cercetările au fost efectuate cu trei variante de
assembly (in packages of 2,3,4 couples), which ensures asamblare a arc-discurilor (în pachete câte 2,3,4 cupluri),
the maximum values of technological parameters: a) smax care asigură respectiv valorile maxime ale parametrilor
= 19 mm, Pmax = 180kN; b) smax = 14 mm, Pmax = 270 tehnologici: a) smax = 19 mm, Pmax =180kN; b) smax =14
kN; c) smax = 9mm, Pmax = 360kN. mm, Pmax = 270 kN; c) smax = 9mm, Pmax = 360kN.
Fig. 2 - Placement scheme of arc-disc package:

a) as 1 couple; b) as 4 couples
In the process research diameter of rollers, took În procesul cercetărilor diametrul tăvălugilor a avut
constant diameter (D=470 mm), which provides valoare constantă (D=470 mm), care conform calculelor
preliminary calculations and research training in the şi cercetărilor prealabile asigură antrenarea tulpinilor de
passage strains of sorghum and expected work sorg zaharat în pasaj şi productivitatea de lucru scontată
productivity (QMV = 10t / h). (Qmv =10t/h).
297
For mathematical relationships was used Statgraphics Pentru stabilirea relaŃiilor matematice a fost utilizat
Centurion XVI software, Version 1.16.17 (32-bit). soft-ul STATGRAPHICS Centurion XVI, Version 16.01.17 (32-bit).
RESULTS REZULTATE
After mathematical processing of the experimental După procesarea matematică a rezultatelor
results, are obtained the regression equation that experimentelor este obŃinută ecuaŃia de regresie, care
adequately express the degree of mechanical adecvat exprimă evoluŃia gradului de extragere mecanică
development of the juice extraction GE based on a sucului GE funcŃie de regimurile tehnologice de
pressing technological regimes: presare:
GE = −57.4 + 6.86 x1 + 0.43 x2 + 6.5 x3 − 0.477 x12 − 0.0012 x22 − 0.34 x32 (4)
From the analysis of the mathematical model (4), Din analiza modelului matematic (4), prezentat grafic
graphically shown in Figure 3, result the correctness of în figura 3, rezultă corectitudinea argumentărilor
theoretical argumentation, which demonstrates that the teoretice, care demonstrează că gradul de extragere GE
extraction degree GE increases with report decreasing creşte concomitent cu diminuarea raportului s/h (jocul în
s/h (the passage game / initial layer thickness). This may pasaj/grosimea iniŃială a stratului). Aceasta este posibil
be possible due to the increased labor force pressing P. datorită majorării forŃei de presare P. Majorarea forŃei P
Increasing force P in the range of 90 ÷ 130 kN the results în diapazonul 90 ÷130 kN are drept consecinŃă creşterea
are in faster growth of GE degree than in the range of P = mai rapidă a gradului GE, decât în diapazonul P = 130 ÷
130÷150 kN. 150 kN.
This can be explained by the fact that in the range P Aceasta se poate de explicat prin faptul că în
= 130 ÷ 150 kN P occurs the intense increase diapazonul P=130 ÷ 150 kN are loc majorarea intensă a
compression plant mass coefficient, K = γs / γ. coeficientului de comprimare a masei vegetale K = γs / γ.
(volumetric mass of the raw material and mass masa volumetrică a materiei prime şi respectiv masei
squeezed respectively, kg / m³) stoarse, kg/m³).
Same phenomenon occurs in the situation of Fenomenul identic are loc şi în cazul aplicării sarcinii
increased loading application on corn strains [9]. majorate asupra tulpinilor de porumb [9].
The low initial game between rollers (s≈3 mm) can Valoarea mică a jocului iniŃial dintre tăvălugi (s≈3 mm)
create conditions for pressing irregular coating raw creează condiŃii pentru presarea neuniformă a stratului
materials: stems with increased diameters are pressed to de materia primă: tulpinile cu diametrele majorate sunt
a greater extent. Increasing the pressing force P reduces presate în măsura mai mare. Mărirea forŃei P reduce
the non-uniformity of strains (fig. 3). Initially game range neuniformitatea presării tulpinilor (fig. 3). Jocul iniŃial cu
values of Sin = 5 ÷ 7 mm ensures the highest degree of intervalul valorilor Sin =5÷7 mm asigură cel mai înalt grad
extraction. Increasing game up to 10 mm again will de extragere. Majorarea jocului până la 10 mm din nou
reduce application of pressing uniformity forces. reduce uniformitatea aplicării forŃelor de presare
Fig. 3 - The degree of juice extraction from stems of sorghum based on technological press regimes
(roller speeds n = 11 min-1)
The second power of independent variables (equation Variabilele independente la puterea a doua (ecuaŃia 1)
1) forms the surface response curve (Figure 3) having formează curbura suprafeŃei de replică (fig.3), având
the reverse influence, which is the strongest in the influenŃă inversă, care este cea mai puternică din partea
original game ( x12 ) and roller speeds ( x32 ). Following the jocului iniŃial ( x12 ) şi turaŃiilor tăvălugilor ( x 32 ). Urmărirea
dominant influence effects on the extraction degree (fig. influenŃei efectelor dominante asupra gradului de
4) allows the character to be influence determined by the extragere (fig.4) permite să fie determinate caracterul
technological regimes (Sin, P, n) on GE and critical points influenŃei regimurilor tehnologice (sin, P, n) asupra GE şi
coordinates. coordonatele punctelor critice.
298
Fig. 4 - Dominant effects in technological pressing regimes on the degree of juice extraction
-1 -1
Using higher engine speed values by 10 ÷ 11 min to Utilizarea turaŃiilor cu valori mai mari de 10 ÷ 11 min
reduce the extraction degree from 28 ÷ 29% to 20% of reduce gradul de extragere de la 28 29% până la 20%
the decrease in the weight proportion of the influence din cauza scăderii proporŃionale a perioadei de influenŃă
period concerning the force of pressing plant. This asupra masei vegetale a forŃei de presare. Acest
phenomenon increases also the hydraulic resistance to
fenomen majorează şi rezistenŃa hidraulică la curgerea
the flow of juice.
sucului. Aşadar, valori maxime ale gradului de extragere
Therefore, the maximum values of the obtained
extraction level with the initial game between rollers Sin = se obŃin cu jocul iniŃial între tăvălugi sin = 5÷7 mm,
-1
-1
5÷7 mm, speeds rollers n = 10 ÷ 11 min , with the turaŃiile tăvălugilor n=10÷11 min , forŃa de presare P ≤
pressing force P ≤ 150 kN. 150 kN.
The dependence of the pressing productivity process DependenŃa productivităŃii procesului de presare Qmv
Qmv, by the three factors (initial game, roller pressing de cei trei factori (jocul iniŃial, forŃa de presare şi turaŃia
force and speed) is reflected in the next regression valŃurilor) este reflectată în ecuaŃia de regresie (5):
equation:
Qmv = 0.3 + 0.946 x1 − 0.086 x2 + 0.49 x3 − 0.0659 x12 + 0.032 x1 x3 + 0.0004x22 + 0.0038 x2 x3 − 0.028 x32 (5)
Analysis of the model (5), as shown in Figure 5, Analiza modelului (5), prezentat în figura 5,
demonstrates, as it was expected, from a theoretical demonstrează, precum a şi fost de aşteptat din analiza
analysis regarding a dependence by the technological teoretică, dependenŃa productivităŃii Qmv de regimurile
Qmv productivity regimes. The strongest influence on tehnologice. Cea mai puternică influenŃă asupra Qmv au
-1 -1
Qmv have speeds rollers: increasing n from 7 min to 15 turaŃiile tăvălugilor: majorarea turaŃiei n de la 7 min până
-1 -1
min increases almost proportionately the productivity la 15 min sporeşte productivitatea aproape proporŃional
(from 4.8 t / h to 9.0 t / h) (Figure 6). A small decrease of (de la 4,8 t/h până 9,0 t/h) (fig.6). O scădere mică a
the gradient of growth productivity at high speeds is dinamicii de creştere a productivităŃii la turaŃii mari se
probably due to strains on the surface of the slip rollers. datorează, probabil, patinării tulpinilor pe suprafaŃa
Productivity is as more dependent complexity by the tăvălugilor. Mai complexă este dependenŃa productivităŃii
initial game and pressing force because of their increase de jocul iniŃial, deoarece majorarea sin, permite creşterea
(Sin, P) enables growth of h thickness with raw material grosimii stratului h al materiei prime, numai după aceasta
and only afterwards - increasing the productivity. – mărirea productivităŃii.
By changing the initial slack within 3 ÷ 10 mm Cu schimbarea jocului iniŃial în limita 3÷10 mm
productivity is increased from 5.4 up to 7.9 t / h (Fig. 6). productivitatea creşte de la 5,4 pînă la 7,9 t/h (fig. 6a).
The force P applied to press-drive sector of the length L ForŃa P aplicată asupra sectorului de antrenare-presare
is determined from the formula: cu lungimea l se determină din formula:
P = pm ⋅ l ⋅ b (6)
where : unde:
pm - average pressure rollers on the material, N / m²; pm – presiunea medie a tăvălugilor asupra materialului,
b - width of compression zone, m. N/m²;
Since the experiments b width had a constant value, b – lăŃimea zonei de presare, m.
increasing force P (for each specific value of the game s Deoarece în experimentele efectuate lăŃimea b a avut
of the rollers) was possible by adding specific quantity valori constante, majorarea forŃei P (pentru fiecare
(QMV productivity) of the raw material, which influenced valoare concretă a jocului s dintre tăvălugi) a fost posibilă
prin adăugarea cantităŃii specifice (productivităŃii Qmv) a
299
the increasing of the raw thickness h, increasing the materiei prime, care a influenŃat creşterea valorilor
drive-pressing length sector, l, and mean pressure pm. grosimii stratului h, lungimii sectorului de antrenare-
Therefore, the increase of the pressing force P of 90 to presare, l, şi presiunii medii pm.
150 kN results in increased productivity within 6.5 ÷ 9.2 t / Prin urmare, majorarea forŃei de presare P de la 90
h (Fig. 6b), and at the same time the degree of extraction pînă 150 kN are drept consecinŃă creşterea productivităŃii
GE - 23.5 ÷ 31.5 % (fig. 4b). în limita 6,5 ÷ 9,2 t/h (fig. 6b) şi concomitent gradului de
Independent variables at the second power cause extragere GE – 23,5÷31,5 % (fig. 4b).
surface curvature of the response, being the highest in Variabilele independente la puterea a doua determină
changing the original game. This is probably due to curbura suprafeŃei de răspuns, ea fiind mai înaltă la
reduced mass bulk layer strains for Sin = 9 ÷ 10 mm. schimbarea jocului iniŃial. Aceasta se întâmplă, probabil,
din cauza scăderii masei în vrac a stratului de tulpini
pentru Sin = 9÷10 mm.
Fig. 5 - Productivity process of the juice extraction according to the technological regimes
(roller speeds n = 11 min-1)
Following the influence of dominant effects (Figure 6) Urmărirea influenŃei efectelor dominante (fig.6) face
makes the determination possible to establish the posibilă determinarea coordonatelor punctelor critice şi
coordinates of the critical points and character of the caracterului influenŃei regimurilor tehnologice asupra
technological influence on productivity pressing process. productivităŃii procesului de presare.
Under the investigated conditions, for the maximum În condiŃiile cercetate valorile maxime ale productivităŃii
productivity (Qmv ≈ 9.3 t / h) can be obtained with the (Qmv ≈ 9,3 t/h) pot fi obŃinute cu jocul iniŃial Sin = 9÷10
-1
original game Sin = 9 ÷ 10 mm, the pressing force - P ≤ mm, forŃa de presare - P ≤ 150 kN, turaŃii – n = 15 min .
-1
150 kN, speed - n = 15 min . Final recommendations Recomandări finale privind valorile optime ale regimurilor
regarding the optimal values of the technological regimes tehnologice se poate de făcut în baza analizei comune a
can be done on the basis for joint analysis of all technical tuturor parametrilor tehnico-economici, inclusiv puterii
and economic parameters, including power consumption. consumate.
Power required to drive the torque rollers depends Puterea necesară pentru acŃionarea cuplului de
on technological regimes studied conforming to the tăvălugi depinde de regimuri tehnologice în condiŃii
model. cercetate conform modelului.
N = 3.83 − 0.53 x1 − 0.047 x2 − 0.043 x3 + 0.05 x12 + 0.0003 x22 + 0.004 x2 x3 + 0.013 x32 (6)
Fig. 6 - Dominant effects of technological regimes on productivity of the pressing process
300
The results obtained shows the minimal impact on the Rezultatele obŃinute demonstrează influenŃa minimă a
power consumption of the Sin initial game (fig.7) and the jocului iniŃial Sin asupra puterii consumate (fig.7) şi
more significant influence N of the pressing force P and influenŃa mult mai însemnată asupra N a forŃei de
the engine speed n rollers, which corresponds to the presare P, precum şi a turaŃiilor tăvălugilor n, ceea ce
theoretical calculations, that the power consumption corespunde calculelor teoretice, conform cărora puterea
depends proportionally by the average pressure in the consumată la presare depinde proporŃional de presiunea
rollers contact area, raw material thickness degree, medie în zona de contact cu tăvălugii, gradul subŃierii
angular velocity N = f (pm, ∆h, ω). That is, in our case, the stratului de materie primă, viteza unghiulară: N = f (pm,
power N depends preponderantly by force P and speeds ∆h, ω). Adică, în cazul nostru puterea N depinde
n. prepoderent de forŃa P şi turaŃii n.
Fig. 7 - Power consumption in the process of pressing sorghum strains depending on technological regimes (n speed rollers = 11 min-1)
The dynamic dominant Influence demonstrates that Dinamica influenŃei efectelor dominante demonstrează
changing the original game within Sin = 3 ÷ 10 mm limits că cu schimbarea jocului iniŃial în limita Sin =3÷10 mm
of power consumption, N, remains at 7.4 ± 0.4 kW (fig.8) puterea consumată N se menŃine la nivel de 7,4 ± 0,4 kW
and increase pressure force from 90 to 150 kN enhances (fig. 8.), iar majorarea forŃei de presare de la 90 până 150
power consumption in the range of 5.4 ÷ 9.4 kW. The kN sporeşte consumul puterii în diapazonul 5,4 ÷ 9,4 kW.
greatest influence has the speed rollers: they are Cea mai mare influenŃă au turaŃiile tăvălugilor: mărirea
increasing from 7 to 15 min-1 is due to increased acestora de la 7 până 15 min-1 este cauza creşterii
consumption from 4.4 to 10.2 kW. consumului de la 4,4 până 10,2 kW.
The conducted researches have allowed optimal Cercetările efectuate permit argumentarea valorilor
technological argumentation parameters by mechanical optime ale parametrilor tehnologici de stoarcere mecanică a
squeezing juice from sorghum stems. Under the sucului din tulpinile sorgului. În condiŃiile studiate
conditions studied the optimal initial game Sin = 5.5 ÷ 7.5 valoarea optimă a jocului iniŃial Sin = 5,5 ÷ 7,5 mm
mm ensure the maximum degree extraction of GE and asigură valorile maxime ale gradului de extragere GE şi
productivity Qmv, little influence on the power N. Pressing productivităŃii Qmv, puŃin influenţând asupra puterii N.
force P value ≤ 150 kN allows to achieve the maximum Valoarea forŃei de presare P ≤ 150 kN permite a obŃine
possible values of GE and Qmv requiring maximum power valorile maxim posibile ale GE şi Qmv, necesitând şi
consumption. consumul maxim al puterii.
Fig. 8 - Dominant effects of technological regimes regarding the power consumption
301
The recommended amount of speed rollers is n = 10 ÷ Valoarea recomandată a turaŃiilor tăvălugilor este n =
-1 -1
11min , providing, in first place, the maximum degree of 10 ÷ 11min , asigurând, în primul rând, valoarea maximă
extraction. a gradului de extragere.
1. Experimental research results show the correctness of 1. Rezultatele cercetărilor experimentale demonstrează
the theoretical argumentation of the basic constructive corectitudinea argumentărilor teoretice ale schemei
scheme and functional parameters of the press for constructive şi parametrilor funcŃionali de bază ai presei
squeezing juice. pentru stoarcerea sucului.
2. Mathematical models obtained under experimental 2. Modelele matematice obŃinute în baza cercetărilor
research for determining the optimal values of process experimentale permit determinarea valorilor optime ale
parameters for squeezing juice from sweet sorghum parametrilor procesului de stoarcere a sucului din
stems, using press rollers: first game between the first tulpinile sorgului zaharat, utilizând presa cu tăvălugi: jocul
passage by squeezing rollers: 5.5 ÷ 7.5 mm, the pressing iniŃial dintre tăvălugi în primul pasaj de stoarcere: 5,5 ÷ 7,5
-1
force: 140 ÷ 150 kN roller speeds: 10 ÷ 11 min (linear mm, forŃa de presare: 140 ÷ 150 kN, turaŃiile tăvălugilor:
-1
speed: 0.246 ÷ 0.27 m/s). 10 ÷ 11 min (viteza liniară: 0,246 ÷ 0,27 m/s).
[1]. Antohe I. (2006) - Sorghum culture and total [1]. Antohe I. (2006) - Cultura sorgului zaharat şi
industrialization. Perspectives for sustainable industrializarea lui totală. Perspective pentru dezvoltarea
development of Romanian agriculture, Chiminform, 302 durabilă a agriculturii româneşti, Chiminform, 302 p.,
p., Bucharest, ISBN 973-88183-1-1; 978-973-88183-1-6. Bucureşti, ISBN 973-88183-1-1; 978-973-88183-1-6.
[2]. Grassi G, Pietro Moncada P.C., Henri Z. (1992) - [2]. Grassi G, Pietro Moncada P.C., Henri Z. (1992) -
Promising industrial energy crop: Sweet Sorghum. Promiţător pentru culturile energetice, industriale:
Recent developments in Europe, Commission of the Sorghum dulce. Evoluţiile recente din Europa, Comisia
European Communities, 73p.; Comunităţilor Europene, 73p.;
[3]. Hailis G.A., Kovalev M.M. (1994) - Agricultural [3]. Hailis G.A., Kovalev M.M. (1994) - Cercetarea
technology research and experimental data. Kolos tehnicii agricole şi prelucrarea datelor experimentale.
Publishing House Moscow, 170 p.; Editura Kolos Moscova, 170 p.;
[4]. Korolev А.А. (1969) - Construction and calculating [4]. Korolev А.А. (1969) - ConstrucŃia şi calculul
the laminate machines and mechanisms. Publisher maşinilor şi mecanismelor pentru laminori. Editura
Metallurg, Мoscova, 277 p.; Metallurgia, Мoscova, 277 p.;
[5]. Sapronov А.R. (1983) - Sugar technology. Publisher [5]. Sapronov А.R. (1983) - Tehnologia zahărului. Editura
Pişcevaia i legkaia promâşlennosti, Moscova, 292 p.; Pişcevaia i legkaia promâşlennosti, Moscova, 292 p.;
[6]. Smith et alt. (1987) - Evolution of Sweet Sorghum for [6]. Smith et alt. (1987)- Evolutia sorgului dulce pentru
fermentable Sugar production Potential. In: Crop potenţialul de fermentaţie a zahărului. In: Stiinţa
Science, vol. 27, nr. 4, 1, p. 788-790; Recoltării, vol. 27, nr. 4, 1, p. 788-790;
[7]. Sokolov A. (1969) - Basis of calculation and design [7]. Sokolov A. (1969) - Bazele calculului şi proiectării
for vending machines and food production, Publishing maşinilor şi automatelor în producŃia alimentară, Editura
Maşinostroenie, Мoscova, 640 p.; Maşinostroenie, Мoscova, 640 p.;
[8]. Stabnicov V.N. (1976) - Food production equipment [8]. Stabnicov V.N. (1976) - Procese şi aparate în
and processes. Publishing Pişcevaia promâşlennosti, producŃia alimentară. Editura Pişcevaia promâşlennosti,
Moscova, 664 p.; Moscova, 664 p.;
[9]. Şatilov К.V. şi alŃii. (1981) - Corn harvesting [9]. Şatilov К.V. şi alŃii. (1981) - Maşini de recoltat
machineries. Publishing Maşinostroenie, Мoscova, 224 p. porumb. Editura Maşinostroenie, Мoscova, 224 p.
302
THEORETICAL ARGUMENTATION ON THE CHOICE OF VALUES FOR THE PARAMETERS

OF THE PRESS DESIGNED TO SQUEEZE OUT THE JUICE FROM PLANTS STEMS
/
MOTIVAREA TEORETICĂ A ALEGERII VALORILOR PARAMETRILOR PRESEI PENTRU
STOARCEREA SUCULUI DIN TULPINILE PLANTELOR
PhD. Eng. Cerempei V.
Institute of Agricultural Machinery „Mecagro”, Chisinau/ Moldova
Tel: (37322) 49-21-31, 44-00-87. E-mail: institut@mecagro.md, www.mecagro.md
Abstract: In order to ensure the optimum conditions of Rezumat: Cu scopul asigurării condiŃiilor optime ale
process of squeezing the juice from plants stems (sweet procesului de stoarcere a sucului din tulpinile plantelor
sorghum, sugar cane, etc.) the choice of the value for (sorgului zaharat, trestiei de zahăr etc.) se motivează
parameters of the press are argued. teoretic alegerea valorilor parametrilor presei.
Keywords: plants stems, press, rollers, driving, Cuvinte cheie: tulpinile plantelor, presa, tăvălugi, antrenare,
squeezing, juice, constructive and kinematic parameters. stoarcere, suc, parametrii constructivi şi cinematici
Analysis of technologies which capitalize the sugar Analiza tehnologiilor de valorificare a potenŃialului
cane and sweet sorghum energetic potential have energetic al trestiei de zahăr şi sorgului zaharat
demonstrated the importance of stems juice squeezing demonstrează importanŃa procesului de stoarcere a
process [3, 8, 9]. Squeezing influences the quality and sucului din tulpinile acestora [3,8,9]. Procesul de
cost price of the end product-ethanol. At the same time, stoarcere influenŃează calitatea şi preŃul de cost al
the efficiency of the process above depends on produsului final-etanolului. La rândul său, eficienŃa
constructive scheme and parameters of the squeezing procesului menŃionat depinde de schema constructivă şi
installation. Within the existing information sources [1, 3, parametrii utilajului de stoarcere. În sursele de informaŃie
6, 8, 9, 10] scheme and parameters argumentation is existente [1,3,6,8,9,10] argumentarea schemelor şi a
fragmentary presented, the plants morphological features parametrilor este prezentată fragmentar, nu totdeauna
(particularly of sweet sorghum) are not always taken into sunt luate în consideraŃie proprietăŃile morfologice ale
account. plantelor (îndeosebi, ale sorgului zaharat).
Therefore, the aim of this paper is the theoretical Prin urmare, scopul prezentei lucrări este motivarea
argumentation on the choice of the values for the teoretică a alegerii valorilor parametrilor ai presei cu
parameters of the roller press (roller diameter D, the tăvălugi (diametrului tăvălugilor D, jocul s dintre
clearance s between rollers, the pressing force P, roller tăvălugi, forŃei de presare P, turaŃiilor tăvălugilor n) în
RPM n) in dependence with the rate of extraction of juice, dependenŃă de gradul extragerii a sucului,
the productivity of the technological process of pressing productivitatea procesului tehnologic de presare a
green matter, the energy consumed. masei verzi, puterea consumată.

Only after studying and taking into consideration the Alegerea unui principiu reuşit de presare este posibilă
morphological particularities of sorghum stems and their în baza studierii şi respectării particularităŃilor morfologice
related deformation theories, it will be possible to choose ale tulpinilor de sorg şi teoriilor existente de deformare a
a successful pressing principle. As recently mentioned acestora. După cum s-a menŃionat recent [1,3], tulpina
[1,3], the sorghum stem consists in short nodes and long sorgului constă din noduri scurte şi internoduri lungi (l =
internodes (l = 100...200mm), externally protected by a 100...200mm), protejate din exterior de un tegument solid
solid cellulose, relatively thin, tegument. Internodes are din celuloză, relativ subŃire. Internodurile sunt pline în
full of developed medullar tissue inside, the saccharides interior de Ńesut medular dezvoltat, zaharurile sunt
are dissolved into water and stored in medullar tissue. dizolvate în apă şi depozitate în Ńesutul medular. Aşadar,
So, sorghum stem consists in two basic elements: tulpina sorgului constă din două elemente de bază:
a) Solid tegument with a reduced humidity degree a) tegument solid cu grad mic de umiditate (10...15%);
(10...15%); b) Ńesut medular cu grad de umiditate de până la 90%.
b) Medullar tissue with a humidity degree up to 90%. La rândul său, fiecare din elementele menŃionate are o
At their turn, each of mentioned elements has a carcasă cu proprietăŃi elastice şi plastice, preponderent
carcass with elastic and plastic features, mainly of din celuloză, şi o substanŃă de umplere cu proprietăŃi de
cellulose and a filling substance with viscosity properties, viscozitate, preponderent din soluŃii apoase ale hidraŃilor
particularly made of watery solutions of carbon hydrates. de carbon.
It is obvious that during the juice extraction from Este evident că, în procesul extragerii sucului din
sorghum stems, the tegument should be first crushed tulpinile sorgului trebuie mai întâi să fie zdrobit
and afterwards the medullar tissue deformed for the juice tegumentul şi apoi deformat Ńesutul medular, pentru a se
could let out. scurge sucul.
Specialists from VISHOM Institute [11] have studied Specialiştii Institutului VISHOM [11] au studiat
the influence of load applied on maize stems relative influenŃa sarcinii aplicate asupra deformaŃiei relative a
deformation, which have a similar morphology with sweet tulpinilor de porumb, care au morfologia similară cu cea a
sorghum stems. In the first stage (OA) when the force is tulpinilor de sorg zaharat. La prima etapă (OA) de
applied, the stem deformation raises proportionally (up to aplicare a forŃei, deformaŃia tulpinii creşte proporŃional
16%) along with force increased up to 0.26 kN (fig. 1). (până la 16%) cu majorarea forŃei până la 0,26 kN (fig. 1).
303
Fig. 1 – Dependence of relative deformation of maize stems εon applied load F:

1 – accoding to data [11]; 2,3 - according to hypothesis of subsequent deformations[4], 3a, 3b, 3c - ε = f(P)at different speed
dPa dPb dPc )

Of force applyin ( < <
dτ dτ dτ
In this stage, the variation of relative deformation is La această etapă variaŃia deformaŃiei relative
ε OA = 0,62% /0,01kN. Force growth can probably lead ε OA = 0,62% /0,01kN. Creşterea de mai departe a forŃei
to relaxation of internal tensions in tegument body and its duce, probabil, la relaxarea tensiunilor interne în carcasa
deterioration along fibers. This is proved by increased tegumentului şi deteriorarea lui de-a lungul fibrelor.
variation of deformation ( ε AB = 0,8% /0,01kN) up to Despre aceasta mărturiseşte variaŃia sporită
24%, along with a rather small growth of force (up to ( ε AB = 0,8% /0,01kN) a deformării, pînă la 24%, cu
0.36kN). Deterioration of tegument is, in fact, determined creşterea relativ mică a forŃei (pînă la 0,36kN).
by force applying on medullar tissue, which is deforming Deteriorarea tegumentului este cauza aplicării forŃei
at a variation of 5% / 0.01 kN speed, thus obtaining the asupra Ńesutului medular, care se deformează cu variaŃia
stem total deformation up to 64% (BC) along with a small de 5% / 0,01 kN, prin urmare obŃinînd deformaŃia totală a
growth of compressing force (up to 0.44 kN). When it tulpinii de până la 64% (BC) cu creşterea mică a forŃei de
keeps on increasing the force up to 0.64 kN the stem can comprimare (până la 0,44 kN). Continuarea majorării
deform from 64 up to 80% ( ε CD = 0,8% / 0,01 kN). forŃei până la 0,64 kN are drept consecinŃă deformarea
Monographic research conducted on the press of the tulpinii de la 64 pînă la 80% ( ε CD = 0,8% / 0,01 kN).
wine press type [5] on sweet sorghum stems have shown Cercetările monografice efectuate pe presa de tip teasc
the same character in the variation of the relative [5] cu tulpinile de sorg zaharat au demonstrat acelaşi
deformation depending on the force applied. For the last, caracter al variaŃiei deformaŃiei relative funcŃie de sarcina
in the fourth stage (CD), the actual juice extraction is aplicată. La ultima, a patra etapă (CD), s-a evidenŃiat
highlighted. extragerea propriu-zisă a sucului.
According to acad. F. Beleankin’s theory, under the Conform teoriei acad. F. Beleankin, sub acŃiunea
action of external forces P, elements of carcass begin to forŃelor exterioare P, elementele carcasei se deformează,
deform, and the filling substance presents a viscous iar substanŃa de umplere manifestă rezistenŃă vâscoasă
resistance against the movement of carcass elements, contra mişcărilor elementelor carcasei, sporind rezistenŃa
thus increasing the resistance and rigidity of whole body. şi rigiditatea corpului întreg. Limita rezistenŃei carcasei
The limit of resistance of the carcass Rcarc does not Rcarc nu depinde de durata acŃionării sarcinii statice,
depend on length of action of static load, viscous rezistenŃa vâscoasă a substanŃei de umplere Rvisc se
resistance of filling substance Rvisc changes in time, schimbă în timp, apropiindu-se de zero la acŃionarea
approaching zero when force P.is is driven for a long îndelungată a forŃei P. În acest caz, rezistenŃa corpului va
time. In this case, the body resistance will be determined fi determinată numai de rezistenŃa carcasei, astfel încît
only by the carcass resistance, so that for the pentru deteriorarea corpului în scopul extragerii sucului
deterioration of the body in the purpose of extracting the este necesară aplicarea unei sarcini mai mari decât limita
juice it is necessary to apply a load bigger than carcass rezistenŃei carcasei (P>Rcarc). La acŃionarea rapidă
resistance limit (P>Rcarc). When rapidly acted to pentru deteriorarea corpului, sarcina aplicată trebuie să
deteriorate the body, the load applied should surpass the depăşească rezistenŃa carcasei şi rezistenŃa vîscoasă a
carcass resistance and viscous resistance of the filling
substanŃei de umplere ( F > Rcarc + Rvisc ).
substance ( F > Rcarc + Rvisc ). În contextul celor expuse, se poate presupune că
Within the context of those above said, it can be aplicarea forŃei la tulpinile sorgului zaharat la început
304
supposed that the force applied on sweet sorghum stems deformează (sector OA, fig. 1) şi deteriorează (sector AB)
first deforms (sector OA, fig. 1) and deteriorates (sector tegumentul solid, care, având umiditatea mică, manifestă
AB) the solid tegument, which, having reduced humidity, prioritar rezistenŃă carcasei Rcarc. De aceea, pentru
puts resistance to carcass Rcarc. Therefore, for deteriorate deteriorarea tegumentului contează nu atît perioada
the tegument it is important not only the period of acŃionării forŃei exterioare P, cât valoarea ei,
applying external force P, but also its value, respecting respectându-se condiŃia: P>Rcarc. La deteriorarea
the condition: P>Rcarc. When the medullar tissue Ńesutului medular cu conŃinut de suc de pînă la 90%,
containing up to 90% juice is deteriorated, the viscous factor determinant devine rezistenŃa vâscoasă Rvisc. După
resistance Rvisc becomes decisive. After deteriorating the deteriorarea tegumentului sub influenŃa forŃei exterioare,
tegument by the influence of an external force, the se produce deformarea şi deteriorarea carcasei Ńesutului
medullar tissue carcass is deformed and deteriorated by medular cu înlăturarea aerului dintre elementele Ńesutului
removing the air between tissue elements (sector BC, (sectorul BC fig.1). Mai departe (sectorul CD), pentru
fig.1). Further on (sector CD), in order to squeeze the stoarcerea sucului, forŃa P trebuie să depăşească
juice, force P should surpass resistance Rvisc+Rcarc. rezistenŃa Rvisc+Rcarc.
It results that the juice extraction degree GE depends De aici rezultă că gradul extragerii sucului GE depinde
not only on the force applied F, but also on application nu numai de forŃa aplicată P, dar şi de durata aplicării τ,
length of time τ, namely GE =f (P;τ). Respectively, for adică GE =f (P;τ). Respectiv, pentru stoarcerea sucului în
squeezing the juice from the press with rollers GE = f presă cu tăvălugi GE = f(P,1/n, n-turaŃiile tăvălugilor)
(P,1/n, n- roller speed) (fig.1). Previous experiments have (fig.1). Experimentele prealabile au demonstrat, că gradul
demonstrated that the juice extraction degree GE when de extragere GE a sucului la aplicarea forŃei P cu una şi
applying the force P during the same period τ is higher, aceeaşi durată τ este mai ridicat, când forŃa P nu se
when force P does not apply continuously, but aplică în continuu, ci periodic, de mai multe ori. Acest
periodically, several times. This application method mod de aplicare reduce valoarea forŃei necesare pentru
reduces the value of force necessary for deteriorating the deteriorarea carcaselor tegumentului şi Ńesutului medular,
carcasses of tegument and medullar tissue, as well as for precum şi pentru stoarcerea sucului din masă verde prin
squeezing the juice from green matter by improving the îmbunătăŃirea, în stratul tulpinilor, a condiŃiilor de
draining conditions. scurgere.
According to the theory of academics A. Ioffe, P. Conform teoriei academicienilor A. Ioffe, P. Rebinder,
Rebinder, I. Frenkeli, resistance to deterioration of I. Frenkeli, rezistenŃa deteriorării corpurilor solide depinde
solid bodies mostly depends on micro and macro în mare măsură de micro şi macrodefecte, amplasate în
defects, in body structure. Because of these structura corpului. Datorită acestor defecte, rezistenŃa la
shortcomings the deterioration resistance diminishes deteriorare scade de 100...1000 de ori în raport cu corpul
by 100...1000 times comparing to ideal body without ideal fără defecte. În procesul deformării corpului solid,
any defects. In the process of solid body deformation, sporesc numărul şi dimensiunile defectelor, care, la o
the number and dimensions of defects, which at a anumită densitate, se unesc prin relaxarea tensiunilor
certain density joint by relaxing internal strains interne, formându-se crăpături. Formarea crăpăturilor, cu
increase, forming cracks. Formation of cracks, with deteriorarea structurii tulpinilor, este principala condiŃie
stem structure deterioration is the main condition for pentru extragerea sucului. Aplicarea ciclică a sarcinilor
extracting the juice. Applying cyclically loads on solid asupra corpului solid majorează, cu fiecare ciclu următor,
body gets more numerous and bigger the defects, thus numărul şi dimensiunile defectelor, reducând prin
reducing the body resistance. urmare, rezistenŃa acestui corp.
At wine press type presses (fig.2.a ) the viscous La prese de tip teasc (fig.2.a) se poate exclude
resistance may be excluded Rvisc from the great rezistenŃa vâscoasă Rvisc din contul duratei mari de
acting duration of load applied P, assuring evacuation acŃionare a sarcinii aplicate P, asigurându-se condiŃii de
conditions for juice. Surpassing this load upon stem evacuare a sucului. Depăşirea acestei sarcini asupra
carcass resistance ( P > Rcarc ) is theoretically rezistenŃei carcasei tulpinii ( P > Rcarc ) teoretic este
possible, first, by diminishing the area of cross section posibilă, în primul rând, prin micşorarea ariei secŃiunii
of the press. But, practically, it is impossible, because transversale a presei. Însă, practic, este imposibilă,
it importantly reduces the press productivity, which is deoarece reduce esenŃial productivitatea presei, care
discreetly driven. este cu acŃionare discretă.
Comparing to press house, the helical press (screw) Spre deosebire de teasc, presa elicoidală (şnec)
(fig.2.b) has a steady driving system, enabling to obtain (fig.2.b) este cu acŃionare continuă, ceea ce avantajează
high productivity. In this case, the duration of applying obŃinerea unei înalte productivităŃi. În acest caz, însă
load P will be relatively small and determined by the durata acŃionării sarcinii P va fi relativ mică şi determinată
period spent by raw matter in press chamber. As a result, de perioada aflării materiei prime în camera presei. Prin
the load applied should surpass the sum of carcass urmare, sarcina aplicată trebuie să depăşească suma
resistance of stems fragments and viscous substance: rezistenŃelor carcaselor fragmentelor tulpinilor şi
P>Rcarc+Rvisc. substanŃei vîscoase: P>Rcarc+Rvisc.
305
a) ................................................. .b) c)
Fig. 2 – Main schemes of press operating:
a) of house press type (1–support plate; 2–bowl; 3–matter pressed; 4–piston; 5–band); b) helical (1–screw; 2–cylinder; 3–cane
trash; 4–juice); c) with rollers (1–roller; 2–pressed matter; 3–vessel recipient)
An important drawback of helical press is the Un neajuns important al presei elicoidale este –
necessity to mince the stems fragments, including the necesitatea mărunŃirii fine a fragmentelor tulpinilor,
tegument fibers: non compliance to these conditions inclusiv a fibrelor tegumentului: nerespectarea acestei
might determine the press clogging. The work necessary condiŃii duce la înfundarea presei. Lucrul mecanic
for shredding is determined according to [6] from necesar la mărunŃire se determină conform [6] din
equation: A = kD
q
ecuaŃia: A = mD
q
, where: D – dimension , unde: D – dimensiunea
characteristic of fragments (particles) obtained; m, q – caracteristică a fragmentelor (particulelor) obŃinute; m, q
coefficients (q =2 – Rittinger law, q =3 – Kirpiciov-Chik, q – coeficienŃi (q =2 – legea lui Rittinger, q =3 – Kirpiciov-
=2,5 – Bond). Chik, q =2,5 – Bond).
From the formula above, it results that for shredding Din formula mai sus menŃionată, rezultă că pentru
the raw material, much more energy than for pressing mărunŃirea materiei prime poate fi consumată mai multă
might be consumed. energie decât la presare.
The roller press (fig. 2.c), as well as the helical press Presa cu tăvălugi (fig. 2.c), ca şi cea elicoidală, este
operates continuously, but comparing to the latter it is de funcŃionare continuă, însă, spre deosebire de ultima
simpler and more reliable in exploitation. As the raw este mai simplă şi mai sigură în exploatare. Deoarece
material contact to rollers lasts little time, the durata contactului materiei prime cu suprafaŃa activă a
condition F > Rcarc + Rvisc has to be respected. tăvălugilor este mică, este necesară respectarea condiŃiei
Rollers specificity is given by the fact that, in area of P > Rcarc + Rvisc Specificul tăvălugilor constă în faptul
contact with processed matter, the load first applied is că, în zona contactului cu materia prelucrată, sarcina
rather small, mostly increasing to its highest point in area aplicată iniŃial este relativ mică, crescând la maximum în
where the distance between rollers is minimum. zona distanŃei minime dintre tăvălugi. Prin urmare,
Therefore, if one respects certain requirements (green respectând unele condiŃii (tasarea masei verzi la intrarea
matter compression when entering the rollers, conducting în tăvălugi, executarea procesului de presare conform
the pressing process according to the scientific recomandărilor ştiinŃifice), se pot obŃine sarcini necesare
recommendations), can be obtained suitable loads to pentru extragerea sucului, cu consum de energie mai mic
extract the juice, with less energy consumption than decât la presa elicoidală. Cu atât mai mult, presa cu
helical press. Moreover, the roller press does not need to tăvălugi nu necesită mărunŃirea tulpinilor, ultima fiind
mince the stems, unless when necessary to executată numai în măsura necesară mecanizării
mechanization process of stems loading and, procesului de încărcare în utilaj şi separării aerodinamice
respectively separating the leaves from the stems. a frunzelor de tulpini.
Dependence of the relative deformations of stems on DependenŃa deformaŃiilor relative ale tulpinilor de
the applied load ε = f (P) (fig. 1) is mostly respected in sarcina aplicată ε = f (P) (fig. 1) se respectă în cea mai
case of roller presses, where when entering the passages mare măsură la prese cu tăvălugi, unde la intrarea în
(fig. 2.c) with rather reduced forces, determines tegument pasaje (fig. 2.c) cu forŃe relativ mici, se produce
deformation and deterioration, and in area of minimum deformarea şi deteriorarea tegumentului, iar în zona
distance between rollers (maximum load) – juice distanŃei minime dintre tăvălugi (sarcina maximă) –
squeezing, draining through the layer of stems deformed stoarcerea sucului, care se scurge prin stratul tulpinilor
when entering the passage. Dependence ε = f (P) when deformate. DependenŃa ε = f (P) la trecerea tulpinilor
stems move through the subsequent passages has, prin următoarele pasaje are, probabil, deformaŃii în
probably, less deformations (fig. 1, curves 2, 3). After scădere (fig. 1, curbele 2, 3). După alegerea raporturilor
choosing the optimum relations between passages gaps, optime dintre jocurile pasajelor, cea mai mare parte a
the most part of energy in the last passage will be energiei în ultimul pasaj va fi consumată pentru presarea
consumed for pressing the matter and extracting the juice. masei şi extragerea sucului.
306
RESULTS REZULTATE
After analyzing the existing technologies and În baza analizei tehnologiilor şi utilajelor existente
equipment for extracting the juice from saccharate pentru extragerea sucului din tulpinile plantelor
plant stems, was argued the necessity of using roller zaharoase, a fost argumentată necesitatea utilizării
presses to squeeze the juice from the sweet sorghum preselor cu tăvălugi pentru stoarcerea sucului din tulpinile
stems. sorgului zaharat.
To motivate the values of the basic parameters of a Pentru motivarea valorilor a parametrilor de bază ai unei
press, which, having a reasonable price ensures the prese, care, având un preŃ rezonabil, să asigure necesităŃile
necessities of modern production in high quantities of raw producŃiei moderne în cantităŃi mari de suc brut din sorg
juice from sweet sorghum, the work conditions of the zaharat, destinat obŃinerii etanolului şi altor produse, au fost
pressing process were analyzed. analizate condiŃiile de lucru ale procesului de presare.
The initial and compulsory phase of the pressing Faza iniŃială şi obligatorie a procesului de presare
process is the engaging (laminating) the stems between este antrenarea (laminarea) tulpinilor între tăvălugi.
the rollers. Laminating the solid substances is well Laminarea substanŃelor solide este bine reflectată
reflected theoretically and largely used in the functioning teoretic şi utilizată pe larg în funcŃionarea combinelor de
of the corn harvesters [11], aggregates for laminating recoltat porumb [11], agregatelor de laminat culturi
fodder crops [6], equipment in the food industry [9, 10], furajere [6], utilajelor din industria alimentară [9,10],
metallurgical rolling mills [4]. The next stage of the laminorilor metalurgice [4]. Următoarea fază a
pressing process is the mechanical squeezing of juice by procesului de presare este stoarcerea mecanică a
applying the necessary load. Further, a theoretical sucului prin aplicarea sarcinilor necesare. În continuare
analysis will be conducted for the pressing process as a va fi efectuată analiza teoretică a procesului de presare
whole (the stages of engaging the stems and squeezing în ansamblu (faze de antrenare a tulpinilor şi stoarcere
the juice), which is insufficiently reflected in the specialty mecanică a sucului), care este insuficient reflectat în
literature. literatura de specialitate.
Fig. 3 – Scheme of force applying on material pressed
Stems driving between rollers. When extracting Antrenarea tulpinilor între tăvălugi. La extragerea
the juice from saccharate plants stems, the most sucului din tulpinile plantelor zaharoase, cea mai
frequent operation is matter pressing between two frecventă este presarea materialului între doi tăvălugi cu
rollers with equal diameters and rotation speed. Layer valori egale ale diametrelor şi vitezelor de rotaŃie. Stratul
of raw material with initial thickness h (fig. 3) is de materie primă cu grosimea iniŃială h (fig. 3) se
pressed up to its thickness s, equal to gap between presează până la grosimea s, egală cu jocul pasajului
rollers. According to [4, 6, 10], rollers load on stem dintre tăvălugi. Conform [4,6,10], sarcinile tăvălugilor
layer for each area are perpendicular on contact asupra stratului de tulpini pentru fiecare zonă sunt
surface and can be reduced at a resulting force P. îndreptate perpendicular pe suprafaŃa de contact şi pot fi
Decomposing this force in two perpendicular directions reduse la o forŃă rezultantă P. Descompunând această
– that of material compression and, respectively, its forŃă în două direcŃii perpendiculare - a comprimării
displacement, we receive the components Py (material materialului şi, respectiv, a deplasării lui, primim
is compressed) and Px (material is pushed from the componentele Py (comprimă materialul) şi Px (împinge
passage). Except this, the friction forces act materialul din pasaj). În afară de aceasta, tangenŃial
tangentially to rollers surface on material, forces suprafeŃei tăvălugilor asupra materialului acŃionează
shown by resultant F. Decomposing this force on the forŃele de frecare, care pot fi prezentate prin rezultanta F.
same directions as P, we obtain the components Fx, Descompunând această forŃă pe aceleaşi direcŃii ca şi P,
which drive the material between rollers and Fy, which obŃinem componentele Fx, care antrenează materialul între
contributes to material pressing. A detailed study of tăvălugi, şi Fy, care contribuie la presarea materialului. Din
pressing process has demonstrated that, when rollers studiul mai detaliat al procesului de presare este evident
approach and gap s in passage diminishes, the că, la apropierea tăvălugilor cu micşorarea jocului s în
contact angle α increases (if thickness h=const.) and pasaj, unghiul de contact α creşte (dacă grosimea
307
force applying point P moves away from line of centre h=const.) şi punctul de aplicare a forŃei P se îndepărtează
O1O2, which makes component Px grow on the de linia centrului O1O2 , ceea ce duce la majorarea
account of Py. When force Px surpasses the componentei Px din contul Py. În momentul în care forŃa Px
component of friction force Fx the roller begins to skid depăşeşte componenta forŃei de frecare Fx începe
and material displacement stops. patinarea tăvălugului şi deplasarea materialului se stopează.
RESULTS REZULTATE
As it results from those said above, the condition of După cum rezultă din cele expuse, condiŃia antrenării
material driving between rollers is: materialului între tăvălugi este:
Fx ≥ Px, (1)
or sau
F ⋅ cosα ≥ P ⋅ sin α → P tg ϕ cosα ≥ Psinα, (2)
where ϕ is the material friction angle to the roller unde ϕ este unghiul de frecare a materialului de
suface. suprafaŃa tăvălugului.
From here, De aici,
tg ϕ ≥ tg α sau ϕ ≥α . (3)
In the limit case, when material is stopped when entering În cazul limită, când începe stoparea materialului la
the passage, the application point of force P moves to intrarea în pasaj, punctul de aplicare a forŃei P se
point a (tg ϕ ≥ tg β şi ϕ ≥ β). In this case, the distance deplasează în punctul a (tg ϕ ≥ tg β şi ϕ ≥ β). În acest
between centers O1 and O2 will be equal to D+s = D cosβ caz, distanŃa dintre centrele O1 şi O2 va fi egală cu D+s
+ h (fig. 4), maximum thickness of layer between rollers = D cosβ + h (fig. 4), iar grosimea maximă a stratului
can be determined by relation: antrenat între tăvălugi poate fi determinată din relaŃia:
h = D (1- cosβ) + s. (4)
Where D – roller diameter, m. unde D - diametrul tăvălugilor, m.
Allowable decrease (thinning) of material layer Micşorarea (subŃierea) admisibilă a grosimii stratului
thickness, pressed between rollers, is determined: de material, presat între tăvălugi, se determină:
∆ h = h - s = D (1- cosβ). (5)

Taking into consideration the condition of material Luând în consideraŃie condiŃia antrenării materialului
driving between rollers (tg ϕ ≥ tgβ) and trigonometric între tăvălugi (tg ϕ ≥ tgβ) şi relaŃia trigonometrică
relation cos β = 1 / 1 + tg 2 β , we will cos β = 1 / 1 + tg 2 β , obŃinem
obtain ∆h ≤ D(1 − 1 / 1 + tg 2ϕ ) . In previous ∆h ≤ D(1 − 1 / 1 + tg 2ϕ ) . În cercetările prealabile

researches, it was established that the friction este stabilit că coeficientul de frecare f al tulpinilor
coefficient f of sorghum stems against the metallic sorgului de suprafaŃa metalică (oŃel) depinde de starea
surface (steel) depends on their physical state: for fizică a acestora: la tulpini întregi f = 0,4÷0,5, la cele
whole stems f = 0.4÷0.5, for crushed stems f =0.5 ÷ strivite f =0,5 ÷ 0,55. De aici rezultă că pentru majorarea
0.55. Hence it results that for increasing stems driving in probabilităŃii antrenării tulpinilor în primul pasaj este
the first passage, they have to be previously crushed, necesar de efectuat strivirea prealabilă a acestora,
compaction and leveling the layer when entering the tasarea şi nivelarea grosimei a stratului la intrare în
passage. pasaj.
It results that the thickness h and the compression Din cele expuse rezultă că grosimea h şi gradul de
degree ∆h of driven layer, for pressing, between two comprimare ∆h a stratului antrenat, pentru presare, între
rollers, depend on diameter of rollers D and coefficient of doi tăvălugi, depind de diametrul tăvălugilor D şi
friction (f=tg ) of material on roller surface. Therefore, coeficientul de frecare (f=tg ) a materialului de suprafaŃa
increasing diameter D and friction coefficient tg ϕ tăvălugului. Prin urmare, majorarea diametrului D şi a
increase the values of thickness of layer h and its coeficientului de frecare tg ϕ măreşte valorile grosimii
thinness ∆ h, which not only that improves the engaging stratului h şi subŃierii acestuia ∆ h, ceea ce nu numai
conditions of the stems layer, but also increases the îmbunătăŃeşte condiŃiile de antrenare a stratului de
productivity of the pressing process Q and the juice tulpini, dar şi sporeşte, la rândul său, productivitatea procesului
squeezing degree GE. de presare Q, gradul de stoarcere a sucului GE.
Productivity and liquid extraction degree when Productivitatea şi gradul de extragere a lichidului
material is pressed between rollers. The volume of la presarea materialului între tăvălugi. Volumul
material passing within a period of time through a materialului care trece, într-o unitate de timp, printr-un
passage formed by two rollers, which peripheral speed is pasaj format de doi tăvălugi, a căror viteză periferică este
equal and only when there is no skidding, is determined egală, şi cu condiŃia lipsei patinării se determină din
by the relation: relaŃia:
V = b·h·v, (6)
308
Where: b – roller length (the width of the pressing area), Unde: b - lungimea tăvălugului (lăŃimea zonei de
m; h – thickness of the layer driven between rollers, m; presare), m; h – grosimea stratului antrenat între
v – rollers peripheral speed, m/s. tăvălugi, m; v – viteza periferică a tăvălugilor, m/s.
The mass of material processed within a time unit Masa materialului prelucrat într-o unitate de timp
(productivity) can be determined, knowing the bulk mass (productivitatea) poate fi determinată, ştiind masa în vrac
(volume mass) γ of the material (kg/m .
3)
(masa volumetrică) γ a materialului (kg/m³):
QM .V . = Vγ = bhνγ (7)
When material passes through rollers, the layer La trecerea materialului printre tăvălugi, stratul se
compresses from h thickness up to s (value of comprimă de la grosimea h până la s (valoarea
passage). As a result of compressing process, the liquid pasajului). Ca rezultat al procesului de comprimare, are
is released and the volume mass of squeezed material loc eliberarea lichidului din material şi creşterea masei
γs raises. volumetrice a materialului stors γs .
The liquid extraction degree can be determined by the Gradul de extragere a lichidului poate fi determinat din
relation: relaŃia:
QM .V . − QM .S . Qs
GE = = , (8)
QM .V . QM .V .
where QM.S., Qs - mass of sqeezed material (cane trash) unde QM.S., Qs - masa materialului stors (bagasei) şi a
and juice extracted, within a time unit, kg/s: sucului extras, într-o unitate de timp, kg/s:
QM.S. = Vs γ s = b·s·v·γ . (9)

s
By replacing QM.V. and QM.S. from expressions (7) and Prin substituirea lui QM.V. şi QM.S. din expresiile (7) şi
(9) in expression (8) we obtain: (9) în expresia (8) obŃinem:
γs ⋅s s h − ∆h
GE = 1 − = 1− k = 1− k , (10)
γ ⋅h h h
γs γs
where k= - coefficient of compressing the vegetal unde k= - coeficientul de comprimare a masei
γ γ
mass. vegetale.
In formula (10) the denominator γ ·h reflects the raw În formula (10) numitorul γ ·h reflectă starea materiei
material state, and numerator γs·s – reflects the prime, iar numărătorul γs·s – materiei stoarse (bagasei).
squeezed material (cane trash). Maximum theoretical Valoarea teoretică maximă a gradului de extragere
value of extraction degree GEmax is determined by GEmax este determinată de fracŃia sucului în tulpini fs, de
fraction of juice in stems fs, from here: aici:
γs ⋅s γ h − ∆h
GEmax = f s = 1 − =1− s ⋅ . (11)
γ ⋅h γ h
γs ⋅s γ ⋅s
As a result, = 1 − f s = f su and respectively: Prin urmare s = 1 − f s = f su şi respectiv:
γ ⋅h γ ⋅h
s γ f
= f su = su , (12)
h γs k
where fs, fsu – mass fractions of juice and respectively, unde fs, fsu –fracŃiile masice ale sucului şi respectiv
dry substance in pressed stems, %/100. In each concrete substanŃei uscate în tulpinile presate, %/100. În fiecare
case, values fs, fsu are determined in laboratory caz concret valorile fs, fsu se determină în condiŃii de
conditions, afterwards using the formula (12), the ratio laborator, după aceasta, utilizând formula (12), se
s s
is calculated. calculează raportul .
h h
Based on formulae (5) and (11) we are calculating the În baza formulelor (5) şi (11) calculăm subŃierea
thickness of layer ∆h, allowing to drive the stems and grosimii stratului ∆h, care permite antrenarea tulpinilor şi
extract the juice with GE→fs, namely extragerea sucului cu GE→fs, adică
γ γ
∆h = D (1 − cos ϕ ) = h(1 − f su ) , from where: ∆h = D (1 − cos ϕ ) = h(1 − f su ) , de unde:
γs γs
309
1 − f su ⋅ γ / γ s 1 − f su / k
D=h =h (13)
1 − cos ϕ 1 − cos ϕ
Thus, calculating h by formula (7) and measuring Aşadar, calculând h după formulă (7) şi măsurînd
values of physical properties of pressed material (fs, fsu, γ, valorile proprietăŃilor fizice ale materialului presat (fs, fsu,
γs, φ), we can determine the diameter of rollers D and γ, γs, φ), se determină diametrul tăvălugilor D şi jocul s.
gap s. For obtaining high values of extraction degree (GE Pentru obŃinerea valorilor înalte ale gradului de extragere
→ fs) and conditions of press efficient operating, the (GE → fs) şi condiŃiilor de funcŃionare eficientă a presei
material pressing should be performed by passing este necesar ca presarea materialului să fie realizată în
through several passages along with decreasing step by baza trecerii lui prin mai multe pasaje cu scăderea
step the gap s up to the necessary value (s→0, ∆h→h), treptată a jocului s pînă la valoarea necesară (s→0,
using the constructive parameters (rollers diameter D), ∆h→h), utilizînd parametrii constructivi (diametrul
kinematic parameters (rollers speed ω) and force (P) with tăvălugilor D), cinematici (viteza tăvălugilor ω) şi de forŃă
reasonable values. (P) cu valori rezonabile.
Rollers diameter D increases along with length of Majorarea diametrului tăvălugilor D sporeşte
white sector of driving-pressing (l = Rβ, fig.4) and, concomitent lungimea sectorului ab de antrenare-presare
respectively, duration of pressing, improving the (l = Rβ, fig.4) şi, respectiv, durata presării, îmbunătăŃind
conditions for letting dry the juice (sector CD, fig.1). condiŃiile pentru scurgerea sucului. Concomitent în
Concomitantly with this, it is necessary to increase the aceste condiŃii este necesar de mărit sarcina aplicată
load applied on the driving-pressing sector (P= pmlB asupra sectorului de antrenare-presare (P= pmlb, unde pm
where pm is the average pressure in the pressing are, presiunea medie în zona de presare, N/m²) şi de asigurat
2
N/m ) and assure the uniformity of green matter layer uniformitatea grosimii stratului de masă verde h.
thickness h. Pentru majorarea gradului de extragere GE, este
For increasing the extraction degree GE, it is necesară micşorarea jocului s al pasajului, adică ∆h→h.
necessary to reduce the gap s of passage, namely Însă din relaŃiile (4, 7) este evident că valoarea s este
∆h→h. But, from the relations (4, 7) it is obvious that limitată de ∆h pentru o valoare dată h, care
value s is limited by ∆h for a given value h, which corespunde, la rândul său, productivităŃii necesare Qmv.
corresponds, at its turn to necessary productivity Qmv. Luând în consideraŃie acest fapt, obŃinerea gradului dorit
Taking this into consideration, obtaining the extraction de extragere GE poate fi realizată prin trecerea
degree aimed may be achieved by making the material materialului prin mai multe pasaje de stoarcere.
pass through several squeezing sectors. La presarea materialului este necesar de obŃinut nu
When pressing the material, it is necessary to obtain numai funcŃionalitatea presei cu antrenarea sigură a
not only the press functionality with secure driving of tulpinilor, valori înalte ale productivităŃii şi gradului de
stems, but also high values for productivity and extraction extragere (stoarcere) a sucului, dar şi un consum minim
degree, and minimum energy consumption. de energie.
Power consumed when pressing the material Puterea consumată la presarea materialului între
between rollers . As we recently mentioned, for tăvălugi. După cum a fost recent menŃionat, pentru
ensuring the stems driving and pressing by the rollers, asigurarea procesului antrenării şi presării tulpinilor din
it is necessary to apply a force P on material, which is partea tăvălugilor este necesar de aplicat asupra
perpendicularly headed on the contact surface (fig.4). materialului forŃa P, care este îndreptată perpendicular
In order to act the rollers with speed ω , according to suprafeŃei de contact (fig.4). Pentru acŃionarea tăvălugilor
[4], a torsion moment is necessary: cu viteza ω , conform [4], este necesar moment de torsiune:
Mt=2Pψ l (14)
α lp α lp
where ψ - coefficient of arm, ψ = = , unde ψ - coeficientul braŃului, ψ = = ,
β l β l
-α,β - angles of applying the force P and respectively the -α,β - unghiuri de aplicare a forŃei P şi respectiv a
driving-pressing sector ; sectorului de antrenare - presare;
-lp, l – length of arm of applying the force P and - lp, l – lungimile braŃului de aplicare a forŃei P şi respectiv
respectively the driving-pressing sector . a sectorului de antrenare-presare.
From formula (5) it comes out that, ∆ h =D(1- Din formula (5) reiese, că ∆ h =D(1-cos β ), totodată
cos β ), and from trigonometry, it is known that 1-cos β = β
din trigonometrie se cunoaşte că 1-cos β = 2sin
2
2 β
,
2sin , then: 2
2 atunci:
β
∆ h =2Dsin 2 (15)
2
For smaller values of angle β : sin β = β , from Pentru valori mici ale unghiului β : sin β = β , de unde:
where
310
β2
∆ h=2D =R β .
2
(16)
4
Length of driving – pressing sector is equal: Lungimea sectorului de antrenare-presare este egală:
l= β R, where R- pressing roller radius. It results, l= β R, unde R- raza tăvălugului de presare. Prin urmare,
l l2 l2 l l2 l2
β = , from where ∆h = R 2 = şi l = R ⋅ ∆h . β= , de unde ∆h = R 2 = şi l = R ⋅ ∆h .
R R R R R R
Then: Atunci:
Mt=2Pψ l=2Pψ R∆h =2pmψ BR ∆ h (17)
where pm – average pressure in driving-pressing sector unde pm - presiunea medie în sectorul de antrenare -
P P P P
( pm = = ); B – width of driving-pressing presare ( pm = = ); B – lăŃimea
Bl B R ⋅ ∆h Bl B R ⋅ ∆h
sector . sectorului de antrenare – presare.
According to author’s experimental data [1,5], values Conform datelor experimentale ale autorilor [1,5],
of arm coefficient are within the limit of ψ = 0,33÷0,67, valorile coeficientului braŃului se află în limita ψ =
the average value being ψ = 0,5, then the torsion 0,33÷0,67, valoarea medie fiind ψ = 0,5, atunci
moment is Mt=P R∆h = pmBR ∆ h. momentul de torsiune Mt=P R∆h = pmBR ∆ h.

Power consumed for achieving the process of driving- Puterea consumată pentru realizarea procesului de
pressing the green matter will be equal to: antrenare-procesare a masei verzi va fi egală:
N= Mt ω= P R∆h ω = pmBR· ∆ h ω . (18)
Thus, the secure driving conditions of green Aşadar, condiŃiile de antrenare sigură a masei
matter impose the rollers diameter D , the friction vegetale impun, ca valorile diametrului tăvălugilor D ,
coefficient f to be as high as possible (formula 5). At coeficientului de frecare f să fie maxim posibile (formula
the same time, values of productivity Qmv and 5). Totodată, valorile productivităŃii Qmv şi gradului de
extraction degree GE are directly proportional with extragere GE depind direct proporŃional de grosimea
the layer thickness h and respectively the thinness stratului h şi respectiv de subŃierea stratului ∆h (formulele
∆ h (formulae 7, 10 ), these ones being proportional 7, 10), acestea, la rândul său, fiind dependenŃi direct
with the rollers diameter D, namely, h max, Qmv , proporŃional de diametrul tăvălugilor D, adică, hmax, Qmv,
GE=f(D ). At the same time, increasing the rollers GE=f(D). Simultan majorarea diametrului tăvălugilor are
diameter determines the growth of torsion moment drept consecinŃă creşterea momentului de torsiune şi a
and consumed power Mt , N = f(D) at the same puterii consumate Mt, N = f(D) la aceeaşi presiune şi
pressure and angular speed (p m ,ω=const). viteza unghiulară (pm,ω=const).
Value of rollers diameter D is imposed by press Valoarea diametrului tăvălugilor D este impusă de
productivity and secure driving requirements of productivitatea presei şi cerinŃele de antrenare
vegetal matter. This value is initially calculated and then sigură a masei vegetale. Aceasta valoare iniŃial se
experimentally checked. Real maximum values of calculează şi apoi se verifică experimental. Real valorile
diameter D are limited by energetic capacities of press maxime ale diametrului D sunt limitate de capacităŃi
users and technological possibilities of machinery energetice ale utilizatorilor preselor şi de posibilităŃi
building enterprises. More complex is the determination tehnologice ale întreprinderilor constructoare de maşini.
of force parameters values (P, ), speed ( , V), rollers Mai complexă este determinarea valorilor parametrilor de
placement (s). forŃe (P, ), viteză ( , V), poziŃionare a tăvălugilor (s).
1. Based on equipment analysis and existing theories, 1. În baza analizei utilajelor şi teoriilor existente, pentru
for extracting the juice from sweet sorghum the roller extragerea sucului din tulpinile sorgului zaharat este
press is recommended, which ensures a high degree of recomandată presa cu tăvălugi, care asigură un grad ridicat
juice extraction and high productivity with reduced de extragere a sucului şi productivitatea înaltă cu consum
consumption of energy, because this press ensures a redus de energie datorită faptului că în aşa tip de prese se
better extraction of juice than other presses (hand press, pot asigura condiŃii mai bune de stoarcere a sucului din
screw press). tulpinile sorgului decît în alte prese (cu teasc, melc).
2. It is argued the dependency of the juice extraction 2. Este argumentată dependenŃa gradului de
degree GE to the K coefficient of increasing the density extragere a sucului GE de coeficientul K de majorare a
of pressed material, the clearance s between the rollers densităŃii materialului presat, jocul s dintre tăvălugi şi
and the initial thickness h of the pressed material. It was grosimea iniŃială h a materialului presat. S-a argumentat
argued that a desired degree of extraction can be că obŃinerea gradului dorit de extragere poate fi realizată
achieved by passing the material through various datorită trecerii materialului prin mai multe pasaje de
squeezing passages, gradually decreasing the clearance stoarcere, cu scăderea treptată a jocului s pînă la
s until it reaches the necessary value. valoarea necesară.
311
[1]. Antohe I. (2006) – Culture of saccharate sorghum and its [1]. Antohe I.(2006) - Cultura sorgului zaharat şi
total industrialization. Perspective Romanian agriculture industrializarea lui totală. Perspective pentru dezvoltarea
sustainable development prospects, Bucharest, Chiminform durabilă a agriculturii româneşti, Bucureşti, Chiminform
Data, 302 p. ISBN 973-88183-1-1; 978-973-88183-1-6; Data, 302 p. ISBN 973-88183-1-1; 978-973-88183-1-6;
[2]. Grassi G., Pietro Moncada P.C., Zibetta H. (1992) - [2]. Grassi G., Pietro Moncada P.C., Zibetta H. (1992) -
Promising industrial energy crop: Sweet Sorghum. Promising industrial energy crop: Sweet Sorghum.
Recent developments in Europe, Commission of the Recent developments in Europe, Commission of the
European Communities, 73p; European Communities, 73p;
[3]. Hăbăşescu I., Cerempei V. şi alŃii. (2009)- Energy [3]. Hăbăşescu I., Cerempei V. şi alŃii. (2009)- Energie
from biomass, technologies and technical methods, din biomasă: tehnologii şi mijloace tehnice, Editura Bons
Editura Bons Offices Publishing, Chişinău, 368 p.; Offices, Chişinău, 368 p.;
[4]. Korolev А.А. (1969) – Construction and calculation of [4]. Korolev А.А. (1969) - ConstrucŃia şi calculul maşinilor
machines and mechanisms for rolls, Metallurgia şi mecanismelor pentru laminori, Editura Metallurgia,
Publishing, Мoscow, 277 p.; Мoscova, 277 p.;
[5] Hăbăşescu I., Cerempei V., Molotcov Iu., Raicov V. [5]. Hăbăşescu I., Cerempei V., Molotcov Iu., Raicov V.
(2013) – Installation for researching the pressing (2013) - InstalaŃia pentru cercetarea proceselor de
processes of sweet sorghum, in Materials of the presare a tulpinilor de sorg zaharat, Materialele
International Scientific Symposium “Modern Agriculture – simpozionului ŞtiinŃific InternaŃional „Agricultura Modernă
Achievement and Perspectives”, vol. 38, p. 39-43, ISSN – Realizări şi Perspective”., vol. 38, p. 39-43, ISSN 978-
978-9975; 9975;
[6].Melnikov S.V. (1978) – Mechanization and automation [6]. Melnikov S.V. (1978) – Mecanizarea şi automatizarea
of animal farms, Kolos Publishing, Leningrad, 560 p. fermelor zootehnice, Editura Kolos, Leningrad, 560 p.
[7]. Sapronov А.R. (1983)- Technology of sugar. [7]. Sapronov A.R. (1983) – Tehnologia zahărului.
Pişcevaia i legkaia promâşlennosti Publishing, Moscow, Editura Pişcevaia i legkaia promâşlennosti, Moscova,
292 p. 292 p.
[8]. Smith ş.a. (1987) - Evolution of Sweet Sorghum for [8]. Smith ş.a. (1987) – Evolution of Sweet Sorghum for
fermentable Sugar production Potential. In: Crop fermentable Sugar production Potential. Crop Science,
Science, vol. 27, nr. 4, 1, p. 788-790; vol. 27, nr.4,1, p. 788-790;
[9]. Sokolov A. (1969) – Bases of calculus and design of [9]. Sokolov A. (1969) – Bazele calculului şi proiectării
machines and automated installations in food production, maşinilor şi automatelor în producŃia alimentară, Editura
Maşinostroenie Publishing, Мoscow, 640 p.; Maşinostroenie, Moscova, 640 p.;
[10]. Stabnicov V.N. (1976) – Processes and apparata in [10]. Stabnicov V.N. (1976) – Procese şi aparate în
food production, Pişcevaia promâşlennosti Publishing, producŃia alimentară, Editura Pişcevaia promăşlennosti,
Moscow, 664 p.; Moscova, 664p.;
[11]. Şatilov К.V. ş.a. (1981) – Maize harvesting [11]. Şatilov K.V. ş.a. (1981) – Maşini de recoltat porumb,
machines, Maşinostroenie Publishing, Мoscow, 224 p. Editura Maşinostroenie, Moscova, 224 p.
312
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY IN RURAL AREAS

/
ENERGETICA DURABILĂ ÎN MEDIUL RURAL
Ph.D. Eng. Nicolescu M.A.drian
National Institute of Research - Development for Machines and Installations for Agriculture and Food Industry - INMA Bucharest,
Tel: 0726 755 212; E-mail: m_a_nicolescu@yahoo.com
Abstract: Today social dynamics presents some Rezumat: Dinamica socială din zilele noastre prezintă unele
interesting aspects related to rural areas. Thus, following aspecte interesante referitoare la spaŃiul rural. Astfel, ca
the development of modern means of communication, urmare a dezvoltării mijloacelor moderne de comunicare, unii
some city dwellers and some economic activities choose locuitori ai oraşelor şi unele acitivităŃi economice din acestea
to migrate to the rural hinterlands. Also, rural areas with aleg să migreze în zonele rurale limitrofe. De asemenea,
tourism potential develops by establishing business zonele rurale cu potenŃial în domeniul turismului se dezvoltă
offering such services. Finally, the normal development prin înfiinŃarea unor afaceri care oferă astfel de servicii. În fine,
of rural areas means, in addition to modernizing dezvoltarea normală a mediului rural înseamnă, pe lângă
agricultural practices, the emergence of industrial units, modernizarea practicilor agricole, apariŃia unor unităŃi industriale,
usually small or medium, processing obtained products de regulă de dimensiuni mici sau medii, care prelucrează
or exploiting local traditions. All this aspects, produsele obŃinute sau valorifică tradiŃii locale. Toate aceste
accompanied by an obvious increase of population aspecte, însoŃite de o firească sporire a pretenŃiilor de confort
comfort demands, means an increase of energy ale populaŃiei, înseamnă o creştere a consumurilor de energie
consumption required by the countryside. Ways of reclamate de mediul rural. Căile de satisfacere a unor
satisfying some increased energy consumption may be consumuri sporite de energie pot fi dezvoltarea reŃelelor
national transport and distribution networks developing or naŃionale de transport şi distribuŃie a energiei sau promovarea
promotion of local renewable sources integrated exploatării integrate a surselor regenerabile locale, această
exploitation, this latest version benefiting from the ultimă variantă beneficiind şi de virtuŃile sustenabilităŃii.
sustainability virtues. This paper aims to provide an Prezenta lucrare doreşte să ofere o imagine de ansamblu a
overview of the opportunities and issues related to the oportunităŃilor şi problemelor legate de practica exploatării
practice of integrated exploitation of local renewable integrate a surselor regenerabile locale de energie din mediul
energy sorces in rural areas and to outline, but argued, rural şi să prezinte succint, dar argumentat, acŃiunile tactice
tactical actions to be, according to the author, to precede care trebuie, în viziunea autorului, să preceadă decizia de
the actual crossing decision in such operations. trecere concretă la o astfel de exploatare.
Keywords: Renewable energy sources, integrated Cuvinte cheie: Surse regenerabile de energie, exploatare
exploitation, rural areas. integrată, mediu rural.
In the whole world the energy consumption is an În întreaga lume, consumul de energie este o
important component of the civilized living and even an componentă importantă a traiului civilizat şi chiar un
indicator of the general level of society development. All indicator al nivelului general de dezvoltare a societăŃii.
the attempts of rational optimization of energy Toate încercările de optimizare raŃională a consumurilor
consumption (buildings insulation and heat recovery from de energie (izolarea construcŃiilor şi recuperarea căldurii
the waste water and the ventilation air, promotion of din apa uzată şi aerul de ventilaŃie, promovarea
industrial transportation on water and on railroad, transportului industrial pe apă şi pe calea ferată,
promoting the public transportation for the population, promovarea transportului în comun pentru populaŃie,
encouraging of individual transport by bike etc.) do not have încurajarea transportului individual cu ajutorul bicicletei
succeeded to disengage the economic and social etc.) nu au reuşit să decupleze dezvoltarea economică şi
development from the increased demand and the actual socială de creşterea cererii şi consumului efectiv de
consumption of energy. Unfortunately, the continued growth energie. Din păcate, creşterea continuă a producŃiei de
of energy production is accompanied by deterioration of the energie este însoŃită de deteriorări ale mediului ambiant
environment and sustain an argument that can be called şi susŃine o dispută care poate fi numită “energie contra
"energy versus environment". In these circumstaces, at the mediu”. În aceste condiŃii, la nivelul societăŃii există o
society level there is a growing concern for promoting the preocupare tot mai mare pentru promovarea producerii
production of energy from renewable and "clean" sources. de energie din surse regenerabile şi „curate”. Dincolo de
Beyond environmental caring for, this concern is supported grija faŃă de mediu, această preocupare este sprijinită de
by the forecasts regarding the prospects of exhaustion of the prognozele privind perspectivele de epuizare a rezervelor
fossil fuel reserves and "generosity" of the environment that de combustibili fosili şi de “generozitatea” mediului căruia
we want "to be his friends." Thus, with the exception of dorim “să îi fim prieteni”. Astfel, cu excepŃia zonelor
geographic areas with subarctic and arctic climate - geografice cu climat subarctic şi arctic – altminteri, puŃin
otherwise sparsely populated and recognized as offering populate şi recunoscute ca oferind „condiŃii aspre” de
"harsh conditions" of life - over the whole surface of the viaŃă – pe toată suprafaŃa Pământului, deci şi în
Earth, therefore and in Romania, are available local România, sunt disponibile surse regenerabile locale de
renewable energy sources, with natural status. Such energie, cu statut natural. Astfel de surse sunt radiaŃia
sources are the solar radiation, the heat accumulated in the solară, căldura acumulată în aerul atmosferic, căldura
atmosphere, the heat stored in water accumulations and in stocată în acumulări de apă şi în apele din râuri mari,
the waters of large rivers, the geothermal heat accumulated căldura geotermală acumulată în pânzele de apă
in the groundwater tables. Also, areas suitable for the freatică. De asemenea, zonele propice dezvoltării
abundant development of vegetation, which are densely abundente a vegetaŃiei, care sunt intens populate, oferă
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populated, provides the most widespread local renewable cea mai răspândită resursă regenerabilă locală de
energy resource - the biomass - which can be accessed energie – biomasa – care poate fi accesată în mod activ
actively (practicing energy crops) or opportunistically (practicarea culturilor energetice) sau oportunist (valorificarea
(valorisation of wastes from agriculture, animal husbandry, deşeurilor din agricultură, zootehnie, industrii
industries of wood and food processing, wastewater etc.). prelucrătoare de lemn şi alimente, ape uzate etc.).
Providing the most important part of the energy Asigurarea unei părŃi cât mai însemnate din energia
required by the activities from a location through the necesară activităŃilor dintr-o locaŃie prin „extragerea” ei
"extraction of" it from the surrounding environment, where din mediul înconjurător apropiat, în care această energie
this energy exists under latent forms more or less există sub forme latente mai mult sau mai puŃin
accessible, is an overarching objective of economic, accesibile, reprezintă un obiectiv generic cu importanŃă
ecological and even strategic. Thus, in economic terms, economică, ecologică şi chiar strategică. Astfel, sub
exploiting the local renewable energy sources is cost aspect economic, exploatarea surselor regenerabile
effective because, beyond the initial investment in locale de energie este rentabilă pentru că, dincolo de
equipment and facilities, presents low operating costs investiŃiile iniŃiale în echipamente şi amenajări, prezintă
and avoids the transportation costs and even some costuri reduse de operare şi evită cheltuielile de transport
administrative charges imposed in the centralized şi chiar unele taxe administrative impuse în sistemele
systems for energy distribution. Under ecological aspect, centralizate de distribuŃie a energiei. Sub aspect
the renewable energy sources presents "sustainability" ecologic, sursele regenerabile de energie prezintă
and constitutes an alternative of fossil fuels using, „durabilitate” şi constituie o alternativă la utilizarea, în
generally pollutant. Finally, under strategical aspect, the general poluantă, a combustibililor fosili. În fine, sub
conduct of exploitation of the local renewable energy aspect strategic, conduita exploatării surselor
sources offers to the applicants a status of energy regenerabile locale de energie oferă aplicanŃilor un statut
independence with proportions directly related to the de independenŃă energetică cu proporŃii legate direct de
intensity of exploitation. intensitatea exploatării.
Strategic approach to exploit local renewable energy Abordarea strategică a conduitei de exploatare a
sources conduct must comprise three directions. The first surselor regenerabile locale de energie trebuie să
of these concerns the levels and the structure of cuprindă trei direcŃii. Prima dintre acestea priveşte
energetic consumptions which, integrated, can describe nivelurile şi structura consumurilor energetice care,
the specific market of energy. The second direction must integrate, pot descrie piaŃa specifică de energie. A doua
comprise the general renewable energy sources direcŃie trebuie să cuprindă sursele regenerabile de
available in the nearby environment, defining the energy energie disponibile în mediul înconjurător apropiat, care
offer intended to the targeted market and the definesc oferta de energie destinată pieŃei vizate şi
technologies and equipment available to "the extraction" tehnologiile şi echipamentele disponibile pentru
of energy from the local renewable sources and its „extragerea” energiei şi livrarea acesteia către
delivery to consumers, in the specific desired forms. consumatori, în formele specifice dorite. În fine, cea de-a
Finally, the third direction regards to reasoned treia direcŃie priveşte stabilirea argumentată a paşilor
establishing of the tactics steps need to model this tactici care trebuie să modeleze această conduită sub
behavior under the banners of energy efficiency, security stindardele eficienŃei energetice, securităŃii în alimentare
of supply and care for the environment. şi grijii faŃă de mediu.
ENERGY COMSUMPTION LEVELS AND STRUCTURE NIVELURILE ŞI STRUCTURA CONSUMURILOR DE ENERGIE

At the current development level of Romania, La nivelul actual de dezvoltare a României, mai cu
especially in rural areas, the largest share in energy seamă în mediul rural, ponderea cea mai mare în
consumption have small or medium sized customers, consumurile de energie o au consumatorii de dimensiuni
whose energy demands are moderated: houses or small mici sau medii, ale căror pretenŃii energetice sunt
dwellings groups, cottages, hotels, agricultural and moderate: locuinŃe sau grupuri mici de locuinŃe, cabane,
zootechnical farms practicing, eventually, conditioning hoteluri, ferme agricole şi zootehnice care practică, eventual,
activities or primary processing too for a part of şi activităŃi de condiŃionare sau prelucrare primară a unei
production, processing workshops of some products părŃi din producŃie, ateliere de prelucrare a unor produse
(wood, leather etc.) under handicraft regime. The energy (lemn, piei etc.) în regim meşteşugăresc. Cererile de energie
demands of these consumers have a structure that ale acestei categorii de consumatori au o structură ce
include the electricity, mechanical energy generated by cuprinde energia electrică, energia mecanică generată de
internal combustion engines on account of motor fuels motoare cu ardere internă pe seama carburanŃilor şi energia
and the thermal energy at low temperature (lower than termică la temperatură joasă (sub 100ºC) destinată încălzirii
100ºC) intended for heating of spaces in cold weather, spaŃiilor pe vreme rece, preparării apei calde menajere şi
preparation of domestic hot water and supplying of some alimentării unor procese tehnologice organizate la scară
technological processes organized on a small scale. redusă. Practic, într-o ordine descrescătoare a dificultăŃii de
Basically, in a descending order of difficulty of renewable obŃinere din surse regenerabile, este vorba despre
sources obtaining from, is about liquid fuels for internal combustibili lichizi pentru motoare cu ardere internă,
combustion engines, electricity and heat. energie electrică şi căldură.
Internal combustion engines liquid fuels consumed Combustibilii lichizi pentru motoare cu ardere internă
in the residential field actually means, in fact, a fuel consumaŃi în domeniul rezidenŃial înseamnă, de fapt, un
consumption for vehicles feeding. Also, in the sector of consum de combustibili pentru alimentarea autovehiculelor.
some economic activities, outside of some fuel De asemenea, în sectorul unor activităŃi economice, în afara
consumptions for transportation operations, can be unor consumuri de combustibili pentru operaŃii de transport,
specified fuel consumptions for the actuation of some pot fi menŃionate consumuri de combustibili pentru
agricultural (tractors, selfpropelled combines etc.) or acŃionarea unor echipamente din agricultură (tractoare,
industrial (fulling mills, sawmills etc.) equipments. The combine autopropulsate etc.) sau industriale (pive, gatere
problem of obtaining biofuels for the substitution of etc.). Problema obŃinerii de biocarburanŃi pentru substituirea
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internal combustion engine fuels is marked by some combustibililor pentru motoare cu ardere internă este
difficulties which must be mentioned. Thus, at present, marcată de unele dificultăŃi care trebuie menŃionate. Astfel,
the main biofuel for combustion engines are the la momentul actual, principalii biocarburanŃi disponibili
vegetable oils and the biodiesel - as substitutes for pentru alimentarea motoarelor sunt uleiurile vegetale şi
diesel oils – and the bioethanol – as substitute for biodieselul – ca substituenŃi pentru motorine – şi bioetanolul
gasoline. Getting them is at the expense of processing – ca substituent pentru benzine. ObŃinerea acestora se face
certain categories of biomass. Unfortunately, beyond pe seama prelucrării unor categorii de biomasă. Din păcate,
the obtaining effort, that can be used to power engines dincolo de efortul de obŃinere, pentru a putea fi folosiŃi la
manufactured for operation with fuel oil, these biofuels alimentarea motoarelor fabricate pentru funcŃionarea cu
must be processed in order to obtain similar properties combustibili petrolieri, aceşti biocarburanŃi trebuie prelucraŃi
of replaced "classics" fuels. Such treatments are not, în vederea obŃinerii unor proprietăŃi asemănătoare cu ale
at least yet, profitable in small organizations that combustibililor „clasici” înlocuiŃi. Astfel de prelucrări nu sunt,
respond to local needs. The best evidence that cel puŃin deocamdată, rentabile în organizări de mici
biofuels obtaining for internal combustion engines dimensiuni care să corespundă unor nevoi locale. Cea mai
supplying is an activity that has not reached the bună dovadă că obŃinerea biocarburanŃilor pentru
economic maturity is the fact that the current alimentarea motoarelor cu ardere internă este o activitate
presence, at the level of a few percentage points, of care nu a ajuns la maturitate economică este faptul că
biofuels in petroleum fuels delivered in distribution actuala prezenŃă, la nivel de câteva procente, a
networks in Europe is imposed administratively and biocarburanŃilor în combustibilii petrolieri livraŃi în reŃelele de
does not has economical reasons as justification. distribuŃie din Europa este impusă administrativ şi nu are ca
Moreover, it should be noted that, outside of some justificare motive economice. Mai mult, trebuie menŃionat şi
experimental and still "immature" technologies faptul că, în afara unor tehnologii experimentale şi încă
(vegetable oil production from algae cultures, bio- „imature” (producerea de uleiuri vegetale din culturi de alge,
alcohols production from lignocellulosic materials), the producerea de bioalcooli din materiale lignocelulozice),
biomass for the production of biofuels shall be biomasa pentru producerea de biocarburanŃi trebuie
obtained from organized cultures (oleaginous plants - obŃinută din culturi organizate (plante oleaginoase – pentru
for oils, cereals, pulses or fruits - for alcohols), and uleiuri, cereale, leguminoase sau fructe – pentru alcooli), iar
this aspect enroll the mentioned biofuels in the acest aspect înscrie biocarburanŃii menŃionaŃi în tot mai
increasing disputed competition „biofuels versus food”. disputata competiŃie „biocombustibili contra hrană”.
Electricity is consumed, in the residential sector, to Energia electrică este consumată, în sectorul rezidenŃial,
ensure "comfort and civilization" conditions (lighting, pentru asigurarea unor condiŃii de „confort şi civilizaŃie”
functioning of household appliances etc.). In this (iluminat, funcŃionarea aparatelor electrocasnice etc.). În
sector in Romania of 2006 the electricity consumption acest sector, în România anului 2006 consumul de energie
was estimated at 500 kWh / capita and estimated an electrică era evaluat la 500 kWh / locuitor şi se estima o
increasing trend of it [1]. Four years later, in 2010 this evoluŃie crescătoare a acestuia [1]. Patru ani mai târziu, în
indicator reached the value of 560 kWh / capita [2]. In anul 2010, nivelul acestui indicator atinsese valoarea de 560
these circumstances, considering the same rate of kWh / locuitor [2]. În aceste condiŃii, considerând acelaşi ritm
consumption growth, we can take into account a de creştere a consumului, putem lua în calcul un consum
current average annual electricity consumption of 620 actual mediu anual de energie electrică de 620 kWh /
kWh / capita. The electricity consumption in the small- locuitor. Consumul de energie electrică în zona activităŃilor
scale economic activities is more difficult to estimate, economice de mică anvergură este mai greu de estimat,
because here should be taken into account and the deoarece aici ar trebui luate în calcul şi necesităŃile de
electrical actuation needs of some equipments. Also, antrenare electrică a unor echipamente. De asemenea,
for this consumption it is difficult to find a reporting pentru acest consum este dificil de găsit un factor de
factor, of the type of average inhabitant, leading to an raportare, de tipul locuitorului mediu, care să conducă la
index of comparison. obŃinerea unui indicator de comparaŃie.
The low temperature thermal energy is, in the Energia termică la temperatură joasă este, în sectorul
residential sector, a steady necessity for domestic hot rezidenŃial, o necesitate permanentă pentru prepararea apei
water preparation. Also, in the case of Romania, calde menajere. De asemenea, în cazul României, care
benefiting from a temperate continental climate, the beneficiază de o climă temperat-continentală, energia
low temperature thermal energy is necessary with termică la temperatură joasă este necesară cu o
annual periodicity, in the cold season, in order to periodicitate anuală, în sezonul rece, pentru asigurarea
ensure the heating of living spaces. The heating încălzirii spaŃiilor de locuit. Necesarul de căldură pentru
necessary can be calculated with certain accuracy, the încălzire poate fi calculat cu oarecare precizie, metodele de
methods of calculation being standardized [3]. For a calcul fiind standardizate [3]. Pentru o evaluare generală, la
general overview, in Romania, of the low temperature nivelul României, a necesarului de căldură la temperatură
heat demand in the residential sector is satisfactory to joasă în sectorul rezidenŃial este satisfăcător să Ńinem
consider the average values used by builders [4] for seama de valorile medii folosite de constructori pentru
sizing of heating and hot water (a power of 0.05 kW dimensionarea sistemelor de încălzire şi preparare a apei
3 3
heating 1 m of site, 50 liters of water heated from calde [4] (o putere de 0,05 kW pentru încălzirea a 1 m de
10ºC to 45ºC for one person per day) and statistics on incintă, 50 l de apă încălzită de la 10ºC la 45ºC pentru o
Romania [5] and its multiannual climatological regime persoană pe zi) şi de date statistice privind Romania [5] şi
[6]. According to the latter, Romania has about 20 regimul ei climatologic multianual [6]. Potrivit acestora din
million inhabitants and has 330 million square meters urmă, România are circa 20 milioane de locuitori şi dispune
2 2
of living area (16.5 m2 / inhabitant) and a cold season de 330 milioane m de suprafaŃă locuibilă (16,5 m / locuitor)
average of 165 days / year. Using the data set and şi un sezon rece mediu de 165 zile / an. Folosind datele
considering an average height of 2.8 m for living prezentate şi considerând o înălŃime medie de 2,8 m pentru
quarters, simple calculations show that, for a person, spaŃiile locuibile, calcule simple ne arată că, pentru o
the yearly low temperature heat amounts to 9150 kWh persoană, necesarul anual de căldură la temperatură joasă
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for heating and to 750 kWh for domestic hot water se ridică la 9150 kWh pentru încălzire şi la 750 kWh pentru
preparation. Therefore, in Romania, the yearly prepararea apei calde. Prin urmare, în România, necesarul
necessary of low temperature heat, in the residential anual de căldură la temperatură joasă, în sectorul
sector, amounts to 9900 kWh / capita. The rezidenŃial, se ridică la valoarea de 9900 kWh / locuitor.
assessment of specific low temperature heat demand Evaluarea necesarului specific de energie termică la
in the field of small-scale economic activities is more temperatură joasă în domeniul unor activităŃi economice de
difficult, because the consumptions depends mică anvergură este mai dificilă, deoarece consumurile
fundamentally of a number of factors with flexible implicate depind fundamental de o seamă de factori cu
manifestations such as the number of workers, the manifestări flexibile cum ar fi numărul de lucrători, mărimea
size of spaces actually used for their activities, the spaŃiilor efectiv folosite pentru activitatea acestora, structura
production structure and volume, technological şi volumul producŃiei, abordările tehnologice etc. Problema
approaches, etc. The problem of low temperature heat consumului de căldură la temperatură joasă pentru
consumption for habitat conditioning come up in this condiŃionarea habitatului şi pentru prepararea apei calde
field, too. Meanwhile, some manufacturing processes menajere se pune şi în acest domeniu. În acelaşi timp,
require technological washes claiming relatively large unele procese de prelucrare necesită spălări tehnologice
consumption of hot water (for example, in the primary care reclamă consumuri relativ însemnate de apă caldă (de
processing of leather). Finally, numerous processes exemplu, în domeniul prelucrării primare a pieilor). În fine,
requires large amounts of low temperature heat. We numeroase procese tehnologice reclamă cantităŃi importante
can quote here, as examples, conditioning processes de căldură la temperatură joasă. Putem cita aici ca exemple
of vegetable products by drying (removal of acquired procesele de condiŃionare a produselor vegetale prin uscare
humidity) or dehydration (removal of partially or totally (înlăturarea umidităŃii dobândite) sau deshidratare
of the natural water content), the pasteurization (înlăturarea parŃială sau totală a conŃinutului natural de apă),
processes in the food industry, the raw material drying procesele de pasteurizare din industria alimentară, uscarea
in the timber industry etc. materiei prime în industria lemnului etc.
An integrative look on those described show that the O privire integratoare asupra celor descrise ne arată că
energy market which can be satisfied – partly or entirely piaŃa de energie care poate fi satisfăcută – parŃial sau total –
– through the exploitation of local renewable energy prin exploatarea surselor regenerabile locale de energie,
sources, without the ongoing mediation of some industrial fără medierea continuă a unor activităŃi de tip industrial, este
type activities, is one diffuse, which has two main una difuză, care are două componente principale. Prima
components. The first of these concerns the electricity dintre acestea priveşte necesarul de energie electrică
necessary evaluated, for the housing sector to 620 kWh / evaluat , pentru sectorul rezidenŃial, la 620 kWh / locuitor x
inhabitant x year. Must be observed that, except for an. Trebuie făcută observaŃia că, exceptând cazurile unor
isolated locations, this market may be covered, with the locaŃii izolate, această piaŃă poate fi acoperită, cu costurile
necessary costs, of the national electricity production and de rigoare, de sistemul naŃional de producere şi distribuire a
distribution system. The second component is the low energiei electrice. A doua componentă a pieŃei este cea a
temperature heat market where has been estimated, for cădurii la temperatură joasă, în care a fost estimat, pentru
the residential sector, a need of 9900 kWh / inhabitant x sectorul rezidenŃial, un necesar de 9900 kWh / locuitor x an.
year. Regarding to the quantitative structure of this Privitor la structura cantitativă a acestei pieŃe, este de
market, it is worth noting that estimates, only for the remarcat faptul că estimările făcute, numai pentru sectorul
residential sector, indicating a ratio of about 1:16 rezidenŃial, indică un raport de circa 1:16 între cererea de
between electricity and low temperature heat demands. energie electrică şi cea de căldură la temperatură joasă.
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AND OPERATING SURSE REGENERABILE DE ENERGIE ŞI TEHNOLOGII

TECHNOLOGIES DE EXPLOATARE
The generic renewable energy sources available in Sursele regenerabile generice de energie disponibile
the near environment, that define the energy supply for în mediul înconjurător apropiat, care definesc oferta de
the market just examined, are solar radiation, wind, energie destinată pieŃei tocmai examinate, sunt radiaŃia
flowing water, geothermal heat, heat accumulated in the solară, vântul, curgerea apelor, căldura geotermală,
environment and biomass. căldura acumulată în mediul înconjurător şi biomasa.
The Sun sends toward the Earth a huge amounts of Soarele trimite spre Pământ cantităŃi imense de
energy in the form of solar radiation. This energy reaches energie sub forma radiaŃiei solare. Această energie
the Earth's surface in the "Day" section of the diurnal ajunge la suprafaŃa Pământului în secŃiunea de „ziuă” a
cycle with intensities related to geographical position, ciclului diurn cu intensităŃi ce Ńin de poziŃia geografică,
season and weather condition in the impact area (the anotimp şi starea meteorologică în zona de impact
permeability of atmosphere to solar radiation). Of the (permeabilitatea atmosferei la radiaŃia solară). De aceiaşi
same parameters depends and the spectral structure of parametri depinde şi structura spectrală a radiaŃiei solare
solar radiation and, in terms of energy, we are interested şi, sub aspect energetic, suntem interesaŃi numai de
only in the visible spectrum sharing (photovoltaic împărŃirea în spectru vizibil (valorificabil fotovoltaic, prin
valorisable, by converting to electricity) and thermal conversia în energie electrică) şi spectru termic
spectrum (valorisable in form of heat captured). For the (valorificabil sub formă de căldură captată). Pentru
heat capture and transfer from the solar radiation are captarea şi transferul căldurii din radiaŃia solară sunt
commercially available various solutions consisting of disponibile comercial soluŃii variate de panouri şi instalaŃii
boards and systems with high yields. In addition, for cu bune randamente. De asemenea, pentru conversia
photovoltaic conversion of solar radiation, are fotovoltaică a radiaŃiei solare, sunt disponibile comercial
commercially available panels that lead to specific power panouri cu randamente care conduc la puteri specifice de
2 2
efficiency of 0.20 ... 0.25 kW / m and the operating life 0,20...0,25 kW / m şi durate de funcŃionare de 20...25
of 20 ... 25 years, along with the equipment to store de ani, împreună cu instalaŃii pentru stocarea energiei
captured energy and delivered them to the "classic" grid captate şi livrarea ei la parametrii reŃelei electrice
parameters. „clasice”.
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The wind is a source of energy because the kinetic Vântul constituie o sursă de energie datorită energiei
energy of moving air masses. Exploitable wind potential cinetice a maselor de aer aflate în mişcare. PotenŃialul
is a "given the place" and depends on some geographical eolian exploatabil este un „dat al locului” şi depinde de
features of the area which is considered the place, but unele caracteristici geografice ale zonei în care se află
does not excels in stability. For the wind energy locul considerat, dar nu excelează în stabilitate. Pentru
exploitation, technologies consist in "placement in the exploatarea energiei eoliene tehnologia constă în
wind" of some turbines which converts its energy into „plasarea în vânt” a unor turbine care transformă energia
mechanical energy delivered at the level of a rotating shaft. acestuia în energie mecanică livrată la nivelul unui arbore
Such turbines are commercially available, in performant în rotaŃie. Astfel de turbine sunt disponibile comercial, în
variants, even for powers in the range of 2 ... 10 kW, variante performante, chiar şi pentru puteri în gama
according to local operations. Of course, the above- 2...10 kW, potrivite unor exploatări locale. Fireşte, pentru
mentioned "placement in the wind" of a such turbine is amintita „plasarea în vânt” a unei astfel de turbine este
required a construction which must be taken into account. necesară o construcŃie care trebuie avută în vedere.
The water flowing is accompanied by the kinetic Curgerea apelor este însoŃită de energia cinetică a
energy of moving water masses. In a certain section of maselor de apă aflate în mişcare. Într-o anumită secŃiune a
the bed flow, the energy potential of flowing water is albiei de curgere, potenŃialul energetic al unei ape
flow rate dependent. In turn, the flow rate presents curgătoare este dependent de debit. La rândul său, debitul
slow and small variations in amplitude dependent on prezintă variaŃii lente şi de mică amplitudine dependente de
the season and have quick and high amplitude anotimp şi poate avea variaŃii rapide şi de amplitudine mare
variation dependent on meteorological phenomena in dependente de fenomenele metorologice din zona care
the region which forms the so-called basin of the formează aşa-zisul bazin al apei curgătoare respective.
respective running water. Energy available in flowing Energia disponibilă într-o curgere de apă poate fi captată pe
water can be captured locally – in a simple decor that plan local – în cadrul unei amenajări simple, care asigură un
provide a constant and quiet flow –by placing in the debit constant şi o curgere liniştită – prin plasarea în curentul
water flow of some hydraulic turbines. Although de apă a unor turbine hidraulice. Deşi existentă, piaŃa unor
existing market for such low power equipment is more astfel de echipamente, pentru puteri mici, este mai
limited. Presumably, this is because the necessary restrânsă. Este de presupus că acest lucru este datorat
arrangements to ensure a constant flow of water, even faptului că amenajarea necesară asigurării unui flux
if it is simple, it is expensive and, in addition, the constant de apă, chiar dacă este simplă, este costisitoare şi,
construction of such facilities is restricted for în plus, construcŃia unor astfel de amenajări este
environmental reasons. restricŃionată din motive ce Ńin de protecŃia mediului.
The reactions that occur in the earth's core is a ReacŃiile ce se produc în miezul Pământului sunt
source of heat which is transmitted by conduction to surse de căldură care este transmisă, prin conducŃie, spre
the surface. In the area described, renewable energy suprafaŃa acestuia. În domeniul descris, al surselor de
sources, we designate heat from the depths of the energie regenerabilă, desemnăm energia termică provenită
planet as "geothermal heat". One exploitable effect of din adâncurile planetei drept „căldură geotermală”. Un efect
geothermal heat, present on virtually all dry stretches exploatabil al căldurii geotermale, prezent practic pe aproape
of the Earth, is the thermostated status of toate întinderile de uscat ale Pământului, este caracterul
groundwater. This can be used to heat obtaining by termostatat al apelor freatice. Acest aspect poate fi folosit
extraction and pumping. pentru obŃinerea de căldură prin extragere şi pompare.
The environment contains large amounts of heat – Mediul ambiant conŃine cantităŃi imense de căldură –
as the temperature is relatively lowered. The heat este drept că la temperaturi relativ coborâte. Această
originates, in the majority, of the Sun and constitute căldură provine, majoritar, de la Soare şi constituie unele
some reservoirs of interest in terms of energy. For rezervoare care prezintă interes din punct de vedere
example, any accumulations of water are heat energetic. De pildă, orice acumulări mari de apă constituie
reservoirs that, at the scale needs the surrounding şi rezervoare de căldură care, la scara necesităŃilor
residents, have enormous capabilities. Such locuitorilor din zona limitrofă, au capacităŃi enorme. Astfel
accumulation can be exploited in order to obtain heat by de acumulări pot fi exploatate pentru obŃinerea de căldură
extraction and pumping. A similar effort, allows the heat prin extragere şi pompare. Un efort similar, de extragere şi
extraction and pumping from shallow Earth's crust in pompare, permite obŃinerea de căldură din scoarŃa
warm or temperate zones, from the rivers or from the superficială a Pământului din zonele temperate sau calde,
atmosphere. din apele curgătoare sau din aerul atmosferic.
All the technologies involving the heat extraction from Toate tehnologiile care presupun extragerea căldurii dintr-
an environment and its delivery, to the desired un mediu şi livrarea ei, la parametri doriŃi, către un utilizator se
parameters, to a user are based on the use of heat bazează pe folosirea pompelor de căldură. În acest domeniu,
pumps. In this area, recent decades have witnessed ultimele decenii au fost martorele unor creşteri spectaculoase
dramatic increases in performance due to advances in de performanŃe datorate progreselor din domeniul agenŃilor
refrigeration and better dominions of heat transfer frigorifici şi unei mai bune stăpâniri a proceselor de transfer de
processes. Accordingly, nowadays many variants and căldură. În aceste condiŃii, în zilele noastre sunt disponibile
types of heat pumps are commercially available, capable comercial numeroase variante şi tipuri de pompe de căldură
to extract heat from the media of –20ºC ... –25ºC capabile să extragă căldura din medii cu temperaturi de – 20
temperature and to deliver pertinent low temperature ... – 25ºC şi să o livreze la temperaturi corespunzătoare
heat raised above. categoriei de căldură la temperatură joasă invocată mai sus.
Biomass mean "the biodegradable fraction of Prin biomasă înŃelegem „partea biodegradabilă a
products, waste and residues from agriculture, including produselor, deşeurilor şi reziduurilor din agricultură,
vegetable and animal substances, forestry and related inclusiv substanŃele vegetale şi animale, silvicultură şi
industries, as well as the biodegradable fraction of industriile conexe, precum şi partea biodegradabilă a
industrial and municipal waste" [8]. Biomass includes deşeurilor industriale şi urbane” [8]. Biomasa include
absolutely all organic matter produced by the metabolic absolut toată materia organică produsă prin procesele
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processes of living organisms and is the most abundant metabolice ale organismelor vii şi este resursa
renewable energy resource on the planet. Incorporated regenerabilă de energie cea mai abundentă de pe
into biomass energy is released by a variety of methods, planetă. Energia înglobată în biomasă se eliberează prin
which however, in the latter, is the chemical process of metode variate, care însă, în cele din urmă, reprezintă
combustion (exothermic oxidation chemical procesul chimic de ardere (transformare chimică
transformation in the presence of molecular oxygen). exotermă de oxidare în prezenŃa oxigenului molecular).
The forms of biomass energy capitalization are Formele de valorificare energetică a biomasei sunt
diverse: the direct burning with thermal energy diverse: arderea directă cu generare de energie termică,
generation , pyrolysis combustion with synthesis gas arderea prin piroliză, cu generare de gaz de sinteză (CO
generation (CO + H2), the fermentation and the + H2), fermentarea, cu generare de biogaz (CH4) sau
generation of biogas (CH4) or bioethanol (CH3-CH2-OH), bioetanol (CH3-CH2-OH), extragerea, transformarea
the extraction, chemical transformation or enzymatic chimică sau degradarea enzimatică cu generare de
degradation with biofuels generation. biocarburanŃi.
An important aspect of biomass energy resource is Un aspect important al resursei energetice constituite de
that many of its generic components are wastes raising biomasă este acela că multe din componentele generice ale
management problemes. This category includes the acesteia sunt deşeuri care ridică probleme de gestionare. În
sewage sludge, animal excretions, a huge variety of această categorie intră nămolurile de canalizare, dejecŃiile
agricultural and industrial wastes. animale, o varietate imensă de reziduuri agricole şi industriale.
For biomass energy recovery are many technologies Pentru valorificarea energetică a biomasei sunt disponibile
available and appropriate equipment for their numeroase tehnologii şi echipamentele corespunzătoare
application to small-scale, locally. Thus, for the direct pentru aplicarea acestora la scară redusă, pe plan local.
burning of biomass there are technologies and Astfel, pentru arderea directă a biomasei există tehnologii şi
equipments for the wood waste conditioning (usually, echipamente pentru condiŃionarea deşeurilor lemnoase (de
chopping) and for the preparation of pellets and regulă, tocare) şi pentru prepararea de pelete şi brichete din
briquettes from sawdust and agricultural residues. Also, rumeguş de lemn şi resturi vegetale agricole. De asemenea,
the technology for the burning of such materials are tehnologiile pentru arderea unor astfel de materiale sunt
known and can be applied, with appropriate adaptation cunoscute şi pot fi aplicate, cu seturi de adaptări
sets, even in the existing fireboxes constructed for other corespunzătoare, chiar şi în focare existente, construite pentru
solid fuels. In turn, the technologies of preparation, alte tipuri de combustibili solizi. La rândul lor, tehnologiile de
conditioning and recovery of biogas are well mastered preparare, condiŃionare şi valorificare a biogazului sunt bine
and available, even if you still can not speak of a market stăpânite şi disponibile, chiar dacă încă nu se poate vorbi de o
for small biogas plants. So it is with synthesis gas piaŃă pentru instalaŃiile mici de producere a biogazului. Tot
generators and installations for the liquid fuels astfel stau lucrurile şi cu generatoarele de gaz de sinteză şi cu
extraction. instalaŃiile pentru extragerea unor combustibili lichizi.
Looking at things as a whole, we can say that we Privind lucrurile în ansamblu, putem afirma că
have all the needed technologies to exploit local dispunem de toate tehnologiile necesare pentru
renewable energy sources, and most of the exploatarea locală a surselor regenerabile de energie, iar
equipment required for this conduct are commercially majoritatea echipamentelor necesare pentru această
available. conduită sunt disponibile comercial.
TACTICAL APPROACH OF LOCAL RENEWABLE ENERGY ABORDAREA TACTICĂ A EXPLOATĂRII SURSELOR

SOURCES EXPLOITATION REGENERABILE LOCALE DE ENERGIE
To promote, in a given location, fully integrated, the Pentru promovarea, într-o locaŃie dată, a conduitei de
local renewable energy sources exploitation, some exploatare, în regim integrat, a surselor regenerabile
specific actions deploiment is necessary, in order to locale de energie este necesară desfăşurarea, într-o
define promotion tactics. These actions, along with the ordine care defineşte tactica promovării, a unor acŃiuni
reasons and the results thereof are shown in the specifice. Aceste acŃiuni, împreună cu motivaŃiile şi
following. rezultatele lor, sunt prezentate în cele ce urmează.
1º. Inventory of affordable renewable energy 1º. Inventarierea surselor regenerabile de energie
sources and the legal framework of approaching. The abordabile şi a cadrului legal de abordare. Motivul
reason for the initial deployment of this action is that desfăşurării iniŃiale a acestei acŃiuni este faptul că sursele
renewable energy sources that can be harnessed regenerabile de energie care pot fi valorificate se
manifest themselves with various potentials. Beyond manifestă cu potenŃiale diverse. Dincolo de simpla
simply identifying these sources, evaluating their identificare a acestor surse, evaluarea potenŃialelor lor
potential to be the basis for any decision approach. Also, trebuie să stea la baza oricărei hotărâri de abordare. De
some sources addressing (water from rivers and lakes, asemenea, abordarea unor surse (apele din râuri şi lacuri,
water tables) are subject to rigorous supervision for pânzele de apă freatică) sunt supuse unei supravegheri
environmental protection. Thus, in some protected areas, riguroase sub aspectul protejării mediului. Astfel, în unele
legislation may prohibit some sources approach and zone protejate, legislaŃia poate interzice abordarea unor
some operating practices of some resources - waste can surse iar unele practici de exploatare ale unor resurse –
be legally supported. deşeu pot fi sprijinite legal.
The results of this action is in the list of affordable Rezultatele acestei acŃiuni constau în lista surselor
renewable energy sources and their potential, regenerabile de energie abordabile şi a potenŃialelor
accompanied by limitations or legal support for the acestora, însoŃite de limitările sau sprijinul legal pentru
operation. exploatare.
2º. Inventory and quantitative assessment of 2º. Inventarierea şi evaluarea cantitativă a
energy consumptions possible to satisfy, consumurilor energetice posibil de satisfăcut, parŃial
partially or totally, in terms of economic sau total, în condiŃii de rentabilitate economică, cu
profitability with energy obtained from local energie obŃinută din surse regenerabile locale.
318
renewable sources. This action is required Această acŃiune este obligatorie, deoarece necesităŃile
because energy needs at home and in local de energie la nivel casnic şi în procesele locale de prelucrare
processing and conditioning processes in şi condiŃionare în agricultură, mică industrie alimentară şi
agriculture, food industry and small crafts market is activităŃi meşteşugăreşti constituie o piaŃă difuză şi
a diffuse and uneven, and forms of energy neomogenă, iar formele de energie reclamate pe această
reclaimed in this market and the quantities needed piaŃă şi cantităŃile necesare pentru fiecare formă trebuie
for each form should be estimated in order to allow estimate, pentru a permite modelarea eficientă a activităŃilor
efficient modeling of the activities they cover. de acoperire a ei.
The result of this action is the actual knowledge of the Rezultatul acestei acŃiuni constă în cunoaşterea concretă
market size and structure that addresses energy product a mărimii şi structurii pieŃei căreia se adresează produsul
of exploitation. energetic al exploatării.
3º. Elaboration of technological schemes for the 3º. Elaborarea schemelor tehnologice pentru
exploitation of targeted renewable energy sources. exploatarea surselor regenerabile de energie vizate.
This action is required by the fact that technological Această acŃiune este impusă de faptul că schemele
schemes adopted, even if they are well known and tehnologice adoptate, chiar dacă sunt bine cunoscute şi
mature, must be simple and able to operate in mature, trebuie să fie simple şi capabile de a funcŃiona în
integrated mode. In addition, some resources may exist regim integrat. În plus, pentru unele resurse pot exista
competing technological schemes with different tracks scheme tehnologice concurente, cu trasee diferite şi rezultate
and different outcomes (e.g. agricultural residues can diferite (de exemplu, resturile vegetale agricole pot fi peletizate
be pelletized or briquetted and burned, or be included in sau brichetate şi arse, sau pot intra în compoziŃia substratului
the substrate for biogas production). Such variants must pentru producerea biogazului). Astfel de variante trebuie
be known in the structuring process of the conduct of cunoscute în procesul de structurare a conduitei de
exploitation. exploatare.
The result of this action is in the technical Rezultatul acestei acŃiuni constă în specificaŃiile
specifications for achieving operation. tehnice pentru realizarea exploatării.
4º. Risk analyzes on the security of obtaining 4º. Analizele de riscuri privind securitatea obŃinerii
of energy for all variations of renewable source - energiei pentru toate variantele sursă regenerabilă –
specific technology of exploitation targeted and tehnologie specifică de exploatare vizate şi stabilirea
establishing the redundancy schemes to secure schemelor de redundanŃă pentru securizarea alimentării
the supply with the energy forms for which is cu formele de energie pentru care se mizează pe sursele
betting on local renewable sources. This action regenerabile locale. Această acŃiune are mai multe motivaŃii.
has several motivations. The first of these is the fact Prima dintre acestea se referă la faptul că abordarea surselor
that local renewable energy approach presents regenerabile locale de energie prezintă aspecte strategice
strategic issues SWOT analyzable and risk aspects analizabile SWOT, iar aspectele de risc din aceste analize
of these analyzes must be aggregated to give a trebuie agregate pentru a obŃine o imagine a riscurilor privind
picture of the risks to security of supply in an securitatea alimentării cu energie în cadrul unei exploatări
integrated operation of several sources. A second integrate a mai multor surse. A doua motivaŃie Ńine de faptul
motivation is the fact that the risks materialized in the că riscurile materializate în exploatarea unei surse
operation of a renewable energy can be offset by regenerabile de energie pot fi compensate de alte surse din
other sources in the integrated operating system and cadrul sistemului de exploatare integrată şi posibilităŃile de
the possibilities for substitution should be highlighted. suplinire trebuie evidenŃiate. De asemenea, trebuie definite
Also, must be defined the limit situations in which the situaŃiile limită în care alimentarea cu energie apelează la
power calls to external systems. surse externe sistemului.
The results of this action are essential for organizing Rezultatele acestei acŃiuni sunt esenŃiale pentru
integrated exploitation of targeted renewable energy organizarea exploatării integrate a surselor vizate şi pentru
sources and delivered user satisfaction. Thus, on the satisfacerea beneficiarilor energiei livrate. Astfel, pe de o
one hand, to establish possible refill ways from a variety parte, stabilirea posibilităŃilor şi modurilor de suplinire între
of sources allow the operation of the technical set-up diverse surse permit configurarea tehnică a funcŃionării
included in order to obtain maximum safety in the integrate în sensul obŃinerii siguranŃei maxime în livrarea de
supply of energy. On the other hand, the identification of energie. Pe de altă parte, identificarea situaŃiilor limită în
critical situations where energy supplies are affected care livrările de energie sunt afectate şi comunicarea
and their communicated to the beneficiaries will enable acestora către beneficiari va permite acestora să-şi
them to establish a realistic, possible need to access stabilească, în mod realist, posibilele necesităŃi de accesare
external power sources of system operating renewable a unor surse de energie exterioare sistemului de exploatare
energy. a surselor regenerabile de energie.
Following the tactical steps described are able to Parcurgerea paşilor tactici descrişi sunt în măsură să
make sure that the establishment of facilities for dea siguranŃa că înfiinŃarea unei amenajări pentru
integrated operation of local renewable energy sources is exploatarea integrată a surselor regenerabile locale de
market useful and economically viable. energie este utilă pieŃei şi rentabilă economic.
The above is seeking a comprehensive overview of Cele de mai sus se doresc o prezentare globală a
issues related to the exploitation of local renewable aspectelor legate de exploatarea surselor regenerabile
energy sources. Placed equally under the banners of locale de energie. Plasată, în egală măsură, sub
energy needs and environment protection, this work is, in stindardele nevoii de energie şi protecŃiei mediului,
the author opinion, insufficiently promoted and supported această activitate este, după părerea autorului,
by concerted research for completed application insuficient promovată şi sprijinită prin cercetări concertate
solutions. şi finalizate cu soluŃii aplicabile.
Meanwhile, highlights often overlooked aspects when În acelaşi timp, sunt evidenŃiate unele aspecte omise
319
talking about this conduct, such as dominant share of the adesea când se vorbeşte despre această conduită, cum
need for low temperature thermal energy in the total ar fi ponderea dominatoare a nevoii de energie termică la
energy market or decontaminated effect of the use of temperatură joasă în totalul pieŃei de energie sau efectul
biomass categories. depoluant al folosirii unor categorii de biomasă.
Finally, are briefly presented and discussed the În fine, sunt prezentate şi examinate, pe scurt, acŃiunile
actions that make tactical approach and, conducted care compun tactica abordării şi care, desfăşurate înaintea
before the establishment of proper arrangements, are înfiinŃării propriu-zise a unei amenajări, sunt de natură să
such as to ensure its energy capability and legality, garanteze acesteia capabilitate energetică şi legalitate,
outlet, so economic efficiency, technical performance piaŃă de desfacere, deci eficienŃă economică, performanŃă
and safety in the delivery of cheap and "clean".energy. tehnică şi siguranŃă în livrarea de energie ieftină şi „curată”.
These actions require, for detailing, research efforts Aceste acŃiuni necesită, pentru detaliere, eforturi de
because, for example, with the exception of solar cercetare pentru că, de exemplu, cu excepŃia radiaŃiei
radiation, for which statistical data can be accessed, solare, pentru care există date statistice ce pot fi accesate,
investigating a location in terms of "energy capacity" investigarea unei locaŃii din punctul de vedere al „capacităŃii
requires, for objectivity and uniformity, procedural energetice” necesită, pentru obiectivitate şi uniformitate,
actions. Also, security of energy supply may benefit acŃiuni procedurate. De asemenea, asigurarea securităŃii în
from general redundancy scheme offered as research alimentarea cu energie poate beneficia de scheme de
results. redundanŃă generale oferite ca rezultate ale cercetării.
It can be appreciated that providing such a solution Se poate aprecia că oferirea de astfel de soluŃii ar
would allow an extension, in time, to practice exploitation permite o extindere, în timp, a practicii exploatării
of local renewable energy sources, with undeniable surselor regenerabile locale de energie, cu beneficii
economic, comfort and environmental benefits. economice, de confort şi de mediu de necontestat.
[1]. Rugină V.a.o. – Scenarios for the evolution of [1]. Rugină V. ş.a. – Scenarii de evoluŃie a consumului de
electricity consumption in the residential sector, energie electrică în sectorul rezidenŃial, ICEMENERG –
ICEMENERG – http://rria.ici.ro/ria2008_3/art02.html; http://rria.ici.ro/ria2008_3/art02.html;
[2]. National Institute of Statistics (2011) - Romania in figures, [2]. Institutul NaŃional de Statistică (2011) - România în cifre,
Statistical abstract – http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/publicatii; Breviar statistic, http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/publicatii;
[3]. SR 1907-1:1997 - Heat plants. The calculated heat [3]. SR 1907-1:1997 - InstalaŃii de căldură. Necesarul de
requirement. Computing prescriptions, Romanian Standard; căldură de calcul. PrescripŃii de calcul, Standard Român;
[4]. Calculation of heat and hot water for a dwelling – [4]. Calculul necesarului de căldură şi apă caldă pentru o
http://centrale-buderus.com.ro; locuinŃă – http://centrale-buderus.com.ro;
[5]. National Institute of Statistics(2011) - Romania. [5]. Institutul NaŃional de Statistică (2011)– România.
Statistical Yearbook 2011; Anuarul statistic 2011;
[6]. National Administration of Meteorology - Romania - [6]. AdministraŃia NaŃională de Meteorologie – România –
Multiannual climatological data – http://www.meteoromania.ro/anm; Date climatologice multianuale – http://www.meteoromania.ro/anm;
[7]. National Institute of Statistics (2010) - Romania. Energy [7]. Institutul NaŃional de Statistică (2010) – România. BalanŃa
Balance in 2010 ,http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/publicatii; energetică 2010, http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/publicatii;
[8]. Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Council and [8]. Directiva 2003/30/EC a Consiliului si Parlamentului
Parliament of 8 May 2003 on promoting the use of European, din 8 mai 2003, privind promovarea utilizării
biofuels or of other renewable fuels for transport biocombustibililor sau a altor combustibili regenerabili
purposes. destinaŃi transportului.
320
BLADE TYPE CAVITATION PREDICTION ON THE TWICE DEFORMATION OF

AGRICULTURAL AUTOMOBILE ENGINE COOLING WATER PUMPS BASED ON CFD
/
基于 CFD 的农用汽车发动机冷却水泵二次变曲率叶型空化特性预测
农用汽车发动机冷却水泵二次变曲率叶型空化特性预测
1, 2) 3) 4) 1)
Lect. Ph.D. Xue Dangqin , Lect. Ph.D. Ma Shibang , Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Shi Huojie , Prof. Ph.D. Hou Shulin
1)
College of Engineering ,China Agricultural University, Beijing / China; School of Mechanical ＆Automotive Engineering, Nanyang
2)
Institute of Technology, Henan / China;3) Nangyang Normal University, Henan / China; 4)Department of Biological Systems Engineering,
Washington State University, Pullman / U.S.A.
Tel: +8613782173858; Email: xdq5599@163.com
Abstract: Based on the CFD imitation of the three-

dimensional flow field of the agricultural automobile 摘要：
摘要：基于 CFD 模拟农用汽车发动机冷却水泵内部的三
engine cooling water pump, the thesis analyzes the
energy characteristics and cavitation performance of the 维湍流流场，分析了某一农用汽车采用二次变曲率叶型冷
farm vehicle using two variable curvature blade type
却水泵无空化时的能量特性和空化性能，预测了不同空化
cooling water pump without cavitation, forecasts the
cavitation distribution in the impeller and the stream line 状态下叶轮内的空泡分布和叶片中间流线上载荷分布，并
load distribution under different cavitation conditions and
compares with the test results. The results showed that: 与实验结果进行对比。结果表明：在 25℃设计流量下，模
in the design flow of 25 ℃ , the simulated head
拟得到的扬程为 13.49m，数值模拟及试验的扬程和效率
was13.49m and the error between numerical simulation
and the test results was within 2%. The head of the pump 误差在 2%以内。在 85℃下农用汽车发动机冷却模型水泵
engine cooling model of agricultural vehicles of the
design operating point under 85℃ is 9.6m, much lower 在设计工况点的扬程为 9.6m，大大低于 25℃下设计流量
than the head value of the design flow under 25℃. This
shows that there is serious cavitation in the actual 下的扬程值。说明在实际运行时泵内已发生严重汽蚀，设
operation of pump, the cavitation performance curve and 计工况下的空化性能曲线与数值计算变化趋势一致，全空
the numerical change trend converge, numerical value is
less than the full cavitation range measured values and 化范围内实测值小于数值计算值，而随着流量增大，临界
as the flow increases, the critical cavitation allowance also
increases accordingly. The research provides a theoretical 汽蚀余量也相应增大。研究结果对于改善农用机械发动机
basis for the improvement of the cavitation performance 冷却水泵的汽蚀性能、防止和减轻空化现象的产生提供了
of agricultural machinery engine cooling water pumps
and the prevention and mitigation of cavitation. 理论依据。
Keywords: The two curvature blade; Cooling water 关键词: 两段变曲率叶型; 农用汽车发动机冷却水泵; 空化
pump of agricultural automobile engine; Cavitation
performance; Leaf blade load; Performance prediction 性能; 叶片载荷; 性能预测
INTRODUCTION 引言
Cooling water pump of agricultural automobile
engines is the key component to ensure the normal work 农用汽车发动机冷却水泵是保障发动机冷却系统正常工
of the engine cooling system and influences more of the 作的关键部件，对发动机的性能影响日益显著。而空化现
performance of the engine. While cavitation has also
influenced the performance of the cooling pump. The 象对发动机冷却水泵的性能具有重要的影响，空化的产
production and development of cavitation accompanied 生、发展往往会伴随着产生振动、噪声甚至是过流部件的
by the vibration, noise and even corrosion damage of
flow parts, which will degrade the pump performance and 腐蚀破坏，降低泵的性能并缩短其服役期 [10] 。而在农用
shorten its service period [10]. Compared with common 汽车发动机冷却系统中，由于冷却水泵具有工作温度高，
pumps, the cooling water pump, with high work
temperature, large speed change range and limited size, 转速变化范围大和结构尺寸总体受限等特殊性，其与普通
is more prone to cavitation [7, 8]. The cavitation leads to
水泵相比更容易发生空化现象[7,8]。空化现象造成的性能
the degradation of the performance and causes instability
of the engine cooling system. 急降和空化破坏严重影响发动机冷却系统的稳定性。
In view of the seriousness of the cavitation damage, both
domestic and foreign scholars have conducted in-depth 鉴于空化破坏的严重性，国内外学者对机械内部流场的
studies on cavitation of the inner mechanical flow field.
R.F.Kunz and some researchers [4] predicted the 空化现象进行了深入研究。 R.F.Kunz 等 [4] 对运用基于
occurrence and development of cavitation by applying two-
Navier-Stokes 方程的两相流模型对空化的发生和发展进行
phase flow model based on Navier-Stokes equation and
obtained good effect; Luo Xianwu and some other 了预测，获得了良好的效果；罗先武等[10]基于 VOF 空化
researchers [10], based on VOF cavitation model numerical
321
simulation on the whole flow field, conducted a systematical

study on the influence of the impeller inlet parameter on 模型对锅炉给水泵全流场进行数值模拟，系统地对叶轮进
cavitation and found that the low specific speed centrifugal
口参数对空化的影响进行了研究，发现对低比转速离心泵
pump in the direction of the wheel hub properly extending
blade inlet edge and the use of blade placing angle can 朝轮毂方向适当延伸叶片进口边，并采用较大的叶片安放
improve the cavitation performance of the pump; Wang
Yong and some researchers [3,7,13], based on CFD 角可以改善泵的空化性能；王勇等[3,7,13]基于 CFD 技术
technology numerical simulation of centrifugal pump, found
that the cavitation performance under design conditions has 对离心泵进行数值模拟，发现不同叶片包角对设计工况下
no significant difference in different angles and analyses the
cavitation distribution in the impeller and the stream line load 空化性能无明显影响，并分析了不同空化状态下叶轮中间
distribution under different cavitation conditions.
The thesis studies a specific two curvature blade 截面内的空泡分布和叶片中间流向的载荷特性。
agricultural automobile engine cooling water pump which 本文针对某一采用两段变曲率叶型的农用汽车发动机冷
has appeared severe cavitation damage in the actual
operation. By using CFD numerical simulation on the 却水泵进行研究，其在实际运行中出现了较为严重的汽蚀
unsteady flow cavitation, it forecasts the location and the 破坏。利用 CFD 软件对其全流场的定常空化流动进行数值
degree of cavitation damage and provides reference for
模拟，预测流道内空化发生的部位和程度，为叶轮空化性
the prediction of the impeller cavitation performance
optimization and cavitation performance. 能的优化和空化性能的预测提供参考。
MATERIAL AND METHOD 材料与方法

The engine cooling water pump works under（85 ± 2）°C 发动机冷却水泵工作条件为（85 ± 2）℃温度条件下的清
in clear water, whose performance parameters and basic
geometric parameters are shown in Table 1. Due to the 水介质，性能参数和基本几何参数如表 1 所示，由于缸体
special requirements of cylinder structure and agricultural 结构及农用汽车发动机的特殊要求，发动机冷却水泵的设
vehicle engine, the design method of engine cooling
water pump is different from the ordinary one, impeller 计方法与普通的离心泵设计方法不一样，叶轮宽度较宽，
width wide and impeller semi-open, the structure shown
in figure 1, and the suction chamber section is annular. 叶轮为半开式，其结构型式如图 1，吸水室截面为环形。
Use Creo 2 to generate the model pump whole field 采用 Creo 2.0 生成了模型泵全流场三维立体图，计算域如
three-dimensional map, the computational domain shown
in figure 2. 图 2。
Table 1
Design and structure parameters of pump
parameters values
flow/(kg·h-1) 8
head/m 14
rotation rate/(r·min-1) 3700
impellerouterdiameter/mm 53
impeller output width/mm 7
the number of blades 6
Fig.1 - The impeller’s structure Fig.2 - The computational domain three-dimensional map
322
The choice of numerical model 数值模型的选择

In single phase calculation, take N-S equations as
governing equations and Standard k-ε turbulence model 单相计算以时均 N-S 方程作为基本控制方程，利用
as 3D turbulent numerical calculation. The turbulent
Standard k-ε 湍流模型进行三维湍流数值计算。该湍流模
kinetic energy k and the dissipation rate of turbulent
kinetic energy ε of turbulent transport equation model is: 型湍动能 k 和湍动能耗散率 ε 的输送方程为:
k2
µ t = ρ Cµ (1)
e
∂( ρ k ) ∂( ρ kui )  µ t  ∂e 
+ = ∂  µ +   + Gk − ρ e
(2)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j  σ k  ∂x j 
∂ ( ρ e) ∂ ( ρ eui ) ∂  µ  ∂e  C1ε ρ e2
+ =   µε +   + G −C (3)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j  σ ε  ∂x j  k k 2ε k
Where: µ t - the turbulent kinematic viscosity;

Gk - the generation item of mean velocity 式中: µ t - 湍流运动粘度
gradient caused by the turbulent kinetic energy k; Gk - 平均速度梯度引起的湍动能 k 的产生项
σ k - the prandtl number corresponding to
σ k - 湍动能 k 对应的 Prandtl 数； σ k =1.0
turbulent kinetic energy k; σ k =1.0;
σ ε - the prandtl number corresponding to σ ε - 耗散率 ε 对应的 Prandtl 数； σ ε =1.3
dissipation rate epsilon; σ ε =1.3; C µ , C1ε 和 C2ε 为经验常数， C µ =0.09 ；
C µ , C1ε and C2ε are empirical constant,
C µ =0.09； C1ε =1.44； C2ε =1.92. C1ε =1.44； C2ε =1.92.
In this thesis, multi-phase simulation uses flow field
and velocity field of same Homogeneous Model and 本文的多相模拟采用 Homogeneous Model 及汽液两相
vapor - liquid two - phase. Cavitation is calculated by 具有相同的流场和速度场。空化计算采用 Rayleigh-
Rayleigh-Plesset model which provides rate equations
and condensing vacuoles produced. The development Plesset 模型，该模型给出了空泡产生和凝结的速率方程，
process of the bubble in the fluid is as below: 汽泡在流体中的发展过程如下式:
2σ p −p
2
d 2 RB 3  dRB 
RB +   + = v (4)
dt 2
2  dt  ρ f RB ρf
Where, RB - the bubble radius 式中:RB - 汽泡半径
pv - the inside cavity pressure
p - the around bubble pressure of fluid pv - 空泡内的压力
ρf - fluid density p - 空泡周围流体的压力
σ - the coefficient of surface tension and bubble ρf - 流体密度
Note that the equation (4) does not consider the
influence of thermal effects on the development of σ - 流体与空泡交界面的表面张力系数
cavitation. Ignoring the order condition and surface 要注意的是方程（4）未考虑热效应对空泡发展的影响。
tension, equation (4) is simplified as:
在忽略二阶条件和表面张力的条件下，方程（4）简化为:
dRB 2 pv − p
= (5)
dt 3 ρf
The change rate of the vacuole volume: 则空泡体积的变化速率：
dRB d  4 3  2 pv − p
=  π RB  = 4π RB3 (6)
dt dt  3  3 ρf
the quality change rate of the vacuole: 空泡的质量变化速率：
dmB dV 2 pv − p
= ρ g B = 4π RB2 ρ g (7)
dt dt 3 ρf
If there are NB vacuoles per unit volume, the volume 如果在每单位体积内有 NB 个空泡，则其体积分数 rg 可
fraction of rg can be expressed as:
以表示为:
323
4
rg = VB N B = π RB3 N B (8)
3
The transfer rate of overall mass of unit volume:
单位体积内总体相间质量传输速率为：
dmB 3rg ρ g 2 pv − p
m& fg = N B = (9)
dt RB 3 ρf
The equation is derived by the development of the

上式由空泡的发展（汽化作用）推导得到。
vacuoles (vaporization). When taking the bubble
condensation into consideration: 在考虑空泡凝结作用时，得到：
3rg ρ g 2 pv − p
m& fg = F sgn ( pv − p ) (10)
RB 3 ρf
Although the equation can be commonly used in the

尽管上式普遍使用与汽化和凝结过程，在汽化情况下仍
vaporization and condensation process, it should be
further optimized in vaporization. Vaporization starts at 需要进一步的优化。汽化作用起始于成核位置，随着空泡
nucleation. With the increase of vacuole volume fraction,
体积分数的增长，成核中心密度必然相应下降。用 rnuc（1-
the nucleation density must decreases accordingly. rnuc
(1-rg) taking place of rg: rg）代替上式中的 rg:
3rnuc (1 − rg ) ρ g 2 pv − p
m& fg = F sgn ( pv − p ) (11)
RB 3 ρf
Where, F - empirical coefficient 式中:F - 经验系数

rnuc - nucleation position volume fraction
RB - The nucleation semi-diameter is gained through rnuc - 成核位置体积分数
documents. 85 ℃ saturated main steam parameters is RB - 此式中指成核位置的半经由文献得到 85℃下饱和水
shown in table 2. 蒸汽的主要物性参数，如表 2。
Table 2
85°C saturated main steam parameters
Material Properties Value
Thermodynamic state Gas
Molar Mass/kg·kmol-1 18
-3
Density/kg·m 0.35735
-1 -1
Specific heat capacity/J·g ·K 1.88
Constant
Specific heat type
pressure
Dynamic viscosity/Pa·s 346.8
-1 -1
Thermal conductivity/W·m ·K 695.6
Saturation pressure/kPa 57.815
Mesh generation and boundary condition 网格划分和边界条件

ICEM hexahedral mesh generation is applied to the
model pump full flow field and 10-15 layer to the big part 对模型泵全流场采用 ICEM 进行六面体网格划分，对叶
of the impeller radius of curvature to ensure the block
accord with the internal flow of the agricultural machinery 轮曲率半径较大的地方设置 10-15 层的边界层网格，在保
engine cooling pumps while ensuring the calculation 证分块较好符合农用机械发动机冷却泵内的流动状态的同
accuracy of the impeller near wall [6]. In order to obtain
the most economical grid number and calculation step, 时保证叶轮近壁面的计算精度[6]。为了获得最经济的网格
the independent mesh study on numerical simulation
数和计算步长，对设计工况下的数值模拟进行了网格无关
under the design condition is conducted. It shows that
when the number of the mesh reaches above 1,500,000, 性的研究，发现当网格数达到 150 万以上时，扬程的变化
the change range of the head is within 2%, which can
think as mesh having no influence on the calculation 幅度在 2% 之内，可以认为网格对计算结果没有影响。叶
results. Impeller block and the computational domain
轮的分块及计算域网格如图 3。
mesh are shown in Figure 3.
324
(a) Full flow field mesh model (b) Impeller block and mesh model (c) The impeller back cavity mesh model
Fig. 3 - The computational domain mesh
The cavitation allowance (NPSH) is closely related to

由于空化余量（ NPSH ）与泵的进口压力密切相关，因
the inlet pressure of the pump, and therefore the
boundary conditions of the pressure inlet and mass flow 此对模型泵采用压力进口和质量流量出口的边界条件。设
outlet are applied to the model pump. Inlet bubble phase
volume fraction is set to 0, the volume fraction of liquid 置进口空泡相体积分数为 0，液相体积分数设为 1。壁面粗
phase 1 and the surface roughness 0.02mm; the near
糙度设为 0.02mm ；近壁面处选用标准壁面函数，壁面边
wall uses standard wall function, the wall boundary
condition is set to no slip insulation wall [2]. 界条件设为绝热无滑移壁面[2]。
Cavitation simulation takes the no-cavitation
calculation results as the initial results. By changing the 空化模拟计算以无空化计算结果作为计算的初始结果。
inlet pressure, the centrifugal pump cavitation occurs and 通过改变进口压力使离心泵发生空化，这样能获得较好的
then obtains better calculation convergence effect, so as
to shorten the time of calculation [12]. 计算收敛效果，从而缩短计算时间[12]。
RESULTS 结果
Validation and comparison between the external
characteristics numerical simulation results and the 外特性数值模拟结果与实验结果的对比验证
experimental results
For the cavitation free single-phase flow, the flow – 对于无空化单相流动时，在 25ᴼ 下分别在 0.7Qd 、
head and flow - efficiency curve under 25℃ is calculated 0.85Qd、1.0Qd、1.15Qd、1.3Qd 五种工况下模拟计算出其
under the five conditions of 0.7 Qd, 0.85 Qd, 1.0 Qd, 1.15
Qd and 1.3 Qd. From figure 4, the numerical simulation 流量-扬程和流量-效率曲线，从图 4 可以看出数值模拟得
results agree well with the experimental results. In the 1.0
Qd, the numerical simulation head is 13.49m and 到的结果与实验结果吻合较好。此时在 1.0Qd 数值模拟得
efficiency of 56.9%. As seen from the graph, under the
five conditions selected, the efficiency has a high degree 到扬程为 13.49m ，效率为 56.9% 。从图中可以看出，所
of goodness of fit. While the efficiency values obtained
from the numerical calculation are higher than that of the 选取的五个工况中，效率吻合度较高，而数值计算得到的
experimental results, the error value within about 2% due
to the ignoring of the mechanical loss caused by caused 效率值均高于试验结果，误差值约在 2% 左右，这是由于
by the bearing and friction in numerical simulation
process [1]. 在数值模拟中忽略了轴承、摩擦副等引起的机械损失[1]。
60 13
36
17
12
16 56
32
11
15
52
η/%
H/m
H/m
28
η/%
14 10
EXP H 48
13 CFD H 9 24
EXP η
12 44 Head
CFD η 8
Efficency 20
11
40 7
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Q/Q d Q/Qd
Fig. 4 - 25℃ model pump numerical simulation and experimental Fig. 5 - 85℃ performance curve of the model pump
325
12
10
8
H/m
Q/Qd=1 Experiment results

Q/Qd=0.7
6 Q/Qd=1
Q/Qd=1.3
4
4 8 12 16 20
NPSH/m
Fig. 6 - Comparison of calculated value and cavitation test Fig. 7 - The blade numbers
In the outer characteristic test, when heated to about

在外特性试验中，当加温至 85ᴼ左右，模型泵在设计流
85 ℃ , the head is 9.6m of the model pump under the
design flow head. At the same time, the gradual change 量扬程下扬程为 9.6m，同时进行汽蚀性能试验，保持流量
of the net energy absorbing head [5] occurs when
keeping a constant flow, changing the inlet opening and 不变，改变进口阀门的开度，通过增加进口阻力来降低模
reducing the pump inlet pressure by increasing the inlet
resistance. When the head drops 3%, the NPSH (NPSH) 型泵进口压力，从而逐渐改变净吸能头 [5] 。当扬程下降
is 11m. Test characteristic curve obtained under 85℃ is
3%时，得到汽蚀余量（NPSH）为 11m。在 85ᴼ温度下得
shown in figure 5, and the cavitation performance curve
of the model pump under the design condition and the 到的试验外特性曲线如图 5，而模型泵在设计工况的空化性
simulation results of 0.7Qd, 1.0 Qd and 1.3 Qd under the
condition are shown in figure 6. 能曲线与 0.7Qd、1.0Qd 及 1.3Qd 工况下模拟结果如图 6。
Seen from the figure, the overall decline in the
performance of the model pump at the temperature of 85 可以发现，85ᴼ下模型泵的整体性能比在 25ᴼ下有极大
℃ is greater than that under the temperature of 25 ℃ . 的下降。由图 6 中可以看出，设计工况下的空化性能曲线
From figure 6, the cavitation performance curve and
numerical calculation change are prone to be the same 与数值计算的变化趋势一致，全空化范围内实测值小于数
under the design condition, the measured numerical
value within the full cavitation range is less than the 值计算值，而随着流量增大，临界汽蚀余量也相应增大；
calculated value; when the flow rate increases, the critical
在各工况下，当 NPSH>11.5m 时，汽蚀余量的增大对扬程
cavitation allowance also increases accordingly; in each
case, when NPSH>11.5m, the increasing of NPSH has 几乎没有影响。
little effect on the head.
The load distribution on the blade surface 叶片表面载荷分布

The blade surface load is the difference between the 叶片表面载荷是同一叶片和相同半径处压力面和吸力面
pressure surface and the suction surface of a same blade,
which is an important parameter affecting the cavitation 压力之差。而叶片两面的压力差是影响空化性能的重要参
performance. If the pressure difference defined, it is: 数。将这一压力差量纲化，即:
pps -pss (12)

∆p=
1 2
ρU
2
Where: pps - the middle streamline pressure of the pressure
式中: pps - 压力面表面中间流线压强
surface
pss - the middle streamline pressure of the suction surface pss - 吸力面表面中间流线压强
U - The circular velocity blade numbers used at the
intersection of the impeller blade inlet edge and the front U - 模型泵中采用叶轮叶片进口边与前盖板交点处的圆
cover plate are shown in figure 7. Figure 8 is about the 周速度叶片序号如图 7，图 8 为模型泵在设计流量下各叶
load distribution curve of the blade surface and the middle
streamline of the pump model under the design flow, the 片表面的叶片中间流线上载荷分布曲线，其中横坐标表示
abscissa shows the relative position of a point on the
某点在流线方向上的相对位置。
streamline.
326
4 4
2.0
3 3
1.6
2 1.2 2
∆p
∆p
0.8
1 1
∆p
NPSH=7.363m 0.4 NPSH=7.363m
NPSH=7.363m
0 NPSH=9.156m 0.0 NPSH=9.156m 0 NPSH=9.156m
non-cavitation non-cavitation non-cavitation
-1 -0.4 -1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/X 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 x/X
x/X
(a)Blade 1 (b) Blade 2 (c) Blade 3
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
∆p
∆p
∆p
1 1 1
NPSH=7.363m NPSH=7.363m NPSH=7.363m
0 NPSH=9.156m 0 NPSH=9.156m 0 NPSH=9.156m
non-cavitation non-cavitation non-cavitation
-1 -1 -1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/X x/X x/X
(d) Blade 4 (e) Blade 5 (f) Blade 6
Fig. 8 - The load distribution curve of the blade middle streamlines
It can be seen from the figure 8 that from the blade

inlet to outlet, except for blade 2, the curve appears an 由图 8 可以看出从叶片进口到出口，除叶片 2 外基本
parabolic increasing; when x/X=0.5~0.8, the pressure 呈抛物线形趋势增加；当 x/X=0.5~0.8 时，压差系数出现
difference coefficient appears a stable trend and the fluid
enters the bended part of the two curvature blade 平稳趋势，此时流体进入二段变曲率叶型叶轮的后弯部
impeller; when x/X > 0.8, the nearer impeller outlet, its
pressure difference steeply drops, which may even lead 分；当 x/X 大于 0.8 时，及靠近叶轮出口处，压差陡降，
to the pressure of the suction surface exceeding that of
the pressure surface. This is because near the outlet, the 甚至吸力面的压力会超过压力面，这是由于在出口边处，
fluid flows into the suction surface from the working 流体由工作面流入吸力面，产生泄漏流，造成压差系数的
surface, during which leakage happens and results in
decreased pressure difference coefficient. While at the 下降。而叶片 2 在叶片入口处，压力系数高于其他 5 个叶
inlet of the blade 2, the pressure coefficient is higher than
that of the other 5 blades, but the overall pressure 片，但是总体上压差系数较小，叶片 2 上所受载荷也就最
difference coefficient is small so that the load on blade 2
is minimum. Comparing the different NPSH coefficient of 小。对比不同 NPSH 时的压差系数，发现随着 NPSH 的
the pressure difference, it find that as the NPSH
减小，在各叶片上的压差系数都呈明显的上升，说明空化
decreases, the pressure difference coefficient rise of all
the blades, which shows that cavitation has great 对于叶片载荷有较大的影响。同时也说明叶片压差系数越
influence on blade loading and the blade pressure
difference coefficient is in direct proportion to cavitation. 高，空化越严重。
Inner impeller cavitation bubbles distribution 叶轮内部空泡分布

According to the saturated vapor pressure
hypothesis, when the inner pressure of the pump is lower 根据饱和蒸汽压的假说，当泵内的压力小于介质相应
than the medium corresponding operating pressure, 工况的饱和蒸汽压时，流体介质将发生汽化产生空泡。图
cavitation bubble will happens to the fluid medium. Figure
9 shows the void distribution under different NPSH in the 9 为不同 NPSH 下叶轮内的空泡分布。由图 4 可知，随着
impeller. We can see from Figure 4, as the NPSH NPSH 的减小，泵内部的空泡体积分布增大，空泡首先在
decreases, the inside pump cavitation volume distribution
increases. Vacuoles appear first at the blade inlet edge 叶片背面进口边附近出现，并且首先出现在靠近隔舌的流
near the back flow passage and near the baffle tongue 道内，且在全流量内空泡的分布成不对称分布。泵内部的
with an asymmetric distribution. Inside the pump the
vacuole volume increases as the NPSH decreases, along 空泡体积随着 NPSH 的减小而增大，沿叶片背面向叶轮处
the blade impeller back to drain diffusion, and extends to 漏扩散，并同时向压力面方向扩展。在 NPSH=7.363m
the pressure surface. When NPSH=7.363m, it can be
found that the cavitation bubbles have occupied much of 时，可以发现，空泡已经占据了很大部分的流道，极大地
327
the channel, greatly influencing the performance of the 影响了泵的性能。在同一 NPSH 下，空化程度随着流量
pump. In the same NPSH, the cavitation becomes
serious as the flow rate increases. Figure10 shows the 增大而变得严重。图 10 为 1.0Qd 叶轮中间流面内空泡分
vacuole distribution of the 1.0Qd impeller intermediate 布,也体现了上述的分布规律。NPSH=10.541m 时，在中
flow and reflects the distribution rule. When
NPSH=10.541m, there’s no void distribution in the 间流面内无空泡分布，空泡主要分布在靠近前泵腔的进口
intermediate flow, cavitation is mainly distributed at the 边处，随着 NPSH 的下降，到 NPSH=7.363m 时，靠近
inlet near the front pump cavity edge; as the decline of
NPSH to 7.363m, the flow near the baffle tongue is 隔舌的流道几乎被空泡堵塞，此时在外特性上出现明显的
almost blocked by the vacuoles, where there appears 断裂。
obvious fault in the external characteristics.
Figure 11 shows the static pressure distribution the 图 11 为 1.0Qd 工况下叶轮中间截面上的静压分布，从
middle section of the impeller 1.0Qd cases. As seen from
the graph, when the NPSH=10.541m, at the cavitation 图中可以看出，在 NPSH=10.541m 时，空化初生阶段，
inception stage, there’s no void distribution in the middle
section but obviously appears in the low pressure area. 虽然在中间截面上无空泡分布，但是已存在明显的低压
With the decline of HPSH, near the septal area of low
pressure in the flow channel near the tongue first appear 区，随着 HPSH 的下降，在靠近隔舌附近的流道内的低压
the attachment holes which make the water flow channel
区域首先发展为附着空穴，使水流从过流通道的固体边界
separated from the solid boundary. When
HPSH=9.156m, we can see that the vacuoles cross the 脱离。在 HPSH=9.156m 时，可以看出空泡跨流道延伸，
channels and cavitation bubbles appear in each channel.
Except for the channel near the separation tongue, the 在各流道内均出现空泡，除靠近隔舌位置的流道，其他流
static pressure in the flow passage appears a
symmetrical distribution. 道内的静压基本成对称分布。
NPSH=10.541m HPSH=9.156m NPSH=8.163m NPSH=7.363m

(a) Q/Qd=0.7

(b) Q/Qd =1.0

(c) Q/Qd =1.3
Fig. 9 - Inner impeller cavitation bubbles distribution
328

Fig. 10 - The void distribution in the intermediate flow surface of the impeller
Fig.11- The static pressure distribution in the impeller intermediate section
CONCLUSIONS 结论
(1) This thesis, adopting numerical calculating
method, studies that the cavitation performance curve （1）本文中采用的数值计算方法，空化性能曲线与数
and the calculation values are prone to be same, the
numerical calculation value is lower than the measured 值计算变化趋势一致，全空化范围内实测值小于数值计算
value in the full cavitation range, and will provide a good
guiding for the agricultural and fluid pump application. 值，对农业及流体泵类应用具有较好的指导意义。
(2) For the blades near the baffle tongue, regardless
of pump cavitation or not, the pressure difference （2）在靠近隔舌的叶片上，无论水泵是否出现空化现
coefficient on the streamlines is minimum. With the
象，其中间流线上，压差系数最小。随着空化的发展，叶
development of cavitation, the pressure difference
coefficient on the middle streamline increases obviously, 轮中间流线的压差系数明显增大，说明空化对叶片的载荷
which proves that the cavitation has a significant
influence on the load of the blades. 有重要影响。
(3) For the two curvature blade type centrifugal
pump, as the inlet pressure decreases, cavitation bubbles （3）对于二次变曲率叶型离心泵，随着进口压力的降
occur firstly at the blade inlet and then extend to the
impeller outlet along the streamline, until there appear a 低，空泡首先出现在叶片进口处，然后沿流线向叶轮出口
large number of cavitation bubbles on the pressure
surface of blade curved part. 扩展，直至在叶片后弯部分的压力面出现大量空泡。
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was supported by the National High 致谢
technology and Development Program of china
国家高技术研究发展计划（ 2012AA10A503 ），河南
(2012AA10A503), Science and Technology Research
Project of Henan Province (142102210555). 省科技攻关项目资助（142102210555）
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330
ENERGY WILLOW CULTIVATION OPPORTUNITIES IN ROMANIA

/
OPORTUNITĂłILE CULTIVĂRII SALCIEI ENERGETICE ÎN ROMÂNIA
1) 1) 1)
Ph.D. Eng. Găgeanu P. , Eng. Milea D. , Eng. Găgeanu I.
1) 2)
Eng. Mircea R. , Eng. Vajda L.
1)
INMA/ Bucharest / Romania; 2) Green Energy Association, Sfântu Gheorghe / Romania
Tel: 0766482087; E-mail: paulgageanu@yahoo.com
Abstract: Biomass is the most abundant renewable Rezumat: Biomasa reprezintă resursa regenerabilă
resource on the planet. It includes absolutely all organic cea mai abundentă de pe planetă. Aceasta include
matter produced by metabolic processes of living absolut toată materia organică produsă prin procesele
organisms. Biomass is the first energy source used by man metabolice ale organismelor vii. Biomasa este prima
since the discovery of fire. The energy incorporated in the formă de energie utilizată de om, odată cu
biomass is released through various methods that, eventually, descoperirea focului. Energia înglobată în biomasă se
represent the burning process (chemical transformation in eliberează prin metode variate, care însă, în cele din
the presence of molecular oxygen). The paper presents the urmă, reprezintă procesul chimic de ardere
main opportunities for the cultivation of energy willow – an (transformare chimică în prezenŃa oxigenului
important source for obtaining biomass and transforming it molecular). În lucrare sunt prezentate principalele
into thermal energy - essential information to start a oportunităŃi de cultivare a salciei energetice, informatii
plantation of energy willow, including costs, the possibilities esentiale despre înfiinŃarea unei plantaŃii de salcie
to purge water in the treatment plants, harvesting and direct energetică (costuri), recoltarea şi arderea directă cu
burning with generation of thermal energy. generare de energie termică.
Keywords: biomass, energy willow, alternative energy Cuvinte cheie: biomasă, salcie energetică, sursă alternativă
source, renewable energy, sustainable energy de energie, energie regenerabilă, energie sustenabilă
The use of biomass should be promoted in all Utilizarea biomasei trebuie promovată în toate
basic energy sectors (heating, electricity and biofuels sectoarele energetice de bază (încălzire, electricitate şi
for transportation). At least until 2010, there wasn’t biocombustibili pentru transport). Cel puŃin până în 2010,
any major competition for the raw material, biofuels nu a existat o competiŃie majoră pentru materia primă,
being based mainly on agricultural crops, while biocombustibilii bazându-se în principal pe culturile
electricity and heating were based mainly on wood agricole, pe când electricitatea şi încălzirea era bazată în
and residues. principal pe lemn şi deşeuri.
A specific non-food biomass can be developed, but it Poate fi dezvoltată o biomasă specifică ne-alimentară,
is necessary to take into consideration important dar este necesar a se lua în considerare chestiunile
matters regarding biodiversity and work conditions. importante privind biodiversitatea şi condiŃiile de muncă.
These matters have to meet the sustainability criteria: Acestea trebuie să întrunească criteriile de
safe providing of raw material for the industry, efficient sustenabilitate: alimentarea sigură a industriei cu materie
use of land through the use of the whole plant and primă, utilizarea eficientă a terenului prin soluŃii de
exploiting both the fertile soils and the minimum quality utilizare a întregii plante şi prin exploatarea atât a
ones. solurilor fertile cât şi a celor de calitate minimă.
The greenhouse effect and global warming are Efectul de seră şi încălzirea globală sunt deja realităŃi
already realities almost unanimously accepted. The use aproape unanim acceptate. Utilizarea de resurse
of renewable resources that replace fossil fuels regenerabile obŃinute prin cultivarea de plante energetice
represents one of the solutions to reduce the care înlocuiesc combustibilii fosili reprezintă una din soluŃiile
consequences of this global threat. In 2006, the reducerii consecinŃelor acestui pericol global. În anul 2006,
European Union conducted an impact study that revealed Uniunea Europeană a efectuat un studiu de impact din care
some courses of action in the field of resources. rezultă câteva direcŃii de acŃiune în domeniul resurselor.
Energy plants are considered renewable resources Plantele energetice sunt considerate resurse
and are promoted through crops dedicated to obtain regenerabile şi sunt promovate prin culturi dedicate pentru
energy, following the economic rules, obtaining high obŃinerea de energie, respectând regulile economice,
yields with minimal inputs. obŃinerea de producŃii mari cu inputuri minime.
Generically called “energetic”, energy plants Denumite în mod generic “energo”, plantele energetice
represent an alternative energy source, more precisely reprezintă o sursă alternativă de energie, mai precis energie
energy obtained by burning wood material or by obtaining obŃinută fie prin arderea de materie lemnoasă, fie prin
biofuels from herbaceous plants. In other words, we are obŃinerea de biocombustibili din plantele ierboase. Cu alte
talking about biomass as a source of renewable energy. cuvinte, vorbim despre biomasă ca sursă de energie
As it is suggested by their name, these plants have regenerabilă. Aşa cum sugerează şi denumirea lor, aceste
special energetic characteristics and are organic (the plante au caracteristici energetice deosebite şi sunt ecologice
emissions resulted are close to zero). In the category of (emisiile rezultate din arderea lor sunt aproape zero). Din
energy plants we have rape (Brassica napus), corn (Zea categoria plantelor energetice fac parte rapiŃa (Brassica
mays), sun flower (Helianthus annuus), poplar (Populus napus), porumbul (Zea mays), floarea- soarelui (Helianthus
spp.), willow (Salix spp.) etc. annuus), plopul (Populus spp.), salcia (Salix spp.) etc.
Salix viminalis, common osier or osier is a willow Salix viminalis, răchita comună sau răchita, este o
species (Salix) originating in Europe and West Asia. It specie de salcie (Salix) originara din Europa şi vestul Asiei.
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appears that the most profitable woody plant (and Se pare însă că cea mai rentabilă dintre plantele lemnoase
increasingly popular) is the hybrid species Salix viminalis, (şi din ce în ce mai populară) este specia-hibrid Salix
obtained in Sweden laboratories. viminalis, obŃinută în laboratoarele din Suedia.
Energy willow (Salix Viminalis), fig. 1a – is a woody Salcia energetică ( Salix Viminalis), fig.1a - este o
plant in the form a bush, a shrub with multiple branches plantă lemnoasă sub formă de tufă, un arbust cu multiple
having long, flexible, straight gray to green twigs. The crengi având ramuri lungi, flexibile, drepte, cu coaja gri-
leaves are long and slender (fig. 1b), 10-25 cm long but verzui. Frunzele lungi şi subŃiri (fig.1b), au 10-25 cm
only 0.5-2 cm wide, they are dark green above, with a lungime, dar numai 0.5-2 cm lăŃime, sunt de culoare
silky grey-haired underside. The flowers are catkins verde închis, cu un puf mătăsos dedesubt. Florile au
(see fig. 1c), produced in early spring before the leaves, formă de mâŃişori (vezi fig. 1c) şi apar la începutul anului,
they are dioecious, with male and female catkins on primăvara, înainte de frunze; au mâŃişori de sex masculin
separate plants. The male catkins are yellow and have şi feminin pe plante separate. MâŃişorii de sex masculin
an oval shape, and the female catkins are longer and sunt de culoare galbenă şi de formă ovală, mâŃişorii de
more cylindrical, they mature at the beginning of sex feminin sunt mai lungi şi mai mult cilindrici, se
summer, when the capsule fruits open to release maturizează la începutul verii, când fructele capsule se
numerous seeds. deschid pentru a elibera numeroasele seminŃe .
The willow created in Sweden has a rapid growth Salcia creată în Suedia, are o creştere rapidă până la
up until 3-3.5 cm/day and a lifespan of up to 25-30 3-3,5 cm/zi şi o durată de viaŃă de 25-30 ani, aducând în
years, bringing 4-6 twigs in the first year, a high primul an 4 – 6 lăstari şi ajungând la 2 – 3 m înălŃime, cu
plasticity and a big adaptability to different climates mare plasticitate şi o mare adaptare la diferite condiŃii de
and soils. [16] climă şi sol. [16]
In 2 or 3 years the twigs can reach a height of 6-7 În 2-3 ani poate ajunge la o înălŃime a lăstarilor de 6-
meters and a diameter at the base between 6 and 10 cm, 7m şi un diametru la bază cuprins între 6-10 cm, aducând
bringing 10-25 twigs, out of which about half reach the 10 – 25 de lăstari, dintre care cam jumătate ating înălŃimea
height of 6-7 and the diameters of up to 3-4 cm. de 6 – 7 m şi diametrul de până la 3 – 4 cm.
Only after it has been used for 30 years in countries Abia după 30 de ani de utilizare în Ńări precum Suedia,
like Sweden, the Baltic Countries, Slovenia, Poland and łările Baltice, Slovenia, Polonia şi Ungaria, salcia
Hungary, the energy willow arrived in Romania. energetică a ajuns şi în România.
a) b) c) d)
Fig. 1 - Salix Viminalis
a) Plant aspect [16] , b) leaf aspect [16], c) catkins [16], d) Salix Viminalis crop [source: Green Energy]

Fast growing and rotary cycle willow is an agricultural Salcia cu creştere rapidă (SRC) şi ciclu rotativ, este o
perennial crop, cultivated for producing wooden material cultură perenă agricolă, cultivată pentru producerea de
used for heating and generating electric energy. material lemnos folosit pentru căldură şi pentru
Besides a very accelerated growth rhythm (during generarea de energie electrică. Pe lângă un ritm de
summer it can grow up to 3 cm per day), bringing 1-3 creştere foarte accelerat (în timpul verii poate creşte şi 3
twigs and reaching a height of 2-3 meters, it also has a cm/zi) aducând în primul an 1-3 lăstari şi ajungând la 2-3
very high energy power (4900kcal/kg) and low m înălŃime, are şi o putere energetică foarte mare (4900
production costs. kcal/kg) şi costuri de producŃie mici.
If other forest plants need 3-5 years until they can Dacă restul de plante silvice au nevoie de 3-5 ani
be harvested and used for energetic purposes, willow până când pot fi recoltate şi utilizate în scopuri
can be harvested every two years, having a volume of energetice, salcia poate fi recoltată din doi în doi ani,
dry material wooden mass of 40-60 având un volum de masă lemnoasă de 40-60
tons/hectare/harvesting. t/ha/recoltare material uscat.
Besides the rapid growing both in length and volume Pe lângă creşterea rapidă atât în lungimea lujerilor
of the twigs, a series of other advantages appears, which cât si în volum, apar o serie de alte avantaje, motiv
is why in the last years it reached the forefront focus of pentru care în ultimii ani a intrat în atenŃia fruntaşă şi în
the European Union, where the decision was taken as to UE, unde s-a luat hotărârea de a fi subvenŃionată ca
subsidize willow as an energy plant because it has: plantă energetică şi anume pentru că:
Impact on the environment Impact asupra mediului
• It’s a renewable energy source, it reduces the • reprezintă o sursă de energie regenerabilă; se
need of fossil energy sources, chemicals and reduce nevoia pentru sursele de energie fosilă,
conventional fuels; chimicale şi combustibili convenŃionali;
• Puts into use unused land; • pune în folosinŃă terenuri neutilizate;
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• Prevents (or greatly reduces) deforestation • se evită (sau se reduc considerabil) defrişările de păduri
generated by the growing need of cheap fuel; generate de nevoia crescândă pentru combustibil ieftin;
• Willow biomass is a fuel that has neutral carbon • biomasa de salcie este combustibil cu carbon neutru
that participates to the reduction of global warming; ce participă la reducerea încălzirii globale;
• Willow biomass combustion determines the • combustia biomasei din salcie determină reducerea
reduction of acid rain occurrence; apariŃiei ploilor acide;
• Reduces erosion and soil pollution; • reduce eroziunea şi poluarea solurilor;
• Helps improve biodiversity: offers shelter for • asigură îmbunătăŃirea biodiversităŃii; adăpost pentru
birds and small animals; păsări, animale mici;
• Ensures soil enrichment with humus; • asigură îmbogăŃirea solului cu humus;
• Has the capacity of taking charge of 20-30 • are capacitate de preluare a 20-30 t/ha/an de nămol
t/ha/year of sludge from wastewater treatment (the provenit din epurarea apelor reziduale (plantaŃia
plantation can be irrigated using residual water from poate fi irigată cu apa rezidulă de la staŃiile de
treatment plants, and the water does not have to be epurare, astfel, apele reziduale nu trebuiesc epurate
biologically treated – expensive operation). biologic (operaŃie costisitoare).
Social impact Impactul social

• It can generate additional income sources for the rural • poate genera surse suplimentare de venit pentru
population and leads to the emergence of new populaŃia rurală şi duce la apariŃia de noi locuri de
employment in the community; muncă în comunitate;
• The possibility to develop and maintain an energy and • posibilitatea de dezvoltare şi întreŃinere a infrastructurii energetice
local logistics infrastructure. It can be a reliable şi logistice locale. Poate fi o varianta sigură de surse energetice
alternative for energy sources (heating) for communities, (încălzire) pentru localităŃi, fiind utilizată ca biomasă (tocătura)
being used as biomass (mince), briquettes or pellets. brichete sau peleŃi. Exista unităŃi de utilaje de peletizare –
There are units of pelletizing-briquetting equipment, and brichetare de diferite capacităŃi care să transforme tocătura de
these products can be used for heating communities (at salcie în brichete sau peleŃi, iar aceste produse sa fie
least schools, dispensaries, kindergartens, etc.) from utilizate pentru încălzirea localităŃilor (cel puŃin a şcolilor,
villages. dispensarelor, grădiniŃelor etc.) din comune;
• Efficient use of poor land resources, unused in • utilizarea eficientă a resurselor funciare cele mai sărace,
another way for other production type; neutilizate în alt mod pentru alte tipuri de producŃie;
• Optimizing energy costs (immediate energy resources • optimizarea costurilor de energie (resurse energetice
available at a local level). imediate şi disponibile la nivel local);
Economic impact Impactul economic

• The smallest cost for necessary land resources for the • cel mai mic cost al resurselor funciare necesare
plantation; pentru plantaŃie;
• Minimum agro-technological costs (minimum costs for • costurile agro-tehnologice minime (costuri minime de
cultivation and for agro-chemical products); cultivare şi pentru produse agrochimice);
• High energy capacity from the harvested biomass); • capacitate mare de energie din biomasa recoltată;
• Efficient logistics “from land to heat”; • logistică eficientă "de la teren la căldură";
• Positive general effect on the regional economy; • efect general pozitiv asupra economiei regionale;
• It can represent an alternative for agriculture. Taking • poate fi o alternativă pentru agricultură. łinând cont
into account the environmental benefits, it could help de beneficiile ecologice, ar putea ajuta optimizarea
optimizing the technological processes in the field of proceselor tehnologice din domeniul producŃiei
agricultural production. agricole.
Unused agricultural land SuprafeŃe agricole nefolosite

Willow is not a demanding plant in terms of soil needs, Salcia nu este o plantă exigentă la sol, aceasta va
it will grow on a wide range of soil types and environment creste pe o gamă largă de tipuri de sol şi de condiŃii de
conditions, in combination with other types of crops, the mediu, şi în comun cu alte culturi, productivitatea va fi
productivity will be determined by the soil fertility, determinată de fertilitatea solului, temperatura, şi
temperature and water and light availability. disponibilitatea de apă şi lumină.
Energy willow can be grown (it is even recommended) Salcia energetică se poate cultiva (chiar este şi
on wasteland. It has an evapotranspiration capacity of recomandat) pe terenuri mlăştinoase. Are o capacitate de
15-20 liters of water per day. This advantage gives it an evapotranspiraŃie de 15-20 l apă/zi. Acest avantaj îi
undisputed place as a plant that can make use of conferă un loc necontestat ca plantă care să facă
thousands of hectares of land left in decay. utilizabile mii de ha de terenuri care sunt în paragină.
It is recommended to plant willow in areas where Se recomandă plantarea în zonele în care nu se
other crops are not suitable, like flooded areas, pretează alte culturi, precum zonele inundabile, spaŃiile
compromised spaces around treatment plants, areas with compromise din jurul staŃiilor de epurare, zonele cu
landslides, etc. Thus, farmers keep the good lands for alunecări de teren etc. Astfel, agricultorii păstrează
cereal crops, exploiting to a maximum all the land that terenurile bune pentru culturi de cereale, exploatând la
they have. maximum tot pământul pe care îl deŃin.
Willow cultivation expands in areas throughout the Cultivarea salciei este răspândită în zone din toată
country, like Suceava, Bacău, Braşov, Harghita, Ńara, precum Suceava, Bacău, Braşov, Harghita,
Covasna, Timişoara, Satu Mare, Călăraşi, Dolj, Tulcea, Covasna, Timişoara, Satu Mare, Calaraşi, Dolj, Tulcea,
DâmboviŃa counties and there is also an interest for DâmboviŃa şi există interes pentru extinderea plantaŃiilor
expanding the plantation in other ares of the country. şi în alte zone din Ńară.
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Estimates: According to a calculation, if energy willow Estimări: Potrivit unui calcul, dacă s-ar planta salcie
would be planted in approx. 200 communities in the energetică în cca 200 localităŃi din Ńară pe o suprafaŃă de
country on a surface of at least 50 hectares/community, cel puŃin 50 ha/localitate, ar rezulta o suprafaŃă cultivată
the result would be a cultivated area of at least 100 ha. de cel puŃin 1000 ha. Cantitatea de energie obŃinută din
The quantity of energy obtained from burning the arderea biomasei obŃinută de pe această suprafaŃă ar fi
biomass from that surface would be enough for heating a suficientă pentru încălzirea unei şcoli, unei grădiniŃe, unei
school, a kindergarten, a city hall or a dispensary at primării şi a unui dispensar dintr-o localitate la preŃuri
prices considerably lower than the ones from considerabil scăzute faŃă de energia convenŃională, iar
conventional energy, and the rest of energy can be restul s-ar putea valorifica în sistem.
capitalized in the system. Perdele de protecŃie din salcie energetică având
Energy willow shelterbelts with multiple diverse destinaŃii:
destinations: a) Perdele de protecŃie din salcie energetică în jurul
a) Energy willow shelterbelts around communities in localităŃilor din mediul rural
the rural areas Din cauza intemperiilor iernii multe localităŃi rămân
Due to winter weather, many communities are isolated. izolate. Crearea unor benzi de protecŃie de 25-50 m
Creating 25-50 m wide energy willow shelterbelts around lăŃime de salcie energetica în jurul localităŃilor ar stopa
these communities would stop and retain the snow. şi reŃine zăpada.
Fig. 2 - Shelter belt around a community [1] Fig. 3 - Snow fences (winter) [12] Fig. 4 - Snow fences (summer) [12]
Fig. 5 - Shelterbelts around cultivated land [14]
Live snow fences are agro-forestry systems similar to Parazăpezile vii sunt sisteme agroforestiere, similare ca şi
shelterbelts and consist in rows of densely planted cordoanele de protecŃie, şi constau în rânduri de vegetaŃie
vegetation and that fulfils the same function as built snow plantate dens şi care îndeplinesc aceeaşi funcŃie ca şi gardurile de
fences. Energy willow is suited for use as a snow fence zăpadă construite. Salcia energetică este pretabilă pentru a fi
because: utilizată sub formă de parazăpezi deoarece:
- It becomes efficient in a short amount of time (approx. - Devine eficientă într-un timp scurt (aprox.2 ani)
2 years due to the fast grow rhythm; datorită ritmului rapid de creştere;
- Has a high density (mature snow fences have a - Are o densitate ridicată (perdelele de protecŃie
density of 60-70%); mature au o densitate de 60-70%);
- Once established, it is easy to maintain; - O dată înfiinŃată este uşor de întreŃinut;
- The costs are lower than build snow fences or those - Costurile sunt mai reduse decât în cazul parazăpezilor
made from other plant species. fabricate sau a celor naturale realizate cu alte specii.
There is a possibility to create 5-10 meters energy Există posibilitatea creării unor benzi de protecŃie de 5-
willow snow fences along the roads that during winter 10 m din salcie energetică de-alungul drumurilor care pe
would protect the roads from snowdrifts, and during timp de iarnă ar proteja drumurile de troiene, iar pe timp
summer they would function as a dust filter, protecting de vară ar funcŃiona ca filtru de praf, protejând producŃiile
agricultural crops. agricole.
Shelterbelts for cultivated land (for agro-forestry) Perdelele de protecŃie a terenurilor cultivate
are planted along the edges of the cultivated land in order (agrosilvicultură), sunt plantate de-a lungul marginilor
to prevent soil erosion, to protect the crops from wind and terenurilor cultivate pentru a preveni eroziunea solului, a
snow. proteja culturile de vânt şi de zăpadă.
Live fences near agricultural fields play a key part in Gardurile vii de pe lângă câmpurile agricole joacă un rol vital
maintaining the quality of the soil, constituting reserves of în menŃinerea calităŃii solului, constituind rezerve de apă
groundwater that can diminish the undesired effects of freatică ce pot diminua efectele nedorite ale perioadelor de
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drought periods and major elements to prevent erosion. secetă şi elemente majore de combatere a eroziunii.
In areas where drainage is difficult or impossible to În zonele unde drenajul este dificil sau imposibil de
make, there isn’t a more beneficial effect than the one efectuat, nu există un efect mai benefic decât cel furnizat
provided by trees and shrubs. de copaci şi arbuşti.
Also, trees, shrubs, live fences can provide protection De asemenea, copacii, arbuşti, gardurile vii pot furniza
(shelterbelts) for crops that are exposed to powerful winds protecŃie (perdele) pentru culturile expuse vânturilor
in the open field. puternice din câmp deschis.
Although the effect of shelterbelts is not immediately Deşi efectul perdelor de protecŃie nu este evident în mod
obvious, significant microclimate changes are produced: imediat, se produc modificări microclimatice semnificative:
• Behind the natural shelterbelts, evapotranspiration is • în spatele perdelelor naturale, evapotranspiraŃia este
considerably reduced, chlorophyll synthesis is more considerabil redusă, sinteza clorofilei este mai activă,
active, and yields are higher. The effects are more producŃiile sunt mai ridicate. Efectele sunt mai vizibile în
visible in very warm days or days with strong wind; zilele foarte călduroase sau cu vânt puternic;
• Air and soil temperature fluctuates less than in the • temperatura aerului şi solului oscilează mai puŃin decât
open field; în câmp deschis;
• In the protected area, the quantity of fallen due is • în zona protejată, cantitatea de rouă căzută este mai
higher. mare.
Fig. 6 - Shelterbelt for households [12] Fig.7 - Shelterbelt for animal farms [12] Fig. 8 - Acoustic barrier and live fence [12]
Fig. 9 - Tailings dump [15] Fig. 10 - Buffer area [10] Fig. 11 - Treatment plant [9]
Shelterbelts for households (fig. 6) are planted around Perdele de protecŃie a gospodăriilor (fig.6) sunt
households in order to protect the buildings, people and plantate în jurul gospodăriilor pentru a proteja clădirile,
animals against wind and snow, with the purpose of oameni şi animalele de vânt şi de zăpadă, cu scopul de a
preserving energy consumption per household, to conserva consumul de energie pe gospodărie, a furniza
provide shade for animals during summer, to control umbră pentru animale în timpul verii, a controla troienele,
snowdrifts, etc. etc.
Shelterbelts for animal farms (fig. 7) can be planted Perdele de protecŃie a fermelor de animale (fig.7) pot fi
around animal farms to help manage the impact of farm plantate în jurul fermelor de animale pentru a ajuta la
odors and other emission into the air (for example: dust, gestionarea impactului mirosului de fermă şi a altor emisii
noise). în aer, fig. 8 (de exemplu, praf, zgomot etc,).
Cultivation of degraded land. Due to the fact that Recultivarea terenurilor degradate. Datorită faptului că
energy willow is capable of growing in extremely salcia energetică este capabilă să crească în condiŃii extrem
unfavorable conditions, it can be used to cultivate some de nefavorabile poate fi folosită pentru recultivarea unor
tailings (fig. 9), saline, eroded and sandy soils, etc. halde de steril (fig. 9), soluri saline, erodate, nisipoase etc.
Willow can provide a significant amount of humus in short Poate furniza o cantitate semnificativă de humus într-un timp
time. The ideal PH for the plant in 5.5-6.6 but it can relativ scurt. PH-ul ideal pentru plantă este de 5,5-6,6 dar
tolerate a 3.5-10 PH. In Romania, there are about 15000 poate tolera si pH-ul de 3,5-10. Se înregistrează aproximativ
hectares of tailings. By installing energy crops, this land 15.000 ha de terenuri haldate în România. Prin instalarea de
can be better exploited, without having a negative culturi energetice, se pot valorifica superior aceste terenuri,
ecological or human impact. fără un impact ecologic sau uman negativ.
Willow crop can be exploited on slopes, fixating the Cultura de salcie poate valorifica terenurile în pantă,
soil and improving its quality. It can fulfill a role of fixând solul şi îmbunătăŃind calitatea acestuia. Poate
bioremediation of polluted soils extracting the excess indeplini rol de bioremediere a solurilor poluate extrăgând
ions. ionii ce se găsesc în exces.
The willow crops can be used on soils polluted by Cultura de salcie poate fi folosită pe solurile poluate cu
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heavy metals or by nitrites and nitrates. metale grele sau cu nitriŃi şi nitraŃi.
The advantage of energy willow is that it can be Avantajul culturii de salcie energetică este că poate fi
planted of low quality soils. The crops can be established stabilită pe soluri slabe calitativ. Pot fi stabilite pe soluri cu
on soils with a high erosion potential, stopping that potenŃial ridicat de erodare ajutând la stoparea acestui
phenomenon. Also, it exploits very well and it is even fenomen. De asemenea valorifică foarte bine şi chiar este
recommended on high humidity soils that can’t be used recomandat solul cu umiditate ridicată ce nu poate fi utilizată
for other crops. The roots of the energy willow are well altor culturi. Rădăcinile salciei energetice sunt foarte
ramified from the beginning and reach deep into the soil, ramificate de la început şi pătrund adânc în pământ, din
and for that it can be used against landslides. Near acest motiv se poate utiliza pentru prevenirea alunecării de
rivers, on floodable fields, energy willow can insure teren. Lângă râuri, pe câmpiile inundabile, salcia energetică
protective belts for dams. poate asigura benzi protectoare pentru baraje.
RESULTS REZULTATE
Energy willow plantations around used water PlantaŃii de salcie energetică în jurul staţţiilor de
treatment plants epurare a apelor uzate
Due to its characteristics, energy willow has the Datorită caracteristicilor sale, salcia energetică are
possibility to purify water from treatment plants, limiting posibilitatea de a epura apele de la staŃiile de epurare
the risk of groundwater pollution. Willow biomass crops limitând astfel riscul de poluare a apelor freatice. Culturile
have the capacity to retain contaminants from the de salcie pentru biomasă au capacitatea de a reŃine
wastewater. contaminanŃii din apele uzate.
At the same can time, the problem of the sludge from Totodată poate soluŃiona problema nămolurilor de la
the treatment plants [9]. Sludge is successfully used for staŃiile de epurare [9]. Nămolul este utilizat cu succes în
the fertilization of these plantations, solving the problem fertilizarea acestor plantaŃii, rezolvând problema
of their storage in compliance with the EU Directives depozitării lor în concordanŃă cu Directivele UE
86/278/CEE, 75/440/CEE, 80/68/CEE and the Order 86/278/CEE, 75/440/CEE, 80/68/CEE şi Ordinul
334/2004. 334/2004.
Energy willow has the capacity to intake annually 20- Salcia energetică are capacitatea de a prelua anual 20-30
30 t/ha of sludge from wastewater treatment. t/ha de nămol provenit din epurarea apelor reziduale.
This method of treating waste is more cost effective Această metodă de tratare a deşeurilor este mai
than the conventional methods, and the nutrients rentabilă decât tratamentele convenŃionale, iar elementele
contained by the residual products serve as fertilizers for nutritive conŃinute în produsele reziduale servesc ca
increasing the biomass production. îngrăşământ ieftin de creştere a producŃiei de biomasă.
Irrigation with wastewater (see figure 14) and using Irigarea cu apă uzată (vezi fig.14) şi folosirea
active sludge as fertilizer is cost effective and ecological, nămolului activ ca ingrăşământ este rentabilă şi
ensuring: ecologică, asigurând:
• The production of biomass on low quality soils, • producŃia de biomasă pe soluri slabe, crescând
increasing the farmer’s profit; astfel profitul fermierului;
• Reduces the energy consumption of the • reducerea consumului de energie al staŃiei de
treatment plant used to eliminate biodegradable epurare folosit pentru eliminarea materiilor
material (N, P) – active sludge; biodegradabile (N,P) –nămolul activ;
• Recycling nutrients from human waste and the • reciclarea substanŃelor nutritive provenite din
farmer’s contribution to sustainability with reziduuri umane şi contribuŃia fermierului la
positive effect on the environment; sustenabilitate cu efecte pozitive pe mediu;
• Compensation of the plantation’s needs of water; • compensarea nevoilor de apă a plantaŃiei;
• Extracting/absorbing heavy metals from the food • extragerea/absorbŃia metalelor grele din lanŃul
chain. alimentar.
Fig.12 - Fertilization and irrigation scheme Fig. 13 - Enköping – largest energy willow Fig. 14 - Energy willow crop irrigated
for an energy willow plantation [4] plantation irrigated with wastewater (76 ha) with wastewater [13]
Energy independence of villages (the initiative „1 IndependenŃa energetică a satelor (iniŃiativa „1 sat,
village, 1 MW”). This initiative is proposed and 1 MW”) Aceasta iniţiativă este propusă şi coordonată de
coordinated by the Biomass Green Energy Innovative Clusterul Inovativ al Biomasei Green Energy. Sursele
Cluster. The sustainable energy sources for the rural de energie sustenabilă pentru mediul rural pot fi obŃinute
areas can be obtained from the conversion of wood în urma conversiei biomasei lemnoase (obŃinute de
336
biomass (obtained for example from forestry crop with a exemplu din culturi de specii forestiere cu ciclu de
short production cycle) into useful energy. The producŃie scurt) în energie utilă. Sistemele de bioenergie
sustainable bio-energy systems are complex systems sustenabile sunt sisteme complexe deoarece se bazează
because they are based on three components: pe 3 componente:
1. The supply of raw material (eg. minced energy 1. Alimentarea cu materie primă (de exemplu:
willow); tocătură obŃinută din salcie energetică);
2. The conversion technology; 2. Tehnologia de conversie;
3. The allocation of energy. 3. Alocarea de energie.
These systems are simultaneous influenced by Aceste sisteme sunt influenŃate în mod simultan de
ecological, environmental, economic and social factors. factori ecologici, de mediu şi de factori economici şi
They are interdependent, their integration is essential for sociali. Ele sunt interdependente, integrarea lor este
success, otherwise the failure of one component can esenŃială pentru succes, altminteri eşuarea uneia din
cause the failure of the entire system. componente poate cauza eşecul întregului sistem.
Fig. 13 - Transforming biomasa into thermal energy and Fig. 14 - Sustainable rural development and the utility of foresty
using it in a rural community [21] plants with a rapid growth and a rotating cycle
A. - Agricultural crop; B. - Riverain buffer area; C. - Snow fences;
D. - Protecting the canal against errosion; E. - Riverain buffer
area; G. - Wind protection fence; H. - Waste treatment [12]
It is important that the relation between employment, Este important ca relaŃia dintre ocuparea forŃei de
the impact on the environment when obtaining biomass muncă, impactul de mediu la obŃinerea biomasei şi
and the beneficiaries of energy, to be acknowledged by beneficiarii energiei, să fie conştientizată la nivelul
the community. comunităŃii.
The project “1 village, 1 MW” is mainly addressed to Proiectul ”1 sat, 1 megawatt” se adresează în
local authorities that have the possibility to grow at least principal autorităŃilor locale care au posibilitatea de a
50 hectares of energy willow that will be used, like wood cultiva cel puŃin 50 de hectare de salcie energetică, ce va
waste, to produce thermal energy for the subordinated fi folosită, asemenea deşeurilor din lemn, la producerea
public institutions. energiei termice pentru instituŃiile publice din subordine.
The amount of energy produced this way would be Cantitatea de energie produsă în acest fel ar fi
sufficient to heat a kindergarten, a city hall, a local suficientă pentru încălzirea unei şcoli, grădiniŃe, primării
dispensary at considerably lower prices compared to şi a unui dispensar din localitate la preŃuri considerabil
conventional energy, and the rest could be capitalized in scăzute faŃă de energia convenŃională, iar restul s-ar
the system. putea valorifica în sistem.
337
Fig. 15 – The relation between the system’s component and the multiple benefits of bio-energy systems
based on energy willow plantations [13]
In order to achieve the best results, a great importance Pentru a se obŃine rezultate cat mai bune, o
is represented by the participatory integrated approach importanŃă majoră o reprezintă abordarea participativă
and the tight collaboration between the main decision integrată şi colaborarea strânsă a principalilor factori de
factors and the local, regional and national governance decizie cu structurile de guvernare locale, regionale şi
structures. naŃionale.
Table 1 show the necessary data to set up a hectare În tabelul 1 sunt trecute datele necesare înfiinŃării unui
of energy willow crop and the biomass obtained. ha de plantaŃie salcie energetică şi biomasa obŃinută.
Table1 [21]
Data on energy willow and the biomass obtained
Number of cutting necessary for 1 hectare 14.000 pcs.
Cuttings price 0,08 EUR
Costs for setting up a 1 hectare plantation 1.600 EUR
The size recommended for a plantation 5 ha min.
Maintenance costs beginning with year 2 200 EUR/ha/year
Harvest year 1 15 t/ha
The lifespan of a plantation 30 years, max.
Price for minced willow 25 EUR/t
Energy value 4.900 kcal/kg
Biomass quantity resulted from a 20000 ha land 1.000.000 tons
Biomass quantity resulted from a 2000 ha land 90.000 tons
1.000.000 tons of biomass is enough for 145.000 houses
A plantation of 1000 ha: heating of 7.000 houses
Biomass necessary for a 10 MW heating system 90.000 t/year
Growing energy willow has a series of advantages Cultivarea salciei energetice prezinta o serie de
that justify its spread on a large scale. Energy willow is avantaje care justifica răspândirea ei pe scară largă.
a willow species that proved to be an efficient plant, Salcia energetică este o specie de salcie care s-a dovedit
cultivated for energetic purposes, but besides that, it a fi o plantă eficientă, cultivată în scopuri energetice dar
has many other benefits: positive impact on the pe lângă acest fapt ea prezintă şi multe alte beneficii:
environment, major social impact, positive economic impact pozitiv asupra mediului, impact social major,
impact, uses agricultural surfaces that are not used for impact economic pozitiv, utilizarea suprafeŃelor agricole
other cultures, shelterbelts with different destinations nefolosite, perdele de protecŃie cu diverse destinaŃii (în
(around communities, snow fences, in agro-forestry, jurul localităŃilor, parazăpezi, agrosilvicultură, gospodării,
around households and animal farms, enclosing fences, ferme animale, bariere acustice, garduri de împrejmuire
etc). etc.)
In the following 5-7 years, in Romania, cultivation of În următorii 5-7 ani, în România, cultivarea salciei ar
willow tree could be expanded on a total surface of around putea fi extinsă pe o suprafaŃă totală de cca. 5000 ha,
5000 hectares, according to the data shown in table 2. conform datelor din tabelul 2 :
Table 2 [21]
Forecast on energy willow cultivation in the period 2014-2020
Plantation destination Surface Total surface
Unused agricultural surfaces 50 ha 20 villages 1000 ha
Shelterbelts around remote communities 300 ha 10 villages 3000 ha
338
Shelterbelts, snow fences along roads 100 km - 200 ha

Shelterbelts for cultivated land (agro-forestry) - - -
Shelterbelts for households - - -
Shelterbelts for farms - - -
Acoustic barriers - - -
Protective, enclosing fences. - - -
Stopping landslides, protective belt for dams. - - -
Around treatment plants 20 ha 20 villages 400 ha
Around waste deposits 20 ha 20 villages 400 ha
Cultivation of degraded fields.. - - -
Soil remediation - - -
Buffer area - - - -
Total 5000 ha
Acknowledgement MulŃumiri/RecunoştinŃă
The results presented in this article were obtained Rezultatele prezentate în acest articol au fost obŃinute
with the help of Green Energy Association, whose cu sprijinul AsociaŃiei Green Energy, al cărei scop este
purpose is to promote renewable energy resources in promovarea resurselor de energie regenerabilă în
Romania, INMA’s partner in conducting the Contract România, partener al INMA în derularea Contractului nr.
number 35/2012 under the Partnership Program. 35/2012 în cadrul programului Parteneriate.
[1]. AAFC Agro-forestry Development Centre (2009) - [1]. AAFC Agroforestry Development Centre (2009) -
Buffer strips for biomass production and riparian Buffer strips for biomass production and riparian
protection; protection;
[2.] *** (2006) - Code of Good Practice in Farms, [2]. *** (2006) - Codul de Bune Practici in Ferma,
Bucharest; Bucuresti;
[3]. Directive 86/278/EEC - On the protection of the [3]. Directiva 86/278/CEE - Protecţia mediului, în special
environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage a solului, atunci când se utilizează nămoluri de epurare în
sludge is used in agriculture; agricultură;
[4]. Lantmännen Agro-energy, Sweden, Manual for SRC [4] Lantmännen Agroenergi, Sweden, Manual for SRC
Willow Growers; Willow Growers;
[5]. *** Manual for SRC Willow Growers, Lantmännen [5] ***Manual for SRC Willow Growers, Lantmännen
Agroenery (Sweden); Agroenery (Sweden);
[6]. Monitoring and Evaluation of the RES directives [6]. Monitoring and Evaluation of the RES directives
implementation in EU27 and policy recommendations for implementation in EU27 and policy recommendations for
2020 project, Project no: EIE/06/170/SI2.442662, finanŃat 2020 project, Project no: EIE/06/170/SI2.442662, finanŃat
de Intelligent Energy Europe, http://www.res2020.eu; de Intelligent Energy Europe, http://www.res2020.eu;
[7]. Nordic Biomass A/S, How to improve the economy in [7]. ]Nordic Biomass A/S, How to improve the economy in
Willow; Willow;
[8]. Radu Şumălan, USAMVB TIMIŞOARA- Biomass, a [8]. Radu Şumălan,USAMVB TIMIŞOARA- Biomasa,
source of renewable energy, Eurobit Publishing; sursă de energie regenerabilă, editura Eurobit;
[9]. Romanian situation on urban wastewater and sludge [9]. SituaŃia în România a Apelor Uzate Urbane şi a Nămolului
from treatment plants, Bucharest, 2010; provenit din StaŃiile de Epurare, Bucureşti, 2010;
[10]. Shelterbelts for Livestock Farms in Alberta, 2014; [10]. Shelterbelts for Livestock Farms in Alberta, 2014;
[11]. State University of New York, College of [11] State University of New York, College of
Environmental Sciences and Forestry, Designing Environmental Sciences and Forestry, Designing
decentralized small-scale bioenergy systems based on decentralized small-scale bioenergy systems based on
short rotation coppice for rural poverty alleviation; short rotation coppice for rural poverty alleviation;
[12]. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, [12]. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Recycling of wastewater and sludge in Salix plantations; Recycling of wastewater and sludge in Salix plantations;
[13]. Sapientia University, The possibility to use [13]. Universitatea Sapientia, PosibilităŃile folosirii apelor
wastewater and treated sludge to fertilize energy willow uzate menajere şi a nămolului tratat pentru fertilizarea
plantations; culturilor de salcie energetică;
[14]. Using Willow Riparian Buffer Strips for Biomass [14]. Using Willow Riparian Buffer Strips for Biomass
Production and Riparian Protection, Agriculture and Agri- Production and Riparian Protection, Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada; Food Canada;
[15]. Using, in energy purposes, energy willow [15]. Utilizarea în scopuri energetice a culturilor instalate
plantations from tailings, project 22082, ICAS; pe haldele de steril, proiect 22082, ICAS;
[16]. www.renerg.eu/Document_Files/Salcia%20energetica_gshdm5.pdf, [16]. www.renerg.eu/Document_Files/Salcia%20energetica_gshdm5.pdf,
339
Salcie energetică_tehnologie.pdf Salcie energetică_tehnologie.pdf

[17]. www.kwg.ro [17]. www.kwg.ro
[18. ] www.thelivingwall.net [18]. www.thelivingwall.net
[19]. http://www.nordicbiomass.dk/ [19] http://www.nordicbiomass.dk/
[20]. www.pndr.ro [20.] www.pndr.ro
[21]. http://greenenergycluster.ro/index.php?language= en&page [21]. http://greenenergycluster.ro/index.php?language= en&page
[22]. http://www.asas.ro/wcmqs/academia/manifestari-stiintifice/3. [22]. http://www.asas.ro/wcmqs/academia/manifestari-stiintifice/3.
%20Experienta%20romaneasca%20in%20realizarea%20perdel %20Experienta%20romaneasca%20in%20realizarea%20perdel
elor%20forestiere%20de%20protectie.pdf elor%20forestiere%20de%20protectie.pdf
340
MAINTENANCE OF THE ENERGETIC POPLAR CROP BY USING PRECISION HERBICIDES IN

STRIPS EQUIPMENT
/
POSIBILITAłI DE ÎNTREłINERE A CULTURII DE PLOP ENERGETIC PRIN UTILIZAREA
UNOR ECHIPAMENTE DE ERBICIDAT CU PRECIZIE ÎN BENZI
Ph.D Eng. Kolozsvari C., Ph.D. Eng. Manea D., PhD. Stud. Eng. David A., Eng. Gheorghe G.
E-mail: tinakolozsvari@yahoo.com
Abstract: The implementation of an energy strategy Rezumat: Punerea în practicã a unei strategii energetice
for harnessing renewable energy potential (REP) is pentru valorificarea potentialului surselor regenerabile de
registered in the coordinate for energy development in energie (SRE) se înscrie în coordonatele dezvoltǎrii
Romania in medium and long term and offers energetice a României pe termen mediu şi lung şi oferǎ
appropriate framework for making decisions on energy cadrul adecvat pentru adoptarea unor decizii referitoare
alternatives and enrollment in the acquis la alternativele energetice şi înscrierea în acquis-ul
communautaire in the field. Energetic poplar is a plant comunitar în domeniu. Plopul energetic este o plantă cu
with very rapid growth in a short time, and produces a o creştere deosebit de rapid în scurt timp, care produce
lot of wood mass. Energetic poplar produces a large multǎ masǎ lemnoasǎ. Plopul energetic produce o
amount of dry matter, harvesting about 40 t / ha cantitate mare de substanŃă uscată la recoltare
efficiently using nitrogen, water and other resources, it aproximativ 40 t/ha, utilizează eficient azotul, apa şi alte
is resistant to diseases with less stringent resurse, este rezistă la boli, având puŃine cerinŃe pentru
requirements for fertilizers, pesticides and other fertilizanŃi, pesticide şi alte chimicale. Tulpinile recoltate
chemicals. Harvested poplar strains can be used as de plop pot fi utilizate drept combustibil pentru
fuel to produce electricity and heat for conversion in producerea de curent electric şi căldură sau pentru
other useful products such as hydrogen, cellulose, conversia în alte produse utile ca hidrogen, celuloză,
lignin, etc. The paper presents the current state of lignină etc. În lucrare este prezentat stadiul actual privind
energetic poplar culture maintenance using equipment întreŃinerea culturii de plop energetic prin utilizarea unor
with precision sprayer bands. echipamente de erbicidat cu precizie în benzi.
Keywords: equipment, sprayers, poplar energy, strips Cuvinte cheie: echipament, erbicidat, plop energetic,
accurately. benzi, precizie.
Climate change is one of the biggest threats in terms Schimbările climatice reprezintă una dintre cele mai mari
of social, economic and environment [5]. ameninŃări din punct de vedere social, economic şi al mediului [5].
According to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Potrivit celui de-al IV lea Raport Global de Evaluare al Grupului
Intergovernmental Panel on Global Climate Change - Interguvernamental privind schimbările climatice – IPCC,
IPCC, developed in 2007, human activities contribute elaborat în anul 2007, activităŃile umane contribuie semnificativ la
significantly to triggering of global warming [6]. declanşarea efectelor climatice şi a încălzirii globale [6].
Climate change impacts are reflected in the formation Impactul schimbărilor climatice se reflectă în formarea
of the greenhouse effect, the average temperature efectului de seră, creşterea temperaturii medii cu variaŃii
increase to significant regional variations, reducing semnificative la nivel regional, diminuarea prin evaporare
evaporative water resources for the population, reducing a resurselor de apă pentru populaŃie, reducerea volumului
the volume of ice caps, rising sea levels, changing calotelor glaciare, creşterea nivelului oceanelor, modificarea
hydrological cycle, changes in the course of the seasons, ciclului hidrologic, modificări în desfăşurarea anotimpurilor,
the growth frequency and intensity of extreme weather creşterea frecvenŃei şi intensităŃii fenomenelor climatice
events and biodiversity loss [4]. extreme precum şi reducerea biodiversităŃii [4].
In today's climate, a special place is occupied by În contextul actual al schimbărilor climatice, un loc aparte îl
agriculture that primarily feed everyone on the planet [1]. ocupă domeniul agricol care asigură în primul rând hrană
Climate change impacts on soil are highlighted by pentru toŃi locuitorii planetei [1]. Efectele schimbărilor climatice
decreasing potential for photosynthesis at ground level, asupra solului sunt evidenŃiate prin scăderea potenŃialului de
changing water cycle by reducing water evaporation rate, fotosinteză la nivelul solului, modificarea ciclului apei în natură
decreased agricultural potential growth in arid regions, prin reducerea vitezei de evaporare a apei, scăderea potenŃialului
soil erosion, producing floods, droughts and landslides agricol, creşterea suprafeŃelor regiunilor aride, eroziunea solului,
[3]. producerea inundaŃiilor, secetelor şi alunecărilor de teren [3].
Therefore it is very important for agriculture to occupy Ca urmare este foarte important ca domeniul
a special place in the development strategies on national, agriculturii să ocupe un loc special în strategiile de
regional and global level. dezvoltare la nivel naŃional, regional şi mondial.
The experience of western European countries show ExperienŃa Ńărilor vest-europene demonstrează ca
that the use of technologies based on biomass as a utilizarea tehnologiilor bazate pe utilizarea biomasei ca
primary energy source can become profitable for both the sursă de energie primară poate deveni profitabilă atât
manufacturer / provider of such technology and the pentru producătorul/furnizorul de astfel de tehnologii, cât
consumer. şi pentru consumator.
Biomass means all vegetal or animal materials and Prin biomasă se înŃelege totalitatea materialelor de
products resulting from their transformation. As a form origine vegetală sau animală şi produsele ce rezultă din
of storing energy from the sun in a chemical form, transformarea acestora. Ca forma de păstrare a energiei
biomass is one of the most popular and widespread Soarelui în forma chimica, biomasa este unul din cele mai
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resource on Earth. It provides not only food, but also populare si răspândite resurse de pe Pământ. Ea asigura
energy, building materials, paper, fabrics, drugs and nu doar hrana, ci şi energie, materiale de construcŃie, hârtie,
chemicals [2]. Ńesături, medicamente şi substanŃe chimice [2].
Biomass is used in energy purposes ever since man Biomasa este utilizată în scopuri energetice din momentul
discovered fire. Today biomass fuels can be used in descoperirii focului de către om. Astăzi combustibilul de
different purposes – from heating rooms to producing biomasă poate fi utilizat în diferite scopuri - de la încălzirea
electric energy and fuels for vehicles. Worldwide, there is încăperilor până la producerea energiei electrice şi
an extensive activity in the use of biomass for producing combustibililor pentru automobile. Pe plan mondial există o
electric and thermal energy, stimulated by the necessity amplă activitate de utilizare a biomasei pentru producerea
to reduce the CO2 emissions from the European Union de energie electrică şi termică, impulsionată de necesitatea
energy policy. reducerii emisiei de CO2 de politica energetică a U.E.
In developed countries modern technologies for the În Ńările dezvoltate sunt utilizate tehnologii moderne de
valorization of the energy potential of biomass through valorificare a potenŃialului energetic al biomasei prin
direct burning or by obtaining liquid or gaseous fuels are ardere directă sau prin obŃinerea de combustibili lichizi şi
used. Biomass sources are represented by forestry gazoşi. Sursele de biomasa sunt reprezentate de
residues, residues resulted from wood processing, deşeurile forestiere, deşeurile rezultate din prelucrarea
vegetal residues from agriculture and food industry, lemnului, resturile vegetale din agricultură şi din industria
animal waste. alimentară, reziduuri animale.
Arguments in favor of using biomass in energy Argumentele în favoarea utilizării energetice a
purposes are in the kind of environment protection and biomasei sunt atât de natură a protecŃiei mediului cât şi
also have a social-economic nature through employment de natură socio-economică, prin ocuparea şi stabilizarea
and work force stabilization of farmers in the areas where forŃei de muncă a fermierilor în zonele de cultivare a
energy plants are grown, raw material having a plantelor cu valorificare energetică, materie primă cu
regenerative nature. caracter regenerativ.
Biomass reserves are represented mainly by wood Rezervele de biomasa sunt în special deşeurile de
residues, agricultural waste, and household waste and lemn, deşeurile agricole, gunoiul menajer şi culturile
energy crops. The production of biomass does not only energetice. Producerea de biomasă nu reprezintă doar o
represent a renewable energy resource but also a significant resursă de energie regenerabilă ci şi o oportunitate
opportunity for a sustainable rural development [2]. semnificativă pentru dezvoltarea rurală durabilă [2].
Advantages of wood waste valorization Avantaje ale valorificării deşeurilor lemnoase:

- Valorization of the resulted product by selling it both - valorificarea produsului rezultat prin comercializarea
on the internal market and to export; sa atât pe piaŃa internă, cât şi la export;
- Applying quality and environment standards existing - aplicarea standardelor de calitate şi de mediu
at a European level; existente la nivel european;
- Ensuring an efficient ecological protection for the - asigurarea unei protecŃii ecologice eficienŃe a
population, as well for water and forest; populaŃiei, precum şi a apei, a pădurii;
- Material recycling; - reciclarea materialelor;
- Eliminating wood material residues from the storing - eliminarea deşeurilor de material lemnos de pe
surfaces; suprafeŃele de depozitare;
- Ensuring superior burning performances of - asigurarea unor performanŃe de ardere superioare a
pelletized products, on the aspect of a longer produselor peletizate, sub aspectul duratei mai mari
burning time of the same material volume, as well a de ardere a aceluiaşi volum de material, precum şi a
bigger quantity of recovered heat; unei cantităŃi de caldură recuperate mai mari;
- Efficient use of wood waste from wood - utilizarea eficienŃă a deşeurilor de material lemnos
processing; rezultate prin prelucrarea lemnului;
- Reducing storage volume of fuel material, taking - reducerea volumului de depozitare a materialelor combustibile,
into account that the volume a briquette is seven- Ńinând seama că volumul unei brichete este de circa
eight times smaller than the volume occupied by the şapte-opt ori mai mic decât volumul ocupat de
same quantity of sawdust before briquetting; aceeaşi cantitate de rumeguş înainte de brichetare;
- Achieving an easy alternative for producing heat in - realizarea unei alternative simple pentru producerea căldurii
household or in small industry enterprises; în domeniul casnic sau în întreprinderi din mică industrie;
- Development of new jobs; - realizarea de noi locuri de munca;
- Accelerating the alignment of the ecologic - accelerarea alinierii legislaŃiei ecologice din Ńara
legislation in our country to the one existing one in noastră la cea existentă în domeniu la nivelul UE
the field at an EU level [2]. [2].
The main source of lignocellulose biomass is wood. Principala sursă de biomasă lignocelulozică este
However, there is a wide range of lignocellulose lemnul. Totuşi, există o gamă foarte variabilă de resurse
resources that can be converted to biofuels: treed with a lignocelulozice care pot fi convertite la biocombustibili:
high growth speed (poplar, willow, eucalyptus), copaci cu viteză mare de creştere (plopul, salcia,
agricultural crops (sugar cane, rape, sugar beet), eucaliptul), culturi agricole (trestia de zahăr, rapiŃa, sfecla
perennial crops (Miscanthus sp.), herbaceous plants de zahăr), culturi perene (Miscanhtus sp.), plante
with high growth speed (Switchgrass, Panicum erbacee cu viteze mari de creştere (Switchgrass,
Virgatum, elephant grass), residues (wood from Panicum Virgatum, iarba elefant), reziduuri (lemnul
trimming trees and construction, agricultural residues or provenit de la toaletarea copacilor şi din construcŃii,
the ones from processing vegetal production in food deşeurile agricole sau cele provenite ca urmare a
industry). procesării producŃiei vegetale în industriile alimentare).
In our country, energetic poplar plantation is not a In Ńara noastra înfiinŃarea plantaŃiei de plop energetic
cheap investment but from the second year, the money nu reprezintă o investiŃie tocmai ieftină însă începând din
342
invested is quickly recovered. It is important to note that al doilea an, banii investiŃi se recuperează rapid. Este
the EU countries are different varieties of poplar important de menŃionat că în Ńările UE diferitele soiuri de
energetic crops subsidized. Grants may be of different plop energetic sunt culturi subvenŃionate. SubvenŃiile pot
types (eg. 50% of the costs of establishing the plantation, fi de diferite feluri (ex. 50 % din cheltuielile de înfiinŃare
annual subsidies, grants ventures etc.). ale plantaŃiilor, subvenŃii anuale, subvenŃii mixte etc.).
Current technologies of planting energy crops (poplar, Tehnologiile actuale de plantat culturi energetice (plop,
willow) require the development of plant equipment to salcie) impun realizarea unor echipamente de plantat care
carry out planting cuttings in two rows at a distance of 75 să realizeze plantări de butaşi pe două rânduri la distanŃa de
cm, and the distance of 150 cm between two rows etc. to 75 cm, apoi la distanta de 150 cm între alte două rânduri
be planted all over 60 ... 65 cm between cuttings in turn s.a.m.d. până se plantează toată suprafaŃa şi 60...65 cm
is de18 ... 20 cm cuttings length. între butaşi pe rând, lungimea butaşilor fiind de18...20 cm.
Currently, in Romania there are companies with În momentul de faŃă, în România există firme cu licenŃă
purchased license both in Sweden and in Hungary, cumpărată atât din Suedia cât şi din Ungaria, există
there are steps made to authorize the starting of a demersuri începute pentru autorizarea de pepiniere, însă,
nursery, but without some national programs leading to fără anumite programe naŃionale care să conducă la
expansion of these plantations, and without some extinderea acestor plantaŃii, şi fără anumite subvenŃii
subsidies to boost the achievement of regional care să impulsioneze realizarea unor investiŃii zonale de
investment of biomass results, they cannot compete in utilizarea biomasei rezultate, acestea nu pot concura
the European market. piaŃa europeană.
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIAL SI METODĂ

The role and importance of energetic poplar culture Rolul şi importanŃa culturii plopului energetic
Poplar species with a large complex of vegetation in Speciile de plop cu un larg areal de vegetaŃie în
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere in regiunile temperate ale emisferei de nord în special, dar
particular, but also south of the Earth, have been şi de sud ale Terrei, au constituit din cele mai vechi
associated or integrated in agriculture. timpuri forme asociate sau integrate în agricultură.
Farmers soon discovered that you can install the Cultivatorii pământului au descoperit repede uşurinŃa
poplar and created plantations for household needs. At cu care se pot instala plopii pe cale vegetativă şi au creat
first there were only local species, of which the main plantaŃii pentru satisfacerea nevoilor gospodăreşti. La
role was the black poplar (Populus nigra L.). început s-au folosit doar specii locale, dintre care rolul
Introduction in Europe in the late eighteenth century, principal a revenit plopului negru (Populus nigra L.).
of the the American black poplar (Populus deltoides Introducerea în Europa, spre sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-
Marsh.) and in America the European black poplar lea, a plopilor negri americani (Populus deltoides Marsh.)
(Populus nigra L), gave rise to hybrids of these şi în America a plopului negru european (Populus nigra
species that have revolutionized traditional forms of L), a determinat apariŃia hibrizilor acestor specii care au
culture. revoluŃionat formele tradiŃionale de cultură.
More opportunities to use the hybrid wood encouraged Diversificarea posibilităŃilor de utilizare a lemnului de
the creation of poplar plantations. plop hibrid a încurajat crearea de plantaŃii specializate.
Italian paper industry was the first to use poplar Industria italiană de hârtie a fost prima care a folosit lemnul
wood for purposes other than traditional rural uses. de plop în alte scopuri decât utilizările rurale tradiŃionale. La
The early twentieth century was promoting those types începutul secolului al XX-lea s-a urmărit în principal promovarea
of hybrids as the best culture and greatly satisfied the acelor tipuri de hibrizi care valorificau cel mai bine mediul de
needs of an economy in flux. During this period the cultură şi satisfăceau în mare măsură necesităŃile unei economii
paper mills are increasingly using poplar wood for the în plină transformare. În această perioadă fabricile de hârtie
mechanical pulp and at the same time the foloseau tot mai mult lemnul de plop pentru pasta mecanică,
popularization gains that could be obtained by planting consemnându-se, în acelaşi timp, popularizarea câştigurilor
"the poplars of Canada" (Populus x canadensis care se puteau obŃine prin plantarea "plopilor de Canada"
Mönch). Also in that period, some scientific (Populus x canadensis Mönch). Tot acum au început unele
investigations started for identifying and selecting the investigaŃii ştiinŃifice pentru identificarea şi selecŃionarea de
best performing hybrids, and finding crop technologies hibrizi mai performanŃi, dar şi pentru găsirea de tehnologii de
and proper protection. cultură şi de protecŃie adecvate.
Given the growing importance that is given poplars in Dată fiind importanŃa tot mai mare care se acorda
more developed European countries (France, Italy, plopilor, în Ńările europene mai dezvoltate (FranŃa, Italia,
Germany, etc.) research was boosted in this area, also Germania ş.a.) s-au amplificat cercetările, în acest
feeling the need for establishing an international domeniu, simŃindu-se totodată nevoia constituirii unui for
coordinator. coordonator internaŃional.
Energy crops production with short cycle is a modern Culturile energetice cu ciclu scurt de producŃie sunt o soluŃie
and efficient solution for renaturation of degraded areas modernă şi eficientă pentru renaturarea unor zone degradate şi
and to achieve a renewable energy resource. pentru obŃinerea unei resurse energetice regenerabile.
Carbon storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide leads Stocarea carbonului din bioxidul de carbon atmosferic
to attenuation wooden greenhouse is a major cause of în lemn duce la atenuarea efectului de seră care este o
climate change. cauză majoră a schimbărilor climatice.
These crops provide many environmental benefits Aceste culturi oferă multe avantaje de mediu atunci
when performed on eroded land or land unsuitable for când se realizează pe terenuri erodate sau terenuri
crops. improprii pentru culturi agricole.
Poplar, widespread species worldwide, largely Plopii, specii cu o largă răspândire pe glob, răspund în mare
responsible present and future needs of human society măsură necesităŃilor actuale şi de perspectivă ale societăŃii
and therefore can be considered species "of world trade umane şi de aceea pot fi considerate specii "ale lumii, ale
and the future", they co-evolving with humanity. comerŃului şi ale viitorului", ele coevoluând cu omenirea.
343
One of the main objectives in selection programs Unul din principalele obiectivele urmărite în programele de
and technology-improvement culture of poplar was as selecŃie-ameliorare şi în tehnologiile de cultură ale plopilor a
high production of wood obtained in a short time. Due fost producŃia cât mai mare de masă lemnoasă obŃinută într-
to the extremely rapid growth, produce poplar crops un timp cât mai scurt. Datorită creşterilor deosebit de rapide,
shortly a substantial amount of wood that meets culturile de plop produc în scurt timp o importantă cantitate
growing measure wood needs of society. The wood of de masă lemnoasă ce satisface într-o măsură tot mai mare
these species, with special features, has many nevoile de lemn ale societăŃii. Lemnul acestor specii, cu
industrial uses: însuşiri deosebite, are multiple utilizări industriale:
- Timber and lightweight packaging; - cherestea şi ambalaje uşoare;
- Fibro-wood boards and plywood; - plăci fibro-lemnoase şi placaje;
- Veneers for furniture; - furnire pentru mobilă;
- Matches; - chibrituri;
- Pulp and paper pulp; - pastă pentru celuloză şi hârtie;
- Rural tree etc. - lemn pentru construcŃii rurale ş.a.
The last time outside the priority objectives-improve În ultima perioadă de timp, în afara obiectivelor
selection poplar stands and objectives relating to prioritare de selecŃie-ameliorare a plopilor se remarcă şi
environmental protection, in particular for obiectivele care privesc protecŃia mediului, în special cele
phytoremediation of land contaminated by sewage and de fitoremediere a unor terenuri poluate cu deşeuri
heavy metal accumulation of nitrogen and land menajere sau cu metale grele, a unor terenuri cu
phosphorus in the soil due to excessive fertilization in acumulări de azot şi fosfor în sol ca urmare a fertilizărilor
agriculture etc. excesive din agricultură ş.a.
However, these species are used for the production Totodată, aceste specii sunt folosite pentru producerea
of biomass energy to reduce groundwater pollution, de biomasă energetică, pentru diminuarea poluării pânzei
human communities using wastewater for irrigation freatice, utilizând apele reziduale ale comunităŃilor umane
and fertilization of renewable vegetative crops with pentru irigarea şi fertilizarea unor culturi regenerabile
shorter production cycles (2 ... 3 years), created to vegetativ, cu cicluri scurte de producŃie (2...3 ani), create
natural filter, on the one hand, and the use of wood in cu scop de filtru natural, pe de o parte, şi pentru folosirea
the production of clean energy, on the other hand. masei lemnoase în producerea energiei ecologice, pe de
The slender and elegant port poplars are cultivated altă parte. Prin portul zvelt şi elegant plopii sunt specii
species greatly tourist areas to create an enjoyable cultivate foarte mult în zone turistice pentru a crea un
landscape. aspect peisagistic plăcut.
Poplar is highly recommended to achieve the Plopul este foarte recomandat în realizarea de perdele
protective forest. The species of aspen reaches the size forestiere de protecŃie. Astfel, specia de plop CLON San
CLON San Lorenzo the 25...30 cm in diameter and 8 ... Lorenzo ajunge la dimensiuni de 25..30 cm diametru şi
12 m in height in a period of 6 ... 8 years. The planting 8...12 m înălŃime într-o perioadă de 6...8 ani. Prin sistemul
system recommended by the manufacturer, poplar de plantare recomandat de producător, coroanele plopilor se
crowns will overlap so that it will create almost a hedge vor întrepătrunde astfel încât se va crea practic un gard viu
very resistant to wind, blizzards, floods, etc. foarte rezistent la acŃiunea vântului , viscolului, inundaŃii etc.
In Figure 1 is shown a culture of energetic poplar [7]. În figura 1 este reprezentată o cultură de plop energetic [7].
Fig. 1 - Energetic poplar culture [7]
The main advantages of energetic poplar cultivation Principalele avantaje ale cultivării plopului energetic
are: sunt:
- Poplar can grow in warmer climates; - Plopul poate creşte în condiŃii de climă mai caldă;
- Compared to other energy crops poplar culture is - Comparativ cu alte culturi energetice, cultura de
more resistant to disease; plopi este mai rezistentă la îmbolnăviri;
- Poplar is in the woody cultivated biomass - Plopul intră în categoria biomasei lemnoase
category, the most frequently used for his light cultivate, fiind utilizat în mod frecvent pentru calităŃile
and malleable wood qualities. uşoare şi maleabile ale lemnului.
RESULS REZULTATE
Current technologies for establishing energy crops Tehnologiile actuale de înfiinŃat culturi energetice (plop,
344
(poplar, willow) require the development of equipment salcie) impun realizarea unor echipamente pentru:
for: culture set up, maintenance (mechanical weed înfiinŃat, intreŃinere (combaterea mecanică a buruienilor
combating, hoeing and applying solid chemical fertilizers) prăşit şi administrat îngrăşăminte chimice solide) irigare,
irrigation, respectively for chemical weed control and respectiv de combaterea chimică a buruienilor şi
harvesting. recoltare.
Herbicides equipment for energetic poplar culture Echipamente pentru erbicidarea culturii de plop energetic
Equipment for total herbicide between rows by Echipamentele pentru erbicidarea totală a buruienilor
Garford Company in the UK (fig. 2) is an alternative for dintre rânduri realizate de firma Garford din Marea Britanie
combating weeds mechanicaly [8]. (fig. 2) reprezintă o alternativă la combaterea mecanică [9].
Fig. 2 - Garford equipment for sprayer between rows [8]
Herbicides strip width is between 10 cm and 60 cm LăŃimea benzilor erbicidate este cuprinsă între 10 cm
and protections can be adjusted by pivoting the şi 60 cm şi poate fi reglată prin pivotarea protecŃiilor
spraying devices. dispozitivelor de stropit.
Equipment for herbicide between rows Garford are Echipamentele pentru erbicidare între rânduri Garford sunt dotate
equipped with spray tanks full of substance with a cu sisteme complete de pulverizare şi cu rezervoare de substanŃă
capacity up to 400 liters, or tanks mounted to the tractor, cu capacitatea de până la 400 litri, sau cu rezervoare montate
if more work capacity is needed. în faŃa tractorului, dacă sunt necesare capacităŃi mai mari de lucru.
Multi-row sprayer equipment Tramas ULV Sprayer Echipamentul de erbicidat Multi-row Tramas ULV
(fig.3) manufactured by Mankar is targeted for Sprayer (fig.3) realizat de firma Mankar este destinat
application with minimum consumption of material and aplicării Ńintite, cu consum minim de substanŃă şi impact
minimal impact on the environment, crops, lawns, etc. minim asupra mediului, în culturi agricole, pajişti,
This equipment has two herbicide sections with a pepiniere pomicole etc. Acest echipament are două secŃii
working width of 50 cm each disposed to the outside de erbicidare cu lăŃimea de lucru de 50 cm fiecare
and a central section with a width between 70 and 110 dispuse către exterior şi o secŃie centrală cu lăŃimea de
cm in the center. lucru cuprinsă între 70 şi 110 cm în centru.
The main technical characteristics of the equipment Principalele caracteristici tehnice ale echipamentului
Multi-row sprayer ULV Sprayer Tramas are presented in de erbicidat Multi-row Tramas ULV Sprayer sunt
Table 1 [9]. prezentate în tabelul 1 [9]
Fig. 3 - Multi-row Tramas ULV Sprayer equipment [9]

Tabel 1
Technical characteristics of the Multi-row Tramas ULV sprayer equipment [9]
Characteristics Value
Working width, cm 1 x 70...110 şi 2 x 50
Pump type dispensers, with 3 pistons
Nozzle number 4
Capacity of the liquid reservoir, l 3x6
Substance norm, l/ha 2...2.5 (nediluat)
Area covered. ha 9
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The range of sprayers in strips Varidome S1, S3 Gama de echipamente de erbicidat în benzi Varidome
and S5 (fig 4), manufactured by Micron Group S1, S3 şi S5 (fig. 4), realizată de firma Micron Group
provides protected herbicides with low volume crops or asigură erbicidarea protejată, cu volum redus, a culturilor
fruit [10]. agricole sau pomicole [10].
Varidome sprayer equipment has protections that Echipamentele de erbicidat Varidome au protecŃii care
can be individually adjusted to allow treatment of pot fi ajustate individual, pentru a permite tratamentul pe
various working widths, depending on the distance diverse lăŃimi de lucru, în funcŃie de distanŃa dintre
between rows. rânduri.
The layout of the sprayer sections on the machine Dispunerea secŃiilor de erbicidat pe cadrul maşinii
can be easily modified according to the culture to poate fi uşor modificată în funcŃie de cultura la care se
which treatment. aplică tratamentul.
The main technical characteristics of the Varidome Principalele caracteristici tehnice ale echipamentelor de
sprayer equipment series are shown in Table 2. erbicidat din gama Varidome sunt prezentate în tabelul 2.
Varidome S1 Varidome S3
Varidome S5
Fig. 4 - Varidome sprayer equipment [10]
Tabel 2
Technical characteristics of the Varidome sprayer equipment [10]
Model
Characteristics
Varidome S1 Varidome S3 Varidome S5
Minimum tractor power, HP 50 100 120
Agregation metode with the tractor Front and rear Front and rear Only rear
Distance between the rows, mm 80...800 170...700
Working width, m Up to 3 Up to 6 Up to 9
The capacity of the substance singular: 400, 600 or 1000 singular: 600 or 1000
100 or 200
reservoir, l duble: 1800 (1050/750)
Micron atomisers CDA (Controlled
The spraying system Droplet Application) or hydraulic hydraulic spraying heads
spray heads
Substance norm, l/ha 50...100 100...200
Productivity, ha/zi Up to 20 Up to 40 Up to 60
Versions in the Varidome range may be equipped with Modelele din gama Varidome pot fi echipate cu o linie
a secondary line for applying a selective herbicide in secundară, pentru aplicarea pe rând a unui erbicid
rows, using the system with two substance tanks selectiv, utilizând sistemul cu două rezervoare de
(Micron's Dual tank, fig. 5). This allows conducting two substanŃă (Micron’s Dual Tank, fig. 5). Acest lucru
346
operations in a single pass, namely: the protected permite efectuarea a două operaŃii la o singură trecere şi
application of a total herbicide between rows and applying anume: aplicarea protejată a unui erbicid total între
a selective herbicide in rows [10]. rânduri şi aplicarea unui erbicid selectiv pe rând [10].
Fig. 5. Micron’s Dual Tank System [10
Hood Spray 915 equipment (fig.6) manufactured by Echipamentul Spray-Hood 915 (fig. 6) realizat de firma
Fabrication Willmar in the United States, has the design Willmar Fabrication din SUA, prin design-ul special al
of the particular plant-protection coating provided to protecŃiilor pentru plante oferă o acoperire îmbunătăŃită la
improve herbicide protection with various herbicides in erbicidarea protejată, cu diferite erbicide, în culturile de
cotton, soybean, corn, etc. The equipment can be bumbac, soia, porumb etc. Cadrul echipamentului poate
manufactured in three ways: rigid, which can be fi realizat în trei variante: rigid, pe care se pot monta 5
mounted 5 polling herbicide; folding the flaps, nine secŃii de erbicidare; pliabil prin rabatere, cu 9 secŃii de
polling herbicide; Foldable lap, with 13 stations erbicidare; pliabil prin suprapunere, cu 13 secŃii de
herbicide. In each embodiment it can be mounted to the erbicidare. Pe fiecare variantă de cadru pot fi montate
frame for protection of four sizes (16, 22, 28 and 30 patru tipodimensiuni de protecŃii (16, 22, 28 şi 30 inch)
inches) [11]. [11].
The main technical characteristics of the Spray Hood Principalele caracteristici tehnice ale echipamentului
915 equipment are presented in Table 3. de erbicidat Spray-Hood 915 sunt prezentate în tabelul 3
Tabel 3
Technical characteristics of the Spray-Hood 915 equipment [11]
Characteristics Value
Distance between the rows, mm 50,8...101,6
Pump type centrifugal
Nozzle type TeeJet
Pressure regulator with solenoid valve 12V or manualy
Transport width, cm 30,48...71,12
Height of ramp, cm 76,2...96,52
Capacity of the substance reservoir, l 567, 64 or 1135,3
Capacity of the water reservoi, l 35
Mankar sprayers equipment series has a number of Echipamentele de erbicidat din gama Mankar prezintă
advantages, namely: o serie de avantaje şi anume:
- modular construction, all equipment using the same - construcŃia modulară, toate echipamentele utilizând
atomizer type spray electric system. acelaşi sistem de pulverizare de tip atomizor electric;
- low mass and small dimension of the sections of - mase şi dimensiuni reduse ale secŃiilor de erbicidare,
herbicides, including fluid reservoirs mounted inclusiv a rezervoarelor de lichid montate individual
individually on each section; pe fiecare secŃie;
- the possibility of adapting the cultivators already in - posibilitatea adaptării pe cultivatoare aflate deja în
operation from farmers, and can be run exploatare la fermieri, putându-se executa în acelaşi
simultaneously two works, hoeing and herbicides, timp două lucrări, prăşire şi erbicidare, reducându-se
thus reducing working time and fuel consumption. astfel timpul de lucru şi consumul de combustibil.
INMA conducted a conceptual design of a model of În cadrul INMA a fost realizat proiectul de execuŃie a unui
precision sprayer equipment in strips (fig. 7), the overall model experimental de echipament de erbicidat cu precizie
MEP-0, consists of the frame (pos. 1) on which the în benzi (fig. 7), ansamblu MEP-0, este alcătuit din cadru
herbicide sections are mounted (pos. 2); wheels (pos. 3 (poz. 1) pe care se montează secŃii de erbicidare (poz. 2),
and pos. 4) left / right working height adjustment, roŃi (poz. 3 şi poz. 4) stânga / dreapta de reglare a înălŃimii
support (pos. 5) solution tank support (pos 6) pump and de lucru, suport (poz. 5) pentru rezervorul de soluŃie, suport
347
hydraulic motor support (pos 7) liquid distributor and (poz. 6) pentru pompa şi motorul hidraulic, suport (poz 7)
installation (pos. 8). pentru distribuitor şi instalaŃie de lichid (poz. 8).
Fig. 7 - Experimental model for precision sprayer equipment into strips MEP-0
- By promoting energetic poplar culture will be - Prin promovarea culturii de plop energetic se va
achieved and indicators of development strategies realiza indicatorii din strategiile de dezvoltare şi
targeting energy independence for 20% renewables independenŃă energetică care Ńintesc spre 20 %
by 2020; surse regenerabile până în 2020;
- For chemical control of weeds between rows - Pentru combaterea chimică a buruienilor dintre
Garford Company in the UK and Micron Group rânduri firma Garford şi firma Micron Group din
Company in the USA and Willmar Fabrication Marea Britanie, Willmar Fabrication din SUA şi firma
Mankar company in Germany to manufacture Mankar din Germania au în fabricaŃie echipamente
equipment performing protected application of a care realizează aplicarea protejată a unui erbicid în
herbicide in crops sown in rows rare. culturi semănate în rânduri rare.
[1]. Buhociu L., Buhociu C.A. (2010) - Water and agriculture [1]. Buhociu L., Buhociu C. A. (2010) - Apa şi agricultura în
in the human development perspective, www.econstor.eu/ perspectiva dezvoltării omenirii, www.econstor.eu/bitstream
bitstream /10419/76855/1/749463643.pdf; /10419/76855/1/749463643.pdf;
[2]. Balázsi A. (2013) - Biomass as a source of renewable [2]. Balázsi A. (2013) - Biomasa ca sursă de energie
energy, analysis of the technologies for obtaining energy regenerabilă, analiza tehnologilor de obtinere a energiei
from these, http://urbanaodorhei.ro/dokumentumok/Informaciok din aceasta, http://urbanaodorhei.ro/dokumentumok/Informaciok
/Biomasa_Ro.pdf; /Biomasa_Ro.pdf;
[3]. EC (2007) - Green Paper From The Commission To [3]. EC (2007) - Carte verde a comisiei către consiliu,
The Council, The European Parliament, The European către parlamentul european, către comitetul economic şi
Economic And Social Committee and The Committee of social european şi către comitetul regiunilor - Adaptarea
the Regions - Adapting to climate change in Europe – la schimbările climatice în Europa - posibilităŃile de
options for EU action; acŃiune ale Uniunii Europene;
[4]. Cuculeanu V., Geicu A., Pătrăşcoiu N. (2005) - The [4]. Cuculeanu V. Geicu A. Pătrăşcoiu N. (2005) -
potential impact of climate change on forest ecosystems Impactul potenŃial al modificărilor climatice asupra
in Romania, Silvologie IV A, Publishing of Romanian ecosistemelor forestiere în România, Silvologie IV A,
Academy, Bucharest, pp. 57-73; Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti, pp. 57-73;
[5]. Gheorghiu I.O. (2010) - Climate change leading to a [5]. Gheorghiu I.O. (2010) - Schimbările climatice conduc
new energy strategy, Romania post-crisis, IPID Bucureşti la o nouă strategie energetică, România post-criză,
Report, pp. 93-101; Raport al IPID Bucureşti, pp. 93-101;
[6]. IPCC (2007) - Fourth Assessment Report, published [6]. IPCC (2007) - Al patrulea Raport Global de Evaluare,
by the IPCC Global on www.ipcc.ch/; publicat de IPCC pe www.ipcc.ch/;
[7]. ***www.agrointel.ro/ [7]. ***www.agrointel.ro/
[8]. *** www.garford.com/index.html [8]. *** www.garford.com/index.html
[9]. *** www. mankarulv.com/ [9]. *** www. mankarulv.com/
[10]. *** www.micron.co.uk/varidome [10]. *** www.micron.co.uk/varidome
[11]. *** www. willmarfab.com/915 [11]. *** www. willmarfab.com/915
348
USING A FAST AND ACCURATE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION

OF pH AND OF THE MAIN NUTRIENTS IN THE SOIL
/
UTILIZAREA UNEI METODE RAPIDE ŞI EXACTE PENTRU DETERMINAREA pH-ULUI ŞI A
PRINCIPALILOR NUTRIENłI AI SOLULUI
Eng. Găgeanu G., Ph.D. Eng. Marin E., Eng. Găgeanu I., Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P.
E-mail: geta_gageanu@yahoo.com
Abstract: For the soil, especially the one used in Rezumat: Pentru ca solul, în mod special cel utilizat de
agriculture and horticulture, to achieve its basic agricultură şi horticultură, să-şi realizeze funcŃia de bază,
function, food production, it takes a constant and producerea hranei, este nevoie de o permanentă şi
correct evaluation of its fertility, which is the complex corectă evaluare a fertilităŃii acestuia care este însuşirea
characteristic that provides water and nutrients for the complexă de a pune la dispoziŃia plantelor apă şi nutrienŃi
plants in sufficient quantities and harmonious în cantităŃi suficiente şi proporŃii armonioase. Principalii
proportions. The main nutrients that are added, usually nutrienŃi care se adaugă, de obicei, sub formă de
îngrăşăminte sunt: azotul, fosforul şi potasiul.
as fertilizers are: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Cunoaşterea valorii pH-ului are mare importanŃă, în
Knowing the pH value is very important, in the plant
nutriŃia plantelor, întrucât fiecare specie preferă anumite
nutrition, because every species prefers certain condiŃii de aciditate sau alcalinitate a solului pentru buna
conditions of acidity or alkalinity of the soil for a proper dezvoltare. În lucrare este prezentată o metodă rapidă şi
development. The paper presents a fast and accurate exactă de analiză a solului (ph-ul, nitraŃi, fosfaŃi, potasiu)
method of soil analysis (pH, nitrates, phosphates, dintr-o seră utilizată pentru cultura castraveŃilor.
potassium) for a greenhouse used to grow cucumbers. Rezultatele experimentărilor pot fi utilizate de fermieri la
The results of the tests can be used by farmers to întocmirea unor planuri de fertilizare în vederea folosirii
elaborate fertilization plans in order to use fertilizers raŃionale a îngrăşămintelor.
rationally.
Keywords: soil, rapid test kit, pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, Cuvinte cheie: sol, kit testare rapidă, pH, azot, fosfor,
potassium. potasiu
INTRODUCERE
INTRODUCTION Realizarea uneia din cele mai importante funcŃii ale
Achieving one of the most important functions of the solului, producerea de fitomasă, (utilizată ca materie
soil, the production of phytomass (used as a raw material primă pentru obŃinerea alimentelor etc.), presupune
to obtain food, etc.), implies the existence of all the existenŃa tuturor elementelor care să-i confere acestuia o
elements that give it a good fertility. To achieve that bună fertilitate. Pentru atingerea acestui deziderat este
desideratum it is necessary that the soils are submitted to nevoie ca solurile să fie supuse unor permanente
evaluări care să ateste însuşirea de fertilitate. Aceste
permanent evaluations showing the fertility property.
evaluări trebuie făcute atât de marii fermieri cât şi de micii
These evaluations should be made by large farmers as
fermieri. Având în vedere că prin metode clasice, de
well as by small farmers. Taking into account that by durată, s-ar ajunge la nişte costuri ridicate, testele pe
using classic methods, that take long time, high costs are bază de kituri pentru analiza solului sunt mai ieftine şi
reached, the tests based on kits for soil analysis are uşor de utilizat de către toŃi fermierii. Fertilitatea este
cheaper and easy to use by all farmers. Fertility is a soil însuşirea solului de a asigura condiŃii pentru creşterea şi
property to ensure conditions for plant growing and dezvoltarea plantelor prin acumularea factorilor de
developing by accumulating vegetation factors and vegetaŃie şi asigurarea condiŃiilor pentru ca aceşti factori
ensuring conditions for the factors to be used in sufficient să fie folosiŃi în cantităŃi suficiente. Din punct de vedere
quantities. In agro-technical terms, a unitary, systemic agrotehnic este importantă abordarea unitară, sistemică
approach of the soil fertility is important for its a fertilităŃii solului în vederea modelării conservative a
conservative modeling, by fertilization, with emphasis on acesteia, prin fertilizare, cu accent pus pe cerinŃele
the demands of crop plants. The need for soil nutrient plantelor de cultură. Necesitatea de aprovizionare a
supply is established on the basis of the soil agro- solului cu elemente nutritive se stabileşte pe baza
chemical analysis and establishing the deficiency of analizei agrochimice a solului şi stabilirea elementelor
nutrients [5]. nutritive care sunt în carenŃă [5].
Din datele furnizate de ICPA, calitatea solurilor din
From de data supplied by ICPA, the soil quality in our
Ńara noastră se deteriorează accentuat, astfel că humusul
country is rapidly degrading, thus the humus – the most
- cel mai valoros “ingredient” al solului - s-a înjumătăŃit în
valuable soil “ingredient” – has halved in just three doar trei decenii. Studiul agrochimic este în esenŃă o
decades. The agro-chemical study is in its essence a “foaie de diagnostic”, care analizează conŃinutul de
“diagnostic paper”, that analyzes the content of nutrients, nutrienŃi, pesticide şi substanŃe poluante din sol şi în
pesticides and pollutants in the soil, and depending on funcŃie de deficitul sau excedentul de minerale din sol,
deficit or surplus of minerals in the soil, establishes a stabileşte o “reŃetă” pentru fermier, recomandându-i ce
“recipe” for the farmer, recommending it what substances substanŃe să administreze şi în ce cantităŃi, precum şi ce
to administer and in which quantities, as well as what plante să cultive ca să obŃină o productivitate maximă.
349
plants to grow in order to obtain a maximum productivity. Din cele 14,7 milioane hectare terenuri agricole sau 9,3
Out of the 14.7 million hectares of agricultural land or milioane terenuri arabile, circa 7,5 milioane hectare au
of the 9.3 million hectares of arable land, about 7.5 deficit de humus. România are un nivel redus şi foarte
million hectares have a humus deficit. Romania has low redus de fosfor pe 6,3 milioane hectare, un nivel redus
and very low phosphorus level on 6.3 million hectares, a de azot pe 5,1 milioane hectare şi un nivel foarte redus
low level of nitrogen on 5.1 million hectares and a very de potasiu pe 788.000 de hectare. Cunoaşterea
low potassium level on 788000 hectares. A thorough temeinică de către fermierul agronom sau horticultor a
problemelor teoretice şi practice ale relaŃiilor dintre
knowledge by the agronomist of horticulturist farmer on
plantă, sol, îngrăşăminte, corelate cu controlul stării de
the theoretical and practical problems of the relationships
aprovizionare cu elemente nutritive se realizează prin
between plant-soil-fertilizers, correlated with the control cartări agrochimice. Acestea permit corectarea pe bază
of the nutrient supply status is achieved by agro-chemical ştiinŃifică a dezechilibrelor manifestate în nutriŃia plantelor
mapping. They allow the correction, on a scientific basis, prin aplicarea judicioasă şi diferenŃiată a dozelor de
of imbalances manifested in plant nutrition by judicious îngrăşăminte, astfel încât se pot obŃine recolte cantitativ
and differential appliance of fertilizer doses, thus şi calitativ superioare, fără dereglarea mediului
obtaining crops with superior quality and quantity without înconjurător [1].
degrading the environment [1]. România a armonizat Directivele Europene privind
Romania has harmonized the European Directives substanŃele chimice prin elaborarea unei legislaŃii care
regarding chemical substances by the elaboration of a reglementează monitorizarea solurilor pentru agricultură,
legislation regulating soil monitoring in agriculture, for spre exemplu, Ordinul 278/2011 în care a fost aprobat
example, Order 278/2011 approving the National Programul naŃional privind realizarea Sistemului naŃional
Program on making the National System for soil-land de monitorizare sol-teren pentru agricultură, care
monitoring for agriculture, that comprises the Program for cuprinde Programul privind elaborarea de studii
the elaboration of pedological and agro-chemical studies pedologice şi agrochimice pentru perioada 2012-2021 [3]
şi Ordinul nr. 238/2011 privind aprobarea Metodologiei
for the period 2012-2021 [3] and Order 238/2011
întocmirii studiilor pedologice şi agrochimice, a Sistemului
approving the Methodology of preparation for pedological
naŃional şi judeŃean de monitorizare sol teren pentru
and agro-chemical studies, of the National and county agricultură, emis de Ministerul Agriculturii, AlimentaŃiei şi
soil-land monitoring system for agriculture, issue by the Pădurilor, care reglementează cadrul de organizare,
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forests regulating the funcŃionare, subordonare [4].
organization, operation and subordination frame [4]. Fiecare fermă trebuie să-şi stabilească un sistem de
Each farm has to establish a fertilization system, for a fertilizare, pentru un anumit asolament, care trebuie să
particular crop rotation, that has to take into account a Ńină seama de o serie de factori locali, printre care:
series of local factors, like: - reînnoirea rezervei de elemente nutritive uşor
- renewing the reserve of nutrients that are easily accesibile plantelor într-un raport de echilibru
accessed by the plant in a balance ratio corresponding to corespunzător cu particularităŃile fizice, chimice şi
the physical, chemical and biological soil particularities; biologice ale solului;
- the nutrition characteristics for the crop rotation plants; - caracteristicile nutriŃiei plantelor din asolament;
- climatic conditions and crop suitability for each plant; - condiŃiile climatice şi favorabilitatea de cultură pentru
- technological particularities for each crop; fiecare plantă;
- composition and agro-chemical characteristics for the - particularităŃile tehnologice ale fiecărei culturi;
- compoziŃia şi caracteristicile agrochimice ale
fertilizers that were used;
îngrăşămintelor folosite;
- organizational and economic measures on using,
- măsurile organizatorice şi economice legate de
storing and applying fertilizers [2]. utilizarea, păstrarea şi aplicarea îngrăşămintelor [2].
Plants water and minerals from the soil, carbon Plantele absorb din sol apa şi minerale, din aer
dioxide and oxygen from the air, and under the influence bioxid de carbon şi oxigen, iar sub influenŃa luminii
of light they transform all these minerals and gases into transformă toate aceste minerale şi gaze în substanŃe
complex organic substances. Depending on their share organice complexe. In funcŃie de ponderea lor în plantă,
in the plant, the minerals absorbed from the soil are mineralele absorbite din sol sunt împărŃite în două mari
divided in two large categories, macro-elements categorii, macroelemente (azot, fosfor, potasiu, calciu,
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, magneziu, sulf) şi microelemente (fier, mangan, cupru,
sulfur) and microelements (iron, manganese, copper, zinc, bor şi altele). Fiecare element are rolul său bine
zinc, boron, etc.). Each element has its own well defined determinat în mecanismele complexe din plantă. Lipsa
role in the plant’s complex mechanisms. The lack of one unuia nu poate fi substituită de prezenŃa altuia. Cu alte
element can’t be substituted by the presence of another. cuvinte, nu există elemente mai necesare sau mai puŃin
In other words, there no elements more necessary or necesare, este nevoie de toate, în proporŃii armonioase.
less necessary, they are all needed, in harmonious NutrienŃii din sol se găsesc în mai multe forme, legaŃi în
mineralele primare şi secundare (foarte greu sau deloc
proportions. Nutrients in the soil are found in various
disponibili), sub formă de ioni schimbabili reŃinuŃi la
shapes, tied in primary and secondary minerals (hardly
suprafaŃa argilelor sau în substanŃe organice (disponibili
found or unavailable), in the shape of exchangeable ions dar mai greu), ioni în soluŃia solului (foarte uşor
retained at the surface of clays or in organic substances asimilabili). Analiza solului este deosebit de utilă pentru
(available, but harder), ions in the soil solution (very easy că ne arată fertilitatea şi gradul de aprovizionare cu
to assimilate). Soil analysis is very useful because it macroelemente (azot, fosfor, potasiu) care au rolul lor
shows the fertility and supply rate of macro-elements bine determinat în mecanismele complexe din plantă.
(nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), that have a well Analiza solului este o problemă complexă datorită
determined role in the complex mechanisms in the plant. variaŃiei mari de tipuri de sol şi de plante cultivate, motiv
Soil analysis is a complex matter because of the large pentru care sunt promovate multe metode de analize
350
variation in soil types and cultivated plants, therefore agrochimice privind proprietăŃile solului, stabilirea
methods for agro-chemical analyses on soil properties, necesarului de îngrăşăminte chimice, microelementelor
establishing the needs for chemical fertilizers, cât şi controlul stării de fertilitate. [7]
microelements, as well as the control of the fertilizations Firme puternice în domeniu, au dezvoltat metode
status are promoted [7]. rapide, pe bază de kituri, bazate pe metode clasice, spre
Strong companies in the field have developed fast exemplu: Neudorff din Germania produce un kit pentru
methods, kits, based on classic methods, for example: masurare pH în sol [10], Hanna Instruments din SUA
fabrică o trusă de analize sol HI3896 pentru determinare
Neudorff from Germany produces a kit for measuring the
azot, fosfor, potasiu şi pH [8], Martin Lisham din Marea
pH of the soil [10], Hanna Instruments from USA
Britanie comercializează un kit SK 200 pentru
produces a kit for the analysis of soil HI3896 for the determinare pH, carbonat de Calciu (var necesar), nitraŃi,
determination of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and fosfaŃi, potasiu [9].
the pH [8], Martin Lisham from the UK commercializes a În lucrare este prezentată analiza rapidă a solului (pH,
kit SK 200 for determination of pH, calcium carbonate N, P, K) cu ajutorul reactivilor comprimaŃi şi a celor de
(necessary lime), nitrates, phosphates, potassium [9]. extragere din componenŃa unui kit model SK 200 produs
The paper presents the rapid analysis of the soil (pH, de firma Martin Lishman, în vederea stabilirii măsurilor de
N, P, K) using compressed reagents and extraction sporire a producŃiei şi îmbunătăŃirea calităŃii culturii de
reagents from the component of a SK 200 kit produced castraveŃi dintr-o seră.
by Martin Lishman, in order to establish the measures Rolul pH, N, P, K în cultura legumelor în spaŃii
necessary to increase production and to improve the protejate:
quality of a cucumber crop in a greenhouse. - pH-ul solului este un element de care depinde
The role of pH, N, P, K in growing vegetable in capacitatea plantelor de a absorbi substanŃele
protected spaces: nutritive din sol;
- pH of the soil is an element that determines the
- Azot, N: rol plastic, constituent al clorofilei, intră în
capacity of plants to absorb nutrients from the soil;
constituŃia tuturor proteinelor, favorizează înmulŃirea
- Nitrogen, N: has a plastic role, is a constituent in
chlorophyll, is in the constitution of all proteins, celulelor, determină randamentul recoltelor,
favors cell multiplication, determines the crop yield, elementul conducător al procesului de creştere;
is element leading the growing process; - Fosfor, P: este esenŃial pentru creşterea plantelor, în
- Phosphorus, P: is essential for plant growth, in diviziunea celulară, în dezvoltarea sistemului
cellular division, in the development of the plant’s radicular, în fructificare şi formarea seminŃelor, în
root system, in fructification and forming of seeds, in coacerea timpurie. este constituent în diferiŃi
early ripening, is a constituent in various compuşi precum uleiuri şi aminoacizi, intră în
compounds like oils and amino acids, is part of componenŃa fosfolipidelor, are rol în metabolismul
phospholipids, has a role in the carbohydrate glucidelor;
metabolism.
- Potasiu, K: joacă un rol important în reglarea regimul
- Potassium, K: plays an important part in the
hidric în celulă, rol în sinteza şi depunerea glucidelor,
regulation of water regime in the plant, has a role in
the synthesis and deposal of carbohydrates, is este responsabil cu activarea a peste 60 de enzime,
responsible for activating more than 60 enzymes, is implicat în procesul de fotosinteză şi în transportul şi
involved in the process of photosynthesis and in the stocarea substanŃelor în organele de rezervă
transportation and storing of substances in the (seminŃe, tuberculi, rădăcini şi fructe) şi conferă
reserve organs (seeds, tubers, roots and fruits) and rezistenŃă la boli, dăunători şi la păstrare [6].
gives resistance to diseases, pests and storage [6]. În tabelul 1 sunt prezentate cantităŃile de îngrăşăminte
Table 1 presents the quantities of mineral fertilizers minerale recomandate pentru cultura de castraveŃi în
recommended for the cucumber crop in dependence with dependenŃă de gradul de asigurare a solului, gr/m
2
2
the degree of soil assurance, g/m active substance [11]. substanŃă activă [11].
Table 1
Quantities of mineral fertilizers recommended for the cucumber crop
2 2
Macroelement Normal [g/m ] Minimal [g/m ]
Nitrogen (N) 6.8…8.4 0…6.8
Phosphorus (P) P2O5 23…45 0…23
Potassium (K) K2O 13…23 0…13

The analysis on the fertility status, nitrites, Analizarea stării de fertilitate, nitraŃi, fosfaŃi, potasiu
phosphates, potassium (NPK) was made with the (NPK) s-a efectuat în scopul stabilirii corecte a nevoii de
purpose to correctly establish the need for fertilization fertilizare şi a presupus:
and it required: - recoltarea unor probe de sol reprezentative;
- taking representative soil samples; - analiza agrochimică a probelor de sol;
- agro-chemical analysis of the soil samples; - interpretarea analizelor în raport cu dozele
- interpretation of the analysis compared to the recomandate.
recommended doses. Au fost determinate experimental cu ajutorul unui kit
Using a soil analysis kit, model SK 200, produced de analiză sol, model SK 200, produs de firma Martin
351
by the company Martin Lishman from the UK, Lishman din Marea Britanie: pH-ul, conŃinutul de azot,
experiments were made to determine the content of fosfor şi potasiu.
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Testarea parametrului pH-ul solului s-a efectuat vizual
Testing the pH parameter was made visually with cu blocul pH Soiltester.
the pH Soiltester block. Kit-ul include un test simplu pentru azotul din sol
The kit includes a simple test for the nitrogen in the (parametru cheie care indică fertilitatea). Rezultatele au
soil (a parameter indicating the fertility). The results fost indicate în mod clar de soluŃia colorată în roşu,
were clearly indicated in the red colored solution, produsă şi măsurată în blocul Soiltester N / Mg / P.
made and measured in the Soiltester N / Mg / P block. Testul pentru fosforul din sol, (un nutrient rar în multe
The test for the phosphorus in the soil (a rare nutrient soluri) oferă date pentru nutriŃia plantelor prin creşterea
in many soils) gives data for the plant nutrition by the eficientă a frunzelor şi rădăcinilor, este de asemenea
efficient growth of leaves and roots and is also based bazat pe extracŃia din teren şi măsurarea colorimetrică cu
on soil extraction and color measuring using the blocul Soiltester N / Mg / P.
Soiltester N / Mg / P block. ConcentraŃia de potasiu s-a determinat simplu şi rapid
The potassium concentration was easily cu metodă turbidimetrică.
determined with the turbidimetric method. În figura 1 este prezentat kitul cu componentele sale.
Figure 1 shows the kit and its components.
Fig. 1 –Soil analyse kit model SK 200, produced by Martin Lishman [9]
Harvesting (removal) of the samples was made Recoltarea, (prelevarea) probelor s-a efectuat conform
according to STAS 7184/1-84 so that the result of the STAS 7184/1-84 astfel încât să nu se poată vicia într-o
analyses won’t be largely vitiated [12]. mare măsură rezultatele analizelor. [12]
The soil samples used in the experimental Probele de sol utilizate în determinările experimentale
determinations were taken from the INMA greenhouse, au fost prelevate din sera INMA, destinată unei culturi de
destined for a cucumber crop. castraveŃi.
Soil samples were taken from 5 different places in the Au fost recoltate probe de sol din 5 puncte ale
land destined for testing, following the sampling pattern in terenului destinat testării, după modelul de eşantionare
the shape of the letter W, complying with the sample sub forma literei W respectând standardul de prelevare.
harvesting standard. În figura 2 este prezentat un aspect din timpul
In figure 2, an aspect during sample harvesting is recoltării probelor.
shown.
Fig. 2. – Aspect from the sample harvesting for the determination of basic nutrients
352
For each element (N, P, K), was performed: Pentru fiecare element în parte (N, P, K) s-a efectuat
extraction in aqueous medium obtained from deionized extracŃia în mediu apos obŃinut cu apă deionizată,
water, filtering, forming the colored compound, filtrarea, formarea compusului colorat, transvazarea în
transferring in the tester and reading on the color scale tester şi citirea pe scala de culori a concentraŃiei
the correspondent concentration. corespunzătoare.
An aspect during the processing of samples for the Un aspect din timpul prelucrării probelor pentru
determination of pH and basic nutrients (N, P, K) is determinarea pH-ului şi elementelor nutritive de bază (N,
P, K) este prezentat în figura 3.
shown in figure 3.
Fig. 3. Aspect during sample processing
RESULTS REZULTATE
The results obtained after the soil analysis (pH, N, Rezultatele obŃinute în urma analizei solului (pH, N, P,
P, K) from a greenhouse with a cucumber crop are K) dintr-o seră cu cultură de castraveŃi sunt prezentate în
presented in table 2. tabelul 2.
Table 2
Macro elements content and pH for the soil tested at INMA
Element pH N [mg/l] P [mg/l] K [mg/l]
Soil from the INMA greenhouse 6.5 150 0 125
From the analysis of the results shown in table 2 it is Din analiza rezultatelor prezentate în tabelul 2 se
observed that: observă că:
- After determining the pH, the soil is slightly acid, being - în urma determinării pH-lui, solul este uşor acid, fiind
adequate for the greenhouse culture of vegetables that corespunzător pentru cultura în seră a legumelor
prefer a soil with a pH between 6.5 and 7. care preferă un sol cu un pH între 6,5 şi 7;
- A lack in phosphorus and a content of nitrogen and - o lipsă a fosforului şi un conŃinut de azot şi potasiu
potassium situated at the inferior limit situat limita la inferioară a recomandărilor privind
recommended for nutrients in the soil for the nivelul de nutrienŃi în sol pentru cultura de castraveŃi
cucumber cultivation in a greenhouse. în seră.
It is recommended to supplement the nutrient deficit Se recomandă completarea deficitului de nutrienŃi în
in the soil in order to obtain economically efficient crops. sol pentru obŃinerea unor recolte eficiente economic.
- The farmers have the possibility to obtain rapid - Fermierii au posibilitatea de a obŃine date rapide
data on the pH and the basic macro elements in the despre pH şi macroelemente de bază din sol (N, P,
soil (N, P, K), with the help of a portable physical- K), cu ajutorul unui kit portabil pentru analize fizico-
chemical analysis kit; chimice;
- In order to determine the pH and the basic macro - Pentru determinarea pH-ului şi a macroelementelor
elements in the soil (N, P, K), the operating de bază din sol (N, P, K) personalul operator trebuie
personnel has to have basic knowledge in the field să aibă cunoştinŃe minime în domeniu şi să ştie să
and know how to handle the laboratory utensils; mânuiască ustensile de laborator;
- Performing the testing will help farmers to draw - Efectuarea testării va ajuta fermierii la întocmirea
up fertilization plans for the rational use of unor planuri de fertilizare în vederea folosirii raŃionale
fertilizers. a îngrăşămintelor.
353
[1]. Dumitru M., Manea Al., ş.a. (2011) – Monitoring the [1]. Dumitru M., Manea Al., ş.a. (2011) - Monitoringul
quality state of soil in Romania, ICPA Bucharest Report , stării de calitate a solurilor din România, Raport ICPA
SITECH Publishing, Craiova; Bucureşti, Editura SITECH, Craiova;
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registry of fertilizers used in agricultural exploitations , evidenŃei utilizării fertilizanŃilor în exploataŃiile agricole,
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the approval of the frame regulation for the organization privind aprobarea regulamentului cadru de organizare şi
and functioning of the territorial offices for pedological funcŃionare a oficiilor de studii pedologice şi agrochimice
and agrochemical studies, organization structure and teritoriale, structura organizatorică şi atribuŃiile acestor
attributions for these institutions, Bucharest, www.madr.ro; instituŃii, Bucureşti, www.madr.ro;
[4]. MADR (2011) - Order 278/09.12.2011 of MARD, on [4]. MADR (2011) - Ordinul 278/09.12.2011 al MADR,
the approval for the National Program for the achieving of privind aprobarea Programului naŃional pentru realizarea
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solurilor.pdf; solurilor.pdf;
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sol.ro/index_files/ Page379.htm; Page379.htm;
[8]. http://www.hannainst.ro/Seturi-de-teste-multiparametru/ Set- [8]. http://www.hannainst.ro/Seturi-de-teste-multiparametru/ Set-
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[9]. http://www.martinlishman.com; [9]. http://www.martinlishman.com;
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354
GOOD PRACTICES FOR SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

/
BUNE PRACTICI PENTRU CONSERVAREA SOLULUI SI A APEI DIN SOL
Ph.D. Eng. Neacşu F.
NHR AGROPARTNERS S.R.L / Romania
Tel: 0722.275.569; E-mail: florin.neacsu@vait.ro
Abstract: This paper is meant to review and Rezumat: Aceasta lucrare are menirea de a reaminti si
recommend some works and machines which can recomanda anumite lucrari si masini care pot contribui la
contribute to improving the water infiltration, to imbunatatirea infiltrarii apei in sol,la reducerea evaporarii si
reduction of evaporation and soil compaction. compactarii solului. Subsolajul pentru spargerea hardpanului,
Subsoiling to break the hard pan, use of wide machines, folosirea masinilor cu latimi mari de lucru sau a masinilor
combinations for more works in one single pass, control combinate pentru efectuarea mai multor lucrari intr-o singura
of traffic and autoguidance, schredding and spreading trecere, controlul traficului pe tarla si autoghidarea, tocarea si
the vegetal remains on the soil, shallow preparation of imprastierea pe sol a resturilor vegetale, dezmiristirea
stubble immediately after harvest are some ways to (prelucrarea superficiala a solului imediat dupa recoltare) sunt
water conservation and reduce evaporation. Big cateva cai pentru conservarea si reducerea evaporarii apei.
capacity machines with wide tyres or tracks, IF Masini de capacitate mare, cu roti late sau cu senile, anvelope
(improved flexibility) or VF (very flexible) tyres which IF sau VF cu flexibilitate mare care pot lucra la presiune
can use low pressure, avoidance of too much soil scazuta, evitarea unor lucrari care „deranjeaza” solul,
disturbance, auto section control, cover crops practice, controlul sectiunilor pentru evitarea suprapunerilor,
soil leveling and light compaction to reduce the practicarea culturilor de protectie, nivelarea si tasarea usoara
evaporation are only few possibilities to assure good a solului pentru reducerea evaporarii sunt numai cateva
and sustainable crops, with care to the soil, this fortune posibilitati pentru a asigura culturi sustenabile, si grija fata de
which has to be protected. Photos and machines are sol, aceasta bogatie care trebuie protejata. Fotografiile sunt
just as example; the offer of manufacturers is much wider. doar ca exemplu, oferta producatorilor fiind mult mai larga.
Keywords: soil conservation, water conservation, Cuvinte cheie: conservarea solului, conservarea apei in sol,
drought, soil compaction, water evaporation, ponding seceta, compactarea solului, evaporarea apei, baltire
Nowadays we are more and more facing the drought Ne confruntam din ce in ce mai des cu seceta sau cu
or water excess, two phenomena which extremely excesul de apa, doua fenomene care influenteaza extrem
influence the plants growing and agricultural crops, in de mult dezvoltarea plantelor si recoltele agricole. De
general. Therefore, the water accumulation into soil aceea, problema inmagazinarii apei in sol in perioadele
during rainy seasons and its conservation by reducing cu precipitatii si conservarea ei prin reducerea evaporarii
evaporation and weeds water consumption have become si a consumului apei de catre buruieni, devine din ce in
more and more present for farmers .On the other hand, in ce mai actuala pentru fermieri. Pe de alta parte, in unele
some areas with frequent precipitations, we are zone cu precipitatii frecvente, ne confruntam cu baltirea
confronting to water bogging in field and even the apei pe camp si chiar cu imposibilitatea efectuarii
impossibility of performing agricultural works in optimum lucrarilor agricole in perioadele optime. Aplicand cu grija
periods. Thus, by carefully applying some basic cateva principii de baza, se pot evita sau reduce efectele
principles, these unpleasant effects can be avoided. acestor neplaceri.
SOIL LOOSENING AND WATER EVAPORATION AFANAREA SOLULUI SI REDUCEREA EVAPORARII

REDUCING APEI
In order to assure as much as possible precipitation Pentru ca sa se acumuleze in sol cat mai multa apa
water into soil, the soil has to be loose and be protected din precipitatii este nevoie ca solul sa fie afanat si sa
by belts, aiming to reduce wind speed and hamper water existe perdele de protectie care sa reduca din viteza
evaporation or snow sweeping off. It is well known that vantului si, deci, sa impiedice evaporarea apei sau
the strong dry wind makes the soil water evaporation spulberarea zapezii. Se stie ca vantul puternic si uscat
process increasing up to 20 times. On the other hand, poate determina cresterea procesului de evaporare a
apei din sol de pana la 20 de ori. Pe de alta parte, aceste
these protection belts enable a relatively uniform layer of
perdele de protectie favorizeaza asezarea zapezii in strat
snow covering, and after snow melting, the water is
relativ uniform, iar dupa topirea acesteia apa se
stored into the soil. At the same time, these belts create a acumuleaza in sol. De asemenea, aceste cortine creeaza
favorable microclimate appropriate to plants growing. un microclimat favorabil dezvoltarii plantelor. Din pacate
Unfortunately, these protection belts have almost disappeared, aceste predele de protectie aproape au disparut, rareori
rarely they can be seen in fields, especially there where le mai vezi pe campuri, mai ales acolo unde fermierii s-au
farmers have organized themselves and established their organizat si le-au reinfiintat pe cont propriu. Pentru a
own belts. For solving this problem, it is necessary a rezolva aceasta problema este nevoie de un program
program supported and coordinated at national level sustinut si coordonat la nivel national, pentru ca fermierii
because the farmers are unable to act by theirowns, nu au capacitatea de a actiona singuri, mai ales cand
especially when land does belong to different owners. pamantul apartine diversilor proprietari.
In order to stock the water into soil, the soil should Pentru ca apa sa se acumuleze in sol este necesar ca
be appropriately loose for storing the whole quantity of acesta sa se gaseasca intr-o stare de afanare
rainy water. Once a few years, it is important to corespunzatoare pentru a inmagazina intreaga cantitate
355
perform a scarifying for breaking up the hard pan de apa cazuta. Este important sa se efectueze o data la
which forms at plowing depth, especially if soil is cativa ani o scarificare pentru spargerea crustei dure
ploughed several years, one after other, at the same (hard pan) care se formeaza la adancimea de arat, mai
depth. ales daca se ara mai multi ani la rand la aceeasi adancime.
Fig. 1 – Equipment for soil deep loosening Dondi 807 [www.dondinet.it]
Scarifier is equipment with chisel-type working Scarificatoarele sunt utilaje cu organe de lucru tip
parts, which can penetrate the soil up to big depth, dalta care pot patrunde in sol la adancimi mari, in mod
usually of 50-70 cm, but it is not necessary to work at obisnuit de 50-70 cm, insa nu este necesar sa se lucreze
these depths if the soil is very compacted. Normally, it la aceste adancimi decat daca solul este foarte
is enough to work at depths of 5-10 cm under the compactat in adancime. In mod normal este suficient sa
hardpan level, in order to break the crust and allow se lucreze la adancimi cu 5-10 cm sub nivelul
water to flow through capillaries. In order to assure a hardpanului, ca sa sparga crusta si sa permita apei sa
good work on the entire working length, it is advised to circule prin capilare. Pentru o lucrare buna pe toata
mount wings on scarifier chisels, wings aiming to latimea de lucru este bine sa se monteze pe daltile
break, displace, loosen and shred the soil. At the scarificatorului aripioare care rup, mobilizeaza, afaneaza
same time, it is very important to endow them with an si maruntesc solul. De asemenea este foarte important
aggressive teeth roller for breaking the clods and sa fie dotate cu un tavalug agresiv cu colti pentru spargerea
leveling the soil as a very important operation, bolovanilor si nivelarea solului, o operatie foarte impotanta,
because the more uneven the land is, the greater the deoarece se stie ca evaporarea apei este cu atat mai
water evaporation is. The roller can be also used for mare cu cat terenul este mai denivelat. Tavalugul poate fi
adjusting the working depth. folosit si pentru reglarea adancimii de lucru.
At the same time, soil loosening and leveling works De asemenea se pot efectua lucrari de afanare si
can be performed with chisel, disc harrow, or plough. nivelare a solului si cu cizelul, cu grapa cu discuri sau cu
These works have an important role not only on water plugul. Aceste lucrari au un rol important nu numai
storing into soil, but also in controlling weeds, diseases asupra inmagazinarii apei in sol, ci si in combaterea
and pests. buruienilor, a bolilor si daunatorilor.
Loose soil has an essential part in storing water Solul afanat are un rol esential in inmagazinarea apei
coming from precipitations and reducing water losses. It provenite din precipitatii si in reducerea pierderilor de
has been found that in plowed soil 64.4% out of water is apa. S-a constatat ca in solul arat se infiltreaza 64,4% din
infiltrating instead of unplowed soil, where only 92% is apa, pe cand in solul nearat doar 9,2%, iar pierderile prin
infiltrating, and evaporation losses increase from 13.7% evaporare cresc de la 13,7% la 80,6% (V. Popescu,
up to 80.6% (V. Popescu, ICCPT Fundulea). ICCPT Fundulea).
The rigorous researches performed at ICCPT Totodata, cercetari riguroase effectuate la ICCPT
Fundulea institute have demonstrated that, comparing to Fundulea au demonstrat ca fata de suprafata nivelata a
soil leveled surface, on uneven land surface the water solului, pe terenurile cu suprafata ondulata pierderile de
loss through evaporation is up to 30% bigger. That is apa prin evaporare sunt cu pana la 30% mai mari. De
why; soil leveling and shallow compaction by means of a aceea, nivelarea si tasarea usoara a solului cu ajutorul
plane or Croskill roller can diminish the water unui tavalug neted sau Croskill, poate reduce evaporarea
evaporation. As a general rule, these rollers have great apei. De regula acestea au latimi mari si pot lucra cu
width, being able to work with high speed so that the fuel viteza mare, atfel incat consumul de combustibil este
consumption is rather small. destul de redus.
Fig. 2 – Rollmot roller of 9m [www.quivogne.fr]
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REDUCTION OF SOIL COMPACTION REDUCEREA COMPACTARII SOLULUI

Another method for water conservation into soil is O alta metoda pentru conservarea apei in sol este
diminishing the soil compaction which enables water reducerea compactarii solului, care favorizeaza pierderea
loss through fine capillaries. Following the researches, apei prin evaporare prin capilarele fine. Prin cerecetari s-
it has been determined that evaporation water losses a determinat ca pierderile de apa prin evaporare sunt de
are of 10-15% in a normally loosened soil and can 10-15% intr-un sol normal afanat si pot ajunge la 80% in
reach up to 80% in a compacted soil. Therefore, it is solul compact. De aceea se recomanda folosirea unor
recommended to use some combines with big wheels combine cu roti mari si cu latime maxima sau chiar cu
and maximum width or even with tracks, able to work senile, capabile sa lucreze cu presiuni reduse in pneuri
at tyre low pressures so as the tyres footprint in the pentru ca amprenta pe sol a anvelopelor sa fie cat mai
soil be as small as possible. The suspension tracks mare si apasarea pe sol cat mai mica. Senilele cu
ensure a considerable comfort during work and a suspensie asigura un confort deosebit in timpul lucrului si
“smooth” movement, which is necessary for keeping o deplasare “neteda” necesara pentru pastrarea
the working position constant, especially when using constanta a pozitiei de lucru in special cand se folosesc
equipment with bigger working width. In order to avoid utilaje sau echipamente cu latimi mari de lucru. Pentru
soil damage at turnings by shearing the superficial evitarea distrugerii solului la intoarceri prin forfecarea
layer, tracks having extremity rolls mounted higher, stratului superficial, au fost realizate si senile cu rolele de
have been manufactured so that the shearing effect be la extremitati montate mai sus, astfel incat efectul de
almost removed. forfecare este aproape eliminat.
Fig. 3 – New Holland CR10.90 tracks combine [www.newholland.com]
At the same time, the traffic control in the field by using Totodata, controlul traficului pe camp prin folosirea
the automated guiding systems and combined machines sistemelor de ghidare automata si a masinilor combinate
with big working width contribute not only to water si cu latimi mari de lucru contribuie la conservarea apei,
conservation but also diminish costs necessary for leveled dar si la reducerea costurilor pentru mobilizarea solului
soil preparation and preparing the development conditions tasat si pentru pregatirea conditiilor de dezvoltare pentru
for the next crop. As for auto-guiding, there are several cultura urmatoare. Pentru autoghidare exista mai multe
technical solutions, with different precision degree, solutii tehnice, cu precizii diferite, acceptabile in functie
acceptable according to operation performed. We may de lucrarea efectuata. Putem avea un simplu monitor
dispose of a simple monitor which indicates the direction care indica directia pe care trebuie sa o mentina
that the operator should maintain, then electric systems operatorul, apoi sisteme electrice montate pe volan, care
mounted on steering wheel, which maintain themselves the mentin singure directia fara interventia operatorului sau
direction without operator intervention, or even complex sisteme complexe, de virare inteligenta a masinii
intelligent heaving systems endowed with hydraulic valves agricole, cu valve hidraulice care comanda directia,
commanding the direction, turning sensors, navigation senzori de viraj, computer de navigatie, semnal de
computer, correction signal etc., achieving up to 1-2 cm corectie etc., ajungand pana la precizii de 1-2 cm intre
precision among two passes and from a year to another. doua treceri si de la an la an. Sistemul de autoghidare
The auto-guider will guide the equipment on the same va ghida echipamentul pe aceleasi urme in fiecare pas al
footprint in each step of production cycle, keeping ciclului de productie, pastrand urme permanente si
permanent footprints and substantially diminishing soil reducand substantial compactarea solului in zonele de
compaction in roots developing areas. dezvoltare a radacinilor.
Fig. 3 – Accessories for satellite auto-guiding of tractors and combines [www.newholland.com]
357
Except satellite guiders, as for combines there are In afara sistemelor de ghidare prin satelit, la combine
also available auto-guiding systems depending on sunt disponibile si sisteme de ghidare dupa conturul
stubble contour, being equipped with laser or tracers miristei cu laser sau cu palpatori care urmaresc randul de
which follow the plants row. plante.
Fig. 4 – Alternative systems for combines autoguiding (with laser-left, with tracers-right) [www.newholland.com]
At the same time, it should be used transfer De asemenea, folosirea remorcilor de transfer pentru
trailers for taking over the cereals from the combine preluarea cerealelor de la combina pana la camion sau
to lorry or trailer. These are trailers of big capacity, of remorca este foarte recomandata. Acestea sunt remorci
3 3
20 - 40 m and are endowed with wide wheels for the cu capacitate mare de 20 - 40 m si sunt prevazute cu
same purpose. They can transfer rapidly the cereals, roti late din aceleasi considerente. Ele pot transfera
3 3
the unloading speed being of 10-15 m per minute. cerealele rapid, viteza de descarcare fiind de 10-15 m
Thus, it is no more necessary that transporting pe minut. Astfel nu mai este necesar ca remorcile de
trailers enter the field and compact the soil or even transport sa intre pe camp si sa taseze solul sau chiar sa
sink into the soil when it is wetter, or the combine se afunde in sol in cazul unui teren mai umed, sau
displaces till the unloading place. The unloading can combina sa se deplaseze pana la locul de descarcare. La
be performed during the movement. So, we can acestea descarcarea se poate face din mers. Deci putem
achieve both things: reducing compaction and “impusca” doi iepuri: reducerea compactarii si cresterea
increasing harvesting combine competitiveness by productivitatii combinelor de recoltat cu peste 25%. Cu
over 25%. Other said, we can harvest the same alte cuvinte se poate recolta aceeasi suprafata cu 3
surface with 3 combines instead of 4. Reducing the combine in loc de 4! Reducerea compactarii are efecte
compaction is also benefic on fuel consumption benefice si asupra reducerii consumurilor de carburant la
diminishing during soil loosening. lucrarea de afanare.
Fig. 5 – Transfer trailer Guestrower GTU 25 [www.guestrower-Imb.de]
It is very important that straws be chopped and Este foarte important ca paiele sa fie tocate si
scattered on soil surface, assuring a protection layer imprastiate pe suprafata solului, asigurand un strat
which hampers water evaporation and even more, protector care impiedica evaporarea apei si, in plus,
ensures organic matter supply which improves soil asigura un aport de materie organica care imbunatateste
fertility. fertilitatea solului.
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Fig. 6 – Straw chopper of New Holland combines [www.newholland.com]
It is an error to intensively use all the soil resources Este o eroare folosirea intensiva a tuturor resurselor
without replacing them, even though in certain situations, solului fara a pune nimic in loc, chiar daca in unele situatii
all the vegetal wastes remained on the soil are gathered se aduna cu scopuri nobile toate resturile vegetale
for being transformed in energetic materials. The soil ramase pe sol, pentru a le transforma in materiale
becomes poorer and after few years its productivity gets energetice. Solul saraceste si in cativa ani potentialul sau
consederably lower. For stopping this phenomenon, the productiv scade considerabil. O alternativa ar fi
green crops should be extended, taking into account the extinderea culturilor verzi, pe cat posibil culturi care sa
nitrogen supply brought by them, protecting the soil aduca un aport de azot, protejand in acelasi timp solul
against erosion and water evaporation and which, in impotriva eroziunii si a evaporarii apei si care in
spring should be incorporated into soil as natural primavara sa fie incorporate in sol ca ingrasamant
fertilizer. These plant roots contribute to form small natural. Radacinile acestor plante contribuie la formarea
channels in soil, favourable for soil aeration and water unor canale minuscule in sol, favorabile pentru aerisirea
circulation on vertical, and decomposing organic matter solului si pentru circulatia apei pe verticala, iar materia
improves soil nutritive qualities. Furthermore, these organica care se descompune imbunatateste calitatile
cultures are benefiting of subsidies through The Agro- nutritive ale solului. In plus aceste culturi beneficiaza si
Enviroinment program. de subventii prin programul de Agro-Mediu.
Straw and vegetal wastes burning is not In niciun caz nu este recomandata arderea paielor si a
recommended, not only because of pollution and resturilor vegetale, nu numai din punctul de vedere al
possible fires endangering, but especially due to the fact poluarii mediului si riscului de incendii, ci mai ales pentru
that by burning all the organic matter which incorporated ca prin ardere toata materia organica, care incorporata in
in soil superficial layer could bring a nutritive supply for startul superficial al solului ar putea aduce un aport
the subsequent crop, is turned to ashes, mineral nutritiv pentru cultura urmatoare, este transformata in
substances depriving the soil. cenusa, in substante minerale care saracesc solul.
Especially after corn or sunflower crops, vegetal Se pot folosi, in special dupa porumb sau floarea
wastes choppers can be used. The choppers cut the soarelui, tocatori de resturi vegetale. Ele taie de jos
vegetal wastes, chop them and incorporate them in soil resturile vegetale, le toaca si le incorporeaza in stratul
superficial layer, enabling organic substance superficial al solului, favorizand descompunerea substantelor
decomposing and thus, improving soil quality. At the organice si, deci, imbunatatind calitatea solului. De asemenea
same time, this mulch layer protects the soil against acest strat de mulci protejeaza solul impotriva eroziunii
erosion determined by rain drops impact on soil. datorate vantului si ploii si impiedica formarea crustei
Another advantage of vegetal wastes chopping is datorate impactului picaturilor de ploaie pe sol. Un alt
eliminating diseases and pests surviving in remaining avantaj al tocarii resturilor vegetale este eliminarea bolilor
stems. Some parasites, such as corn borer, field snails, si daunatorilor care supravietuiesc in tulpinile reziduale. Se
mice, are controlled and vascular withering is combat unii paraziti ca sfredelitorul porumbului, melcii de
eliminated. camp, soarecii si se elimina fusarioza.
Fig. 7 – Vegetal wastes chopper Muething MU 250 [www.muething.com]
Immediately after harvesting, for enabling the water to Imediat dupa recoltare, pentru favorizarea infiltrarii apei
infiltrate into soil and reducing evaporation, a superficial in sol si reducerea evaporarii, trebuie facuta o lucrare
soil work, namely stubble ploughing must be performed. By superficiala a solului, cunoscuta ca o operatie de
drying the soil surface layer forms an obstacle which dezmiristire. Stratul de la suprafata solului, prin zvantare,
hinders the water elevation through capillaries and its loss formeaza un obstacol ce impiedica ascensiunea capilara
359
by evaporation. In hot weather conditions, when cereals a apei si pierderea ei prin evaporare. Pe caldurile din
are harvested, if stubble plowing is delayed by a couple of perioada recoltarii cerealelor este suficient sa intarziem
days, then a big quantity of water will be lost and the cateva zile cu dezmiristirea si o mare cantitate de apa
preparation works will be performed very hard and with este pierduta, iar lucrarile de pregatire se vor efectua cu
exaggerated fuel costs. mare greutate si cu consumuri de combustibil exagerate.
Therefore, the stubble ploughing after the harvesting De aceea dezmiristirea imediat dupa recoltare este o solutie
is a benefic solution. This is a superficial work aiming to benefica. Aceasta este o lucrare superficiala prin care stratul
incorporate the vegetal wastes from soil surface de resturi vegetale de la suprafata solului este incorporat
(mulching), and weed seeds and the seeds coming from superficial (mulcire), iar semintele de buruieni si semintele
harvesting loss, favoring the germination and enabling provenite din pierderile de la recoltare sunt incorporate
the weeds destroying. But, the crust breaking up is the favorizand germinarea si facand mai usoara distrugerea
most important thing, leading to water evaporation. This buruienilor. Dar mai importanta decat acest lucru este
operation can be done at 3-6 cm depth with a combiner distrugerea crustei, ceea ce reduce evaporarea apei.
with wings and a heavy roller or with a short disc Aceasta operatie se poate face la o adancime de 3-6 cm
harrow, with roller so as the distance between discs be cu un combinator cu aripioare si tavalug greu sau cu o grapa
smaller than at a X or V harrow(about 12.5 cm) and the cu discuri scurta, cu tavalug, pentru ca distanta intre discuri
soil should be superficially prepared on the whole este mai mica decat la o grapa in X sau V (cca 12,5 cm) si
working length. solul se mobilizeaza superficial pe toata latimea de lucru.
Fig. 8 – Syncro 3003 combiner and Terradisc 5001K and disc harrow from Poettinger [www.poetinger.com]
After weeds and self-sown plants spring, they can be Dupa rasarirea buruienilor si a samulastrei, acestea se
controlled with an herbicide or during the soil preparation pot controla cu un erbicid sau odata cu lucrarea de
for straw cereals sowing. The soil preparation can be pregatire a solului pentru semantul paioaselor. Pregatirea
performed with the same equipment, this time without terenului se poate face cu acelasi utilaj, de data aceasta
wings, which can penetrates till 20-30 cm depth. It can be fara aripioare, putand patrunde la nevoie pana la o
also used the short disc harrow of Terradisc-type from 10- adancime de 20-30 cm. Se poate folosi si o grapa cu
15 cm depth with heavy roller. Keeping the soil clean discuri scurta tipTerradisc la 10-15 cm adancime, cu tavalug
without weeds is very important, favoring the water greu. Pastrarea solului curat si fara buruieni este foarte
saving. It is well known that weeds consume more water importanta, favorizand economisirea apei. Se stie ca
than cultivated plants. buruienile consuma mult mai multa apa decat plantele cultivate.
After superficially preparing the soil, we can use Dupa pregatirea superficiala a solului se poate intra direct
directly a sowing machine, able to work in mulch , cu o semanatoare care poate lucra in mulci, cum ar fi
such as Terrasem, endowed with disc batteries, a Terrasem, prevazuta cu baterii de discuri pentru prelucrarea
settlement wheel and a sowing machine with shares solului, un tren de roti de tasare si o semanatoare cu
with discs. It is very important that the sowing system brazdare cu discuri. Este foarte important ca partea de
could copy the land configuration and be able to semanat sa poata copia configuratia terenului si sa fie
assure a constant sowing depth, after which settle the capabila sa asigure o adancime constanta de insamantare,
soil over the seeds incorporated and let the land dupa care sa taseze solul deaspura semintelelor incorporate
leveled. in sol si sa lase un teren nivelat in spate.
Fig. 9 – Terrasem C8 sowing machine in mulch [www.poethinger.com]
For fertilizing and phyto-sanitary treatments it is La fertilizat si tratamente fitosanitare este recomandat
recommended to use large working width machines for sa se foloseasca masini cu latimi mari de lucru pentru a
having a reduced number of passages. Automated avea un numar cat mai redus de treceri. Sistemele de
guiding systems in combination with systems of ghidare automata si in combinatie cu sistemele de
360
weighing and automating adjusting the fertilizer cantarire si reglare automata a cantitatii de ingrasamant
quantity distributed or with systems which distribuite sau de control automat al sectiunilor rampelor
automatically control the ramps sections of herbicide masinilor de erbicidat (pentru inchiderea automata a
applying machines (for automatically close the sections sectiunilor in cazul suprapunerilor necesare datorate
in case of overlapping due to plot shape) contribute to formei parcelei) fac ca lucrarile sa fie mai precise,
precision of works, eliminating the losses by pierderile prin suprapuneri sau gresuri sa fie eliminate,
overlapping and assuring a high quality work with asigurand in final o calitate excelenta a lucrarii efectuate
efficient use of pesticide quantity. si reducerea si folosirea eficienta a cantitatatii de pesticide.
Fig. 10 – Auto-guiding and control of sections of fertilizers applying machine Bogballe M3W Plus and herbicide applying machine Alpha
Evo 4001i [www.bogballe.com; www.hardi-international.com]
For spring crops, the soil turning with disc harrow La culturile de primavara trebuie eliminata rascolirea
should be eliminated, because it favors water loss. solului cu grapa cu discuri, care in afara unei calitati
The soil preparation must be performed by a single discutabile a pregatirii terenului favorizeaza si pierderea
passage with a combiner for preparing the apei. Pregatirea terenului trebuie facuta printr-o singura
germinating bed, at the respective sowing depth. The trecere cu un combinator pentru pregatit patul germinativ,
quantity of water losses by disc harrowing is at least la adancimea de semanat. Cantitatea de apa pierduta
double comparing to combiner’s. At the same time, it prin lucrarea cu grapa cu discuri este cel putin dubla fata
should be avoided to enter the field when soil is too de cea cu combinatorul. Totodata trebuie evitata intrarea
humid. pe camp cand solul este prea umed.
Fig. 11 – Combiner Einboeck Vibrostar of 6 m [www.einboeck.at]
At the same time, depending on the quantity of water De asemenea, in functie de cantitatea de apa din sol
in soil, it should be decided which crops to establish, the trebuie sa stabilim cultura pe care o infiintam, densitatea
density per hectare, to choose varieties or hybrids with la hectar, sa alegem soiuri sau hibrizi cu o perioada de
growing period appropriate to water quantity and rain and vegetatie corelata cu cantitatea de apa si cu prognoza
temperature weather report and to take into account the precipitatiilor si temperaturilor in perioada de vegetatie,
previous plants cultivated and set the quantity of sa tinem cont de plantele premergatoare si sa stabilim
fertilizers per hectare and where is possible, to suitably cantitatea de ingrasaminte la hectar si acolo unde este
irrigate. posibil sa irigam cu o norma de apa corespunzatoare.
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For having better production, we must use all the Pentru a avea productii bune, trebuie sa folosim toate
methods which contribute to stock into the soil the entire mijloacele care contribuie la inmagazinarea in sol a
quantity of water coming from precipitations and avoid intregii cantitati de apa provenita din precipitatii si la
bogging and also eliminate water evaporation. Also, evitarea baltirii si sa eliminam caile de pierdere a apei
knowing the water stock quantity in the soil helps us to prin evaporare, iar cunoasterea situatiei privind rezerva
establish the most appropriate technological methods for de apa din sol ne ajuta sa stabilim cele mai potrivite
the respective crop, in order to ensure a good harvest. verigi tehnologice pentru cultura respectiva, pentru a
asigura conditiile pentru obtinerea unei recolte bune.
REFERENCES
1]. www.newholand.com; www.nhr.ro; www.newhollandromania.ro BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. www.poettinger.at [1]. www.newholand.com; www.nhr.ro; www.newhollandromania.ro
[3]. www.guestrower-lmb.de [2]. www.poettinger.at
[4]. www.dondinet.it [3]. www.guestrower-lmb.de
[5]. www.quivogne.fr [4]. www.dondinet.it
[6]. www.bogballe.com [5]. www.quivogne.fr
[7]. www. hardi-international.com [6]. www.bogballe.com
[8]. www.muethimg.com [7]. www. hardi-international.com
[9]. www.einboeck.at [8]. www.muethimg.com
[10]. Popescu V (2007) – Role of mechanical works in [9]. www.einboeck.at
water stock into the soil, Revista Lumea Satului [10]. Popescu V (2007) - Rolul lucrarilor mecanice in
Publishing no.3. conservarea apei in sol, Revista Lumea Satului nr.3.
362
SECTION 3
FOOD INDUSTRY
363
364
DEVELOPMENT OF A IMAGE ANALYSIS TOOLBOX FOR THE SCILAB SOFTWARE

/
DESENVOLVIMENTO DE UM TOOLBOX PARA ANÁLISE DE IMAGENS PARA O SOFTWARE
SCILAB
(1) (1)
S.R. Neto M.N. , Ph.D. S.R. Lino A.C.L. ,
(1)
Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Dal Fabbro I.M.
1) 2)
IAC, Jundiai, SP / Brazil; Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP / Brazil
Abstract: The objective of this study was to develop a Resumo: Este trabalho teve por objetivo desenvolver um
toolbox for image processing for free software SCILAB toolbox para tratamento de imagens para o software livre
4.11, to meet the needs of the imaging lab, SCILAB 4.11, para atender às necessidades do Laboratório
LabImagem, of the Engineering and Automation Center de Imagens, LabImagem, do Centro de Engenharia e
of the IAC. The "IAC LabImagem toolbox" arose from Automação do IAC. O “LabImagem IAC toolbox” surgiu da
the merger of two other toolbox for image analysis, SIP fusão de dois outros toolbox para análise de imagens, o SIP
and SIVP, maintaining their facilities, but without the e o SIVP, mantendo as suas funcionalidades, porém sem a
need to install ImageMagick and OpenCV programs, necessidade de instalar os programas ImageMagic e
required by them respectively. Furthermore, combined OpenCV, requeridos respectivamente por eles. Além disso,
into a single of the two toolbox libraries by eliminating ele uniu em uma única as bibliotecas dos dois toolbox,
redundant functions. As a result reduced the complexity eliminando a redundância de funções. Como resultado
of installation by allowing its use by less experienced diminuiu a complexidade de instalação permitindo a sua
users. Examples of the applications these tools are utilização por usuários com menor experiência. Exemplos da
presented. utilização desta ferramenta são apresentados.
Keywords: Free Software, SIP, SIVP Palavras-chave: Software Livre, SIP, SIVP
Image processing has as objective to draw O processamento digital de imagens, conhecido também como
information from digital images by means of computer processamento de imagens, é uma área de concentração do
analysis. Resulting data are applicable to medical conhecimento humano, que tem como objetivos a manipulação
science, robotics, and meteorology, agricultural e análise de imagens por computador visando a extração de
engineering, etc [2], [4] state that one of remarkable informação destas. Os recursos disponibilizados pelo processamento
characteristic of that area is close associated to de imagens são utilizados em várias atividades, entre as quais
estão a medicina, a robótica e a meteorologia [2], [4] afirmam
complexity because image processing is based on
que uma das característica marcante nesta área é a sua grande
sophisticated mathematical as well as computational complexidade, pois muitas técnicas de processamento de
concepts of image processing which implementation imagem são baseadas em conceitos matemáticos e computacionais
represents a major challenge, especially if Fortran or C sofisticados, cuja implementação se torna um grande desafio,
languages are used. As a consequence that area especialmente com as linguagens tradicionais, como C ou
remains restricted to a small community to scientists Fortran. Como consequência, esta área ficava restrita a uma pequena
and computer programing specialists. comunidade de cientistas e especialistas em programação.
The same authors also mention that the difficulties Os mesmos autores citam também que as dificuldades que
involved in developing software and the advances in the envolvem o desenvolvimento de software em geral e os avanços
hardware capacities give rise to a recent tendency in na capacidade dos hardwares deu origem a uma tendência
elaborating language prototypes of easy use from which bastante recente na programação que é fazer protótipos
solution to the problems are easily to develop as well as em línguagens fáceis de usar, onde soluções para um determinado
to validate. As soon as a solution works adequately, the problema são facilmente desenvolvidos e validados. Uma vez
final application can be compiled in a traditional que uma solução funciona adequadamente, a aplicação final pode
language as C. Although, many routines available in that ser escrito em uma linguagem compilada tradicional, como C.
environment can be incorporated without needing to Além disso, podem incorporar muitas funcionalidades
write a new program. disponíveis nesses ambientes sem ter que reescrever tudo.
The authors also emphasize that the software applied Eles ainda comentam que entre os softwares mais
to these solutions in the science, engineering and populares (e caros) para este tipo de solução está o
industry, include the MATLAB a very popular, however Matlab, muito utilizado na ciência, engenharia e indústria.
they are expensive. Nevertheless the alternatives, as Mas que felizmente há alternativas de softwares livres,
Octave, Python, and Scilab are free software. como Octave, Python, e Scilab.
The Scilab is an interactive platform addressed to O Scilab é uma plataforma interativa para computação
numerical solutions which generates a powerful computational numérica proporcionando um poderoso ambiente
environment for engineering, as well as to scientific computacional para a engenharia e aplicações científicas.
applications. It was created in 1990 by researchers Criado em 1990 por pesquisadores pertencentes ao
associated to the INRIA (Institut de Recherche en INRIA (Institut de Recherche em Informatique et en
Informatique et en Automatique) and the ENPC (École Automatique) e à ENPC (École Nationale des Ponts et
Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées), through the Project Chaussées), através do Projeto MÉTALAU (Méthods,
MÉTALAU (Méthods, algorithmes et logiciels pour l’automatique). algorithmes et logiciels pour l’automatique). Atualmente é
Currently it is developed and maintained by the Scilab desenvolvido e mantido pelo Consórcio Scilab, formado
Consortium, founded in May of 2003 [11]. em maio de 2003 [11].
The Scilab accounts with hundreds of defined Possui centenas de funções pré-definidas. Além disso,
365
functions, allowing also the addition of programs written in programas escritos em várias linguagens (FORTRAN, C,
a variety of languages as (FORTRAN, C, C++, JAVA). C++, JAVA) podem ser adicionados ao sistema. Scilab
The software exhibits sophisticated data structure as lists, possui estruturas de dados sofisticadas (como listas,
polynomials, rational functions and linear system, as well, polinômios, funções racionais, sistemas lineares), um interpretador
an interpreter and a high level programing language. e uma linguagem de programação de alto nível.
The environment was conceived as an open system, O ambiente foi projetado como um sistema aberto
allowing the user to define new types of data as well as to permitindo ao usuário a possibilidade de definir novos
carry operations on them, offering the possibility of tipos de dados e de realizar operações sobre eles. Ele
iterative usage or programing from separate archives pode ser usado de forma interativa ou programado a partir
(script or macro). de um arquivo separado (o 'script' ou 'macro').
Since 1994, the Scilab came to be available at the Desde 1994, quando passou a ser disponível na Internet,
internet as free and open source software. In addition Scilab é gratuito (free software) e distribuído com o código fonte
to the distribution with open source, precompiled Scilab (open source software). Além da distribuição com o código
is available for several operational systems. The fonte, existem, também, distribuições pré-compiladas do Scilab
software also works easily with matrices needing not to para vários sistemas operacionais. A lem disso, tem facilidade
create loops, which turns it adequate for image para trabalhar com matrizes, sem necessidade de “loops”, o
processing. que o torna ideal para tratamento e processamento de imagens.
The pertinent literature discloses several reports of Vários trabalhos tem sido feitos utilizando as potencialidades
research work carried on image processing supported by do SCILAB ralizar o processamento e análise de imagens.
the Scilab. The quantification of muscles, subcutaneous Ele foi utilizado para quantificar a quantidade de musculo,
as well as intramuscular fat in pork meat from magnetic gordura subcutânea e intdramuscular em carcaças de porco
resonance is reported by [10]. The application of a partir de imagens de ressonãncia magnética [10]. Para
projection moiré with phase shift to generate three construir modelos 3D de frutas e hortaliças baseados na
dimensional models of fruits and vegetables is reported by técnica de moiré de projeção com deslocamento de fase [7], e
[7] and to describe soil surface topography [9]. [5] report também modelos topográficos da superfície do solo [9].
the application of the same process to facial recognition Usou-se ainda para fazer o reconhecimento facial a partir de
from digital images. imagens digitais, utilizando descritores para caracterizá-las [5].
[1] emphasizes the Scilab exhibits a powerful structure [1] cita que o Scilab é uma poderosa estrutura com
and appreciable modeling and simulation capacities, muito boas capacidades de modelagem e simulação,
including for scientific applications of virtual reality, inclusive para aplicações científicas de realidade virtual. E
showing also an extensive library directed to image que possui ainda uma grande livraria para processamnto
processing, as SIP (Scilab Image Processing Toolbox), de imagem, como o SIP (Scilab Image Processing
IPD (Image Processing Design Toolbox ), SIVP (Image Toolbox), IPD (Image Processing Design Toolbox), SIVP
Processing and Video Processing, CGLAB (Image Processing and Video Processing, CGLAB
(Computational Geometry Algorithms Library) etc. (Computational Geometry Algorithms Library) etc.
SIP (SCILAB Image Processing) is a complete, O SIP (SCILAB Image Processing) é um completo, usável e
usable and free Toolbox associated to the Scilab which gratuito pacote de processamento (Toolbox) par o SCILAB,
is able to read more than ninety image archive format, que consegue ler mais de noventa formatos de arquivos de imagem,
including JPEG, GIF, BMP and PNG. It can carry incluindo JPEG, GIF, BMP E PNG. Ele faz processamentos imagens
filtration, border detection, segmentation, tresholding, tais como filtragem, detecção de bordas, segmentação,
histograms, math morphology, color image processing, “tresholding”, histogramas, morfologia matemática, processamento
etc. Such operations can be employed in real de imagens coloridas, etc. Operações estas que podem ser
applications since vehicular movement, up to automatic utilizadas aplicações reais que vão desde planejamento de movimentos
medical diagnosis [4]. veiculares a diagnósticos automáticos de imagens médicas [4].
SIVP (Scilab Image and Video Processing Toolbox ) SIVP (Scilab Image and Video Processing Toolbox) é um
is a set of tools conceived for researchers and conjunto de ferramentas concebidas para pesquisadores
academicians, being a useful, efficient and free toolbox acadêmicos, criado para ser um instrumento útil, eficiente e
able to process image and video for the Scilab. gratuito, e um toolbox processamento de imagem e de vídeo
Nowadays it is being used for many researchers [12]. para o Scilab. Atualmente ele tem sido baixado e usado por
The same authors state that the SIP development was muitos pesquisadores [12]. Os mesmos autores ainda afirmam
based on the ImageMagic, which is not good enough que o SIP foi desenvolvido com base em ImageMagic, que
for image processing for research. Based on that the não é bom o suficiente para o processamento da imagem no
SIVP was conceived based on the OpenCV which is a campo de pesquisa. Por isso desenvolveram o SIVP com
good library for image processing which shows high base em OpenCV, que é uma boa biblioteca para
efficiency. Since the video consists only in a sequence processamento de imagem e que tem alta eficiência. Como o
of images, this toolbox includes a special processing vídeo consiste somente numa sequencia de imagens, este
feature. The LabImagem IAC is an Image Laboratory toolbox inclui um recurso especial de processamento. O
belonging to the Center of Engineering and Automation LabImagem IAC é um Laboratório de Imagens pertencente ao
of the Agronomic Institute of Campinas has been Centro de Engenharia e Automação do Instituto Agronômico
developing research works in image analysis and de Campinas, o qual tem desenvolvido trabalhos de pesquisa
processing applied to general agriculture, as fruit, associados à aplicação de processamento e análise de
vegetable and flowers selection [6], [8]. These imagens à processos agrícolas em geral, tais como seleção de
activities are supported by tools which are able to frutas, flores e vegetais [6], [8]. Essas atividades contam com o
manipulate images to generate informations suporte de ferramentas computacionais capazes de manipular
considered useful to carry the proposed research. imagens com a finalidade de gerar informações consideradas
However the SIP exhibits certain functions as the ones úteis para desenvolver as pesquisas propostas. No entanto, o
associated with interferometry which are not offered by SIP exibe certas funções associadas à interferometria não
the SIVP, which desired by the IAD Engineering and disponíveis no SIVP, as quais são de fundamental importância
Automation Center. ao Centro de Engenharia e Automação do IAC.
366
The objective of this research work was to develop O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver um toolbox
a toolbox addressed to image processing associated to para tratamento de imagens para o software livre SCILAB
the SCILAB 4.11 free software to give support to the 4.11, para atender às necessidades do Laboratório de
LaImagen activities, unifying the SIP and SIVP Imagens, LabImagem, unindo em um só as
features. funcionalidades tanto do SIP quanto do SIVP,

The “LabImagem IAC toolbox for SCILAB 4.11” was Para atender as necessidades do Laboratório de
developed to support the research activities of the IAC Imagens do IAC, foi desenvolvido o “LabImagem IAC
Laboratory of Images. toolbox para SCILAB 4.11”.
SIP and SIVP depend on external libraries, Tanto o SIP quanto o SIVP tem seus requerimentos para funcionar,
requiring also on the installation of programs as sempre dependendo de bibliotecas externas e com a necessidade
OpenCV and ImageMagic. To the proposed toolbox de instalação de programas como OpenCV e ImageMagic.
are assigned to solve problems in a single trial Pensando nisso foi proposto o desenvolvimento de um novo
toolbox, que pudesse resolver todos os problemas de uma única
needing not to install many programs. The referred vez, sem a necessidade de instalação de vários programas. O
toolbox is considered as a fusion of the SIP and SIVP “LabImagem IAC toolbox para SCILAB 4.11” surgiu da fusão do
which does not need to install the ImageMagic or SIP com o SIVP, mas de uma forma que também não houvesse
OpenCV. mais a necessidade de instalar o ImageMagic ou OpenCV.
New routines have been created to allow the Novas rotinas foram criadas para permitir a execução do
execution of the new toolbox once the external novo toolbox, uma vez que as dependências externas eram
dependencies create new problems. Following, a um problema. Dessa forma fez-se necessária a criação de um
“loader.sce”, i.e., a script for the Scilab to interpret, “loader.sce”, ou seja, um script para o Scilab interpretar que
unifies all the libraries, eliminating function redundancy, unisse todas as bibliotecas, de modo a não haver redundância
in a way to overcome the dependency of the OpenCV as de funções e de uma forma que as dependências do OpenCV
well as of the ImageMagic. e do ImageMagic fossem sanadas.
All the libraries associated to the Image Magic and to Todas as bibliotecas do ImageMagic e do OpenCV foram
the OpenCV were unified in a single directory “lib” into the unidas em um único diretório “lib” dentro da pasta Scilab,
Scilab folder which is localized by the “loader.sce” which este é localizado pelo “loader.sce” que faz todas as ligações
carry all the connections and load all the functions e carrega todas as funções necessárias ao LabImagem IAC
requested by the LabImagem IAC. para o desenvolvimento de suas pesquisas.
As the creation of the “LabImagem IAC toolbox for the Com a criação do “LabImagem IAC toolbox para
SCILAB 4.11” the research development have been SCILAB 4.11” o desenvolvimento das pesquisas pode ser
optimized since the ease using of the toolbox is far otimizado, uma vez que a facilidade de uso do toolbox é
superior from the others, giving more agility, decreasing superior aos demais, dando mais agilidade e diminuindo a
the installation complexity since OpenCV and ImageMagic complexidade de instalação por não exigir mais a
are no longer required, allowing less experienced people instalação do OpenCV e do ImageMagic, permitindo a sua
to use it. utilização por usuários com menor experiência.
The LabImagem IAC toolbox for SCILAB 4.11 was O LabImagem IAC toolbox para SCILAB 4.11 foi criado
created based on sip-0.4.0-bin-win32-sci4.0-beta.exe, com base no sip-0.4.0-bin-win32-sci4.0-beta.exe, sivp-
sivp-0.5.0.exe, ImageMagick-6.5.9-0-Q16-windows-dll.exe 0.5.0.exe, ImageMagick-6.5.9-0-Q16-windows-dll.exe e
e OpenCV-2.0.0a-win32.exe. OpenCV-2.0.0a-win32.exe.
RESULTS RESULTADOS
Several research works have been carried with the Vários trabalhos foram realizados utilizando o LabImagem
LabImagem IAC toolbox support as two of them are IAC toolbox, dois resultados são apresentados abaixo. Foi
presented below. A methodology to generate a three desenvolvida a metodologia para a reconstrução 3D de
dimensional view of the papaya fruit (Carica papaya L.) frutos através de suas silhuetas. A Figura 1 apresenta a
has been developed. Following the image processing, imagem da silhueta do fruto do mamoeiro (Carica papaya L.).
the three dimensional view of the object under Após tratamento das imagens foi feita a reconstrução 3D
consideration are presented on Figure 02 x in lateral como se observa através de apresentação em linhas
view and on Figure 03 in perspective, both expressed in estruturais (wire frame) na Figura 2 em vista lateral e na
wire frame mode. Figura 3 em perspectiva.
Fig. 1 - Silhouette of the papaya fruit Fig. 2 - Lateral view of the three dimensional reconstruction of the papaya fruit
367
Fig. 3 - Perspective three dimensional View of the papaya fruit
A methodology was generated to create the Digital Foi desenvolvida a metodologia para a criação de Modelos
Model (TDM) of the soil surface after being Digitais Topográfico (MDTs), isto é, reconstrução 3D do micro
compressed by tractor tires, reproducing its micro relevo do solo superfície do solo deformado pelo pneu que
relief. Figure 04 shows the image of a sinusoidal grid foi comprimido sobre ele. A Figura 4 mostra a imagem de um
projected onto the soil surface while Figure 05 exhibits retículo senoidal projetado sobre a superfície do solo, na
the TDM expressed in gray scale, where darker areas Figura 5 vê-se o MDT desta superfície em tons de cinza onde
represent lower elevation and clear colors represent as cores escuras representam regiões de cotas mais baixas e
higher elevation. Figure 06 represent the soil micro as cores claras regiões de cotas mais altas, e na Figura 6
relief expressed in wire frame mode. mostra a sua representação através de linhas estruturais (wire frame).
Fig. 4 - Sinusoidal grid projected onto the soil surface
Fig. 5 - Three dimensional view of the soil micro relief represented in gray scale
Fig. 6 - Three dimensional view of the soil micro relief represented in wire frame mode
368
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUSÃO
Based on what it has been exposed before, the following
conclusions can be drawn. O toolbox Labimagem IAC:
- The toolbox Labimagem IAC does not require the - Não necessita instalar outros programas como o
installation of programs as ImageMagick e OpenCV; ImageMagick e OpenCV.
- The ImageMagick e OpenCV allows ease and fast
installations; - Permite fazer uma rápida e fácil instalação.
- The ImageMagick e OpenCV kept the SIP and SIVP - Manteve as funcionalidades do SIP e do SIVP.
functionalities; - Permite a análise e tratamento de imagens pelo
- The ImageMagick e OpenCV allows image processing
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MATHEMATICAL MODEL BASED ON WARNER – BRATZLER ANALYSE METHOD

CONCERNING TENDERIZED PORK BONELESS LOIN IN ORDER TO PRODUCE
ROMANIAN TRADITIONAL PRODUCT “COTLET PERPELIT“ TYPE
/
MODEL MATEMATIC BAZAT PE METODA DE ANALIZĂ WARNER – BRATZLER
PRIVIND FRĂGEZIREA COTLETULUI DE PORC ÎN VEDEREA PRODUCERII
PRODUSULUI TRADIłIONAL ROMÂNESC DE TIP “COTLET PERPELIT“
Stud. Ph. D. Stud. Eng. Simion A. D., Ph. D. Eng. Cârdei R. P.,
Assist. Prof. Ph. D. Eng. Roşca A., Prof. Ph. D. Eng. Bădescu M., Prof. Ph. D. Eng. Roşca D.
S.C. AVI – GIIS S.R.L. Stuparei, Valcea County, Romania
E-mail: simion_aurel08@yahoo.com
Abstract: The paper presents a mathematical model to Rezumat: Lucrarea prezintă un model matematic privind
produce Romanian traditional cured-cooked-smoked pork prepararea produsului sărat - prăjit - afumat din cotlet de
boneless loin product “Cotlet Perpelit” type made after raw porc dezosat tip “Cotlet Perpelit”, după frăgezirea mecanică
meat’s mechanical tenderizing. The tenderizing process a materiei prime. Procesul de frăgezire efectuat pentru
performed to decrease the duration of cured marinating scăderea duratei de saramurare, constă în trecerea
period consists in passing several times the raw meat materiei prime de mai multe ori printre valŃuri cu role
among rollers with cutting prongs, and cyclic impulsive dinŃate, respectiv prin presarea ciclică impulsivă a materiei
pressing of the meat, respectively. The mathematical model prime. Modelul matematic are la bază diagramele forŃă-
is based on force - extension diagrams obtained by using deformaŃie determinate prin metoda de testare Warner-
Werner-Bratzler testing method both for raw meat and Bratzler atât pentru materia primă, cât şi pentru produsul
final product, too, for no tenderized raw meat, and after final, pentru carnea nefrăgezită, cât şi după ce carnea a
raw meat mechanical tenderizing. The mathematical model fost frăgezită. Modelul matematic constă în transformarea
consists in the geometric linear transforming of the geometrică liniară a diagramelor caracteristice obŃinute
characteristic diagrams obtained by using Werner-Bratzler prin metoda Warner-Bratzler pentru carnea frăgezită, în
method for the tenderized meat in comparison with the comparaŃie cu materia primă nefrăgezită. Modelul mate-
initial no tenderized meat. The model can be used to matic poate fi utilizat pentru estimarea caracteristicilor
predict the mechanical characteristics of “Cotlet Perpelit”, mecanice ale “Cotlet-ului Perpelit”, după frăgezirea meca-
after raw meat mechanical tenderizing. nică a materiei prime.
Keywords: raw meat tenderizing, Cotlet Perpelit, Warner - Cuvinte cheie: frăgezirea cărnii, Cotlet Perpelit, metoda de
Bratzler testing method, mathematical model, linear geo- testare Warner-Bratzler, model matematic, transformarea
metric transformation geometrică liniară
In principle, meat’s tenderization represents the resultant În principiu, frăgezirea cărnii reprezintă rezultanta unor
of dynamic interdisciplinary processes consisting in chemical, procese dinamice interdisciplinare care constă în feno-
biochemical and mechanical phenomena, [8]. To estimate mene chimice, biochimice şi mecanice, [8]. Evaluarea
tenderizing machine’s and process’ performances, is performanŃelor maşinilor şi proceselor de frăgezire este
necessary to determine tenderized meat’s mechanical posibilă prin determinarea caracteristicilor mecanice ale
characteristics, which could describe the meat qualitative cărnii după operaŃia de frăgezire, care pot descrie trans-
transformations, [1, 18]. Thus, a mathematical model, repre- formările calitative ale cărnii, [1, 18]. Deci un model mate-
sented by a unified system of relationships and variables, matic reprezentat printr-un sistem unficat de relaŃii şi
could be used to analyze meat’s mechanical tenderizing, variabile, ar putea fi utilizat pentru analiza frăgezirii mecanice
[1]. For example, Graiver proposed a mathematical model a cărnii, [1]. Spre exemplu, Graiver a propus un model
for the absorption of curing salts in pork’s meat, [2]. matematic al absorbŃiei de saramură în carnea de porc, [2].
According previous research papers, the variables Conform unor lucrări de cercetare anterioare, para-
parameters of the mathematical model have to be based metrii variabili ai modelului matematic trebuie să aibă la
on experimental research data of meat diagrams determined by bază rezultate experimentale determinate prin testarea
using Warner-Bratzler testing method, [9, 10, 11, and 12]. cărnii prin metoda Warner-Bratzler, [9, 10, 11, 12].
According to Iacob [3], taking into account only the Conform Iacob [3], avînd în vederea numai fenomenele
mechanical phenomena, a dynamic system involves different mecanice, un sistem dinamic presupune diferite transformări
transformations of its internal parts under the action of given interne sub acŃiunea unor forŃe exterioare cunoscute.
external forces. The mathematical models of the meat Modelul matematic pentru frăgezirea mecanică a cărnii ar
tenderizing process could be studied in further theoretical putea fi studiat în viitoare cercetări teoretice prin
researches by applying the automatic systems theory, [4]. aplicarea teoriei de control a sistemelor automate, [4].
SC AVI-GIIS SRL Stuparei is a small enterprise for meat SC AVI-GIIS SRL Stuparei din judeŃul Valcea este o
products in Valcea County, which was initially specialized firmă mică specializată iniŃial pentru realizarea de
in commercial cured-raw meats and cured - smoked products. produse din carne sărate, respectiv sărat - afumate. În
In the last years SC AVI-GIIS SRL focused its effort to produce ultimii ani, firma şi-a concentrat eforturile pentru produ-
Romanians traditional produces cured-smoked-cooked “Cotlet cerea sortimentului sărat - prăjit - afumat din cotlet de
Perpelit” type. In principle, the processing technology of porc dezosat, tip “Cotlet Perpelit”. În principiu, procesul
this traditional cured-smoked-cooked product type consists tehnologic al acestui produs tradiŃional constă în: sara-
in: wet curing phase of entire pieces of muscle meat in 15-20% murarea umedă (12-15% concentraŃie) a bucăŃilor de
curing salt concentration, during 2-3 weeks; drying / ripening cotlet dezosat timp de 2-3 săptămâni; zvântarea in aer
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phase in cold air ventilation for 6-8 hours; cold smoke phase rece ventilat timp de 6-8 ore; afumarea rece (aprox. 20°C)
(aprox. 20°C) for 2-3 days, followed by a short seq uence of timp de 2-3 zile, urmată de afumarea caldă (aprox. 20°C)
hot smoke phase (aprox. 20°C), for 4-6 hours, [12]. timp de 4-6 ore, [12].
According to international and Romanian legislation, sodium În conformitate cu legislaŃia internaŃională şi din România,
nitrite, sodium or potassium nitrate (NaNO2); NaNO3/ KNO3), la producerea produselor tradiŃionale este interzisă utili-
are not permitted in traditional cured-cooked types products zarea nitriŃilor, nitraŃilor (NaNO2 ; NaNO3 / KNO3), precum
usual processing, and no brine injection is allowed, [5, 6, 7, 13]. şi saramurarea prin injectare, [5 ,6, 7, 13].
In order to reduce the wet curing phase, SC AVI-GIIS În vederea reducerii duratei de saramurare umedă, firma
SRL decided to realize and to test two types of SC AVI-GIIS SRL a realizat şi testat a două tipuri de maşini
de frăgezire mecanică: maşina de frăgezire cu două perechi
tenderizing machines: four roller tenderizer machine, and de cilindri profilaŃi pentru perforare, respectiv maşina de
cyclic impulsive pressing machine, [12, 13]. frăgezire prin presare ciclică dinamică, [12, 13].
MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODĂ

Experimental method and equipment Metodă şi echipament experimental
In order to determine the influence of mechanical În vederea determinării influenŃei metodei de frăgezire
tenderizing method on raw meat (pork boneless loin) mecanică asupra materiei prime (cotlet de porc dezosat),
tenderness, two different machines were used: four au fost utilizate două tipuri de maşini: maşina de frăgezire
roller tenderizer machine, and cyclic impulsive pressing cu două perechi de cilindri profilaŃi pentru perforare, respectiv
machine. maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică dinamică.
Four roller tenderizer machine is designed to increase Maşina de frăgezire cu două perechi de cilindri profilaŃi
the effective surface area for the extraction of meat proteins pentru perforare este concepută pentru creşterea suprafeŃei
during subsequent compression and stretching processes. de extragere a proteinelor din carne, în timpul unor procese
In its operation, the machine performs superficial or deep succesive de compresiune şi perforare. În timpul acestei
cuts in the piece of meat that passes through two pairs of operaŃii, carnea trece printre două perechi de valŃuri rotative
tenderizer roller. In principle, the machine consists of two cu dinŃi profilaŃi care realizează perforaŃii de anumită adânci-
pairs of parallel tenderizing rollers (provided with a number me în bucata de carne. În principiu, maşina constă din două
of cutting prongs), located at a certain distance, that are perechi de valŃuri paralele (prevăzute cu dinŃi de perforare),
rotated in opposite directions by an electro-mechanical dispuse la o anumită distanŃă, care se rotesc în direcŃii opuse
transmission (fig. 1), [12, 13]. prin intermediul unei transmisii electromecanice (fig. 1), [12, 13].
Cyclic impulsive pressing machine is a semi-continuous Maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică dinamică este
meat press machine for meat’s pressing before marinating. o maşină pentru presarea discontinuă a cărnii înainte de
If meat pieces are pressed with a significant amount of saramurare. Dacă bucata de carne este presată cu o
force applied more or less evenly throughout the piece of anumită forŃă, aceasta se va frăgezi, iar saramura va fi
meat, it will tenderize the meat piece and condition the meat absorbită de Ńesuturile cărnii fără să mai fie necesară
fibers so that marinade will be absorbed into the meat vacuumarea, [15, 16, 17, 19].
fibers without the use of a vacuum, [15, 16, 17, and 19]. Această maşină este compusă dintr-un echipament
Cyclic impulsive pressing machine consists in mechanical mecano-pneumatic, şi un automat programabil.
- pneumatical equipment, and a programmable automat. În principiu (fig. 2), echipamentul mecano-pneumatic
In principle (fig. 2), the mechanical - pneumatical equipment este compus dintr-un sistem electropneumatic (compresor,
consists in an electro-pneumatical system (air compressor, electroventile, cilindru pneumatic), şi două plăci de presare
solenoid valve), and two pressing plates (a fixed lower plate, (inferioară / fixă, respectiv superioară / mobilă). Pentru
and mobile upper plate). To improve the tenderizing process, îmbunătăŃirea procesului de frăgezire, fiecare din cele
each of the two plates (covered food grade Teflon pad) două plăci (cu plăci food grade Teflon) sunt prevăzute cu
has pyramidal (6 · 6 · 6 mm) prongs, [12, 13]. dinŃi piramidali (6 · 6 · 6 mm), [12, 13].
Fig. 1 - Four roller tenderizer machine Fig. 2 - Cyclic impulsive pressing machine
(with pyramidal cutting prongs) (food grade Teflon pads with pyramidal prongs)
In order to determine the influence of tenderizing process Pentru determinarea influenŃei procesului de frăgezire
on pork boneless loin used to produce traditional cured- asupra cotletului de porc dezosat utilizat pentru reali-
smoked-cooked product “Cotlet Perpelit”, 6 samples (raw zarea produsului sărat-afumat-prăjit “Cotlet Perpelit”, câte
meat, and “Cotlet Perpelit” final product) were processed 6 probe (carne crudă, şi produs finit “Cotlet Perpelit”) au
according four methods: fost procesate conform a patru metode:
- no tenderized pork boneless loin (NO TEND); - cotlet de porc dezosat nefrăgezit (NO TEND);
- pork boneless loin tenderized by six times successive - cotlet de porc dezosat frăgezit prin trecerea succesivă de
passing amongst the cutting prongs of the Four roller 6 ori printre valŃurile profilate ale maşinii de frăgezire
tenderizer machine (FRT 6x); cu două perechi de cilindri profilaŃi pentru perforare (FRT 6x);
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- pork boneless loin tenderized by Cyclic impulsive - cotlet de porc dezosat frăgezit prin 5 cicluri de presare cu
pressing machine in 5 pressing cycles, each consist- maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică dinamică,
ing in 0,5s pressing periods, and 0,5s pauses periods fiecare ciclu constând în: 0,5s presare, şi 0,5s pauze
(CIP 5-0,5); (CIP 5-0,5);
- pork boneless loin tenderized by Cyclic impulsive - cotlet de porc dezosat frăgezit prin 20 cicluri de
pressing machine in 20 pressing cycles, each presare cu maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică
consisting in 0,5s pressing periods, and 0,5s pauses dinamică, fiecare ciclu constând în: 0,5s presare, şi
periods (CIP 20-0,5). 0,5s pauze (CIP 20-0,5).
To produce “Cotlet Perpelit” by using no-tenderized pork Pentru producerea “Cotlet-ului Perpelit” din cotlet de porc
boneless loin, there were followed traditional phases: wet dezosat nefrăgezit, au fost parcurse următoarele faze tradi-
curing phase of entire pieces of muscle meat (12% curing Ńionale: sărarea umedă a bucăŃilor de carne în saramură (12%
salt concentration), during 2 weeks; drying / ripening phase concentraŃie), timp de 2 săptămâni; zvântarea în aer rece
in cold air ventilation for 6 hours; cold smoke (aprox. 20°C) ventilat, timp de 6 ore; afumarea rece (aprox. 20°C ) timp
for 10 hours, followed by 4 hours hot smoke (aprox. 80°C). de 10 ore, urmată de 4 ore de afumare fierbinte (aprox. 80°C).
To produce “Cotlet Perpelit” by using tenderized pork Pentru producerea “Cotlet-ului Perpelit” din cotlet de porc
boneless loin, the tenderized meat was processed in following dezosat frăgezit, au fost parcurse următoarele faze: sărarea
phases: wet curing (12% curing salt concentration), during 4 umedă a bucăŃilor de carne în saramură (12% concentraŃie),
days; drying / ripening phase in cold air ventilation for 6 timp de 4 zile; zvântarea în aer rece ventilat, timp de 6 ore;
hours; cold smoke (aprox. 20°C) for 10 hours, follo wed by afumarea rece (aprox. 20°C) timp de 10 ore, urmat ă de 4
4 hours hot smoke (aprox. 80°C), [12]. ore de afumare fierbinte (aprox. 80°C), [12].
Tenderness evaluation by using Warner-Bratzler method Evaluarea frăgezimii prin metoda Warner-Bratzler
The most relevant and utilized methods to estimate Cele mai relevante şi utilizate metode pentru evaluarea
meat’s tenderness are compression test, and Warner - frăgezimii cărnii sunt testul la compresiune, şi metoda de
Bratzler shear test method. During Warner-Bratzler test feliere/tăiere Warner-Bratzler. În timpul testului Warner -
the shear blade acts simultaneously both compression Bratzler lama de tăiere realizează simultan compresiunea
and slicing / shearing of the product, [5, 7, 14, 15, 16, 17]. şi felierea/ tăierea produsului, [5, 7, 14, 15 16, 17]. Pentru a
To perform interdisciplinary researches concerning general efectua cerce tări interdisciplinare privind analiza texturii şi
texture and tenderness analysis, universal testing frăgezimii a fost utilizată maşina universală de încercări
machine Lloyd Instruments LRXPlus 5 (Unconventional Lloyd Instruments LRXPlus 5 (din dotarea Laboratorului
Technologies and Equipment for Agro-Food Industry pentru Tehnologii şi Echipamente NeconvenŃionale pentru
Laboratory - UTEFIL, within Faculty of Agriculture and Industria AgroAlimentară - UTEFIL, din cadrul FacultăŃii de
Horticulture in Craiova) was used. Due to collaboration Agricultură şi Horticultură din Craiova). În urma colaborării
between UTEFIL and Environmental Eng. Laboratory within dintre UTEFIL şi Laboratorul pentru Ingineria Mediului din
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, a Warner - Bratzler cadrul FacultăŃii de Inginerie Electrică, a fost realizat un
experimental equipment was made: special rigid frame echipament experimental Warner-Bratzler: suport rigid
(food-grade Teflon) that permits fast fitting of inter- (food-grade Teflon) care permite asamblarea rapidă a
changeable Warner - Bratzler shear blades (DIN W1.4571), lamelor interschimbabile de feliere/tăiere Warner-Bratzler
[9, 10, 11]. During these experiments, 100mm/min cutting (DIN W1.4571), [9,10,11]. În timpul acestor experimente, a
speed was used. fost folosită viteza de tăiere de 100mm/min.
Representative Warner - Bratzler test diagrams for pork Diagrame Warner - Bratzler representative pentru
boneless loin tenderized by using FRT 6x method, and for cotlet de porc dezosat frăgezit prin metoda FRT 6x, şi
“Cotlet Perpelit” obtained by using this tenderized meat, pentru “Cotlet -ul Perpelit” obŃinut din această carne
are presented in fig. 3, and fig. 4, respectively. frăgezită, sunt prezentate în fig. 3 şi respectiv în fig. 4.
Load (N) Load (N)

120
300
110
100
90
200 80
70
60
50
100
40
30
20 Load at Maximum Load: 116.04 N

Load at Maximum Load: 304.46 N Machine Extension at Maximum Load: 25.87 mm
00 Machine Extension at Maximum Load: 19.77 mm 10 Stress at Maximum Load: 0.70329 MPa
Stress at Maximum Load: 1.8452 MPa Extension at Maximum Load: 25.87 mm
Extension at Maximum Load: 19.77 mm 0
Work to Maximum Load: 1866.23 Nmm
Work to Maximum Load: 1767.17 Nmm Tensile Strength: 0.70329 MPa
Tensile Strength: 1.8452 MPa -10
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Extension (mm) Extension (mm)
Fig. 3 - Warner-Bratzler test diagram for tenderized Fig. 4 - Warner-Bratzler test diagram for “Cotlet Perpelit”
pork boneless loin by using FRT 6x tenderized by using FRT 6x
RESULTS REZULTATE
Tenderizing mathematical model Model matematic pentru frăgezire
The mathematical model for studding the tenderizing Modelul matematic pentru studiul efectului frăgezirii
effect is based on the hypothesis that any meat’s final are la bază ipoteza că materialul oricărui produs din
product material can be characterized by numerical carne poate fi caracterizat prin curbe numerice obŃinute
373
curves obtained by mechanical characteristics experiment- din diagramele caracteristicilor mecanice determinate experi-
tally determined for each tenderizing method. Resulting mental pentru fiecare tip de metodă de frăgezire. Curbele
numerical curves could differ more or less from those of numerice rezultate pot să difere mai mult sau mai puŃin
no tenderized meat samples. de cele obŃinute pentru probele nefrăgezite.
In fig. 3 and fig. 4 it can be observed the maximum În fig. 3 şi fig. 4 se pot observa valorile maxime ale
shear force that characterizes each type of pork boneless forŃei de tăiere care caracterizează frăgezimea fiecărui tip
loin, and “Cotlet Perpelit”’ tenderness’. de cotlet de porc dezosat, şi de “Cotlet Perpelit”’.
Due to the inhomogeneous character of the meat’s Datorită caracterului neomogen al Ńesuturilor cărnii, va-
tissues, the maximum shear force cannot describe all the loarea forŃei maxime de tăiere nu poate descrie întregul
cutting / shearing process. proces de tăiere.
Therefore for each un-tenderized / tenderized pork De aceea, pentru fiecare probă nefrăgezită / frăgezită
boneless loin sample, and for each “Cotlet Perpelit” ob- de cotlet de porc dezosat, şi pentru fiecare probă de
tained by using these meat pieces, too, average curves “Cotlet Perpelit”’ obŃinut din aceste bucăŃi de carne, au
that describe all evolution of the shearing diagrams fost determinate numeric curbele medii care descriu toată
obtained by using Warner - Bratzler method were numerical evoluŃia diagramei forŃei de tăiere obŃinută experimental
determined (fig. 5 and fig. 6). prin metoda Warner - Bratzler (fig. 5 şi fig. 6).
Fig. 5 - Numerical determined average curves of the four types of

pork boneless loin samples NO TEND; CIP 5-0,5; CIP 20-0,5; FRT 6x
Fig. 6 - Numerical determined average curves of the four “Cotlet Perpelit”

type samples CP-NO TEND; CP-CIP 5-0,5; CP-CIP 20-0,5; CP-FRT 6x
The proposed mathematical model is based on the Modelul matematic propus se bazează pe ipoteza
hypothesis that the characteristic curve of the sample (no conform căreia curba caracteristică a fiecărei probe
tenderized, or tenderized by using mechanical methods), (nefrăgezită, sau frăgezită prin metode mecanice), este
is obtained as a linear transformation that can be des- obŃinută ca o transformare liniară care poate fi descrisă
cribed by the vector equation, [1, 3, 8]: de ecuaŃia vectorială, [1, 3, 8]:
 x′  x
  = T   (1)
 F ′ F
where: F is the shear force in N, x is the cutting length unde: F este forŃa de tăiere în N, x este cursa de tăiere /
/extension in mm, before tenderizing (characteristic curve extensia în mm, înainte de frăgezire (coordonatele curbei
coordinates of the meat sample, before tenderizing); F’ caracteristice a probei, înainte de frăgezire); F ’ şi x ’ repre-
and x’ represent the shear force and the cutting lenght / zintă forŃa de tăiere şi respectiv cursa de tăiere / extensia
extension of the same meat sample type (characteristic aceluiaşi tip de probă după frăgezire (coordonatele curbei
curve coordinates, after tenderizing). caracteristice a probei, după frăgezire).
T is the linear transformation given by the matrix: T este transformarea liniară dată de matricea:
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 t1,1 t1,2 
T =  
 (2)
 t 2,1 t 2, 2 
where t ij, i =1,2; j =1, 2 are real numbers. în care t ij, i =1,2; j =1,2 sunt numere reale.
It must be noticed that each force F is represented by Trebuie remarcat că fiecare forŃă Fi este reprezentată
a pair of coordinates (xi, Fi), i = 1, N, and each force F’ is de o pereche de coordotate (x i, F i), i = 1, N, şi fiecare forŃă
represented by a pair of coordinates (x’I , F’i), i =1, N. The Fi’ este reprezentată de o pereche de coordotate (x’I ,F’i),
matrix elements T are calculated considering minimizing i =1, N. Elementele matricei T sunt calculate prin condiŃia
condition of the functional: de minim a funcŃiei:
N
[( ) ( )
ℑ(t1,1 , t1,2 , t 2,1 , t 2, 2 ) = ∑ t1,1 xi + t1,2 Fi − xi′ 2 + t 2,1 xi + t 2, 2 Fi − Fi′ 2 ] (3)
i =1
Based on described linear transformation, for pork bone- Pentru cotletul de porc dezosat frăgezit prin fiecare
less loin tenderized by using each method, the matrix T metodă, pe baza transformării liniare descrise, elementele
elements are: matricei T sunt:
• pork boneless loin tenderized by Cyclic impulsive • cotletul de porc dezosat frăgezit prin 5 cicluri de
pressing machine in 5 pressing cycles, each consis- presare cu maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică
ting in 0,5s pressing periods, and 0,5s pauses periods, dinamică, fiecare ciclu constând în: 0,5s presare, şi
(CIP 5 -0,5). 0,5s pauze, (CIP 5 - 0,5).
 0.998 0.000007079 
T =   (4)
 − 0.048 0.986 
• pork boneless loin tenderized by Cyclic impulsive • cotletul de porc dezosat frăgezit prin 20 cicluri de
pressing machine in 20 pressing cycles, each consis- presare cu maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică
ting in 0,5s pressing periods, and 0,5s pauses periods, dinamică, fiecare ciclu constând în: 0,5s presare, şi
(CIP 20-0,5). 0,5s pauze, (CIP 20 -0,5).
 0.998 0.000003448 
T =   (5)
 0.18 0.935 
• pork boneless loin tenderized by passing 6 succes- • cotletul de porc dezosat frăgezit prin trecerea succe-
sive times amongst the cutting prongs of the Four sivă de 6 ori printre valŃurile profilate ale maşinii de
frăgezire cu două perechi de cilindri profilaŃi pentru
roller tenderizer machine, (FRT 6x). perforare (FRT 6x).
 0.989 0.00004522 
T =   (6)
 − 0.326 0.773 
The numerical tenderizing curves for pork boneless Curbele numerice de frăgezire pentru cotletul de porc
loin obtained by using the mathematical model are pre- dezosat, obŃinute prin utilizarea modelului matematic, sunt
sented in fig. 7, fig. 8 and fig. 9, respectively. prezentate în fig. 7, fig. 8, şi respectiv fig. 9.
In fig. 7, fig. 8 and fig. 9, respectively, it can be observed În fig. 7, fig. 8, şi respectiv fig. 9, se poate observa că
that the configurations and the maximum amounts of the atât configuraŃia, cât şi valorile maxime ale curbelor
numerical tenderizing curves are similar with the average numerice de frăgezire, sunt similare cu diagramele medii
curves experimentally determined (fig. 5). All these simi- determinate experimental (fig. 5). Toate aceste similarităŃi
larities validate the mathematical model based on pro- validează corectitudinea modelului matematic propus
posed linear transformation. bazat pe transformarea liniară.
Fig. 7 - Numerical tenderizing CIP 5-0.5 curves obtained by using the mathematical model
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Fig. 8 - Numerical tenderizing CIP 20-0.5 curves obtained by using the mathematical model
Fig. 9 - Numerical tenderizing FRT 6x curves obtained by using the mathematical model
Based on described linear transformation, for “Cotlet Pentru “Cotlet - ul Perpelit” obŃinut din cotlet de porc
Perpelit” tenderized by using each method, the matrix T dezosat frăgezit prin fiecare metodă, pe baza transfor-
elements are: mării liniare descrise, elementele matricei T sunt:
- “Cotlet Perpelit” tenderized by using Cyclic impulsive - “Cotlet Perpelit” obŃinut după frăgezirea prin 5 cicluri
pressing machine in 5 pressing cycles, each consisting in de presare cu maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică
0,5s pressing periods, and 0,5s pauses periods, (CP - dinamică, fiecare ciclu constând în: 0,5s presare, şi 0,5s
CIP 5 - 0,5); pauze, (CP- CIP 5 - 0,5);
 1.002 − 0.0002219 
T =   (7)
 − 0.048 0.689 
- “Cotlet Perpelit” tenderized by using Cyclic impulsive - “Cotlet Perpelit” obŃinut după frăgezirea prin 20 cicluri
pressing machine in 20 pressing cycles, each consisting de presare cu maşina de frăgezire prin presare ciclică
in 0,5s pressing periods, and 0,5s pauses periods, (CP - dinamică, fiecare ciclu constând în: 0,5s presare, şi 0,5s
CIP 20 - 0,5); pauze, (CP-CIP 20 - 0,5);
 0.999 − 0.0005576 
T =   (8)
 0.331 0.534 
- “Cotlet Perpelit” tenderized by passing 6 successive - Cotlet Perpelit” obŃinut după frăgezirea prin trecerea
times amongst the cutting prongs of the Four roller succesivă de 6 ori printre valŃurile profilate ale maşinii de
tenderizer machine (CP - FRT 6x). frăgezire cu două perechi de cilindri profilaŃi pentru
perforare (CP-FRT 6x).
 1.001 − 0.0005576 
T =   (9)
 0.696 0.478 
The numerical tenderizing curves for “Cotlet Perpelit” Curbele numerice de frăgezire pentru “Cotlet Perpelit”,
obtained by using the mathematical model are presented obŃinute prin utilizarea modelului matematic, sunt prezen-
in fig. 10, fig. 11 and fig. 12, respectively. tate în fig. 10, fig. 11, şi respectiv fig. 12.
In fig. 10, fig. 11 and fig. 12, respectively, it can be În fig.10, fig. 11, şi respectiv fig. 12, se poate observa
observed that the configurations and the maximum amounts că atât configuraŃia, cât şi valorile maxime ale curbelor
of the numerical tenderizing curves are similar with the numerice de frăgezire, sunt similare cu diagramele medii
average curves experimentally determined (fig. 6). determinate experimental (fig. 6).
All these similarities validate the correctness of mathe- Toate aceste similarităŃi validează corectitudinea mo-
matical model based on proposed linear transformation. delului matematic propus bazat pe transformarea liniară.
376
Fig. 10 - Numerical tenderizing CP-CIP 5-0.5 curves obtained by using the mathematical model
Fig. 11 - Numerical tenderizing CP-CIP 20-0.5 curves obtained by using the mathematical model
Fig. 12 - Numerical tenderizing CP-FRT 6x curves obtained by using the mathematical model
Considering physically issues, mechanical tenderizing is Din punct de vedere fizic, frăgezirea mecanică este un
a process that has to reduce the meat’s mechanical proces care trebuie să reducă valorile caracteristicilor
characteristics amounts of the final product. Each ten- mecanice ale produsului finit. Fiecare metodă de frăgezire
derizing method produces significant changes of specific produce modificări semnificative a tensiunii specifice din
strain within the meat’s tissues, which determines the interiorul Ńesuturilor cărnii, care determină îmbunătăŃirea
tenderness’ improvement. frăgezimii.
The main conclusion drawn in this paper refers the Concluzia principală a acestei lucrări se referă la corec-
correctness of the mathematical model based on pro- titudinea modelului matematic bazat pe transformarea
posed linear transformation, proved both by the curves’ liniară propusă, dovedită atât prin configuraŃia curbelor, şi
configurations and the maximum amounts similarities’ de asemenea prin similitudinea dintre valorile maxime
between the numerical tenderizing curves, too, and the dintre curbele de frăgezire numerice, şi respectiv curbele
average curves experimentally determined, respectively. medii determinate experimental.
Further general and specific conclusions could be Viitoare concluzii generale şi specifice vor fi formulate
draw after this mathematical model will be applied for după ce acest model matematic va fi aplicat pentru alte
other types of meat, before and after the same or other tipuri de carne, înainte şi după alte metode de frăgezire
mechanical tenderizing methods. mecanică.
The data presented in this paper can be important for InformaŃiile prezentate în această lucrare pot fi importante
all the specialists interested in decreasing the wet curring pentru toŃi specialiştii interesaŃi în reducerea perioadei de
period of the traditional meat products. sărare umedă a produselor tradiŃionale din carne.
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378
THE ANALYZE OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE JUGLANS REGIA FRUIT WITH
THE SELECTIONS FROM THE NORTH AREA OF OLTENIA
/
ANALIZA COMPOZIłIEI BICHIMICE A FRUCTELOR DE JUGLANS REGIA LA SELECłIILE
DIN ZONA DE NORD A OLTENIEI
Flondor I.S.
College „Constantin Brâncoveanu” Horezu / Romania
Tel: 0767476898; E-mail: flondoriuliana@yahoo.com
Abstract: The Walnut is a pomological plant known Rezumat: Nucul este o plantă cunoscută din cele
from back in the old times, is a traditional fruit, important mai vechi timpuri, este un fruct tradiŃional, important
from an economic and social point of view. In Romania, din punct de vedere economic şi social. În România
the walnut has been cultivated from back in the old nucul este cultivat din cele mai vechi timpuri, fructul
times, its fruit being complete food. The studied sau conferind o hrană completă. SelecŃiile studiate
selections are part of the Walnut populations in North fac parte din populaŃiile de nuci din Nordul Olteniei.
Oltenia. Besides other reseaches, analyses were also Pe lângă alte cercetări, s-au efectuat şi analize în
made in what concerns the chemical composition of the ceea ce priveşte compoziŃia chimică a fructelor de
walnut fruits of these selections. The studies were nuc la aceste selecŃii. Studiile au fost efectuate în
carried out under natural environmental conditions. The condiŃiile mediului natural. Nucii formează populaŃii
Walnuts form individual populations which are, from a de indivizi care sunt din punct de vedere genetic
genetic point of view, natural hybrids grown on their own hibrizi naturali crescuŃi pe rădăcini proprii şi cu o
roots and with an irregular fruit production. producŃie de fructe neuniformă.
Keywords: walnut, populations, selections, Juglans regia Cuvinte cheie: nuc, populaŃii, selecŃii, Juglans regia
Romania is one of the European countries with România este una dintre Ńările europene, cu un
temperate climate which has relevant walnut production. climat temperat, ce are o producŃie importantă de nuci.
The region of Oltenia is located in the SW of Romania Zona Olteniei este situată în partea de sud-vest a
and has 15% of the walnut trees. The walnut trees are României şi găzduieşte mai mult de 15% din numărul
distributed all over the country being located into total de nuci din Ńară. Nucii sunt răspandiŃi pe întreaga
organized orchards or as individual trees. Besides the suprafaŃă a Ńării, fiind întalniŃi în livezi organizate sau
phenotypical characterisation of the walnut, the răzleŃ. Pe lângă caracterizarea fenotipică a nucului,
evaluation of the biochemical composition of the evaluarea compoziŃiei biochimice a fructelor Juglans
Juglans regia fruit was also realised. In this period, regia a fost de asemenea realizată. În această
observations have been carried out in the walnut perioadă, s-au făcut cercetări asupra populaŃiilor de nuc
populations from the Northern area of Oltenia. This area din Nordul Olteniei. Această zonă a Olteniei este
of Oltenia contains 3 counties: Vâlcea, Gorj and formată din trei judeŃe: Vâlcea, Gorj şi MehedinŃi; acolo
MehedinŃi; there, the walnut trees are widely spread nucul este larg răspândit (peste 250.000 de pomi).
(over 250 thousands plants). The growth vigor of the Vigoarea de creştere a indivizilor de nuc a fost mare
walnut trees is large or very large in all the populations sau foarte mare în cazul tuturor populaŃiilor studiate. În
studied. Low vigorous walnut trees were not found in zonă nu au fost identificaŃi nuci cu o vigoare de creştere
the area. scazută.
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALE ŞI METODE

The researches that were made in North Oltenia, Cercetările ce au fost făcute în zona de Nord a
were following up the behavior of 56 selections. The Olteniei, au urmărit comportamentul a 56 de selecŃii de
selections are hybrids cultivated on their own roots. The nuc. SelecŃiile sunt indivizi hibrizi ,cultivaŃi pe rădăcini
trees have between 30 and 50 years old. The proprii. Plantele studiate au vârste cuprinse între 30 şi
investigation was carried out in the Northern area of 50 de ani. Cercetarea a fost făcută în zona de Nord a
Oltenia, in different localities from the following counties: Olteniei, în localităti diferite din următoarele judeŃe: Gorj,
Gorj, Vâlcea and MehedinŃi. Vâlcea şi MehedinŃi.
The measurements, observation and determination Măsurătorile, observaŃiile şi determinările au vizat
were referring to the bearing characteristics (type of caracteristicile de rodire (tipul de rod, caracteristicile
bearing yield, fruit characteristics), growth (habitus), and fructelor), creşterea (habitus), temperaturile scăzute pe
low temperatures during winter and behavior to parcursul iernii şi comportamentul la atacul bolilor şi
diseases. dăunătorilor.
The Evaluation of the Biochemical Composition of the Fruit: Evaluarea compoziŃiei biochimice a fructelor:
- dry substance (%); - substanŃa uscată (%);
- extractible protein (%); - proteina extractibilă (%);
- raw fat (%); - grăsime brută (%);
- reducer carbohydrates (%); - glucide reducătoare (%);
- total carbohydrates (%); - glucide totale (%);
- humidity (%). - umiditate (%).
The climatic conditions of the area are generally CondiŃiile climatice ale regiunii sunt, în general,
favorable to the growth and bearing of the walnut. The favorablile creşterii şi rodirii nucului. Temperatura medie
average annual temperature ranges from 10,2ºC to anuală se situează între 10,2ºC şi 10.4ºC; cea mai
10.4ºC; the lowest temperature was -30ºC, but normally scăzută temperatură a fost de -30ºC, dar, în mod
the temperature ranges from -20ºC to -22ºC; the normal, temperatura se situează între -20ºC şi -22ºC;
average sum of rainfall is of 700-750 mm; the relative media de precipitaŃii este de 700-750 mm; umiditatea
379
humidity is of 64-85% and the duration of sunshine is of medie relativă a aerului este de 64-85% şi durata de
1900 hours per year. strălucire a soarelui este de 1900 ore pe an.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS REZULTATE ŞI DISCUłII

The trees used in the research are generatively Pomii folosiŃi in cercetare sunt, in mod generativ,
obtained and planted in familial gardens and orchards, obŃinuti şi plantaŃi in gradini familiale şi livezi, pe
near footways (road plantations) and isolated. A strict marginea drumului sau razleŃ. O evidentiere şi
genetic highlighter and delimitation with the maintaining determinare strict genetică, menŃinând integritatea
of integrity between some limits of entire population is intregii populaŃii in anumite limite, este dificilă.
difficult. The characteristic of this population is Caracteristica populaŃiei este reprezentată de ampla
represented by the large variability of the growth variabilitate a caracteristicilor de creştere, a toleranŃei
characteristics, disease tolerance or resistance, sau rezistenŃei la boli, a rezistenŃei la temperaturi
resistance to low temperatures, which are present at the scazute, ce sunt regăsite la indivizii ce compun
individuals that compose the population. The studied populaŃia. Materialul biologic studiat este format din 56
biological material is made of 56 representative selections, de selecŃii reprezentative, selectate din mai bine de 31
selected from over 31 localities in North Oltenia. de localităti din Nordul Olteniei.
Analyzing the biochemical components of the Analizand componentele biochimice ale miezului
kernel of the walnut selections in North Oltenia, a selecŃiilor de nuci din partea de Nord a Olteniei, s-a
variability for the main components was observed: dry observat o variabilitate pentru principalele componente:
substance (%), extractible protein (%), raw fat (%), substanŃa uscată (%), proteina extractibilă (%), grasime
reducer carbohydrates (%), humidity (%) (Analyses brută (%), glucide reducatoare (%), umiditate (%)
carried out by the Alimentary Research Institute in (Analize realizate de Institutul de Cercetare Alimentară
Bucharest). Bucureşti).
Following the biochemical analyses carried out on In urma analizelor biochimice efectuate la miezul
the kernel of the walnut selections in Gorj, the below selecŃiilor de nuc, in judetul Gorj, s-au constatat
values were obtained: valorile:
- dry substance (%): 70.5% (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17) - - substanŃa uscată (%): 70,5% (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17)
81.5% (Baia de Fier S13); – 81,5% (Baia de Fier S13);
- extractible protein (%): 5.0% (Novaci S35) - 9.45% - - proteina extractibilă (%): 5,0% (Novaci S35) -
(Baia de Fier S11); 9,45% (Baia de Fier S11);
- raw fat (%): 40.2% (Bălăneşti S20) - 57.5% - - grasime brută (%): 40,2% (Bălăneşti S20) - 57,5%
(Alimpeşti S3); (Alimpeşti S3);
- reducer carbohydrates (%): 0.6% (Polovragi S39) - - glucide reducatoare (%): 0,6% (Polovragi S39) -
1.2% (Alimpeşti S3, Novaci S33, Novaci S35, 1,2% (Alimpeşti S3, Novaci S33, Novaci S35,
ScoarŃa S50); ScoarŃa S50);
- total carbohydrates (%): 1.5% (Alimpeşti S3, - glucide totale (%): 1,5% (Alimpeşti S3, Bălăneşti
Bălăneşti S20, Leleşti S29, Polovragi S43, Schela S20, Leleşti S29, Polovragi S43, Schela S47,
S47, ScoarŃa S50) - 2.2% (Runcu S45); ScoarŃa S50) - 2,2% (Runcu S45);
- humidity (%): 18.5% (Baia de Fier S13) -29.5% - umiditate (%): 18,5% (Baia de Fier S13) - 29,5%
(Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17) (Table no. 1). (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17)(Tabelul nr.1)
Table1
Biochemical Analyses of the Kernel of the Walnut Selections (Gorj)
Dry Raw Reducer Total
Extractible Humidity
Population Selection substance fat carbohydrates carbohydrates
protein [%] [%]
[%] [%] [%] [%]
S3 73.7 6.65 57.5 1.2 1.5 26.3
Alimpeşti S7 74.8 5.07 46.43 1.1 1.6 25.2
S9 75.8 5.33 42.28 0.96 1.9 24.2
S11 80.6 9.45 51.4 08 2.1 19.4
Baia de Fier S13 81.5 7.40 54.1 0.7 1.9 18.5
S15 80.5 9.43 51.3 0.8 1.8 19.5
Bumbeşti
S17 70.5 7.28 53.0 1.02 2.0 29.5
PiŃic
Bumbeşti Jiu S18 73.5 6.3 46.4 1.1 1.7 26.5
Balanesti S20 76.1 5.97 40.2 0.84 1.5 23.9
Bengeşti
S21 71.8 5.8 45.7 0.86 1.7 28.2
Ciocadia
S23 72.6 6.6 51.2 0.7 1.9 27.4
Crasna S25 77.3 6.38 50.7 0.9 2.1 22.7
S27 74.8 6.8 48.1 1.1 1.7 25.2
Leleşti S29 73.6 6.7 47.5 0.7 1.5 26.4
S31 75.5 6.4 48.1 0.7 1.7 24.5
Novaci S33 76.1 6.2 51.2 1.2 1.8 23.8
S35 74.8 5.0 46.5 1.2 1.9 25.2
Muşeteşti S37 75.7 7.2 47.5 0.9 2.1 24.3
S39 80.1 9.3 50.5 0.5 2.1 19.9
Polovragi S41 80.5 9.3 50.5 0.7 1.7 19.5
S43 80.3 9.1 53.1 0.8 1.5 19.7
Runcu S45 72.5 6.6 47.2 1.1 2.2 27.5
Schela S47 74.6 5.1 45.8 1.1 1.5 25.4
Săcelu S49 71.7 5.8 45.9 0.9 1.6 28.3
ScoarŃa S50 76.4 6.7 47.7 1.2 1.5 27.6
380
In Vâlcea, following the biochemical analyses In judeŃul Vâlcea, in urma analizelor biochimice
carried out on the kernel of the walnut selections, the efectuate la miezul selecŃiilor de nuc, s-au constatat
below values were obtained: valorile:
- dry substance: 72.9% (Măldăreşti S61, Horezu - substanŃa uscată: 72,9% (Măldăreşti S61, Horezu
S73) - 81.5% (Stroieşti S57); S73) - 81,5% (Stroieşti S57);
- extractible protein : 5.7% (Costeşti S67) - 9.5% - proteina extractibilă : 5,7% (Costeşti S67) - 9,5%
(Costeşti S69, Mateeşti S83); (Costeşti S69, Mateeşti S83);
- raw fat (%): 47.0% (Slătioara S80) - 55.5% - - grăsime brută (%): 47,0% (Slătioara S80) - 55,5%
(Stroieşti S55, Măldăreşti S61, Horezu S73); (Stroieşti S55, Măldăreşti S61, Horezu S73);
- reducer carbohydrates (%): 0.72% (Mateeşti S83) - - glucide reducătoare (%): 0,72% (Mateeşti S83) -
1.2% (Stroieşti S55, Măldăreşti S51, Horezu S73); 1,2% (Stroieşti S55, Măldăreşti S51, Horezu S73);
- total carbohydrates (%): 1.1% (Măldăreşti S63 ) - - - glucide totale (%): 1,1% (Măldăreşti S63 ) - 2,4%
2.4% (Vaideeni S65); (Vaideeni S65);
- humidity (% ): 18.5% (Stroieşti S57) - 26.2% - umiditate (%): 18,5% (Stroieşti S57) - 26,2%
(Costeşti S57) (Table 2). (Costeşti S57) (Tabelul 2).
Table 2
Biochemical Analyses of the Kernel of the Walnut Selections (Vâlcea)
Dry Extractible Raw Reducer Total
Humidity
Population Selection substance protein fat carbohydrates carbohydrates
%
% % % % %
S53 76.1 8.1 51.6 0.8 1.8 23.9
Stroieşti S55 72.9 7.3 55.5 1.2 2.1 27.1
S57 81.5 7.5 55.2 0.73 1.9 18.5
Berbeşti S59 77.1 6.2 51.7 1.1 1.7 22.9
S61 72.9 7.3 55.5 1.2 2.2 27.1
Măldăreşti
S63 73.8 6.7 53.1 0.9 1.1 26.2
Vaideeni S65 80.1 7.8 47.9 1.1 2.4 19.9
S67 73.8 5.7 47.8 0.9 2.1 26.2
Costeşti S69 80.7 9.5 51.4 0.8 2.1 19.3
S70 76.2 5.9 46.1 0.8 1.5 23.8
S71 75.4 6.6 47.8 0.9 2.1 24.6
Horezu S73 72.9 7.3 55.5 1.2 2.2 27.1
S75 81.4 7.4 55.2 0.74 2.0 18.6
S77 77.1 6.6 51.8 1.2 1.8 22.9
Slătioara
S80 80.1 7.8 47. 1.1 2.4 19.9
Mateeşti S83 80.1 9.5 51.4 0.2 2.1 19.9
The biochemical analyses carried out on the kernel Analizele biochimice realizate la miezul selecŃiilor de
of the walnut selections in MehedinŃi: nuc in judetul MehedinŃi:
- dry substance: 72.3% (IloviŃa S113) - 81.5% - substanŃa uscată: 72,3% (IloviŃa S113) - 81,5%
(Ponoarele S95); (Ponoarele S95);
- extractible protein: 5.4% (Floreşti S111, Bala S101) - proteina extractibilă: 5,1% (Floreşti S111, Bala
- 9.4% (Bala S105); S101) - 9,4% (Bala S105);
- raw fat (%): 42.6% (Podeni S97) - 55.4% (IloviŃa S113); - grăsime brută (%): 42,6% (Podeni S97) - 55,4% (IloviŃa S113);
- reducer carbohydrates (%): 0.6% (Bala S105) - - glucide reducătoare (%): 0,6% (Bala S105 ) - 1,2%
1.2% (Ponoarele S90, Ponoarele S93, Butoieşti S119); (Ponoarele S90, Ponoarele S93, Butoieşti S119);
- total carbohydrates (%): 1.5% (Butoieşti S109) - - glucide totale (%): 1,5% (Butoieşti S109 ) - 2,5%
2.5% (Isverna S89); (Isverna S89);
- umidity (%): 18.5% (Ponoarele S95 ) - 27.2% - umiditate (% ): 18,5% (Ponoarele S95 ) - 27,2%
(Isverna S85) (Table no. 3). (Isverna S85). (Tabel 3).
Table 3
Biochemical Analyses of the Kernel of the Walnut Selections (MehedinŃi)
Dry Extractible Reducer Total
Raw fat Humidity
Population Selection substance protein carbohydrates carbohydrates
[%] [%]
[%] [%] [%] [%]
S85 72.8 7.2 55.3 0.84 1.6 27.2
Isverna S87 75.4 5.7 43.5 1.1 2.1 24.6
S89 80.1 7.3 47.8 1.1 2.5 19.9
S90 76.1 5.5 51.2 1.2 1.6 23.9
Ponoarele S93 73.8 6.7 54.5 1.2 1.6 26.2
S95 81.5 7.4 53.8 0.75 1.9 18.5
Podeni S97 75.8 5.3 42.6 0.84 1.8 24.2
S101 74.8 5.2 47.8 1.1 1.7 25.2
Bala S103 75.4 5.2 44.7 0.9 2.1 24.6
S105 80.6 9.4 51.3 0.6 2.1 19.4
S107 76.1 5.8 51.3 0.8 1.7 23.9
Butoieşti
S109 73.8 6.7 54.5 1.2 1.5 26.2
Floreşti S111 74.8 5.1 46.5 1.1 1.8 25.2
IloviŃa S113 72.3 7.3 55.4 0.8 1.6 27.1
Husnicioara S115 72.4 6.8 50.1 0.9 1.9 19.3
381
The whole population has individuals (natural Intreaga populatie are indivizi (hibrizi naturali) care
hybrids) which are characterized by a large genetic sunt caracterizati de o considerabilă variabilitate
variability and this aspect has a great importance in the genetică, iar, acest aspect, are o foarte mare
breeding programs. importanŃŃă in ceea ce priveste programele de inmulŃire.
The North of Oltenia has favorable climatic conditions Nordul Olteniei are conditii climatice favorabile ce
and permits the forming and evolution, in time, of a natural permit formarea si evolutia, in timp, a unei populatii
population of Juglans regia (more than 250.000 plants). naturale de Juglans regia (peste 250.000 de plante).
In what concerns the chemical composition of the In ceea ce priveste compozitia chimica a selectiilor
walnut selections, they had the following values: de nuc, s-au inregistrat urmatoarele valori:
- dry substance: 70.5% (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17) and - substanŃa uscată: 70,5% (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17 si
81.7% (Baia de Fier S13); 81,7% (Baia de Fier S13);
- extractible protein: 5.05% (Novaci S35) and 9.5% - - proteina extractibilă: 5,05% (Novaci S35), 9,5%
(Costeşti S69 and Muşeteşti S83); (Costeşti S69 si Muşeteşti S83);
- raw fat: 40.2% (Bălăneşti S20) and 57.5% - grăsime brută: 40,2% (Bălăneşti S20) si 57,5%
(Alimpeşti S3); (Alimpeşti S3);
- reducer carbohydrates: 0.6% (Polovragi S39. Bala - glucide reducatoare: 0,6% (Polovragi S39, Bala
S105) and 1.2% (Alimpeşti S3, Stroieşti S65, S105) si 1,2% (Alimpeşti S3, Stroieşti S65,
Ponoarele S93, Butoieşti S119); Ponoarele S93, Butoieşti S119);
- total carbohydrates: 1.1% (Măldăreşti S63) and - glucide totale: 1,1% (Măldăreşti S63) si 2,5%
2.5% (Isverna S89); (Isverna S89);
- -umidity: 8.5% (Baia de Fier S13. Stroieşti S570 - umiditate: 8,5% (Baia de Fier S13, Stroieşti S57,
Ponoarele S95) and 29,55% (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17). Ponoarele S95) si 29,55% (Bumbeşti-PiŃic S17).
[1]. Achim Gh., Botu I. (1996) -SelecŃii de perspectivă la [1]. Achim Gh., Botu I. (1996) -SelecŃii de perspectivă la
nuc (Juglans regia) din zona Vâlcea.Lucrările ŞtiinŃifice nuc (Juglans regia) din zona Vâlcea, .Lucrările ŞtiinŃifice
ale I.C.P.P. vol.18. p.142-153; ale I.C.P.P. vol.18. p.142-153;
[2]. Achim Gh., Botu I. (1999) -Results in walnut [2]. Achim Gh., Botu I. (1999) - Results in walnut
propagation by using different methods;p.78-85 propagation by using different methods ;p.78-85;
[3]. Botu I., Botu M., Achim Gh. (2001) - Cultura nucului [3]. Botu I., Botu M., Achim Gh.( 2001) - Cultura nucului
în exploataŃii nucicole moderne. Edit. Phoenix, în exploataŃii nucicole moderne. Edit. Phoenix,
Braşov;p.89-99 Braşov;p.89-99.
[4]. Botu M. (1998) -Nut crop situation in Romania FAO [4]. Botu M. (1998) -Nut crop situation in Romania ,FAO
–CIHNEAM Nucis Newsletter, N.7.p.23-24; –CIHNEAM Nucis Newsletter, N.7.p.23-24;
[5]. Botu M., Tudor M., Papachatzis A. (2010) – [5]. Botu M., Tudor M., Papachatzis A.,(2010) –
Evaluation of Some Walnut Cultivars with Different Evaluation of Some Walnut Cultivars with Different
Bearing Habits in the Ecological Conditions of Oltenia Bearing Habits in the Ecological Conditions of Oltenia
România, Proc. VIth Intl. Walnut Symposium, Ed. D.L. România, Proc. VIth Intl. Walnut Symposium, Ed. D.L.
McNeil, ISHS, Acta Horticulturae no. 861; 119-126, McNeil, ISHS, Acta Horticulturae no. 861; 119-126,
ISSN 0567-7572 (Indexare în ISI Web of Science şi ISSN 0567-7572 (Indexare în ISI Web of Science şi
Bazele de Date InternaŃionale Reprezentative- Bazele de Date InternaŃionale Reprezentative-
AGRICOLA şi CAB Abstracts®). AGRICOLA şi CAB Abstracts®).
[6]. Cosmulescu S., Baciu A., Achim Gh. – Mineral [6]. Cosmulescu S., Baciu A., Achim Gh. – Mineral
Composition of Fruits in Different Walnut (Juglans regia Composition of Fruits in Different Walnut (Juglans regia
L.) Cultivars; L.) Cultivars;
[7].Flondor I.S. (2012) - Cercetări asupra productivităŃii, [7]. Flondor I.S., (2012) - Cercetări asupra
calităŃii fructelor şi a rezistenŃei la boli şi dăunători, la productivităŃii, calităŃii fructelor şi a rezistenŃei la boli şi
populaşiile şi selecŃiile de Juglans regia din zona de dăunători, la populaşiile şi selecŃiile de Juglans regia din
Nord a Olteniei în relaŃiile cu factorii de mediu. P.158- zona de Nord a Olteniei în relaŃiile cu factorii de mediu,
161 P.158-161
[8]. Godeanu I., Baciu A., Cosmulescu S. (2000) -New [8]. Godeanu I., Baciu A., Cosmulescu Sina,(2000) -
walnut selection with lateral fruitfulness (selecŃii noi de New walnut selection with lateral fruitfulness (selecŃii
nuc cu fructificare laterală), cercetări ŞtiinŃifice USAMVB noi de nuc cu fructificare laterală), cercetări ŞtiinŃifice
Timişoara, Facultatea de Horticultură, seria a IV- USAMVB Timişoara, Facultatea de Horticultură, seria a
a.p.145-1509. IV-a.p.145-150
[9]. Marin F. (2001) – Improvement of Walnut [9]. Marin F. (2001) – Improvement of Walnut
Assortment (Juglans regia) in Romania, Sesiunea de Assortment (Juglans regia) in Romania Sesiunea de
Referate a FacultăŃii de Horticultură, U.S.A.M.V. Referate a FacultăŃii de Horticultură, U.S.A.M.V.
Bucureşti; Bucureşti ;
[10]. Marin F (2005) – VariaŃia principalelor caractere [10]. Marin F.(2005) – VariaŃia principalelor caractere
ale fructelor unor genotipuri de nuc din fondul de ale fructelor unor genotipuri de nuc din fondul de
germoplasmă al I.C.P.P., Lucrări ştiinŃifice I.C.P.P., vol. germoplasmă al I.C.P.P., Lucrări ştiinŃifice I.C.P.P., vol.
XX, p. 13-19; XX, p. 13-19;
[11]. Maria T. (2010) – Cercetări privind evaluarea [11]. Maria T. (2010) –Cercetări privind evaluarea
agrobiologică a unor soiuri de nuc în relaŃie directă cu agrobiologică a unor soiuri de nuc în relaŃie directă cu
condiŃiile ecologice din zona subcarpatică a Olteniei, condiŃiile ecologice din zona subcarpatică a Olteniei,
Teza doctorat,U.C.V.Craiova. p.110-125. Teza doctorat,U.C.V.Craiova. p.110-125.
382
THE EFFECT OF THE OVEN AND MICROWAVE HEATING ON TOTAL PHENOL AND
ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY VALUES OF DIFFERENT APPLE VARIETIES
/
FARKLI ELMA ÇEŞĐTLERĐNĐN TOPLAM FENOL VE ANTĐOKSĐDAN AKTĐVĐTESĐ ÜZERĐNE
FIRIN VE MĐKRODALGA ISITMANIN ETKĐSĐ
1) 1) 2)
As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Uslu N. , As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Bozkurt D. , Assoc Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Al Juhaimi F. , Prof.
1 3)
Ph.D. Eng. Özcan M.M. * , Assist Prof. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Yıldız M.U.
1
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42031 Konya, Turkey
2
Department of Food Science & Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh-Saudi Arabia
3
Agriculture Engineering, Đstanbl, Turkey
*Corresponding author Tel:+90.332.2232933; E-mail: mozcan@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract: Total phenol and antioxidant values of apples Özet: Heriki mikrodalga sıcaklılklarında kurutulan
dried in both microwave heating were found higher than elmaların topam fenol ve antioksidan değerleri fırın
sıcaklıklarında (50°C- 70°C) kurutulan sonuçlardan daha
o
those of results of both oven temperatures (50 C and
o
70 C). While the total phenol contents of apple varieties yüksek çıkmıştır. Kontrol grubuna ait elma çeşitlerinin
belong to control group change between 87.81 mg/100 g toplam fenol içeriği 87.81 mg/100 g (Golden) ile 136.25
(Golden) to 136.25 mg/100 g (Pink Lady), total phenol mg/100 g (Pink Lady) arasında değişirken, 70°C da ısıtılan
o
contents of apple varieties treated to 70 C heating were elmaların toplam fenol içerikleri 299.06 mg/100 g (Pink
found between 299.06 mg/100 g (Pink Lady) to 395.31 Lady) ile 395.31/100 g (Starking) arasında değişimiştir.
mg/100 g (Starking). While antioxidant activity values of Kontrol grubu elmaların antioksidan aktivite değerleri
control group apples are determined between 11.55% 11.55% (Pink Lady) ile 21.78% (Starking) arasında
(Pink Lady) to 21.78% (Starking), antioxidant activity değişirken, 70°C da kurutulan elmaların antioksidan
o
values of apples dried in 70 C ranged from 38.87% (Pink aktivite değerleri 38.87% (Pink Lady) ile 52.49 (Grany
Lady) to 52.49% (Grany Smith). Smith) arasında değişmiştir.
Keywords: apple, drying, oven, microwave, total phenol, Anahtar Kelimeler: elma, kurutma, fırın, mikrodalga,
antioxidant toplam fenol, antioksidan
INTRODUCTION GĐRĐŞ
Apples are considered a good source of dietary Elmalar iyi bir diyet mineral kaynağı olarak
minerals [17]. The increase in the consumption of refined düşünülmektedir [17]. Rafine gıdaların tüketimindeki artış
foods and the lack of vitamins and minerals in the diet can ve diyetlerdeki vitamin ve minerallerin eksikliği sağlık
cause health problems [11]. Polyphenols are one of the problemlerine sebep olabilir [11]. Polifenoller antioksidan,
phytochemical groups whose “protective” properties antimikrobiyal, antikanser ve kardiovaskuler
include antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer and koruyucuaktiviteler içeren “koruyucu” özelikte olan
cardiovascular protective activities [4,5,6]. fitokimyasal gruplardan biridir [4,5,6].
Microwave process can offer several advantages when Mikrodalga proses konvansiyonel ısı işlemiyle
compared to conventional heat processes [15,19]. These kıyaslandığında çok sayıda avantajlar içermektedir
advantages include speed of operation, energy savings, [15,19]. Bu avantajlar operasyon işlem hızı, enerji
precise process control, and faster start up and shut-down tasarrufu, hassas proses kontrolü, hızlı başlangıç ve
times [7]. The effect of microwave heating on nutrients kapanma süreleridir [11]. Besin değerleri üzerine
depends on thickness and quality [9]. During MW drying mikrodalganın etkisi ürünün kalınlığı ve kalitesine bağlıdır
processes, the heating period is relatively short and [9]. MW kurutma işlemi sırasında, ısıtma peryodu nispi
moisture loss is small [4]. olarak kısadır ve nem kaybı azdır [4].
There is a renewed interest in exploring the unique Isıya hassas mateyallerin kurutulmasında mikrodalga
characteristics of MW heating for drying heat-sensitive ısıtmanın özelliklerinden dolayı bu tür ısıtmaya bir ilgi
materials [8]. In general, MW-related drying can meet the vardır [8]. Genelde, MW ile gıdaların kurutmada dört temel
four major requirements in drying of foods: speed of önemli husus vardır: işlem hızı, enerji verimliliği, işlem
operation, energy efficiency, cost of operation, and quality maliyeti ve kurutulan ürünün kalitesi [10]. Andre’s ve ark.
of dried products [10]. Andre´s et al., [2] studied the drying [2], sıcak havalı MW dehidrasyon işlemiyle elmaların
kinetics of apple cylinders under combined hot air MW kurutma kinetiklerine çalışmışlardır. Onlar kurutma
dehydration (MDWAD). They reported higher MW power süresini azaltmada hava sıcaklığından daha fazla MW
effect than air temperature in reducing drying time. gücünün etkisini rapor etmişlerdir.
The aim of current study is to determine to the effect of Bu çalışmanın amacı, elmaların toplam fenol ve
the oven and microwave heating on total phenol and antioksidan aktivite değerleri üzerine fırın ve mikrodalga
antioxidant activity values of apples. kurutmanın etkisini tayin etmektir.
MATERIAL AND METHODS MATERYAL VE METHOD

Material Materyal
Fresh apples were purchased from shopping center in Taze elmalar Konya’da marketten satın alınmıştır. Bu
Konya. Four different varieties (Golden, Grany smith, Pink çalışmada dört faklı elma (Golden, Grany Smith, Pink
Lady and Starking) were used for this study. Lady ve Starking) kullanılmıştır.
Drying Process Kurutma Đşlemi

Prior to drying process, apples were washed, peeled Kuruma işleminden önce, elmalar yıkandı, kabukları
and sliced the same thickness with grater. Apple slices soyuldu ve aynı kalınlıkta dilimlendi. Farklı çeşitlere ait
belonged to different varieties were dried in oven at 50°C elma dilimleri 50 oC ve 70 oC da fırında, 180 W ve 540 W
and 70°C; in microwave oven at 180W and 540W. da mikrodalgada kurutuldular
383
Extraction Process Ekstraksiyon Đşlemi

Dried samples were ground into powder with a grinder. Kurutulan örnekler bir ğütücüde toz haline getirildi. 0.5
Methanol (15ml) was added to 0.5g of grinded sample g örnek üzerine 15 ml methanol ilave edildi [19]. Karışım
[19]. The slurry was stirred for 16 hours and centrifuged 16 saat karıştırıldı ve sonra 4000 rpm hızda 15 dakika
for 15min at 4000 rpm. santrifüj edildi.
Determination of total phenol and antioxidant activity Toplam fenol ve antioksidan aktivitenin belirlenmesi
Total phenolic content was determined using the Folin- Toplam nenol içerikleri Folin-Ciocalteu Reagent
Ciocalteu Reagent [20]. The free radical scavenging kllanarak tayin edildi [20]. Ekstraktların serbest radikal
activity of the extract was determined by using 1, 1- tutucu aktiviteleri 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl or DPPH [18]. kullanarak belirlendi [18].
Determination of color enk Tayini
It was measured from control and dried samples using Konica Minolta renk tayin cihazı kullanarak kurutulmuş
Konica Minolta colorimeter and determinated L*, a*, elma örneği ve kontrol grubunda ölçüm yapılmıştır ve L*,
b*parameters. a* ve b* parametrelri tespit edilmiştir.
Statistical analyses Đstatistik Analiz
The average is calculated by analyzing the fruits three Meyveler üç kez analiz edilerek ortalama değerler
times. Results of the research were analysed for statistical belirlenmişti. Araştırma sonuçları varyans analiziyle
significance by analysis of variance [18]. istatistiksel önem belirlenmiştir[18].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SONUÇ VE TARTIŞMA

Moisture content of apple varieties changed between Elma çeşitlerinin nem içerikleri 78.84% (Pink lady;
o
78.84% (Pink lady; microwave 540 W) and 90.89% (Golden; mikrodalga 540 W) and 90.89 % (Golden; Fırın 50 C)
Oven 50°C) (Table 1). Moisture contents of starking and arasında değişmiştir (Tablo 1). Mikrodalga kurutmala (180
pink lady apple varieties heated by microwave oven drying W) kurutulan starking ve pink lady elma çeşitlerinin nem
(180 W) substantially decreased compared with other içerikleri diğer elma çeşitleri ve kontrol grubuyla
apple varieties and control groups. Total phenol and antioxidant kıyaslandığında azalmıştır. Mikrodalga ve fırın işlemiyle
activity values of four different apple (Grany, Golden, kurutulan farklı elma çeşitlerinin (Grany, Golden, Starking
Starking and Pink Lady) varieties treated heating process and Pink Lady) toplam fenol ve antioksidan aktivite
in oven and microvawe systems are given in Table 1. değerleri Tablo 1 de verilmiştir.
Table 1
Total phenol content and antioxidan activity of apple varieties
Antioxidant Activity Total Phenol Content
Process Variety Moisture (%)
(%) (mg/100g)
Grany 90.88±1.27 16.27±0.36 90.63±1.38
Golden 90.52±0.98 17.19±0.97 87.81±1.69
Control Samples
Starking 90.29±0.76 21.78±1.03 103.13±2.49
Pink Lady 85.99±0.49 11.55±0.38 136.25±3.29
Grany 89.55±1.72 34.45±0.56 260.31±3.78
Oven Dried Golden 90.89±1.18 18.11±0.63 175.00±2.57
(50°C) Starking 88.29±1.21 35.30±1.47 277.50±2.89
Pink Lady 85.56±0ç79 19.75±0.87 166.88±2.59
Grany 89.75±1.09 52.49±2.39 363.75±3.67
Oven Dried Golden 90.88±1.36 35.04±1.29 306.25±3.49
(70°C) Starking 89.67±1.29 41.60±1.42 395.31±3.58
Pink Lady 85.69±0.87 32.87±0.98 299.06±4.89
Grany 84.04±1.28 61.88±2.48 352.19±4.57
Microwave Oven Golden 84.67±1.32 38.52±1.59 254.06±2.29
Dried (180W) Starking 82.58±1.43 57.09±2.78 396.25±3.95
Pink Lady 82.03±1.38 38.45±1.54 230.94±3.67
Grany 85.35±1.41 78.81±2.87 452.50±4.87
Microwave Golden 84.29±1.47 55.12±2.39 367.81±3.39
Oven Dried (540 W) Starking 83.31±1.68 71.00±2.45 475.63±3.79
Pink Lady 78.84±1.56 49.61±1.39 325.94±3.68
mean ± standard deviation
Total phenol and antioxidant activity values of apple Hem fırın hemde MW ısıtma işlemine tabi tutulan elma
samples treated both oven and microwave heating örneklerinin toplam fenol ve antioksidan değerleri proses
processing increased compared with control group during sırasında kontrol grubuyla kıyaslandıgında artmıştır.
processing. Also, total phenol and antioxidant values of Ayrıca, heriki ısıl ilemle kurutulan elma örneklerinin toplam
apples dried in both microwave heating were found higher fenol ve antioksidan değerleri fırın sıcaklığının herikisinde
o
than those of results of both oven temperatures (50 C (50 oC ve 70 oC) kurutulan elmaların sonuçlarından daha
o
and 70 C) (Table 1). In addition, when the drying temperature yüksek bulunmuştur. Đlaveten, kurutma sıcaklığı 50 oC
o o
increased from 50 C to 70 C, total phenol and den 70 oC ye çıktığında, toplam fenol ve antioksidan
antioxidant activity increased at the same form. The same aktivite değerleri yaklaşık aynı pranda artmıştır. Aynı
situation is valid for microwave processing, too (Table 1). durum mikridalga işlemi içinde geçerlidir (Tablo 1).
While the total phenol contents of apple varieties Kontrol gruplarına ait elma çeşitlerinin toplam fenol
belong to control group change between 87.81 mg/100 g içerikleri 87.81 mg/100 g (Golden) ile 136.25 mg/100 g
(Golden) to 136.25 mg/100 g (Pink Lady) total phenol (Pink Lady) arasında değişirken, 70 oC da ısıl işleme tabi
o
contents of apple varieties treated to 70 C heating were tutulan elma örneklerinin toplamfenol içerikleri ise 299.06
found between 299.06 mg/100 g (Pink Lady) to 395.31 mg/100 g (Pink Lady) ile 395.31 mg/100 g (Starking)
mg/100 g (Starking). While antioxidant activity values of arasında değişmiştir. Kontrol grubuna ait elma çeşitlerinin
384
control group apples are determined between 11.55% antioksidan değerleri 11.55% (Pink Lady) to 21.78%
(Pink Lady) to 21.78% (Starking), antioxidant activity (Starking) arasında tayin edilirken, 70 oC da ısıl işleme
o
values of apples dried in 70 C ranged from 38.87% (Pink tabi tutulmuş elma örneklerinin antioksidan değerleri
Lady) to 52.49% (Grany Smith). These values in 38.87% (Pink Lady) ile 52.49% (Grany Smith) arasınde
microwave (180 and 540 w) for antioxidant activity belirlenmiştir. Antioksidan aktivite için MW de bu değerler
changed between 38.45% (Pink Lady) to 61.88% (Grany sırasıyla 38.45% (Pink Lady) ile 61.88% (Grany Smith)
Smith) and 49.61% (Pink Lady) to 78.81 % (Grany Smith), and 49.61% (Pink Lady) ile 78.81 % (Grany Smith)
respectively. In addition, total phenols were found arasında değişiştir. Buna ilaveten, 180 W ve 540 W
between 230.94 mg/100g (Pink Lady) to 396.25 mg/100g mikrodalga ısıtmada toplam fenol içerikleri sırasıyla
(Starking) and 325.94 mg/100g (Pink Lady) to 475.63 230.94 mg/100g (Pink Lady) ile 396.25 mg/100g
mg/100 g (Starking) for 180 W and 540 W microwaves (Starking) and 325.94 mg/100g (Pink Lady) ile 475.63
heating, respectively. mg/100 g (Starking) arasında bulunmuştur.
L*, a*, b* values of control apples and applied heat Kontrol ve işleme tabi tutulmuş elma örneklerinin L*, a*,
treatment samples were shown Table 2. L* values of b* değerleri Tablo 2’ de verilmiştir. Kontrol elma ve ısıl
control varieties (unheated) ranged from75.50 to 77.89. işlem uygulanmış elmaların L* değerleri 75.50 ile 77.89
a* and b* values of control samples were found between arasında değişmiştir. Kontrol örneklerin a* ve b* değerleri
-0.60-(-)3.90, 16.93-23.44 respectively. Maximum sırasıyla -0.60-(-) 3.90, 16.93-23.44 olarak tespit edilmiştir.
Maksimum renk değişimi 70°C da fırında kurutulan Starking ve
changing of color was determined variety of Starking and
Golden elma çeşitlerinde gözlenmiştir. 180 W da mikrodalgada
Golden which were dried in oven at 70°C. L* values of ısıl işleme tabi utulmuş Grany, Golden ve Pink Lady
Grany, Golden and Pink Lady varieties which were dried çeşitlerin L* değerleri 180 W da mikrodalgada ısıl işleme
in microwave oven at 180W closed to unheated tabi utulmuş Grany, Golden ve Pink Lady çeşitlerin L*
samples. değerleri ısıtılmamış örneklerinkine yakın bulunmuştur.
After drying process, a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) Kurutma prosesinden sonra, elma çeşitlerinin a* (kırmızımsı)
values of apple varieties were increased. As seen in Table ve b* (sarımsı) değerleri artmıştır. Tablo 1 de görüldüğü
1, both total phenol and antioxidant activity values of gibi, Grany Smith elma çeşidinin hem toplam fenol hemde
Grany Smith apple variety were found partly high. antioksidan aktivite değerleri kısmen yüksek bulunmuştur.
Increasing in antioxidant and total phenol values of Meyvelerin antioksidan ve toplam fenol
fruits are probably due to reduction of the water content değ erlerindeki artış muhtemelen su içeiğindeki azalma
and increasing of fruit concentrate. Fresh fruits and ve meyve konsantrasyonunun artmasından
kaynaklanmıştır. Meyve ve sebzeler hasat edildikten
vegetables were dried after harvesting in order to reduce
sonra atık ve bozulmayı önlemek, raf ömrünü artırmak
waste and spoilage and to extend their shelf life. Drying is için kurulurlar. Kurutma meyveden ve meyve
a simple process in which the moisture in the fruit yüzeyinden suyu buharlaştırarak uzaklaştıran basit bir
evaporates from the fruit surface and is carried away. The yöntemdir. Kurutma prosesi birçok faktörler, kurutma
process is controlled by many major factors, drying teknikleri, ürün özellikler ve kurutma zamanıyla kontrol
techniques, the properties product and the drying time [1]. edilir [1]. Kurutulan meyveler, pasta, fırın ürünleri,
Dried fruits are widely used as components in much food dondurma, dondurulmuş tatlılar ve yo ğurt gibi birçok
formulation such as pastry, confectionery products, ice ıda formulasyonlarında bileş enler olarak yaygın
cream, frozen desserts and yogurt. Among them, dried birşekilde kullanılır. Bunlar arasında, kurutulmuş
apples are a significant raw material for many food products elmalar birçok gıda ürünleri için önemli bir
[14]. Drying is a classical method of food preservation and hammaddedir [14]. Kurutma klasik bir gıda muhafaza
it is a difficult food processing operation mainly due to yöntemidir ve kurutulan ürünün kalitesinde anlaş ılmaz
undesirable changes in quality of dried product [16]. değişmelerden dolayı zor bir gıda işleme yöntemidir [16].
Table 2
Color values of apple varieties
Process Variety L* a* b*
Grany 77.80 -3.90 16.93
Golden 77.89 -3.26 23.44
Control Samples
Starking 75.50 -1.79 23.16
Pink Lady 76.81 -0.60 22.52
Grany 70.72 8.48 29.66
Golden 70.57 8.20 28.98
Oven Dried (50°C)
Starking 60.85 12.53 32.56
Pink Lady 64.38 10.43 26.37
Grany 70.90 7.89 31.09
Golden 58.21 10.44 32.59
Oven Dried (70°C)
Starking 45.25 12.93 25.22
Pink Lady 67.10 10.43 30.53
Grany 73.18 4.90 35.54
Microwave Oven Golden 76.29 3.84 39.08
Dried (180 W) Starking 64.44 12.07 39.18
Pink Lady 76.07 5.42 30.44
Grany 66.37 7.21 29.24
Microwave Oven Golden 67.13 6.02 35.04
Dried (540 W) Starking 63.84 7.62 33.22
Pink Lady 66.63 8.71 34.04
Acknowledgement Teşekkür
This project was supported by King Saud University, Bu proje King Saud Üniversitesi, Bilimsel Araştırma
Deanship of Scientific Research, College of Food & Dekanlığı, Gıda ve Tarım Bilimleri Koleji, Araştırma
Agricultural Sciences, Research Center. Merkezi tarafından desteklenmiştir
385
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386
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES UPON THE DOSING ACCURACY OF TECHNICAL DOSAGE

EQUIPMENT DESTINED FOR AGRIFOOD PRODUCTS
/
CERCETǍRI EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND ACURATETEA DOZARII PENTRU ECHIPAMENTUL
TEHNIC DE DOZARE DESTINAT PRODUSELOR AGROALIMENTARE
Ph.D. Eng. Brǎcǎcescu C., Ph.D. Eng. Pǎun A., Eng. Milea D.,
Ph.D. Stud Eng. Matache M., Eng. Bunduchi G.
Tel: 031.805.32.13; E-mail: carmenbraca@yahoo.com
Abstract: The researches which results are herein Rezumat: Cercetările ale căror rezultate sunt prezentate
presented, tackle the dosage process optimization in în acest articol au ca subiect optimizarea procesului de
small and medium-sized enterprises. dozare în unitaŃile productive de mică şi medie
The dosing technical equipment DTE performs two capacitate.
main functions: Echipamentul tehnic de dozare ETD realizează două
- automated setting of product flow rate for a funcŃii principale:
programmed value and maintaining this value within - reglarea automată a debitului de produs la o valoare
certain pre-set limits, by respecting the regulations in programată şi menŃinerea acestei valori între anumite
force concerning the dosage precision imposed for this limite prescrise, cu respectarea normativelor referitoare la
equipment type; precizia de dozare pentru aceste tipuri de echipamente;
- automated control of quantities of products passing - gestionarea automată a cantităŃilor de produse ce trec
through the dosage equipment in a certain period of time. prin echipamentul de dozare într-un anumit timp.
In this paper, are presented this equipment În această lucrare sunt prezentate investigaŃiile
experimental tests, the working qualitative indexes experimentale ale acestui echipament, indicii calitativi de
determined, by emphasizing the advantages of using this lucru determinaŃi cu evidenŃierea avantajelor utilizării
equipment type in milling small and medium-sized acestui tip de echipament tehnic în fluxul unităŃilor de
enterprises, in rural area. morărit săteşti de mică şi medie capacitate.
Keywords: dosage, agricultural products, milling units, Cuvinte cheie: dozare, produse agricole, unitǎŃi de morǎrit,
automated control, PLC. control automat, PLC
The field of systems and equipments for weighing, Domeniul sistemelor şi echipamentelor de cântărire,
dosing and packaging agrifood products is one of the dozare şi ambalare pentru produsele agroalimentare este
fields with a high economical impact in Romania unul din domeniile de mare impact economic în România
(especially in the last years), but also in the industrially (mai ales în ultimii ani), dar şi în Ńările dezvoltate din
developed countries. punct de vedere industrial.
Modern weighing and automated dosing devices Dispozitivele moderne de cântărire şi dozare
represent ingenious technical solutions that comprise automată sunt soluŃii tehnice ingenioase ce cuprind
fields from both the mechanics and electronics, being domenii atât din mecanică cât şi din electronică fiind
characterized by a high precision and sensitivity caracterizate printr-o precizie şi sensibilitate înaltă
according to several papers from the specialty literature. conform mai multor lucrări din literatura de specialitate
[1, 2, 3, 4, 8]. [1, 2, 3, 4, 8].
Usually, operations involving direct action on the De regulă, operaŃiile ce presupun acŃiunea directă
processed material are exclusively done by mechanical asupra materialului prelucrat sunt efectuate în
mechanisms or components, but also the command and exclusivitate de mecanisme sau componente mecanice,
dosage adjustment operations are frequently done by însă şi operaŃiile de comandă şi reglaj al dozării sunt
mechanical systems, the electronic systems having a efectuate de multe ori de sisteme mecanice, cele
surveillance and fine adjustment role as described in the electronice având rolul de supraveghere şi reglaj fin după
paper [5, 9]. cum se arată în lucrarea [5, 9].
Technological operations of weighing and dosing are not OperaŃiile tehnologice de cântărire şi dozare nu sunt
independent in the manufacturing process of products, independente în procesul de fabricaŃie al produselor, ci
but are integrated into various technological processes, se integrează în procese tehnologice diverse, astfel încât
so that the result of the operation does not emerge rezultatul operaŃiei nu apare distinct, ci cumulat în
distinctively, but cumulated in the resulted final product, produsul final rezultat, iar ca urmare, calitatea dozării /
and as a result, the quality of the dosage/weighing cântăririi influenŃând direct calitatea produsului final. [6, 7]
directly influencing the quality of the final product. [6,7]. În cadrul procesului de măcinare în diferite puncte ale
In the milling process in different points of the mill’s fluxului tehnologic din mori sunt prevăzute echipamente
technological flow, technical equipment used for weighing tehnice pentru cântărirea cerealelor ce intră în procesul
the grains that enter the processing and the finished de prelucrare, precum şi a produselor finite şi a
products and by-products are provided. subproduselor obŃinute.
Aligned with the most modern equipment in the field Aliniat celor mai moderne utilaje din domeniu şi
and encompassing innovative constructive solutions, the înglobând soluŃii constructive inovatoare, Echipamentul
Dosing Technical Equipment DTE (fig. 1), developed at tehnic de dozare ETD (fig.1) conceput la INMA Bucureşti,
INMA Bucharest has a direct applicability in small and are aplicativitate directă în cadrul unităŃilor de morărit de
medium capacity milling units, and can be interleaved in mică şi medie capacitate putând fi intercalat în fluxul
their technological flow in several points of processing tehnologic al acestora în diverse puncte de prelucrare a
387
quantitative information, but also in combined fodder informaŃiei cantitative, cât şi în cadrul unor fabrici de
factories, where several dosing technical equipment can nutreŃuri combinate, în care caz se pot cupla mai multe
be connected, and, through a central computer, several echipamente tehnice de dozare şi prin intermediul unui
recipes can be achieved. calculator central se pot realiza diferite reŃete.

In a technological flow, the Dosing Technical În cadrul unui flux tehnologic, echipamentul tehnic de
Equipment DTE performs two main functions: dozare ETD (fig.1) realizează două funcŃii principale:
- automatic adjustment of the flow of product to a - reglarea automată a debitului de produs la o valoare
programmed value and maintaining that value within programată şi menŃinerea acestei valori între anumite
certain preset limits, in compliance with regulation on limite prescrise, cu respectarea normativelor referitoare la
dosing precision for this type of equipment; precizia de dozare pentru aceste tipuri de echipamente;
- automatic management of the quantities of products - gestionarea automată a cantităŃilor de produse ce trec
that pass through the dosing equipment in a certain time. prin echipamentul de dozare într-un anumit timp.
Fig.1 – Dosing Technical Equipment - overview [...] Fig.2 – Technological scheme of DTE
t 1 - bunker; 2 – dosing system; 3 – control panel 1 - frame; 2 – guidance funnel; 3 – impact plan; 4 - mobil wall;
5(6) - actuating mechanism; 7 - tensometric dose; 8 - flap;
9 - electric actuator
Mainly, the work process is carried out this way În principal, procesul de lucru se desfăşoară astfel
(fig.2): (fig. 2):
- the dosed product flows through a pipe (pos. 2) - produsul de dozat afluează printr-o pâlnie de dirijare (poz.
provided at the end with a mobile flap actuated using 2) prevăzută la capăt cu o clapetă mobilă (poz. 8) acŃionată
and electric command by an electric actuator (pos. 9); prin comandă electrică de cǎtre un actuator electric (poz. 9);
- the product stream dimensioned by the flap falls from - jetul de produs dimensionat de clapetă, cade de la o
a certain height directed through a channel on an inclined anumită înălŃime dirijat printr-un canal pe o plan de
plate (pos. 3); impact (poz.3);
- the inclined plate constitutes the end of a lever that - planul de impact constituie capătul unei pârghii care
transmits the impact force to a tensometric dose (pos. 7); transmite forŃa de impact unei doze tensiometrice (poz. 7);
- the tensometric dose transforms de impact force into - doza tensiometrică transformǎ forŃa de impact în debit de
material flow, sending an impulse to the automation system; material, transmiŃând un impuls instalaŃiei de automatizare;
- the electric impulse is processed and based on the - în instalaŃia de automatizare se prelucrează impulsul
programming, the automation system makes the electric şi în funcŃie de programare se efectuează
comparison, recording and displaying of measured flow compararea, înregistrarea şi afişare debitului mǎsurat şi
and managed values; a valorilor gestionate;
- the mobile flap, depending on the command it - clapeta mobilă, în funcŃie de comanda ce o primeşte
receives, increases or decreases the product flow in măreşte sau micşorează fluxul de produs pentru
order to stabilize it. stabilizarea lui.
Fig.3 - Block scheme for automation installation
388
The operating terminal (seen in fig.3 acts as Terminalul de operare (vezi fig.3) îndeplineşte funcŃia
graphical user interface. It communicates with the de interfaŃǎ graficǎ cu utilizatorul. Acesta comunicǎ cu
installation’s PLC on a dedicated RS422 serial PLC-ul instalaŃiei pe o interfaŃǎ dedicatǎ de comunicaŃie
communication interface. serialǎ RS422.
Using the settings, the working parameters for DTE Prin setări se stabilesc parametrii de lucru ai ETD
are set (reference flow, weight counter) and product (debit de referinŃǎ, contor de masǎ) şi se vizualizează
management data are viewed (total amount of material datele de gestiune (cantitate totalǎ de material şi debit
and measured current flow). curent mǎsurat).
The analyzed dosing equipment constitutes an Echipamentul tehnic de dozare supus analizei constituie o
application of dynamics postulates. Thus, knowing that a aplicaŃie a unor postulate ale dinamicii. Astfel, ştiindu-se
particle’s mass impulse “m” and speed “v” is: că impulsul unei particule de masă „m” şi viteză „v” este:
, (1)
and that the vector is tied to the vector of the resultant şi că vectorul este legat de vectorul al rezultantei
forces applied to the mobile point, through the equation: forŃelor aplicate punctului mobil, prin ecuaŃia:
(2)
Also, the impulse of a points system is written: De asemenea, impulsul unui sistem de puncte se
; this vector can be regarded as the scrie: ; acest vector poate fi privit
impulse of a fictive point with the mass M = , and ca impulsul unui punct fictiv cu masa M = şi
the speed equal with the speed of the center of mass viteza egală cu viteza centrului de mas ă (de greutate).
(weight). Thus, we have the impulse variation in the time Astfel, vom avea variaŃia impulsului în intervalul de
interval (tA, tB): timp (tA, tB):
(3)
(4)
It results that if the impulse is zero, the exterior Rezultă că dacă varianta de impuls este zero, forŃele
forces will have a constant value and vice versa. exterioare vor avea o valoare constantă şi invers.
Therefore, we are constructively and functionally Astfel, s-a cǎutat constructiv şi funcŃional să se realizeze
looking to achieve the solution . soluŃia .
In order to achieve that, it was constructively imposed Pentru aceasta, constructiv s-a impus H – înălŃimea de
that H – vertical particle falling height H = constant, cădere a particulelor pe verticală H=const. rezultând
resulting that v = constant because for any v=const. pentru că pentru orice particulă
particle ( ). It results: ( ).Rezultǎ:
(5)
(6)
(7)
It results that for this, therefore it is Rezultă că pentru aceasta deci constanta
ultimately constant with the flow. debitului în ultimă instanŃă.
Functionally, it was searched that the instant value FuncŃional s-a cǎutat ca valoarea instantanee preluată
taken by the tensometric dose and sent to the PLC, de doza tensiometrică şi transmisă PLC-ului, unde,
compared with a reference value – resulted from comparată cu o valoare de referinŃă – rezultat al
calibration and related adjustments – to be constant. If etalonării şi a reglajelor aferente –să fie constantă. Dacă
not, by comparing it to the reference value, actions will be nu, prin compararea faŃă de valoarea de referinŃă se va
taken through the electric actuator on the mobile flap to acŃiona prin intermediul actuatorului electric asupra
adjust the flow. clapetei mobile de reglare a debitului.
Taking into consideration that the equipment should Având în vedere că echipamentul de dozare trebuie să
only take the impulse and the material has to flow as preia doar impulsul, iar materialul trebuie să se scurgă
smoothly as possible, an inclined plan was built to serve cât mai rapid, s-a construit un plan înclinat ca receptor de
as an impact receptor (pos.3, fig. 2). impact (poz.3, fig.2).
The inclination value has to be bigger than the Valoarea de înclinare a planului trebuie să fie mai
fall limit , the when the products start to roll mare decât limită de cădere, la care produsele
. încep să se rostogolească .
389
This value is determined from the transport speed Această valoare se determină din formula vitezei
formula where the kinetic energy variation is equaled with de transport unde variaŃia energiei cinetice o egalăm cu
the mechanical work of the forces acting on the material. lucrul mecanic al forŃelor ce acŃionează asupra meterialului.
Therefore, we have the formula: Astfel avem formula:
(8)
where: unde:
G = material weight, kgf.; G = greutatea mat. în kgf.;
2 2
g = gravity acceleration, m/s ; g = acceleraŃia gravitaŃională 9,81 m/s ;
v = transport speed, m/s; v = viteza de transport, în m/s;
h = falling height, m h = înălŃimea de cădere, în m
α = falling angle, degrees; α = unghiul de cădere, în grade;
f= - friction coefficient, depending on the f = - coeficient de frecare, în funcŃie de
friction angle of the material on the inclined plan. unghiul de frecare al materialului pe planul înclinat.
When it results: Când se obŃine:
(9)
(10)
at limit v=0 for tgα= tgρ
RESULTS REZULTATE
The testing of the experimental model of DTE Încercarea modelului experimental al echipamentului
equipment was made at INMA, in laboratory and tehnic de dozare s–a realizat în cadrul INMA în condiŃii
exploiting conditions, using its own experimental de laborator şi de exploatare, utilizând o metodică de
methods, carrying out the following activities: experimentare proprie fiind efectuate următoarele tipuri
preliminary checks, initial technical expertise, de activităŃi: verificări preliminare, expertiza tehnică
experimenting operating without load, calibrating the iniŃială, experimentări de funcŃionare în gol; calibrarea
weighing system, checking the functioning of the sistemului de cântărire, verificarea funcŃionării instalaŃiei
automation installation in simulated mode, de automatizare în regim simulat, experimentări de
experimenting operating under load. funcŃionare în sarcină.
For the experiments in working conditions were Pentru experimentări în condiŃii de exploatare s-au
used agricultural products such wheat seeds and folosit ca materie primă produse agricole precum seminŃe de
bran. grâu şi târâŃǎ.
The dosing error (εd) was determined with the following Eroarea de dozare (εd) s-a determinat cu relaŃia [3]:
relation [3]:
(11)
where: Qp - programmed flow, t/h; unde : Qp – debit programat, t/h;
Qc – calculated flow, t/h. Qc – debit calculate, t/h.
The calculation formula for Qc is: Formula de calcul pentru Qc este:
(12)
where: Mp – sample weight, kg; unde : Mp – masa probei, kg;

tp - sample duration s. Qc – durata probei, s.
Table 1
Results of test taken in operating conditions [1]
Programmed flow Sample Sample weight Calculated flow Dosing error
Sample (Qp) duration (tp) (Mp) (Qc) (εd)
[t/h] [s] [kg] [t/h] [%]
I 60 17,200 1,032 3,20
II 60 17,100 1,026 2,60
1
III 60 17,250 1,035 3,50
Average 60 17,183 1,031 3,10
I 60 34,300 2,058 2,90
II 60 34,400 2,064 3,20
2
III 60 32,900 1,974 1,30
Average 60 33,866 2,032 1,60
I 30 25,500 3,064 2,13
II 30 25,200 3,024 0,80
3
III 30 25,700 3,082 2,70
Average 30 25,466 3,056 1,86
390
I 30 34,300 4,116 2,90

II 30 34,100 4,092 2,30
4
III 30 33,900 4,068 1,70
Average 30 34,100 4,092 2,30
I 30 42,700 5,124 2,48
II 30 42,400 5,088 1,76
5
III 30 42,600 5,104 2,08
Average 30 42,566 5,108 2,16
Figure 4 shows the dosing error variation depending In figura 4 este arǎtatǎ variaŃia erorii de dozare în
on the sample weight on sample duration of 30 funcŃie de masa probei la o duratǎ de probei de 30 sw
seconds. secunde.
Fig. 4 - Variations of dosing error depending on the sample weight
Continuous flow dosage of finished agricultural Dozarea în flux continuu a produselor agricole finite
products is a complex and important operation for the este o operaŃie tehnologicǎ complexǎ şi important pentru
destination and future processing of those products. This destinaŃia ulterioarǎ a acestor produse. Aceastǎ operaŃie
operation is made using the Dosing Technical Equipment se realizeazǎ utilizând echipamentul tehnic de dozare ce
DTE integrated in different technological flows in small poate fi integrat în fluxul tehnologic al unitǎŃilor de morǎrit
and medium capacity milling units and also in unit making de micǎ şi medie capacitate cât şi în cadrul unor fabrici
concentrated fodder, in several points of processing the de nutreŃuri combinate în diverse puncte de prelucrare a
quantitative information, according to the programming of informaŃiei cantitative, în concordanŃǎ cu unitatea
the electronic unit [1]. electronicǎ de programare [1].
Through the constructive and functional solutions Prin soluŃiile constructive şi funcŃionale adoptate în
adopted following the experimental tests, it was found urma investigărilor experimentale s-a constatat că
that the Dosing Technical Equipment DTE offers a series Echipamentul tehnic de dozare ETD prezintǎ urmǎtoarele
of advantages such as: avantaje:
- high dosing precision; - precizie de dozare ridicată;
- adjusting the product flow to a programmed value; - reglarea debitului de produs la o valoare programatǎ;
- automated management of product quantities - gestionarea automatǎ a cantitǎŃilor de produs pe
throughout the whole technological flow; întregul parcurs al fluxului tehnologic;
- easy maintenance and exploiting; - întreŃinere şi exploatare facile;
- visualizing the product feed through the transparent - vizualizarea alimentării cu produs prin tubul
tube of the feeding funnel; transparent al pâlniei de alimentare;
- hermetic connection to the piping of the technological - racordarea etanşă la tubulatura instalaŃiei tehnologice
installation where it is integrated; în care se integrează;
- modern design; - design modern;
- reduced specific material and energy consumption. - consumuri specifice de materiale şi energie reduse.
We can therefore conclude that the use of automated Putem concluziona deci, c ă utilizarea tehnologiilor
weighing and dosing technological operation brings a de cânt ă rire ş i dozare automată aduc cu sine o
growth in the economical efficiency of the productive unit cre ş tere a eficien Ńei economice ş i au un impact
and has an immediate impact on the management of the imediat asupra managementului produselor
processed product procesate.
AKNOWLEGEMENT MULłUMIRI
The experimental model of Dosing Technical Modelul experimental al Echipamentului tehnologic
Equipment DTE was achieved in the NUCLEU pentru cântărire şi gestionare automată ECGA a fost
Program. realizat în cadrul Programului NUCLEU.
[1]. Brǎcǎcescu C., Milea D., Pǎun A., Ganea I., Gǎgeanu I. [1]. Brǎcǎcescu C., Milea D., Pǎun A., Ganea I.,
391
(2013) – Researches on automation of dosing and Gǎgeanu I (2013) – Cercetǎri privind automatizarea
sacking process of finished agricultural products, Annals dozǎrii şi însǎcuirii produselor agricole finite, Analele
of the University of Craiova – Agriculture Montanology - UniversităŃii din Craiova, seria Agricultură – Montanologie
Cadastre Vol. XLIII 2/2013, p. 37-44, – Cadastru Vol. XLIII 2/2013, p. 37-44;
[2]. Buium GH. F. (1999) – Researches on mechanisms [2]. Buium GH. F. (1999) – Cercetări privind mecanismele
in the structure of dosing systems, Gh. Asachii" Technical din structura sistemelor de dozare, Ed. UniversităŃii
University Publishing, Iaşi; Tehnice "Gh. Asachii" Iaşi;
[3]. Merticaru V. (1997) – Packing and packaging [3]. Merticaru V. (1997) – Ambalaje şi mecanisme de
mechanisms, Documentary Information Office for the ambalat, Oficiul de Informare Documentară pentru
engineering industry, Bucharest; Industria Constructoare de Maşini, Bucureşti;
[4]. Ortega-Rivas Enrique, Juliano Pablo, Yan Hong [4] Ortega-Rivas Enrique, Juliano Pablo, Yan Hong
(2005) – Food Powders: Physical Properties, Processing, (2005) – Food Powders: Physical Properties, Processing,
and Functionality, 2005, XVI, p. 272-287; and Functionality, 2005, XVI, p. 272-287.;
[5]. OLA D.,Popescu S. (2006) – Functional particularities [5]. Ola D., Popescu S. (2006) – ParticularitǎŃile funcŃionale
of the gravimetric dosing systems used in agriculture and ale sistemelor de dozare gravimetricǎ utilizate în agriculturǎ şi
food industry, Scientific Papers (INMATEH), vol.18 industria alimentarǎ, Lucrări ŞtiinŃifice (INMATEH),vol.18
nr.3/2006, p. 261-268; nr.3/2006, p. 261-268;
6]. Pǎun A., Cojocaru I. (2007) – Optimization of [6]. Pǎun A., Cojocaru I. (2007) - Optimizarea procesului
homogenization process in concentrated fodder de omogenizare in instalatiile pentru obtinerea
installation-IONC, Scientific Papers (INMATEH), vol.21 nutreturilor concentrate – IONC, Lucrări ŞtiinŃifice
nr.3/2007, p.: 21-29; (INMATEH), vol.21 nr.3/2007, p. 21-29;
[7]. Popescu S.(2005) – Influence of functional [7]. Popescu S. (2005) – Influence of functional
parameters of the gravimetric dosing process of granular parameters of the gravimetric dosing process of granular
agro-food material, Buletin of The Transilvania University agro-food material, Buletin of The Transilvania University
of Brasov, serie A, vol II (47), p. 169-176; of Brasov, serie A, vol II (47), p. 169-176;
[8]. Rhodes M. (1998) – Mixing and segregation. In [8]. Rhodes M. (1998) – Mixing and segregation. In
Introduction to Particle Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Introduction to Particle Technology, John Wiley & Sons,
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392
FRUIT VOLUMETRIC DETERMINATION BASED ON MOIRÉ TECHNIQUES

/
RECONSTITUIÇÃO TOPOGRAFICA E VOLUMÉTRICA DE FRUTOS UTILIZANDO TÉCNICAS
OPTICAS DE MOIRÉ
(1)
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Marcos V. G. Silva , Researcher Celina de Almeida, Ph.D. Researcher. Antonio Carlos Loureiro
(2) (1)
Lino , Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Inácio M. D. Fabbro
(1)
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil (2) IAC, Jundiai, SP, Brazil
Abstract: Three-dimensional survey of irregular, as well as Resumo: A medição de sólidos tridimensionais tem
regular solids has recently received significant attention from recebido uma grande atenção da comunidade
the scientific community due to its wide range of applications, científica, devido à sua ampla gama de aplicações.
including topics in agricultural engineering as plant-machine Porém existem diversos métodos e técnicas para se
mechanical relationship. The pertinent literature discloses obter tais medições, este trabalho demonstra a técnica
several methods and techniques to carry three dimensional de moiré que é uma técnica sem contato e não
measurements associated to a wide variety of cases. Moiré destrutiva, com um rápido processo de digitalização
techniques are included in a group of non-contact and non- cujos fenômenos de Franjas de Moiré são o resultado
destructive methods based on the moiré phenomena which da subtração da projeção de grades sobre um certo
generate optical fringes onto the tested body surface. Moiré objeto com relação as grades projetadas em um plano
methods require simple and low cost experimental setup, referencial. Possui medição precisa comparável com a
yielding accurate results when compared to other measuring de outros sistemas. Demonstra também a exatidão das
systems. This work was foccused on the projection moiré técnicas de moiré, sendo dado maior enfoque na
technique with phase shift, employing two types of optical grids técnica de moiré de projeção com deslocamento de
named Ronchi and sinusoidal one. Metrological errors of tested fase, e pela utilização de dois tipos de grades a de
techniques as compared with the moiré method have been Ronchi e senoidal, onde são observados os possíveis
determined as well. This work demonstrated the best performance erros. Neste trabalho foi comprovado o melhor
of grid frequency variation through several experiments applied desempenho dos tipos e variação da frequência de
to irregular solids shape determination as fruits. Body volumes grades incluindo vários exemplos práticos da sua
were compared with conventional techniques as water aplicação em sólidos irregulares (frutos), determinação
immersion; meanwhile linear measures were compared with volumétrica de sólidos irregulares. Emprego de
reading caliper results. The application of free software such as “softwares” gratuitos o qual também foi uma
ImageJ, RisingSun Moire, Scilab / SIP and routines was preocupação para disseminação da técnica, tais como
considered very useful to reach the final results. ImageJ, RisingSun Moiré, SCILAB/SIP e rotinas.
Keywords: optical three dimensional surveys, moiré with Palavras-chave: técnicas perfilometricas ópticas, técnicas de
phase shift techniques, volume determination and solid moiré com deslocamento de fase, determinação de volume
three-dimensional reconstruction em sólidos e reconstituição tridimensional de sólidos
The moiré optical techniques are of very broad A utilização das técnicas de moiré é de grande
application in agricultural, especially in agricultural importância para diversos segmentos, como na Engenharia
engineering, as well as in the overall engineering fields. Agrícola, envolvendo vários problemas associados ao estudo
These applications include micro relief survey of the soil da topografia de superfícies, o comportamento mecânico de
for tillage quality control, of fruit and vegetables, plant- materiais biológicos, controle da qualidade na operação de
machine mechanical relations, and mechanical behavior of preparo do solo baseado na determinação do micro relevo,
vegetative materials. It worth emphasize the application of relações mecânicas máquina–planta, etc. Em função da
moiré methods as photoelastic technique, similarly as the oportunidade de gerar conhecimento da aplicabilidade das
classic photoelasticity, as hologram, as speckle and técnicas de moiré em atividades ligadas a Engenharia
others. The opportunity of generating scientific knowledge Agrícola, motivou-se o desenvolvimento desta pesquisa,
associated to the moiré methods applied to agricultural demonstrando assim, que a técnica de moiré pode ser
engineering subjects has motivated this research work, aplicada com resultados satisfatórios na geração de Modelos
attempting to the possibilities of generating Digital Digitais de Elevação de superfícies regulares e irregulares,
Elevation Models (DEM) of regular as well as irregular gerando a reconstituição de sólidos ou superfícies em três
surfaces, generating the volume and the three dimensões [5], juntamente, com a obtenção de medição
dimensional views of the body under study [5]. volumétrica.
This research work emphasizes the optical grid A pesquisa aborda as variações nos tipos e frequências das grades,
frequency influence on the resulting DEM, discussing on demonstrando comparações nos resultados obtidos, bem como as
the advantages and disadvantages of each tested grid vantagens e desvantagens de cada uma, comprovando que a
frequency. sensibilidade depende principalmente do período do reticulo da grade.
Phase shifting moiré technique is considered a Em pesquisas anteriores não foi constatada nenhuma evidencia
de que o tipo de grade influenciava na reconstituição tridimensional
quite simple method, needing not moving equipment e na medição volumétrica. A Técnica de moiré com Deslocamento
and being of low cost [10]. It also exhibits high de Fase (Phase shiffing) é uma técnica muito simples, não possui
precision and adaptable to objects of different sizes by peças móveis e é de baixo custo [10]. Além disso, tem alta precisão e
facilidade de adaptação a objetos de vários tamanhos e texturas
just varying the grid period [1]. A variation of that apenas variando o período das franjas projetadas [1]. Para
method was developed, by projecting onto the body melhorar e contornar este problema, foi desenvolvida uma
variação desta técnica em que se projeta padrão de grades
393
surface a sinusoidal grid pattern with codified RGB senoidais com cores codificadas no espectro RGB, de modo que,
com apenas uma imagem, e aplicando a técnica de
colors, obtaining, that way, the DEM by phase shifting, deslocamento de fase obtive-se o MDT dos objetos.
requiring not more of one image. Porém os resultados podem ser influenciados pela
The results can be influenced by color of the object coloração do objeto, sendo, portanto indicada apenas para
being tested, indicating that the method is recommended objetos com coloração neutra [1, 14, 15]. [3], utilizou um
for bodies of neutral colors [1, 14, 15]. [3] reports the programa computacional específico (RisingSun Moiré) para
application of the RisingSun Moiré program to calculate fazer o cálculo das fases, gerando o mapa de fases
the phases, generating the wrapped phase image, as empacotadas, e também para o desempacotamento de
well as to obtain the unwrapped image to generate the fases gerando o MDT de uma modelo de pera feito de cera
DEM of a pear fruit model. [8] and [9] developed [8] e [9], desenvolveram algoritmos para programa
algorithms for the MATLAB program to calculate the MATLAB, com a finalidade de fazer o cálculo das fases e o
phases and the unwrapping procedures, eliminating the desempacotamento isto é, elimina os degraus, pela soma
steps by adding or subtracting π values and by ou subtração de valores de π, e comparando um “pixel”com
comparing a pixel with its neighboring one the o seu vizinho encontra-se diferenças com esse valor,
differences with that value, positive or negative, negativos ou positivos respectivamente.
respectively are found. [11], descrevendo o Método de Mudança de Fase
[11] described the Phase Shifting Method applied to aplicado à técnica de moiré de Sombra informa que são
Shadow Moiré, emphasizing the need of 04 images of necessárias 4 imagens das franjas de moiré. Em cada uma
moiré fringes. At each image, the object is delas as o objeto é aproximado ou afastado do Retículo de
approximated or distanced from the reference grid (Rg), referencia (Rr) de maneira a produzir deslocamentos das
displacing the moiré fringes by 1/2π , 1 π and 3/2 π of franjas de moiré 1/2π, 1π e 3/2π de fase. Quando se usa 4
phase. However, when 04 images are employed and imagens deslocadas de π/2, a intensidade luminosa em cada
displaced by π /2, the light intensity at each one of uma das imagens é descrita pelas equações:
these images is described by the following equation.
I1 ( x, y ) = a( x, y ) − b( x, y )cosφ ( x, y ) (1)
I 2 ( x, y ) = a( x, y ) − b( x, y ) cos[π / 2 + φ (x, y )] (2)
I 3 ( x, y ) = a( x, y ) − b( x, y )cos[π + φ ( x, y )]
(3)
I 4 ( x, y ) = a( x, y ) − b(x, y )cos[3π / 2 + φ ( x, y )] (4)
Where a( x, y ) stands for light intensity of the Onde a( x, y ) é a intensidade luminosa do fundo em
bacground at each image point, b(x, y ) stands for cada ponto da imagem, b( x, y ) é a intensidade de
modulation intensity at image point and φ stands for the modulação em cada ponto da imagem, φ é a fase a ser
phase to be determined. [13] demonstrated that phase determinada. [13], demonstra que resolvendo as 4
term, cos φ , for each point of the image come from the equações simultaneamente, pode se obter o termo fase
simultaneous solution of these 4 equations ( cos φ ) para cada ponto da imagem:
 (I 4 (x, y )) − (I 2 (x, y )) 
φ (x, y ) = arctan 
 (I1 (x, y )) − (I 3 (x, y )) 
(5)
For each 3 images displaced by π /3, the phase term Para 3 imagens deslocadas de π /3, o termo fase
can be obtained through the Equation 6. pode ser obtido pela equação 6.
 (I 3 (x, y )) − (I 2 (x, y )) 
φ ( x, y ) = arctan  
 (I1 (x, y )) − (I 2 ( x, y )) 
(6)
For the 5 images displaced by π /5 the phase term E Para 5 imagens deslocadas de π /5, o termo fase
can be obtained through the Equation 7. pode ser obtido pela equação 7.
 2(I 2 (x, y )) − (I 4 ( x, y )) 
φ ( x, y ) = arctan  
(7)
 2(I 3 (x, y )) − (I 5 (x, y )) − (I 5 ( x, y )) 
[2, 8, 9, 11] reported the application of phase shift [2, 8, 9, 11] aplicando o método de deslocamento de fase
method to the shadow moiré with 4 images At each à técnica de moiré de sombra utilizaram 4 imagens das franjas
image, the object is approximated or distanced from the de moiré. Em cada uma delas o objeto é aproximado ou
reference grid (Rg), displacing the moiré fringes by 1/2π, afastado do retículo de referencia (Rr) de maneira a produzir
1π and 3/2π of phase. gerar das franjas de moiré deslocadas1/2π, 1π e 3/2π de fase.
[13] emphasizes some advantages of these techniques [13] cita algumas vantagens dessas técnicas, quando
when compared to the techniques supported by this one: comparadas às técnicas às quais essas auxiliam, as
high precision, quickness, good results even with low quais são: alta precisão, rapidez e bons resultados
contrast. mesmo com baixo contraste das franjas.
394

Volume measurement through the moiré technique O arranjo experimental foi constituído por um
included a PC, a LCD projector, a CCD camera coupled computador com processador Core 2 Duo, de 2,2GHz,
to a Data Translation model DT313 data capturing com 1GB de memória RAM, ao qual foi acoplado um
board and the Global Lab Image2 of the Data projetor LCD e uma câmera CCD. Sendo o projetor da
Translation for image capturing. Six rubber cylinders marca NEC, modelo VT560, com resolução de 1024
and resin made fruit models for volume tests. Two types colunas por 768 linhas. A câmera CCD, marca
of grids, Ronchi and sinusoidal with 100 and 200 lines SAMSUNG, modelo SDC-312, em cores, com resolução
per millimeter, projected a distance of 1 meter. Four de 640 colunas por 480 linhas, acoplada a uma placa de
images were captured displaced of 90º. Four images of captura de imagens marca Data Translation, modelo
moiré fringes were captured, referred as I1, I2, I3 and DT313. Para a captura e tratamento das imagens utilizou-
I4, displacing the grid in the Z direction from the se o software Global Lab Image2 da Data Translation.
reference grid which generated displacement from the Foram feitas projeções de dois tipos de grades: a
fringes of 0, 1/4π, 1/2 π and 3/4π. From these images, senoidal e Ronchi, com duas variações de frequências
the “RISING-SUN MOIRÉ” software generated the cada, sendo-as de 100 linhas por mm e 200 linhas por
wrapped phase. The phase unwrapping produced the mm. Foram obtidas quatro imagens das franjas de moiré
digital model of the fruit. The obtained image is qualified (I1, I2, I3 e I4). Entre elas, a grade é deslocada na
as a “raster” which color varies from zero to 255, i.e. direção Z (afastada do retículo de referência) distâncias
256 color levels corresponding to Z values. The que produzam deslocamentos das franjas de moiré de 0,
measure by immersion is based on the volume of liquid 1/4π, 1/2 π e 3/4π. O modelo final é uma imagem do tipo
displaced by the testing body as shown on Figure 1. “raster” onde as cores variando de 0 a 255, isto é, 256
Two types of optical grids were applied, the sinusoidal níveis de cores ou tons de cinza, correspondem às cotas
grid and the Ronchi grid. ou aos valores de z.
Fig. 1 – Volume Determination Method by Fluid Displacement
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO

Figure 2, (a), (b), and (c) shows the projected grid Foi utilizado o método de deslocamento de fluido, onde foram
onto a the surface of an apple fruit model, the obtidos os seguintes valores volumétricos encontrados na
topographic view expressed in gray scale and digital Tabela 1. Utilizando o software Scilab através de rotinas foram
calculados os volumes do fruto conforme mostrados na Tabela
elevation model, respectively. Table 01 shows the 02 e comparados com os medidos através do deslocamento de
valume values as generated by the immersion fluido. Sendo que os valores obtidos no item TM são valores
technique. Table 02 shows the fruit volumes as diretos obtidos Através da técnica de moiré por deslocamento
obtained by the phase displacement moiré method de fase e tratados no scilab obtendo o volume da amostra, o
and processed by the Scilab. These volume values valor do erro médio utilizado é obtido através de um objeto que
include the mean error obtained by means of foi utilizado como calibrador cujas dimensões são conhecidas e
calibrating object of regular geometry. The fluid que posteriormente foram utilizadas para calcular a variação
sendo similar ocorrido com a medição de volume por
displacement technique also generated the error deslocamento de fluido onde o valor do erro médio utilizado é
calculation. Errors were applied to correct the sample também o do objeto calibrador que posteriormente foi utilizado
dimensions. para calcular a variação e corrigindo os valores das amostras.
a) b) c)
Fig. 2 - (a) projection of fringes in the sample, (b) increase in MDE, (c) three-dimensional model.
Fig. 3 - Result of subtraction of the grid plan with the sample
395
Fig. 4 - Result of subtraction of the grid plan with filtered sample image
Table 1
Volume obtained by immersion.
Replication 1 Replication 2 Replication 3 Replication 4 Replication 5 Mean Mean (mm³)
(ml) (ml) (ml) (ml) (ml) (ml)
400 380 400 390 390 392 392000
Table 2
Volume of the fruit model obtained through the moiré method
100lines/mm 100lines/mm 200lines/mm 200ines/mm
Fruit Model Mean (mm³)
Ronchi (mm³) Senoidal (mm³) Ronchi (mm³) Senoidal (mm³)
TM 392201.520 389125.730 388780.070 386896.520 389250.960
Mean error (%) 3.91 2.21 1.86 0.61 1.340
Variation 15335.079 8599.679 7231.309 2360.069 5215.963
Corrected value 37866.441 380526.051 381548.761 38.536.451 384034.997

Displaced fluid
392000,000 392000,000 392000,000 392000,000 392000,000
volume
Mean error (%) 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9
Variation 7448 7448 7448 7448 7448
Corrected value 384552,000 384552,000 384552,000 384552,000 384.552,000
Variation between
7685.559 4025.949 3003.239 15.549 517.003
Methods
% of variation after
1.998574817 1.046919177 0.780970923 0.004043347 0.1344429
correction
The adjustment of variation between methods led to a Foi aferida a variação entre os métodos obtendo-se um
índice de 0,13 pontos percentuais médio entre as técnicas.
value of 0.13 in percentage. Figures 5, 6 and 7 refer to the Logo a seguir tem-se a reconstituição tridimensional da
tridimensional reconstitution of the apple fruit model as maçã utilizando as quatro variações sendo-as de tipos de
obtained by grid variation. grade e espessura.
Fig. 5 - Thridimensional reconstruction of the fruit model Fig. 6 - Tridimensional reconstruction of the fruit model
by the 100 lines/mm Ronchi grid model by the 100 lines/mm with sinusoidal grid
Fig. 7 - Thridimensional reconstruction of the fruit model by the Fig. 8 - Tridimensional reconstruction of the fruit
100 lines/mm Ronchi grid of 200 linhas/mm model by the 200 lines/mm with sinusoidal grid
396
Fig. 9 - Correlation between the measured values
Referring to tridimensional reconstitution the obtained Os resultados da reconstrução tridimensional obtidos

results were shown to be satisfactory and useful to mostraram ser satisfatórios e úteis na determinação do
determine fruit volume. The application of different grids volume de frutas. Quanto a aplicação de diferentes tipos de
indicated the sinusoidal grid to generate better results. grades ópticas, a grade sinusoidal gerou melhores resultados.
Based on what it has been exposed before it can be Baseado no que foi acima exposto, as seguintes conclusões
concluded that moiré method yield satisfactory results in podem ser emitidas.A introdução das TM de deslocamento de
determining fruit topography. These techniques allowed fase determinou satisfatoriamente a topografia de um fruto.
the determination of surface digital models; however Estas técnicas permitiram a geração de modelos digitais da
they require specific computer programs. Sinusoidal grid superfície das amostras utilizadas. A TM com deslocamento de
with greater line density yielded better tridimensional fase é bastante rápida, reconhece automaticamente picos e
reconstruction. The moiré method with phase vales, mas necessita do uso de programas computacionais
displacement was noted to be of quick execution, específicos. Foi possível reconstruir as amostras tridimensionalmente
causing no bruising on the testing material, mainly the sem qualquer dano ao material amostrado com detalhamento
results generated by the sinusoidal grid of higher de pontos, sendo esses mais perceptíveis utilizando grade
density. senoidal com maior número de linhas/mm.
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398
THE VISION SYSTEM USAGE AS DATA SOURCE FOR STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
IN THE FOOD EXTRUSION
/
WYKORZYSTANIE SYSTEMU WIZYJNEGO DO STATYSTYCZNEJ KONTROLI PRZEBIEGU
PROCESU EKSTRUZJI PRODUKTÓW ŹYWNOŚCIOWYCH
PhD. Eng. śelaziński T., PhD. Eng. Ekielski A., PhD. Stud. Eng. Florczak I.
Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Production Engineering, Department of Production Management and
Engineering, Warsaw / Poland
Tel: +48 22 59 345 00; e-mail: tomasz_zelazinski@sggw.pl
Abstract: The aim of this study was to use a vision Abstrakt: Celem niniejszej pracy było zastosowanie
system for statistical quality control of the course of systemu wizyjnego do statystycznej kontroli przebiegu
extruded products quality changes described by the zmian jakościowych wyrobów ekstrudowanych opisanej
współczynnikiem ekspansji produktu oraz rozkładu barwy.
expansion coefficient of the product and the color
Wartości współczynnika ekspansji mierzono bezpośrednio
distribution. The expansion coefficient was measured przy dyszy wylotowej ekstrudera, a następnie odniesiono
directly at the extruder nozzle and referred to the resulting do uzyskanych zmian wartości natęŜenia prądu
changes in the electric current values recorded during the elektrycznego rejestrowanych podczas przebiegu procesu
extrusion process. Tests were carried out on a single ekstruzji. Badania przeprowadzono na jednoślimakowym
screw extruder with a screw length to its diameter ratio ekstruderze o stosunku długości ślimaka do jego średnicy
L2/D2 = 6.5 and nozzle diameter D = 10 mm. L2/D2=6,5 i średnicy dyszy wylotowej D=10 mm.
Materiałem przeznaczonym do procesu ekstruzji była
Material intended for the extrusion process was a
mieszanka rozdrobnionej kukurydzy (80%) i gryki (20%)
mixture of crushed maize (80%) and buckwheat (20%) nawilŜonej do wilgotności 17%. Uzyskane wyniki badań
humidified to a moisture content of 17%. The results powalają stwierdzić, Ŝe obserwacja i bezpośrednia analiza
suggest that the direct observation and analysis of the przebiegu procesu ekstruzji za pomocą systemów
extrusion process using vision systems can be a sensitive wizyjnych moŜe stanowić czuły przyrząd wspomagający
sterowanie procesem ekstruzji. Wskazują na to uzyskane
instrument supporting the process control. This is indicated
zmiany wskaźnika ekspansji radialnej i barwy (Lab)
by the changes of the radial expansion coefficient and color produktów mierzonych bezpośrednio przy dyszy wylotowej
(Lab) of products measured directly at the extruder nozzle ekstrudera oraz równolegle rejestrowane zmiany
and simultaneously recorded changes in the intensity of natęŜenia prądu elektrycznego pobieranego przez silnik
electric current drawn by the extruder’s motor. ekstrudera.
Keywords: extrusion, stability, expansion, color Słowa kluczowe: ekstruzja, stabilność, ekspansja, barwa
INTRODUCTION WSTĘP
Extrusion of raw plant materials is a very complex Ekstruzja surowców roślinnych to bardzo złoŜony
process, which consists of a number of factors such as proces, na który składa się wiele czynników takich, jak
geometry of working elements, screw and feeder geometria elementów roboczych ekstrudera, prędkość
rotation speed and process temperature (Girish et al. obrotowa ślimaków i podajnika oraz temperatura procesu
2004, 2006; Seker 2005; Mitrus 2005; Mezreb et al. (Girish i in. 2004, 2006; Seker 2005; Mitrus 2005; Mezreb i
2003). On the other hand, for the proper course of the in. 2003). Z drugiej strony, dla prawidłowego przebiegu
process extremely important factors are also material procesu niezwykle istotnymi czynnikami są teŜ własności
properties of the input, i.e. type and chemical materiału wejściowego, czyli rodzaj i skład chemiczny
composition of feedstock, blend composition, stosowanego surowca, skład mieszanki oraz jej stopień
fragmentation degree and humidity (Shankar and rozdrobnienia i wilgotność (Shankar i Bandyopadhyay
Bandyopadhyay 2005; Ding et al. 2006; Moraru and 2005; Ding i in. 2006; Moraru i Kokini 2003; Gondek i in.
Kokini 2003; Gondek et al. 2013). The combination of 2013). Połączenie zarówno jednych, jak i drugich
both one and the second parameters contributes further parametrów przyczynia się dalej do zmian „wynikowych”
to the ‘output’ changes of extrusion, which are process ekstruzji, jakimi są ciśnienie procesu oraz pobór energii
pressure and energy consumption (Akdogan et al. elektrycznej (Akdogan i in. 1997; Wójtowicz i Mościcki
1997; Wojtowicz and Mo ścicki 2008). Collation of all 2008). Zestawienie tych wszystkich zmiennych daje
these variables gives a very large number of input data bardzo duŜą liczbę danych wejściowych, a w konsekwencji
and, consequently, many significant factors and their wiele czynników istotnych oraz ich interakcji zachodzących
interaction during the process. This makes difficult, in podczas procesu. Sprawia to, Ŝe prawidłowe i stabilne
some cases, the accurate and stable maintenance of utrzymanie procesu ekstruzji w niektórych przypadkach
the extrusion process (Ekielski et al. 2007; Moscicki moŜe być trudne (Ekielski i in. 2007; Mościcki 2007;
2007; śelaziński 2014). śelaziński 2014).
For a stable process flow follows parallel the quality of Oczywiście za stabilnym przebiegiem procesu podąŜa
the product, which can be a sensitive factor that reflects równolegle jakość produktu, która moŜe być wraŜliwym
the continuity of the process. To test the quality of czynnikiem odzwierciedlającym ciągłość przebiegu procesu.
extruded products, a wide range of physical and chemical Powszechnie do badań jakości wyrobów ekstrudowanych
methods are used, included determination of density, wykorzystuje się szereg metod fizycznych i chemicznych, do
expansion coefficients, strength parameters, water których moŜna zaliczyć wyznaczanie gęstości, wskaźników
399
absorption index and water solubility index, testing of ekspansji, parametrów wytrzymałościowych, wskaźników
gelatinisation degree, water activity, micro and wodochłonności i wodorozpuszczalności, badania stopnia
macroelements content etc. (Mościcki 2007; Perez et al. Ŝelifikacji, aktywności wody, zawartości mikro i
2008). With many qualitative methods, parameters that makroelementów itp. (Mościcki 2007; Perez i in. 2008). Z
initially and quickly allow to describe the quality of wielu metod jakościowych, parametrami, które wstępnie i
extruded products are mainly expansion coefficients and szybko pozwalają opisać jakość wyrobów ekstrudowanych są
parameters of color and shape (Sacchetti et al. 2004; głównie wskaźniki ekspansji oraz parametry barwy i kształtu
Ekielski et al. 2005; Ekielski 2013). The values of these (Sacchetti i in. 2004; Ekielski i in. 2005; Ekielski 2013).
quantities can be measured relatively easily during the Wartości tych wielkości moŜna w stosunkowo prosty sposób
process, for example, directly at the extruder nozzle. mierzyć w trakcie trwania procesu np. bezpośrednio przy
Performed in this manner, measurements increase the dyszy wylotowej ekstrudera. Wykonywane w ten sposób
possibility of observation and process control, contributing pomiary zwiększają moŜliwości obserwacji i kontroli
to a more precise control of the extrusion, especially przebiegu procesu, przyczyniając się do bardziej
during the processing of raw plant materials that are precyzyjnego sterowania procesem ekstruzji, szczególnie
difficult to convert, such as heterogeneous or with high podczas ekstruzji surowców roślinnych trudnych do
humidity. przetworzenia np. niejednorodnych lub o wysokiej wilgotności.
Considering the above, the aim of this study was to Biorąc pod uwagę powyŜsze, celem niniejszej pracy
investigate the course of qualitative changes of było zbadanie przebiegu zmian jakościowych wyrobów
extruded products, which were measured directly at the ekstrudowanych, które mierzono bezpośrednio przy dyszy
nozzle of the extruder, and then reference the results to wylotowej ekstrudera, a następnie odniesienie wyników do
changes in electric current recorded during the zmian natęŜenia prądu elektrycznego rejestrowanych
extrusion process. podczas przebiegu procesu ekstruzji.
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIAŁ I METODYKA

Research material Materiał badawczy
The research material intended for extrusion was a Materiałem badawczym przeznaczonym do procesu
blend of crushed Credo varieties maize (80%) and Luba ekstruzji była mieszanka rozdrobnionej kukurydzy odmiany
varieties buckwheat (20%). Table 1 shows an example of Credo (80%) i gryki odmiany Luba (20%). W tabeli 1 przedstawiono
the size distribution of grit. The individual raw materials przykładowy skład granulometryczny grysu. Poszczególne
were mixed and moistened with water to a moisture surowce mieszano i nawilŜano wodą do wilgotności 17%
content of 17% using a laboratory mixer (type Agrometr za pomocą mieszalnika laboratoryjnego (typ Agrometr
Inofama). Before the extrusion, blend was conditioned for Inofama). Mieszanka przed poddaniem procesowi ekstruzji
a period of about 20 min. była kondycjonowana przez czas około 20 min.
Table 1
Granulometric size distribution of raw materials subjected to extrusion process [%]
Fraction [mm] Corn Buckwheat
>2 3.5 2.7
2-1.5 3.4 4.3
1.5-1.22 0.2 0.2
1.2-1.02 3.3 4.1
1.02-0.75 31.7 21.5
0.75-0.6 7.8 4.6
0.6-0.43 17.9 14.8
0.43-0.25 19.7 15.4
<0.25 12.5 32.4
Extrusion process Proces ekstruzji

To perform the research, it was used a modified single Do badań zastosowano zmodyfikowany jednoślimakowy
screw extruder KZM-2 with a screw length to diameter ratio ekstruder KZM-2 o stosunku długości ślimaka do jego
L2/D2 = 6.5 and 10 mm nozzle diameter. Screw speed of średnicy L2/D2=6,5 i dyszy wylotowej 10 mm. Prędkość
-1 -1
the extruder was 170 rpm·min with an efficiency of 100 obrotowa ślimaka ekstrudera wynosiła 170 obr·min , przy
-1 -1
kg·h . Power of extruder’s engine was 22 kW. The wydajności 100 kg·h . Moc silnika ekstrudera wynosiła 22
extruder was equipped with a system to maintain the kW. Ekstruder wyposaŜony był w układ do podtrzymywania
temperature in the extruder barrel (heater with a power of temperatury w cylindrze ekstrudera (grzałka o mocy 2000 wat
2000 watts and a thermostat) that allowed to control the i termostat) pozwalający na kontrolowanie temperatury
extrusion temperature of about 150-160°C in the las t ekstruzji wynoszącej około 150-160ºC w ostatniej sekcji
section of the extruder. In addition, the extruder was ekstrudera. Dodatkowo ekstruder wyposaŜony był w
equipped with a thermocouple positioned in the machine termoparę umiejscowioną w głowicy maszyny, cęgi (typu
head, clamp (type Z202A, METRAWAT, AC 0..20/200) to Z202A firmy METRAWAT, AC 0..20/200) do pomiaru
measure the electric current drawn by the extruder’s natęŜenia prądu pobieranego przez silnik ekstrudera, czujnik
engine, the temperature sensor (thermocouple) TP-371J temperatury (termopary) typu TP-371J oraz regulowany
and adjustable single screw material feeder. jednoślimakowy podajnik surowca.
In order to obtain an image of the extrudate, CCD color W celu uzyskania obrazu ekstrudatu, przy dyszy wylotowej
camera KP-FD30 HITACHI was placed at the extruder’s ekstrudera umieszczono kolorową kamerę CCD KP-FD30 firmy
nozzle, mounted on a tripod, and a fan to blow off steam. HITACHI zamontowaną na statywie oraz wentylator do
The whole was illuminated by fluorescent daylight D65 zdmuchiwania pary wodnej. Całość oświetlano świetlówkami
400
Philips TL-D De Luxe Pro 18W/965. światła dziennego D65 firmy Philips TL-D De Luxe Pro 18W/965.
Sensors and a camera were combined with a set for Czujniki oraz kamerę połączono z zestawem do
Sensors and a camera were combined with a set for akwizycji danych firmy National Instrument i komputerem
data acquisition (National Instrument) and a PC. Then both PC. Następnie zarówno dane liczbowe oraz zdjęcia
figures and images were recorded at intervals of 1 second. rejestrowano w odstępach 1 sekundowych. Pliki liczbowe
Numerical files were recorded in Excel 2003. Photographs zapisywano w programie Excel 2003. Zdjęcia były
were saved in TIF format. zapisywane w formacie TIF.
Data were recorded from the start of the extrusion Dane rejestrowano od rozpoczęcia procesu ekstruzji do
process to its completion, but for the purposes of the study jego zakończenia, jednak dla potrzeb badań analizowano
a section of the extrusion process with a length of 305 odcinek przebiegu procesu ekstruzji o długości 305
measurement points (305 seconds) was analyzed. punktów pomiarowych (305 sekund).
Methods of qualitative research Metodyka badań jakościowych

To measure the degree of radial expansion LabView Do pomiaru stopnia ekspansji radialnej wykorzystano
program, Vision Assistance. 7.1 for image analysis was program do analizy obrazu LabViev, Vision Assistance.
used. The program enabled the precise measurement of 7.1. Program umoŜliwiał precyzyjne zmierzenie średnicy
the extrudate diameter, which was measured at a distance ekstrudatu, którą mierzono w odległości około 10 cm od
of about 10 cm from the extruder’s nozzle. dyszy wylotowej ekstrudera.
Expansion coefficient was calculated according to the Wskaźnik ekspansji obliczano według wzoru (Alvarez-
formula below (Alvarez-Martinez et al. 1988): Martinez i in. 1988):
Se (1)
SEI =
Sd
where: Se - extrudate diameter, Sd - nozzle diameter. gdzie: Se - średnica ekstrudatu, Sd - średnica dyszy.
The study of the color was performed using Adobe Badania barwy wykonano wykorzystując program
Photoshop 6.0. CE, in which, using the "histogram" Adobe Photoshop 6.0. CE, w którym za pomocą funkcji
function, values of the parameters L*, a*, b* for each field „histogram” uzyskiwano wartości parametrów L*, a*, b* dla
were obtained, which had to be calculated by the following kaŜdego pola, które naleŜało wyliczyć według poniŜszych
equations (Kit et al. 2004): zaleŜności (Kit i in. 2004):
L
L* = ⋅ 100% (2)
255
240a
a* = − 120 (3)
255
240b (4)
b* = − 120
255
where: L – brightness, a - color indicator changing from gdzie: L – jasność, a - wskaźnik barwy zmieniający się od
green to red, b - color indicator changing from yellow to koloru zielonego do czerwonego, b - wskaźnik barwy
blue, L*, a*, b* - the correct values of the color after zmieniający się od koloru Ŝółtego do niebieskiego, L*, a*,
standardization. b* - prawidłowe wartości parametrów barwy po standaryzacji.
Statistical analysis Analiza statystyczna

For statistical analysis it was used a module of Do analizy statystycznej wykorzystano moduł statystycznej
statistical quality control (SPC) of STATISTCA 10 program. kontroli jakości (SPC) programu STATISTCA 10. Do
For presentation and preliminary analysis of the recorded przedstawienia oraz wstępnej analizy zarejestrowanych
data there were used control charts (individual danych zastosowano karty kontrolne (obserwacje pojedyncze
observations and moving gap) available in the module i ruchomy rozstęp) dostępne w module DOE, statystyki
DOE, industry statistics. In a further step ANOVA analysis przemysłowe. W kolejnym etapie badań przeprowadzono
was performed, followed by the presentation of individual analizę ANOVA, a następnie poszczególne zmienne
variables on the graphs in the form of three-dimensional zaprezentowano na wykresach trójwymiarowych w postaci
approximated surface responses. aproksymowanych powierzchni odpowiedzi.
In order to present and provide accurate experimental W celu przedstawienia oraz dokładniejszej analizy danych
data analysis, obtained results were recorded using the so- doświadczalnych uzyskane wyniki rejestrowano za pomocą
called control charts, on which the boundary conditions of tzw. kart kontrolnych, na których warunki brzegowe stabilności
process stability were marked as: lower control limit, LCL, procesu zostały oznaczone jako: dolna granica kontrolna -
and upper control limit, UCL determined for the central line lower control limit, LCL oraz górna granica kontrolna - upper
(actual mean value of n samples). The limits LCL and UCL control limit, UCL wyznaczonych dla linii centralnej (średnia
was set at (±)3 of calculated sigma value (standard rzeczywista z n próbek). Granice LCL i UCL ustalono na
deviation of individual points), (Statsoft - electronic poziomie (±)3 wielkości obliczonej sigmy (odchylenie standardowe
manual). pojedynczych punktów), (Statsoft - podręcznik elektroniczny).
RESULTS WYNIKI BADAŃ

The results show that extrusion is a complex process. Uzyskane wyniki badań pokazują, Ŝe ekstruzja to proces
Even during the stabilized course using single screw złoŜony, Nawet podczas ustabilizowanego przebiegu z
extruder there may be significant variations in power wykorzystaniem ekstrudera jednoślimakowego mogą
consumption and related changes in the quality of the występować znaczne odchylenia w poborze prądu elektrycznego
resulting products. Especially it can be seen clearly by on- i związane z tym zmiany jakościowe uzyskiwanych produktów.
401
line recording of the basic parameters of the resulting Szczególnie wyraźnie moŜna to zaobserwować rejestrując on-
products, such as radial expansion and the color indices line podstawowe parametry uzyskiwanych produktów takie, jak
L*, a*, b*, and monitor ing of the electric current drawn by ekspansja radialna i wskaźniki barwy L*, a*, b* oraz monitorując
the extruder’s engine. przebieg natęŜenia prądu pobieranego przez silnik ekstrudera.
Figure 1 below shows the control chart recording PoniŜej na rysunku 1 przedstawiono kartę kontrolną
process of power consumption by the extruder’s engine. rejestrującą przebieg poboru prądu przez silnik ekstrudera.
On the graph it can be clearly seen that part of the points Na wykresie moŜna wyraźnie zaobserwować, Ŝe część
go beyond the established boundary lines, which may punktów wychodzi poza ustalone linie graniczne, co moŜe
indicate some deregulation of the process. Locally, świadczyć o pewnym rozregulowaniu procesu. Lokalnie
between 130 and 250 second occurrence of the shift of the pomiędzy 130 a 250 sekundą moŜna zaobserwować
operating point can be observed, superimposed on the wystąpienie przesunięcia się punktu pracy, nakładające się
growth of the instability of its course. It is worth noting that na wzrost niestabilności jego przebiegu. Warto zwrócić uwagę
the cyclical nature of work point changes is manifested by na cykliczność zmiany punktu pracy przejawiającą się
periodic crossing of the lower or upper control line. okresowym przekraczaniem dolnej lub górnej linii kontrolnej.
Fig. 1 - Record of the course of the changes in the intensity of electric current drawn by the extruder’s engine
The variation of the radial expansion is also Podobnym przebiegiem charakteryzuje się równieŜ zmienność
characterized by a similar course, where part of the wskaźnika ekspansji radialnej, której część wartości takŜe
values exceeds the limits established by UCL and LCL przekracza granice ustalonych UCL i LCL (rys. 2). Takie
too (Fig. 2). This behavior may indicate that some zachowanie moŜe świadczyć, Ŝe pomiędzy tymi dwoma
correlation may occur between these two parameters. parametrami moŜe występować pewna korelacja. Niemniej
However, the rate of expansion shows no drift in value wskaźnik ekspansji wykazuje brak dryftu wartości w czasie, a
over time, but only increased dispersion of the measured jedynie zwiększony rozrzut wyników pomiarowych. MoŜna zatem
results. It can therefore be assumed that stabilizing the przypuszczać, Ŝe ustabilizowanie wartości poboru prądu
electrical current draw will largely contribute to a more elektrycznego w duŜej mierze przyczyni się do bardziej
stable quality of extruded products. ustabilizowanych jakościowo wyrobów ekstrudowanych.
Fig. 2 - Record of changes in the course of the radial expansion index
Based on tests performed it was found that the Na podstawie wykonanej próby stwierdzono, Ŝe za zmianą
change of the radial expansion and the electric current ekspansji radialnej oraz natęŜeniem prądu elektrycznego
drawn by the extruder followed extrudates color change. pobieranego przez ekstruder podąŜały równieŜ zmiany barwy
That is why on the following courses (Fig. 3, 4, 5) there ekstrudatów. Dlatego teŜ na poniŜszych przebiegach (rys. 3,
can be observed the changes in color parameters L*, a*, 4, 5) moŜna zaobserwować zmiany parametrów barwy L*, a*,
b* measured in parallel to the expansion values. b* mierzonych równolegle z wartościami ekspansji.
Analyzing the results it can be concluded that the color Analizując wyniki moŜna stwierdzić, Ŝe zmiany barwy są
change is also very sensitive indicator of the quality of równieŜ bardzo czułym wskaźnikiem jakościowym
the resulting products, however, from the standpoint of uzyskiwanych produktów, jednak z punktu widzenia kontroli
extrusion process stability control seem to be less stabilności procesu ekstruzji wydają się być mniej wraŜliwym
sensitive indicator than the radial expansion values. wskaźnikiem niŜ wartości ekspansji radialnej. Wskazuje na
This is indicated by a small number of variables passing to niewielka liczba zmiennych przechodzących przez
through the established boundaries of stability. ustalone granice stabilności.
402
Fig. 3 - Record of changes in the course of color indicator L*
Fig. 4 - Record of changes in the course of color indicator a*
Fig. 5 - Record of changes in the course of color indicator b*
The resulting courses allow to conclude that direct Uzyskane przebiegi powalają stwierdzić, Ŝe obserwacja i
observation and analysis of the process of extrusion bezpośrednia analiza przebiegu procesu ekstruzji za pomocą
using vision systems can be a sensitive instrument systemów wizyjnych moŜe stanowić czuły przyrząd
supporting the extrusion process control. This is indicated wspomagający sterowanie procesem ekstruzji. Wskazują na to
by the research results of changes of all qualitative uzyskane wyniki badań zmian wszystkich wskaźników
indicators and parallel recorded courses of electric jakościowych oraz równolegle rejestrowane przebiegi natęŜenia
current drawn by the extruder’s engine. Given the above, prądu elektrycznego pobieranego przez silnik ekstrudera. Biorąc
it seems appropriate to examine correlations between pod uwagę powyŜsze, wydaje się słuszne poszukiwanie
changes in current consumption and quality parameters zaleŜności pomiędzy zmianami poboru prądu a parametrami
of extruded products. Therefore, in order to confirm this jakościowymi wyrobów ekstrudowanych. Dlatego w celu
thesis a statistical analysis of the results obtained was potwierdzenia powyŜszej tezy przeprowadzono analizę
conducted. statystyczną uzyskanych wyników badań.
The following table 2 presents the results of ANOVA W poniŜszej tabeli 2 zamieszczono wyniki analizy
analysis, which show that the variation of all the ANOVA, które pokazują, Ŝe zmienność wszystkich
parameters analyzed, that is the rate of radial expansion analizowanych parametrów, czyli wskaźnika ekspansji
and the color indices L*, a*, b*, was statistically significant radialnej oraz wskaźników barwy L*, a*, b*, była istotne
(p<0.05). While in the case of radial expansion and the statystycznie (p<0,05). Przy tym w przypadku ekspansji
color index b* it was found that the effect of current radialnej i wskaźnika barwy b* stwierdzono, Ŝe wpływ
intensity has a linear course, and in the case of color natęŜenia prądu miał przebieg liniowy, natomiast w
indices a* and b* the course found was linear and przypadku wskaźników barwy a* i b* stwierdzono przebieg
quadratic. liniowy i kwadratowy.
Table 2
Anova table with important factors for p<0.05 /
Radial ekspansion [-] ( R2-0.2965)
Factor
SS df MS F p
Current 1.6598 1 1.6598 3.0893 0.07982
Current2 3.9824 1 3.9824 7.4121 0.00685*
Error 162.7945 303 0.5373
Całk. SS 167.7604 305
L* ( R2-0.2384)
403
Current 75.207 1 75.207 3.8342 0.05114

Current2 81.484 1 81.4844 4.1542 0.0424*
Error 5943.312 303 19.6149
Całk. SS 6128.638 305
a* ( R2-0.2834)
Current 71.785 / 1 71.7853 23.0469 0.000002*
Current2 34.048 1 34.0481 10.9313 0.00106*
Error 943.769 303 3.1148
Całk. SS 1036.534 305
b* ( R2-0.2879)
Current 123.883 1 123.8833 13.4455 / 0.00029*/ 0,00029*
Current2 208.241 1 208.2406 22.6011 0.000003*/ 0,000003*
Error 2791.762 303 9.2137
Całk. SS 3081.140 305
*- Significant difference at the level of, p < 0,05
The results of above analysis are shown on a three- Wyniki powyŜszej analizy przedstawiono za pomocą
dimensional graphs presenting the changes in electric trójwymiarowych wykresów przedstawiających zmiany
current as a function of radial expansion [ER] and the color natęŜenia prądu w funkcji ekspansji radialnej [ER] oraz
indices L*, a*, b*. The graph in Figure 6 shows electric wskaźników barwy L*, a*, b*. Na wykresie rys. 6 pokazano
current changes as a function of index L* and the ER. In zmiany natęŜenia prądu elektrycznego w funkcji wskaźnika
the figure it can be seen that ER index increases with barwy L* oraz ER. Na rysunku moŜna zaobserwować, Ŝe
increasing current reaching a maximum value of ER wskaźnik ER zwiększa się wraz ze wzrostem natęŜenia prądu,
amounting 5-6 [-]. At the same time it can be observed that osiągając maksymalne wartości ER wynoszące ok. 5-6 [-].
with the ER increase, product brightness L* increases too. Jednocześnie moŜna zaobserwować, Ŝe wraz ze wzrostem ER
Moreover, there can also be noticed a sudden downward zwiększa się równieŜ jasność produktu L*. Na wykresie moŜna
inflection in the graph (a decrease of electric current), równieŜ zaobserwować nagłe przegięcie wykresu ku dołowi
where the product reached the highest rate of ER = 6.5 [-] (spadek natęŜenia prądu elektrycznego), gdzie produkt osiągał
and the sudden reduction in the brightness L*, which was najwyŜszy wskaźnik ER = 6,5 [-] oraz nagłe zmniejszenie
probably associated with the local overheating of the jasności L*, które związane było prawdopodobnie z lokalnym
material in the extruder. przegrzewaniem się materiału w ekstruderze.
Fig. 6 - Changes in the current as a function of changes in L* and Fig. 7 - Changes in the current as a function of changes in the
the radial expansion coefficient color index a* and radial expansion
Although the color values of a* and b* were in most Pomimo, Ŝe wartości parametrów barwy a* i b* mieściły
cases within UCL and LCL lines, on the approximated się w większości przypadków granicach linii UCL i LCL, na
graphs some course trends can be observed. It was aproksymowanych wykresach moŜna zaobserwować
found that in the case of graph on Figure 7, the value pewne trendy przebiegu. Stwierdzono, Ŝe w przypadku
of the parameter a* slightly increased with the wykresu na rys. 7, wartość parametru a* nieznacznie
decrease in current. Simultaneously with the increase zwiększała się wraz ze zmniejszeniem natęŜenia prądu.
in the ER, no significant changes were noticed in this Jednocześnie wraz ze wzrostem ER nie zaobserwowano
parameter. znaczących zmian tego parametru.
Analyzing the changes in the parameter b* (Fig. 8), it Analizując zmiany parametru b* (rys. 8), moŜna było z
could be concluded that the parameter has been changing kolei stwierdzić, Ŝe wskaźnik zmieniał się wraz z zmianami
along with changes in current drawn by the extruder. Most natęŜenia prądu pobieranego przez ekstruder. Najbardziej
significantly, however, the changes were observed at small wyraźnie zmiany obserwowano jednak przy małych
values of the parameter b* from about 0-10, and for the wartościach parametru b* od około 0-10 oraz dla
products whose ER was about 2-3.5. produktów, których ER wynosiła około 2-3,5.
404
Fig. 8 - Changes in current intensity as a function of color changes b* and the rate of radial expansion
CONCLUSIONS WNIOSKI
1. The results achieved allowed to conclude that 1. Uzyskane wyniki badań powalają stwierdzić, Ŝe
observation and direct analysis of the extrusion process obserwacja i bezpośrednia analiza przebiegu procesu
using vision systems can be a sensitive instrument ekstruzji za pomocą systemów wizyjnych moŜe stanowić
supporting the extrusion process control. This is shown by czuły przyrząd wspomagający sterowanie procesem
changes in the obtained results, the radial expansion ekstruzji. Wskazują na to uzyskane wyniki badań zmian
coefficient and the color coefficients (Lab) of products wskaźnika ekspansji radialnej i barwy (Lab) produktów
measured directly at the outlet extruder’s nozzle and mierzonej bezpośrednio przy dyszy wylotowej ekstrudera
simultaneously recorded changes in the intensity of electric oraz równolegle rejestrowane zmiany natęŜenia prądu
current drawn by the extruder’s engine. elektrycznego pobieranego przez silnik ekstrudera.
2. The initial use of control charts to present and 2. Wstępne zastosowanie kart kontrolnych do przedstawienia i
analyze the results of changes in electric current and the analizy uzyskanych wyników zmian natęŜenia prądu elektrycznego
quality parameters of the extrudate (corn - buckwheat) oraz parametrów jakościowych ekstrudatu (kukurydziano –
looks very promising. It should be noted, however, that gryczanego) wygląda bardzo obiecująco. NaleŜy jednak
setting the appropriate value of the UCL and LCL for the zaznaczyć, Ŝe ustawienie odpowiednich wartości UCL i LCL w
extrusion process may require probably carrying out a przypadku procesu ekstruzji moŜe wymagać prawdopodobnie
series of preliminary studies. przeprowadzenia szeregu badań przedwstępnych.
3. The results presented in the approximated surface 3. Uzyskane wyniki przedstawione na wykresach aproksymowanych
responses graphs suggest that even in a stable process it powierzchni odpowiedzi sugerują, Ŝe w nawet w ustabilizowanym
can be traced to certain trends. Estimation of process procesie moŜna doszukiwać się pewnych trendów. Oszacowanie
variables describing its correct course may allow the wartości wielkości procesowych opisujących prawidłowy jego
determination of the optimal threshold values describing przebieg moŜe pozwolić na optymalne ustalenie wartości
the quality of the obtained products. progowych opisujących jakość uzyskiwanych wyrobów.
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composition on the functional, physical and sensory wsadu na funkcjonalne, fizyczne i sensoryczne
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29 (2), 151-164; Preservation, 29 (2), 151-164;
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during extrusion-cooking of precooked pasta. Teka Komisji podczas ekstruzji preparowanego makaronu. Teka Komisji
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University of Life Sciences, 63. Sciences, 63.
406
FREE SURFACE EQUATION OF BEER WORT IN A ROTAPOOL

/
ECUAłIA SUPRAFEłEI LIBERE A MUSTULUI DE BERE ÎN ROTAPOOL
Prof. PhD. Eng. Biriş S.Şt., PhD. Eng. VlăduŃ V., As. PhD. Stud. Eng. Ungureanu N.,
Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Begea M., As. PhD. Stud. Eng. Ionescu M.,
Universities Polytechnic Bucharest, Faculty of Biotechnical Systems Engineering / Romania
Tel: 0744756832; E-mail: biris.sorinstefan@gmail.com
Abstract: In this paper is presented a mathematical Rezumat: În cadrul acestei lucrări, este prezentat un
model that allows an analytical description of the free model matematic care permite descrierea analitică a
surface of the beer wort in a rotapool. The free surface suprafeŃei libere a mustului de bere în rotapool.
of the beer wort in the rotapool has the equation of a SuprafaŃa liberă a mustului de bere în rotapool are
rotation paraboloid. The developed mathematical ecuaŃia unui paraboloid de rotaŃie. Modelul matematic
model has allowed, using the Microsoft Excel program, elaborat a permis, folosind programul Microsoft Excel,
plotting variation graphs after radial direction of the trasarea graficelor de variaŃie după direcŃia radială a
liquid height, for different supply conditions of beer înălŃimii lichidului, pentru diverse condiŃii de alimentare cu
wort and different typo-dimensional vessels. must de bere şi diverse tipo-dimensiuni de vase.
Keywords: mathematical model, rotapool, free surface, Cuvinte cheie: model matematic, rotapool, suprafaŃa liberă,
beer wort, hydrodynamic process must de bere, proces hidrodinamic
Beer wort boiled with hops contains hops draff in Mustul de bere fiert cu hamei conŃine în suspensie borhotul
suspension and precipitates formed during wort boiling, de hamei şi precipitate formate în timpul fierberii mustului,
which is called ”hot trub”, with particles of 30-80 µm, care poartă denumirea de ”trub la cald”, având particule de
containing a quantity of 40-80 g d.s./hl of wort [3,4]. 30-80 µm, fiind în cantitate de 40-80 g s.u. / hl must [3,4].
Hot trub can be separated by sedimentation, Trubul la cald se poate separa prin sedimentare,
centrifugation, filtration or, more commonly, by a process centrifugare, filtrare sau, cel mai adesea, printr-un
of complex hydrodynamic separation in a vessel called procedeu de separare hidrodinamică complexă, într-un
rotapool (Fig. 1), cylindrical-shaped and closed, into vas numit rotapool (Fig. 1), care este de formă cilindrică,
which the hot wort is introduced tangentially at velocities închis, în care mustul fierbinte este introdus tangenŃial cu
of up to 5 m/s through a connection (nozzle) 1, located in viteze de până la 5 m/s printr-un racord (duză) 1, situată
the lower third of the vessel. The vessel body and bottom în treimea inferioară a vasului. Corpul şi fundul vasului
are isolated, in order to maintain a high temperature 6 of sunt izolate, pentru a menŃine temperatura ridicată a
the wort in the process of trub separation, through mustului 6 în procesul de separare a trubului, prin
isolation 2. intermediul unei izolaŃii 2.
8
9
7
2
6
5
1
4 3
Fig. 1 – Vessel for hydrodynamic separation of hot trub from the beer wort
After 20-40 minutes, as long as it takes the separation Dup ă 20-40 minute, cât durează procesul de
process [3, 4], the wort is discharged through the separare [3, 4], mustul este evacuat prin racordul 3,
connection 3, while trub 5 accumulated at the bottom of iar trubul 5 depus pe fundul vasului, este evacuat prin
the vessel is discharged through the connection 4, mixed racordul 4, în amestec cu apa de sp ă lare introdusă în
with the washing water introduced into the vessel through vas prin racordul 9. Vasul mai este prevă zut cu un
the connection 9. The vessel is also fitted with a basket 8 co ş 8 pentru evacuarea aburului secundar ş i cu un
for secondary steam evacuation and a sight 7. vizor 7.
407
Due to the complex hydrodynamic process taking Datorită procesului hidrodinamic complex care se desfăşoară
place in the rotapool, the free surface of beer wort is not în rotapool, suprafaŃa liberă a mustului de bere nu este
plane, having the shape of a rotation paraboloid. plană, ci este de forma unui paraboloid de revoluŃie.
The isolation of the vessel walls must cover entirely IzolaŃia pereŃilor vasului trebuie să acopere întreaga
the contact surface between wort and walls, in order to suprafaŃă de contact dintre must şi pereŃi, pentru a
reduce heat exchange with the outside environment and reduce schimbul de căldură cu mediul înconjurător şi
to maintain a high temperature of the wort in the vessel. pentru a menŃine temperatura ridicată a mustului în
But, during the working process, the height of the liquid vas. Dar, în procesul de lucru, înălŃimea lichidului pe
on the lateral walls increases, so, due to that fact, at pereŃii laterali creşte şi de aceea, în prezent, vasele au
present, isolation width remains constant up to the top of izolaŃii cu aceeaşi grosime până la partea superioară a
the vessel. vasului.
Deducting the free surface equation of the liquid in the Deducându-se ecuaŃia suprafeŃei libere a lichidului în
rotapool, the maximum height of the liquid in the vessel rotapool se va putea deduce care este înălŃimea maximă
walls can be inferred, from which the above no longer a lichidului pe pereŃii vasului, de la care în sus nu se mai
requires an isolation of the same consistency. impune o izolaŃie de aceeaşi consistenŃă.
THEORETICAL ELEMENTS ELEMENTE TEORETICE

The equation defining the shape of the free surface of EcuaŃia care defineşte forma suprafeŃei libere a
beer wort in the rotapool can be deduced based on the mustului de bere în rotapool se deduce pe baza
following assumptions: următoarelor ipoteze:
- the effect of beer wort viscosity is neglected; - se neglijează efectul vâscozităŃii mustului de bere;
- the velocity of beer wort is maximum near the wall, - viteza mustului de bere în zona peretelui este
being directly proportional with the horizontal maximă, fiind direct proporŃională cu componenta
component of liquid input velocity in the vessel; orizontală a vitezei de introducere a mustului în vas;
- the study refers to the final stage of trub separation - studiul se referă la etapa finală a procesului de
process, when the volume of liquid in the vessel separare a trubului, când volumul de lichid din vas
reaches the nominal value. ajunge la valoarea nominală.
The wort is placed in the lower third of the vessel, Mustul este introdus în vas în treimea inferioară,
tangential to its body, with velocity vl=2-5 m/s and an tangenŃial la corpul acestuia, cu viteza vl=2-5 m/s şi sub
angle α = 15°, supply that prints a rotation movement of un unghi α = 15°, alimentare care imprim ă o mişcare de
the liquid in the vessel, forming upward currents in the rotaŃie a lichidului în vas, luând naştere curenŃi
central area of the vessel and descending currents at the ascensionali la partea centrală a vasului şi coborâtori la
periphery, transporting and deposing trub particles in the periferie, care transportă şi depun particulele de trub în
central area of the vessel bottom (Fig. 2). partea centrală a fundului vasului (Fig. 2).
ω
h1
h2
z1
z0 H
D
Fig. 2 – Calculus model for the free surface of the wort in the rotapool
Theoretical tangential velocity of the liquid in the Viteza teoretică tangenŃială a lichidului în vas, la
vessel, on its periphery, is calculated from velocity vl, periferia acestuia, se calculează în funcŃie de viteza vl, de
angle α and a decrease coefficient of the velocity in the unghiul α şi un coeficient de scădere a vitezei lichidului în
vessel k=0,3-0,5, with the equation: vas k=0,3-0,5, cu relaŃia:
v = k ⋅ v l ⋅ cos α = R ⋅ ω (1)
from which it results the angular velocity of the liquid in din care rezultă viteza unghiulară a lichidului în vas:
the vessel:
k ⋅ v l ⋅ cos α
ω= (2)
R
On the free surface of the beer wort (Fig. 3) are acting Pe suprafaŃa liberă a mustului de bere (Fig. 3)
408
the centrifugal force Fc and weight G: acŃionează forŃa centrifugă Fc şi greutatea G:
Fc = m ⋅ r ⋅ ω2 (3)
G = m⋅g (4)
with the resultant N normal to the surface (Fig. 3). care au rezultanta N normală la suprafaŃă (Fig. 3).
z
ω
Fc
θ
G N
z r
Fig. 3 – Force components
dr
dz
r
Fig. 4 – Element on the free surface of liquid
From figures 3 and 4, equation (5) can be written: Analizând figurile 3 şi 4 se poate scrie relaŃia:
Fc m ⋅ r ⋅ ω2 r ⋅ ω2 dz
tgθ = = = = (5)
G m⋅g g dr
Considering that the velocity distribution is linear: Considerând distribuŃia de viteze liniară:
v = r⋅ω (6)
it results: rezultă:
r ⋅ ω2
dz = ⋅ dr (7)
g
By integrating relation (7) it results: Prin integrarea relaŃiei (7) rezultă:
r ⋅ ω2 ω2
∫ dz = ∫ g
⋅ dr =
g ∫
⋅ r ⋅ dr (8)
respectively: respectiv:
r 2 ⋅ ω2
z − z0 = (9)
2⋅g
so the free surface equation of the beer wort in the din care rezultă ecuaŃia suprafeŃei libere a mustului de
rotapool has the following form: bere în rotapool sub forma:
409
ω2 2
z = z0 + ⋅r (10)
2⋅ g
equivalent to the equation: care este echivalentă cu ecuaŃia:
ω2
z = z0 + ⋅ (x 2 + y 2 ) (11)
2⋅ g
z0 can be deduced from the following conditions: Valoarea z0 se deduce punând condiŃiile:
ω2
r = R ⇒ z = H + h1 = z 0 + ⋅ R2 (12)
2⋅ g
r = 0 ⇒ z = z 0 = H − h2 (13)
h1 = h2 (14)
it results: din care rezultă:
ω2
z0 = H − ⋅ R2 (15)
4⋅ g
Given the relation (15), equations (10) and (11) will łinând cont de relaŃia (15), ecuaŃiile (10) şi (11) vor
have the final form: avea forma finală:
ω2 ⋅ R 2  r2 
z=H− ⋅ 1 − 2 ⋅ 2 
 (16)
4⋅ g  R 
ω2 ⋅ R 2  x2 + y2 
z=H− ⋅ 1 − 2 ⋅ 
 (17)
4⋅ g  R2 
PRACTICAL USE APLICAłIE
The mathematical model developed in this paper has Modelul matematic elaborat în cadrul prezentei lucrări a
allowed obtaining data which were processed in permis obŃinerea unor date care au fost prelucrate în Microsoft
Microsoft Excel and plotting variation graphs after radial Excel şi au permis trasarea graficelor de variaŃie după
direction of the height of the points on the free surface direcŃia radială a înălŃimii punctelor de pe suprafaŃa liberă a
of beer wort, for various supply conditions of beer wort mustului de bere, pentru diverse condiŃii de alimentare cu
and various typo-dimensional vessels. must de bere şi diverse tipo-dimensiuni de vase.
Three different vessels were studied, with diameters of Au fost studiate trei vase diferite, având diametru de
3 m, 2 m and 1 m, for which, in all cases, the liquid height 3m, 2 m şi 1 m, la care, în toate cazurile, înălŃimea H a
H was 1 m. The liquid input velocity in the vessel was lichidului a fost de 1 m. Viteza de introducere a lichidului
3m/s, 4 m/s and 5 m/s. în vas a fost de 3 m/s, 4 m/s şi 5 m/s.
Variations in liquid height after radial direction in the VariaŃia înălŃimii lichidului după direcŃia radială în cele trei
three vessels, for three different input velocities of beer vase studiate, pentru cele trei viteze diferite de introducere a
wort in the rotapool, are shown in figures 5 and 6. mustului de bere în rotapool, este prezentată în figurile 5 şi 6.
1 ,2 0
1 ,1 0
z [m]
1 ,0 0
v _ l= 3 m /s
0 ,9 0 v _ l= 4 m /s
v _ l= 5 m /s
0 ,8 0
0 ,0 0 0 ,5 0 1 ,0 0 1 ,5 0
r [m ]
1,2 0
1,1 0
z [m]
1,0 0
v_ l= 3 m /s
0,9 0
v_ l= 4 m /s
v_ l= 5 m /s
0,8 0
0,0 0 0,2 5 0,50 0,75 1,00
r [m ]
410
1,20
1,10
z [m]
1,00
v_l=3 m/s
0,90
v_l=4 m/s
v_l=5 m/s
0,80
0,00 0,13 0,25 0,38 0,50
r [m ]
Fig. 5 – Variation in liquid height after radial direction in vessels of radius R=1,5 m, R=1 m, R=0,5 m,
for three velocities vl
1,20
1,10
z [m]
1,00
R=1,5 m
0,90 R=1 m
R=0,5 m
0,80
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50
r [m]
1,20
1,10
z [m]
1,00
R=1,5 m
0,90 R=1 m
R=0,5 m
0,80
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50
r [m]
1,20
1,10
z [m]
1,00
R=1,5 m
0,90 R=1 m
R=0,5 m
0,80
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50
r [m ]
Fig. 6 – Variation in liquid height after radial direction, after entering the vessel
with velocities vl=3 m/s, vl=4 m/s, vl=5 m/s, for three radius R
The free surface equation of beer wort in the EcuaŃia suprafeŃei libere a mustului de bere în
rotapool, deduced in this paper, has the expressions rotapool, dedusă în cadrul prezentei lucrări, are expresia
(16), respectively (17), representing a rotation (16) respectiv (17), reprezentând un paraboloid de
paraboloid. rotaŃie.
Figures 5 and 6 show that regardless of the vessel Din figurile 5 şi 6 rezultă că indiferent de diametrul
diameter, for the same liquid height H and the same vasului, pentru aceeaşi înălŃime H a lichidului şi aceeaşi
liquid input velocity in the vessel vl, the maximum beer viteză de introducere a lichidului în vas vl, înălŃimea
wort height in the rotapool is the same. maximă a mustului de bere în rotapool este aceeaşi.
[1]. Kiselev P.G., (1988) - Directory for hydraulic [1]. Kiselev P.G., (1988) - Îndreptar pentru calcule
calculations, Technical Publishing House, Bucharest. hidraulice, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
411
2. Narziβ L., (1980) - Abriβ der Bierbrauerei, Ferdinand 2. Narziβ L., (1980) – Tehnologii de fabricare a berii,
Enke Verlag, Stuttgart. Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart.
[3]. Stroia I., Biriş S.Şt., Begea M., (1998) - Equipment for [3]. Stroia I., Biriş S.Şt., Begea M., (1998) - Utilaje pentru
malt and beer, CISON Publishing House, Bucharest. industria malŃului şi a berii, Editura CISON, Bucureşti.
[4]. ***, (1999) - Handbook of Food Engineer, Vol. 2, [4]. ***, (1999) - Manualul inginerului de industrie
Technical Publishing House, Bucharest. alimentară, Vol. 2, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
412
EPLAINING OF THE PHENOMENON OF SEPARATION INTO FRACTIONS OF A MIXTURE OF

PARTICULATE MATTER APPLYING THE PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM ENERGY
/
EXPLICAREA FENOMENULUI DE SEPARARE ÎN FRACłII A UNUI AMESTEC DE PARTICULE
MATERIALE ÎN BAZA APLICĂRII PRINCIPIULUI ENERGIEI MINIME
Prof.PhD.Eng. Paraschiv G., Prof.PhD.Eng. Manole C.
Tel: 0727378361; E-mail: constantinmanole@ymail.com
Abstract: The paper explains, on the basis of the Rezumat: În lucrare se explică, în baza principiului
minimum power principle, the phenomenon of layering a energiei minime, fenomenul de stratificare a unui
mixture of material particles (especially seeds of cereals) amestec de particule materiale (în particular a seminŃelor
maintained under an oscillating motion, with or without de cereale) supus unei mişcări de oscilaŃie întreŃinute, cu
the action of a stream of air. This phenomenon of sau fără acŃiunea unui curent de aer. Fenomenul de
separation into fractions is also generalized on a mass of separare în fracŃii se generalizează şi asupra unei mase
particles with the same specific weight, but with different de particule de aceeaşi greutate specifică dar de
sizes, an untreated aspect, in this form, in the specific dimensiuni diferite, aspect netratat, sub această formă, în
literature. literatura de specialitate.
Keywords: minimum energy principle, seed mixture, Cuvinte cheie: principiul energiei minime, amestec de
unstable technical system, unstable equilibrium, vibrating seminŃe, sistem tehnic nestabilizat, echilibru instabil, suprafaŃă
flat surface, equivalent pyramid, fluidized bed plană vibratoare, piramidă echivalentă, strat fluidizat
The great majorities of agricultural products, but also Marea majoritate a produselor agricole, dar şi o parte
those resulting from various industries, represent din cele rezultate din diferite industrii sunt amestecuri
mixtures consisting of material particles with different formate din particule materiale cu proprietăŃi fizico-
physico-mechanical features [3, 6]. mecanice diferite [3, 6].
Their processing through different separation methods Prelucrarea lor prin diferite metode de separare se
is made in the scope of bringing these at the level of the face în scopul aducerii acestora la nivelul condiŃiilor
conditions imposed by standards, the norms imposed in prescrise în standarde, în normele impuse de consum
consumption or the requirements of prior processing and sau de cerinŃele proceselor ulterioare de prelucrare şi
storage operations [4]. depozitare [4].
Filtering [1] is a process of separation in more Sortarea [1] este o operaŃie de separare în mai multe
fractions (three, four etc.) according to specific criteria fracŃii (trei, patru etc.), după anumite criterii (dimensiuni,
(dimension, weight, color etc.), regarding components of greutate, culoare etc.) a componentelor de aceeaşi
the same nature of an agricultural products mixture found natură ale unui amestec de produse agricole aflate în
in the same state of granulation, fragments etc. (seeds, stare de granule, bucăŃi etc. (seminŃe, tubercule de
potato tubers, fruit etc.). cartofi, fructe ş.a.).
Filtering is made in the scope of obtaining uniform Sortarea se face în scopul obŃinerii unor fracŃii
fractions in size, shape, weight etc., for the prior uniforme ca mărime, formă, greutate, culoare etc., pentru
processes such as: sowing with machines provided with a putea fi efectuate mai uşor, mai precis şi cu mai mare
special distribution machinery, industrial processing, randament, operaŃiile ulterioare, precum: însămânŃarea
packaging etc., to be conducted easier, more accurate cu maşini prevăzute cu aparate de distribuŃie speciale;
and with a greater performance, or for commercial prelucrarea industrială; împachetarea etc., sau în scopuri
purpose [2]. comerciale [2].
Filtering machines are built and work according to Maşinile de sortat sunt construite şi funcŃionează după
different principles, depending on the product following to principii diverse, în funcŃie de produsul ce se sortează şi
be filtered and the filtering criterion [5]. Thus, the majority de criteriul de sortare [5]. Astfel, majoritatea seminŃelor
of seeds can be filtered depending on their dimension by pot fi sortate după dimensiuni cu ajutorul sitelor sau
way of sifters or sorters. trioarelor.
Sifters with circular orifices filter the seeds according Sitele cu orificii circulare sortează seminŃele după
to width (the average size), those with elongated orifices lăŃime (dimensiunea medie), cele cu orificii alungite
filter the seeds according to thickness (the minimal size), sortează seminŃele după grosime (dimensiunea minimă),
and the alveolar sorters filter the seeds according to iar trioarele cu alveole sortează seminŃele după lungime
length (the maximum size). (dimensiunea maximă).
Given the specific weight and the aerodynamic După greutatea specifică şi rezistenŃa aerodinamică,
resistance, the seeds can be filtered by means of air seminŃele pot fi sortate cu ajutorul curentului de aer
stream (pneumatic filtering), water or some type of (sortare pneumatică), cu ajutorul apei sau al unor soluŃii
solutions (hydraulic filtering), or air vibrator masses. (sortare hidraulică) sau cu ajutorul meselor pneumovibratorii.
The air vibrator mass is a part of a seed filtering Masa pneumovibratoare este un subansamblu din
machine depending on the specific mass, consisting of a cadrul maşinii de sortat seminte după greutatea
sifter with vibratory motion, under which one or more fans specifică, format dintr-o sită cu mişcare vibratorie sub
creating an air stream passing through the sifter’s orifices care se găsesc unul sau mai multe ventilatoare care
can be found, operating upon the seeds, without creează un curent de aer ce trece prin orificiile sitei,
detaching them of the sifter’s surface though. The sifter is acŃionând asupra seminŃelor, fără însă a le desprinde de
sloped both lengthwise and transversely. Due to the suprafaŃa acesteia. Sita este înclinată atât în plan
413
vibratory motion and the air stream’s action, the seeds longitudinal, cât şi în plan transversal. Datorită mişcării
filter according to the specific weight, being separately vibratorii şi acŃiunii curentului de aer, seminŃele se separă
collected. după greutatea specifică, fiind colectate separat.
The Minimum Energy Principle Principiul energiei minime

It is known that if in an elementary filtering system Este cunoscut faptul că, dacă într-un sistem elementar
(screen, sifter etc.) there is a mixture of objects relatively de sortare (ciur, sită etc.) avem un amestec de corpuri de
uniform in dimensions but with different specific weights dimensiuni relativ uniforme, dar de greutăŃi specifice
(such as pebbles, lead shots, corn grains), and subject to diferite (de ex. pietricele, alice de plumb, boabe de
oscillatory motion, these will stratify in such a way that porumb etc.) şi le supunem unei mişcări de oscilaŃie,
the objects with the bigger specific weight (the lead acestea se vor stratifica astfel încât corpurile cu
shots) will occupy the inferior part, and the other greutatea specifică cea mai mare (alicele de plumb) vor
components will occupy the following positions, stratifying ocupa partea inferioară, iar celelalte componente vor
according to their specific weight, in downward direction ocupa poziŃiile următoare, stratificându-se după
[3]. greutatea specifică, în sens descrescător al acesteia [3].
This type of placing is based on the “minimum energy Acest mod de dispunere are la bază „principiul
principle” of an unstable technical system, according to energiei minime” a unui sistem tehnic nestabilizat,
which the objects will stratify in such a way that the conform că ruia corpurile se vor stratifica astfel încât
potential energy of the system to be minimal. By virtue of energia poten Ńială a sistemului să fie minimă . Astfel,
this principle, a solid object, found in unstable un corp solid, aflat în echilibru instabil, va tinde să
equilibrium, will seek to occupy a stable position, ocupe o pozi Ńie stabil ă, iar un amestec de corpuri
whereas a mixture of solid objects or immiscible liquids, solide sau lichide nemiscibile, supus unei mişc ări
subject to an oscillatory motion of a certain amplitude and oscilatorii de o anumită amplitudine ş i frecvenŃă, se va
frequency, will separate in fractions according. separa în fracŃii.

The stratification phenomenon of the material particles Fenomenul de stratificare a particulelor materiale (în
(especially of seeds) is carried by applying a continuous particular a seminŃelor) se realizează prin imprimarea
oscillatory motion to the seeds mass. In some cases, the unei mişcări de oscilaŃie întreŃinută masei de seminŃe. În
oscillatory motion of the surface with seeds is unele cazuri, mişcarea de oscilaŃie a planului pe care se
accompanied by the action of an air stream which află seminŃele este însoŃită de acŃiunea unui curent de
crosses the material layer subject to filtering, in a aer care străbate, în sens ascendent sau descendent,
downward or upward direction. stratul de material supus sortării.
In the case of filtering systems without air stream, La sistemele de sortare fără prezenŃa unui curent de
the seeds’ stratification can take place in the following aer, stratificarea seminŃelor poate avea loc în
cases: următoarele cazuri:
- the seeds have relatively uniform d1, d2, ..., di, ..., dn - seminŃele au dimensiuni d1, d2, ..., di, ..., dn relativ
dimensions, but different specific weights (γ1, γ2, ..., γi, uniforme, dar greutăŃi specifice (γ1, γ2, ..., γi, ..., γn)
..., γn); diferite;
- the seeds have irregular dimensions, but the same - seminŃele au dimensiuni neuniforme, dar aceeaşi
specific weight; greutate specifică;
- the seeds have irregular dimensions and different - seminŃele au dimensiuni neuniforme şi greutăŃi
specific weights, but their dimensions are inversely specifice diferite, dar dimensiunile acestora sunt în raport
proportional with their specific weights (particles with invers proporŃional cu greutăŃile lor specifice (particulele
small dimensions have bigger specific weights, and those de dimensiuni mici au greutăŃi specifice mai mari, iar cele
with bigger dimensions have smaller specific weights). In de dimensiuni mari au greutăŃi specifice mai mici). La
the case of filtering systems with an air stream, the above sistemele de sortare în prezenŃa unui curent de aer, la
cases are admissible only if also taking into account the fiecare din cazurile de mai sus se Ńine seama de influenŃa
direction of the air stream, whose direction is chosen curentului de aer, al cărui sens se alege convenabil
suitably to the filtering process. procesului de sortare.
The following cases can thus be identified: Se disting, astfel, următoarele cazuri:
- the seeds have relatively uniform dimensions and different - seminŃele au dimensiuni relativ uniforme şi greutăŃi
specific weights, and the air stream is directed upwards; specifice diferite, iar curentul de aer are sens ascendent;
- the seeds have irregular dimensions and the same - seminŃele au dimensiuni neuniforme şi aceeaşi
specific weight, and the air stream is directed greutate specifică, iar curentul de aer are sens
downwards; descendent;
- the seeds have irregular dimensions and different - seminŃele au dimensiuni neuniforme şi greutăŃi
specific weights (their dimensions are inversely specifice diferite (dimensiunile lor sunt în raport invers
proportional with their specific weights), and the air proporŃional faŃă de greutăŃile lor specifice, iar curentul de
stream is directed downwards. aer are sens descendent.
a) The case where di = k (constant), γi ≠ k a) Cazul di = k (constant), γi ≠ k

If the seeds have relatively uniform di dimensions and Dacă seminŃele au dimensiuni di relativ uniforme, iar
their specific weights are then different, when taking into greutăŃile lor specifice sunt diferite atunci, dacă se
account the mass of two seeds categories of a given consideră masa a două categorii de seminŃe dintr-un
volume, the seeds which have bigger specific weight will volum dat, seminŃele care au greutatea specifică mai
also have a bigger mass: mare vor avea şi masa mai mare:
414
The mass of seeds subject to filtering in an oscillatory Masa de seminŃe supusă sortării, aflată în mişcare de
motion stratifies based on the “minimum energy oscilaŃie, se stratifică pe baza „principiului energiei
principle”. minime”.
b) The case where di ≠ k; γi = k b) Cazul di ≠ k; γi = k

We assume that for a given volume we have material Să admitem că, într-un volum dat, avem particule
particles of a certain dimension; for another volume, materiale de o dimensiune oarecare; într-un alt volum,
equal to the first volume, we have particles with another egal cu primul, avem particule de o altă dimensiune.
dimension. We want to illustrate that for equal volumes, Vrem să demonstrăm că, la volume egale, particulele de
the particles with smaller dimensions fill better the area dimensiuni mai mici umplu mai bine spaŃiul în care se
where they can be found. află.
In order to simplify this, we will consider the particles Pentru simplificare, să considerăm că particulele au
have a spherical shape. forma sferică.
Let us consider R being the radius of a particle. In one Fie R, raza unei particule. Într-o unitate de volum în
unity of volume shaped as a square pyramid (fig. 1), with formă de piramidă pătrată (fig.1), cu latura bazei multiplu
the base side being a multiple of R, an N number of de R, va intra un număr N de sfere.
spheres will be able to fill the volume.
Fig. 1 - Particle pyramid
If on the square’s base side of the pyramid we have Dacă pe latura pătratului de bază al piramidei avem
“n” spheres, then the number of spheres from the inferior „n” sfere, atunci numărul de sfere din stratul inferior va fi
stratum will be n2. On the side of the second row we will n2. Pe latura celui de-al doilea rând vom avea „n-1”
have “n-1” spheres, and the number of spheres from this sfere, iar numărul de sfere din acest al doilea rând va fi
2
2
second row will be (n-1) etc. (n-1) etc.
The total number of spheres from the entire pyramid will be: Numărul total de sfere din întreaga piramidă va fi:
n ( n+ 1)( 2 n +1 )
N = n 2 + ( n −1 )2 + ( n − 2 )2 +...+ 3 2 + 2 2 + 12 = (2 )
6
For n = 6 spherical particles with the R radius, it Pentru n = 6 particule sferice de rază R, rezultă N =
results N = 91, with their volume: 91, iar volumul lor:
The height of the pyramid can be calculated based on Înălţimea piramidei se poate calcula pe baza
the following relationship: următoarei relaŃii:
H = 2R + (n-1)h (4)
where h is the distance, vertically measured, between the unde h este distanŃa, măsurată pe verticală, dintre
centers of the spheres displayed on two adjacent centrele sferelor dispuse în două straturi orizontale
horizontal layers. alăturate.
The height “h” can be determined if considering ÎnălŃimea „h” se determină considerând o altă
another pyramid, the latter having its peaks in the centers piramidă, aceasta din urmă având vârfurile în centrele a
of 5 adjacent spheres (fig. 1). It results from the right 5 sfere alăturate (fig.1). Din triunghiurile dreptunghice
triangles O3IO4, O3IO5 and AIO5 that: O3IO4, O3IO5 şi AIO5, rezultă:
R R 2
h = O5 I = = ( 5)
2 2
and the angle with the biggest slope of the lateral sides of iar unghiul de cea mai mare pantă al laturilor laterale ale
the pyramid: piramidei:
415
∧ R 2 2 π
α = IAO5 = a rctg = arctg = (6 )
2R 2 4
It results that: Rezultă
For n = 6, it results that: Pentru n = 6, rezultă:
We now assume we have a square pyramid, with the Să admitem acum o piramidă pătrată, cu aceeaşi
same base side and the same slope of the lateral sides, latură a bazei şi aceeaşi înclinare a feŃelor laterale, dar
but consisting of spheres with the radius r = R/2. formată din sfere de rază r = R/2.
In the pyramid formed of spheres with the radius r În piramida formată din sfere de rază r, vor fi N1 sfere:
there will be N1 spheres:
For n = 6, it results that: Pentru n = 6, rezultă:
The volume of the spheres with the radius r will be: Volumul sferelor de rază r va fi:
and the height of the pyramid consisting of these iar înălŃimea piramidei formată din aceste sfere:
spheres will be:
Let us consider VR the volume of a square pyramid Fie VR volumul unei piramide pătrate în care intră
capturing all the balls of radius R: toate bilele de rază R:
where a is the base side of the pyramid. unde a este latura bazei piramidei.
Similarly, the volume of the pyramid capturing all the Analog, volumul piramidei în care vor intra toate bilele
balls of radius r will be: de rază r va fi:
Let us now consider ε the ratio of the two square pyramids Fie acum ε raportul celor două piramide pătrate în care
capturing all the small balls, as well as all the larger balls: intră toate bilele mici, respectiv toate bilele mari:
It thus results that the balls of radius r = R/2 fill in a De aici rezultă că bilele de rază r=R/2 ocupă un volum
smaller volume than the balls of radius R, from which it mai mic decât bilele de rază R, deci şi particulele
also results that the irregular particles shaped quasi- neuniforme, de formă cvasi-sferică, de aceeaşi greutate
spherically, of the same specific weight, can stratify on
416
an animated densimetric mass with an oscillatory specifică, se pot stratifica pe o masă densimetrică
motion. Stratification will be made reversely to their animată în mişcare de oscilaŃie. Stratificarea se va face
dimensions, with the smallest particles filling the inferior în sens invers dimensiunilor lor, particulele cele mai mici
part of the seeds layer subject to filtering. ocupând partea inferioară a stratului de seminŃe supus
c) The case where di ≠ k, ≠ k; di is inversely sortării.
proportional to γi c) Cazul di ≠ k, γi ≠ k; di invers proporŃional cu γi
This case has an obvious explanation. Based on the
Acest caz este evident. În baza fenomenului analizat
phenomenon analyzed at b), here will also participate,
accordingly, the specific weights of the particles. la punctul b) participă, în consens, şi greutăŃile lor
d) The case of an upward vertical air stream; specifice.
di = k; γi ≠ k d) Cazul unui curent de aer vertical ascendent;
Having discussed case a) evidenced that the di = k; γi ≠ k
filtering of uniform dimensioned seeds and with different Punerea în discuŃie a cazului a) a evidenŃiat faptul că
specific weights is possible even without the influence sortarea seminŃelor de dimensiuni practic uniforme şi de
of an air stream. greutăŃi specifice diferite este posibilă chiar şi fără
In the case of a vertical air stream, this has a influenŃa unui curent de aer.
different effect on the seeds only if it acts upwards, În cazul existenŃei unui curent de aer vertical, acesta are asupra
compared to when it acts downwards. seminŃelor acŃiune diferită în situaŃia în care lucrează în sens
It is important to determine the direction of the air ascendent, faŃă de situaŃia în care lucrează în sens descendent.
stream favorable to filtering. In this sense, we will Este important s ă determin ă m sensul curentului
consider that upon a homogenous spherical material de aer favorabil sortă rii. Pentru aceasta, s ă
particle with the radius R and the density ρ = γ/g, an consideră m c ă asupra unei particule materiale sferice
upwards vertical air stream will operate. Upon the omogene, de rază R ş i densitate ρ = γ/g , ac Ńionează
particle (fig. 2), the dynamic pressure will operate, and un curent de aer vertical ascendent. Asupra particulei
subsequently the force: (fig. 2) ac Ńionează presiunea dinamic ă , respectiv
forŃ a.
where c is a coefficient of aerodynamic resistanc, ρa – air unde c este un coeficient de rezistenŃă aerodinamică, ρa
density and va – the speed of air. – densitatea aerului, iar va – viteza aerului.
Fig. 2 - The action of the airflow vertical ascending
Reversely, upon the particles will operate the gravity În sens invers, asupra particulei acŃionează forŃa de
force G = mg, where m is the mass of the particle. If the greutate G = mg, unde m este masa particulei. Dacă
forces F and G virtually have equal values, when forŃele F şi G au valori practic egale, lucrând în sensuri
operating reversely, their resultant is zero, and the contrarii rezultanta lor este nulă, iar particulei i se
particle will receive a fluidized state, favorable to free creează o stare o stare fluidizantă, favorabilă deplasării
movement under minimal impulses. Obviously, upon the libere sub impulsuri minime. Evident, asupra unei
particle with the density, γ1 > γ, a G1>G force will particule de densitate γ1 > γ, va acŃiona o forŃă G1>G, iar
operate, and the fluidized action of the air stream is less acŃiunea fluidizantă a curentului de aer este mai puŃin
definite. If the forces F and G work in the same pronunŃată. Dacă forŃele F şi G lucrează în acelaşi sens,
direction, the fluidization of the fractions from the seeds fluidizarea fracŃiilor din stratul de seminŃe supus sortării
layer subject to filtering is hampered, so the downwards este îngreunată, deci sensul descendent al curentului de
direction of the air stream is not indicated. aer nu este indicat.
The stratification phenomenon of the material Fenomenul de stratificare a particulelor materiale se
particles is carried by applying a continuous oscillatory realizează prin imprimarea unei mişcări de oscilaŃie
motion to the seeds mass. In some cases, the întreŃinută masei de seminŃe. În unele cazuri, mişcarea
oscillatory motion of the surface with seeds is de oscilaŃie a planului pe care se află seminŃele este
accompanied by the action of an air stream which însoŃită de acŃiunea unui curent de aer care străbate, în
crosses the material layer subject to filtering in a sens ascendent sau descendent, stratul de material
417
downward or upward direction. supus sortării.

În the paper are explained, applying minimum În cadrul lucrării s-a explicat, în baza principiului
energy principle, the stratification phenomenon of energiei minime, fenomenul de stratificare a unor
some material particles (especially of seeds) was particule materiale (în particular a seminŃelor) în situaŃia
discussed, in the case where a fluidization of the în care are loc sau nu, fluidizarea fracŃiilor din stratul de
fractions from the layer of seeds, subject to filtering, seminŃe supus sortării, sortarea după greutatea specifică
takes place or not. fiind un caz particular al stratificării particulelor.
[1]. Anghel Ş., Manole C., and others, (1972) - Dictionary of [1]. Anghel Ş., Manole C., ş.a., (1972) - DicŃionar de
Agricultural Mechanics, Publisher: Ceres, Bucharest. mecanică agricolă, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
[2]. Balc G., Oltean O., (2002) - The technique of [2]. Balc G., Oltean O. (2002) - Tehnica păstrării şi
preserving and primary processing of agricultural procesării primare a produselor agricole. Editura Alma-
products, Publisher: Alma-Mater, Cluj-Napoca. Mater, Cluj-Napoca.;
[3]. Manole C. (1986) - Seed sorting by specific weight, [3]. Manole C. (1986) - Sortarea seminŃelor după greutatea
PhD theses, Polytechnic Insitute of Bucharest; specifică, Teză de doctorat, Institutul Politehnic Bucureşti;
[4]. Ristea M. (2014) – Contribution to the Study of the [4]. Ristea M. (2014) - ContribuŃii la studiul procesului de
Process of Aerodynamic Separation of Solid Particles separare aerodinamică a amestecurilor de particule
Mixtures Applied in the Food Industry, Doctoral Thesis, solide, cu aplicaŃie în industria alimentară, Teză de
University “Vasile Alecsandri”, Bacau, Faculty of doctorat, Univ. „Vasile Alecsandri”, Bacău, Facultatea de
Engineering; inginerie;
[5]. Rus F. (2001) - Separation operations in the food [5]. Rus F., (2001) - OperaŃii de separare în industria
industry, Publisher: Editura Univ. „Transilvania”, Braşov; alimentară, Editura Univ. „Transilvania”, Braşov;
[6]. Stoica D., and others (2011) - Influence of [6]. Stoica D., ş.a., (2011) - InfluenŃa amplitudinii
oscilations amplitude of sieve on the screening process oscilaŃiilor sitei pentru investigarea procesului de
for a conical sieve with oscillatory circular motion, separare pe o sită conică cu mişcare circulară oscilatorie,
Journal of Engineering studies and research, Bacău. Journal of Engineering studies and research, Bacău.
418
CURRENT STAGE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON

EXTRACTION OF BIOLOGIC ACTIVE SUBSTANCES FROM MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC
PLANTS
/
STADIUL ACTUAL AL CERCETARILOR EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND EXTRACTIA
SUBSTANTELOR BIOLOGIC ACTIVE DIN PLANTE MEDICINALE SI AROMATICE
1) 1) 2)
PhD. Stud. Eng. Pruteanu A. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Muscalu A. , Assoc. Prof. PhD. Ferdes M. ,
1) 3)
PhD. Stud. Eng. Voicea I. , Lect. PhD. Eng. Popescu C.
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)Politehnica University of Bucharest / Romania; 3)SC HOFIGAL SA / Romania
Tel: 0740690268; E-mail: pruteanu_augustina@yahoo.com
Abstract: Medicinal plants represented from all times Rezumat: Plantele medicinale au reprezentat din toate
basic remedies for the treatment of various diseases. The timpurile remedii de baza pentru tratarea diferitelor
studies and research have shown that the therapeutic value afectiuni. Studiile si cercetarile au aratat ca valoarea lor
is due to the relations established between the chemical terapeutica se datoreaza relatiei stabilite intre structura
structure of the active substances extracted from the chimica a substantelor active extrase din materialul
medicinal vegetal material and the positive pharmacodynamic vegetal medicinal si actiunea farmacodinamica pozitivă pe
action that hey exert on the human body. Besides the active care acestea o exercita asupra organismului. Pe lângă
pharmacodynamic substances, some particular medicinal substantele active farmacodinamice, anumite plante
plants elaborate and aromatic substances. The plants medicinale elaborează şi substanŃe aromatice. Plantele
grouped in different families may present similar active grupate in familii diferite pot prezenta substanŃe active
substances, or plants closely related botanically may contain similare, sau plante foarte înrudite botanic pot conŃine
entirely different active substances. On the other hand, into substanŃe active complet diferite. Pe de altă parte, în
plants organs (rhizomes, roots, strains, herbie, leaves, organele plantelor (rizomi, rădăcini, tulpini, herba, frunze,
flowers and fruits) can exist chemical substances identical or flori sau fructe) pot exista substanŃe chimice identice sau
similar or completely different. This paper presents a similare sau complet diferite. In lucrare se prezinta o
synthesis of the current stage of the experimental research sinteza a stadiului actual al cercetarilor experimentale
regarding the types of biologically active substances privind tipurile de substante biologic active extrase din
extracted from the medicinal and aromatic plants. plantele medicinale si aromatice.
Keywords: extraction, medicinal and aromatic plants, Cuvinte cheie: extractie, plante medicinale si aromatice,
biologically active substances substante biologic active
The medicinal plants owe their phytotherapeutic action Speciile de plante medicinale işi datorează acŃiunea
to the presence of bioactive chemical compounds, called fitoterapeutică prezenŃei unor componente chimice bioactive,
bioactive substances, with effects on whole human or numite şi substante bioactive, cu efecte în metabolismul
animal body metabolism. Due to the presence of certain întregului organism uman sau animal. Datorita prezenŃei
bioactive substances, plants have specific effects, anumitor substante bioactive, plantele au efecte specifice,
enhanced by their synergistic action, with both food quality potenŃate prin acŃiunea lor sinergică, având atât calităŃi
and therapeutic or even preventive. [3] alimentare, cât şi terapeutice sau chiar preventive.[3]
Plants contain a variety of substances: [12] Plantele conŃin o gamă largă de substanŃe:[12]
- proteins, in which some structures of aminoacids - proteinele, la care unii aminoacizi din structură au
have essential character, a indispensable role in nutrition; caracter esenŃial, indispensabil, cu rol în nutriŃie;
- fats and similar substances (Lipoid) existing in - grăsimile şi substanŃele similare (lipoide), existente în
proteo-lipid complex sterols (phytosterols, ergosterol); complexe proteo-lipidice, steroli (fitosterol, ergosterol);
- carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides (glucose, - hidraŃii de carbon, de tipul monozaharidelor (glucoza,
mannose, fructose, sorbose), oligosaccharides (sucrose, manoza, fructoza, sorboza), oligozaharidelor (zaharoasa,
maltose), polysaccharides (starch, inulin, cellulose, maltoza), polizaharidelor (amidon, inulina, celuloza,
hemicellulose, pectins, mucilages). hemiceluloza, pectine, mucilagii).
Therapeutic action of a plant may be the cause of: a AcŃiunea terapeuticǎ a unei plante se poate datora:
single substance, usually organic; a group of unei singure substante, de regula organica; unui grup de
substances with the same basic structure or a complex substante cu aceeasi structura de baza sau unui complex
formed from the phytochemical governing principle and fitochimic format dintr-un principiu dominant si principii
side principles [2]. secundare.[2]
Vitamins are active organic substances, low quantity, Vitaminele sunt substanŃe organice active, cantitativ
required for normal development of the organism, which reduse, necesare dezvoltării normale a organismului, care
meet specific catalytic functions, involved in the indeplinesc funcŃii catalitice specifice, intervin în
exchange of substances influencing the uptake and schimburile de substanŃe, influenŃează asimilarea şi
utilization of proteins, fats and sugars. 30 vitamins are utilizarea proteinelor, a grăsimilor şi zaharurilor. Se cunosc
known, of which 20 are introduced into the organism 30 de vitamine, dintre care 20 sunt introduse în corp prin
through food. Insufficient or lack translates to hypo or hrană. InsuficienŃa sau lipsa lor se traduce prin hipo- sau
avitaminosis. [12] avitaminoză. [12]
Vitamins have very important roles in the organism Vitaminele au în organism roluri foarte importante, fie
either coenzymes, enzymatic activators or biocatalysts in de coenzime, fie de activatori enzimatici, sau de
oxidoreduction reactions, helping to metabolize biocatalizatori în reacŃiile de oxidoreducere, contribuind la
carbohydrates, of proteins and lipids. [11] metabolizarea glucidelor, protidelor şi lipidelor.[11]
419
Mineral substances, in the form of salts, are essential SubstanŃele minerale, sub formă de săruri, sunt
to the physiological processes of the human and animal indispensabile în procesele fiziologice ale metabolismului
metabolism [12]. uman şi animal.[12]
Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing compounds, used in Alcaloizii sunt compuşi care conŃin azot, folosiŃi în
medicine with beneficial effect, in pure state, in small medicină cu efect benefic, în stare pură, în doze mici, dar
doses, but when the dose is higher can become poisons. atunci când doza este mai mare pot deveni otrăvuri.[12]
[12] Chelidonine, homochelidonina sparteine, protopine Chelidonina, homochelidonina, sparteina, protopina din
of celandine, rubijervina, protoveratrina , veratramina of rostopască, rubijervina, protoveratrina, veratramina din
stirigoaie, eritricina of centaury etc., acting on the stirigoaie, eritricina din Ńintaură etc., au acŃiune asupra
digestive organs, respiratory, cardio - vascular, nervous organelor digestive, respiratorii, aparatului cardio -
system [3]. vascular, sistemului nervos [3].
Bitter substances are substances that are found in SubstanŃele amare, sunt substante care se gasesc intr-
large numbers in plants, they taste bitter, excite the taste un numar foarte mare in plante, au gust amar, excita
cells, stimulate appetite and the secretion of gastric juices celulele gustative, stimuleaza pofta de mancare si secretia
and have antibacterial properties and insecticides. From sucurilor gastrice si au proprietati antibacteriene si
the chemical point of view, they have a complex insecticide. Din punct de vedere chimic, au o compozitie
composition and some glucosides are falling within. [11] complexă în care intră şi unele glucozide. [11]
Glycosides (heterosides) are organic compounds Glicozidele (heterozidele), sunt compuşi organici
composed of a carbohydrate component (glicon) and one alcătuiŃi dintr-o componentă glucidică (glicon) şi una
neglucidică (aglycone), such as aldehydes, saponins, neglucidică (aglicon), de tipul aldehidelor, saponinelor,
flavones, terpenes, which gives the taste and flavor of flavonelor, terpenelor, care conferă gust şi arome unor
herbs and antibacterial. plante, precum şi acŃiune antibacteriană.
Some glycosides are substances from the secondary Unele glicozide sunt substanŃe rezultate din metabolismul
metabolism of nitrogen and are designed to ensure secundar al azotului şi au rolul de a asigura transportul şi
transport and enter the organism of an aglycone, which pătrunderea în organism a unui aglicon, care dă efectul
gives therapeutic effect. Their aglycone can be steroid or terapeutic. Agliconul lor poate fi steroid sau triterpenoidă şi
triterpenoid and has diuretic action. Antraglicozidele are acŃiune diuretică. Antraglicozidele, prezente mai ales în
present especially Fabaceae, Rhamnaceae, Poligonaceae Fabaceae, Rhamnaceae, Poligonaceae, sunt purgative.
are purgative. Among glycosides mention: cicorina, Dintre glicozizi menŃionam: cicorina, eritrocentaurina, rutina,
eritrocentaurina, routinely, fraxin, salicin, populin. [9] fraxina, salicina, populina.[9]
Saponins are glycosidic which give stable emulsions Saponinele sunt glicozizi care dau emulsii stabile cu
with fatty acids, reducing the surface tension of water and acizii graşi, reduc tensiunea superficială a apei şi au efect
foaming effect. Typically, saponins are present in plants spumant. În mod obişnuit, saponinele sunt prezente în
such as soapwort, bridal veil, red thistle and white thistle. plante, cum ar fi: săpunariŃa, valul miresei, ciulinul roşu şi
When placed in the organism, these substances lead to ciulinul alb. Atunci când sunt introduse în organism,
hemolysis of red blood cells, hemoglobin and releases the aceste substanŃe duc la hemoliza globulelor roşii,
toxic effect. [12] eliberează hemoglobina şi efectul este toxic. [12]
Vegetale mucilages are polysaccharide that are water- Mucilagiile vegetale sunt polizaharide care în prezenŃa
swellable, they forms gel-like substance in the digestive tract, apei se umflă, formează geluri asemănătoare substanŃelor
and if the water is hot forms colloidal solutions. he plants are din tractusul digestiv, iar dacă apa este caldă formează
designed to retain water. The mucilage are present in the soluŃii coloidale. În plante au rolul de a reŃine apa.
leaves and roots of marshmallow, flax seeds, mullet, lady's Mucilagiile sunt prezente în frunzele şi rădăcinile de nalbă,
mantle, calamus, leeks, celery, burdock, black mustard, seminŃe de in, lumânărică, creŃişoară, obligeană, praz,
plantain, blessed thistle. [3] Ńelină, brusture, muştar negru, pătlagina, schinel.[3]
Tannins are aromatic substances from the group of Taninurile sunt substanŃe aromatice din grupa
polyphenols present in the Rosaceae, Salicaceae, polifenolior, prezente în Rosaceae, Salicaceae,
Polygonaceae, etc. [3]. They have a very different Polygonaceae etc [3]. Au o compoziŃie chimică foarte
chemical composition and characteristics to coagulate diferită şi prezintă caracteristica de a coagula albuminele,
albumin, heavy metals and alkaloids. Antitoxic effect and metalele grele şi alcaloizii. Au efect antitoxic şi sunt
they are soluble in water. Significant amounts of tannins solubile în apă. CantităŃi semnificative de tanin sunt
present in bark of oak, willow, alder, cranberry leaves and prezente în coaja de stejar, salcie, anin, în frunze şi fructe
fruit, willow, nut, and in smaller quantities, it is in many de afin, răchită, nuc, iar în cantităŃi mai reduse, se află în
other plants [12]. numeroase alte plante.[12]
Volatile oils (essential) are nitrogen-free substances, Uleiurile volatile (eterice), sunt substanŃe neazotoase,
volatile, consisting mainly of terpenes and their volatile, formate mai ales din terpene şi derivaŃii lor, insolubile
derivatives, water insoluble, fat oil or soluble organic în apă, solubile în uleiuri grase sau solvenŃi organici. Sunt
solvent. They are volatile liquids with a odor characteristic lichide volatile cu miros caracteristic ce există într-un număr
that exist in a large number of plants is produced in foarte mare de plante, fiind produse în Ńesuturi specifice,
specific tissues, organs accumulate in any plant. The acumulându-se în toate organele plantei. Uleiul volatil dintr-o
volatile oil from a plant has a given specific flavor of that anumită plantă are aroma specifică plantei respective,
plant, comprises a complex of substances, but is specific conŃine un complex de substanŃe, dar specifică este doar o
to only one specific substance. For example, the mint, the anumită substanŃă. De exemplu: la mentă, principalul
main component of the essential oil is menthol, thymol component al uleiului volatil este mentolul, la cimbrişor este
from thyme is in dill is anethole, linalool in lavender is for timolul, la mărar este anetolul, la lavandă este linaloolul,
melissa is citral. pentru melisă este citralul.
Volatile oils are used for the production of perfumes, Uleiurile volatile sunt utilizate pentru obŃinerea
cosmetics, and for correcting the taste and flavor of drugs. parfumurilor, în cosmetică, dar şi pentru corectarea gustului şi
Volatile oils have disinfectant (respiratory and digestive), aromei unor medicamente. Uleiurile volatile au efect
bactericidal, expectorant, antirheumatic and mucous dezinfectant (pentru căile respiratorii şi digestive), bactericid,
420
membrane irritant. These oils can be used as flavoring in expectorant, antireumatic şi iritant al mucoaselor. Aceste
the kitchen or in the manufacture of charcuterie. It uleiuri pot fi folosite şi ca arome în bucătărie sau la fabricarea
presents, however a disadvantage, that it is difficult mezelurilor. Prezintă, însă, inconvenientul că sunt dificil de
preserved. Must be kept in airtight containers in the dark conservat. Trebuie păstrate în recipiente închise ermetic, la
because they are oxidizing in the light. [9] întuneric, deoarece se oxidează la lumină.[9]
Fatty oils (lipids) present in some species of medicinal Uleiurile grase (lipide) prezente în unele specii de plante
herbs or their seeds, are liquid at ambient temperature, medicinale sau în seminŃele acestora, la temperatura
insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents. Their mediului ambiant sunt lichide, insolubile în apă, solubile în
therapeutic effects it is recommended to be used in the solvenŃi organici. Efectele lor terapeutice le recomandă să fie
form of various creams for external treatments. Vegetable utilizate sub forma diferitelor creme pentru tratamente
oils can be used as the solvent for some substances or externe. Uleiurile vegetale pot fi utilizate şi drept solvent
they may contain other substances used for therapeutic pentru alte substanŃe sau pot conŃine chiar anumite substanŃe
substances (e.g.. castor oil). [12] cu efect terapeutic (ex. ulei de ricin). [12]
Resins are complex substances, solid or semiliquid- Răşinile sunt substanŃe complexe, solide sau
chemically similar to essential oils, which are recognized semilichide, chimic apropiate de uleiurile eterice, care se
by the strong smell, with antimicrobial and purgative recunosc prin mirosul puternic, având acŃiune
actions. [3] antimicrobiană şi purgativă. [3]
Fitoncidele are organic substances with antimicrobial Fitoncidele sunt substanŃe organice, cu acŃiune
activity present in garlic, radish, onion. [3] antimicrobiană, prezente în usturoi, hrean, ceapă. [3]
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALE SI METODA

Factors influencing the extraction process depends on Factorii care influenteaza procesul de extracŃie depind
plant properties from the plant part used, the solvent used, de proprietǎŃile plantelor, de partea folositǎ din plantǎ, de
the temperature, pressure and extraction time. Bioactive solventul folosit, de temperaturǎ, presiune si timpul de
components of different parts of the plant are found both in extracŃie. Componentele bioactive se gǎsesc in diferite
the plant, such as leaves, steam, flowers and fruit. [1] pǎrti din planta, cum ar fi în frunze, tulpinǎ, flori şi fructe.[1]
Plant bodies crumble into small fragments: leaves, Organele plantelor se fărâmiŃează în fragmente mici:
flowers, herba from 5 mm to 1 mm leathery leaves, stems, frunze, flori, herba până la 5 mm, frunzele pielose până la
bark and underground organs under 3 mm, fruits and 1 mm, tulpinile, coaja şi organele subterane sub 3 mm,
seeds under 0.5 mm. [12] fructele şi seminŃele, sub 0,5 mm.[12]
Most solvents used in industry using plant extracts Cei mai utilizati solventi folositi in industria extractelor
are: water (for salts of alkaloids, glycosides, sugars, vegetale sunt: apa (pentru saruri ale alcaloizilor, glicozizi,
pectin mucilaginous material, protides or colors, zaharuri, materii mucilaginoase pectice, protidice sau
enzymes, tannins, etc.), alcohol (for oils, oil, tannins, colorante, enzime, taninuri etc.), alcoolul etilic (pentru uleiuri
alkaloids base and their salts, glycosides, resins, volatile, hidrocarburi, taninuri, alcaloizi baze si saruri ale
chlorophyll etc.), diethylether (the alkaloid bases, acestora, glicozizi, rezine, clorofila etc.), eterul etilic (pentru
resins, oils etc.). [14] alcaloizi baze, rezine, uleiuri volatile etc.).[14]
The ratio between the vegetable product and the Raportul dintre produsul vegetal si solvent variază în
solvent varies depending on the vegetable product and the funcŃie de produsul vegetal dar şi de solventul utilizat. În
solvent used. Generally the solvent used is alcohol, herbal general când solventul utilizat este alcoolul, la produsele
products containing a highly active ratio is 1/5 and the vegetale care conŃin substanŃe puternic active raportul
other tinctures this report is 1/10. este 1/5 iar pentru celelalte tincturi acest raport este 1/10.
Solvents must dissolve and extract high efficiency Solventii trebuie sa dizolve si sa extraga cu randament
most of the active components and contain fewer inert ridicat majoritatea componentelor active si sa contina cat mai
matter without therapeutic value. Chosen solvent should putine materii inerte fara valoare terapeutica. Solventul ales
have a low boiling point so that the use should be as trebuie sa aiba un punct de fierbere cat mai scazut astfel
economically as possible. [14] incat intrebuintarea lui sa fie cat mai economica.[ 14]
Qualitative and quantitative studies of bioactive Studiile calitative si cantitative a substantelor bioactive din
substances from plant material is based on the choice of materiile vegetale se bazeazǎ pe alegerea unei metode de
extraction methods found appropriate. Extraction is the extracŃie corespunzǎtoare. Extractia este operatia cea mai
most important operation in the study of medicinal plants importanta din studiul plantelor medicinale având un rol
with a role in obtaining the final result. esential in obtinerea rezultatului final.
The extraction of bioactive compounds can be Extractia compusilor bioactivi se poate realiza prin una
achieved by one of the following methods: maceration, din urmatoarele metode: macerare, percolare, decoctie,
percolation, decoction, accelerated solvent extraction, extractie accelerata cu solvent, extractie asistata de
microwave assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction, microunde, extractie cu ultrasunete, extractie cu fluid
supercritical extraction.[10] supercritic.[10]
In order to identify the components of the composition of In scopul identificarii componentelor din compozitia uleiurilor
essential oils, they were analyzed by gas chromatography volatile, acestea au fost analizate prin gaz-cromatografie
coupled with mass spectrometry. Volatile oil content in the cuplata cu spectrometrie de masa. Continutul probelor
analyzed samples, and the chemical composition of essential analizate in ulei volatil, cat si compozitia chimica a uleiurilor
oils varies by species / variety processed. [4] volatile variaza in functie de specia / varietatea prelucrata.[4]
RESULTS REZULTATE
Experimental results on the extraction and identification of Rezultate experimentale privind extractia si identificarea
biologically active compounds from different medicinal and compusilor biologic activi din diferite plante medicinale si aromatice
aromatic plants are numerous, worldwide. Table 1 shows the sunt numeroase, pe plan mondial. In tabelul 1 se prezinta
percentage major biochemical constituents of volatile oils procentual, principalii constituenti biochimici ai uleiurilor volatile
(essential) extracted from different medicinal and aromatic plants. (esentiale) extrase din diferite plante medicinale si aromatice.
421
Table 1
The main constituents of essential oils obtained from aromatic and medicinal plants
Important biologically active The average content of
Plant References
compounds compound [%]
carvacrol 64.5/64,5
Origanum vulgare p-cymene 10.9/10,9
(oregano) γ γ
-terpinene / terpinene
[15]
10.8/10,8
(1.4 – limonene)
linalool 71.2/71,2
Coriandrum sativum
α-pinene 7.8/7,8 [13]
(coriander)
camphor 4.3/4,3
linalool 30.33/30,33
Ocimum basilicum
germacrene D 6.33/6,33 [4]
(basil)
geraniol 4.01/4,01
carvacrol 50/50
Satureja hortensis
thymol 9.6/9,6
(savory) [13]
borneol 2.41/2,41
Thymus vulgare thymol 48.92/48,92
[15]
(thyme ) p-cymene 18.99/18,99
α-thujone 49.3/49,3
β-thujone 15/15
Artemisia absinthium
1,8-cineole/1,8 cineol [5]
(wormwood ) 4.5/4,5
(eucaliptol)
camphor 3.9/3,9
1,8-cineole/1,8 cineol
42/42
Rosmarinus officinalis (eucaliptol)
[8]
(rosemary) camphor 13.99/13,99
α-pinene 11.92/11,92
α-thujone 24.8/24,8
1.8-cineole/1,8 cineol
Salvia officinalis 14.8/14,8
(eucalyptol) [7]
(sage)
borneol 11.1/11,1
camphor 10.9/10,9
Matricaria chamomilla bisabolol 64/64
(chamomile) chamazulene 2.2/2,2
linalool 72/72
Lavandula angustifolia
α-pinene 3.2/3,2
(lavender)
E-caryophyllene 3.2/3,2
Rosa canina citronellol 51.3/51,3
(rose) geraniol 25.8/25,8 [13]
Pelargonium graveolens citronellol 39/39
(geranium) geraniol 11.3/11,3
Viola tricolor triacetin 53.7/53,7
(violet) α-ionone 9.4/9,4
Pimpinella anisum E-anethole 91.8/91,8
(anise) methyl chavicol 3.6/3,6
Table 2 shows the total phenolic content of tannins and In tabelul 2 se prezinta continutul in taninuri si fenoli
five types of lyophilized extract obtained from the leaves of totali a cinci tipuri de extracte liofilizate obtinute din
plants. frunzele unor plante.
Tabel 2
Tannins and total phenolic content in extracts of freeze-dried leaf [6]
Tannins Total phenols
The leaf extract of:
[g/100 g] [mg/g]
Robinia pseudoacacia
59.1 209
(acacia)
Salix sepulcralis
13.8 88.3
(willow)
Rosa multiflora
18 58.4
(japanese rose)
Quercus alba
20.4/20,4 248.5/248,5
(oak)
Acer rubrum
38/38 256/256
(maple)
422
Medicinal and aromatic plants are the basic Plantele medicinale şi aromatice sunt remedii de bazǎ
remedies to obtain therapeutic products. They contain în obŃinerea produselor terapeutice. Ele conŃin substanŃe
biologically active substances vegetal nature quality biologic active cu proprietǎŃi calitative de naturǎ vegetalǎ
properties having side effects absent or mild in the care au efecte secundare absente sau de intensitate mică
metabolism of the whole body. în metabolismul întregului organism uman.
Superior capitalization involves extraction of Valorificarea superioara a potentialului medicinal natural
natural medicinal potential biologically active presupune extractia substantelor biologic active din plante
substances from medicinal and aromatic plants or medicinale si aromatice, respectiv a uleiurilor esentiale.
essential oils. With a wide range of uses, these Avand o gama foarte larga de domenii de utilizare, aceste
essential oils have high economic value. uleiuri esentiale au valoare economica ridicata.
Complex therapeutic effects of medicinal plants is Efectele terapeutice complexe ale plantelor medicinale
explained by the fact that each plant species contains se explica prin faptul ca fiecare specie vegetala contine mai
several bioactive substances. Interest for each plant is multe substante bioactive. Interesul pentru fiecare planta
given a certain bioactive substances which is este dat de o anumita substanta bioactiva care ii este
characteristic or complex substances useful for caracteristica sau de un complex de substante, utile in
various purposes such as increasing muscle mass, diferite scopuri, cum ar fi: mărirea masei musculare, arderea
burn fat, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial grăsimii, antioxidanti, hepatoprotectoare, antimicrobiene,
antiulcerativ, antibiotic, adaptogen, radioprotectant etc antiulcerativ, antibiotic, adaptogen, radioprotector etc.
In the production of medicinal and aromatic plants In productia de plante medicinale si aromatice calitatea
product quality is on bioactive substances content. produselor este data de continutul in substante bioactive.
Therefore, it is important to know the biologically Asadar, este importanta cunoasterea substantelor biologic
active substances contained in plants to assess the active continute in plante pentru a se aprecia valoarea
therapeutic value and how extraction or isolation of terapeutica si modul de extractie sau izolare a acestor
these bioactive substances, thereby that action can be substante bioactive, astfel incat actiunea sa fie cat mai
more effective. eficienta.
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424
ECONOMIC AND LOGISTICAL ANALYSIS OF FOIL COVERED FIELD CUCUMBER

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
/
FÓLIAALAGUTAS SZABADFÖLDI ZÖLDSÉGTERMELÉS-TECHNOLÓGIA ÖKONÓMIAI ÉS
LOGISZTIKAI ELEMZÉSE
Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. László Magó
Szent István University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Engineering Management, Department of Logistics and
Materials Handling, Hungary - 2103 Gödöllı, Páter K. str. 1,
Tel: +36-28-522044; E-mail: Mago.Laszlo@gek.szie.hu
Abstract: In the paper we present the up-to-date Összefoglalás: A cikk a konzervuborka, korszerő,
mechanized production technology of cucumber gépesített termeléstechnológiáját mutatja be az ágyás-
production from ridge bed preparation till harvesting készítéstıl a betakarításon át a szállítás mőveletéig.
including transporting as well. By the presentation of the A tapasztalatok értékelésével és közreadásával a
performance and economic data of machines necessary termeléshez szükséges gépek üzemi és gazdaságossági
for production, we are emphasizing the significant mutatóink ismertetésével a korszerő uborkatermelési
volume of transport tasks in the production technology of technológiában jelentkezı szállítási feladatok jelentıségét
pickled cucumber. We can conclude that the machine kívánjuk kiemelni. Vizsgálataink bizonyítják, hogy a
work costs of field foil covered cucumber production szabadföldi fóliatakarásos uborka-termelés gépi munka
compared to the production costs of other field vegetable költségei az egyéb szabadföldi zöldégfajták termelési
varieties are high. In the present production technology költségeihez viszonyítva is jelentısek. Az ismertetett
the costs of machine operations and cost of material termelés-technológia alapján a gépi munkák és az
handling is about 14 Euro Cent/kg concerning the anyagmozgatás költségei a végtermék önköltségét
production cost of cucumber. It can be stated on the tekintve 14 Euro Cent/kg-ot tesznek ki. Az eredmények
basis of the results that the total operational cost of the alapján megállapítható, hogy az össz géphasználati
machines amounts 1688 EUR per hectare, which include költség hektárra vetített értéke 1688 EUR, amely mintegy
the cost of transport and material handling in value of 390 EUR értékben a szállítási és anyagmozgatási feladok
390 EUR/ha. Special attention is to be paid to the költségeit is tartalmazza. Megállapítható, hogy a igencsak
machine operations like foil tunnel preparation, picking figyelmet igénylı gépi munkamőveletek az ágyás- és
and planting which the most costly ones are representing fóliaalagút-készítés, a betakarítás és a palántázás a
about 12, 13 and 17 % of the total machine operation maguk 12, 13 és 17 %-os költségarányukkal.
costs. It is worth mentioning that cost of transport and Leszögezhetjük azonban, hogy a szállítási és az
material handling takes the highest value, about 23 % of anyagmozgatási feladatok a legjelentısebb költségviselık,
the total cost of mechanisation. s az össz gépi munka költség mintegy 23 %-át teszik ki.
Keywords: Foil Covered Field Vegetable Production, Kulcsszavak: Fóliatakarásos szabadföldi zöldségtermelés,
Logistic, Mechanisation, Economic, Machine Cost, Logisztika, Gépesítés-ökonómia, Gépi költségek,
Material handling Anyagmozgatás
INTRODUCTION BEVEZETİ
The subject of the present study is the mechanized Ez az anyag az utóbbi években jelentıs fejlıdésnek
production of pickling cucumber developing rapidly in the indult konzervuborka gépesített termelésével foglalkozik.
last years. [2], [7] [2], [7]
The cucumber is one of the most important vegetable Az uborka fontos zöldségnövényünk, jelentıs
crops in Hungary. The home consumption and the mennyiség kerül belföldi fogyasztásra, ill. exportra.
exported quantity is also remarkable. Regarding the Magyarországon a termıterület és a termelt mennyiség
production area and the quantity produced pickled szempontjából legjelentısebb a konzervuborka, melynek
cucumber is the most significant in Hungary. The területe 3-4ezer hektárra tehetı.
production area is roughly 3-4 thousand hectares. A termeltetés, forgalmazás legfontosabb láncszeme a
The most important link in the chain of production and biztos belföldi feldolgozóipari háttér, amely a frissáru
distribution is the solid inland processing industrial exporthoz is elengedhetetlen. [3]
background which is essential for the export of fresh A cikk a konzervuborka, korszerő, gépesített
products as well. [3] termeléstechnológiáját mutatja be. A tapasztalatok
By the presentation of the performance and economic értékelésével és közreadásával a termeléshez szükséges
data of machines necessary for production, we are gépek üzemi és gazdaságossági mutatóink ismertetésével
emphasizing the significant volume of transport tasks in a korszerő uborkatermelési technológiában jelentkezı
the production technology of pickling gherkins [1], [4]. szállítási feladatok jelentıségét kívánjuk kiemelni [1], [4].
425
MATERIAL AND METHOD ANYAG ÉS MÓDSZER

Presentation Of The Production Technology A termeléstechnológia bemutatása
The machine technology of production is presented on A termelés gépi technológiájának bemutatása az 1.
the basis of Table 1. The table shows the operations, the táblázat alapján történik. A táblázat tartalmazza a
machine applied for the certain operation, and the power munkamőveleteket, az adott mővelet során alkalmazott
category of the power machine connected to it. The Table munkagépet és az ahhoz kapcsolt erıgép teljesítmény-
2 shows the shift performance of the connected machines. kategóriáját. A 2. táblázat ismerteti a gépkapcsolat
Some of the economic data are also included: the price of mőszakteljesítményét, az. ökonómiai adatok közül a
the working machine and the power machine in the year munkagép és az erıgép 2013. évre vonatkozó
2013, the operational cost of the same per shift hour beszerzési árát, és mőszakórára jutó használati
together with the operational cost of the connected költségét, valamit a gépkapcsolat használati költségét
machines [5] [5].
Table 1
The machine technology of production of foil covered field cucumber production
Szabadföldi fóliaalagutas uborkatermelés munkamőveleteinek erı-és munkagépkapcsolatai
Type of machine applied in the technology

Operations
working machine power machine
Stubble ploughing Kühne 770-7,2 disc harrow 140 kW tractor
Medium deep loosing RÁBA 10-14/5 140 kW tractor
Spreading organic manure AGRO 65 TSZ tandem 60 kW tractor
Fertilizer transport MBP 6,5 R 60 kW tractor
Spreading of fertilizer Tornado 5 70 kW tractor
Deep ploughing Kühne 720-7/6-16-M-TJ 140 kW tractor
Fertilizer transport MBP 6,5 R 60 kW tractor
Spreading of fertilizer Tornado 5 70 kW tractor
Ploughing processing S-2 H/M 140 kW tractor
Seed bed preparation Lemken Korund 600 K 140 kW tractor
Levelling the surface Kühne KH - 5,6 S 60 kW tractor
Ridge bed preparation Hortus HPD-165 70 kW tractor
Mulching, hauling in the hosepipe AF 1 70 kW tractor
Water supply DETK-115 tanker 60 kW tractor
Transport of plantlets MBP - 6,5 60 kW tractor
Planting Fedele Mario 70 kW tractor
Preparation of foil tunnel AFF-1000 70 kW tractor
Irrigation Nadir
Spray mixture transport (12x) DETK-115 tanker 70 kW tractor
Spraying (12x) Gambetti GB E. 1500/16 v 60 kW tractor
Picking Steiger 70 kW tractor
Transport MBP - 6,5 – 2 pcs 60 kW tractor
Transport following pre-grading HL 92.02 road Trailer
The Major Machines Of The Production Technology A termeléstechnológia fıbb gépeinek ismertetése
The technology is based on drop irrigation, soil-cover A vizsgált technológia, csepegtetı öntözéses, talajtakarásos
cultivation method for which ridge forming machine type termesztési módra alapozódik, amelyhez HORTUS HPD-
HORTUS HPD-165 and foil and tube layer type AF1 is 165 ágyáskészítı gépet és AF1 fólia és csıfektetı gépet
used. In order to further early ripening and crop safety használnak. A koraiság növelése, valamint a termésbiztonság
plant covering foil tubes can be prepared by the machine fokozása érdekében lehetıség van növénytakaró fóliaalagút
type AFF-1000 [x]. készítésére is, az AFF-1000 típusú gép segítségével [x].
For harvesting picking machines type STIEGER with A betakarításhoz szedıszalagos STIEGER szedıgépek
picking belt (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2) are used by which crop can szolgálnak, (1 és 2 ábra) amelyekkel hetenként 2-3
be harvested on the same territory 2-3-times a week alkalommal is meg lehet szedni a területet anélkül, hogy a
without causing treading damage to the vegetation. szedés-taposási károkat okozna a növényzetben.
The machine is – subject to framing – attended by 16- A gépet - kialakítástól függıen - 16-28 kézi szedımunkás
28 hand picking workers working in a lying position in szolgálja ki, akik fekvı testhelyzetben dolgoznak, így
order to avoid treading the vegetation. The collecting belt szedés közben nem tapossák a növényzetet. A traktorra
of the machine mounted on a tractor collects and forwards szerelt gép győjtıszalagja összegyőjti és az erıgép által
the cucumber into the trailer pulled by the power machine. vontatott pótkocsiba juttatja az uborkát.
426
Table 2
The basic economic data of the operations of cucumber production
Shift Price of Direct cost of operation
working power working power
Operations: performance total
machine machine machine machine
(ha / hour) (th EUR) (EUR/hour)
Stubble ploughing 3 19 141 10 29 39
Medium deep loosing 1,2 3,6 141 3 29 32
Spreading organic manure 0,7 7,1 65 4 16 19
Fertilizer transport 4 6 65 2 16 18
Spreading of fertilizer 4 9,6 72 6 19 26
Deep ploughing 1,5 8,3 141 6 29 36
Fertilizer transport 4 6 65 2 16 18
Spreading of fertilizer 4 9,6 72 6 19 26
Ploughing processing 4,8 7,4 141 7 29 37
Seed bed preparation 4 14 141 9 29 39
Levelling the surface 3,8 5,7 65 4 16 19
Ridge bed preparation 0,4 10 72 12 19 31
Mulching, hauling in the hosepipe 0,25 4,3 72 3 19 22
Water supply 0,9 6,8 65 4 16 20
Transport of plantlets 4 6 65 2 16 18
Planting 0,1 3,6 72 4 19 24
Preparation of foil tunnel 0,2 7,4 72 14 19 33
Irrigation 0,25 8,8 0 24 0 24
Spray mixture transport (12x) 4,8 6,8 72 4 19 23
Spraying (12x) 4,8 16 65 9 16 25
Picking 0,2 44 72 16 19 35
Transport 12 65 4 16 20
Transport following pregrading 7,5 33 3 20 22
According to measurements, the structure of the A mérések tanúsága szerint a gép felépítése megfelelı
machine creates an appropriate position for the picking testhelyzetet teremt a szedést végzı munkások számára,
workers and fulfils the tasks of transport within the field at és egyúttal megoldja a táblán belüli szállítási feladatokat
the same time [6]. is [6].
Fig. 1 - The mass transport on the belt conveyor and the position of picking personnel on the machine
427
Fig. 2 - Belt cucumber picking carriage type STEIGER
RESULTS EREDMÉNYEK
The results of the economic survey of cucumber production A 3. táblázatban a 20 ha-on végzett uborka-termelés
on a 20 hectare area are shown in Table 3. Apparently, the ökonómiai vizsgálatának eredményei olvashatók. Látható,
machine working time necessary for the cultivation of the 20 hogy az egyes munkamőveletekhez kapcsolódóan meghatározásra
hectare growing area in case of connected machines has került a gépkapcsolatok esetében a 20 ha termıterület
been stipulated related to the individual operations. Based on mőveléséhez szükséges gépi munkaidı, s ez alapján
this, the direct operational cost of the connected machines könnyen kiszámolható a gépkapcsolatok közvetlen
can be easily calculated by multiplying the direct operational gépüzemeltetési költsége, amely a mőszakórára jutó
cost of the machine per shift hour (Table 2) with the effective gépüzemeltetési közvetlen költség (2. táblázat) és a
working time. As a result, the cost of the individual operations ledolgozott munkaidı szorzata. Eredményül kaptuk az
related to 20 hectare growing area has been defined the total egyes mőveletek 20 ha-os volumenéhez kapcsolódó
production costs of cucumber production on 20 hectares and költségeit, amelyek összegzésével megkapjuk a 20 ha
also the specific cost per hectare has been determinate. The uborka-termelés összköltségét, s a hektáronkénti fajlagos
costs of field cucumber production and harvesting are költséget is. A táblázatban részleteiben bemutatjuk a
specified in the Table 3. szabadföldi termelés és betakarítás költségeit.
It can be stated on the basis of the results that the Az eredmények alapján megállapítható, hogy a
operational cost of the working machines (11.196 EUR) is munkagépek használati költsége (11.196 EUR) a felét
the half of the power machines (22.567 EUR). The total teszi ki az erıgépek használati költségének (22.567 EUR),
operational cost amounts to 33.763 EUR, 1688 EUR per az össz géphasználati költség pedig 33.763 EUR. Egy
hectare. hektárra vetített értéke 1688 EUR.
The investment cost of the machines applied in the A termelés technológiában alkalmazott gépek
production technology is 510.396 EUR out of which the beruházási költsége 510.396 EUR. Ezen belül a
purchasing price of the working machines amounts to 197.300 munkagépek beszerzési értéke 197.300 EUR-ot tesz ki,
EUR, which equals about 39 % of the total investment cost. ami 39 %-a az össz beruházási költségnek, amíg az
The purchasing price of the power machines is 313.096 erıgépek beszerzési értéke 313.096 EUR, ez pedig
EUR, about 61 % of the total cost of machines. mintegy 61 %-a az össz gép árának.
In case of power machines it can be stated that one Az erıgépek esetében megfigyelhetı, hogy a nehéz
power machine with an engine capacity of 140 kW is talajmunkák végzéséhez 1 db 140 kW motorteljesítményő
needed for the hard cultivation works. The tasks of erıgép szükséges, míg a tápanyag-utánpótlás, az
nutrients delivery, ridge-bed preparation, mulching, hauling ágyáskészítés, a talajtakarás, öntözıcsı behúzás,
the hosepipe, planting, foil tunnel preparation, plant palántázás, a fóliaalagút készítés, a növény-védelem,
protection, harvesting and tractor delivery are fulfilled by a betakarítás és traktoros szállítás feladatait egy 70 kW-os
70 kW main and a 60 kW aid machine. A low-cost trailer vezérgép és egy 60 kW-os segédtraktor látja el. A termény
can be used for the road transportation of the product. With közúti szállítását, pedig alacsony költségő közúti pótkocsis
this selection of power machines lower acquisition costs szállítójármővel végezzük. Az erıgépek ilyen rendszerő
and a more effective utilization of power machines can be alkalmazásával alacsonyabb beszerzési költség, valamint
achieved [8]. jobb erıgép-kihasználtság valósul meg [8].
Cucumber production on 20 ha demands 1080 shift Húsz hektáronon az uborka-termelés gépi munka
hours of machine work, out of which the two lower capacity igénye 1080 mőszakóra, amelybıl a két kisebb
tractors represent a great proportion, about 800. In teljesítményő traktor mintegy 800 mőszakórát teljesít.
comparison to this the 44 shift hour performance of the Emellett a nagyteljesítményő erıgép talajmővelés során
428
high capacity power machine in the course of cultivation is teljesített 44 órás mőszak-tejesítése eltörpül. A közút
negligible. Road transport with its 150 shift hour capacity szállítás 150 mőszakórás kapacitásával az idıigényes
demand is one of the most time-demanding operations. mőveletek közé sorolható.
Table 3
The economical indices of the operations of foil covered field cucumber production on 20 ha
Machine working hours Cost of operation
Operations:
(h) (EUR)
Stubble ploughing 6 284
Medium deep loosing 16 616
Spreading organic manure 28 672
Fertilizer transport 5 106
Spreading of fertilizer 5 153
Deep ploughing 13 553
Fertilizer transport 5 106
Spreading of fertilizer 5 153
Ploughing processing 4 176
Seed bed preparation 5 234
Levelling the surface 5 118
Ridge bed preparation 50 1958
Mulching, hauling in the hosepipe 80 2120
Water supply 22 531
Transport of plantlets 5 106
Planting 200 5773
Preparation of foil tunnel 100 4170
Irrigation 80 2388
Spray mixture transport (12x) 48 1351
Spraying (12x) 48 1503
Picking 100 4441
Transport 100 2407
Transport following pregrading 150 3844
Canning industry technology - total 1.080 33763
Cost per hectare (EUR/ha) 1688
CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS KÖVETKEZTETÉSEK ÉS JAVASLATOK

The machine work costs of field foil covered cucumber Vizsgálataink bizonyítják, hogy a szabadföldi fóliatakarásos
production compared to the production costs of other field uborka-termelés gépi munka költségei az egyéb szabadföldi
vegetable varieties are high [8]. zöldégfajták termelési költségeihez viszonyítva is jelentısek [8].
The significant hand labour demand is characteristic of E termékre jellemzı a jelentıs kézi munkaerı igény,
this product by planting as well as by the preparation of amely mind a palántázáskor, mind a fóliaalagút
the foil tunnel but first of all by harvesting when the készítésekor, de legjelentısebben a betakarításkor jelenik
expert and quality work of 28 persons might as well be meg, amikor akár 28 fı szakszerő és minıséges
needed. munkavégzését kell kialakítani.
A high quality final product can be ensured through A jó minıségő végtermék a kézi betakarítás
hand picking, but it comes at a price. The picking segítségével biztosítható. Mindennek azonban ára van. A
personnel of 16-28 persons represents a remarkable loan 16-28 fıs betakarító személyzet számottevı bérköltséget
cost. képvisel.
In the present production technology the costs of machine A cikkben csupán a gépi munkák költségeit vettük
operations and cost of material handling is 14 Euro figyelembe, amelyek által mintegy 12 t/ha termésátlaggal
Cent/kg besides a calculated average yield of about 12 t/ha. számolva 14 Euro Cent/kg-os termelési költség adódik.
It can be stated that special attention is to be paid to the Megállapítható, hogy az igencsak figyelmet igénylı gépi
machine operations like foil tunnel preparation, picking and munkamőveletek az ágyás- és fóliaalagút-készítés, a
planting which the most costly ones are representing about betakarítás és a palántázás a maguk 12, 13 és 17 %-os
12, 13 and 17 % of the total machine operation costs. It is költségarányukkal. Leszögezhetjük azonban, hogy a
worth mentioning that cost of transport and material szállítási és az anyagmozgatási feladatok a legjelentısebb
handling takes the highest value, about 23 % of the total költségviselık, s az össz gépi munka költség mintegy 23
cost of mechanisation. %-át teszik ki.
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430
EFFECT OF FREEZING STORAGE AND TREATMENTS WITH ANTIOXIDANTS IN

QUALITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF OKRA FRUITS
(ABELMOSCHUS ESCULUNTUS (L.) MOENTH CV. KHNESRI)
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Dhia Ahmed Taain, Abbas Mahdi Jasim, Jameel Hassan Hiji Al-Hij
Department of Horticulture and Landscape, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Iraq
Tel.: 07811351562, E-mail: golden_fruitb@yahoo.com
Abstract: The study was conducted during 2009-

2010 season to study the effect of some antioxidants
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‫دات‬4' 567&‫ =<) ا‬5/& ‫ة‬-y‫ !ب ا‬، )-;‫ا‬
planted under plastic tunnels in winter season at Abu- ‫ >ر‬.!x:;‫ك ا‬61‫) ا‬1u ./ .!8‫ ة '& ا‬1‫آ‬3‫ا‬
Al-Khaseb, south of Basrah, Iraq. Fruits were soaked . Abelmoschus esculuntus (L.) Moenth cv. )7y‫ا‬
in ascorbic and citric acids at three concentrations for #)/ 7 ;$‫ اي اي أ‬$‫ ا‬./ ‫ور‬y‫ زر* ا‬Khnesri.
each of them (0, 50,100) mg/l and a mixture of both ‫ل‬6u7 ./ ‫ت ا>ر‬ "u‫ ا‬.! &'‫ و‬5)o)$y‫ق ا‬, 3‫ا‬
of them (50+50), (50+100), (100+50), (100+100) mg/l !7 o :)‫ و'>ث اآ‬x1‫ ا‬7‫ر') أو‬o$‫ ا‬7
for 5 minutes. Fruits were packed in perforated )'‫ر‬o$‫ ا‬7 7 })6s‫ ( و‬/ {67 100 ،50 ،," )
polyethylene bags (1 kg weight, 16 holes ,6.2 mm 50+ 100 ) ‫ ( و‬/ {67 50 + 50) :)‫ 'اآ‬x1‫ ا‬7‫و‬
diameter for each of them) and stored at (-18 °C ± 2) ‫ ( و ة‬/ {67 100 + 100 ) ‫( و‬/ {67 100+ 50 ) ‫( و‬/ {67
for four months. Results showed that treatment with 16 ) {‫ آ‬1 5 ‫ ز‬5y>7 )6)<‫ أ‬.y‫ '=آ)س ا‬øy* <، pv‫¡ د‬s
(100 mg/l) ascorbic acid was the best in keeping in .¥‫ أ‬5&'‫( ة أر‬2± ‫ ْم‬18 - ) :s‫)¡( و‬o6 67 6.2 r' <
the highest amount of vitamin C and total chlorophyll of :)‫ر') آ‬o$‫ ا‬7u' 567&‫ق ا‬, !‫ ')! أه ا‬v‫ و‬.
fruits. The treatment with citric acid in the concentration of ‫) ج‬7)/ 7 5)‫ آ‬w6*=' ‫ظ ا>ر‬,‫ ا‬./ / {67 100
100 mg / l was the best in reducing the loss of total 567&‫ ا‬v, ‫ آ‬. 5 :;‫>ر ا‬6 )‫و‬y‫ وا‬.6o‫) ا‬/‫رو‬6o‫وا‬
chlorophyll and phenolic substances. The interaction )/‫رو‬6o‫ ا‬./ ,‫) ا‬6 ./ / {67 100 :)‫ آ‬x1 ‫ ا‬7u'
between ascorbic acid 100 mg / l and citric acid 50 mg / l )' s‫ ا ا‬567&7 v,‫ و‬. 5)!),‫و) وااد ا‬y‫ وا‬.6o‫ا‬
significantly decreased the loss of vitamin C. The results / {67 50 x1‫ ا‬7‫ و‬/ {67 100 )'‫ر‬o$3‫ ا‬7
also indicated to the reduction of vitamin C, total !‫ و) ا‬. ‫) ج‬7),' ,‫) ا‬6 ./ ‫ت‬7&‫ ا‬5)' w6* x!&7
chlorophyll and phenolic substances of fruits with the .6o‫) ا‬/‫رو‬6o‫) ج وا‬7)/ 7 ‫ى ا>ر‬u7 ‫ض‬,; ‫ ا‬w‫ ا‬4x‫أ‬
continuation of the storage periods. The results refered to
!‫ آ ل ا‬.‫ن‬:;‫ ة ا‬7 ‫| م‬7 5)!),‫و) وااد ا‬y‫وا‬
retained the treated fruits with ascorbic acid and citric
‫ر') و‬o$‫ ا‬7u' 567&‫) وا‬8' 5 :;‫ ان ا>ر ا‬w6*
acid in the natural color until the end of the storage
.‫ن‬:;‫ ة ا‬7 5x w ' £,‫ ا‬v x1‫ ا‬7
period.
Keywords: Okra, freezing storage, antioxidants, phenolic ‫ ااد‬،‫ ة‬1‫آ‬3‫دات ا‬47 ، )8' ‫ن‬:;‫ ا‬،)7y‫ ا‬:5),‫ت ا‬6o‫ا‬
substances 5)!),‫ا‬
INTRODUCTION ‫ا
ـــ‬
Okra “Abelmoschus esculuntus L. Moenth” belongs to Abelmoschus esculuntus (L.) Khnesri) )7y‫&د ا‬
family Malvaceae and considers one of favorite summer )"u7 7 .‫ وه‬Malvaceae 5x‫ز‬y;‫ ا‬56&‫ ا‬w‫( ا‬Okra
vegetable crops in Iraq and other countries due to the 5)‫ ا‬y1' ‫ى‬s‫ ان أ‬6'‫ ا&اق و‬./ 5' ‫ ا‬5),)-‫ ا‬4;‫ا‬
highest nutritive value of fruits such as carbohydrates, w6* ‫> اا‬7 ‫ | ' ا>ر‬.‫ ا‬5)&‫ ا‬5)‫ا{ا‬
Oils, calcium and phosphorus in addition to thiamine, )7)>‫ ا‬w‫ ا‬5/t‫ر ا‬,1,‫)م وا‬1o‫'ه) رات وا هن وا‬o‫ا‬
niacin, vitamin C [3, 12, 16].
‫ب‬6r7 ‫ ؛‬1987 ، &‫) ج )دي وا‬7)/‫) و‬$)!‫وا‬
Okra picks before it reaches to the physiological
1996 ، ‫ ؛ ا ي‬1989 ،‫ون‬sþ‫و‬
maturity (2-3 days of age and 2.5-3.5 cm in length) in
.‫ وه‬.)1,‫ ا‬4!‫ ا‬567 "‫ و‬yv )7y‫ <ر ا‬r
which has low fiber. It considers as postharvest
‫وز‬8x ‫ )ف و‬3‫ ا‬56)6v‫ و‬5xq ‫ن‬o ) ‫م‬x‫ أ‬3- 2 &' ‫"{)ة‬
perishable fruits due to the high rate of respiration in
&' 6‫ ا‬5&x$ ‫ ا>ر‬7 )7y‫ و& ا‬، $3.5- 2.5 q
addition to the high moisture content15 ] .
).&‫ ا‬.'q‫اه ا‬u7 w‫ ا‬5/t‫ ا‬1,! ‫& ل‬7 ‫ع‬,‫ ر‬r‫ا‬
Consuming large quantities of fresh green okra after
cooking, as are canning, freezing and drying them for the
. ( Kader. 1993
purpose of consumption in winter also using as a raw
، ;yq &' 5‫ز‬q ‫اء‬4s .‫)ة وه‬y‫)ت آ‬o' )7y‫ ا‬61
material in some industries [3, 6]. The temperature is the ‫ اء‬./ ‫آ‬$‫ {ض ا‬,),8‫) ه و‬8‫ و‬y)6& x‫آ و‬
most important factor affecting the shelf life of okra in ‫ ؛‬Basco.1995) ‫!*ت‬-‫ '& ا‬./ 5)‫دة أو‬7 4x‫ أ‬s ‫و‬
addition to the relative humidity. The high-temperature ‫ن‬:s ./ 5)‫آ> أه‬3‫ ا‬7&‫ارة ا‬u‫ ا‬5‫ و& در‬.(1996 ،‫ا ي‬
leads to rapid deterioration of the fruit and reduce the 5)&‫ارة ا‬u‫ ا‬5‫ إذ إن در‬،5)y1!‫ ا‬5'q‫ * ا‬4/ )7y‫ا‬
period of storage, while the low temperature leads to 5‫ در‬7‫ أ‬، ‫ن‬:;‫ ة ا‬7 )6‫ هر ا>ر و‬5*$ w‫دي ا‬
reduce the rate of respiration and evaporation of water ‫; اء‬y‫¡ و‬,!‫ ا‬5*$ )6 w6* &/ 54,;!‫ارة ا‬u‫ا‬
and the production of ethylene [1]). .(1989 ،‫ون‬s‫ ادي وا‬y* ) )6<‫وإ ج ا‬
The fact that okra is consumed throughout the year, so 7 y"‫ ا أ‬5!1‫م ا‬x‫ال أ‬q 61x ‫ل‬-u‫ آن ا‬5)u‫و‬
431
it became necessary to think of ways to be supplied in the #*‫را‬:' 7‫اق وذ أ‬$3‫ ا‬./ )/ p‫ا‬r' )o,‫وري ا‬4‫ا‬
market, such as growing in the protected environment, ‫ف‬x‫!| أو ا‬7‫ و‬#6$ &' )8‫ ا‬5xr' #£, ‫ أو‬،5)u‫ ا‬5ø)y‫ ا‬./
freezing and drying fruits [3]. It has been found that okra ‫ ا>ر‬7 ‫ اء‬5‫) 'زا‬,8‫ ا‬5xr' #£, ‫ت أو‬x: ‫ ط ا‬
stored at a temperature 10 ± 2 °C and 100% relative )7y‫ون ا‬v ‫ إن‬Adetuyi et al.(2008) ‫ و‬v‫ و‬.( 1996،‫) ا ي‬
humidity was the best way to save fruits which recorded 1‫ آ أ‬٪100 5)y1 5'q‫ ور‬2± ‫ ْم‬10 ‫ ارة‬5‫ ' ر‬5 ‫و‬:;‫ا‬
the lowest percentage in the loss of moisture [2]. Joyce et ‫ وذآ‬.5'q‫ ا‬/ ./ 5y1 v‫ ا‬68$‫) و‬7y‫ ا‬,u p‫ا‬r‫ا‬
Joyce [14] mentioned that the weight loss of okra ‫ ْم و ة‬13 ‫ ارة‬5‫ ' ر‬5 ‫و‬:;‫) ا‬7y‫ 'زن ت ا‬,‫ إن ا‬al.(2009)
stored at 13 °C for a period of 21 days was (79%). .( %79) ‫ً آن‬7x 21
Antioxidants used for the purpose to stop or delay the ‫ف أو‬x‫ {ض إ‬Antioxidants ‫ ة‬1‫آ‬3‫دات ا‬47 ‫; م‬1
oxidation processes that cause undesirable changes in ./ ' ‫ب‬ 7 ) ‫ {)ات‬y1 .‫ ة ا‬1‫آ‬3‫)ت ا‬6* )s=
flavor, color and aroma, or nutritive value. The vitamin C ‫ أه‬7 ‫) ج‬7)/ &x‫ و‬. 5)‫ ا{ا‬5)‫ أو ا‬5u‫ن واا‬6‫ وا‬5o!‫ا‬
considers as one of the most important antioxidants in ‫!و‬x .‫ ا‬5x 3‫ ا‬./ ‫ة‬/‫)ت وا‬o' ‫ ة ادة‬1‫آ‬3‫دات ا‬47
large amounts of foods widely used in the manufacture of ‫ن‬6‫!| ا‬7 w6* &x‫ و‬5x 3‫!)| ا‬- ./ ‫>ة‬o' &1x‫ن و‬1 ¦‫ا‬
food and to prevent brown color in the fruits and ‫ت‬x:‫ ا‬./ ‫ ة‬1‫دات آ‬47 ‫ أو‬4;‫ وا‬5‫آ‬,‫ت ا‬8!7 ./ .!y‫ا‬
vegetables products, or as anti-oxidant in oils [8, 20]. It v‫ و‬.( Smith .1993 ‫ و‬1987 ،)ou‫ وا‬.‫ك )د‬$3‫ت ا‬8!7 ‫أو‬
has been found during the storage of okra at relative 5)y1 5'q' )7y‫ ت ا‬v ‫ن‬:s ‫ أ<!ء‬./ Gilmer et al. (2007) ‫و‬
humidity 96% and the temperatures 12 °C and 25 °C t hat 25 5‫ ' ر‬5 :;‫) ا‬7y‫ ت ا‬v ‫ ْم إن‬25 ‫ ْم و‬12 ‫ ارة‬.‫ و' ر‬٪96
fruits stored at 25°C colored brown and rotten as !* 5 :;‫) ' ت ا‬6v ‫ر آن‬4‫! وان ا‬,&‫ و‬.!y‫ن ا‬6' 6 ‫ْم‬
compared with fruits stored at 12 °C. [9]. .‫ ْم‬12 5‫در‬
Due to the lack of studies on storage ability of the fruits ، )7y‫ >ر ا‬5) :;‫ ا‬5)6'‫ت ل ا‬$‫ ا را‬56 ‫ا‬£ ‫و‬
of okra, the current study was conducted to improve the !-‫) ا‬7y‫ >ر ا‬. :;‫ك ا‬61‫) ا‬1u 5)u‫ ا‬5$‫ ا را‬x‫أ‬
storage behavior of okra fruits cv. Mahaly after treated )'‫ر‬o$‫ ا‬.47u' r‫ '& ا‬67&' ‫ي وذ‬-)!s
them with some concentrations of ascorbic acid and citric acid.
. x1‫وا‬
MATERIAL AND METHOD ‫اد ا

وا‬
Experiment was carried out during the winter season
of 2009-2010 under plastic tunnels in Abu-Al-Khaseb, 5r!7 ./ 2010-2009 ‫ اي &م‬$‫ل ا‬s 5'8‫ت ا‬,
southern province of Basrah. Agricultural processes ‫)ت‬6&‫! ا‬4 .‫ة‬-y‫ ا‬5£/u7 ‫) !ب‬-;‫ ا‬.'‫ء أ‬4v ، o!-‫ا‬
included cultivation, adding animal manure (1 ton / acre) ‫د‬$‫دو و‬/q 1 ‫ '& ل‬. ‫)ا‬u‫د ا‬1‫) ا‬t‫ وأ‬5<‫ا‬u‫ ا‬5)*‫را‬:‫ا‬
and superphosphate fertilizer (25 kg / acre). Seeds were
5*‫را‬:‫; ام ا‬$=' 5'8‫ت ا‬, . ‫دو‬/{‫آ‬25 ‫ت '& ل‬,$/ '1‫ا‬
sown on 1/12/2009 and after germination conducted all
the processes used in the production of this crop. 5*‫رو‬:‫ور ا‬y‫ت ا‬y ‫ و'& ا‬2009/12/1 x‫ور 'ر‬y‫ زر* ا‬.‫ة‬r{‫ا‬
Solutions of ascorbic acid and citric acid at three .‫ل‬-u‫ أ ج ها ا‬./ 5&y‫)ت ا‬6&‫ ا‬5/‫ آ‬x‫أ‬
concentrations for each of them (zero, 50, 100 mg / l) ‫ '>ث‬x1‫ ا‬7‫ر') و‬o$‫ ا‬7 7 )u7 )4u
and mixture of both of them (50 +50 mg / l) , (100 +50
7 7 })6s‫( و‬/{67 100 ،50 ،,") !7 o :)‫اآ‬
mg / l) , (50 + 100 mg / l) and (100 +100 mg / l)
were prepared and the solutions preserved in a place far ‫( و‬/{67 50+50) :)‫ 'اآ‬x1‫ ا‬7‫ر') و‬o$‫ا‬
from the light while in use. Fruits were selected by a .(/{67 100+100)‫( و‬/{67 100+50)‫( و‬/{67 50+100)
length of 2.5-3.5 cm and boiled for 5 minutes and left to ‫)ت‬s‫ ا‬..‫; ام‬$‫) ا‬u ‫ء‬4‫ن '&) * ا‬o7 ./ )u‫ ا‬£,
cool and then soaked completely in the solutions for a
pv‫ د‬5 ‫ ا>ر ااد ة‬p6$ . $3.5-2.5 q
6yx .‫ا>ر ا‬
period of five minutes and left to dry at room temperature
while the fruits of the control soaked in water only. Fruits ‫ <ر‬7‫ أ‬pv‫ د‬5 ‫) اآرة ة‬u' 1r ‫د '& ه‬y ‫< آ‬
of Each treatment were divided into three replicates and 1v .‫¡ ا ة‬,!‫} و‬/ r‫ 'ء ا‬1)r{ / 5 ‫ ار‬567&7
packed in polyethylene bags weighed 1 kg and perforated {‫ آ‬1 5 ‫) ز‬6)<‫ أ‬.y‫ '=آ)س ا‬øy*‫رات و‬o7 ‫ <ث‬w‫ ا‬567&7 ‫آ‬
(16 hole with a diameter of 6.2 mm per bag) and stored at ‫ ارة‬5‫) ' ر‬8' :s‫)¡( و‬o6 67 6.2r' < 16 ) 5y>7‫و‬
temperature (-18 °C ± 2) in refrigerated incubator
The weight loss was calculated as a percentage by
-:(2±‫ ْم‬18 -)
observed the changes in weight during the storage period ‫ي‬r‫ ازن ا‬./ ‫ ا{)ات‬5&'' ‫ وذ‬5y1!‫ 'زن آ‬,‫ب ا‬1
using weight balance, while the changes in fruits color ./ ‫ ا{)ات‬7‫أ‬.‫س‬1 ‫ان‬:)7 ‫; ام‬$' ‫ن وذ‬:;‫ ة ا‬7 ‫ل‬s ‫>ر‬6
recorded by using a naked eye [18]. (1988) w6* ‫دة وا*دا‬8‫ه '&) ا‬x ‫ن ا>ر‬
Vitamin C (mg / 100 g) determined according to [5].
.A O.A.C.(1990) ./ ‫ ء‬7 1 ‫ ر‬v ‫) ج‬7)/ .Polegaev
Total chlorophyll in fruits (mg / 100 g) determined
according to the method Zaehringer and his colleagues 1 ‫ رت‬v ( 100/{67) ‫ ا>ر‬./ .6o‫) ا‬/‫ر‬6o‫ا‬
described in [10]. Total protein of fruits (%) were ‫ ااد‬.(Goodwin.1976 ./ 5/"‫ ا‬#7‫ وز‬Zaehringer5xq
determined by using Microkjeldahl method [5]. Phenolic .‫ د‬./ ‫ اآرة‬Folin-Denis 5xq 1 ‫ه‬x (%) 5)!),‫ا‬
substances were determined by using Folin-Denis .(1987) )ou‫وا‬
method mentioned in [8].
Randomized complete block design in factorial Complete 7o‫ ا‬.‫) ا&ا‬-‫; م ا‬$=' #)67* 5'8 "
experiment was used with three replicates per treatment ‫ وى‬.‫ اا ة‬567&6 ‫رات‬o7 ‫ و'>ث‬Randomized Design
and the revised least significant difference test (RLSD) ‫& ل‬7 ‫&!ي‬7 ‫ق‬/ v‫ر ا‬ys‫ ا‬1 ‫ت‬r$‫ق ') ا‬,‫ر ا‬ys‫ا‬
was used to camper between means at 0.05 probability [4]. .(1980،‫ ا‬6s‫ )ااوي و‬0.05 ‫ى ال‬17 !* R.L.S.D
432
RESULTS
‫ا
وا‬
1. Total chlorophyll: -:
‫ا
رو ا‬-1
As shown in table (1) fruit treated with ascorbic acid at
the concentration of 100 mg/l gave the highest amount of -,‫ر‬./0‫ ا‬12,
‫ق ا
) ر ا‬+! (1) ‫ول‬#
‫ ا‬$ %&!
chlorophyll reached to 0.273 mg/100 g. while untreated ‫ت إذ‬A..
‫ ا‬., <.= ‫ارة‬.9 ..:‫ر‬, .$3;
‫ وا‬.
/5.6100 3.‫آ‬,
fruits gave the lowest amount of Chlorophyll (0.269 mg / ، (5.D100/5.6 0.273 ) .C, .
‫ آ ا
رو ا
) ر ا‬B6,
100 g).Treating with citric acid had no significant effect on ) B..6, ..‫ ا
رو‬H.. .. ‫ آ‬..‫ ا‬..
‫ ا‬..D ‫ر‬.. )
‫ ا‬B..F=‫ أ‬H..9 ..
the amount of chlorophyll in fruits, while the amount of .I ‫ا‬JK.! -IL.
‫ ا‬1.2
H.I 5.
H.9 ،(5D100/56 0.269
chlorophyll decreased with the increment of storage period O.. ..
‫ ا‬..‫ ا
رو‬H.. ‫ر‬.. )
‫ى ا‬..2 ‫ض‬..+;$‫ ا‬R..9AI‫ و‬.+M..
‫ ا‬..
reached to the lowest amount after four months of storage.
H.. C..S‫ أ‬.. ,‫ أر‬.. , ..
.. ..‫< أ‬..
‫ ا‬..T‫< و‬..9 ‫ن‬3..;
‫ة ا‬.. ‫ ار‬../‫ا‬
The interaction between ascorbic acid and citric acid
was significant for its impact on the character. Fruits .‫ن‬3;
‫ا‬
treated with ascorbic acid (50 mg / l), citric acid (100 mg / I VJK! ‫ آن‬-IL
‫ ا‬19‫ و‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬W9 H, X‫ا
ا‬
l) gave the highest amount of chlorophyll, while fruits -,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬19 H, X‫ ا
ا‬BF=‫ إذ أ‬،‫ آ ا
رو‬
treated with ascorbic acid (0 mg / l) and citric acid (100 ‫
أ=< آ‬/561003‫آ‬, -IL
‫ ا‬19‫
و‬/5650 3‫آ‬,
mg / l) recorded the lowest amount of chlorophyll. The H, X‫ ا آ
رو = ا
ا‬B$‫ آ‬H9 .‫
رو‬
interaction between ascorbic acid (100 mg / l) gave the 3‫آ‬, -IL
‫ ا‬19‫ و‬+T 3‫آ‬, -,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬19
highest amount of chlorophyll after one month of storage, ‫ن‬3;
‫ وة ا‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬19 H, X‫ ا
ا‬YL
, .
/56100
whereas the lowest amount was in untreated fruits after
/56100 3‫ !آ‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬12,
‫ ا
) ر ا‬BF=‫ا‬
four months of storage.The same results can be reported
regarding the interaction between citric acid and storage
‫ى
آن‬2 ‫ أ ا‬.‫ ا
رو‬H ‫ى‬2 <=‫ ا‬CS ‫
ة‬$3;
‫وا‬
period.The triple interaction had no significant effect on ‫ ذآ‬ZYFI‫ و‬.CS‫ ا‬4 ‫
ة‬$3;
‫ وا‬12
,
‫ ا‬D ‫ ا
) ر‬
the total chlorophyll content of fruits. X‫ أ ا
ا‬.‫ن‬3;
‫ وة ا‬-IL
‫ ا‬19 H, X‫
ا‬YL
, VA=‫أ‬
Retaining the stored fruits with the highest amount ‫ ا
رو‬H ‫ى ا
) ر‬2 <= VJK! ‫ ي‬D ‫ آن‬JA)
‫ا‬
of chlorophyll when treated with ascorbic and citric .
‫ا‬
acid may be due to the role of acids in reducing the C = ‫ ا
رو‬H Y‫ اآ‬, $3;
‫ظ ا
) ر ا‬+9‫أن ا‬
activity of chlorophyllase enzyme which decomposition HW2
‫ ا‬A‫ ا
< دور آ‬YY/ ‫ى‬3 I -IL
‫ وا‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬12,
of chlorophyll.This is in agreement with [7] who Z+I ‫ ا
رو وه]ا‬2! <= I ‫ا
]ي‬3‫ ا
رو‬5I3$‫! = ا‬
obtained that ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has a wide -,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬19 ‫ أن‬H Blokhina et al.(2003) V‫ ذآ‬O
range of important functions as an antioxidant and
reducing the loss of chlorophyll. The decrease of
‫ة‬L‫آ‬b
‫د‬W +T, C
‫` ا‬a
‫ ا‬H O/‫ ج(
ى وا‬H)
chlorophyll in fruits with an increasing of storage ‫ن‬3;
‫دة ة ا‬I‫ ز‬O ‫أ ا
رو ا
) ر‬.‫ ا
رو‬H I‫و‬
period may be due to the activity of chlorophyllase <
‫ ا
) ر ا& ا‬I2
‫
ت ا‬+
‫ ا‬#$ ‫آ‬AC/‫ى ا
< ا‬3 !
enzyme This is in constant with [13] who reported that Isabel et
‫ ا‬T! O Z+I ‫ وه]ا‬3‫ ا
رو‬5I3$‫
ا‬
the amount of chlorophyll gradually decreased as a 5F2! #$ #I‫رة !ر‬M, ! ‫ ان آ ا
رو‬H al.(1990)
result of pigments destroy. . I3$‫ت ا‬6YM
‫ا‬
Table 1
The effect of ascorbic acid, citric acid, storage period and the interaction among them on total chlorophyll (mg / 100 g)
Ascorbic acid Citric acid Ascorbic acid x citric

Pre-storage Storage period ( month)
mg/l mg/l acid
1 2 3 4
0 0,295 0.286 0.276 0.252 0.244 0.270
0 50 0,295 0.281 0.700 0.265 0.248 0.272
100 0,295 0.269 0.263 0.250 0.242 0.264
0 0,295 0.281 0.780 0.253 0.246 0.272
50 50 0,295 0.277 0.262 0.251 0.244 0.266
100 0,295 0.288 0.279 0.266 0.260 0.277
0 0,295 0.288 0.280 0.260 0.245 0.274
100 50 0,295 0.285 0.278 0.265 0.255 0.275
100 0,295 0.280 0.265 0.257 0.253 0.276
Means of ascorbic
acid
Ascorbic acid 0 0,295 0.279 0.270 0.256 0.244 0.269
x storage 50 0,295 0.282 0.273 0.256 0.250 0.271
periods 100 0,295 0.284 0.274 0.261 0.251 0.273
Means of citric acid
Citric acid x 0 0,295 0.285 0.278 0.255 0.245 0.272
storage 50 0,295 0.281 0.270 0.260 0.249 0.271
periods 100 0,295 0.279 0.269 0.258 0.252 0.270
Means of storage periods 0,295 0.281 0.272 0.258 0.248
RLSD 0.05
Ascorbic
Citric acid
acid x Ascorbic acid x citric
Ascorbic acid Citric acid Storage period Ascorbic acid x citric acid x storage
storage acid x storage period
0.0023 N.S 0.0026 0.004 period
period N.S
0.0046
0.0046
433
2-Phenolic substances:
+
‫ا
اد ا‬-2
Results presented in table (2) indicated that fruits
treated with 50 mg / l ascorbic acid gave the highest -,‫ر‬../0‫ ا‬1..2, ..
‫ر ا‬.. )
‫( إن ا‬2) ‫ول‬..#
‫ ا‬H.. %W..I
percentage of total phenolic substances 0.062%, while B..6, ..
+
‫اد ا‬..
..Id YL..$ <..=‫ أ‬B..F=‫ ا‬..
/5..650 3..‫آ‬,
the lowest percentage of phenolic substances was in (0.059 ) B...6, ...
‫ ا‬...D ‫ر‬... )
‫ ا‬... B...$‫ آ‬YL...$ ...‫ وا‬0.062
untreated fruit 0.059%. Fruits treated with 50 mg / l citric
acid gave the highest percentage of total phenolic substances YL.$ <.=‫ أ‬.
/5650 3‫آ‬, -IL
‫ ا‬12,
‫ ا
) ر ا‬BF=‫وأ‬
0.062% and the lowest percentage of phenolic .
‫ر ا‬. )
‫ ا‬. B.$‫ آ‬YL.$ .‫( وا‬0.062 ) B.6, ‫
إذ‬+
‫
اد ا‬
substances was in fruits treated with citric acid at the YL.
, .‫ أ‬.( 0.059 ) B6, ‫
إذ‬/56100 3‫آ‬, -IL
‫ ا‬12,
concentration of (100 mg / l). The percentage of phenolic
substances decreased with the continuation of storage O. .! .
+
‫اد ا‬.
.Id
‫ ا‬YL.
‫ ان ا‬R9.
. ‫ن‬3;
‫ ة ا‬JK! <
‫ا‬
period reached to 0.047% after four months of storage. <..
‫ن ا‬3..;
‫ ا‬H.. C..S‫ أ‬.. ,‫ أر‬.. , B..T‫< ان و‬..
‫ن ا‬3..;
‫ة ا‬.. ‫ ار‬../‫ا‬
The interaction between ascorbic acid at the .( 0.047)
concentration of 50 mg / l and citric acid at the
concentration of 50 mg / l gave the highest percentage of 3.‫آ‬, -IL
‫ وا‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬W9 H, X‫ ا
ا‬BF=‫وأ‬
total phenolic substances ,while the lowest percentage of -,‫ر‬.../0‫ ا‬W...9 H..., X‫ا‬...
‫ ا‬... ‫ و‬... C ...
...
/5...650
total phenolic substances was in fruits treated with ، .
+
‫اد ا‬.
.Id YL.$ <.=‫
أ‬/56100 -IL
‫
وا‬/5650
ascorbic acid at the concentration of 0 mg / l and citric
acid at the concentration of 100 mg / l with no significant 3.‫آ‬, -,‫ر‬./0‫ ا‬19 H, X‫
ا
ا‬YL$ ‫ ا‬B6, H9
difference with the interaction between ascorbic acid at W..9 H.., ..
‫ وا‬..
/5..6100 3..‫آ‬, -IL..
‫ ا‬1..9‫ و‬+..T
the concentration of 100 mg / l and citric acid at the X‫ا‬.
HI 5
‫ و‬. C

/56100 3‫آ‬, -IL
‫ وا‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ا‬
concentration of 100 mg / l.The double and triple
interactions had no significant effect on the total phenolic .JA)
‫ ا‬X‫ا‬.
‫ ا‬-
].‫ن وآ‬3.;
‫ة ا‬.‫ و‬-IL.
‫ او ا‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬19 H,
substances. .+M
‫ ا‬I ‫ا‬JK! ‫ت‬A
‫ ا‬H,
Fruits treated with ascorbic acids and citric acids
retained the highest percentage of phenolic
= YL, -IL
‫ وا‬-,‫ر‬/e‫ ا‬W2,
‫ظ ا
) ر ا‬+9‫ان ا‬
substances which may be due to the role of both acids ‫ ا
< دور‬O:I
‫ ا‬D ‫ ا
) ر‬O $‫
ر‬+
‫ ا
اد ا‬H
in reducing the activity of polyphenol oxidase and thus
stop or inhibit the work of the enzyme [8, 11]. The ‫ف أو‬I‫ إ‬5J H‫ و‬IL‫
ل اوآ‬Y
‫ ا‬5I3$‫ ! = أ‬HW2
‫ا‬
reason for decreasing the phenolic substances with an ‫
ا
اد‬YL
, ‫ أ‬.( Hall, 200‫؛‬1987،
0‫ )د‬5I3$e‫ = ا‬gY)!
increment of the storage period may be due to the
‫ة ا‬L‫آ‬e‫ ا
< = ت ا‬iYL
‫ى ا‬3 I ‫ن‬3;
‫دة ة ا‬I‫ ز‬O
+
‫ا‬
oxidation processes caused by some enzymes such
as poly phenol oxidase that reduced phenolic <
‫ ا‬C
‫ا‬3X‫
وا‬+
‫ت ا‬Y‫
آ‬3IL‫
ل اوآ‬Y
‫ ا‬5I3$‫ أ‬C, ‫م‬I
substances into quinones which were not fixed and ‫ة‬:‫ و‬O Z+I ‫ وه]ا‬,J D ‫ وا
ه‬quinones ‫ت‬$I‫آ‬
this is in agreement with [21] who reported that the
+
‫ ان ا
اد ا‬H Tamura and Minimide (1983)
phenolic substances in the fruits of okra reduced with
the elongation of storage period. .‫ن‬3;
‫ ! = !م ا
) ر ة ا‬Y
‫ ر ا‬J
Table 2
The effect of ascorbic acid, citric acid , storage period and the interaction among them on phenolic substances (%) of okra
fruits stored at (-18 ± 2 °C)
Ascorbic acid Citric acid Storage period (] day) Ascorbic acid x citric
Pre-storage
[mg/l] [mg/l] 3 6 9 12 acid
0 0.085 0.058 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.059

0 50 0.085 0.061 0.058 0.053 0.046 0.061
100 0.085 0.053 0.051 0.050 0.045 0.057
0 0.085 0.059 0.054 0.050 0.047 0.059
50 50 0.085 0.065 0.059 0.058 0.047 0.063
100 0.085 0.064 0.060 0.056 0.049 0.063
0 0.085 0.066 0.056 0.051 0.046 0.061
100 50 0.085 0.065 0.058 0.050 0.048 0.061
100 0.085 0.058 0.053 0.052 0.049 0.057
Means of ascorbic acid
0 0.085 0.058 0.055 0.051 0.047 0.059
Ascorbic acid x
storage 50 0.085 0.063 0.057 0.055 0.048 0.062
periods
100 0.085 0.060 0.055 0.051 0.048 0.060
Means of citric acid
0 0.085 0.061 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.060
Citric acid x
storage 50 0.085 0.063 0.058 0.053 0.048 0.062
periods 100 0.085 0.059 0.054 0.052 0.048 0.059
Means of storage periods 0.085 0.061 0.056 0.052 0.047
RLSD 0.05
Ascorbic acid Citric acid x
Ascorbic acid x citric
Ascorbic acid Citric acid Storage periods Ascorbic acid x citric acid x storage storage
acid x storage periods
periods periods
0.0015 0.0015 0.0018 0.0027 N.S N.S N.S
434
Table 3
The effect of ascorbic acid, citric acid, storage period and the interaction among them on vitamin C (mg / 100 g) of okra fruits
stored at (-18 ± 2 °C)
Ascorbic acid Citric acid Storage period (day) Ascorbic acid x
Pre-storage
[mg/l] [mg/l] 3 6 9 12 citric acid
0 43,50 14.87 11.77 9.48 8.27 17.58

0 50 43,50 15.13 12.10 9.82 8.94 17.90
100 43,50 15.08 11.95 9.72 8.18 17.68
0 43,50 14.88 12.17 9.82 8.88 17.85
50 50 43,50 14.95 12.00 10.45 9.20 18.02
100 43,50 18.00 14.88 12.05 10.14 19.71
0 43,50 15.02 11.99 8.81 9.16 17.90
100 50 43,50 18.05 15.00 11.45 9.50 19.50
100 43,50 18.00 15.50 12.36 10.28 19.92
Means of
ascorbic acid
0 43,50 15.03 11.94 9.67 8.46 17.72
Ascorbic acid x
storage periods 50 43,50 15.94 13.02 10.77 9.40 18.53
100 43,50 17.02 14.16 11.20 9.65 19.11
Means of citric
acid
0 43,50 14.92 11.98 9.71 8.77 17.77
Citric acid x
storage periods 50 43,50 16.04 13.03 10.57 9.21 18.47
100 43,50 17.02 14.11 11.37 9.53 19.11

Means of storage periods 43,50 16.01 13.04 10.55 9.17
RLSD 0.05
Ascorbic acid x
Citric acid x Ascorbic acid x
Citric acid x citric acid x Ascorbic acid x citric Ascorbic acid x
Storage periods storage periods citric acid x
storage periods storage acid storage periods
storage periods
periods
0.28 0.50 0.16 0.25 0.28 0.28 0.50
4.Weight loss and color of the fruits: -:‫

ن ا
) ر‬6
‫ ا
زن وا‬-4
All treated and untreated okra fruits retian their fresh
weight during the storage and at the end of storage ‫ل‬AX C
‫ي‬F
‫
زن ا‬, Bk+9‫ ا‬C‫ ا
آ‬D‫ا
) ر ا
و‬
without any loss in fresh weight at -18 ± 2 °C. Fru its that
‫ ا
) ر ا‬.‫ي‬F
‫ ا‬C$‫ أي وز‬M2I 5
‫ و‬IC$ ‫ن و‬3;
‫ة ا‬
treated with ascorbic acid or citric acid or both kept the
natural color during the storage period, while the color of ‫
) ر‬Tl‫
ن ا‬, Bk+9‫ ا‬-IL
‫ أو ا‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬12, B=
untreated fruits lightly changed into yellow. The reason 6!
‫ ا‬D ‫ن أ ا
) ر‬3;
‫ل ة ا‬AX ‫ات‬6! I‫أ ا‬F! 5
‫و‬
may be due to the boiling of fruits at the beginning of
storage that led to inhibition of the activity of Y ‫ ا
) ر‬Z/ = <
‫ ا‬iYL
‫ د ا‬I ,‫ ور‬+Te‫ ا
< ا‬A C$
chlorophyllase and poly phenol oxidase enzymes in ‫

ل‬Y
‫ وا‬3‫ ت ا
رو‬I3$‫ = ا‬gY)! <
‫ن وا
أدت ا‬3;
‫ا‬
addition to the role of freezing storage in inhibiting of
. I3$0‫ ا
ط ا‬gY)! #
, ‫ن‬3;
‫ ا‬JK! H= AW 3IL‫أوآ‬
enzymes activity.
CONCLUSIONS ‫ات‬
The results obtained in the present work clearly ) ‫ة‬L‫آ‬e‫دات ا‬W , Y
‫ ر ا‬J ‫&ح ا
< ان‬,
‫! ا‬
indicated to the role of postharvest application of
antioxidants (ascorbic and citric acids) and freezing
‫ أدى‬#
, ‫ن‬3;
‫ وا‬#
‫ ا‬, (-IL
‫ ا‬19‫ و‬-,‫ر‬/0‫ ا‬19
storage in improving qualitative characteristics of okra . ‫ن‬3;
‫ ا‬H CS‫ أ‬,‫ أر‬, ‫ت ا
=
) ر‬+M
‫ =< ا‬k2
‫ا
< ا‬
fruits after four months of storage.
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nd
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Production of vegetables Part II, The University of Mosul, ..‫ن‬$‫و‬
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i
‫ دار ا‬،$)
‫ء ا‬3#
‫وات ا‬WX ‫ج‬$‫ أ‬-( 1989)
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اق‬،T
‫ ا‬:
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‫ ا‬،‫ت‬Y
‫ ا‬#L 5= -(1985 ).5a‫ آ‬5k
‫ ا‬Y= ، 2 .[17]
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اق‬/T
‫ ا‬: ،
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i
‫ دار ا‬،$)
‫ا‬
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5‫آ‬,‫ دة ا‬x ‫ق‬q-(1988).‫)) ب اي‬6o' .[18]
mode by combination of pear polyphenol oxidase and .(5)$‫ او‬5,6').o$7.4;‫وا‬
proxidase in enzymatic browning, Journal Agricultural !)‫رو‬6o‫ ة ا‬1‫أآ‬-(1997).‫أي‬.‫رد أف و رد أف‬x‫ ر‬.[19]
Food Chem, vol. 45, pg. 2472-2476; :x 1‫)!ل أوآ‬/ .y‫ ا‬x: ‫ ا‬5r$‫ل 'ا‬o)‫>) آ‬7-4 ‫) و‬8)o‫وا‬
[20]. Smith J. (1993) - Food Additive Users Handbook, .2467-45:2472 .5x 3‫ وآ))ء ا‬5*‫را‬:‫ ا‬5687 .:x 1‫)وآ‬y‫وا‬
Blackle Academic and Professional, New York, pp. 279; 279. ‫رك‬x ) .5x 3‫ت ا‬/47 7 ;17 -(1993) .. $ .20]
[21]. Tamura J., Minamide T. (1983) - Harvesting, .5u,"
maturity, handling and storage of okra pods, Bulletin of
the University of Osaka, prefecture series, B.V. 36:87-97.
‫ن‬:s‫ و اول و‬4 ‫د و‬--(1983).. )7!7 ‫ و‬. ‫را‬7= .[21]
.97-36:87.o$‫ أو‬5&7 ‫ ة‬.)7y‫ ت ا‬v
436
SIMULATION OF SALINITY STRESS ON GROWTH OF WINTER WHEAT BY SOIL WATER

ATMOSPHERE PLANT MODEL IN LOESS PLATEAU
/
用 SWAP 模拟盐分胁迫对黄土高原冬小麦生长的影响
1, 2) 2) 3) 4)
Ph.D. Quan Quan , Prof. Ph.D. Bing Shen , Prof. Ph.D. Runxun Jin , Ph.D. Changxing Jin
1)
State Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing/ China;
2)
Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an / China; 3)Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge CB1 1PT, Cambridge / United Kingdom ; 4)
Environmental Consulting & Technology, inc. Florida / U.S.A.
Tel: +8613772431776; Email: qq@xaut.edu.com
Abstract: The sustainable development of efficient

water-saving agricultural irrigation in Loess Plateau
摘要: 黄土高原农业可持续发展的高效节水灌溉需要依据
requires reasonable and quantitative planning, design, 作物-水-盐响应关系来合理定量规划设计和管理决策。本
management, and strategies based on crop-water-salt
response relationship. In the present paper, data were 文以 SWAP （ soil water atmosphere plant ）模型为工
measured by using the soil-water-salt sensor CS655 to
modify the simulation of root uptake in the original Soil 具，通过土壤水盐传感器 CS655 实测数据以修正原
Water Atmosphere Plant (SWAP) model. Spring wheat
SWAP 模型对根系吸水的模拟。采用陕西省富平县盐渍化
field experiment data in the salinized irrigation district of
Fuping County, Shaanxi Province, China were used to 灌区春小麦田间试验数据，对 SWAP 模型在黄土高原灌
test the feasibility of using the SWAP model in irrigation
districts of Loess Plateau. The comparison of soil 区适用性进行了检验。对比分析植物根系层土壤水分与盐
moisture and salt concentration in the root system, along
with simulated and measured values of partial above- 分浓度、作物地上部分生物量的模拟值与实测值，结果表
ground biomass showed the following results: the
明，根系层土壤水分的平均相对误差 MRE 和均方根误差
average relative error and root-square error of soil
2
RMSE 均接近于 0 且模型 R 值趋于 1，水分模块模拟精
2
moisture in the root layer were close to 0; model R
tended to be 1; simulation accuracy of water module was
high; salt concentration in the simulation varied, but the 度较高，盐分浓度模拟存在差异但总体模拟一致性较好，
overall simulation consistency was good; crop growth
parameters matched well; and simulated yield was close 且作物生长指标匹配良好，模拟产量较接近实际值相对误
to the actual value with a relative error of 3.6%. The 差为 3.6%。综上所述，该模型可良好地应用于黄土高原
SWAP model can be well applied to simulate soil, water
and salt transfer at field scale in salinized districts of 盐渍化区田间尺度土壤水盐运移的模拟。
Loess Plateau.
Keywords: SWAP; soil moisture; soil salt; agricultural crops 关键词: SWAP; 土壤含水量; 土壤含盐量;农作物
INTRODUCTION 引言
Because of poor soil, sparse vegetation, great
陕西富平黄土高原区由于土壤贫瘠、植被稀疏、地表蒸
surface evaporation, severe water and soil loss, and
frequent drought, the Fuping district of Loess Plateau in 发量大、水土流失严重，加之气候特征十年九旱，从而导
Shaanxi Province is under severe soil salinization. This 致土壤盐渍化严重，而作为以农业生产为主要产业的地
district is known for agriculture; hence, the salinity stress 区，盐分胁迫对作物生长的影响已经成为目前国内外同行
on crop growth has attracted the attention of local and
foreign researchers [10]. Salinity stress is a growth 研究的热点[10]。盐渍化胁迫是田间条件下存在最广泛的
adversity for crops and most commonly exists under field 一种作物生长逆境，了解作物对该逆境的响应，是对作物
conditions. The reasonable adjustment of crops and 进行合理调控、实现农业管理的前提[12]。盐渍化胁迫使
agricultural management initially requires an
作物从内到外发生一系列生理、生化及形态上的响应，这
understanding of crops’ responses to such adversity
[12]. Salinity stress affects crops’ internal and external 方面已有大量研究，Hsiao 曾对此做过详细综述[7]。目前
responses physiologically, biochemically, and 国际上比较著名的农业生态模型都能够模拟作物的生长状
morphologically. Many studies have investigated salinity
况。例如荷兰的 WOFOST（World Food Study）模型，
stress, and Hsiao described salinity stress in detail [7].
Famous agro-ecological models around the world that 美国农业部研究开发的 CERES （ Crop and
could simulate crop growth include Dutch World Food Environmental Research Synthesis ）系列模型，RZWQ
Study (WOFOST), Crop and Environmental Research （Root Zone Water Quality）模型，丹麦等国共同研制
Synthesis (CERES) series developed by United States
Department of Agriculture, Root Zone Water Quality, 的 DAISY 模型，加拿大农业部半干旱草原农业研究中心
Daisy developed by Denmark and other countries, and （ Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Center ，
Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Center (SPARC)- SPARC ）对 CERES 模型进行本地化形成的 SPARC-
Wheat and PARC-Barley developed by SPARC, which
Wheat 和 SPARC-Barley 模型[3]。
437
localized CERES [3]. 荷兰的 SWAP（Soil Water Atmosphere Plant）模型将

Dutch Soil Water Atmosphere Plant (SWAP) model
simulates water amount and provides many options 模拟重点放在水量过程上，提供了多种和田间水分相关的
relating to field moisture [2]. This model has definite 模拟选项[2]。另外该模型有明确的物理机制，适合在不同
physical mechanisms for different districts and conditions
and can predict the changes of soil moisture content. 地区、不同条件下移植应用，同时还有预测土壤含水量变
SWAP can simulate the transfer of field moisture, solute, 化过程的功能。SWAP 模型可以模拟作物整个生长期内田
and heat quantity between saturated and unsaturated
soils during the entire growth period of crops; with SWAP, 间水分、溶质和热量在饱和 /非饱和土壤中的移动，还可
irrigation can be planned according to various standards 根据各种标准制定出灌溉计划 [4] 。该模型可用以解决农
[4]. SWAP can be used to solve problems in the study of
业、水资源管理和环境保护等几个领域的研究与实践问
agriculture, water resource management, and
environmental protection. After considering the 题。所以本研究采用该模型来对盐分胁迫下的冬小麦生长
abovementioned applications of this model, we used
问题进行研究。
SWAP to study winter wheat growth under salinity stress.
Fig.1- Channel networks arrangement plan of ditch for water storage.
MATERIAL AND METHOD 材料与方法

Study area
Experiments were performed at the Shaanxi Estate 研究区域
Development Service Corporation and Xi’an University
of Technology, China. The study area is located in 本试验的研究是在陕西地产开发服务公司和西安理工大
Shaanxi Province, China, as shown in figure 1 (101°21′ 学共同努力下进行的。研究区位于中国的陕西省如图 1 所
to 101°26 ′E, 34°47 ′ to 34°49 ′N). The regional climate is
semiarid, with a mean annual precipitation of approximately 示位置（ 101°21 ′101°26 ′E ， 34°47 ′34°49 ′n ）。陕西气候
437 mm and evaporation of 1,000 mm to 1,300 mm; these
values for precipitation and evaporation mostly result in 干旱年平均降水量约 437 毫米，蒸发量 1000-1300 毫
intense storms from June to September [5]. The mean
annual air temperature is approximately 13.4 °C, wi th a 米，降雨大多集中在六月到九月 [5] 。年平均气温约为
pH of 8.3 to 8.6. A salinity level in the range 2.8 g/L to
13.4ºC，研究区土壤 pH 值为 8.3～8.6，含盐量 2.8-3.2 g
3.2 g/L was found in the semiarid zone. Corn, wheat,
and cotton are the main crops cultivated in fields in this ／L 。在这个区域主要种植玉米，小麦，棉花采取渠系灌
area. Fields are irrigated by using ditch systems. The study
area consisted of a number of fields covering a piece of 溉方式。研究区由一个长 40 米，宽 10 米的田块组成，用
2
land 40 m long and 10 m wide, with a total area of 400 m .
The salinity of groundwater affected the distribution and 地面积 400 平方米。高盐分的地下水影响着表层土壤含盐
variability of salinity in the topsoil and was also the main
limiting factor for crops because high salinity resulted in 度的分布与变化。高矿化度的地下水也是限制了作物生长
high mineral concentration in the groundwater.
的主要因素。
Model introduction
In salinized farmlands, dissolved salt moved with the 模型介绍
water. The core of SWAP is related to the simulation of
water movement, thereby defining the water source, 在盐渍化的农田中，溶解在水分中的盐分会随着水分运
destination, and changes in soils. Water mostly came 移。SWAP 模型的核心部分是对水分运动的模拟，即确定
from rain and artificial irrigation. After canopy
水的来源、去向以及在土壤中的变化过程。水的来源主要
interception, rain reaches the ground. Part of the rain
water becomes runoff, and the rest infiltrates the soil. 是降雨以及人工灌溉。降雨经过冠层截留后到达地面，一
Some of the rain water in the soil evaporated and
部分形成径流，其余则渗入土层。土壤中较少部分的水通
disappeared, but most of it went back to the air via plant
transpiration; thus, salt is left on the soil surface [8]. 过蒸发散失，大多数则是通过植物的蒸腾作用返回大气，
Water in soil moved according to the description of the
盐分就被留在了土壤表层[8] 。土壤中的水分按 Richards
438
Richards equation, and key factors influencing the 方程的描述运动，影响这一过程的关键因素是土壤性质和

process include soil property and moisture content.
Water infiltrating downward turned into deep phreatic 土壤含水量。水分向下入渗会成为深层地下水，向侧向运
water, and water that moved to the lateral sides would 动则会从排水系统（河道、排水管网等）流走[6]。溶质的
flow into drainage systems (rivers and drain pipes) [6].
The movement of solute depended on soil property, 运动取决于土壤特性，而作物生长则可认为是由辐射和蒸
whereas crop growth can be considered as dry matter 腾作用决定干物质积累，再按一定比例分配到不同组织
accumulation determined by radiation and transpiration;
solute was then allocated into different crop tissues in [11]。作物整体由冠和根两种功能不同的器官组成。就冬
proportion [11]. Crops consisted of canopy and roots, 小麦而言, 大部分时间是以冠生长为中心, 因此冠部干物质
which function differently. For winter wheat, development
revolved around canopy growth in general; thus, canopy 积累是时间的单调不减函数[9]。根系生长决定着作物对水
dry matter accumulation is an in decreasing function of 分的吸收，并随作物不断发育而快速生长并达到最大值,
time [9]. Root system growth determined the water
uptake of the crops, and gradually reached the 此期间其生长是时间的递增函数, 此后由于衰老和干物质
maximum with crop development. In this period, crop 向冠部输出, 物质积累量开始下降, 生长为时间的递减函
growth was an increasing function of time. Afterward,
matter accumulation decreased because of fading and 数。那么研究在水盐胁迫下作物地上部分生物量的动态变
the output of dry matter to canopy. Thus, growth became 化，以及水盐胁迫下作物根部对水分的吸收状况具有十分
a decreasing function of time. Therefore, studying the
dynamic changes of crops’ above-ground biomass and 重要的意义 [1]。
root uptake under water and salinity stress is important [1].
水盐胁迫下根系吸水模块
Root water uptake module under water and salinity stress
To calculate water stress in SWAP, the sectional SWAP 中水分胁迫的计算采用了 Feddes 等提出的分段
linear water stress function proposed by Feddes et al. 线性水分胁迫函数。盐分胁迫则采用 Maas 和 Hoffman 建
was used; calculating salinity stress required the
corresponding linear function suggested by Maas and 议的线性相应函数，该函数是基于土壤饱和浸提液电导率
Hoffman. The function was constructed based on the
relationship between soil saturation extract conductivity （ECe ）与根系吸水关系构建的。故 Actual root uptake
(ECe) and root uptake. Actual root uptake rate Sact(h, rate Sact(h, EC, z) (cm/d)可表示为：
EC, z) (cm/d) can then be expressed as follow:
S a ct (h, EC , z ) = arw (h)ars ( EC ) S p ot ( z ) (1)
Where, arw (h) - the water stress reduction factor (fig. 2); 式中，arw(h) - 水胁迫折减系数，见图 2；
ars (ECe) - the salinity stress reduction factor, as
ars(ECe) - 盐胁迫折减系数，见图 3；
shown in figure 3;
Spot (z) - the potential root uptake rate, cm/d; Spot(z) - 根系实际吸水速率；
EC - 电导率 smcm ；
-1
EC - the electrical conductivity (smcm-1);
H - the soil water pressure head (cm). H - 土壤压力水头；
Fig. 2 - Water stress reduction factor Fig. 3 - Salinity stress reduction factor
Fig. 4 - Crop growth Processes
439
Crop growth module

作物生长模块
The module used in SWAP to simulate crop growth
was WOFOST 6.0, as shown in Fig. 4. WOFOST was SWAP 模拟作物生长模块所用的是 WOFOST 6.0 程序
used to determine the radiation absorbed by crop
见图 4。WOFOST 将作物冠层吸收的辐射能看成入射辐
canopy as a function of incident radiation and leaf area
and to calculate potential photosynthesis with the feature 射和作物叶面面积的函数，并考虑叶片发生光合作用的特
of photosynthesis in leaves. Potential photosynthesis
would be reduced due to water and salinity stress, and 性，计算得出潜在光合作用。潜在光合作用会因水分和盐
some of the radiation was used for maintaining 分压力有所消减，而且还有一部分要用于维持呼吸作用，
respiration. Thus, the actual photosynthesis is achieved.
Furthermore, the amount of CO2 that was assimilated 由此得到实际光合作用，进而得出 CO2 同化为碳水化合
into carbohydrates CH2O was obtained. After obtaining 物 CH2O 的量。这一部分扣除用于生长的呼吸作用后就可
the amount of respiration required for growth, the
increased amount of dry matter was determined. The dry 得出干物质的增加量，产生的干物质再按一定的因子分配
matter was allocated to different tissues in proper 到作物的各个组织。划分到叶片的那部分干物质又会决定
proportions, and the amount that reached the leaves
determined leaf growth. The crop growth model at 叶片生长。可以将其简化田间尺度的作物生长模型见公式
simplified field scale refers to formula (2), simple model
（2），简化模型（田间尺度）：
(field scale), as follows:
N
Ya T
= ∏ a ,k (2)
Y p k =1 T p ,k
Where: Ya - actual crop yield; 式中：Ya - 实际产量；
Yp - potential crop yield; Yp - 潜在产量；
Ta, k - actual transpiration at stage k; Ta, k - 在 k 田块的实际蒸发；
Tp, k - potential transpiration at stage k; Tp, k - 在 k 田块的潜在蒸发；
N - number of growth stages.
N - 田块总数.
RESULTS
Model verification and discussion 结果
In the present paper, the field experimental data of winter 模型验证与讨论
wheat irrigated with Yellow River water were obtained in the
salinized irrigation district of Fuping County, Shaanxi 本文分别采用在陕西富平盐渍化灌区开展的 2014 年冬
Province in 2014. The field plot area was
2 小麦引黄渠灌田间试验数据。试验田间小区面积为个
40 m × 10 m = 400 m , and the soil was mostly loess. The
40m×10m=400m ，土壤质地以黄土为主，采用当地典型
typical local field irrigation and fertilization systems were 2
used. Soil moisture content and conductivity were detected

daily by real-time forecast using the soil-water-salt sensor 田间灌溉及施肥制度，通过土壤水盐传感器 CS655 实时
CS655. During harvest, a variety study and a yield test
测报的方法每天测定土壤含水率和土壤电导率。收获时进
were conducted. Inspection wells were available around
experimental plots for detecting groundwater level, and an 行考种测产。试验小区附近布设有地下水位观测井，自动
automatic water level detector was used to measured
groundwater level once daily. The initial conditions of the 水位计每天进行 1 次地下水位监测。模型的初始条件根据
model were determined by measuring groundwater level
and salt concentration. The upper boundary was the flux 实测地下水位与盐分浓度确定，上边界由降雨、截留、蒸
formed by rain, interception, evaporation, and transpiration, 散发组成的通量或变水头边界，下边界条件采用由实测地
or variable waterhead boundary, and the lower boundary
was the variable waterhead boundary defined by 下水位确定的变水头边界。
measuring groundwater level.
Table 1
Calibrated values of primary crop biological parameters in SWAP crop growth module
2014
Parameters
winter wheat
Light use efficiency of crops RUE ([kg hm-2].[MJm-2)-1] 36
Curve shape parameter ab1 13.15
Curve shape parameter ab2 62.27
Controlling value of root uptake weakening curve because of the water condition -15
Controlling value of root uptake weakening curve because of the salt condition 6.0
crop resistance rcrop 70
Canopy’s rainfall interception coefficient cm 0.25
Winter wheat was sown and harvested on 20 December

冬小麦播种和收获日期分别为 2013 年 12 月 20 日和
2013 and 30 May 2014, respectively. In Fuping, Shaanxi,
440
soil is usually thawed by middle January and melted by

2014 年 5 月 30 日，陕西富平自 1 月中旬开始解冻，至 2
late February or early March. Accordingly, the simulation
of winter wheat’s growth period considered the soil thawing 月底或 3 月初融通。因此，冬小麦生育期模拟需考虑土壤
process. Table 1 lists the corresponding definite values of
parameters of winter wheat modules. The comparison of 融化过程，冬小麦所对应的作物模块参数率定值列于表 1.
simulated and observed values of soil moisture in different 比较各层土壤水分的模拟值与观测值，二者吻合结果较
layers indicated that these values matched well. The
好。总体的 MRE 和 RMSE 趋于 0，R 则接近于 1 如图
2
overall the average relative error (MRE) and root-square
2
error (RMSE) tended to be 0, whereas R was close to 1,
5 ，进一步表明了土壤水分模拟值与实测值匹配良好。同
as shown in Fig. 5, thereby proving that the simulated and
measured values of soil moisture matched well. 时，上层土壤水分的突增与灌溉和集中降雨密切相关，而
Meanwhile, the sudden increase of water in the upper soil
layer was closely linked with concentrated rainfall. The 下层土壤又同时受到浅地下水位的影响，其维持着较高的
lower soil layer had high moisture content and underwent 含水率且变化相对较小。根系层土壤水盐分浓度的模拟值
relatively little changes because of the effect of shallow
groundwater level. Fig. 6 shows the simulated and 与实测值，如图 6 所示，二者差异较小，且总体趋势一
measured values of water-salt concentration in root soil, 致。总体的模拟与实测盐分浓度统计值 MRE=-0.037 、
and these values differed slightly with consistent overall
RMSE=0.227、R =0.806，表明二者具有较好的一致性。
2
tendency. The statistics of overall simulated and measured
salt concentrations were MRE = -0.037, RMSE = 0.227,
但土壤盐分浓度模拟统计值 R 值较小。可能是由于土壤
2
2
and R = 0.806, which indicated good consistency. The
2
low simulated value R of salt concentration may be due 水模型概化中的系统误差所致，如对采用了灌溉、降雨的
to a system error in the soil water model generalization.
For instance, average values of irrigation and rainfall were 日内平均化处理。同时，根系在灌溉或集中降雨后，根区
obtained in one day. After irrigation or concentrated 土壤水盐分浓度呈现明显下降趋势，这有利于作物生长；
rainfall, water salt concentration in root soil significantly
declined, which enhanced crop growth. Increased water 其后随着作物耗水的增加又引起根区盐分积累和浓度逐步
consumption by crops led to the gradual rise of salinity
上升。
accumulation and concentration in the root zone.
Fig. 7 shows that the simulated value was close to the 如图 7 所示，地上部生物量的模拟值与实测值较为接
measured value of above-ground biomass, thereby indicating
the accuracy of simulation results. Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency 近，模拟效果基本可以接受， NSE 值约为 0.96 ，但
was approximately 0.96, but MRE and RMSE values were MRE 和 RMSE 值则相对较大，这可能与实测数据的数量
large, which may be related to the small size of measured
data. In existing studies, above-ground biomass of wheat 过少有关。考虑到已有研究中小麦地上部生物量在生长中
tended to follow a mono-linear growth trend in the middle
后期多呈现单一的近似线性增长趋势，且本研究中生物量
and late growth periods. The measured values of biomass
in this research, however, covered only one growth cycle 观测值仅为小麦一个生长周期，因此，本文仍采用
of wheat. Therefore, we still adopted SWAP biomass
calculation and allocation formulas, and we will focus on SWAP 生物量计算及分配公式，并将在后续研究中关注
simulation of above-ground biomass in future studies to 与地上部生物量的模拟，以求进一步改进模型。产量模拟
further improve the model. The simulated yield was
值为 0.86kg/m ，略小于观测值 1 kg/m 。考虑到田间实
2 2 2
0.86 kg/m , which was slightly smaller than the observed
2
value of 1 kg/m . As the actual field conditions were complex,
际状况复杂，作物生长可能还会受到其他因素影响，因
crops might be affected by other factors during growth.
For this reason, differences in simulation of growth 此，上述作物生长指标的模拟差异是可以接受的。综合以
parameters were acceptable. The comparison of soil
moisture, soil salinity, simulated values, and measured values 上土壤水分、土壤盐分、作物生长指标模拟值与实测值的
of growth parameters indicated that SWAP simulated the 对比结果，表明 SWAP 模型可以良好的模拟黄土高原春
dynamic changes of field water and salinity and growth
coupling process of spring wheat in Loess Plateau. 小麦田间土壤水盐动态及作物生长耦合过程。
Fig. 5 - Soil water content of root layer
441
Fig. 6- Soil salinity content of root layer
Fig. 7 - Above-ground biomass
CONCLUSIONS 结论
Based on SWAP, we used the field data of winter
wheat in the salinized irrigation district of Fuping, 本研究以 SWAP 模型为基础，采用陕西富平盐渍化灌
Shaanxi to test field applicability and to compare soil
区冬小麦田间试验数据进行了田间适用性检验，分别对土
water, soil salinity, and the simulated and measured
values of above-ground biomass. We also analyzed the 壤水分、盐分浓度、作物地上部生物量的模拟值与观测值
parameters based on SWAP. The simulation results
进行了对比与指标统计分析。模拟结果表明：
demonstrated the following:
1) Crop growth module of SWAP described the details 1）SWAP 模型的作物生长模块，对作物生理过程与形
of crops’ physiological process and morphology in a
simple manner. Simulation of the growth and distribution 态特征的细节描述仍较为简单，尚不能模拟作物根系生长
of the root system and the increase of plant height or
group leaf distribution was not achieved using the model. 动态及分布、株高的增长动态及群体叶片分布等，其主要
However, the model was able to simulate the process of 适用于模拟作物生长与产量形成的主要过程。但实现了以
crop growth and yield. Thus, the simulation of the
dynamic changes of soil water salinity and daily crop 日为时间步长的土壤水盐动态及作物生长的模拟。
growth was still achieved.
2) SWAP required detailed physical processes and 2）由于 SWAP 考虑的物理过程十分详细，用到了很多
many rare formulas, which resulted in the unreasonable 公式，而且其中很多都是不常见的，使得作物生长初期概
generalization of the initial growth period of crops. Thus,
distorted simulation was achieved. 化不合理而导致的模拟失真。
3) MRE and RMSE of soil moisture in winter wheat 3 ）冬小麦试验中土壤水分的平均相对误差 MRE 和均
2
experiment were close to 0, and model R value was
方根误差 RMSE 均接近于 0，且模型 R 值趋近于 1，水
2
close to 1. Thus, the water module showed high
simulation accuracy. The simulation of salinity 分模块模拟精度较高，盐分浓度模拟存在略微差异但总体
concentration differed slightly, but was generally
consistent. 上一致性较好。
442
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 致谢
This work was supported by Open Foundation of State
Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and 本课题受到水文水资源与水利工程科学国家重点实验室
Hydraulic Engineering (Grant No. 2013490511), the 开放基金的资助（项目号： No. 2013490511 ），陕西省
Hydraulic Science and Technology Plan Foundation of
水利厅科技项目的资助（2013slkj-08），陕西省科技厅科
Shaanxi Province (Grant No. 2013slkj-08) and Natural
Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province (Grant No. 技项目资助（2014JQ5188）。
2014JQ5188).
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444
OPTIMIZATION OF CONSTRUCTIVE AND FUNCTIONAL PARAMETERS OF HAMMER MILLS

IN ORDER TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY AND REDUCE SPECIFIC ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
/
OPTIMIZAREA PARAMETRILOR CONSTRUCTIVI ŞI FUNCłIONALI AI MORILOR CU
CIOCANE ÎN VEDEREA CREŞTERII PRODUCTIVITĂłII ŞI REDUCERII CONSUMULUI
SPECIFIC DE ENERGIE
Ph.D. Eng. Păun A., Ph.D. Eng. Ciupercă R., PhD.Stud. Eng. Ivancu B., Eng. IoniŃă Gh., PhD.Stud. Eng. Zaica A.
Phone: 0212330363; E-mail: ani_paun@yahoo.com
Abstract: Hammer mills with either closed or open Rezumat: Morile cu ciocane fie ele cu cameră închisă sau
chamber are currently the most widespread and used deschisă sunt în prezent cele mai răspândite şi utilizate
machines for the preparation of concentrated fodder in maşini pentru pregătirea nutreŃurilor concentrate în
livestock farms, but is also the largest consumers of fermele zootehnice, fiind totodată cele mai mari
energy. Given the importance of achieving a minimum consumatoare de energie.Tinând cont de importanŃa
specific energy consumption per tonne of product realizării unui consum specific de energie minim pe tona
manufactured, to obtain a certain grinding granulation, de produs prelucrat, pentru obŃinerea unei anumite
was studied to what extent the main structural elements granulaŃii de măcinare, s-a studiat în ce masură variaŃia
and functional variation influences productivity indices, principalelor elemente constructive şi funcŃionale
energy and quality. In this sense, experimental influenŃează indicii de productivitate, energetici şi de calitate.
research has been made in the case of a hammer mill În acest sens au fost realizate cercetări experimentale în
with a processing capacity of 2.5 - 3 t / h in order to cazul unei mori cu ciocane cu o capacitate de prelucrare
establish the optimum regime of operation at different de 2,5 -3 t/h în vederea stabilirii regimului optim de
grinding grain. funcŃionare la măcinarea diferitelor cereale.
Keywords: hammer mill, grinding, fodder Cuvinte cheie: moară cu ciocane, măciniş, furaje
Production of concentrated fodder for the livestock Producerea nutreŃurilor concentrate pentru sectorul zootehnic
sector is a major concern both globally and nationally. reprezintă o preocupare importantă atât pe plan mondial
Making a quality fodder base has a strong impact to cât şi naŃional. Realizarea unei baze furajere de calitate
animal nutrition, animal and human health and are un impact puternic asupra nutriŃiei animale, a stării de
environmental protection. sănătate animală şi umană şi a protecŃiei mediului înconjurător.
Using the fodder in animal feed, in their natural state, Utilizarea furajelor în hrana animalelor, în starea lor
don’t meet all requirements for the animal organism and naturală nu raspunde tuturor cerinŃelor organismului animal şi
therefore they must be processed before consumption de de aceea ele trebuie să fie prelucrate înainte de consum
according to a flowsheet. Grinding concentrated fodder, as după o anumită schemă tehnologică. Măcinarea nutreŃurilor
part of the preparation processes feed is one of the basic concentrate, ca şi componentă a proceselor tehnologice de
operations. Depending on the diameter of the particle pregătire a hranei pentru animale, constituie una din
components, we distinguish the following types of operaŃiile de bază. În funcŃie de diametrul particulelor
grinding: componente, se disting următoarele categorii de măciniş:
very thin (less than 0.5 mm) - chicken and youth foarte fin (sub 0,5 mm) – pui şi tineret în timpul
during lactation; alăptării;
thin (0.5 to 1 mm) - swine, avian youth and fin (0,5 – 1 mm) – porcine, tineret înŃărcat şi
weaned youth; tineret aviar;
medium (1-2 mm) - adult poultry; mijlociu (1 – 2 mm) – păsări adulte;
coarse (2-4 mm) - adult ruminants and equines. grosier (2 – 4 mm) – rumegătoare adulte şi cabaline.
Simultaneously with the development of livestock and Simultan cu dezvoltarea zootehniei şi trecerea la o
move to a rational animal feeding, technical and economic hrănire raŃională a animalelor, cerinŃele tehnice şi economice
requirements regarding hammer mills have acquired a privitoare la morile cu ciocane au căpătat un nou sens,
new meaning, which is subject to a number of specific acestea fiind condiŃionate de o serie de particularităŃi
features for the livestock sector. Perfecting hammer mills specifice sectorului zootehnic. PerfecŃionarea morilor cu
stood in the attention of many researchers and ciocane a stat în atenŃia multor cercetători şi producători de
manufacturers of equipment for the livestock sector. Note utilaje destinate sectorului zootehnic. De remarcat că în
that in most cases there is only one partial approach majoritatea cazurilor din lucrările publicate există numai o
works published of structural and functional parameters abordare parŃială a parametrilor constructivi şi funcŃionali,
influencing the operation mode. care influenŃează regimul de funcŃionare.
Hammer mill with open chamber, MC-3, figure 1, is Moara cu ciocane cu cameră deschisă, MC-3, figura
the mill where the fodder supply is tangential by free 1, este moara la care alimentarea cu nutreŃ se face
flowing along the length of the grinding chamber [1, 2, tangenŃial prin curgere liberă, pe toată lungimea camerei
3]. Fodder supply is carried out through an opening in de măcinare [1, 2, 3]. Alimentarea cu nutreŃ se face printr-
the peripheral side, cereal seeds at the entrance into o deschidere la partea periferică, seminŃele de cereale la
the grinding chamber are subject to strong hammer intrarea în camera de măcinare sunt supuse loviturilor
blows. puternice ale ciocanelor.
Because of these blows, cereal seeds are grinding Datorită acestor lovituri seminŃele de cereale se
445
and results particles that are thrown by the riflure plates mărunŃesc, iar particulele rezultate sunt proiectate de
(with concaves), where take place the second grinding. plăcile cu rifluri (contrabătătoare), unde are loc a doua
On these plates, the resulting particulates will rebound mărunŃire. De pe aceste plăci particulele rezultate vor
and will arrive in the area of the hammers after that the ricoşa şi vor ajunge iar în zona ciocanelor, după care
phenomena are repeated. fenomenele se repetă.
The grinding phenomenon continues in the sieve Fenomenul de mărunŃire continuă şi în zona sitei
zone due to shock and friction between feed particles and datorită şocurilor şi frecărilor dintre particulele de nutreŃ şi
the edges of the sieve holes. The sieve serves more like muchiile orificiilor sitei. Sita are rol mai mult de sistem de
an separation system (exhaust) to grist. Particles with a separare (evacuare) a macinisului. Particulele cu
size smaller than the holes under the action of air currents dimensiuni mai mici decât cele ale orificiilor sitei sub
created by a fan (mounted outside the mill) and centrifugal acŃiunea curentului de aer creat de un ventilator (montat în
force, are passing through the sieve and end up in the afara morii) şi a forŃelor centrifuge, trec prin sită şi ajung în
exhaust and transport pipe, that connects with the conducta de evacuare şi transport care face legătura cu
separation and collection systems. sistemele de separare şi colectare.
To these mills the fodder grinding occurs mainly due La aceste mori mărunŃirea nutreŃului se realizează în
to clashes between the hammers and fodder particles, special datorită ciocnirilor dintre ciocane şi particulele de
respectively with the concaves. nutreŃ, respectiv contrabătătoare.
Within technological proces of hammer mill, the rotor În cadrul procesului tehnologic al morii cu ciocane
with hammers is the most important organ of work, that rotorul cu ciocane este cel mai important organ de lucru
carries out grinding seeds, to the dimensions required by care, realizează macinarea semintelor la dimensiunile
the fodder recipe. impuse de reteta furajeră.
In order to determine, experimentally, the constructive În vederea stabilirii pe cale experimentală a
parameters and optimum operating regime for the mill parametrilor constructivi şi a regimului optim de funcŃionare
model in figure 1, were used, for sieves, the constructive pentru modelul de moară din figura 1 au fost utilizate,
variants presented in figure 2: pentru site, variantele constructive prezentate în figura 2:
a - the sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding a - sita cu unghiul de acoperire a camerei de măcinare
chamber of 175 °; de 175°;
b - the sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding b - sita cu unghiul de acoperire a camerei de măcinare
chamber of 210 °; de 210°;
c - the sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding c - sita cu unghiul de acoperire a camerei de
chamber of 255 °; măcinare de 255°;
d - the sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding d - sita cu unghiul de acoperire a camerei de
chamber of 180 ° with another type of concave; macinare de 180° cu alt tip de contrab ătător.
Fig. 1 – Hammer mill with open chamber, MC-3 / Moara cu ciocane cu cameră deschisă, MC-3
a b c d
Fig. 2 – Constructive variants of sieves used to hammer mill with open chamber
a – the sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding chamber of 175 °, b - the sieve with the coverag e angle of the grinding chamber of
210 °, c - the sieve with the coverage angle of th e grinding chamber of 255 °, d - the sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding
chamber of 180 ° with another type of concave

Parameters that influence the performance of hammer Parametrii care influenŃează performanŃele morilor cu
mills are: ciocane sunt:
P= f( Q, q, D, v, z, b, e, d, l, A, M, G, F, E, ρ, g ) P= f( Q, q, D, v, z, b, e, d, l, A, M, G, F, E, ρ, g )
where: unde:
446
Q - the feed flow of the mill, kg/h; Q – debitul de alimentare al morii, kg/h;
vc - peripheral speed of the hammers, m/s; vc – viteza periferica a ciocanelor, m/s;
D - diameter of the rotor with hammers, m; D – diametrul rotorului cu ciocane, m;
vds - the speed of movement of the seed layer in vds – viteza de deplasare a stratului de seminŃe în
grinding chamber, m/s; camera de măcinare, m/s;
z - number of hammers; z - nr. de ciocane;
b – the width of the hammer, mm; b – lăŃimea ciocanului, mm;
e – distance between the top of the hammer and the e - jocul ( distan Ńa ) între varful ciocanelor ş i sită,
sieve, mm; mm;
d - diameter of the sieve holes in the grinding d - diametrul orificiilor sitei din camera de măcinare,
chamber, mm; mm;
β - the coverage angle of the grinding chamber, β - unghiul de acoperire a camerei de măcinare,
degrees; grade;
l - the length of the hammer, mm; l - lungimea ciocanului, mm;
qa - air quantity required to evacuate the material from qa - cantitatea de aer necesară pentru evacuarea
3 3
the grinding chamber, m /min ; materialului din camera de măcinare, m /min ;
2 2
A - total area of sieve holes, mm ; A - aria totală a orificiilor sitei, mm ;
M - fineness modulus of the grinding, mm; M - modulul de fineŃe a măcinişului, mm;
G - grinding granulation, mm; G – granulaŃia măcinişului, mm;
2 2
F - crushing resistance of the seeds, kgf/cm ; F- rezistenŃa la sfărâmare a seminŃelor, kgf/cm ;
2 2
E - elastic modulus of the seeds, kgf/cm ; E - modulul de elasticitate al seminŃelor, kgf/cm ;
3 3
ρ - the density of the material which grinds, kg/m ; ρ -densitatea materialului care se macină, kg/m ;
- dynamic system rotor - hammers. - sistemul dinamic rotor - ciocane.
Since not all the parameters have as much influence, Deoarece nu toŃi parametrii au o influenŃă la fel de
in the experiments were carried out we made mare, în cadrul experimentărilor s-au efectuat determinări
measurements only for some of them. doar pentru câŃiva dintre ei.
Experiments with the constructive variants shown in Experimentările cu variantele constructive prezentate
figure 2 were performed under the following conditions: în figura 2 s-au realizat în urmatoarele condiŃii:
1) Maize seed: 1) SeminŃe de porumb:
- moisture, 13,6%; - umiditatea, 13,6%;
- peripheral speed, 77 m/s; - viteza periferică, 77 m/s;
- angle of coverage, 175°, 210° and 255° - unghiul de acoperire, 175°, 210° şi 255°;
2) Maize seed and barley: 2) SeminŃe de porumb şi orz:
- moisture, 13,3-13,6%; - umiditatea, 13,3-13,6%;
- angle of coverage, 175°, 210° si 255° - unghiul de acoperire, 175°, 210° si 255°;
- distance between hammers and sieve, 10mm - distanŃa între ciocane şi sită, 10 mm;
3) The mill equipping: 3) Echiparea morii :
- sieve with holes of ø3 mm; - sita cu orificii de ø3 mm;
- sieve with holes of ø5 mm; - sita cu orificii de ø5 mm;
The grinding granulation was determined based on GranulaŃia măcinişului s-a determinat pe baza
the screening samples of 100 g of grinding using a battery probelor de cernere a unei cantităŃi de 100 g măciniş
of sieves with holes size of: 0,5 mm; 1,0 mm; 1,6 mm; 2,0 folosind o baterie de site cu dimensiunile orificiilor de: 0,5
mm; 2,5 mm. mm; 1,0 mm; 1,6 mm; 2,0 mm; 2,5 mm.
In the specialized literature there are a number of În literatura de specialitate sunt relatate o serie de
related research on the influence of various factors on the cercetări privind influenŃa diferiŃilor factori asupra
working process, so far we do not have complete data to procesului de lucru, până în prezent nu dispunem de date
fully elucidate the mutual interaction of mechanical complete care să elucideze în totalitate interacŃiunea
factors, structural and functional. reciprocă a factorilor mecanici, constructivi şi funcŃionali.
RESULTS REZULTATE
For correct evaluation of the results of experiments Pentru evaluarea corectă a rezultatelor experimentărilor
were determined, in laboratory, the characteristics of au fost determinate în laborator caracteristicile seminŃelor
seeds subjected to grinding operation. The obtained supuse operaŃiei de măcinare. Valorile obŃinute sunt
values are presented in table 1. The first series of tests prezentate în tabelul 1. Prima serie de încercări a fost realizată
was conducted in order to determine the growth efficiency în vederea stabilirii eficienŃei creşterii suprafeŃei sitei prin
of sieve surface by increasing the coverage angle of the mărirea unghiului de acoperire a camerei de măcinare de către
grinding chamber by the sieve. Experiments were made sită . S-au realizat experimentări cu sitele cu unghiul de
with the sieves angle of coverage of 175°, 210° and 255°. acoperire 175°, 210° şi255°. Rezultatele experiment ărilor,
Experimental results are presented in chart no. 1 in figure sunt prezentate în graficul 1. Încercările s-au realizat cu
3. The tests were made with maize and barley seeds. seminŃe de porumb şi orz.
Table 1
The main characteristics of cereal seeds subject to grinding
The mass of 1000
Moisture Hectoliter mass Impurities
The name of seeds grains
[%] [kg/hl) [%]
[g]
Maize seeds 13.6 70.8 284.6 0.85
Barley 13.3 56.9 3.,2 13.8
447
Fig. 3 - Exploitation indices obtained with sieve with the coverage angle of the grinding chamber of 175° and 255°
Analyzing the chart in figure 3, shows that the most Analizand graficul din figura 3, rezultă că sistemul cel mai
advantageous system of mill equipping is the sieve with avantajos de echipare a morii, este sita cu unghiul de acoperire
the angle of coverage of 255° compared to the 175°, de 255° fa Ńă de cel de 175°, ob Ńinându-se în toate cazurile
obtaining in all cases an increase in productivity and a o creştere a productivităŃii şi o reducere a consumului
reduction in specific energy consumption. specific de energie.
It is noticed that at nominal power of a 30 kW electric Se constată de asemenea că la puterea nominală a
motor to drive the mill is achieving a 24% increase in motorului electric de 30 kW pentru acŃionarea morii se realizează
productivity depending on grinded seeds and a reduction o creştere a productivităŃii de 24% în funcŃie de seminŃele
in specific energy consumption by 20-24% at grinding măcinate şi o reducere a consumului specific de energie de 20-
granulation between 0.53-0.64 mm. 24% la o granulaŃie de măcinare cuprinsă între 0.53-0.64 mm.
A second series of tests, was carried out in order to O a doua serie de încercări, s-a efectuat în vederea
determine the effect of the distance between the top of the stabilirii efectului distanŃei între vârful ciocanelor şi sită,
hammers and the sieve, for distances of 10, 20 and 30 pentru distanŃele 10, 20 şi 30 mm, utilizând sitele din
mm, using the sieves shown in figure 2. Indices obtained in figura 2. Indicii obŃinuŃi în urma experimentărilor sunt
the experiments are shown in the chart no.2 in figure 4 The prezentaŃi în graficul din figura 4. Încercările s-au realizat
tests were made with maize seeds. cu seminŃe de porumb.
448
Fig. 4 - Exploitation indices obtained with different distances between the top of the hammers and sieve on grinding maize
Analyzing the chart in figure 4, shows that at the same Analizând graficul din figura 4, rezultă că la aceeaşi
sieve and necessary power for conducting the operation of sită şi putere necesară pentru desfăşurarea operaŃiei de
grinding, along with increasing the distance between the măcinare, o dată cu creşterea distanŃei între vârful
top of the hammers and sieve, decreases the capacity and ciocanelor şi sită, scade capacitatea şi granulaŃia medie
average grinding granulation and specific energy de măcinare iar consumul specific de energie creşte.
consumption is increased. By comparing the obtained Comparând indicii obŃinuŃi se poate constata distanŃa
indices can be seen that the optimum distance is the most optimă cea mai eficientă este cea de 10 mm , comparativ
efficient at 10 mm, because in this case it is achieved an cu celelate deoarece în acest caz se realizează o creştere
increase in the capacity of grinding according to a capacităŃii de măcinare funcŃie de granulaŃie cu 18-35%
granulation with 18-35% and a reduction of the specific dar şi o reducere a consumului specific de energie cu 4-
energy consumption with 4-20%. 20%.
Also from the analysis of chart shown in figure 4 shows Tot din analiza graficului 4 rezultă că dimensiunile
that the size of the holes and work surface of the sieve are orificiilor şi suprafaŃa de lucru a sitei sunt factori de bază în
basic factors in providing grinding intensity. asigurarea intensităŃii de măcinare.
During the experiments was analyzed and the effect of Pe durata experimentărilor s-a analizat şi efectul
the concaves mounted on mill with open room. contarabătătoarelor montate pe moara cu camera deschisă.
It was noted, regarding to these concaves, the S-a constatat în privinŃa acestor contrabătătoare
following phenomena: următoarele fenomene:
- for grinding process to be more intense in the case - pentru ca procesul de măcinare să fie mai intens în
of collision by the concaves, the particles must cazul lovirii de contrabătător, particulele trebuie să
rebound in the working range of hammers; ricoşeze în zona de acŃiune a ciocanelor;
- the concaves riflure must be selected from the - riflurile contrabătătorului trebuie alese din punct de
constructive point of view, so that the angle of vedere constructiv, astfel încât unghiul de incidenŃă a
incidence of the particles have the maximum value. particulelor să aibă valoarea maximă.
449
Following research and results can formulate the În urma cercetărilor efectuate şi a rezultatelor obŃinute
following conclusion: se pot formula următoarele concluzi:
1. the most advantageous system to equip a mill with 1. sistemul cel mai avantajos de echipare a unei morii cu
open room, is the sieve with the angle of coverage of 255 ° camera deschisa, este sita cu unghiul de acoperire de
compared to the 175 °, in the situation when the mi ll is 255° fa Ńă de cel de 175°, în situa Ńia când moara este
provided with concaves; prevazută cu contrabătătoare;
2. it is recommended to increase the working surface 2. se recomandă mărirea suprafeŃei de lucru a sitei
of the sieve as this influences the grinding granulation; deoarece aceasta influenŃează asupra granulozităŃii
3. with increasing the distance between the top of the măcinişului;
hammers and sieve, is decreasing the capacity and the 3. o dată cu creşterea distanŃei între vârful ciocanelor şi
average grinding granulation and the specific energy sită, scade capacitatea şi granulaŃia medie de măcinare
consumption grows; iar consumul specific de energie creşte;
4. distance between top of the hammers and sieve of 4. cea mai eficientă distanŃa între vârful ciocanelor şi
the most effective is at 10 mm. sita este cea de 10 mm.
5. to increase the intensity of the grinding process in 5. pentru creşterea intensităŃii procesul de măcinare în
the case of collision of the particles by the concaves, the cazul lovirii de contrabătător, particulele trebuie să
particles must rebound in the working range of hammers; ricoşeze în zona de acŃiune a ciocanelor;
6. the concaves riflure must be selected from the 6.riflurile contrabătătorului trebuie alese din punct de
constructive point of view, so that the angle of incidence of vedere constructiv, astfel încât unghiul de incidenŃă a
π π
the particles to have the maximum value ; particulelor să aibă valoarea maximă ;
2 2
7. the desired degree of fineness can be achieved for 7. gradul de fineŃe dorit se poate obŃine pentru o
productivity and minimum specific energy consumption productivitate şi consum specific de energie minim cu
with the help of sieve with large holes ø5 mm, and it ajutorul sitei cu orificii mari ø5 mm, şi totodată se exclude
excludes the possibility of additional grinding; posibilitatea măcinării suplimentare;
8. a very thin grain grinding cause gastric disorders for 8. o granulaŃie prea fină a măcinişului duce la tulburări
swine and is an unnecessary additional energy gastrice în cazul porcinelor şi reprezintă un consum
consumption for poultry. suplimentar de energie inutil în cazul păsarilor.
[1]. Păun A. (2004) - Study on the grinding process of [1]. Păun A. (2004) - Studiul procesului de măcinare a
concentrate fodder in hammer mills, PhD thesis, nutreŃurilor concentrate în morile cu ciocane, teza de
Politechnic University of Bucharest. Romania; doctorat, Universitatea Politehnică din Bucureşti, România;
[2]. Păun A. (2008) - Hammer mills. Study on the grinding [2]. Păun A. (2008)- Mori cu ciocane. Studiul procesului de
process of concentrated fodder, "Terra Nostra" Publishing, măcinare a furajelor concentrate, Editura "Terra Nostra",
ISBN 978-973-1888-04-7, Iasi ISBN 978-973-1888-04-7, Iasi
[3]. Păun A. (2009) - Technologies and equipment for [3]. Păun A. (2009) -Tehnologii şi instalaŃii pentru obŃinerea
obtaining concentrated fodder from the seeds grain, "Terra nutreŃurilor concentrate din seminŃe de cereale, Editura
Nostra" Publishing, ISBN 978-973-1888-34-7, Iasi "Terra Nostra", ISBN 978-973-1888-34-7, Iasi
[4]. Păun A., Gângu V., Cojocaru I ., Schilacci G.- The [4]. Păun A., Gângu V., Cojocaru I ., Schilacci G.- Influenta
influence of quality parameters of working, constructive parametrilor calitativi de lucru, constructivi si functionali
and functional on grinding cereal seeds technology for asupra calitatii macinarii semintelor de cereale in
obtaining concentrated fodder, Scientific papers, tehnologia de obtinere a nutreturilor concentrate, Lucrări
Symposium - INMATEH V; vol.23, pg.11-18; ISSN 1583- stiinŃifice, Simpozion - INMATEH V; vol.23, pag.11-18;
1019; Bucharest; november 2007; [cat. B+] ISSN 1583-1019; Bucuresti; noiembrie 2007;
[5]. Vasile C., Bădescu M. (2010) - Studies on fodder [5]. Vasile C., Bădescu M. (2010) - Studii privind maşinile
grinding machines and on the necessity of dust filtering for de măcinare a nutreturilor şi necesitatea filtrării prafului la
grinding machines , INMATEH - Agricultural Engineering, maşinile de măcinat , INMATEH - Agricultural Engineering,
Vol. 30, No.1. (ISSN 2068 – 2239) Vol. 30, Nr.1. (ISSN 2068 – 2239)
[6]. Voicu Gh., David L., Safta V., (1998) – Aspects [6]. Voicu Gh., David L., Safta V., (1998) – Aspecte cu
regarding the determination of main parameters of privire la determinarea principalilor parametri ai morilor cu
hammer mills, Machine Building Journal, 4-5, pg.23-25, ciocane, Rev. ConstrucŃia de Maşini, 4-5, pag.23-25,
(ISSN 0573-7419). (ISSN 0573-7419).
450
RESEARCH INTO THE GRADING METHOD OF KIWI FRUIT BASED ON VOLUME

ESTIMATION AND SURFACE DEFECT
/
基于体积估计和表面缺陷的猕猴桃分级方法
1) 1) 1) 2)
Prof. Ph.D. Lijia Xu , Stud. Yu Feng , Stud. Zhangkun Fan , Ph.D. Dingchun Yun
1)
College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Sichuan Agriculture University, Ya’an / China; 2) University of Applied Sciences
Upper Austria, Softwarepark 11, Hagenberg /Austria
Tel: 0835-2882035; E-mail: lijiaxu13@163.com
Abstract: Kiwi fruit grading is a key link of fruit treatment

after pick. In respect that low sorting rate and grading rate 摘要 : 猕猴桃分级是水果产后处理的重要环节，针对中国
of kiwi fruits affect commodity value in China, the paper 猕猴桃分选率和分级率低而影响商品价值现状，本文通过
acquires the volumetric characteristic of kiwi fruit through
the 3D reconstruction of its three views, and fits volumetric 对猕猴桃三视图进行三维重建得到猕猴桃体积特征，拟合
pixel P with actual weight W to get a mathematical model
between the two parameters, and identifies the area 体积像素 P 和实际重量 W ，得到两者之间的数学模型；根
characteristic of the surface defect of kiwi fruit by iterative
method. Volumetric characteristic and the characteristic of 据迭代法切割得到猕猴桃表面缺陷面积特征。将体积特征
the surface defect are inputted into Support Vector
和表面缺陷特征输入支持向量机 SVM，通过选择合适的核
Machine (SVM), and then suitable kernel function and
kernel parameters are selected, finally the kiwi fruit grading 函数和核参数，得到猕猴桃的分级正确率为 97.73%。对
accuracy of 97.73% is gotten. Compared with the grading
accuracy of BP network with 92.11%, it can be seen that 比 BP 网络分级的正确率 92.11%，可知 SVM 比 BP 网络
the grading effect of SVM is better than that of BP network
and its grading performance is stable. The experimental 的分级效果好且 SVM 的分级性能稳定。实验结果表明基
results show that the SVM grading method based on kiwi
fruit volume and its surface defect is feasible and can be
于猕猴桃体积和表面缺陷的 SVM 分级方法可行，可用于
used for online inspection of appearance quality of kiwi 猕猴桃外部品质在线检测。
fruits.
Keywords: Kiwi fruit grading; SVM; BP neural network; 关键词: 猕猴桃分级；SVM；BP 神经网络；图像处理；农
Image processing; Agricultural technology extension
业技术推广
INTRODUCTION
At present, the kiwi fruit grading of China mainly 引言
depends on artificial way to complete it, so both the
grading efficiency and the grading accuracy are low. China 目前，猕猴桃分级的中国主要依靠人工的方式来完成，
has the largest production of kiwi fruits. With the increasing 分类效率和分类精度都比较低。中国拥有最大生产的猕猴
import and export volume of kiwi fruit year by year, the low
price of kiwi fruits needs to be changed in a short time. So 桃生产基地。每年随着越来越多的猕猴桃进口和出口量，
it is very important to improve the grading technical for kiwi 猕猴桃价格偏低的现象急需在较短的一段时间内改变。所
fruits, which can produce more economic benefits and
significantly improve its market competitiveness. 以提高猕猴桃分级的技术非常重要，它能够产生很好的经
With the development of machine vision in recent 济效益，提高其市场竞争力。
years, many scholars at home and broad have developed
a number of methods for quality inspection of kiwi fruit, 近年来，随着机器视觉的发展，国内外学者做了许多关
e.g., Lü Q [3] developed detection of hidden bruise on
于猕猴桃品质检测的方法，如吕强等[3] 利用高光谱图像检
kiwi fruit using hyperspectral imaging and parallelepiped
classification, and the experimental result showed the 测猕猴桃内部损伤，其实验结果表明高光谱检测内部损伤
error with 14.5% for internal damage detection by high
的误差为 14.5%；P. Wijithunga 等[5]研究了基于广义彩色
spectrum. Wijithunga et al. [5] studied kiwi fruit detection
based on generalized color picture segmentation. Yongjie 图像分割的猕猴桃检测方法；崔永杰等[1]提出了猕猴桃分
[1] advanced a surface detection method for kiwi fruit
grading. Wu Tao et al. [7] studied the object extraction of 级果实表面缺陷的检测方法；武涛等[7]做了基于机器视觉
kiwifruit based on machine vision. While there are rare 的猕猴桃果实目标提取研究。综上所述可知对猕猴桃外部
studies on external inspection and grading methods for
kiwi fruits. Hence the paper developed a grading method 检测并进行分级的研究较少，对此，本文研制了一种基于
for kiwi fruits, which used SVM as the classifier. The 猕猴桃体积估计和表面缺陷的分级方法，以 SVM 作为分
method can achieve the accuracy grading results for kiwi
fruits according to volume estimation and surface defect. 类器，并根据猕猴桃等级规格，实现了基于体积估计和表
面缺陷的猕猴桃准确分级。
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Feature Extraction of Kiwi Fruit
Usually a picture shot by the camera is noisy, so it 材料与方法
451
needs pre-processing [10]. Picture of Kiwi fruit snapped 猕猴桃的特征提取

by camera is shown in Fig. 1(a), and the original picture
is transferred from RGB space into the second channel 通常摄像头拍摄的图像存在噪声，故需要对图像进行预
(saturation) in HSV space, as shown in Fig. 1(b). Picture 处理 [10]。摄像头拍摄的猕猴桃图像如图 1(a) 所示，将原
with median filtering for Fig. 1(b) is shown in Fig. 1(c),
from which it can be seen that the picture has strong 始图像从 RGB 空间转换为 HSV 空间的第二通道(饱和度)
contrast, less fuzziness and complete edge information. 如图 1(b) 所示。对图 1(b) 进行中值滤波处理的图像如图
Edge extracting is conducted by canny operator for Fig.
1(c), and the result is shown in Fig. 1(d). Fig. 1(e) is 1(c), 可知图 1(c)的对比度强，模糊少，边缘信息保存较完
obtained through the expansion of Fig. 1(d), and then Fig.
整。对图 1(c) 用 canny 算子进行边缘提取 , 结果如图
1(f) is gotten through the fill in Fig. 1(e). Later the region
picture of kiwi fruit is acquired through corrosion, open 1(d)。对图 1(d)进行膨胀处理得图 1(e)，再对图 1(e)进行
operation, redundant pixel deletion and other operations
填充得图 1(f)，继而对图 1(f)进行腐蚀、开运算和删除冗余
for Fig. 1(f), as shown in Fig. 1(g). Then Fig. 1(g) is
viewed as formwork and inverted, finally logical product is 像素等操作后，获得猕猴桃的区域图像如图 1(g) 。将图
conducted for R, G and B components of the picture
1(g) 作为模板并取反，与图 1(a)所示图像的 R、G、B 分
shown in Fig. 1(a) to get kiwi fruit picture divided from the
background, as shown in Fig. 1(h). 量进行与运算，得到从背景中分割出来的猕猴桃图像如图
1(h)。
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) Kiwi fruit picture (b) Saturation picture (c) Median filtering picture (d) Canny edge extracting picture (e) Expansion picture
(f) Fill picture (g) Region picture of Kiwi fruit (h) Division picture of Kiwi fruit
Fig. 1 - Picture pre-processing process
Extraction of volumetric feature 体积特征的提取

Volume is a key indicator in many fields, and a very
important feature for fruit grading. Normally, the larger a 在许多领域中体积是一个重要的指标，在水果分级中它
fruit is, the heavier it will be. The paper designs a volume
measuring method of the kiwi fruit based on computer 更是一个非常重要的特征，一般而言，体积越大则重量越
vision.
After the pre-processing of 3 views of the kiwi fruit 大。本文设计了基于计算机视觉的猕猴桃体积测量方法。
picture, all of its front view, side view and top view are in
100 × 100 pixels, as shown in Fig. 2(a-c). Front view is 对猕猴桃的三视图进行预处理后，使其正视图、侧视图
read in to calculate its edge, as shown in Fig. 2(d), and
the coordinates of 4 orientation points locating at the 和俯视图都为 100 × 100像素，如图 2(a-c)所示。读入正
easternmost, the westernmost, the northernmost and the
视图，求取正视图边缘，如图 2(d)，找到正视图边缘轮廓
southernmost areas respectively among the edge contour
points of the front view are found out. Side view is read in 点中的最东面、最西面、最北面和最南面的 4 个方位点的
to calculate its edge, and the coordinates of 4 orientation
points in the easternmost, the westernmost, the 坐标；读入侧视图，求取侧视图边缘，找到侧视图边缘轮
northernmost and the southernmost respectively among
the edge contour points of side view are found out. 廓点中的最东面、最西面、最北面和最南面的 4 个方位点
Taking the edge of the front view as the benchmark, the
edge position of the side view is adjusted to align the 的坐标。以正视图边缘为标准，调整侧视图边缘的位置，
horizontal coordinate of the northernmost orientation
point among the edge contour points of the side view with 使其边缘轮廓点中的最北面方位点的横坐标与正视图边缘
that of the northernmost orientation point among the edge
轮廓点中的最北面方位点的横坐标相对准，结果如图 2(e)
contour points of the front view, and the result is shown in
Fig. 2(e). Top view is read in to calculate its edge, and 所示。读入俯视图，求取俯视图边缘，以正视图边缘 4 个
then its edge position is adjusted as per the coordinates
of 4 orientation points on the edge of the front view and 方位点坐标和调整后的侧视图边缘 4 个方位点坐标为参
those of 4 orientation points on the edge of the adjusted
side view, so that the horizontal coordinate of the 照，调整俯视图边缘的位置，使其边缘轮廓点中的最北面
northernmost orientation point among the edge contour
points of the top view is corresponding to the ordinate of 方位点的横坐标对应侧视图边缘轮廓点中的最东面方位点
the easternmost orientation point among the edge contour
points of the side view. Similarly, the edge of the top view 的纵坐标；同理，调整俯视图边缘使其边缘轮廓点中的最
is adjusted so that the ordinate of the westernmost
orientation point among its edge contour points is 西面方位点的纵坐标与正视图边缘轮廓点中的最西面方位
corresponding to that of the westernmost orientation point 点的纵坐标相对应，结果如图 2(f)。获得调整后俯视图边
among the edge contour points of the front view, and the
result is shown in Fig. 2(f). The coordinates of the 4 缘轮廓点中的最东面、最西面、最北面和最南面的 4 个方
orientation points in the easternmost, the westernmost,
the northernmost and the southernmost among the edge 位点的坐标，利用此 4 个方位点的坐标找到俯视图边缘的
contour points of the adjusted top view are achieved to
find out the center point of the top view’s edge further. 中心点。
452
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(a) Front view (b) Side view (c) Top view (d) Edge of adjusted front view (e) Edge of adjusted side view (f) Edge of adjusted top view
Fig. 2 - Three views and edges of all adjusted views of kiwi fruit
Creating 100 × 100 × 100 cube zero matrix named

as KJ1 . Edges of the front view, edges of the side view 创建 100 × 100 × 100 的正方体零矩阵 KJ1 。将正视图
and edges of the top view are adjusted to correspond to
边缘对应 KJ1 的正面，侧视图边缘对应 KJ1 的侧面，俯视
the front, side and top of KJ1 , respectively. Taking the
ordinate i1 of the westernmost orientation point among 图边缘对应 KJ1 的上面。以侧视图边缘轮廓点中的最西面
the edge contour points of the side view as the initial
point and the ordinate in of the easternmost one as the 方位点的纵坐标 i1 为起点，最东面方位点的纵坐标 in 为终
end point, the edge of the front view is copied to Layer ix 点，将正视图边缘复制在 KJ1 的第 ix 层上得到
of KJ1 to get KJ 1(:, i x , :) , ix ∈(i1 , i2, L, ix, L, in−1, in) .
KJ 1(:, ix , :) ， ix ∈(i1 , i2, L, ix, L, in−1, in) 。以正视图边缘轮
Taking the ordinate j1 of the easternmost orientation
point among the edge contour points of front view as the 廓点中的最东面方位点的纵坐标 j1 为起点，最西面方位点
initial point and the ordinate jn of the westernmost one
的纵坐标 jn 为终点 , 将 KJ 1( j x , :, :) ，
as the end point, KJ 1( j x , :, :) , jx ∈( j1 , j2, L, jx, L, jn−1, jn)
are transposed and further assigned to 100 × 100 jx ∈ ( j1 , j2, L, jx , L, jn−1, jn ) 转置后赋给 100 × 100 的
square zero matrix named as QP . Aligning QP with the
正方形零矩阵 QP 。将 QP 和侧视图边缘的中心点对准后
center point of the side view’s edge and then conducting
overlap, the results are shown in Fig. 3(a-c). Then the 进行叠加，叠加图如图 3(a-c)所示。从而可以找到两者交
coordinate ( x z , y z ), z ∈ ( 1 L ω ) of the edge contour
points of their intersection can be found out, where ω is 集部分的边缘轮廓点的坐标( x z , y z ), z ∈ ( 1 L ω ) ， ω
number of edge contour points. Clearing the jx Layer of
为边缘轮廓点数。将上述 KJ1 的第 j x 层 KJ1( jx ,:, :) 清零，
KJ1 , i.e., KJ1( jx ,:, :) and assigning KJ1( j x , xz , y z ) to
1, the slice set of edge of side view can be obtained 再将 KJ1( j x , xz , y z ) 赋值为 1 ，遍历完所有 j x 值得到侧
through traversing all j x values, as shown in Fig. 3(d-f). 视边缘切片集，如图 3(d-f)所示。
(a) (d) (b) (e) (c) (f)

(a) Overlap picture 1 (b) Overlap picture 2 (c) Overlap picture 3
(d) Slice 1 of side view (e) Slice 2 of side View (f) Slice 3 of side view
Fig. 3 - Edge cutting effect graph of side view
In KJ 1(:, :, k x ) , different k x values correspond to 在 KJ 1(:, :, k x ) 中不同 k x 对应不同的矩形切片，其中，

different rectangular slices, thereof,
kx ∈( k1 , k2, L, kx , L, kn−1, kn ) . k1 is the horizontal kx ∈ ( k1 , k2, L , kx , L , kn −1, kn ) 。 k1 为正视图边缘轮
coordinate of the northernmost orientation point among 廓点中的最北面方位点的横坐标， kn 为正视图边缘轮廓点
the edge contour points of the front view, and kn is that of
中的最南面方位点的横坐标。不同矩形切片示意图如图
the southernmost one. Schematic graphs of different
rectangular slices are shown in Fig. 4(a-c). 4(a-c)所示。
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4 - Schematic graphs of rectangular slices
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After traversing all rectangular slices, the minimum

ordinates of contour points of each layer of rectangular 遍历完所有矩形切片，将各层矩形切片轮廓点中的最小
slices are saved in array named as M. Then the 纵坐标存放在数组 M 中。找到 M 中的最大值和最小值，将
maximum and minimum in M are found out, and the
absolute value of their difference is viewed as the 两者相减的绝对值作为缩小倍数基数。以 k1 、 k n 分别作
minification base number. Taking k1 and k n as the initial
and end point respectively, the rectangular slice of 为起点和终点，将第 k x 层的矩形切片 KJ 1(:, :, k x ) 转置并
k x Layer ， i.e., KJ1(:, :, kx ) , is transposed and further
exchanged vertically, and then assigned to matrix named 上下交换后赋给矩阵 N。将 N 所述矩形切片轮廓点中的最
as N. Subtracting the minimum ordinate value of
小纵坐标值与 M 中的最小值相减，相减后的差值的绝对值
rectangular slice contour points in N by the minimum in
M, and the quotient of dividing the absolute value of their 和缩小倍数基数相除的结果作为第 k x 层俯视图边缘缩小的
difference by the minification base number is viewed as
minification λ of the k x layer edge of top view, i.e. 倍数 λ ，即：
min(N ) − min(M )
λ = (1)
max(M ) − min(M )
利用双插值算法[2]对俯视图边缘按照倍数 λ 进行缩小，
Edges of the top view are contracted by double
interpolation algorithm [2] according to minification
number λ , and the contracted picture matrix is further 将缩小后的图像矩阵进一步扩展为 100 × 100的矩阵。在
expanded into 100 × 100 matrix. During the expansion
扩展过程中，原图像矩阵各点的坐标不变，新扩展的点则
process, the coordinates of each point of the original
picture matrix remain, and all new expanded points are 全部用 0 来填充。将缩小后的图像的中心点和俯视图边缘
filled by 0. Center point of the contracted picture is
aligned with that of edge of the top view to get matrix 的中心点对准得到矩阵 L。将 L 和 N 的中心点对准后进行
named as L. The center points of L and N are aligned 叠加得到矩阵 S，S 如图 5(a)和图 5(c)。在 S 中将 L 和 N
and overlapped to get matrix named as S, as shown in
Fig. 5(a) and 5(c). In S, the intersection between L and N 的交集部分定义为边界.利用 S 中的最东面、最西面、最南
is defined as boundary. The center point of S is found out
面和最北面方位点的坐标找到 S 的中心点，若该中心点不
by the coordinates of the easternmost, the westernmost,
the southernmost and the northernmost orientation points 为整数则将其化为整数，以此中心点作为生长起始坐标
in S. Such center point will be rounded into an integer if it
[6]。从该生长起始点开始，在 S 中向四面生长，直到找完
isn’t an integer, and viewed as the initial growing
coordinate [6]. Starting from these initial growing points, 包括生长起始点在内的生长起始点和边界之间所有值为 0
the growth spreads to all directions in S till the
coordinates of all growing initial points and the points 的点的坐标( xm , y m ), m = 1 L ψ ， ψ 为生长起始
( xm , y m ) within it and the boundary whose values are 点和边界之间所有值为 0 的点的个数。创建
equal to 0 are found out, where, m = 1Lψ , ψ is number
of all points equaling to 0 therein. 100 × 100 × 100 100 × 100 × 100 的正方体零矩阵 KJ 2 ，将所有
cube zero matrix KJ 2 is created, and all elements
KJ 2( ym , xm , k x ) 赋值为 1 ，遍历完所有
of KJ 2( y m , xm , k x ) are assigned with 1. Regional growing
slice sequence graph can be achieved after all k x ∈ ( k1 , k 2 , L , k x , L , k n − 1 , k n ) 值即得到区域生
kx ∈ ( k1 , k2, L , k x , L , kn −1, kn ) values are traversed,
长切片序列图，不同 k x 对应不同区域生长切片如图 5(b)和
where different k x values correspond to different regional
growing slices, as shown in Fig. 5(b) and Fig.5(d). 图 5(d)。
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) Schematic graph 1 of S; (b) Schematic graph 1 of region growing slice; (c) Schematic graph 2 of S;
(d) Schematic graph 2 of region growing slice
Fig. 5 - Schematic graphs of S and region growing slice
All points equaling to 1 in KJ 2 are drawn by 利用 MATLAB 绘制出 KJ 2 中所有值为 1 的点即得到猕

MATLAB to get the 3D scatter graph of kiwi fruit, and
猴桃的立体三维散点图，统计 KJ 2 中 1 的个数即可得到猕
statistics is made for the number of 1 in KJ 2 to get the
pixel numbers of 3D scatter graph of kiwi fruit named 猴桃立体三维散点图的像素个数 P ， P 即作为猕猴桃的
as P ，which is also used as volumetric feature of kiwi
体积特征。猕猴桃的三维散点图如图 6 所示。
fruit. The 3D scatter graph of kiwi fruit is shown in Fig. 6.
454
Fig. 6 - 3D Scatter graph of kiwi fruit
Abstraction of surface defect characteristic

表面缺陷特征的提取
Surface defects of kiwi fruit mainly include scrape,
bruise, press, sunburn [8]. First, kiwi fruit is transferred 猕猴桃表面缺陷主要有划伤、碰压伤和日灼缺陷等[8]。
from RGB space to HSV space, and then kiwi fruit picture
首先，将猕猴桃由 RGB 空间转换为 HSV 空间，在 HSV
is abstracted from the background of original picture in
the saturation channel. The abstracted picture is cut to 空间的饱和度通道中将对猕猴桃图像从原始图像的背景中
get Fig. 7(a), and then the gray scale chart of the cut 提取出来。对提取出来的猕猴桃裁剪得到图 7(a)，求取裁
picture is obtained, as shown in Fig. 7(b). Gray scale
transformation is made for the gray scale chart, and the 剪图的灰度图如图 7(b)；对灰度图进行灰度变换，增强灰
contrast of such chart is intensified to get Fig. 7(c). 度图的对比度得到图 7(c)；将灰度变换图 7(c)用最佳阀值
Fig.7(c) is divided by optimal threshold T2 to get Fig.
7(d), and the threshold is calculated by iterative method. T2 分割得到图 7(d) ，最佳阀值采用迭代法求取；利用
Defect detection is conducted for Fig.7(d) by canny canny 算子对图 7(d)进行缺陷检测，其中 canny 算子的参
operator with the threshold of 0.79 to get canny division
graph shown in Fig. 7(e). Edge in Fig. 7(e) is removed to 数阀值设置为 0.79，得到图 7(e)所示的 canny 分割图；对
get Fig. 7(f), and defect in Fig. 7(f) is filled to get Fig. 图 7(e)去除边缘得到图 7(f)；对图 7(f)填充其缺陷得到图
7(g). Finally, Fig.7(g) is restored to get defect color graph
7(g)；最后对图 7(g)进行复原得到缺陷彩色图 7(h)；计算
shown in Fig. 7(h). Defect area of kiwi fruit in Fig. 7(g) is
calculated as the surface defect feature of kiwi fruit. 图 7(g)中猕猴桃的缺陷面积并作为猕猴桃表面缺陷特征。
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

(a) Tailed graph; (b) Gray scale chart; (c) Gray scale transformation graph; (d) Iterative effect graph; (e) Canny division graph;
(f) Edge removal graph; (g) Defect fill graph; (h) Defect color graph
Fig. 7 - Defect characteristic abstraction graph of iterative method
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

实验结果和分析
Weight Estimation
Total 40 kiwi fruits in different sizes, regular shape, 重量估计
the same variety and the same batch are randomly
随机选取 40 个大小不一且形状规则的同品种同批次的
selected as sample. The volumetric pixel with P / 1000 is
fitted with actual weight W by least square method, and 猕猴桃作为样本，用最小二乘法拟合猕猴桃的体积像素
the result is shown in Figure. 8.
P / 1000与重量 W 的关系，拟合结果如图 8 所示。
170
The least squares fitting a straight line
160 The actual value
150
The actual weight:W
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
The volume pixel:P/1000
Fig.8 - Graph of relation for fitting of volumetric pixel with weight
455
According to experimental data, the relation between

经实验数据得出猕猴桃的体积像素值 P / 1000 (单位：
volumetric pixel P / 1000 (unit: piece) and weight W (unit:
g ) of kiwi fruit is shown as follow: 个)与其重量 W (单位： g )之间的关系为：
1. 3350 × p + 11. 2655

W = (2)
1000
Analysis of variance for weight W and volumetric
重量 W 与体积像素 P 的方差分析如表 1 所示，其中，
pixel P is shown in Table 1, in which the testing
value F > ( Fα = F0. 01( 1, n − 2)) . The value of F shows 检验值 F > ( Fα = F0. 01( 1, n − 2)) 故为高度显著，可
that the influence is highly significant. The coefficient of
决系数 r 为：
determination r is shown as follow:
SSR
r2 = = 0.9501 (3)
SST
In the formula, the sum of squared residuals (SSR) is
the sum of squares of residuals, and the total sum of 式中， SSR 代表回归值与均值的总离差平方和， SST 代
squares (SST) is defined as being the sum, over all
observations, of the squared differences of each 表观测值与均值的总离差平方和。
observation from the overall mean.
可决系数 r 接近 1，表明用猕猴桃的体积像素 P 估计其
The result that the value of r is approximate to 1 shows
good regression effect when using volumetric pixel P of kiwi 重量 W 的回归效果良好。猕猴桃的重量 W 和体积像素 P
fruit to estimate its weight W. Moreover, weight of kiwi fruit
W is in positive correlation with its volumetric pixel P. The 成正相关性，体积像素越大，实际重量越大。标准误差 S y
more volumetric pixel P is, then the larger weight W will be.
Standard error S y is shown as follow: 为：
SSE
Sy = = 4.2490 (4)
n−2
In the formula, SSE = SST − SSR , and n means the
式中， SSE = SST − SSR , n 代表猕猴桃个数。 S y 的计算
number of kiwi fruits. The value of S y shows small error
and validates the effectiveness of the model, i.e., 结果表明误差偏小，验证了本模型即式（2）的可行性。
formula. (2).
Table 1
Analysis of variance for actual weight and volumetric pixel
Source of variance Ssd Df Va F Fa Significance
Regression 13052 1 13052 722.93 4.098 Highly Significant
Residual 686.06 8 18.054 7.352
Total 13738 9
Total 20 kiwi fruits in different sizes, regular shape, the 随机选取待测猕猴桃中的 20 个大小不一且形状较规则
same variety and the same batch are randomly selected
as sample, and their volumetric pixels are inputted into 的、同品种同批次的猕猴桃，将其体积像素输入该模型得
the model to get the fitted value of kiwi fruit weight. The
到猕猴桃重量的拟合值，该拟合值和猕猴桃的实际重量值
result of comparison between the fitted values and actual
weights of kiwi fruits is shown in Fig. 9. 的比较结果如图 9 所示。
170
The least squares fitting a straight line
160 The actual value
The fitting values
150
140
The actual weight:W
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
The volume pixel:P/1000
Fig.9 - Comparison graph for fitted value and actual value of kiwi fruit weight
From Fig.9, it can be seen that the fitted values of kiwi

由图 9 可知，猕猴桃重量的拟合值接近其实际重量值，
fruits weight are approximate to their actual weights, thus
456
the model shown in formula.(2) has good regression

表明此模型回归拟合效果良好，可用于猕猴桃的实际重量
fitting result and can be used for estimating the actual
weights of kiwi fruits . 估计。
Empirical classification of kiwi fruits and data

preprocessing 猕猴桃的经验分类与数据预处理
Kiwi fruits are empirically graded into 4 grades [9]. The
same variety and batch of kiwi fruits are classified into large 将猕猴桃按照经验分为 4 类[9]，同品种同批次的猕猴桃
type (marked as L), medium type (marked as m), small type
按外观大小分为大(L)、中(M)、小(S)、很小（SS），按表
(marked as S) and very small type (marked as VS) by size,
and they are also classified into defect type (marked as D) 面缺陷面积分为缺陷（D）和无缺陷(ND)，分类标准如表
and no defect type (marked as ND) by surface defect.
Different classes of kiwi fruits are shown in Table 2. 2 所示。
Table 2
Grading of kiwi fruits
Grade Size Defect
First-class L ND
Second-class M ND
Third-class S ND
L D
M D
Fourth class S D
VS ND
VS D
Volumetric pixels and surface defect areas of total 88

选择 88 个猕猴桃的体积像素和缺陷面积并将其归一化
kiwi fruits are selected and normalized. Different
standardization methods generate different grading 处理。不同标准化方法对分级结果有不同影响，经过反复
results. Through repetitive experiments, z-score
实验选择 z-score 标准化方法，即：
standardization method is selected, i.e.
xij − xi
zij = (5)
si
In the formula, zij means converted real variable 式中， zij 为转化后的实变量值， xij 为实际变量值， xi
value, and xij means actual variable value. xi and si
are arithmetic mean and standard deviation of variable, 和 si 分别是变量的算术平均值和标准差。
respectively.
Grading effect of SVM 的分级

SVM 的分级效果
The 2 kinds of features, i.e., standardized volumetric
pixel and surface defect area, are inputted into SVM with 将上述标准化后的体积像素和表面缺陷面积 2 类特征输
v-SVC type and SVM with c-SVC type. Different kernel 入 v-SVC 型 SVM 和 c-SVC 型 SVM。选择不同核函数进
functions are selected for experiment. Sample number of
行实验，训练集和测试集样本数各 44 个，分级结果如表 3
training set and that of testing set are 44, respectively,
and the grading results are shown in Table 3. 所示。
Table 3
Results of grading by different kernel functions
SVM type Kernel function type Grading accuracy
Linear kernel function 84.09%(37/44)
Polynomial kernel function 88.64%(39/44)
c-SVC
RBF kernel function 97.73%(43/44)
Sigmoid kernel function 70.45%(31/44)
Linear kernel function 86.36%(38/44)
Polynomial kernel function 88.64%(39/44)
v-SVC
RBF kernel function 97.73%(43/44)
Sigmoid kernel function 81.82%(36/44)
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From Table 3, it can be seen that the highest grading 由表 3 可知，两类 SVM 均在选择 RBF 核函数时获得最
accuracy of the 2 kinds of SVMs adopting RBF kernel
function is 97.73%, but the SVM with v-SVC type 高的分级准确率 97.73%，但选择其他核函数时 v-SVC 型
adopting other kernel functions has a little better grading
SVM 的分级效果稍高些，故后续的分级实验均是以此类
result, so all subsequent grading experiments use such
SVM as the classifier and RBF as the kernel function. SVM 作为分类器，且选择 RBF 作为核函数。
SVM training is attributed to the solution of convex

SVM 的训练归结为求解线性约束下的凸二次规划问题
quadratic programming problems under linear constraint
[11], and SVM will occupy large storage space when [11]，当训练集较大时，SVM 将会占据较大的存储空间。
training set is large. Different training sets are inputted
将不同训练集输入 SVM ，结果如表 4 所示。
into SVM, and the grading results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Grading results of different training sets
Training set number Testing set number Grading accuracy
25 44 97.73%
30 44 97.73%
36 44 97.73%
44 44 97.73%
From Table 4, it can be seen that different numbers of

由表 4 可知，不同训练集输入 v-SVC 型 SVM 得到相同
training sets inputted into SVM with v-SVC type bring the
same grading accuracy of 97.73%, so this type of SVM 的分级正确率 97.73% ，由此可知该型 SVM 分级性能稳
has stable grading performance and can always realize
very high grading accuracy for different sample inputs. 定，在不同样本输入的情况下均能得到很高的分级准确率。
为了考察 SVM 的核参数 σ 对猕猴桃分级正确率的影响
In order to investigate the influence of kernel
parameter σ of SVM on kiwi fruit grading accuracy [4],
44 training sets and 44 testing sets are selected [4]，分别选择训练集和测试集各 44 个，在 σ 取不同值时
respectively, and the grading results of SVM using
different σ values are shown in Table 5. SVM 的猕猴桃分级结果如表 5 所示。
Table 5
Grading results at different σ values
Nuclear parameters( σ ) Grading accuracy
0.5 93.18%
1.0 95.45%
1.5 97.73%
2.0 97.73%
3.0 97.73%
5.0 95.45%
10.0 90.91%
From Table 5, it can be seen that different σ values

influence grading results greatly. SVM has optimal
由表 5 可知， σ 值在[1.5, 3.0]时 SVM 的分级精度达到
grading accuracy for σ distributed in the interval [1.5, 最佳。当 σ <1.5 时， SVM 过度学习；当 σ >3.0 时，
3.0]. SVM is in a state of over learning for σ <1.5 and in
SVM 学习不足。
a state of under learning for σ >3.0.
Grading effect of BP network 网络的分级

BP 网络的分级效果
BP network is the most widely applied back
BP 网络是目前应用最广泛的反向传播网络。下面进行
propagation network. The next kiwi fruit grading
experiment based on BP network will be conducted with 基于 BP 网络的猕猴桃分级实验，训练集、测试集样本数
sample numbers of training set and testing set are 50
and 38, respectively. Training times is 50 and learning 分别为 50 个和 38 个，训练次数为 50，学习速率为 0.1，
velocity is 0.1. The volumetric and defect area features
输入层神经元个数为 2，体积特征和缺陷面积特征作为 BP
are inputted into BP network, so the number of input
layer neurons is set to 2. Kiwi fruits have 4 grades, so BP 网络的输入，故其输入层神经元个数为 2，猕猴桃有 4 个
network has 4 output layer neurons, and the grading
results for different numbers of hidden layers are shown 等级故 BP 网络的输出层神经元个数为 4，选择不同的隐
in Table 6. From Table 6, it can be seen that BP network 含层个数获得分类结果如表 6 所示。由表 6 可知，当隐含
has the grading accuracy with 92.11% for 8 hidden
neurons. 层神经元个数为 8 时，BP 网络的分级正确率为 92.11%。
458
Table 6
Grading results based of different numbers of hidden neurons
Number of hidden layer neurons 5 6 7 8 9 10
Grading accuracy 86.84% 86.84% 86.84% 92.11% 76.32 % 84.21%
Comparison of SVM and BP network in grading results 网络的分级

SVM 与 BP 网络的分级结果比较
Grading experiments by SVM with v-SVC at different
选择在不同训练集样本数的情况下进行 v-SVC 型 SVM
sample numbers of training set and that by BP network
和隐含层神经元个数为 8 的 BP 网络的分级实验，分级结
with 8 hidden neurons are conducted, and their grading
results are shown in Table 7. 果如表 7 所示。
Table 7
Comparison of SVM and BP network in grading results
Training set number Test set number SVM Grading accuracy BP Grading accuracy
25 40 97.50% 82.50%
30 40 97.50% 87.50%
36 40 97.50% 90.00%
44 40 97.50% 92.50%
From Table 7, it can be seen that the grading 由表 7 可知，在训练集样本数不同的情况下，SVM 的分

accuracy of SVM is always 97.50% for different sample
numbers of training set, while that of BP network is 级正确率均为 97.50%，BP 网络的分级正确率则受训练样
greatly influenced by the training sample number. 本数的影响较大，且 SVM 的分级正确率高于 BP 网络的
Moreover, the grading accuracy of SVM is always higher
than that of BP network, so SVM can also obtain higher 分级准确率，这说明 SVM 在训练样本数较小时也可获得
grading accuracy for small training samples while BP 很高的分级正确率， BP 网络则需要较多的训练样本数。
network needs more training samples.
CONCLUSIONS 结论
The paper develops a grading method of kiwi fruit
based on volume estimation and surface defect. 本文研究了一种基于猕猴桃体积估计和表面缺陷的分级
Mathematical model for the weight and volumetric pixel
方法。本方法拟合出猕猴桃的重量和体积像素之间的数学
of kiwi fruit is fitted. The coefficient of determination is
0.9501, and the standard error is 4.2490, so the model 模型，计算出可决系数为 0.9501，标准误差为 4.2490，
has a good fitting effect and can be used for actual
weight estimation of kiwi fruits. The SVM with v-SVC type 表明该模型的拟合效果良好，可用于猕猴桃的实际重量估
adopting RBF kernel function can obtain the grading 计。核函数为 RBF 的 v-SVC 型 SVM 在最佳核参数 σ 时
accuracy with 97.73% under the optimal kernel
parameter σ ; The grading accuracy of BP network is 其分级正确率可达 97.73%；BP 网络的最佳隐含层个数为
rising along with the increase of numbers of training sets
when the optimal number of hidden layers is 8. The 8 ，分级正确率随着训练集个数的增加而增加。在不同训
grading performance of SVM is superior to that of BP 练样本数下 SVM 的分级性能优于 BP 神经网络的分级性
neural network under different numbers of training set,
and the grading accuracy of SVM is always higher than 能，且其分级正确率高于 BP 网络的分级正确率。
that of BP neural network.
致谢
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper was funded by the Natural Science 本文受到四川省教育厅自然科学重点项目（项目号：
Project of Sichuan Education Department under Grant 12ZA277）。
12ZA277.
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CERTIFICATION OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS

/
CERTIFICAREA PRODUSELOR ECOLOGICE
Ph.D. Eng. Alexandru I.D.
Tel: 0318053213; E-mail: alexandru@inma.ro
Abstract: Ecological agriculture implies a production Rezumat: Agricultura ecologică implică un sistem de
system which excludes the utilization of artificial fertilizers, producŃie care exclude utilizarea fertilizatorilor artificiali, a
pesticides, growing hormones and additives in animal pesticidelor, hormonilor de creştere şi aditivilor în hrana
feeding. Any operator, which produces, prepares or imports animalelor. Orice operator, care produce, prepară sau
goods manufactured according to environmental-friendly importă bunuri produse in conformitate cu metodele
methods has to be checked by a body of inspection and ecologice trebuie să se supună controlului unui organism
certification, which should attest that the specific Community de inspecŃie şi certificare care atestă că au fost respectate
and national regulations have been respected. reglementările comunitare şi naŃionale specifice
Keywords: environmental-friendly agriculture, operator, Cuvinte cheie: agricultură ecologică, operator, organism
inspection and certification body of ecological products, labelling de inspecŃie şi certificare produse ecologice, etichetare
Ecological production means to obtain agro-food ProducŃia ecologică înseamnă obŃinerea de produse
products without using chemical synthesis products, in agroalimentare fără utilizarea produselor chimice de
compliance with ecological production regulations, which sinteză, în conformitate cu regulile de producŃie ecologică
respect the Community and national legislationn and are care respectă legislaŃia comunitară şi naŃională şi sunt
certified by a body of inspection and certification atestate de un organism de inspecŃie şi certificare înfiinŃat
established for this very purpose. în acest scop.
Methods of ecological production have to meet the Metodele de producŃie ecologică utilizate trebuie să
following conditions [1]: îndeplinească următoarele condiŃii [1]:
- Comply to the environmental-friendly principles; - respectarea principiilor producŃiei ecologice;
- It is forbidden to use soil fertilizers and ameliorating - neutilizarea de fertilizatori şi amelioratori ai solului, pesticide,
agents, pesticides, foddering materials, alimentary materiale furajere, aditivi alimentari, ingrediente pentru
additives, ingredients for preparing food products, prepararea alimentelor, substanŃe folosite în alimentaŃia
substances used in animal feeding, substances animalelor, substanŃe ajutătoare pentru pregatirea
entering the fodder preparation, products for furajelor, produse pentru curaŃarea şi dezinfectarea
cleaning and disinfection of animal stables other adăposturilor pentru animale şi de alte produse, decât a
than those allowed by ecological agriculture; acelora permise să fie utilizate în agricultura ecologică;
- Seeds or vegetal sowing material should be - folosirea de seminŃe sau material vegetativ săditor
obtained by ecological production methods. obtinut prin metode de producŃie ecologică.
Environmental-friendly agriculture offers to farmers the Agricultura ecologică oferă agricultorilor şansa de a
opportunity of diversifying the method of production diversifica metodele de producŃie beneficiind în acelaşi
taking also benefit from biodiversity and sustainability in timp de biodiversitate şi durabilitate în comunităŃile rurale.
rural communities. At the same time, ecological Agricultura ecologică, de asemenea, permite agricultorilor
agriculture allows the farmers’professional development să se dezvolte profesional prin utilizarea de tehnologii ca
by using technologies coming from the most recent rezultat al celor mai recente cercetări în domeniul ştiinŃei
researches in soil science, biodiversity, plant cultivation, solului, biodiversitate, cultivarea plantelor, creşterea
animal breeding, ecology, animal living standards, as well animalelor, ecologie, standarde de bunăstare a
as natural resources preservation. animalelor, precum şi conservarea resurselor naturale.
Romanian ecological products market has importantly PiaŃa produselor ecologice româneşti a crescut în mod
increased in latest years, especially, following the semnificativ în ultimii ani, în special după ce fermierii au
financial support received by farmers to pass from început să primească sprijin financiar pentru a converti
traditional agriculture to environmental-friendly one. de la convenŃional la agricultura ecologică.

Cultivation, preparation, import and selling of Cultivarea, prepararea, importul şi vânzarea
ecological products is regulated by Reg.(CE) 834/2007 produselor ecologice este reglementată de Reg.(CE)
and 889/2009, aiming to guarantee to consumer that the 834/2007 şi 889/2009, care au rolul de a garanta
respective product is obtained without using the chemical consumatorului că produsul este obŃinut fără utilizarea
synthesis substances and genetically modified substanŃelor chimice de sinteză şi a Organismelor
organisms. modificate genetic
Council Regulation (CE) no. 834/2007 from June, 28, Regulamentul (CE) nr. 834/2007 al Consiliului din 28
2007 related to ecological production and environmental- iunie 2007 privind producŃia ecologică şi etichetarea
friendly products labelling, as well as abrogtion of produselor ecologice, precum şi de abrogare a
Regulation (CEE) no. 2092/91 constitute the legal Regulamentului (CEE) nr. 2092/91 constituie cadrul legal
reference framework for all stages of production, de referinŃă pentru toate stadiile de producŃie, procesare
processing, distribution, control and labelling of ecological distribuŃie, control şi etichetare a produselor ecologice
products able to be commercialized in EU. The care pot fi comercializate în UE. Furnizează obiective şi
Regulation provides objectives and principles for an on- principii pentru continua dezvoltare a producŃiei ecologice
going development of ecological production and are şi se aplică la produse agricole vii sau neprocesate,
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applied to living or unprocessed agricultural products, produse agricole procesate pentru a fi utilizate ca
agricultural products processed for being used as food, alimente; hrană pentru animale, materialul de înmulŃire
animal food, planting material and cultivating vegetativ şi seminŃe pentru cultivare, recoltarea de plante
seeds;harvesting of wild plants and marine algae. sălbatice şi alge marine.
Commission Regulation (CE) no. 889/2008 from 5 Regulamentul (CE) nr. 889/2008 al Comisiei din 5
September 2008 establishing the applying norms of septembrie 2008 de stabilire a normelor de aplicare a
Regulation (CE) no. 834/2007 of Council regarding the Regulamentului (CE) nr. 834/2007 al Consiliului privind
ecological production and ecological products labelling in producŃia ecologică şi etichetarea produselor ecologice în
terms of environmental-friendly production, labelling and ceea ce priveşte producŃia ecologică, etichetarea şi
control, stipulates detailed rules related to above issues. controlul descriereguli detaliate de producŃie, etichetare şi
It regulates all levels of vegetal and animal production, control. Reglementează toate nivelurile de producŃie
starting from field cultivation to animal breeding, vegetală şi animală, de la cultivarea terenului la creşterea
processing, distributing and control of food. We can find animalelor, procesarea, distribuirea şi controlul alimentelor.
here numerous technical details, among which the tables Aici se regăsesc numeroase datalii tehnice, printre care
containing the allowable external inputs. tabele referitoare la imputurile externe admise.
Exccept these particular regulations, the ecological În afara acestor regulamente specifice, operatorii
operators have to comply with provisions generally applied ecologici trebuie să respecte regulile general aplicabile
to production and processing of agricultural products. producŃiei şi procesării produselor agricole.
Operators which produce, process, store, Operatorii care produc, procesează, depozitează,
commercialize and/or import certified and/or conversion comercializează şi/sau importă dintr-o Ńară terŃă produse
agro-food products from a third country, have to be agroalimentare certificate şi/sau în conversie, înainte de
subject to a certification and inspection system a le introduce pe piaŃă trebuie să îşi supună activitatea
examination, before introducing their products to the unităŃii/fermei de producŃie sistemului de inspecŃie şi
market. certificare.
Before beginning to run their activity or obtaining Înainte ca operatorii din sectorul ecologic să poată începe
ecological products, the operators have to register to a derularea activităŃii sau să obŃină produse ecologice
certification and inspection body, after which the trebuie să se înregistreze la un organism de inspecŃie şi
respective activity must be registered at Ministry of certificare. Urmează apoi înregistrarea activităŃii la Ministrul
Agriculture, by means of county agriculture agencies. At Agriculturii, prin intermediul direcŃiilor pentru agricultură
the same time, ecological farms have to develop a judeŃene De asemenea, fermele ecologice trebuie să
conversion period of 2 years, at least. parcurgă o perioadă de conversie, de minimum 2 ani.
In Romania, inspection and certification of ecological InspecŃia şi certificarea produselor ecologice se
products is performed by inspection and certification efectuează în România, de către organisme de
bodies, legal persons from public or private sector, inspecŃie şi certificare, persoane juridice din sectorul
acknowledged by Ministry of Agriculture. Up to present public sau privat, aprobate de Ministerul Agriculturii.
moment, in Romania are operating 13 inspection and Până în prezent în România sunt 13 organisme de
certification bodies. inspecŃie şi certificare.
Certification means inspection of agricultural fields Certificarea presupune inspecŃia terenurilor agricole şi
and processing installations, existence of a detailed a instalaŃiilor de prelucrare, existenŃa unei evidenŃe
account, as well as periodical soil and water testing in detaliate, precum şi testarea periodică a solului şi a apei
order to be sure that producers comply with appropriate pentru a se asigura că producătorii îndeplinesc cerinŃele
standards. standardelor aplicabile.
In order to initiate the control, the operators have to În vederea iniŃierii controlului operatorii trebuie să
make available to certification body, a documentation pună la dispoziŃia organismului de certificare o
which should present [2]: documentaŃie din care să reiasă [2]:
- a complete description of institution and/or premises - o descriere completă a unităŃii şi/sau a localurilor
and/or activity, şi/sau a activităŃii;
- all practical measures to be undertaken for the - toate măsurile practice care trebuie întreprinse la
respective unit and/or premises and/or activity, which nivelul unităŃii şi/sau al locaŃiilor şi/sau al activităŃii
assure the compliance with ecological production care să asigure respectarea regulilor de producŃie
regulations; ecologică;
- measures of precaution having to be undertaken for - măsurile de precauŃie care trebuie întreprinse pentru a
reducing the risk of contamination with non reduce riscul contaminării cu produse sau substanŃe
authorized products or substances and measures of neautorizate şi măsurile de curăŃenie care trebuie
cleaning the storing locations and manufacturer’s întreprinse în amplasamentele de stocare şi prin lanŃul
production chain; de producŃie al producătorului;
- specific characteristics of method of production used. - caracteristicile specifice ale metodei de producŃie utilizate.
Within these inspections, samples are taken for În cadrul acestor inspecŃii se pot preleva eşantioane
determining the non authorized products in terms of pentru determinarea produselor neautorizate pentru
environmental-friendly production or of verifying the producŃia ecologică sau pentru verificarea tehnicilor de
production techniques which do not meet the appropriate producŃie care nu sunt în conformitate cu regulile
requirements. At the same time, samples may be taken and specifice. De asemenea, se pot preleva şi analiza eşantioane
analyzed for detecting a probable contamination with non în vederea detectării unei posibile contaminări cu
authorized products. produse neautorizate pentru producŃia ecologică.
In the locations where controls are performed, it is În locaŃiile în care se efectuează controalele este
necessary to keep a strict material and financial record necesar să se păstreze o contabilitate materială şi
which allows the operator to identify and certification financiară care să permită operatorului să identifice iar
body, respectively, to check [2]: organismului de certificare să verifice [2]:
- the supplier and, if they are different, the seller or - furnizorul şi, dacă sunt diferiŃi, vânzătorul sau
462
exporter of products; exportatorul produselor;

- nature and quantities of ecological products - natura şi cantităŃile produselor ecologice livrate în
delivered to unit, and if the case is, the type and unitate şi, dacă este cazul, natura şi cantităŃile
amount of all materials bought and their utilization, tuturor materialelor cumpărate şi utilizarea lor, iar
and, if necessary, the compound fodder composition; acolo unde este cazul, compoziŃia furajelor compuse;
- nature and quantities of ecological products stored in - natura şi cantităŃile produselor ecologice depozitate
different locations; în locaŃii pe exploataŃie;
- type, quantity and recipients and, if they are different, - natura, cantităŃile şi destinatarii şi, dacă sunt diferiŃi,
the buyers, others than final consumers of any cumpărătorii, alŃii decât consumatorii finali, ai oricărui
product which left the premises or storing produs care a fost scos din unitate, din locaŃiile sau
installations belonging to first recipient; din instalaŃiile de depozitare ale primului destinatar;
- In case of operators who do not store or physically - în cazul operatorilor care nu depozitează sau nu
manipulate ecological products, nature and quantity manipulează fizic produse ecologice, natura şi
of ecological products bought and sold, suppliers cantităŃile produselor ecologice cumpărate şi vândute,
and, if different, the sellers or exporters and, if furnizorii şi, dacă sunt diferiŃi, vânzătorii sau exportatorii,
different, the recipients; cumpărătorii şi, dacă sunt diferiŃi, destinatarii;
- Results of products control, when they are taken - rezultatele verificării la recepŃie a produselor
over. ecologice.
All accounting documents accompanied by Toate documentele contabile trebuie însoŃite de
appropriate documents in proof. documente justificative corespunzătoare.
We must underline that those presented above Trebuie menŃionat faptul că cele prezentate anterior
represent the minimum forefront requirements. They are constituie cerinŃe minime de control. Acestea sunt completate
completed by requirements appropriate to each type of de cerinŃe specifice fiecărui tip de activitate desfăşurată,
activity developed, such as: plants and vegeatble cum ar fi: plante şi produse vegetale obŃinute din producŃia
products obtained from agricultural production or agricolă sau din colectarea plantelor spontane; alge
sponaneous flora collecting; marine algae; animals and marine; animale şi produse animaliere din activitatea de
animal products coming from breeding activity; apiculture; creştere a animalelor; apicultură; producŃia de animale de
production of aquaculture animals; preparation of acvacultură; prepararea produselor vegetale, pe bază de
vegetable products based on marine algae, animals and alge marine, animale şi animale de acvacultură şi a
aquaculture animals and food products obtained from produselor alimentare obŃinute din acestea; importul de
them; import of agricultural products coming from third produse agricole provenind din Ńări terŃe; producŃia,
countries; production, preparation or import of ecological pregătirea sau importul produselor ecologice contractate
products partially or totally contracted by units to third de către unităŃi terŃilor parŃial sau total operaŃiunile
parties; processing animal food. efecutate; procesarea hranei pentru animale.
Following the controls of inspection and certification În urma controalelor efectuate de organismul de
body, operators which respected the production inspecŃie şi certificare, operatorii care au respectat
regulations shall receive a certificate of ecological regulile de producŃie primesc un certificat de produs
product and shall be able to labeÎ their products. The ecologic şi îşi vor putea eticheta produsele. Pe eticheta
label applied on an ecological product must contain: aplicată unui produs ecologic sunt obligatorii următoarele
ecological production reference, logos (EU menŃiuni: referire la producŃia ecologică, siglele (sigla
environmental-friendly logo and national logo), name and ecologică a UE şi sigla naŃională), numele şi codul
code of respective body that performed the inspection organismului de inspecŃie şi certificare care a efectuat
and issued the certificate of environmental-friendly inspecŃia şi a eliberat certificatul de produs ecologic [3].
product [3]. There are specific requirements in terms of Există cerinŃe specifice în privinŃa etichetării şi
labelling and composition applied to ecological food for compoziŃiei aplicabile pentru hrană ecologică pentru
animals; conversion vegetable-origin products and animale; produse de conversie de origine vegetală şi
vegetal seeding material for cultivation. material de înmulŃire vegetativ şi seminŃe pentru cultivare.
The organism of inspection and certification performs, Organismul de inspecŃie şi certificare realizează cel
at least, once a year a physical inspection to all operators puŃin o dată pe an o inspecŃie fizică a tuturor operatorilor
but also surveys, most times, unannounced, based on dar şi controale prin sondaj, de cele mai multe ori neanunŃate,
general evaluation of risk assumed when ecological bazate pe evaluarea generală a riscului de nerespectare
production regulations are not respected and taking into a regulilor de producŃie ecologică şi luând în considerare
consideration at least the results of previous surveys, cel puŃin rezultatele controalelor anterioare, cantitatea
products quantity and risk of changing the products. produselor în cauză şi riscul de a schimba produsele.
RESULTS REZULTATE
At the end of 2013, according to data supplied by La finele anului 2013, conform datelor furnizate de
Bodies of inspection and certification, 14873 operators Organismele de inspecŃie şi certificare erau înregistraŃi
were certified in ecological agriculture. 14873 operatori certificaŃi în agricultura ecologică.
There are several definitions for ecological Există mai multe definiŃii pentru agricultura ecologică,
agriculture, but all express that this system is mostly dar toate converg pentru a afirma că aceasta este un
based on management of ecosystems than external sistem care se bazează mai degrabă pe managementul
agriculture inputs. Environmental-friendly agriculture ecosistemelor decât pe inputuri agricole externe.
represents a system which begins to take into Agricultura ecologică constituie un sistem care incepe să
consideration the potential social and environmental ia în considerare impactul potenŃial social şi asupra
impact by eliminating the use of synthetic raw materials, mediului prin eliminarea utilizării de materii prime
such as fertilizers and synthesis pesticides, veterinary- sintetice, cum ar fi îngrăşămintele şi pesticide de sinteză,
463
use medicines, GM seeds, preserving substances and medicamente de uz veterinar, seminŃe modificate
additives. genetic, conservanŃi şi aditivi.
Farmers, processors and agents trading ecological Fermierii, procesatori şi comercianŃii de produse ecologice
products have to strictly comply to EU requirements, if trebuie să respecte cu stricteŃe cerinŃele Uniunii Europene
they want ti use the ecological logo of EU or label their dacă este doresc să utilizeze sigla ecologică al UE sau
products as environmental-friendly products. Therefore, să îşi eticheteze produsele ca ecologice. Pentru aceasta,
Bodies of inspection and certification of ecological Organismele de inspecŃie şi certificare produse ecologice
products perform controls in each stage of organic chain. efectuează controale în fiecare etapă a lanŃului organic.
Each operator (farmer, processor, trader, importer or Fiecare operator (fermier, procesator, comerciant, importator
exporter) is checked once a year, at least, or more often, sau exportator) este verificată cel puŃin o dată pe an, sau
based on a risk evaluation. mai des, pe baza unei evaluări a riscurilor.
[1]. Emergency Order no. 34 from 17 April 2000 [1]. OrdonanŃa de UrgenŃă nr. 34 din 17 aprilie 2000
regarding the ecological agro-food products; privind produsele agroalimentare ecologice;
[2]. Regulation(CE) no. 889/2008 of Commission from 5 [2]. Regulamentul (CE) nr. 889/2008 al Comisiei din 5
September 2008 establishing the norms of applying the septembrie 2008 de stabilire a normelor de aplicare a
Regulation(CE) no. 834/2007; Regulamentului (CE) nr. 834/2007;
[3]. www.madr.ro [3]. www.madr.ro
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CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE SYSTEMS MODELING AND SOWING VEGETABLE

CROPS
/
CONSIDERAłII PRIVIND MAŞINILE DE MODELAT ŞI SEMĂNAT ÎN SISTEM DURABIL A
CULTURILOR DE LEGUME
Ph.D. Eng. Mateescu M., Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Pirnă I., Ph.D. Eng. Păun A., Ph.D. Eng. Marin E.
Tel: 0756.880.044; E-mail: marinelamateescu@yahoo.com
Abstract: One of the main causes of the high Rezumat: Una din cauzele principale ale costurilor ridicate
production cost for vegetables is the cost of crop ale producerii legumelor o reprezintă cheltuielile mari la
establishment, due to the use of obsolete equipments înfiinŃarea culturilor legumicole, din cauza utilizării unor
with large energy consumtion and who, in addition, echipamente tehnice depăşite moral, mari consumatoare
brings to soil ecological damage, due to the de energie şi care, în plus, aduc şi prejudicii de natură
destruction of the structure and texture of the soil by ecologică solurilor, ca urmare a distrugerii structurii şi
repeated passages on the same tracks. A sustainable texturii acestora prin trecerile repetate pe aceleaşi urme.
agricultural system is characterized by dynamism and Un sistem de agricultură durabil se caracterizează pe
diversity, through a viable land management, lângă dinamism şi diversitate, prin gospodărire viabilă a
integrating plant and animal production, conservation terenurilor, integrare a producŃiei vegetale şi animale,
and management of resources and the extension of conservare şi gospodărire a resurselor şi extensia unor noi
new generations of technologies and equipment for generaŃii de tehnologii şi echipamente agricole. În lucrare
agriculture. The paper presents some aspects of sunt prezentate câteva aspecte privind soluŃiile referitoare
existing solutions and equipment in our country and la echipamentele existente în Ńară şi pe plan mondial
in the world regarting to modeling and sowing in referitor la modelarea şi semănatul în sistem durabil a
sustainable system for vegetable crops. culturilor de legume.
Keywords: equipment, environmental, cost, solution Cuvinte cheie: echipament, ecologic, cost, soluŃie
Agriculture recorded throughout its history many Agricultura a înregistrat de-a lungul istoriei sale
steps that lead to modification and development of numeroase etape care au dus la modificarea şi evoluŃia
practices, changing mentalities and the exploitation practicilor abordate, la schimbarea mentalităŃii şi a
ways of resources. modalităŃilor de exploatare a resurselor.
To successfully promote a sustainable agriculture it is Pentru promovarea cu succes a agriculturii durabile
necessary that the manufacturers to comply with certain este necesar ca producătorii să respecte anumite
conditions, which relate mainly to crop rotation, rational condiŃii, care se referă în principal la rotaŃia culturilor,
fertilization, weed control, diseases, pests and reducing fertilizarea raŃională, controlul buruienilor, bolilor, dăunătorilor
of the energy consumption [1, 11]. şi reducerea consumurilor energetice [1, 11].
High yields possible to obtain, as well as the ProducŃiile mari posibil de obŃinut, ca şi faptul că
vegetables that can be sold at competitive prices, legumele pot fi valorificate mai sigur la preŃuri
determines a more intensive vegetable growing caracter, concurenŃiale, determină un caracter pronunŃat intensiv al
enabling the increase of income per unit area, legumiculturii, dând posibilitate sporirii venitului la
contributing to the development of vegetable farms and unitatea de suprafaŃă, contribuind la dezvoltarea fermelor
increasing farmers income. legumicole, la creşterea veniturilor cultivatorilor.
Romania, in terms of the area cultivated with România, din punct de vedere al suprafeŃei cultivate
vegetables, is ranked fourth in Europe after Spain, cu legume se situează pe locul patru în Europa după
Italy and France. Bulbs and root vegetables are Spania, Italia şi FranŃa. Legumele bulboase şi
species that are cultivated over large areas in rădăcinoase sunt specii care se cultivă pe suprafeŃe mari
Romania with values over 35% of the area cultivated în România cu valori de peste 35% din suprafaŃa
with vegetables and over 25% of total production of cultivată cu legume şi peste 25% din producŃia totală
vegetables. They find the most favorable climatic realizată de legume. Acestea găsesc cele mai favorabile
conditions in south areas, southeast, the west and in condiŃii pedoclimatice în zonele din sud, sud-estul Ńării, în
central Transylvania [8]. partea de vest şi în centrul Transilvaniei [8].
Because the content of nutritive substances they are Datorită conŃinutului bogat în substanŃe nutritive sunt
widely used in human nutrition both raw and prepared in foarte mult folosite în alimentaŃia omului atât în stare
various forms. Some of them are used in the crudă cât şi preparate sub diferite forme. Unele din ele
pharmaceutical industry for their content substances with sunt folosite şi în industria farmaceutică pentru conŃinutul
bactericidal antibiotics and laxative efects. Getting higher lor în substanŃe antibiotice cu puternic efect bactericid şi
quantity and quality productions, crops economically laxativ. ObŃinerea de producŃii superioare cantitativ şi
efficient, is mainly conditioned by the application of calitativ, de culturi eficiente din punct de vedere economic,
advanced technologies and the use of an appropriate este condiŃionată în principal, de aplicarea de tehnologii
range, adapted to the area, specializing on harvest performante şi de utilizare a unui sortiment adecvat,
destination [7]. adaptat condiŃiilor zonei, specializat pe destinaŃia recoltei [7].
The profound changes that took place in Romanian Profundele schimbări care au avut loc în agricultura
agriculture require a reassessment of mechanization românească impun o reevaluare a tehnologiilor de
technologies for setting the vegetable crops, in order to mecanizare a înfiinŃării culturilor legumicole, în scopul
465
obtain increased yields. This demands require finding obŃinerii unor recolte sporite. Această cerinŃă impune
applied technological solutions to serve in obtaining găsirea unor soluŃii tehnologice aplicative care să
competitive crops. servească la obŃinerea unor recolte competitive.
The economic importance of vegetables culture is that ImportanŃa economică a culturii legumelor constă în
they allow an intensive use of the land. Vegetable faptul că acestea permit o folosire intensivă a terenului.
cultures provides a better use of the land, because of the Cultura legumelor asigură o mai bună valorificare a
possibilities of making, on large-scale, of successions, terenurilor, datorită posibilităŃilor de efectuare, pe scară
both in open field culture, but especially in protected largă, a succesiunilor, atât la cultura în câmp deschis, dar
culture. It is estimated that 1 ha of vegetables grown in mai cu seamă la cultura protejată. Se apreciază că 1 ha
the field is equivalent to 1012 ha of wheat, 1 ha of de legume cultivate în câmp echivalează cu 1012 ha de
vegetables grown in solarium amounts to 150 ha of grâu, 1 ha de legume cultivate în solarii echivalează cu
wheat and 1 ha of vegetables grown in greenhouses 150 ha de grâu, iar 1 ha de legume cultivate în sere
amounts to 200 ha of wheat [5]. echivalează cu 200 ha de grâu [5].
Year after year, in terms of vegetable in Romania, De la an la an, în ceea ce priveşte legumicultura în România,
there was a revival. National Institute of Statistics s-a înregistrat o revigorare. Institutul NaŃional de Statistică a
recently conducted a report on agricultural production in realizat recent un raport privind producŃia agricolă la principalele
major vegetable crops in 2013, presented in Table 1. culturi de legume în anul 2013, prezentat în tabelul 1.
Table 1 [8]
Cultivated area and production of major crops
Cultivated area Production Difference (±) year 2013 to year
thousand ha thousand tons 2012
2012 2013 2012 2013 thousand ha thousand tone
Vegetables 1) of which: 259 258 3535 4015 -1 +480
tomatos 50 47 683 745 -3 +62
cabbage 49 46 988 1025 -3 +37
cucumber 12 12 159 179 - +20
carrots 16 15 200 218 -1 +18
onion 33 33 345 380 - +35
peppers 20 19 207 225 -1 +18
watermelons and melons 31 30 555 605 -1 +50
)
includes the cultivated area and production of vegetables grown in fields, greenhouses solariums and family gardens
According to survey results released by the National Potrivit rezultatelor cercetării statistice publicate de
Statistics Institute, the vegetable production was higher Institutul NaŃional de Statistică, producŃia la legume a fost
by 13.6%, due to higher average yields per hectare, mai mare cu 13,6%, datorită creşterii producŃiilor medii la
although cultivated areas have decreased slightly. hectar, deşi suprafeŃele cultivate au avut o uşoară scădere.
Yields were higher in cucumbers (+ 12.6%), onions (+ ProducŃiile au fost mai mari la: castraveŃi (+12,6%),
10.1%), tomato (+ 9.1%), carrots (+ 9.0%), watermelons ceapă (+10,1%), tomate (+9,1%), morcovi (+9,0%),
and melons (9 0%), green (+ 8.7%), cabbage (+ 3.7%) pepeni verzi şi galbeni (+9,0%), ardei (+8,7%), varză
[8]. (+3,7%) [8].
An important aspect in growing vegetables is their Un aspect deosebit de important în cultura legumelor o
ecological origin, as main aspect of the origin, to know constituie provenienŃa ecologică a acestora, ca principal
their morphological and biological characters. Knowing aspect al originii lor, pentru a cunoaşte caracterele lor
these characters can get a high productive potential by morfologice şi biologice. Cunoscând aceste caractere se
establishing the technological links in different culture poate obŃine un potenŃial productiv ridicat prin stabilirea
systems. Based on the knowledge of the plants origin verigilor tehnologice în diferite sisteme de cultură. Pe
we can determine if a crop species or a plant variety baza cunoaşterii originii plantelor se poate stabili dacă în
gives good results in the climatic conditions of a area condiŃiile climatice ale unei zonei de cultură o specie sau
[2]. un soi de plante dă rezultate bune [2].
Worldwide, as a result of increased consumption of Pe plan mondial, ca urmare a creşterii consumului de
fresh vegetables, the vegetable crop yields is growing. legume proaspete, este în continuă creştere randamentul
This is achieved by using more advanced methods of culturilor legumicole. Acest lucru se realizează prin utilizarea
cultivation, by the expansion and continuous unor metode de cultivare tot mai performante, prin
improvement of existing culture systems, allowing the extinderea şi perfecŃionarea continuă a sistemelor de cultură
increasingly, mechanization and automation of existente care permit, în măsură tot mai mare, mecanizarea
production processes. [3]. şi automatizarea unor procese de producŃie [3].

Numerous works of literature [5, 7, 8] states that În numeroase lucrări din literatura de specialitate [5, 7,
vegetables are very demanding plants to water and 8] se precizează că legumele sunt plante foarte
fertilising substances, and hence more demanding pretenŃioase faŃă de apă şi substanŃele fertilizante, de
as to soil tillage, watching water retention, soil unde rezultă că sunt cu atât mai exigente faŃă de lucrările
aeration and mobilization of the reserves fertilising solului, care urmăresc reŃinerea apei, aerisirea solului şi
substances. mobilizarea rezervelor de substanŃe fertilizante.
Specific for vegetable crops are that ground works Specific pentru culturile legumicole este faptul că lucrările de
runs in the spring, summer and fall, depending on the pregătire a terenului se execută primăvara, vara şi toamna, în
period of seeding and planting, taking into account the funcŃie de epoca de semănat şi plantat, Ńinând seama de
system and crop method, soil type and weather [6]. sistemul şi metoda de cultură, tipul de sol şi starea vremii [6].
Current technology in Romania for growing Tehnologia actuală în România pentru cultivarea
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vegetables and root bulb is made with a range of legumelor bulboase şi rădăcinoase este realizată cu o
agricultural machinery for tillage (seedbed preparation gamă de utilaje agricole destinate prelucrării solului
and modeling soil for planting or seeding layers) and (pregătirea patului germinativ şi modelarea solului în straturi
sowing. în vederea plantatului sau semănatului) şi semănatului.
The constructors of modeling and sowing equipment in Constructorii de echipamente de modelat şi semănat din
our country and worldwide sought to identify optimal Ńară şi strinătate au căutat soluŃii pentru identificarea unor variante
solutions for various equipments, that meet the vegetable optime de echipamente, care să răspundă cerinŃelor agrotehnice
agrotechnical needs, and as is possibly are flexible, so din legumicultură şi pe cât posibil să fie cât mai flexibile,
that it can be used for many types of cultures. astfel încât să poată fi utilizate pentru cât mai multe culturi.
RESULTS REZULTATE
Under the conventional soil tillage, seedbed is În cadrul sistemului de lucrare convenŃională a solului,
prepared initially by the work of plowing, followed by patul germinativ se pregăteşte iniŃial prin lucrarea de arat,
tillage with various types of machines: harrow, roller, urmată de lucrările solului cu diferite tipuri de maşini:
leveling, combines, tillage. grapa, tăvălug, nivelator, combinator, cultivator.
Terrain modeling is done in raised furrows and gullies, Modelarea terenului se realizează în brazde înălŃate şi
of various sizes depending on the technology adopted, rigole, de diverse dimensiuni în funcŃie de tehnologia
with the width of the canopy 50 and 94 cm. This paper adoptată, cu lăŃimea la coronament de 50 şi 94 cm.
provides a rapid drainage of excess water, a good Această lucrare asigură o scurgere rapidă a excesului de
heating of the soil and allows early crop establishment apă, o încălzire bună a solului şi permite înfiinŃarea
compared with the unshaped field. culturilor mai devreme, comparativ cu terenul nemodelat.
Within a research project, INMA Bucharest has made In cadrul unui proiect de cercetare, INMA Bucureşti a
a experimental soil loosening and modeling equipment, realizat un model experimental de echipament de afânat
EMS - 3 (Fig. 1) that can achieve the crust breaking, şi modelat solul pe strat, EMS – 3 (fig. 1) ce poate realiza
ground-layer modeling, modeling / reconstruction of the spargerea crustei, modelarea solului pe strat,
watering gutters. modelarea/refacerea rigolelor de udare.
For sowing are used precision seeders for small Pentru semănat se utilizează semănători de precizie
grains, mechanical or pneumatic. pentru seminŃe mici, mecanice sau pneumatice.
In Romania the only manufacturer of vegetable seed În România singurul producător de semănători pentru
is S.C. MECANICĂ CEAHLĂU S.A. Piatra NeamŃ that legume este S.C. MECANICĂ CEAHLĂU S.A. Piatra
has achieved a pneumatic drill for vegetable seeds SPL NeamŃ care a realizat o semănătoare pneumatică pentru
6 (fig. 2). This may optionally be equipped with a seminŃe de legume, tip SPL 6 (fig. 2). Aceasta poate fi
fertilizer. echipată opŃional cu fertilizator.
Fig. 1 - Soil modeling equipment, EMS – 3 Fig. 2 - Pneumatic drill for vegetable seeds SPL-6
S.C.D.L. Buzau performed researches to achieve a S.C.D.L. Buzău a efectuat cercetări pentru realizarea
complex unit experimental model AC-1.4 (fig. 3) to unui model experimental de agregat complex AC-1,4 (fig.
execute in a single pass the seedbed preparation, 3) care să execute dintr-o singură trecere pregătirea patului
open gutters, soil modeling, management starter germinativ, deschiderea rigolelor, modelarea solului, administrarea
fertilizer and sowing vegetable crops in spring in the îngrăşămintelor starter şi semănatul culturilor de legume
fall plowing done [4]. primăvara în arătură efectuată toamna [4].
Fig. 3 – Unit model AC-1,4 [9]
Seedbed preparation section of this unit works on SecŃia de pregătire a patului germinativ de la acest
the principle of blade organs type, inclined at 45 agregat funcŃionează pe principiul organelor active de tip
467
degrees with oscillatory motion. The soil modeling lamă, înclinate la 45 grade, cu mişcare oscilatorie. SecŃia
section is composed by active bodies arrows type and de modelat solul este alcatuită din organe active de tip
forms the gutters, the leveling and compaction of the săgeată şi realizează formarea rigolelor, nivelarea brazdei şi
furrow. The fertilized section, consists in a hopper with compactarea acesteia. SecŃia de fertilizat, alcătuită dintr-un
two distribution devices at the bottom part (MAT buncăr având la partea inferioară două aparate de
Craiova serial production), and the drilling section was distribuŃie (fabricaŃie de serie la MAT Craiova), iar secŃia
realised using the devices equipped with bunkers seed de semănat a fost realizată utilizând buncărele dotate cu
distribution of multifunctional AM-9 unit conducted by aparate de distribuŃie a seminŃelor ale agregatului
MAT Craiova [4]. multifuncŃional AM-9, realizat de MAT Craiova [4].
Worldwide, there are variants of agricultural for land Pe plan mondial există variante constructive de utilaje
complex processing (seedbed preparation and modeling agricole destinate prelucrării complexe a solului (pregătirea
soil layers for sowing) for growing vegetables and root patului germinativ şi modelarea solului în straturi în vederea
bulb. semănatului) pentru cultivarea legumelor bulboase şi rădăcinoase.
Company OPTIGÉP Kft SRL from Hungary has Firma OPTIGÉP Kft SRL din Ungaria are în fabricaŃie
manufactured soil modeling equipments BT-xB (fig. 4) maşini de modelat solul BT-xB (fig. 4) ce pot realiza în
that can achieve in the plowed field, depending on the terenul arat, funcŃie de model, 1, 2, 3 sau 4 straturi
model, 1, 2, 3 or 4 layers (modeled rows). The soil (rânduri modelate). Unitatea de modelat solul este
modeling units is mounted by clamps on the equipments montată prin bride pe rama maşinii, rotorul având cuŃite
frame, the rotor having blades on the entire working pe toată lăŃimea de lucru. Din solul afânat de rotorul
width. From the soil loosened by the rotor cutter, coulters frezei, brăzdarele formează coamele, ale căror formă
form ridges, whose final shape is achieved by profiling finală se realizează de catre valŃurile de profilare.
rollers. Coulters are replaceable and can be arranged Brăzdarele sunt schimbabile şi se pot aranja conform
according to the distance between the rows and the distanŃei dintre rânduri şi numărului de rânduri dorite. Cu
number of rows you want. With the optional stations, can secŃiile opŃionale, în acelaşi timp cu modelarea solului, se
be carried out by a single drive the sowing of small poate efectua printr-un singur mers semănatul seminŃelor
seeds, or the instalation of the drip irrigation [12]. mici, sau instalarea tubulaturii pentru irigaŃia prin picurare [12].
Fig. 4 - Soil modeling equipment BT-2B and BT-4T [12]
Soil modeling equipment BT-xB can achieve a wide Maşinile de modelat solul BT-xB pot realiza straturi
layers, double or triple (fig. 5)and depending on the type late, duble sau triple (fig. 5) şi funcŃie de tipul de strat
of coating is recommended for the crops: sunt recomandate pentru culturile:
- for flat layers: watermelon, melons, cucumbers, peppers, - pentru straturi late: lubeniŃa, pepenii, castraveŃii,
tomatoes, strawberries, lettuce, raspberries, blackberries; ardeii, roşiile, căpşunii, salata, zmeura, murele;
- for double layers: carrots, celery, parsley, parsnips, - pentru straturi duble: morcovii, Ńelina, pătrunjelul,
potatoes; păstârnacul, cartofii;
- the triple layers: carrots and parsley. - pentru straturi triple: morcovii şi pătrunjelul.
Fig. 5 - Wide layers, double and triple, made with soil modeling equipment BT-xB [12]
The sowing sections have one set of 6 disks (for SecŃiile de semănat au câte un set de 6 discuri
carrots, lettuce, parsnips, cabbage, onions, tomatoes and (pentru morcov, salată, păstârnac, varză, ceapă, tomate
other small seeds, radishes, leeks, spinach, peas and şi alte seminŃe mici, ridichi, praz, spanac, mazăre şi
beans). They are optionally provided with a fertilizer, in fasole). OpŃional sunt prevăzute cu un fertilizator, caz în
which case the nitrogen is taken at a time whith the care azotul se administrează odată cu semănatul
located row seeding, no more than 50 kg of ammonium localizat pe rând, nu mai mult de 50 kg azotat de
nitrate per hectare. amoniu la hectar.
Productivity of the modeling machines for flat layers Productivitatea utilajelor în cazul modelării terenului în
(distance between rows of 2 × 75 cm) is: straturi late (distanŃa între rânduri de 2×75 cm) este:
- 0,3 ... 0,5 ha / h for the BT-2B; - 0,3…0,5 ha/h pentru modelul BT-2B;
- 0,6 ... 0,9 ha / h for the BT-4B. [12] - 0,6…0,9 ha/h pentru modelul BT-4B. [12]
Billon machine FORMA 2 (fig. 6), produced by the Maşina de bilonat FORMA 2 (fig. 6), produsă de firma
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Polish company UNIA performes in one pass weed UNIA din Polonia realizează într-o singură trecere distrugerea
control, soil opening and billon forming. buruienilor, deschiderea solului şi formarea biloanelor.
Fig. 6 - Billon machine FORMA 2 [11]
Trapezoidal shape of the ridges made by tillage Forma trapezoidală a crestelor realizate după operaŃia
operation provides better moisture retention, the de prelucrare a solului asigură o mai bună retinere a
equipment allowing the achieve of row width 75/70 cm umidităŃii, maşina permiŃând realizarea unei lătimi a rândurilor
to a total working width of 1.5 m. Machine works in unit de 75/70 cm la o lăŃime de lucru totală de 1,5 m. Maşina
with low power tractors of up to 35 HP, and provides a lucrează în agregat cu tractoare de putere mică de până la
working capacity of 0.5 ... 0.7 ha/h [13]. 35 CP şi realizează o capacitate de lucru de 0,5...0,7 ha/h [13].
Grimme Company from Germany created in the Firma GRIMME din Germania a realizat în cadrul
culture system MAXI-Bed a billon ground equipment BF sistemului de cultura MAXI-Bed un echipament de bilonat
300 (fig. 7). This is for vegetable crops on large areas, it terenul BF 300 (fig. 7). Acesta este destinat culturilor de
has a working width of 2.7 m and is equipped with a legume pe suprafeŃe mari, are o lăŃime de lucru de 2,7 m
mechanic or hydraulic protective mechanism agains şi este prevăzut cu mecanism de protecŃie de tip mecanic
stones or boulders [9]. sau hidraulic împotriva bulgărilor sau pietrelor [9].
This system realizes at the potato and vegetable an Acest sistem realizează la cultura de cartof şi legume o creştere
increased production per hectare by 50% due to the a producŃiei la hectar cu 50 % datorită lăŃimii de lucru care
width of which is 1.5 times higher. Also, due to large beds este de 1,5 ori mai mare. De asemenea, datorită paturilor largi
made and less compacted soil, are improved results on executate şi a faptului ca există mai puŃin sol preluat şi tasat,
the soil - water balance. sunt îmbunătăŃite rezultatele privind bilanŃul apei în sol.
Compared to conventional systems, operating costs Comparativ cu sistemele convenŃionale, costurile de
are reduced due to faster loading of transport vehicles operare sunt reduse datorită încărcarii mai rapide a
during harvesting, resulting a more efficient use of road vehiculelor de transport în timpul recoltării, rezultând o
traffic [9]. utilizare mai eficientă a traficul rutier [9].
Fig. 7 - Billon ground equipment BF 300 [9] Fig. 8 - Billon ground equipment BF 200 [9]
The BF 200 billon equipment (fig. 8), manufactured Echipamentul de bilonat BF 200 (fig. 8), realizat de
by Grimme, is made available in two variants for firma GRIMME, este realizat în două variante constructive
different soil conditions. BF version 200 is used disponibile pentru diverse condiŃii de sol. Varianta BF 200
especially in the middle field and heavy soils, with este utilizată mai ales pe teren mediu şi în soluri grele, cu
large stones and large amount of lumps. BFL version pietre mari şi cantitate mare de bulgări. Varianta BFL 200
200 is equipped with long side trainers deployed to este prevazută cu formatori laterali lungi pentru a
keep the soil in the bed set, preventing it from falling menŃine solul dislocat în patul creat, împiedicându-l să
back into the furrow. This equipment works in light cadă înapoi în brazdă. Acest echipament lucrează în
soils. soluri uşoare.
The two options can be combined to work in Cele două variante se pot combina pentru a lucra în
unprepared soil. The equipment make a layer width up to soluri nepregatite. Echipamentul realizează un strat cu
1.8 m and two half-layer side. lăŃime de până la 1,8 m şi două jumătăŃi de strat în lateral.
BF 400 billon equipment (fig. 9) makes in one pass Echipamentul de bilonat BF 400 (fig. 9) realizează la o
two layers with widths up to 1.8 m. Works in aggregate trecere două straturi cu lăŃimi de până la 1,8 m. Lucrează
with a tractor of at least 160 HP [9]. în agregat cu tractoare de minim 160 CP [9].
469
Fig. 9 - Billon ground equipment BF 400 [12]
Billon equipments BF 600 and BFL 600 (Fig. 10) Echipamentele de bilonat BF 600 şi BFL 600 (fig. 10)
makes in one passing three layers with widths up to 1.8 realizează la o trecere trei straturi cu lăŃimi de până la 1,8
m and two half side layers. Workes in aggregate with a m şi două jumătăŃi de strat în lateral. Lucrează în agregat
tractor of at least 230 HP [9]. cu tractoare de minim 230 CP [9].
Fig. 10 - Billon ground equipment BF 600 [12]
KENNCO company from the USA made a modeling Firma KENNCO din SUA a realizat pentru fermele de
ground equipment for small farms for small tractors and dimensiuni mici un echipament de modelat solul destinat
fields of vegetables up to five hectares (fig. 11). This pentru tractoare mici şi câmpuri de legume de până la
equipment processes soil on one row and realize ridges cinci hectare (fig. 11). Acest echipament prelucrează
with 45...120 cm width and 10 ... 15 cm height. [10] solul pe un singur rând şi realizează creste cu lăŃime de
45...120 cm şi înălŃime de 10...15 cm. [10]
Fig. 11 – Soil modeling equipment for small farms [10]
For large growers, the company built the KENNCO Pentru cultivatorii mari, firma KENNCO a construit
soil modeling equipments in many variants, which echipamente de modelat solul în mai multe variante
processes multiple rows, with the possibility of constructive, care realizează prelucrarea pe mai multe
working in aggregated with tractors of different power rânduri, cu posibilitate de a lucra în agregat cu tractoare
(Fig. 12). de puteri diferite (fig. 12).
Fig. 12 - Soil modeling equipment for big farms [10]
470
The modeling equipments realised by KENNCO for Echipamentele de modelat solul realizate de firma
large plantations areas are equipped with special KENNCO pentru plantaŃiile de mari suprafeŃe sunt dotate
accessories who allow additional operations of the cu accesorii speciale care permit realizarea de operaŃii
modeling in a single pass [10]. suplimentare celei de modelat dintr-o singură trecere [10].
In figure 13 are presented equipments that makes In figura 13 sunt prezentate echipamente care
application of solid fertilizers and other nutrients for realizează aplicarea îngrăşămintelor chimice solide şi
plants, in the same time with the shaping of sowing alte elemente nutritive pentru plante, în acelasi timp cu
layers or planting vegetables. modelarea straturilor de semănat sau plantat legume.
Fig. 13 – Soil modeling equimpent with management of solid chemical fertilizers and fertilization [10]
Along with the ground modeling, is can be mout Concomitent cu modelarea solului, se poate realiza şi
strips for drip irrigation, by attaching roller containing montarea benzilor pentru irigarea prin picurare, prin
bands of irrigation to the modeling equipment (fig. 14). ataşarea la echipamentul de modelat a unor role care
conŃin benzile de irigare (fig. 14).
Fig. 14 – Echipament de modelat solul concomitent cu montarea benzilor pentru irigare [10]
The current technology for growing bulbs and root Tehnologia actuală de cultivare a legumelor bulboase
vegetables are made in Romania with a range of şi rădăcinoase se realizează în România cu o gamă de
agricultural equipment for working the soil (soil seedbed utilaje agricole destinate prelucrării solului (pregătirea
preparation and modeling layers for planting or seeding) patului germinativ şi modelarea solului în straturi în vederea
and sowing. Within the conventional soil tillage, plantatului sau semănatului) şi semănatului. În cadrul
seedbed is prepared by a succession of agricultural sistemului de lucrare convenŃională a solului, patul germinativ
works of plowing, followed by soil treatment with se pregăteşte printr-o succesiune de lucrări agricole de
different types of equipments: harrow, roller, leveling, arat, urmată de prelucrarea solului cu diferite tipuri de
combines, tillage. maşini: grapă, tăvălug, nivelator, combinator, cultivator.
Externally there are constructive solutions for Pe plan extern există soluŃii constructive de maşini
machines that perform the soil processing, modeling and care execută dintr-o singură trecere prelucrarea solului,
preparation for sowing in a single pass. Some modelarea şi pregătirea pentru semănat. Unele maşini
equipments can run at the same time with shaping the pot să execute în acelaşi timp cu modelatul şi lucrarea de
seeding work, or planting and management of fertilizers, semănat, sau plantat şi administrarea de ingrăşăminte,
herbicides, or to perform other types of work. erbicide, sau să execute şi alte tipuri de lucrări.
The results obtained in vegetable cultivation Rezultatele obŃinute în cadrul tehnologiei de cultură a
technology in sustainable system, made with complex legumelor în sistem durabil, realizată cu echipamentele
equipments for soil modeling and seeding, demonstrates complexe de modelat şi semănat solul, demonstrează
its superiority compared to the work performed in the superioritatea acesteia comparativ cu lucrarea executată
conventional system and is focused on. în sistemul convenŃional şi se concretizează în:
- achieving a minimum tillage system for the growth - realizarea unui sistem de lucrări minime pentru
and development of root vegetables, reducing water creşterea şi dezvoltarea sistemului radicular al
infiltration into the soil; legumelor, reducerea infiltraŃiei apei în sol;
- reducing energy consumption on founding vegetable - reducerea consumurilor energetice la infiinŃarea culturilor
crops, through the use of technical equipment in a legumicole, prin utilizarea unor echipamente tehnice
single pass, run multiple operations wich are care, la o singură trecere, execută mai multe operaŃii
performed individually in conventional technologies; care se realizează individual în tehnologiile clasice;
- protecting the land by reducing the number of - protejarea terenului prin reducerea numărului de
471
passes and equipmenst; treceri şi de utilaje;

- agricultural works at optimal agrotechnical terms - executarea lucrărilor agricole la termenele şi în
and in optimal agro conditions provided by each condiŃiile agrotehnice optime prevăzute de fiecare
culture technology; tehnologie de cultură;
- release labor for other specific vegetable works. - eliberarea forŃei de muncă pentru alte tipuri de lucrări
specifice legumiculturii.
[1]. Dumitru M. (2000) - Code of good agricultural [1]. Dumitru M. (2000) - Cod de bune practici agricole,
practices, Publisher Vox, Bucharest; Editura Vox, Bucureşti;
[2]. Pescar S. (2013) - Research regarding the [2]. Pescar S. (2013) - Cercetări privind distribuŃia şi
distribution and light energy capture on tomatoes and the captarea energiei luminoase la tomate şi influenŃa asupra
influence on biology and fruit quality, PhD Thesis, biologiei şi calităŃii fructelor, Teză de doctorat, USAMV
USAMV Cluj Napoca ; Cluj Napoca;
[3]. Vlad C. (2013) - Research on energy optimization [3]. Vlad C. (2013) - Cercetări privind optimizarea
process seedbed preparation vegetable crop energetică a procesului de pregătire a patului germinativ
establishment, PhD Doctorat Thsis, TRANSILVANIA la înfiinŃarea culturilor de legume, Teză de doctorat,
University Braşov; Universitatea TRANSILVANIA din Braşov;
[4]. Vlad C., Cândea I., Burnichi F. (2009) - Research [4]. Vlad C., Cândea I., Burnichi F. (2009) - Research
regarding reduction of the energetic consumption and regarding reduction of the energetic consumption and
preservation of the agro productive potential of the soils preservation of the agro productive potential of the soils
cultivated with vegetables by using a complex aggregate, cultivated with vegetables by using a complex aggregate,
INMATEH – Agricultural Engineering, Vol. 28, No.2, pg. INMATEH – Agricultural Engineering, vol. 28, Nr. 2, pag.
97…103; 97…103;
[5]. http://afaceriagricole.roditor.ro/2011/03/importanta - [5]. http://afaceriagricole.roditor.ro/2011/03/importanta -
economica-legumelor/; economica-legumelor/;
[6]. http://www.agricultor.ro/article/35032/Istoric-Legumicultura/2 [6]. http://www.agricultor.ro/article/35032/Istoric-Legumicultura/2
[7]. www.agroinfo.ro/opinii/agricultura-ecologica/vegetal/ [7]. www.agroinfo.ro/opinii/agricultura-ecologica/vegetal/
agricultura-durabila-prezent-si-viitor, Sustainable agriculture: agricultura-durabila-prezent-si-viitor, Agricultura durabilă:
present and future, Posted in Farm Jurnal, september prezent şi viitor, Publicat în Revista Ferma-septembrie
2013; 2013;
[8]. www.insse.ro/statistici; [8]. www.insse.ro/statistici;
[9]. http://www.grimme.com; [9]. http://www.grimme.com;
[10 ]. http://www.kenncomfg.com; [10 ]. http://www.kenncomfg.com;
[11]. http://www.mmediu.ro/legislatie/acte_normative/gospodarirea [11]. http://www.mmediu.ro/legislatie/acte_normative/ gospodarirea
_apelor/Cod_Bune_Practici_Agricole.pdf; _apelor/Cod_Bune_Practici_Agricole.pdf;
[12]. http://www.optigep.hu; [12]. http://www.optigep.hu;
[13]. http://www.unia.ro. [13]. http://www.unia.ro.
472
FEATURES WELDED JOINTINGS MADE FROM STEEL OL 52.4K THE INFLUENCE OF

MELTED MATERIAL PROPERTIES
/
CARACTERISTICILE IMBINARILOR SUDATE REALIZATE DIN OTELUL OL 52.4K
INFLUENłATE DE PROPRIETATILE MATERIALULUI TOPIT
1) 2) 2) 3)
Prof. PhD. Eng. Sărăcin I. . Lect. PhD. Eng. Pandia O. , Assoc. Prof. PhD. Eng. Bozgă I. , PhD. Eng. Ganea I.
1) 2)
University of Craiova / Romania; University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Romania;
3)
E-mail: ion_saracin@yahoo.com
Abstract: In the paper we present the analysis of the Rezumat: Realizarea de construcŃii metalice din otelul OL
hardness (HV10) in more directions in transverse area 52.4k este destul de des întâlnită, dar este indicat a se folosi
of the joint, in the thermal-influenced area (TIA), in the asemenea construcŃii sudate îndeosebi pentru realizarea
basic metal (BM) and in weld, but we also analyze the echipamentelor puternic solicitate. Datorită solicitărilor puternice la
embrittlement and stub-cracking effect and the angle at care sunt supuse astfel de structuri sudate în practică este
static bending. The hardness analysis of melted important a se cunoaşte proprietăŃile materialului topit din
material and also the study of embrittlementand stub- îmbinarea sudată. În lucrare este prezentată analiza durităŃii
cracking effect and the analysis of static bending angle (HV10) în mai multe direcŃii în aria transversală a cusăturii, în
under constant load offer very important information zona influenŃată termic (ZIT), în metalul de bază(MB) şi în
over the quality of welded joints and their behavior sudură, dar este analizat şi efectul de fragilizare şi fisurare de
when exploitation them. tip „talon”, precum şi unghiul la încovoierea statică.
Keywords: steel, proprieties of melted material, Cuvinte cheie: oŃel, proprietăŃi material topit, caracetristici
characteristics of welded, hardness analysis îmbinari sudate, analiza duritate
The execution of the welded metallic constructions ExecuŃia ansamblelor de construcŃii metalice sudate a
aggregates appeared on industrial scale first for road and apărut pe scară industrială mai întâi la podurile rutiere şi
railway bridges and then to maritime vessels. The feroviare, apoi la vasele maritime. Avariile apărute au
damages that appeared proved the ignorance and lack of dovedit necunoaşterea şi nestăpânirea unor aspecte
mastery of some technological aspects and also the tehnologice, dar şi folosirea unor materiale cu proprietăŃi
usage of materials with inappropriate proprieties for the necorespunzătoare pentru scopul urmărit. Ruperile fragile
aimed purpose. The frequent fragile breaks determined frecvente au determinat necesitatea unor studii asupra
the necessity of studies over the causes of damages, cauzelor avariilor, îndeosebi la realizarea prin sudare a
especially at the weld of complex metallic constructions. construcŃiilor metalice complexe. Dintre factorii care au
Among the factors that influence the life span of welded influenŃă determinantă asupra duratei de viaŃă a unor
constructions there are reminded: the choice of materials construcŃii sudate se menŃionează: alegerea materialelor
and technological welding processes, chemical şi proceselor tehnologice de sudare, compoziŃia chimică,
composition, thermal influence area etc. [6]. Growing life zona de influenŃă termică etc [6]. Mărirea duratei de viaŃă
span for welded constructions is possible by constructive pentru construcŃiile sudate este posibilă prin îmbunătăŃiri
improvements and optimization of weld parameters so constructive şi optimizarea parametrilor regimului de
that metallographic structures are more homogenous in sudare astfel încât să se obŃină structuri metalografice cât
welded joint [2]. mai omogene în îmbinarea sudată [2].
Generally, the metallic welded constructions present ConstrucŃiile metalice sudate prezintă în general în
more deteriorations in the jointing area compared to zona imbinarilor prin sudare deteriorari semnificativ mai
other areas of the constructions and all of these are mari în comparaŃie cu celelate zone ale construcŃiei, iar
determined by the proprieties and the inhomogeneous toate acestea sunt determinate de proprietăŃile şi structura
structure in welded jointing area. For welded structures neomogenă din zona îmbinării sudate. Pentru structurile
the execution temperature generates conditions for sudate, temperatura de execuŃie generează condiŃii
certain types of degradations by breaking because of pentru anumite moduri de degradare prin rupere datorită
the inhomogeneous metallographic structures structurii metalografice neomogene ce se obŃine în timpul
obtained during the application of different types of aplicării diferitelor procedee de sudare. Durata de viaŃă a
weld. The life span of welded constructions is very construcŃiilor sudate este foarte mult infuenŃată de
influenced by the evolution of material proprieties evoluŃia proprietăŃilor materialului din structura acestora,
from their structure and these proprieties are much iar aceste proprietăŃi sunt influenŃate foarte mult de
influenced by the structural constituents of material constituenŃii structurali ai materialului din îmbinarea
from the welded joint [7]. sudată [7].
The steels for general purposes for constructions OŃelurile de uz general pentru construcŃii, comparativ
gained a large usage in making welded constructions of cu oŃelurile carbon, au căpătat o largă utilizare în
great importance compared with the carbon steel because realizarea construcŃiilor sudate de mare importanŃă,
of their characteristics which allow an appropriate datorită caracteristicilor pe care le au şi care permit o
behavior at combined requests, respectively mechanical comportare corespunzătoare la solicitări combinate,
with corrosive environment [1]. respectiv mecanice cu mediul corosiv [1].
In terms of technological exploitations of certain În condiŃiile exploatării tehnologice a unor construcŃii
welded constructions, the breaks or failures by breaking sudate, ruperile sau cedările prin rupere se datorează
are the result of an uneven metallographic structure for obŃinerii unei structuri metalografice neuniforme pentru
473
welded jointing or the expansion of dimensions of a flaw îmbinarea sudată sau extinderii dimensiunilor unui defect
appeared during welding process. apărut în timpul procesului de sudare.
The welded constructions became more and more ConstrucŃiile sudate au devenit din ce în ce mai
used in the last two decades because of their advantages folosite în ultimele două decenii datorită avantajelor pe
compared with other structures obtained by other technological care acestea le au în comparaŃie cu alte structuri obŃinute
processes, but the technological making process of some prin alte procedee tehnologice, dar prin specificul său,
products in welded construction in its specific character procesul tehnologic de realizare a unor produse în construcŃie
presents also a series of disadvantages that arise mostly sudată prezintă şi o serie de dezavantaje ce decurg, în
from the operation with materials in liquid state [7]. principal, din lucrul cu materiale în stare lichidă [7].
The life span of these metallic constructions is very Durata de viaŃă a acestor construcŃii metalice sudate
influenced by the evolution of dimensions and deformations este foarte mult infuenŃată de evoluŃia dimensiunilor şi
suffered by it. Thus an important analysis that must be deformaŃiilor suferite de acestea. Astfel, o importantă
made refers to deformation evolution that can appear at analiză ce trebuie realizată se referă la evoluŃia
welded metallic constructions, but also to the establishment deformaŃiilor ce apar în cadrul construcŃiilor metalice
of the main causes that determine the appearance of these sudate, dar şi stabilirea cauzelor principale ce determină
deformations, mainly related to the proprieties of the apariŃia acestor deformaŃii ce sunt legate în principal şi de
melted material from the welded jointing [3, 5]. proprietăŃile materialului topit din îmbinarea sudată [3, 5]
MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODA

Choosing welding processes and addition material is Alegerea procedeelor de sudare şi a materialului de
related firstly to project provisions of the sub-ensemble adaos Ńine în primul rând de prevederile proiectului
and to the technical conditions that the executor disposes. subansamblului şi de condiŃiile tehnice de care dispune
Generally, the manual welding procedure with wrapped executantul. În general, pentru ansamblele cu greutate şi
electrode is the most used for heavy aggregates and high gabarite mari executate din profile, table şi alte elemente
gauge made from profiles, tin and other mechanical- prelucrate mecanic, procedeul de sudare manual cu
processed elements, but in the last decades the MAG electrod învelit este cel mai întâlnit, însă în ultimele
(metal active gas) procedure extended considerably for decenii procedeul MAG s-a extins considerabil pentru
welding steel. The joint formation is made from addition sudarea oŃelurilor. Formarea cusăturii se realizează din
metal and part of the basic melted metal, resulting in a metalul de adaos şi o parte din metalul de bază topit,
chemical composition formed by mutual diffusion of the rezultând o compoziŃie chimică formată prin difuzia
two components. reciprocă a celor două componente.
The electrical arch is a concentrated source of energy, Arcul electric este o sursă concentrată de energie,
emitted in the form of electrons on the conductive space emisă sub forma de electroni în spaŃiul conductibil dintre
between electrode and bath, caused by ionization. The released electrod şi baie, datorat ionizării. Temperaturile degajate,
temperatures owed to Joule - Lentz effect reach approximately datorate efectului Joule-Lentz, sunt de cca. 3000°C iar
2 2
3000°C and the stream density is approximately 100 A/mm . densitatea curentului de cca. 100 A/mm .
The research was made to establish the main Cercetările efectuate au în vedere stabilirea principalelor
proprieties of melted material from a welded joint made proprietăţi ale materialului topit dintr-o îmbinare sudată,
from steel OL 52.4k so that superior characteristic for realizată din oţelul OL 52.4k astfel încât să se obţină
welded joint are obtained. caracteristici superioare pentru îmbinarea sudată.
The usage of this type of steel is indicated at the Folosirea unui astfel oŃel este indicată la fabricarea
manufacture of resistance elements (beams, poles, elementelor de rezistenŃă (grinzi, stâlpi, tronsoane,
sections, sleepers, consoles etc.). Making welded traverse, console etc). În cadrul cercetărilor experimentale s-
joints from tins 10 mm thick was taken into account in a în vedere realizarea îmbinarilor sudate din table cu
the experimental research. The welding joints grosimea de 10 mm. Tehnologia de realizare a îmbinărilor
technology from steel OL 52.4k recommends that until sudate din oŃelul OL 52.4k recomandă ca, până la
the thickness becomes 10 mm the basic material grosimea de 10 mm să nu se preîncălzească materialul
should not be overheated, because the linear welding de bază, deoarece energia lineară de sudare realizează o
energy makes an overheat that is sufficient to the preîncălzire suficientă operaŃiei. Pentru a putea obŃine
operations. The mechanical characteristics were rezultatele dorite în cadrul cercetărilor, initial au fost
established To obtain the desired results in the stabilite pentru oŃelul OL52.4k caracteristicile mecanice ce
research and they are presented in Table 1 and the sunt prezentate în Tabelul 1, respectiv compoziŃia chimică
chemical composition is presented in Table 2. ce este prezentată în Tabelul 2.
Table 1
Mechanical characteristics of steel OL 52.4k
Rm R02 z A/ KCV KCV KCV
[MPa] [MPa] [%] [%] [20°C / J] [0°C / J] [-20°C / J]
568 402 23 31 79 64 52
Table 2
Chemical composition of steel OL52.4k / wt. [% ]
C Mn Si S P Al
0,217 1,6583 0,053 0,025 0,021 0,011
RESULTS REZULTATE
The relation for calculating the equivalent carbon is the Pentru stabilirea principalelor proprietăŃi ale materialui
starting point to establish the main proprieties of melted topit se pleacă de la relaŃia de calcul a carbonului
474
material Ce. echivalent Ce.
Mn Si Ni Cr Mo V
Ce = C ⋅ Y + + + + + + (1)
6 2 40 5 4 14
In this relation the last four terms can be excluded În această relaŃie ultimii patru termeni se pot exclude
because in steel for low-alloyed construction for welded având în vedere faptul că, în oŃelurile de construcŃii slab
structures that do not contain nickel, chrome, aliate pentru structuri sudate din care face parte şi oŃelul
molybdenum and vanadium from which steel OL 52.4k OL 52.4k, nu au în compoziŃie nichel, crom, molibden şi
takes part, where Y is the thickness of the tin (as a basic vanadiu, iar Y reprezintă grosimea tablei (ca material de
material, being represented in mm). bază în mm).
The information about melted metal proprieties in joint InformaŃiile despre proprietăŃile metalului topit în zona
area can be obtained by measuring hardness (HV10) along îmbinării, după ce baia metalică s-a solidificat, se pot
some directions, in the transverse joint area, in the obŃine prin măsurarea durităŃii (HV10) în lungul unor
thermal-influenced area (TIA), in the basic metal (BM) and direcŃii, în aria transversală a cusăturii, în zona influenŃată
in weld, after metallic bath solidified. termic (ZIT), în metalul de bază(MB) şi în sudură.
The maximum hardness (HM) in the thermal-influenced Duritatea maximă (HM) în zona influenŃată termic (ZIT)
area (TIA) must be under 350 units (HV10). The calculus of trebuie să se încadreze sub 350 unităŃi (HV10). Calculul
maximum allowed hardness is made with the empirically durităŃii maxime admise se face cu relaŃia determinată
determined relation 2. empiric sub forma expresiei 2.
 Si Mn Ni Cr Mo V 
HM = 660⋅  C + + + + + +  + 40 (2)
 24 6 40 5 4 14
When the parenthesis from relation 2 represents the În condiŃiile în care, paranteza din relaŃia 2 reprezintă
equivalent carbon, the restrained relation 3 results by carbonul echivalent, prin înlocuire rezultă relaŃia restrânsă
replacement. sub forma din relaŃia 3.
H M = 660 ⋅ C e + 40 (3)
The tendency of cracking because of the thermal TendinŃa de fisurare datorată influenŃei termice şi a
influence and accumulated gases in addition material gazelor acumulate în materialul de adaus (MA), este
(AM) is correlated with the relation 4. corelată cu relaŃia 4.
H M ≤ 350(HV10 ) (4)
where: HV10 – the hardness in thermal-influenced area. unde: HV10 - duritatea în in zona influenŃată termic.
The qualities requested to the joint for reducing the risk CalităŃile cerute cusăturii, pentru reducerea riscului
of embrittlement are different from those of basic metal fragilizării, sunt diferite de cele ale metalului de bază (MB)
(BM) because it does not contain always flaws capable to deoarece, acesta nu conŃine totdeauna defecte capabile
become crack primers, as in the case of addition material să devină amorse de fisuri, aşa cum se întâmplă în
(AM) at solidification because of the diffusion, precipitation materialul de adaus (MA) la solidificare, datorită
and cooling phenomena which are hard control in the fenomenelor de difuzie, precipitare şi răcire greu de
whole cord mass. controlat în toată masa cordonului.
The attempts made for determining the weld, TIA, basic Încercările pentru determinarea calităŃilor sudurii, ZIT-
or additional material qualities specific to each area but ului materialului de bază sau de adaus specifice fiecărei
also the delimitation of these areas for the constructions of zone dar şi delimitarea acestor zone pentru construirea de
specimens necessary to attempts is sometimes difficult epruvete necesare încercărilor, sunt uneori anevoioase
but they are suited to statistic interpretations. dar se pretează la interpretări statistice.
The most dangerous phenomenon owed to technological Cel mai periculos fenomen datorat factorilor tehnologici,
factors appeared in TIA at welding laminated pieces (weld made apărut în ZIT la sudarea pieselor laminate (sudură realizată
transverse on the laminated fiber) with a thickness larger than 25 transversal pe fibra laminată) cu grosime mai mare de 25-
- 30 mm is the lamellar crack. This is owed to the tensions 30 mm, este fisurarea lamelară. Aceasta se datorează
appeared in the direction of the piece thickness between layers, tensiunilor apărute pe direcŃia grosimii piesei între straturi,
because of the local chemical inhomogeneity between BM and datorită neomogenităŃii chimice locale între MB şi MA, precum
AM and also to the uneven tensions that lead to step cracking. şi tensiunilor neuniforme care duc la fisurarea în trepte.
The lamellar cracking (unraveling) is very dangerous Fisurarea lamelară (destrămarea) este deosebit de
for the whole construction because the cracks do not periculoasă pentru întreaga construcŃie deoarece fisurile
reach the surface, being primers for later fragile breaking. nu ajung la suprafaŃă ele constituind amorse pentru
The inclusions from the structure are made from various ruperea fragilă ulterioară. Incluziunile din structură sunt
impurities agglomerations such as silicates, manganese alcătuite din diverse aglomerări de impurităŃi ca: silicaŃi,
sulfides, oxides that group in ferrite-pearlite structure sulfuri de mangan, oxizi care se grupează în structura
accentuated by lamination. ferito-perlitică accentuată de laminare.
Calming by deoxidation with silicon and aluminium for Calmarea la dezoxidare cu siliciu şi aluminiu pentru
obtaining steel OL 52.4k assures the minimum breaking obŃinerea oŃelului OL 52.4k asigură energia de rupere
° 0
energy that has the value of 27 J at – 30 C and lowers the minim ă de 27 J la –30 C, obŃinută la încercarea pe
tendency of lamellar cracking, being obtained at epruvete cu crestătură în V şi micş orează tendinŃa de
specimens trials with V notch. However, there are not fisurare lamelară. Cu toate acestea, la sudurile de
recommended solutions that request transversally the rezistenŃă nu se recomand ă solu Ńii ce solicită
laminated layers at resistance welding. In these cases, transversal straturile laminate. În aceste cazuri, este
475
there is recommended the constructive re-projection of recomandată reproiectarea constructivă a îmbină rii prin
welding joint, as well as the modification of the joints on sudură , cât şi modificarea rosturilor pe placa cu
the board with the tendency of cracking (Fig. 1a), with big tendin Ńă de fisurare (Fig. 1a), cu rosturi mari având o
joints having a large penetration (Fig. 1b) and the weld in penetra Ńie adâncă (Fig. 1b) şi sudarea în mai multe
more passes (Fig. 1c), when the tendency of lamellar treceri (Fig. 1c) situa Ńie în care se previne tendinŃa de
cracking is provided. fisurare lamelară.
a) b)
c)
Fig. 1 - Solutions for removing the lammelar unraveling at corner welding
Changing the way of preparation of joint and its size, Schimbarea modului de pregătire a rostului şi a mărimii
starting from the solution from Figure 1a leads to changing acestuia, plecând de la soluŃia din Figura 1a, duce la
contraction effects of the additional material as contraction schimbarea efectelor de contracŃie a materialului de adaus ca
direction. Instead some perpendicular contractions on direcŃie de contracŃie. În locul unor contracŃii perpendiculare pe
lamination direction (Figure 1a) contractions parallel to direcŃia de laminare (Figura 1a), se ajunge la contracŃii paralele
lamination direction appear, (Figure 1c). cu direcŃia de laminare (Figura 1c).
The basic material BM1 must not take efforts on Acolo unde sunt şi perpendiculare pe direcŃia de
transversal direction where there are perpendicular on laminare (Figura 1c), materialul de bază MB1 nu trebuie să
lamination direction (Figure 1c). In case of unilateral preia eforturi pe direcŃia transversală. În cazul sudurii de
corner welding with short lengths in pilgrim step made on colŃ unilaterală cu lungimi mici, în pas de pelerin
one side and then on the opposite side as in Figure 2, for executată pe o parte apoi pe partea opusă ca în Figura 2,
one single pass the stub-cracking that can be avoided by pentru o singură trecere apare fisura de tip “talon” ce se
pre-heating the pieces and increasing the number of poate evita preâncălzind piesele şi mărind numărul de
passes simultaneously with lowering the length between treceri concomitent cu micşorarea lungimii între
cords compared with the length of the cord (Ln < Ls,) for Ls coordoane în comparaŃie cu, lungimea cordonului (Ln<Ls,)
< 40 mm when the thickness of basic materials is pentru un Ls < 40 mm în cazul când, grosimile materialelor
gMB1 ≅ gMB2 ≅ 6 mm. de bază sunt: g MB1 ≅ g MB 2 ≅ 6 mm .
Fig. 2 - The embrittlement and stub-cracking effect
476
Besides the maximum hardness in the thermal- În afara durităŃii maxime în zona de influenŃă termică,
influenced area, other correlations for a metallurgical alte corelaŃii pentru o comportare metalurgică la sudare au
behavior at weld have in view the equivalent carbon and în vedere, carbonul echivalent şi unghiul obŃinut la
the angle obtained at static bending and the values are: încovoierea statică ale căror valori sunt:
C max = 0,2 − 0,22 % (5)
α ≥ 20 ° (6)
where: α - the angle of static bending of the specimens unde:

under constant force, until fragile breaking α - unghiul de încovoiere statică a epruvetei sub forŃă
The bending angle correlated with the maximum constantă, până la rupere fragilă.
hardness in TIA and with carbon content of C ≤ 0,25 % Unghiul de încovoiere, corelat cu duritatea maximă în
where the content of S and P in the steel is low are the ZIT şi cu conŃinut de carbon C ≤ 0,25 % acolo unde
information that warn that there is no danger of fragile conŃinutul de S şi P în oŃel este scăzut, sunt informaŃiile
cracking. care avertizează că nu este pericol de fisurare fragilă.
The size of the grain is also important and it influences Importantă este şi mărimea grăuntelui care,
positive the flow limit and the beginning of plastic influenŃează pozitiv limita de curgere şi începutul
deformation. The steels with a good plasticity support deformării plastice. OŃelurile cu o bună plasticitate,
overloads without deterioration which is important for the life suportă suprasarcini fără deteriorare ceea ce este
span of the welded aggregate, also having a fine structure of important pentru durata de viaŃă a ansamblului sudat, ele
grains. având şi o structură fină a găunŃilor.
By the successive submission of layers is also made De asemenea prin depunerea succesivă a straturilor se
the microstructure regeneration because when melting a realizează şi regenerarea microstructurii întrucât, la topirea
layer the one submitted before heats over the unui strat are loc încălzirea celui depus anterior peste punctul
transformation point AC3, resulting a mainly perlitical finer de transformare AC3, rezultând astfel la oŃelul OL 52.4k după
eased structure for the steel OL 52.4k after cooling in the răcirea în aer, o structură preponderent perlitică, mai fină,
air. The only layers that remain unregenerate are those detensionată. Singurele straturi care rămân neregenerate,
that submit the last. Preparing the joint has in view the sunt cele care se depun ultimele. Pregătirea rostului are în
equilibration of the contraction tensions and the avoidance vedere echilibrarea tensiunilor de contracŃie şi evitarea
of deformation in assembly area. deformării în zona asamblării.
The research made in the paper demonstrated the next: Cercetările efectuate în lucrare au demonstrat următoarele:
- technological and constructive factors influence directly - factorii tehnologici şi cei constructivi au influenŃă directă
the sub-aggregates characteristics made by welding. The asupra caracteristicilor subansamblelor realizate prin
deviations from the quality norms increase the negative sudură. Abaterile de la normele de calitate măresc
influence in all the phases of technological process. infuenŃa negativă în toate fazele procesului tehnologic.
- respecting the technology in all the phases of the - respectarea tehnologiei în toate etapele procesului, cu
process with the effectuations of controls in the efectuarea de controale în punctele de staŃionare
imposed stationary points makes better the impuse, îmbunătăŃeşte caracteristicile îmbinărilor
characteristics of the welded joints. sudate.
- the quality deviations and the unevenness in transverse - abaterile calitative şi neuniformităŃile din secŃiunile
sections due to welding process have negative effects transversale, datorate procesului de sudare au efecte
over the metallic constructions by appearing degradations negative asupra construcŃiei metalice, prin apariŃia
in welding area. degradărilor în zona sudurii.
- the hardness analysis of melted material and also the - analiza de duritate a materialului topit, dar şi studiul
study of embrittlementand stub-cracking effect and efectului de fragilizare şi fisurare de tip “talon” precum şi
the analysis of static bending angle under constant analiza unghiului de încovoiere static sub încărcare
load offer very important information over the quality constantă ne oferă informaŃii foarte importante asupra
of welded joints and their behavior when exploiting calităŃii îmbinărilor sudate şi a modului de comportare a
them. acestora în exploatare.
[1]. American Welding Society (2005) - Safety in Welding [1]. Societatea Americană de Sudură (2005) – Securitate
Cutting, and Allied Processes, ANSI Z49.1 - An American de tăiere prin sudură şi procesele înrudite, ANSI Z49.1 –
national Standard, Section E5.4, pp. 12; SecŃiunea Standarde NaŃionale Americane, E5.4, p. 12;
[2]. Babis, C. et al., - Metalurgy, 53 (2014) 2, 251-253, [2]. Babis, C. et al., - Metalurgia, 53 (2014) 2, 251-253,
[3]. Bayraktar, E. et al., Journal of Materials Processing [3]. Bayraktar, E. et al., Revista de tehnologie de
Technology 145 (2004) 1, 27-39 procesare a materialelor 145 (2004) 1, 27-39
[4].Chang, B. et al., Journal of Materials Processing [4].Chang, B. et al., Revista de tehnologie de procesare a
Technology 108 (2001) 3, 307-313 materialelor 108 (2001) 3, 307-313
477
[5]. Chivu, O. - Metalurgija, 52 (2013) 4, 465-468. [5]. Chivu, O. - Metalurgia, 52 (2013) 4, 465-468.
[6]. Dobrotă, D. (2014) - Metalurgy, vol. 53 (2), pp. 179- [6]. Dobrotă, D. (2014) - Metalurgia, vol. 53 (2), pp. 179-
182; 182;
[7]. Henning, L. et al., EPA contract no, 68-Do-123, [7]. Henning, L. şi colab., - EPA contract nr, 68-Do-123,
Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City, (1994), Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City, (1994),
478
SECTION 4
YOUNG PEOPLE
479
480
CHARACTERISTICS OF VEGETAL FRAGMENTS FROM THE MEDICINAL PLANTS IN ORDER

TO THEIR SORTING
/
CARACTERISTICILE FRAGMENTELOR VEGETALE DIN PLANTE MEDICINALE ÎN VEDEREA
SORTĂRII LOR
1) 2) 1) 3)
Ph.D. Stud. Biol. Pruteanu A. , Prof. PhD. Eng. David L. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Muscalu A. , Ress.Assist. Dr. Selvi K.Ç.
1) 2) 3)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversity / Turkey
1)
Tel: 0740690268; E-mail: pruteanu_augustina@yahoo.com
Abstract: Knowing the main physical and dimensional Rezumat: Cunoaşterea principalelor caracteristici fizice şi
characteristics of the mixture of fragments of medicinal dimensionale ale amestecului de fragmente din plante
plants is important for choosing the appropriate medicinale este importantă pentru alegerea tehnologiilor
technologies of primary and advanced processing of adecvate de prelucrare primară şi avansată a acestora, ce
these, that involves the corresponding adjustment of the implică reglarea corespunzătoare a organelor de lucru şi
working bodies and choosing the optimal working regimes alegerea regimurilor optime de lucru ale maşinii în
of the machine as a whole, in order to obtain of some ansamblu, în vederea obŃinerii unor produse
quality phytotherapeutic products. The paper presents the fitoterapeutice de calitate. În lucrare sunt prezentate
results of some experimental researches regarding the rezultatele unor cercetări experimentale privind
physical and dimensional characteristics of some chopped caracteristicile fizice şi dimensionale ale unor fragmente
fragments of medicinal plants, in order to their sorting. tocate de plante medicinale, în vederea sortării lor.
Keywords: medicinal plants, physical and dimensional Cuvinte cheie: caracteristici fizice şi dimensionale,
characteristics, sorting, vegetal fragments fragmente vegetale, plante medicinale, sortare.
Over the time, the medicinal plants have been De-a lungul timpului, plantele medicinale au fost
considered as the most common instruments of the considerate ca fiind cele mai răspândite instrumente ale
natural medicine discovered by humans and used for medicinii naturale, descoperite de om şi utilizate pentru
,,solving some health problems” [7]. ,,rezolvarea unor probleme de sănătate” [7].
Their efficiency, sometimes and under certain EficienŃa lor, uneori şi în anumite condiŃii, este
conditions, is demonstrated by their continuance and by demonstrată prin dăinuirea lor şi a remediilor populare, de-
the popular remedies over the time, as well as by the fact a lungul timpului, precum şi prin faptul că tot mai mult
that the modern human increasingly appeals to them, omul modern apelează la ele, considerându-le o
considering them an efficient alternative, friendly and less alternativă eficientă, prietenoasă şi mai puŃin nocivă decât
harmful than synthetic medicinal products for the medicamentele de sinteză pentru metabolismul întregului
metabolism of the whole body [1]. organism [1].
This paper describes morphological and biological În lucrare sunt descrise particularităŃile morfologice şi
peculiarities of four species of medicinal plants, as well as biologice a patru specii de plante medicinale, precum şi
the phytotherapeutical action of the preparations obtained acŃiunea fitoterapeutică a preparatelor obŃinute din
from them. acestea.
Melissa officinalis L. (melisa) is a perennial plant with Melissa officinalis L. (melisa) este o plantă perenă, cu
specific odor, stems about 30-80 cm high, with horizontal miros specific, tulpini înalte de circa 30-80 cm, cu rizom
rhizome, leaves ovate, serrated, with the smell of orizontal, frunze ovate, crenate, cu miros de lămâiŃă,
citronella, inflorescences with small flowers, whites or inflorescenŃe cu flori mici, albe sau gălbui, grupate în
yellowish, grouped in axillary verticils; the fruits are verticile axilare; fructele sunt tetrachene alungit ovoide,
tetracenes elongated ovoids, smooths, with chestnut color. netede, de culoare castanie.
Its extracts have calming action, antimicrobial, Extractele sale au acŃiune calmantă, antimicrobiană,
antihistaminic and of blood pressure reduction [10]. antihistaminică şi de reducere a presiunii sangvin [10].
Achillea millefolium L. (the yarrow) is a perennial plant Achillea millefolium L. (coada şoricelului) este o plantă
with oblique or horizontal rhizome; the stalk erect or perenă, cu rizom oblic sau orizontal; tulpina erectă sau
ascending, ribbed, moderately hairy, simple or branched ascendentă, striată, moderat păroasă, simplă sau
at the top, foiled; green leaves, 2-3 times pinnate divided, ramificată în partea superioară, foliată; frunzele verzi, de
glabrous or slightly hairy, 1-4 cm wide; flowers 3-5 mm 2-3 ori penat divizate, glabre sau slab păroase, late de 1-4
long white, rarely rose; the fruits are achenes 1.5-2 mm cm; florile lungi de 3-5 mm albe, rar roze; fructele sunt
long. achene de 1,5-2 mm lungime.
The plant has anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antibacterial Planta are acŃiune antiinflamatoare, antiseptică,
and antifungal, antispasmodic, stimulant of the exocrine antibacteriană şi antifungică, antispasmodică, stimulentă a
gland secretions, anti-hepatotoxic, diuretic, hypotensive, secreŃiilor glandelor exocrine, antihepatootxică, diuretică,
haemostatic, healing, repellent [10]. hipotensivă, hemostatică, cicatrizantă, insectifugă [10].
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) is a strong smelling Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rozmarin) este un subarbust
undergrowth, of height of 60-150 cm, with: linear leaves, puternic mirositor, de 60-150 cm înălŃime, cu: frunze
sessile, coriaceous, persistent, glabrous and glossy on the liniare, sesile, coriacee, persistente, glabre şi lucioase pe
upper side, covered with soft hairs, fluffy on the underside; faŃa superioară, tomentoase pe faŃa inferioară; flori
pale blue flowers, rarely white, short pedunculated, albăstrui palide, rar albe, scurt pedicelate, dispuse în
disposed in inflorescence in form of ear; the fruits on the inflorescenŃă spiciformă; fructele de tipul unor achene
type of achenes smooth and brown. netede si cafenii.
481
It has a therapeutic action: antimicrobial and antiviral, AcŃiunea terapeutică: antimicrobiană şi antivirală,
antispasmodic, stimulating the cerebral circulation and of antispastică, stimulatoare a circulaŃiei cerebrale şi a
the microcirculation, coleretical, liver protective, diuretical, microcirculaŃiei, coleretică, protectoare hepatică, diuretică,
anticonvulsant, antitumoral etc.[10] anticonvulsivantă, antitumorală etc.[10]
Salix alba L. (acacia) is a tree with the strain up to 20 m Salix alba L. (salcâm) este un arbore, cu tulpina până la
tall and wide crown characterized by: the leaves are 20 m înălŃime şi coroana largă caracterizat prin: frunzele
simple, alternated, lanceolate, gradually narrowed to the simple, alterne, lanceolate, îngustate treptat spre vârf, pe
tip, on the edges; the flowers are unisexual, dioecious margini mărunt, glandulos serate; florile unisexuate,
distributed; the fruits are of capsule type and the seeds repartizate dioic; fructele de tip capsulă; seminŃele
are covered with long bristles. acoperite cu peri lungi.
The extracts obtained from the bark of this plant have Extractele obŃinute din scoarŃa acestei plante au
febrifuge properties, anti-inflammatories, antiseptics, proprietăŃi febrifuge, antiinflamatorii, antiseptice,
antispasmodics, diuretics, hemostatics, sedatives and antispasmotice, diuretice, hemostatice, sedative şi tonice,
tonics, due to the presence of salicin and populin datorită prezenŃei glicozizilor salicină şi populină, precum
glycosides, as well as of the tannins [10]. şi a taninurilor [10].
Among the physical properties of the vegetal material Dintre proprietatile fizice ale materialului vegetal
derived from medicinal plants most important are: the provenit din plante medicinale mai importante sunt:
humidity, density, porosity, hygroscopicity and the flowing, umiditatea, densitatea, porozitatea, higroscopicitatea si
appreciated through the natural slope angle [8]. curgerea, apreciata prin unghiul de taluz natural [8].
Dimensional analysis is the analysis of the size and Analiza dimensională reprezintă analiza mărimii şi a
size distribution of the fragments resulting from the distribuŃiei după mărime a fragmentelor rezultate în urma
process of shredding of a plant material. With this analysis procesului de mărunŃire a unui material vegetal. Cu ajutorul
may be determined the following characteristics: acestei analize se pot determina următoarele caracteristici:
- minimum and maximum dimensions of the vegetal material; - dimensiunile minime şi maxime ale materialului vegetal;
- percentage of fragments whose sizes or exceeds, or are - procentul fragmentelor ale căror dimensiuni, fie depăşesc, fie
below a certain value; sunt sub o anumită valoare;
- distribution by sizes of the vegetal material fragments - distribuŃia după dimensiuni a fragmentelor materialului
[6, 8]. vegetal.[6, 8]
In this paper was aimed to determine some physical În această lucrare s-au urmărit determinarea unor
characteristics and the dimensional analysis of some caracteristici fizice şi analiza dimensională ale unor
vegetal fragments crumbled in norder to their sorting. fragmente vegetale mărunŃite în vederea sortării lor.
MATERIAL AND METHODE MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

The methodology for determining the physical properties Metodologia de determinare a proprietăŃilor fizice ale
of vegetal fragments used in this paper corresponds to the fragmentelor vegetale utilizate în lucrarea de faŃă
standard method, being presented in detail in the papers [4, corespunde metodei standard, fiind prezentată în detaliu
8]. The moisture was removed with the desiccator cabinet în lucrările [4, 8]. Umiditatea a fost determinată cu ajutorul
0
by drying at 105ºC; the density was determined as the etuvei, prin uscare la 105 C; densitatea a fost determinată
ratio between the mass of the sample and the volume ca fiind raportul dintre masa probei şi volumul ocupat de
occupied by its fragments; the porosity was obtained by fragmentele acesteia; porozitatea s-a obŃinut prin calcul
mathematical calculation knowing the values of density matematic prin cunoaşterea valorilor masei volumice şi a
and of the density of fragments; the angle of slope was densităŃii fragmentelor; unghiul de taluz a fost determinat
determined by the method of the cone of material. prin metoda conului de material.
The separation after the geometric dimensions is a Separarea după dimensiunile geometrice este o
frequently method used in processing of agricultural and metodă frecvent folosita, în procesarea produselor agro-
food products being performed using sieves [2, 5, 6, 8]. alimentare, fiind realizată cu ajutorul sitelor [2, 5, 6, 8].
The vegetal material obtained by shredding , figure 1, Materialul vegetal obŃinut prin mărunŃire, figura 1,
contains fragments whose sizes are situated in a wide conŃine fragmente ale căror dimensiuni sunt situate într-un
enough range. For estimating the proportion of the fractions domeniu destul de larg. Pentru estimarea ponderii fracŃiilor
formed from fragments with sizes in a fixed range (according formate din fragmente cu dimensiuni într-un domeniu fixat
to certain requirements –useful in the case of the separation (conform anumitor cerinŃe – utile în cazul utilajelor de
equipment with sieves), as well as for estimating the values of separare cu site), cât şi pentru estimarea valorilor
the sizes entering within the mathematical models for mărimilor care intră în modelele matematice de calcul a
calculating the energy needed for the operation of shredding, energiei necesare operaŃiei de mărunŃire, este utilă
it is useful to know the most suitable particle size distribution cunoaşterea celei mai adecvate legi a distribuŃiei
law for the shredded product. granulometrice pentru produsul mărunŃit.
Melissa Yarrow Rosemary Willow bark

Fig. 1 – Chopped medicinal plants
Choosing the type of woven (textile or metallic) as well Alegerea tipului de Ńesătură (textilă sau metalică)
as the fabric mesh dimensions for the sieves located precum şi a dimensiunilor ochiurilor Ńesăturii pentru sitele
inside the compartments of flat sieve is made depending aflate în interiorul compartimentelor de sită plană se face
482
on the dimensional characteristics of the fragments which în funcŃie de caracteristicile dimensionale ale fragmentelor
end up on the sieving surfaces.[9] ce ajung pe suprafeŃele de cernere [9].
Also, even a certain fraction obtained from a set of De asemenea, chiar o anumită fracŃie obŃinută la un
sifting sieves, into the plane sieve compartment occurs a pachet de site de cernere, în compartimentul de sită plană
different granulometric distribution with particle sizes prezintă o distribuŃie granulometrică diferită cu dimensiuni
between the sieve mesh sizes through which were sieved ale particulelor între dimensiunile ochiurilor sitei prin care
and those of the sieve that has refused them (on which au fost cernute şi cele ale sitei care le-a refuzat (pe care
have remained unseparated).[3] au rămas neseparate) [3].
The determination of the distribution by sizes is usually done Determinarea distribuŃiei după dimensiuni se realizează,
with special sorters provided with overlapped sieves. The de obicei, cu clasificatoare speciale prevăzute cu site
selection of the sieves is made from top to bottom, depending suprapuse. Alegerea sitelor făcându-se, de sus în jos, în
on the particles size of the mixture to be analyzed, so that on funcŃie de mărimea particulelor amestecului de analizat, astfel
the upper sieve s to remain a percentage of material of about încât pe sita de sus să rămână un procent de material de
5-10%.The following sieves are selected from the range of circa 5 – 10 %. Următoarele site se aleg din gama de site a
sieves of the sorter, so that the dimensions of their orifices to clasificatorului, încât dimensiunile orificiilor lor să fie într-o
be into a geometric progression with the ratio 2 .[8] progresie geometrică cu raŃia 2 .[8]
The granulometric distribution assessment is performed Aprecierea distribuŃiei granulometrice a amestecului
based on cumulative weightings of the fractions passing analizat se efectuează pe baza ponderilor cumulative ale
through the sorter sieve openings or which are rejected by fracŃiilor care trec prin orificiile sitelor clasificatorului sau
them. care sunt refuzate de acestea.
The mathematical expression of the distribution by size Exprimarea matematică a distribuŃiei după dimensiuni a
of the particles of a mixture is based on distribution laws particulelor unui amestec are la bază legi de distribuŃie
taken from the mathematical statistics.[3] preluate din statistica matematică [3].
For the allotment by fractions of sizes of the vegetal Pentru repartizarea pe fracŃii de dimensiuni a
fragments crumbled medicinal plants was used a sorter fragmentelor vegetale medicinale mărunŃite s-a folosit un
with sieves. The sieves with apertures of different sizes, clasor cu site. Sitele cu orificii pătrate de dimensiuni
were mounted one above the other, in the increasing order diferite, s-au montat una sub cealaltă, în ordinea
of the size of apertures, namely: collector - 1.6 mm; 2.36 crescătoare a dimesniunii orificiilor, şi anume: colector, 1,6
mm; 3.15 mm; 4 mm and 5 mm. the sample of medicinal mm; 2,36 mm; 3,15 mm; 4 mm, 5 mm. Proba de material
vegetal material analyzed had 120 g for each type of vegetal medicinal analizată a fost de 120 g pentru fiecare
medicinal plant chopped with the medicinal plants cutting tip de plantă medicinală tocată cu maşina de tăiat plante
machine adjusted to 4 mm cutting length. The vegetal medicinale reglată la lungimea de tăiere de 4 mm.
material resulting from the chopping was sieved at the Materialul vegetal rezultat de la tocare s-a cernut la
amplitude of 50 mm for 5 minutes, then the sieves with amplitudinea de 50 mm, timp de 5 minute, apoi sitele cu
material were weighed with the analytical balance. On material au fost cântărite cu balanŃa analitică. Pe fiecare
each sieve was found a quantity of medicinal vegetal sită s-a gasit câte o cantitate de material vegetal medicinal
material which represented the totality of the fragments ce a reprezentat totalitatea fragmentelor cu dimensiuni mai
with dimensions smaller than those of the apertures of the mici decât cele ale orificiilor sitei superioare celei
considered upper sieve, and larger than those of the considerate, şi mai mari decât ale sitei considerate prin
considered sieve through which has passed. care a trecut.
RESULTS REZULTATE
The medicinal vegetal mixtures are non- Amestecurile vegetale medicinale sunt amestecuri
homogeneous mixtures composed of fragments of dried neomogene formate din fragmente de plante medicinale
herbs and chopped at different dimensions. In the case uscate ş i tocate la dimensiuni diferite. În cazul mai
of several types of medicinal plants, were determined multor tipuri de plante medicinale, au fost determinate
some physical properties, the data obtained being unele proprietăŃi fizice, datele obŃinute fiind prezentate
presented in the Table 1. în tabelul 1.
Table 1
Physico-mechanical properties of the medicinal plants fragments
Moisture Density Porosity Slope angle
Material
[%] [kg/m3] [%] [0]
Yarrow 9.02 74.2 83.1 23.23
Rosemary 6.52 158 88.3 18.72
Melissa 7.54 51.5 87.5 21.16
Willow (bark) 5.75 75.3 79.7 21.43
Measurements were performed under conditions of Măsurătorile s-au efectuat în condiŃii de umiditate
high air humidity, and the herba and peel was chopped to atmosferică ridicată, iar herba şi coaja au fost tocate la
a size of 4 mm. dimensiunea de 4 mm.
The distribution by fractions of size of the dimensions Repartizarea pe fracŃii după mărime a ponderilor
weights from the mixture of medicinal fragments of dimensiunilor din amestecul de fragmente medicinale de
melissa, yarrow, rosemary and willow bark are melisă, coada şoricelului, rozmarin şi coajă de salcie sunt
represented by histograms in the Figure 2. Thus it can be reprezentate prin histograme în figura 2. Astfel se poate
seen which is the fraction with the largest share, and the observa care este fracŃia cu cea mai mare pondere, iar
area of each rectangle represents the vegetal fragments suprafaŃa fiecărui dreptunghi reprezintă ponderea
share. fragmentelor vegetale.
The histograms are useful in order to identify the Histogramele sunt utile în vederea identificării
maximum and minimum dimensions of the vegetal dimensiunilor maxime şi minime ale amestecului vegetal
medicinal mixture, but at the choice of sieves openings in medicinal, dar şi la alegerea orificiilor sitelor în procesul de
the process of sorting of medicinal plants. sortare a plantelor medicinale.
483
Fig. 2 - The histograms of medicinal plants
It is found from the histogram for melissa that the Se constată din histograma pentru melisă, că fracŃia 5
fraction 5 has the largest share, of approximately 40 %, are ponderea cea mai mare, de aproximativ 40 %,
the next fraction is the third with approximately 26%, and următoarea fracŃie este a treia cu aproximativ 26 %, iar
the fraction 1 has the smallest share of about 8%. fractia 1 are cea mai mică pondere aproximativ 8 %. Prin
Therefore, the maximum dimensions of this plant are urmare dimensiunile maxime ale acestei plante sunt
situated between 4-5 mm, and the minimum dimensions situate între 4-5 mm, iar dimensiunile minime sunt între
are between 0.1-1.6 mm. 0,1-1,6 mm.
Analyzing the histogram for Yarrow is found that the Analizând histograma pentru coada şoricelului se
fractions 2 and 3 have shares very close to 30%, and the constată că fracŃiile 2 şi 3 au ponderi foarte apropiate de
fraction 5 is in a very small percentage, of 2%. Thus the 30 %, iar fracŃia 5 este într-un procent foarte mic de 2 %.
predominant dimensions of the original mixture of Yarrow Aşadar dimensiunile predominante ale amestecului iniŃial
in a percentage of 60%, was varied between 1.6-3.15 mm, de coada şoricelului într-un procent de 60 % s-au situat
and the maximum dimensions between 4-5 mm were very între 1,6-3,15 mm, iar dimensiunile maxime între 4-5 mm,
few. au fost foarte puŃine.
Rosemary histogram indicates that the fraction 1 has Histograma pentru rozmarin indică faptul că fracŃia 1 are
the highest share to about 50% with minimum dimensions ponderea cea mai mare de aproximativ 50 % cu dimensiuni
between 0-1.6 mm and the fraction 5 has the smallest minime între 0-1,6 mm, şi fracŃia 5 are ponderea cea mai
share of about 1%, with maximum dimensions of 4-5 mm. mică de aproximativ 1 %, cu dimensiuni maxime de 4-5 mm.
At the willow bark the histogram indicates 43% for the La coaja de salcie, histograma indic ă 43 % pentru
fraction 3 with dimensions of 2.36-3.15 mm, and the fracŃia 3 cu dimensiuni de 2,36-3,15 mm, iar ponderea
smallest share of is still at the dimensions of the fraction 5, cea mai mic ă este tot la dimensiunile frac Ńiei 5, de
of approximately 4%. aproximativ 4 %.
Regarding the sieves selection for these medicinal În ceea ce priveşte alegerea sitelor pentru aceste plante
plants we can observe that melissa separates best on the medicinale putem observa că melisa se separă cel mai
sieve with holes of 4 mm, and the rosemary on the sieve bine pe sita cu orificii de 4 mm, iar rozmarinul pe sita cu
with holes of 1.6 mm. At the yarrow and at the willow bark we orificii de 1,6 mm. La coada soricelului şi coaja de salcie observăm
see that the sieve with holes of 2.36 mm is the most effective. că sita cu orificii de 2,36 mm este cea mai eficientă.
The results obtained from the dimensional analysis of Rezultatele obŃinute în urma analizei dimensionale a
the fragments of each medicinal plant analyzed, were fragmentelor fiecărei plante medicinale analizate, au fost
graphically transposed by representing the amount of transpuse grafic în figura 3 prin reprezentarea cantităŃii de
material that passed through the sieve the ”PASSED” (P) material ce a trecut prin sită TRECUTUL (T) şi a
and of the ”REJECTED” (R) expressed as a percentage, REFUZULUI (R), exprimate procentual, în funcŃie de
depending on the size of the sieve holes. dimensiunea orificiilor sitei.
484
Fig. 3 – Variation of P and R depending on the size of the sieve holes for four types of medicinal plants
The curves of the graphs from Figure 3 represents the Curbele graficelor din figura 3 ce reprezintă variaŃia
variation of the passed through holes of the sieve and of the trecutului prin orificiile sitei şi refuzului din sită a
rejection from sieve of the fragments for each medicinal plant fragmentelor pentru fiecare plantă medicinală analizată,
analyzed, establish as a percentage the distribution of vegetal stabilesc procentual distribuŃia de material vegetal separat
material separated from the first to the last sieve of the sorter with de la prima până la ultima sită a clasorului cu mişcare
vibrating motion. These curves can be used to select the vibratoare. Aceste curbe pot fi folosite pentru alegerea
appropriate sieves allowing the separation of the fragments sitelor adecvate care să permită separarea fragmentelor
corresponding to the percentage of the desired vegetal material. corespunzătoare procentului de material vegetal dorit.
The link between the values of passed and rejections of Legătura dintre valorile refuzurilor şi trecuturilor fiecărei
each sieve from the package of sieves arranged one after site din pachetul de site dispuse una după alta poate fi
the other can be used also to determine the flow rates of utilizată şi pentru determinarea debitelor cernuturilor şi
the sieved and rejections. refuzurilor.
Knowledge of the characteristics of vegetal Cunoaşterea caracteristicilor fragmentelor vegetale
fragments derived from medicinal plants is important for obŃinute din plante medicinale este importantă pentru
estimating: estimarea:
- their mechanical behavior during the separation - comportamentului mecanic în timpul separarii al
process; fragmentelor vegetale;
- feeding flow rate of the separators; - debitului de alimentare al separatoarelor;
- the energy consumption during the separation process. - consumului de energie în timpul procesului de separare.
The humidity of the vegetal material is important in order to Umiditatea materialului vegetal este importantă pentru a
observe if it have been developed bacteria and microorganisms, putea observa dacă s-au dezvoltat bacterii şi microorganisme,
as well as for maintaining the appearance and content in cât şi pentru menŃinerea aspectului şi a conŃinutului în substanŃe
bioactive substances of the fragments from medicinal plants. bioactive al fragmentelor din plante medicinale.
The angle of slope of the vegetal material is important for: Unghiul de taluz al materialului vegetal este important
construction of the sieves, the process of aeration by sifting of pentru: construcŃia sitelor, procesul de aerare prin cernere
the fragments of medicinal plants, sieves loading, a fragmentelor de plante medicinale, încărcarea sitelor,
establishment the surfaces for storing bulk of the medicinal stabilirea suprafeŃelor pentru depozitarea în vrac a
plants fragments. fragmentelor de plante medicinale.
The dimensional characteristics provide information on the Carcateristicile dimensionale oferă informaŃii legate de
minimum and maximum sizes of fragments from a vegetal dimensiunile minime şi maxime ale fragmentelor dintr-un
mixture, contributing to the choice of the sieves openings for amestec vegetal, contribuind la alegerea orificiilor sitelor
each species, in order to obtain a quality vegetal material. pentru fiecare specie în parte, în vederea obŃinerii unui
Thus, obtaining various products and phytotherapeutical material vegetal de calitate. Astfel obŃinerea diverselor
preparations can be done according to the requirements produse şi prepararte fitoterapeutice se poate realiza
imposed by the pharmacopoeia. conform cerinŃelor impuse de farmacopee.
Knowledge of the physical and dimensional fragments Cunoaşterea caracteristicilor fizice şi dimensionale a
the chopped medicinal plants is important for optimizing fragmentelor de plante medicinale tocate este importantă pentru
the separation process and implicitly for achieving of high optimizarea procesului de separare şi implicit pentru realizarea
performance specialized equipment. unor echipamentelor specializate cu performanŃe ridicate.
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485
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[2]. Căsăndroiu T., Popescu M., Voicu Gh. (2009) – A [2]. Căsăndroiu T., Popescu M., Voicu Gh. (2009) – Dezvoltarea
developing a mathematical model for simulating the seeds unui model matematic pentru simularea procesului de separare
separation process on the plane sieves, U.P.B. Scientific a seminŃelor pe sitele plane, U.P.B. Scientific Bulletin, Series D,
Bulletin, Series D, Vol. 71, Issue 3, ISSN 1454-2358 Vol. 71, Issue 3, ISSN 1454-2358
[3]. Constantin G.A., Voicu Gh., Ştefan M.E., Paraschiv G. [3]. Constantin G.A., Voicu Gh., Ştefan M.E., Paraschiv G.
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aromatic plants, INMATEH - AGRICULTURAL medicinale. ObŃinerea de soluŃii extractive din plante
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486
ASPECTS REGARDING THE QUALITATIVE INDEXES OF THE WORK OF APPLICATION OF

PHYTOSANITARY TREATMENTS IN THE FIELD CROPS
/
ASPECTE PRIVIND INDICII CALITATIVI AI LUCRĂRII DE APLICAT TRATAMENTE
FITOSANITARE ÎN CULTURILE DE CÂMP
2)
Ph.D. Stud. Eng. NiŃu M., Prof. Em. PhD. Eng. Căsăndroiu T. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Matache M., PhD. Eng. VlăduŃ V.,
3) 1) 1)
PhD. Eng. Caba I. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Cujbescu D. , PhD. Eng. Voicea I.
1) 2) 3)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; MUNAX SRL Timişoara / Romania
Tel: 0746.689.449; E-mail: rosumihaelan@yahoo.com
Abstract: The correct application of phytosanitary treatments depends Rezumat: Aplicarea corectă a tratamentelor fito-sanitare
on several parameters influencing the quality indexes when depinde de mai mulŃi parametri care influenŃează indicii
applying phyto-sanitary treatments in a culture. This paper calitativi atunci când se aplică tratamente fito-sanitate într-o
presents some considerations and the main aspects regarding cultură. Lucrarea prezintă câteva consideraŃii şi principalele
the most important qualitative indexes contributing to the aspecte privind cei mai importanŃi indici calitative ce concură
proper application of these treatments in the field cultures. la o bună aplicare a acestor tratamente în cultura mare.
Keywords: quality, environment, plant, protection, soil Cuvinte cheie: calitate, mediu, plantă, protecŃie, sol
The concerns for the protection of the natural environment Preocupările pentru protecŃia mediului natural s-au
have been felt since the end of the XIXth century, when it made făcut resimŃite încă de la sfârşitul secolului al XIX-lea, când
the transition from the passive attitude of admiring the beauties s-a făcut tranziŃia de la atitudinea de admirare pasivă a
of nature to the active one of acting for the protection of its and frumuseŃilor naturii la cea activă de acŃionare pentru protecŃia
prevention of the abusive exploitation of the natural riches. ei şi de prevenire a exploatării abuzive a bogăŃiilor naturale.
We can not talk about farming without referring to its Nu putem vorbi despre practicarea agriculturii fără a
impact on the environment [4, 13]. ne referi la consecinŃele acesteia asupra mediului [4, 13].
The productivity of the agriculture is influenced by the level Productivitatea agriculturii este influenŃată de nivelul
of the applied working technologies, the phytosanitary protection tehnologiilor de lucru aplicate, protecŃia fito-sanitară
occupying a very important place within these technologies. ocupând un loc foarte important în cadrul acestor tehnologii.
The studies and the current research on methods and the Studiile şi cercetările actuale privind metodele şi
equipment for the application of the phytosanitary treatments echipamentele de aplicare a tratamentelor fito-sanitare
[2], [5], [7], [8], are part of the new trends for the practice of a [2], [5], [7], [8], se înscriu în noile tendinŃe pentru
sustainable agriculture, knowing the fact that the phyto- practicarea unei agriculturi durabile, ştiut fiind faptul că
sanitary protection represents one of the main sources for protecŃia fito-sanitară reprezintă una din sursele principale
reducing of environmental pollution by chemical substances. de reducere a poluării mediului cu substanŃe chimice.
An important aspect of the continuing growth of the Un aspect important al politicii de creştere continuă a
quality of products made of each economic agent, it is calităŃii produselor realizate a fiecărui agent economic, îl
both the keeping the conformity for the plant protection constituie atât menŃinerea conformităŃii maşinilor pentru
machines and the increase of achieving premises under protecŃia plantelor cât şi creşterea premizelor de realizare
repeatability conditions of these products [5], [7], [10]. în condiŃii de repetabilitate a acestor produse [5], [7], [10].

The qualitative indices of the works for the application Indicii calitativi ai lucrărilor de aplicat tratamente fito-
of the phytosanitary treatments depend on: sanitare depind de:
- the qualitative working indexes of the spraying ramps; - indicii calitativi de lucru ai rampelor de pulverizare;
- the qualitative indexes of the fragmentation; - indicii calitativi ai fragmentaŃiei;
- the qualitative indexes of the spraying heads. - indicii calitativi ai capetelor de pulverizare.
Each of these are influenced by a lot of other Fiecare dintre aceştia sunt influenŃati de o mulŃime de
parameters that in the end lead to obtaining of some alŃi parametri care în final conduc la obŃinerea unor indici
qualitative indexes as possible good when it performs an calitativi cât mai buni atunci când se execută o operaŃie
opperation of herbicidation / phytosanitary treatment. de erbicidare / tratament fito-sanitar.
These parameters must be known very well, so that Aceşti parametri trebuie cunoscuŃi foarte bine, astfel
the technical equipment used for these processes can be încât echipamentele tehnice utilizate pentru aceste
adjusted and maintained properly. procese să poată fi reglate şi întreŃinute corespunzător.
RESULTS REZULTATE
♦ Working qualitative indexes of the spraying ramps ♦ Indicii calitativi de lucru ai rampelor de pulverizare
The ramp stability in a vertical and horizontal plane Stabilitatea rampei în plan vertical şi orizontal
The transverse distribution uniformity can be influenced at Uniformitatea distribuŃiei transversale poate fi influenŃată la
the ramps with hydraulic spray nozzles both by the distance rampele cu duze cu pulverizare hidraulica atât prin distanŃa
between nozzles and the sprayed surface and the position of dintre duze şi suprafaŃa stropită ât şi poziŃia rampei faŃă de
the ramp against the sprayed surface. A large influence on the suprafaŃa stropită. O influenŃă mare asupra uniformităŃii
uniformity of the transverse distribution it can have the ramp distribuŃiei transversale o poate avea poziŃia rampei faŃă de
position against the sprayed surface. If is not insured the parallelism suprafaŃa stropită. În cazul în care nu este asigurat
between the ramp and the soil surface, the treatment paralelismul dintre rampă şi suprafaŃa solului, uniformitatea
uniformity can be adversely affected by the appearance of tratamentului poate fi afectată în mod negativ prin apariŃia de
bands treated unevenly, with under-dosing or overdosing [15]. benzi tratate neuniform, cu subdozare sau supradozare [15].
487
Fig. 1 - The influence of the ramp parallelism to the treated surface on the treatment uniformity [15]
Due to theunevennesses of the land subjected to the treatments, Datorită denivelărilor terenului supus tratamentelor, la
at the movement of the equipment can appear balancings or deplasarea echipamentului pot apărea balansări sau
oscillations of the spraying ramp, with direct implications on the oscilaŃii ale rampei de stropit, cu implicaŃii directe asupra
transversal distribution uniformity (homogeneity of the fragmentation uniformităŃii distribuŃiei trasversale (omogenităŃii depunerii
deposit) şi calităŃii tratamentului and of the treatment quality. fragmentaŃiei) şi calităŃii tratamentului.
Figure 2 shows the main types of oscillations of the In figura 2 sunt prezentate principalele tipuri de oscilaŃii
spraying ramps during the equipment operation. Every ale rampelor de stropit în timpul funcŃionării echipamentului.
movement taken separately or combined with the others has Fiecare mişcare luată separat sau combinată cu celelalte
importance in order to avoid overdosing or underdosing with are importanŃă pentru evitarea supradozărilor sau
active substance on the treated surface. subdozărilor cu substanŃă activă pe suprafaŃa tratată.
Fig. 2 - The swinging motions of the ramp and its stability [15]
Jet coverage Acoperirea jetului

The jet coverage is the overlapping distance of the Acoperirea jetului este distanŃa de suprapunere a
neighboring jets, measured at the level of the earth's surface. jeturilor vecine, măsurată la nivelul suprafeŃei terestre.
The jets overlapping of two adjacent nozzles is added Suprapunerea jeturilor a două duze alăturate se însumează,
together, ensuring a uniform distribution of the pesticide on asigurând o repartiŃie uniforma a pesticidului pe lungimea
the length of the lance, according to the angle of the nozzle. lăncii, în funcŃie de unghiul duzei.
The size of the overlapping jets varies with the distance D Mărimea suprapunerii jeturilor variază cu distanŃa D a
of the lance above the ground. It is desirable that this lăncii faŃa de sol. Este de dorit ca această distanŃă să fie
distance to be constant because to the limit occurs the constantă, deoarece, la limită apare tratamentul în benzi
treatment in strips or the failure of the norm of substance [15]. sau nerealizarea normei de substanŃă [15].
Fig. 3 - The distribution diagram of fluid on the working width when Fig. 4 - Variation of the nozzle flow rate according to the wear [6]
using the nozzles with plane jet and various spraying angles [15]
488
This size varies over time, among others, due to the Această mărime variază în timp, printre altele şi
physical condition of the nozzle. What can not be datorită stării fizice a duzei. Ceea ce nu se poate
observed with the naked eye, the microscope reveals: constata cu ochiul liber, se pune în evidenŃă cu
used nozzle edge (B) is rounded compared to the new microscopul: marginea duzei uzate (B) este rotunjită
one (A). The damages at the nozzle from the picture (C) comparativ cu duza noua (A). Deteriorările la duza din
were generated by an improper cleaning. imaginea (C) au fost generate printr-o curăŃare neadecvată.
It is desirable that this distance be constant Este de dorit ca această distanŃă să fie constantă
becausee, to the limit occurs the treatment in strips or the deoarece, la limită apare tratamentul în benzi sau
failure of the norm of substance [14]. nerealizarea dozei de substanŃă [14].
The penetration mode of the spraying Modul de penetrare al pulverizării
At spraying, the compact jet of solution that gets out La pulverizare, jetul compact de soluŃie ce iese dintr-
from a limited space (the nozzle or spray body) is un spaŃiu limitat (corpul duzei sau al pulverizatorului) este
converted into a jet of droplets by dispersing the liquid transformat într-un jet de picături prin dispersarea
into the free space in different directions, la o viteză lichidului în spaŃiul liber în direcŃii diferite la o viteză
capabilă să îvingă forŃele de coeziune internă ale capabilă să învingă forŃele de coeziune internă ale
lichidului dispersat. lichidului dispersat.
The way in which disperses the liquid can be highlighted Modul de dispersare al lichidului se poate pune în evidenŃă
by shooting with a very short exposure time [15]. prin fotografiere cu timp de expunere extrem de scurt [15].
Fig. 5 - The way of dispersion of the liquid at the hydraulic spraying Fig. 6 - The variation graphs of the penetration depending on pressure
Source: documentary picture of the company LECHLER
The spraying penetration is the distance covered by Penetrarea pulverizării reprezintă distanŃa parcursă
the drop through the air mass. de picătură prin masa de aer.
The degree of penetrability of the droplets in cropand Gradul de penetrabilitate a picăturilor în cultură şi
the level of their retention on the treated plants, depend on: nivelul de reŃinere a acestora pe plantele tratate, depind de:
- the fineness degree of the jet of pulverized liquid; - gradul de fineŃe al jetului de lichid pulverizat;
- the spraying system; - sistemul de pulverizare;
- the flow rate of the jet of drops (the size of the working norm); - debitul jetului de picături (mărimea normei de lucru);
- the retention index; - indicele de retenŃie;
- the mode of siting and overlapping of the leaves; - modul de aşezare şi suprapunere a frunzelor;
- the angle formed by the droplet trajectory and the - unghiul format de traiectoria picăturii şi suprafaŃa de
impact surface; impact;
- the sort of the foliar surface (glossy, covered with - felul suprafeŃei foliare (lucioasă, acoperită de perişori
piliferous etc.). etc.).
The penetration increases up to a maximum value (Fig. PenetraŃia creşte până la o valoare maximă (fig. 6a),
6a), then drops abruptly. No matter it increases the după care scade brusc. Oricât s-ar mări presiunea,
pressure, the penetration remains the same. I In the case of penetraŃia rămâne aceeaşi. In cazul pulverizării
pneumatic spraying when the phytosanitary liquid is at small pneumatice când lichidul fitosanitar este la presiune mică
5 5
pressure (0.5 … 1.5)×10 Pa, into a stream of air with high (0,5…1,5)x10 Pa, într-un curent de aer cu viteză foarte
speed (100…200 m/s), the diameter of the droplet and the mare (100…200 m/s), diametrul picăturilor şi viteza jetului
air jet speed varies according to a graph shown in Figure 6b. de aer variază după un grafic prezentat în figura 6b.
The density of impact represents the number of Densitatea de impact reprezintă numărul de picături
droplets deposited per surface unit treated. The droplets depuse pe unitatea de suprafaŃă tratată. Picăturile care
reaching the target subjected to spraying must meet the ating Ńinta supusă stropirii trebuie să îndeplinească
following conditions: următoarele condiŃii:
- to be as uniform; - să fie cât mai uniforme;
- do not overlap in several layers; - să nu se suprapună în mai multe straturi;
- not to present too high overlap areas; - să nu prezinte zone de suprapunere prea mari;
- the layer thickness of phytosanitary substance deposited - grosimea stratului de substanŃă fitosanitară depusă
to be correlated with the prescribed dose by agrotechnics; să fie corelată cu doza prescrisă de agrotehnică;
- spraying device to constantly flowing the same jet - aparatul de pulverizare să debiteze constant acelaşi
with the same range of droplets. jet cu acelaşi spectru de picături.
The ideal condition is that while working the spraying CondiŃia ideală este ca în timpul lucrului aparatul de pulverizat
device to correct the working parameters according to the să corecteze parametrii de lucru în funcŃie de volumul de
volume of vegetation and the other factors (speed, pressure), vegetaŃie şi de ceilalŃi factori (viteză, presiune), astfel ca
489
so that the density of impact to be evenly. The density of densitatea de impact să fie uniformă. Densitatea de impact
impact currently has a very low uniformity: at the most în prezent are o uniformitate foarte scăzută: la cele mai
improved spraying devices it reaches values of 1/3 [10]. perfecŃionate aparate de stropit, ea atinge valori de 1/3 [10].
Göhlich shows that the same degree of coverage can Göhlich arată că acelaşi grad de acoperire poate fi
be achieved with different sized droplets but at different realizat cu picături de dimensiuni diferite dar la densităŃi
densities as number of droplets per unit of surface [15]. diferite ca număr de picături pe unitatea de suprafŃă [15].
Fig. 7 - Spraying with the same coverage degree but with various Fig. 8. The drift [15]
size specters of droplets (Source: modified after Göhlich)
The drift Deriva

The quantity of liquid that is driven laterally or vertically Cantitatea de lichid care este antrenată lateral sau
by the air currents or which because of the diameter vertical de curenŃii de aer sau care datorită diametrului
remains in flotation state and does not reach on the rămâne în stare de plutire şi nu ajunge pe suprafaŃa
treated surface is called drift (Figure 8). It is necessary to tratată este denumită derivă (drift) (fig. 8). Este necesar
know the drift and in connection with it the limits within să se cunoască deriva (driftul) şi în legătură cu ea limitele
can be used a terrestrial equipment for spraying, without în care se poate utiliza un echipament terestru pentru
that other crops situated at a given distance to be stropit, fără ca alte culturi situate la o distanŃă dată să fie
affected by treatments performed by that equipment. afectate de tratamentele efectuate cu acel echipament.
The drift depends on the height of the ramp above the ground, Deriva depinde de înălŃimea rampei faŃă de sol, de
by the size of the droplets and by the speed of the wind [11, 12]. mărimea picăturilor şi de viteza vântului [11, 12].
The droplets with diameters less than 50 µm are Picăturile cu diametre mai mici de 50 µm sunt
susceptible to be diverted from the place of impact susceptibile a fi deviate de la locul de impact.
In the present there are produced the nozzles and antidrift In prezent s-au fabricat duzele antidrift şi duzele cu
air injection nozzles prevent the drifting more droplets. injecŃie de aer care împiedică mult deriva picăturilor.
Norms of substance Normele de substanŃă
The establishment of the norm of solution to be Stabilirea normei de soluŃie ce trebuie să fie administrată
administered at a specific area is done based on the la o anumită suprafaŃă se face pe baza cunoaşterii
knowledge of the following components: următoarelor elemente:
• diagnosis of the organism; • diagnosticarea organismului;
• the concentration in active substance of the product to be administered; • concentraŃia în substanŃă activă a produsului de administrat;
• the application dose; • doza de aplicare;
• the norms of liquid per hectare that can be achieved • normele de lichid la hectar ce pot fi realizate cu maşina
with the machine from endowement. aflată în dotare.
A criterion of great importance that have to meet a Un criteriu de mare importanŃă pe care trebuie să-l
good machine for the application of chemical treatments îndeplinească o maşină bună pentru aplicat tratamente
in field crops is the compliance of the norm of liquid per chimice în culturi de câmp este respectarea normei de
hectare. Non-compliance of the norm will result in lichid la hectar. Ne-respectarea normei va conduce la
significant losses, either due to the damage of the însemnate pagube, fie ca urmare a vătămării culturii fie
cropeither as a result of losses of pesticides. That is why, ca urmare a pierderilor de pesticide. De aceea,
the constructors of such machines looking that these to constructorii de astfel de maşini caută ca acestea să
distribute as accurately the norms of liquid prescribed. distribuie cât mai precis normele de lichid prescrise.
The norm of liquid N administered per unit of area is Norma de lichid N administrată pe unitatea de
computed with the relation: suprafaŃă se calculează cu relaŃia:
N = 600 Q/B1v [l/min] (1)
where: Q = the flow rate pulverized through the nozzles în care: Q = debitul pulverizat prin duzele maşinii, l/min;
of the machine, l/min; B1 = lăŃimea de lucru, m; v = viteza de deplasare a
B1 = working width, m; v = machine travel speed, km/h. maşinii, km/h.
To find the required flow rate q through a nozzle, is Pentru a afla debitul necesar q printr-o duză, se
divided the value of the machine flow rate Q to the ímparte valoarea debitului maşinii Q la numărul z al
number z of the spraying heads, namely: capetelor de pulverizare, adică:
q = Q/z [l/min] (2)
It must be mentioned that from agrotechnical point of view it Trebuie menŃionat că din punct de vedere agrotehnic
490
is necessary that the machines to achieve norms of liquid with a este necesar ca maşinile să realizeze norme de lichid cu
deviation of maximum ±15% compared to the prescribed norm. o abatere de maximum ±15% faŃă de norma prescrisă.
From equation (1) it follows that at a machine with the Din relaŃia (1) rezultă că la o maşină cu lăŃimea de
working width B1 given, for the maintenance of a value of lucru B1 dată, pentru menŃinerea unei valori a normei de
the norm of liquid prescribed (N = const.) it is necessary to lichid prescrise (N = const.) se impune păstrarea
keep constant the report Q/v. Which requires the accurate constantă a raportului Q/v. Ceea ce presupune corelarea
correlation of the flow rate Q with its travel speed v. exactă a debitului Q cu viteza de deplasare v a acesteia.
♦ Qualitative indexes of the fragmentation ♦ Indici calitativi ai fragmentaŃiei

The dispersing degree Gradul de dispersie
By disperse system is meant a heterogeneous Prin sistem dispers se înŃelege un sistem fizico-chimic
physico-chemical system, made up of a continuous heterogen, alcătuit dintr-o fază continuă şi cel puŃin o
phase and at least one discontinuous phase into parts fază discontinuă în părŃi cu dimensiuni foarte mici. Dacă
with very small dimensions. If the continuous phase is a faza continuă este un gaz (ex.: aerul), iar faza dispersată
gas (ie: the air), and the dispersed phase is a solid body, este un corp în stare solidă, sistemul se numeşte fum iar
the system is called smoke and the operation is called operaŃiunea se numeşte fumigare, sau tratament cu
fumigation, or therapy with solid aerosols. If the continuous aerosoli solizi. Dacă faza continuă este un gaz (ex.
phase is a gas (ie: the air) and the one dispersed is a liquid, aerul), iar cea dispersată e un lichid, sistemul dispers se
the dispersed system is called aerosol and if the liquid numeşte aerosol, iar dacă faza lichidă se prezintă în
phase is presented in very small forms is called fog. forme foarte mici se numeşte ceaŃă.
The physico-mechanical properties of chemicals influence ProprietăŃile fizico-mecanice ale produselor chimice
the degree of dispersion into the spraying liquids. The dispersing influenŃează gradul de dispersie în lichidele de stropit.
degree is characterized by the size of the diameter of the Gradul de dispersie este caracterizat prin mărimea
droplet and the uniformity of dispersion, which is determined diametrului picăturilor şi uniformitatea dispersiei, care se
by the droplets share of the same diameter existing at a determină prin ponderea picăturilor de acelaşi diametru
given moment into the jet of liquid dispersed and their care există la un moment dat în jetul de lichid dispersat şi
arrangement on the treated surfaces. The fineness and dispunerea lor pe suprafeŃele tratate. FineŃea şi
homogeneity of a jet is estimated depending on some omogenitatea unui jet se apreciază în funcŃie de unii
parameters measurable in linear units, usually microns: parametri măsurabili în unităŃi liniare, de obicei microni:
• D10 the droplet diameter so that 10% of the sprayed • D10 diametrul picăturilor, astfel încât 10% din
volume to be formed of droplets with a diameter smaller volumul pulverizat să fie format din picături cu diametrul
than that specified; mai mic decât cel specificat;
• D90 the droplet diameter so that 90% of the sprayed • D90 diametrul picăturilor astfel încât 90% din volumul
volume to be formed of droplets with a diameter smaller pulverizat să fie format din picături cu diametrul mai mic
than that specified; decât cel specificat;
• D50 or VMD the droplet diameter so that 50% of the • D50 sau VMD diametrul picăturilor, astfel încât 50%
sprayed volume to be formed of droplets with a diameter din volumul pulverizat să fie format din picături cu
smaller than that specified; diametrul mai mic decât cel specificat;
• NMD represents that diameter at which half of the • NMD reprezintă acel diametru la care jumătate din
droplets are smaller (the number of droplets of a smaller picături sunt mai mici (numărul de picături cu diametrul
diameter to be equal to the number of drops whose mai mic să fie egal cu numărul de picături al căror
diameter is greater). diametru este mai mare).
The smaller is VMD, the pulverization is finer. To Cu cât VMD este mai mic, cu atât pulverizarea este
estimate the homogeneity it calculates: mai fină. Pentru a estima omogenitatea se calculează:
• be the ratio VMD/ NMD: The closer is of 1, the • fie raportul VMD/ NMD: cu cât este mai aproape de
spraying is more homogeneous [10]; 1, cu atât pulverizarea este mai omogenă [10];
• be SPAN= D90-D10: the smaller it is, the spraying is • fie SPAN= D90-D10: cu cât este mai mic, cu atât
more homogeneous. In order to compare the jets pulverizarea este mai omogenă. Pentru a putea compara
homogeneity of some nozzles of different diameters must omogenitatea jeturilor unor duze de diametre diferite
appealed to: trebuie apelat la:
(3)
where D90 = tolerated index of uniformity. unde D90 = indice tolerat de uniformitate.
The more homogeneous is the jet, the smaller is the value Valoarea acestui raport, independentă de diametrul duzelor,
of this ratio, independently of the nozzle diameter [9]. The evaluation este cu atât mai mică cu cât jetul este mai omogen [9]. Evaluarea
of the droplet size is graphically represented in Figure 9. mărimii picăturilor este reprezentată grafic în figura 9.
Fig. 9 - Evaluation of the droplets size [8]
Coefficient of extension Coeficientul de extindere

The extension coefficient represents the ratio Coeficientul de extindere reprezintă raportul dintre
491
between the diameter of the contact surface of a droplet diametrul suprafeŃei de contact al unei picături depusă pe
deposited on a given surface and its real diameter. o anumită suprafaŃă şi diametrul său real.
The surface area of contact on which is realized the Aria suprafeŃei de contact pe care se realizează
incidence of the droplet depends on some factors such as: incidenŃa picăturii depinde de unii factori precum:
• the kind of the leaf surface on which is done the deposit; • felul suprafeŃei frunzei pe care se realizează defunerea;
• the initial diameter of the droplet; • diametrul iniŃial al picăturii
• the level of the surface-active force from the liquid of spraying; • nivelul forŃei tensioactive din lichidul de stropit;
• liquid viscosity etc. • vâscozitatea lichidului etc.
At the moment of the impact, depending on the mentioned În momentul impactului, în funcŃie de factorii amintiŃi,
factors, the drop makes a contact angle (Fig. 10) [9]. picătura realizează un unghi de contact (fig. 10) [9].
Fig. 10 - The contact surfaces and the angles formed at the division plans level of the environments of contact
a – convex plan; b – concave plan (Source: modified after Norden)
The ratio between the droplet trace and its real Raportul dintre urma picăturii şi diametrul său real
diameter is given by the relation: este dat de relaŃia:
d = k·(2r) (4)
Gradul de acoperire Gradul de acoperire
The coverage degree with droplets represents the density Gradul de acoperire cu picături reprezintă densitatea
or the number of impacts (spots) of the phytosanitary solution sau numărul de impacturi (spot-uri) a soluŃiei fitosanitare
on one square centimeter of surface treated. pe un centimetru pătrat de suprafaŃă tratată.
Closely related to the degree of coverage is the density of Strâns legată de gradul de acoperire este densitatea
impact, representing the number of droplets deposited per de impact, care reprezintă numărul de picături depuse pe
2 2
unit of area treated (generally, 1 cm ). An adjacent size with unitatea de suprafaŃă tratată (în general, 1 cm ). O
the degree of coverage is also the deposition, which is mărime adiacentă cu gradul de acoperire este şi depunerea,
defined as the amount deposited and distributed from the care se defineşte ca fiind cantitatea depusă şi distribuită
plant protection product on the targeted surface [10]. din produsul de uz fitosanitar pe suprafaŃa vizată [10].
The diameter of the droplets from the dispersed liquid jet Diametrul picăturilor din jetul de lichid dispersat este
is influenced by the physico-mechanical properties of the influenŃat de proprietăŃile fizico-mecanice ale lichidului,
liquid, by the environmental particularities in which is made de particularităŃile mediului în care se face dispersarea şi
the dispersion and by the structural and functional parameters de parametrii constructivi şi funcŃionali ai dispozitivului de
of the dispersing device. Considering that the droplet shape is dispersare. Considerând că forma picăturilor este sferică
spherical and that the droplets form on the surface of the şi că picăturile formează pe suprafaŃa frunzelor semisfere
leaves hemispheres or spheroids whose contact surface on sau sferoide a căror suprafaŃă de contact pe sistemul
the foliar system is equal to the area of the sphere equatorial foliar este egală cu suprafaŃa secŃiunii ecuatoriale a
section, from a volume V can be obtained Z drops of diameter sferei. Dintr-un volum V se pot obŃine Z picături de
d according to the equation: diametru d conform relaŃiei:
6V
Z= (5)
3
πd
Fig. 11 - The area of influence of a drop [16] Fig. 12 - The graph of variation of the area covered by one liter of solution [8]
492
Considering that every drop has around it a zone of Considerând că fiecare picătură are în jurul său o
influence of radius "r" (Figure 10), the area covered by zonă de influentă de rază "r" (Figure 10), suprafaŃa
the Z drops will be: acoperită de cele Z picături va fi:
π ( d + 2r ) ( d + 2r )
2
S= = 1, 5 3
(6)
4 d
The graph of variation of the area covered by one liter Graficul de variaŃie a suprafeŃei acoperite de un litru
of solution depending on the diameter of the droplets is de soluŃie funcŃie de diametrul picăturilor este prezentat
shown in Figure 12. The surface of coverage decreases în figura 12. SuprafaŃa de acoperire scade pe măsura
with increasing the droplets diameter. creşterii diametrului picăturilor.
Alongside is shown how is changed the norm Q of Alăturat este prezentat modul cum se modifică norma
liquid per hectare, in percentage, depending on the degree Q de lichid la hectar, în procente, în funcŃie de gradul de
of coverage for different diameters of the the droplets. acoperire pentru diferite diametre ale picăturilor.
From this graph it is noted that for droplets having a Din acest grafic se observă că pentru picături cu
diameter of 10 µm, at a coverage degree of 100% are diametrul de 10 µm, la un grad de acoperire de 100%
2 2
required Q=160 l/ha for 175 m [8]. sunt necesare Q=160 l/ha pentru 175 m [8].
The deposition Depunerea
Deposition is the amount of plant protection product Depunerea reprezintă cantitatea de produs fitosanitar
distributed and deposited on the target object surfaces. distribuită şi depusă pe suprafeŃele obiectelor Ńintă.
For the determination of this there are currently over 70 Pentru determinarea acesteia există în prezent peste 70
methods of which the most common are based on: the de metode, dintre care, cele mai întâlnite sunt bazate pe:
use of various collectors (hydro sensitive or oil sensitive folosirea captatorilor de diferite tipuri (hârtie hidrosensibilă
paper, glass blades for microscope, gridded sheets of sau oleosensibilă, lame de sticlă pentru microscop, folii
black plastic material etc.). These collectors are placed caroiate din material plastic de culoare neagră etc.). Aceşti
on special holders, or directly on the leaves of plants captatori se aşază pe suporturi speciale, sau direct pe
according to certain rules that the samples collected to frunzele plantelor după anumite reguli pentru ca eşantioanele
be representative for the spraying analyzed. recoltate să fie reprezentative pentru stropirea analizată.
The use of photometric analysis methods, in which case Folosirea metodelor de analiză fotometrică, caz în
the spraying liquids are accompanied by a specific tracer to care lichidele de stropit sunt însoŃite de un trasor specific
facilitate the analysis, existing the procedures for the analysis pentru facilitarea analizei, existând procedeele de analiză
of the deposit directly on the surface of the leaf, figure 13) [6]. a depunerii direct pe suprafaŃa frunzei, figura 13) [6].
a) on the back of the leaf b) on the face of the leaf

Fig. 13 - Different levels of coverage obtained with the hydraulic spraying system with carried jet
The foliar index (foliar area index - TRV) Indicele foliar (indicele suprafeŃei foliare - T.R.V)
The T.R.V index (Tree Row Volume) represents the Indicele T.R.V (Tree Row Volume) reprezintă calculul
calculation of the necessary volume of solution volumului de soluŃie necesar în funcŃie de suprafaŃa
depending on the surface of the treated foliage. frunzişului supus tratamentului.
For the accurate estimation of this index, must be Pentru estimarea cât mai exactă a acestui indice,
taken into account of: trebuie să se Ńină cont de:
2
• the foliar area index (Table 1), which means how many • indexul suprafeŃei foliare (tabelul 1), care înseamnă câŃi m
2 2 2
m of area cultivated there are at 1 m of area under crops; de suprafaŃă de cultură există la 1 m de suprafaŃă cultivată;
• size of the culture, which can be: • talia culturii, care pot fi:
- Low-sized crops (wheat, soy, potato, sugar, beet etc.), - culturi de talie joasă (grâu, soia, cartof, sfeclă etc.),
lto which it applies rates between 200 ... 600 l / ha; la care se aplică norme cuprinse între 200…600 l/ha;
- tall crops (hemp, trees, vines, etc.), to which it applies - culturi cu talie înaltă (cânepă, pomi, viŃă de vie etc.), la
rates between 1000 ... 2000 l / ha [10]. care se aplică norme cuprinse între 1000…2000 l/ha [10].
Table 1
Foliar area index
Crop
Wheat Corn Potato Beet Cabbage
Parameter
Height (cm) 85 200 70 42 30
Index 24.7 10.5 11.2 8.8 4.7
493
Equally important is the classification from the Tables La fel de importantă este clasificarea din tabelele 2 şi
2 and 3 whereby it take into account the vertical foliage 3 în care se iau în considerare distribuŃia foliajului pe
distribution and leaves position. verticală şi poziŃia frunzelor.
Table 2
The distribution characteristics of the leaves of different cultures
Vertical distribution
Group
The feature Crop
A The maximum density in the top layer Soybean, canola (early stages), leguminous vines
B The maximum density in the lower layer Wheat, barley (early stages), other gramineae
C The maximum density of the middle layer Rice, corn, sunflower, wheat, barley (late stages), fruit trees
D Densities uniform relative vertically Trellis crops, vines, apple, garden beans, tomatoes
Table 3
The characteristics of distribution of the leaves of different crops
Vertical distribution
Group
The feature Crop
1 Horizontally Soybean, sunflower, potato, peas, white clover, etc.
2 Vertically Wheat, barley, rice (late stages), onions, garlic, leeks, gladiolas, etc.
3 Intermediary Corn, sorghum, cotton, canola, sugar beet, vines
4 Uniformly Maize (late stage), canola (late stage)
5 Spherical Rice (early stage), rye (average stage)
♦ Indici calitativi ai capetelor de pulverizare ♦ Indici calitativi ai capetelor de pulverizare

Unghiul conului Unghiul conului
According to [1] (regarding the terms used in dealing with the Conform [1] (referitor la termenii folosiŃi în tratarea problemelor
problems of pesticides dispersal), paragraph 1.2.3.24;. “spraying dispersării pesticidelor), paragraful 1.2.3.24;. “unghi de
angle means the angle formed by the outer edges of the pulverizare înseamnă unghiul format de marginile
jet close to the nozzle ". In the paragraph 3.3.25. is exterioare ale jetului în apropierea duzei". In paragraful
specified the definition of the nominal spraying angle: 3.3.25. se precizează definiŃia unghiului nominal de
spraying angle obtained under a reference pressure, to pulverizare: unghi de pulverizare obŃinut sub o presiune de
characterize a particular type of nozzle. The scheme of the referinŃă, pentru a caracteriza un anumit tip de duză.
spraying angle is shown in Figure 14. Schema unghiului de pulverizare este prezentată în figura 14.
Fig. 14 - Main dimensions of the spraying angle [1] Fig.15 - Decrease of the spraying angle along with pressure decrease [16]
The spraying angle depends largely on the type and size Unghiul de pulverizare depinde în mare măsură de tipul
of the nozzle orifice. The fluid pressure has a significant şi mărimea orificiului duzei. Presiunea lichidului are un efect
effect on the size of the spraying angle (Fig. 15). The semnificativ asupra mărimii unghiului de pulverizare (fig. 15).
spraying angle measurement is done with a compass- Măsurarea unghiului de pulverizare se face cu un dispozitiv
shaped device (angle-meter) or by shooting [16]. în formă de compas (angulometru), sau prin fotografiere [16].
In practice the nozzle has marked on it the size of the In practică duza are marcată pe ea şi mărimea unghiului
spraying angle. Generally, the liquids more viscous as de pulverizare. In general, lichidele mai vâscoase ca apa
the water form spraying angles smalleri, while the liquids formează unghiuri de pulverizare mai mici, în timp ce
of lower surface tension than the water dispersed at lichidele cu tensiune superficială mai joasă decât apa se
larger angles. A decrease of the value of spraying angle dispersează la unghiuri mai largi. O scădere a valorii
with 2-10% lead to an uneven distribution on the length of unghiului de pulverizare cu 2…10% conduce la o neuniformitate
spraying lance [9]. Also, the surface tension size lead to a distribuŃiei pe lungimea lăncii de pulverizare [9]. De
increasing / decreasing of the droplet and of the spraying asemenea, mărimea tensiunii superficiale conduce la
angle according to whether it is greater, respectively mărirea/micşorarea picăturilor şi a unghiului de pulverizare
smaller. după cum aceasta este mai mare, respectiv mai mică.
The pressure jet Presiunea jetului
The pressure represents the limit the ratio between the Presiunea reprezintă limita raportului dintre forŃa normală
normal force of pressure that is transmitted through a section de apăsare care se transmite printr-o secŃiune practicată într-
practiced in a body and the aria of the section when it tends un mediu şi aria secŃiunii când aceasta tinde către zero odată
to zero along with all its linear dimensions, if for every point cu toate dimensiunile ei liniare, dacă pentru fiecare punct
this limit is independent of the orientation of the section. această limită este independentă de orientarea secŃiunii.
From general laws of mechanics follows that it must that Din legile generale ale mecanicii rezultă că trebuie ca
through the section to be transmitted forces that do not have prin secŃiune să se transmită forŃe care să nu aibă
494
vector components tangential to section, namely it must that componente vectoriale tangenŃiale la secŃiune, adică
all theo tangential components to be zero. This condition is trebuie ca toate componentele tangenŃiale să fie nule.
always performed to the fluids in balance. If there are Această condiŃie este totdeauna realizată la fluidele în
tangential stresses, the forces the ratio depends on the echilibru. Dacă există tensiuni tangenŃiale, câtul forŃelor
application on the orientation plane of the section. The units depinde de aplicaŃia pe planul de orientare al secŃiunii.
2 2 2 2 2
for measuring the pressure are: daN/cm , N/m , kgf/cm , UnităŃile pentru măsurarea presiunii sunt: daN/cm , N/m ,
2
atm, bar, Pa [3]. kgf/cm , atm, bar, Pa [3].
Since in the present paper is about moving fluids will be Deoarece în lucrarea de faŃă este vorba de fluide în
studied the static pressure of moment and the dynamic mişcare se vor studia presiunea statică de moment şi
pressure. The inner static pressure of a fluid in motion is presiunea dinamică. Presiunea statică interioară a unui
indicated with a measuring instrument which moves along fluid în mişcare este indicată cu un instrument de măsură
with the fluid at the same speed. On the walls of the pipes care se mişcă odată cu fluidul cu aceeaşi viteză. Pe pereŃii
through which flow fluids is exerted static pressure. That is Ńevilor prin care curg fluide se exercită presiunea statică.
why it is also called wall pressure. De aceea ea se mai numeşte şi presiune de perete.
The relation between the static pressure, the dynamic pressure RelaŃia dintre presiunea statică, presiunea dinamică şi
and the pressure of position is given by the Bernoulli's law. presiunea de poziŃie este dată de legea lui Bernoulli.
If p0 is the static pressure into an incompressible fluid with Dacă p0 este presiunea statică dintr-un lichid incompresibil
the specific gravity γ, in the gravitational field of the earth, a cu greutatea specifică y, în câmpul gravitaŃional al pământului,
high point z01 where the liquid has the speed v0, the static într-un punct de înălŃime Z01 în care lichidul are viteza v0,
pressure p in the liquid, at the height Z, in a point on the presiunea statică p din lichid, la înălŃimea Z, într-un punct
same flow line as the pressure point p0 and where the liquid de pe aceeaşi linie de curgere ca şi punctul de presiune p0
has the speed v, is calculated using Bernoulli's equation: şi în care lichidul are viteza v, se calculează cu ecuaŃia Bernoulli:
p0 v02 p v2
Z0 + + =Z+ + (7)
γ 2y γ 2y
From this equation it can be deduced the fluid velocity Din această relaŃie se poate deduce viteza fluidului
if it is measured the wall pressure and the dynamic dacă se măsoară presiunea de perete şi presiunea
pressure by the Pitot tube. Between the static pressure dinamică cu tubul Pitot. Intre presiunea statică şi
and the total pressure exists the relation: presiunea totală există relaŃia:
Pt-Ps = Pd (7)
where: Pt=Ps=Pd unde: Pt=Ps=Pd
But Ps=pgh. Results the fluid velocity: Dar Ps=pgh. Rezultă viteza fluidului:
V= 2 pd (8)
ρ aer
where Pd is the dynamic pressure read onto the Pitot tube (fig. 16). unde Pd este presiune dinamică citită pe tubul Pitot (fig. 16).
Fig. 16 - Pitot tube [3]
The nozzles flow rate varies with the spraying pressure. Debitul duzelor variază cu presiunea de pulverizare.
The relation between flow rate [l/min] and pressure [bar] is: RelaŃia dintre debit [l/min] şi presiune [bar] este:
Q= 1
p1 . (9)
Q p 2 2
From equation (9) we deduce that, to double the flow, the Din relaŃia (9) se deduce că, pentru a dubla debitul,
pressure must be increased of four times. A higher pressure presiunea trebuie mărită de patru ori. O presiune mai
increases the flow rate through the nozzle, but also influence mare măreşte debitul prin duză, dar influenază şi
the droplet size which decreases, also wearing the nozzle mărimea picăturii pe care o micşorează, uzând totodată
orifice and dispersion characteristics. In practice, the variation orificiul duzei şi caracteristicile dispersiei. În practică,
in flow through the nozzle is read on diagrams or tables variaŃia debitului prin duză se citeşte pe diagrame sau
given by the companies that have manufactured the nozzles. tabele date de firmele care au construit duzele.
Viscosity and temperature Vâscozitatea şi temperatura
Viscosity has a significant effect on the nozzles Vâscozitatea are un efect semnificativ asupra
performance. A viscous fluid results in a high air performanŃelor duzelor. O vâscozitate mare a lichidului
resistance in which penetrates the fragmentation. The duce la o rezistenŃă mare a aerului în care penetrează
cone angle decreases with increase in viscosity. fragmentaŃia. Unghiul conului descreşte odată cu creşterea
Viscosity affects the droplet formation. The flow through vâscozităŃii. Vâscozitatea afectează şi formarea
the nozzle decreases with increasing the viscosity. picăturilor. Debitul prin duze scade odată cu creşterea
Viscosity is responsible for the decrease in spray angle vâscozităŃii. Vâscozitatea este responsabilă de scăderea
and for the correct form of droplets. unghiului de pulverizare şi de corecta formă a picăturilor.
The temperature also affects the viscosity, the surface tension Temperatura afectează şi ea vâscozitatea, tensiunea
495
of the droplet and the specific gravity. A low-temperature superficială şi greutatea specifică a picăturii. O temperatură
lead to an increase in the flow of liquid through the nozzle. scăzută conduce la mărirea debitului de lichid prin duză.
Greutatea specifică a lichidului de stropit Greutatea specifică a lichidului de stropit
The effect of specific gravity on the flow through the Efectul greutăŃii specifice asupra debitului prin duză
nozzle is measured by the formula: este măsurat cu formula:
1
Liquid flow rate = Water flow rate • (10)
GSlichid
Water flow rate = Liquid flow rate • GS (11)

where GSliquid is the specific weight of the liquid în care GSlichid reprezintă greutatea specifică a lichidului
Gradul de acoperire al jetului şi impactul Gradul de acoperire al jetului şi impactul

The coverage degree of the jet is the density or the Gradul de acoperire al jetului reprezintă densitatea
2
number of impacts of spraying liquid on one cm of foliage, sau numărul de impacturi ale lichidului de stropit pe un
2
and the elements for the degree of flow of the coating are cm de foliaj, iar elementele de calcul ale gradului de
shown in Figure 17. The index depends primarily of the width acoperire ale jetului sunt redate în figura 17. Acest indice
of the jeti, which is given by the angle characteristic of the depinde, în primul rând, de lăŃimea jetului,care este dată
nozzle and compliance with the working pressure indicated by de caracteristica de unghi a duzei şi respectarea presiunii
the manufacturer of the nozzlei. de lucru indicată de constructorul duzei.
At the achievement of the jet characteristics, in addition to La realizarea caracteristicilor jetului, pe lângă presiune,
the pressure must be assured and the rate of delivery of spray trebuie asigurat şi debitul de alimentare al capetelor de
heads and that's why the capacity of the pump must be set to pulverizare şi de aceea capacitatea pompei trebuie
15 ... 20% greater than that resulted from calculations to aleasă cu 15…20% mai mare decât cea reieşită din calcule
ensure the nominal value of the spraying angle. pentru a asigura valoarea nominală a unghiului de pulverizare.
The impact is the measure of the jet on the specific Impactul este măsura jetului pe suprafaŃa specifică.
surface. The impact is great when returning the jet with Impactul este mare la întoarcerea jetului cu deflectoare
deflectors because the division of the droplets in the air [15]. datorită divizării picăturilor în aer [15].
The effect of the impact will be in direct proportion to the Efectul impactului va fi direct proporŃional cu presiunea
pressure and the size of the droplets. şi mărimea picăturilor.
Fig. 17 - Elements of calculation of the jet coverage degree [15]
where: D1 is the distance from the nozzle to the working unde: D1 este distanŃa de la duză la suprafaŃa de lucru;
surface; D2 is the minimum distance of the jet action to the D2-distanŃa minimă de acŃiune a jetului la presiunea de
appropriate working pressure angle A2; D3 – is the width of the lucru corespunzătoare unghiului A2; D3 - lăŃimea proiecŃiei
theoretical projection corresponding to the theoretical angle A1. teoretice corespunzătoare unghiului teoretic A1.
Liquid flow rate Debitul de lichid
In general, by flow rate is understood the volume of fluid In general prin debit se înŃelege volumul de fluid care
passing in the unit of time through a section (or area) given trece în unitatea de timp printr-o secŃiune (sau suprafaŃă) dată
of a stream. The flow rate through an area A is given by: a unui curent. Debitul printr-o suprafaŃă A este dat de relaŃia:
Q=
−
∫ vd • A
=
∫ vn d A (12)
( A) ( A)
where vn is the normal component of velocity on the în care vn este componenta normală a vitezei pe
element of surface dA in the sense of selected reference. elementul de suprafaŃă dA în sensul de referinŃă ales.
It is said that in the above flow rate Q called volume flow Se spune că în debitul de mai sus Q numit debit de
rate or volumetric flow, the amount of fluid is expressed volum sau debit volumic, cantitatea de fluid se exprimă
by its volume. The mass of the volumetric flow passing prin volumul său. Masa debitului volumic care trece în
per unit time through a section is called mass flow or unitatea de timp printr-o secŃiune se numeşte debit de
massic flow rate and is calculated by the formula: masă sau debit masic şi se calculează cu formula:
, (13)
M = ∫ ρ vd A A
( A)
where ρ = fluid density. în care ρ = densitatea fluidului.

In the case of a continuous moving fluid through a In cazul unui fluid în mişcare permanentă printr-un
496
channel or a pipeline which is known the average speed canal sau o conductă căreia i se cunoaşte viteza medie
in a section, can be determined the stream flow rate Q într-o secŃiune, se poate determina debitul curentului Q
multiplying the average speed vm with the size of area A înmulŃind viteza medie vm cu mărimea suprafeŃei A în
in this section: secŃiunea respectivă:
3
Q=A·vm [m /h] (14)
In the case of spraying machines, the flow is the most In cazul maşinilor de stropit, debitul este cel mai
important indicator of the quality of treatment. important indicator al calităŃii tratamentului.
The flow rate must be uniform throughout the length Debitul trebuie să fie uniform pe toată lungimea de
of the dispersione, as well as in the jet of a nozzle, and dispersare, cât şi în jetul unei duze, iar calculul său se
its calculation can be done based on the algorithm that is poate face pe baza algoritmului ce se prezintă în
presented below. The area covered by the spraying continuare. SuprafaŃa acoperită de maşina de stropit se
machine is determined by the relation: stabileşte cu relaŃia:
2
S=60Bm•vm [m /min], (15)
where Bm is the working width and vm - the travel speed. unde Bm este lăŃimea de lucru şi vm - viteza de deplasare.
S=0,36 Bm•vm [ha/h]. (16)
During displacement the devices debits an amount of In timpul deplasării dispozitivele debitează o cantitate
solution: de soluŃie:
qs=n•q, [l/min] (17)
where: n is the number of nozzles ; q- the nozzle flow rate unde: n este numărul de duze; q- debitul pe duză
The norm Ns of the solution is given by the relation: Norma de soluŃie Ns este dată de relaŃia:
qs 2
[l/m ] (18)
N s = 60 • Bm • vm
sau
4
10 • q [l/ha]. (19)
N s = 60 • vs
m
From here the total liquid flow rate qs: De aici debitul total de lichid qs:
60 • Ns • Bm vm l/min]
• (20)
qs = 4
10
The flow rate through a nozzle is determined by the relation: Debitul printr-o duză se determină cu relaŃia:
60 • N s • Bm • vm [l/min], (21)
q =
4
10 n •
where n is the number of spraying heads. unde n reprezintă numărul capetelor de pulverizare.
The variation of the flow rate on the working width VariaŃia debitului pe lăŃimea de lucru permisă de
allowed by agrotechnical rules is of (+2,45) … (-4,5%). normele agrotehnice este de (+2,45) … (-4,5%).
The variation of the flow rate through a single nozzle VariaŃia debitului printr-o singură duză se determină în
is determined in terms of testing stand and is presented condiŃii de stand de încercare şi se prezintă ca o variaŃie
as a normal variation (is about a histogram) where the normală (este vorba de o histogramă) în care capetele
ends of the histogram flattens due to the coverage, so histogramei se aplatizează datorită acoperirii, astfel că
that the allowed variation is of 2…3%. In this case a variaŃia admisă este de 2…3%. In cazul acesta calculul
nozzle flow calculation can be done with the relationship: debitului printr-o duză se poate face cu relaŃia:
• • (22)
l/minut = l / ha km / h w
60000
It follows:
6000 l / min , (23)
l/ha =
km / h • w
where w is the distance between the nozzles [9]. unde w reprezintă distanŃa între duze [9].
Worldwide, the evolution of qualitative parameters of Pe plan mondial, evoluŃia parametrilor calitativi ai
the process of spraying performed by the machines for procesului de pulverizare realizată de maşinile de aplicat
applying phytosanitary treatments is very fast, due to tratamente fitosanitare este foarte rapidă, datorită
chemical and agricultural research progress, as well as progreselor industriei chimice şi cercetărilor agricole,
the current needs to reduce the specific consumption of precum şi necesităŃilor actuale de reducere a
pesticides, of fuel, of labor and reduction of the consumurilor specifice de pesticide, de carburant, de
environmental pollution. forŃă de muncă şi de reducere a poluării mediului.
The uniformity of droplet distribution on the working width Uniformitatea de distribuŃie a picăturilor pe lăŃimea de
of the nozzle and respectively on the the working width of lucru a duzei şi respectiv pe lăŃimea de lucru a maşinii
the machine is one of the most important qualitative indices este unul din indicii calitativi cei mai importanŃi în lucrările
in the application of phytosanitary treatments works. The de aplicat tratamente fitosanitare. Forma, dimensiunile
shape, the dimensions of the nozzle bore, maintaining at a orificiului duzei, menŃinerea la valoarea constantă a
constant value of the operating pressure and the adjustment presiunii de lucru şi înălŃimea de reglaj sunt factori
od height are key factors in the achieving uniformity of determinanŃi în realizarea uniformităŃii de repartiŃie a
distribution of the droplets on the working width. picăturilor pe lăŃimea de lucru.
497
The factors that affect the achievement of the dose of Factorii care influenŃează realizarea dozei de produs
product per hectare are the norm of liquid and the normal la hectar sunt norma de lichid şi concentraŃia normală de
concentration of treatment. The normal concentration of tratare. ConcentraŃia normală de tratare este în funcŃie de
treatment depends on the used product. In its determination produsul folosit. La stabilirea acesteia se Ńine seama de
take into account several factors: harmful organisms, the mai mulŃi factori: organismele dăunătoare, norma de
norm of the solution administered, the spraying system of the soluŃie administrată, sistemul de pulverizare al maşinii de
machine for the application of phytosanitary treatments, etc. aplicat tratamentele fitosanitare, etc.
The norm of liquid is influenced by the uniformity of its Norma de lichid este influenŃată de uniformitatea de
distribution on the working width (the type of the nozzle repartiŃie a acesteia pe lăŃimea de lucru (tipul duzei şi
and the system of stabilization of the spraying ramp) and sistemul de stabilizare al rampei de pulverizare) şi de
by the uniformity of distribution of the liquid on the uniformitatea de repartiŃie a lichidului pe direcŃia de
direction of movement of the spraying machine. deplasare a maşinii de stropit.
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498
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ARTIFICIAL COMPACTION OF AGRICULTURAL SOIL –

A REVIEW
/
FACTORII CARE INFLUENłEAZĂ COMPACTAREA ARTIFICIALĂ A SOLULUI AGRICOL –
REVIEW
1) 1) 1)
Ass. Prof. PhD. Stud. Eng. Ungureanu N. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Biriş S.Şt. , PhD. Eng.
2) 2) 1)
VlăduŃ V. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Matache M. , Ass. Prof. PhD. Eng. Ionescu M.
1) 2)
Politehnica University of Bucharest / Romania, INMA Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0724086492; E-mail: nicoletaung@yahoo.com
Abstract: Compaction, currently recognized as the most Rezumat: Compactarea, recunoscută în prezent ca fiind
difficult type of soil degradation, is a major problem of cel mai dificil tip de degradare a solului, reprezintă o
modern agriculture, with significant ecological and socio- problemă majoră a agriculturii moderne, cu importante
economic consequences. In this paper is presented the consecinŃe ecologice şi socio-economice. În lucrare este
current state of research conducted worldwide on the prezentat stadiul actual al cercetărilor întreprinse la nivel
influence of various factors on agricultural soil mondial cu privire la influenŃa diverşilor factori asupra
compaction. compactării artificiale a solului agricol.
Keywords: soil, compaction, agricultural vehicle, tire, Cuvinte cheie: sol, compactare, maşină agricolă,
stress distribution. pneu, distribuŃie tensiuni
Compaction of agricultural soils is a global concern, Compactarea solurilor agricole reprezintă o preocupare
which affects several important soil functions, with la nivel mondial, care afectează mai multe funcŃii
environmental and socio-economical impact. importante ale solului, cu impact ecologic şi socio-
According to Soil Science Society of America (1996), economic.
soil compaction represents “the process by which the soil Conform Soil Science Society of America (1996), compactarea
grains are rearranged to decrease void space and bring solului reprezintă “procesul prin care particulele de sol
them into closer contact with one another, thereby sunt rearanjate astfel încât se reduce spaŃiul ocupat de
increasing the bulk density” [13]. goluri, iar particulele solide sunt puse în contact,
Soil compaction can occur naturally, as a contribuind astfel la creşterea densităŃii aparente” [13].
consequence of particle size variability, soil moisture Compactarea solului poate apărea natural, ca o consecinŃă
and soil formation processes, or artificially when it is a variabilităŃii dimensionale a particulelor, a umidităŃii şi a
created by forces exerted from the traffic of agricultural proceselor de formare a solului, sau artificial, când este
machinery, tillage and animal trampling. creată de forŃele exercitate prin traficul vehiculelor agricole,
Long before the emergence of mechanized lucrările solului şi tranzitul animalelor.
agriculture, soil compaction was encountered in the form Cu mult înaintea apariŃiei agriculturii mecanizate,
of plough-pans [23]. Due to the intensive farming of compactarea se întâlnea sub forma straturilor dense de sol
crops and to the overuse of heavier machinery, the risk sub adâncimea de lucru a plugului [23]. Datorită agriculturii
of soil compaction increased considerably. intensive şi a utilizării intense a maşinilor agricole din ce în
Seen from an ecological perspective, soil compaction ce mai grele, riscul compactării a crescut considerabil.
is one of the factors responsible for: erosion, landslides, Din perspectivă ecologică, compactarea este unul
flooding, leakage of pesticides and nutrients in dintre factorii responsabili de: eroziune, alunecări de
groundwater, increasing of the emanations of N2O, CH4 teren, inundaŃii, scurgerea pesticidelor şi a nutrienŃilor în
and CO2. Soil compaction also causes some agronomic apele subterane, creşterea emanaŃiilor de N2O, CH4 şi
problems: inhibition of root development and plant growth, CO2. Compactarea provoacă şi probleme de ordin
decreased crop production [19, 21, 22, 23]. agronomic: inhibarea dezvoltării rădăcinilor şi a creşterii
In the literature is estimated that worldwide, by vehicle plantelor, scăderea producŃiei culturilor agricole [19, 21,
traffic on soil in unfavorable conditions, 68 million ha of 22, 23].
soil became compacted [10], while in Europe, compaction În literatură se estimează că la nivel mondial, prin
is responsible for the degradation of about 33 million ha of traficul vehiculelor pe sol în condiŃii nefavorabile s-au
soil [23]. Compaction affects 4 million ha of soil in compactat 68 mil ha sol [10], iar în Europa compactarea
Australia, 18 million ha in Africa and 10 million ha in Asia este responsabilă de degradarea a circa 33 mil ha sol
[12]. [23]. Compactarea a afectat 4 mil ha sol în Australia, 18
Regarding our country, approximately 2,8 million ha of mil ha în Africa şi 10 mil ha în Asia [12].
arable soils are affected by natural compaction, while În ceea ce priveşte Ńara noastră, aproximativ 2,8 mil
artificial compaction affects 6,7 million ha. More recent ha teren arabil sunt afectate de compactare naturală şi
data shows that of the total surface of Romania’s arable 6,7 mil ha de compactare artificială. Date mai recente
soils, 3761000 ha (38%) are reduced-moderately arată că, din totalul solurilor arabile ale României,
compacted, 2174000 ha (22%) strongly compacted and 3761000 ha (38%) sunt puŃin-moderat compactate,
556000 ha (6%) excessively compacted [7, 14]. 2174000 ha (22%) puternic compactate, iar 556000 ha
Proper understanding of the causes of soil compaction (6%) excesiv compactate [7, 14].
is beneficial for the development of management Buna întelegere a cauzelor compactării solului
strategies in order to avoid or remedy the effects of this permite dezvoltarea strategiilor de management în
phenomenon. scopul evitării sau remedierii efectelor acestui fenomen.
Since the remediation strategies of compacted soils Deoarece strategiile de remediere a solurilor
are costly and often ineffective, it is recommended to compactate sunt costisitoare şi deseori ineficiente, se
499
apply some measures for the prevention or alleviation of recomandă aplicarea unor măsuri de prevenire sau
soil compaction [9]. reducere a compactării solului [9].

The measures for reducing of soil compacting consist Măsurile pentru reducerea compactării solului se referă
in: reducing ground pressure by decreasing axle load or la: reducerea presiunii pe sol prin micşorarea sarcinii axiale
by increasing the contact area between wheels and soil; sau prin creşterea suprafeŃei de contact dintre roată şi sol;
reducing the number of passes of farm machinery on the reducerea numărului de treceri ale maşinilor agricole pe
soil surface; reducing the intensity and frequency of sol; reducerea intensităŃii şi frecvenŃei păşunatului;
grazing; performing agricultural works at optimum soil efectuarea lucrărilor agricole la umiditatea optimă a solului;
moisture; adoption of a traffic system in controlled adoptarea unui sistem de trafic în condiŃii controlate, care
conditions, which limits the passage of vehicles on certain să limiteze trecerea vehiculelor pe anumite zone ale
areas of the field; increasing the organic matter content of câmpului; creşterea conŃinutului de materie organică prin
the soil by retaining crop residues; use of crop rotation; reŃinerea pe sol a reziduurilor agricole; folosirea rotaŃiei
deep subsoiling works to remove compacted soil layers; culturilor; efectuarea lucrărilor de subsolaj la mare
using the minimum inflation pressure in radial tires, adâncime pentru îndepărtarea straturilor compactate de
according to the recommendations of the manufacturers sol; utilizarea presiunii minime în pneurile radiale, conform
[13, 20]. recomandărilor producătorilor [13, 20].
RESULTS REZULTATE
There are many studies in literature which identified Numeroase studii din literatură au identificat şi au
and described the influence of various factors on the descris influenŃa diverşilor factori asupra compactării
artificial compaction of agricultural soil. artificiale a solului agricol.
According to Gysi M. (2000), there are two categories Gysi M. (2000) consideră că există două categorii de
of factors influencing the artificial compaction of soil. The factori care influenŃează compactarea artificială a solului.
first category is related to soil properties such as: Prima categorie se referă la proprietăŃile solului, precum:
structure, water content, bulk density and precompaction, structura, conŃinutul de apă, densitatea aparentă şi
while factors in the second category are related to the precompactarea, iar factorii din cea de-a doua categorie
characteristics of mechanized agricultural works, such as: au legătură cu caracteristicile lucrărilor agricole
load (pressure) on the wheel, contact pressure and mecanizate, precum: sarcina (presiunea) pe roată,
working parameters (repeated passes, vehicle speed and presiunea de contact şi parametrii de lucru (trecerile
vibrations) [11]. repetate, viteza maşinii şi vibraŃiile) [11].
In the studies developed by Larson et al. (1994), and În studiile realizate de Larson şi alŃii (1994) şi
Chamen et al. (2003) were identified the following factors Chamen şi alŃii (2003) au fost identificaŃi următorii factori
of influence on soil compaction: soil type, soil moisture de influenŃă asupra compactării solului: tipul solului,
content, mass of agricultural machinery, speed of the conŃinutul de apă din sol, masa maşinilor agricole, viteza
agricultural machinery, number of passes and the contact de deplasare a maşinilor agricole, numărul de treceri pe
pressure on the soil. These authors consider that the sol şi presiunea de contact pe sol. Autorii consideră că
magnitude of compaction is given by the relationship magnitudinea fenomenului de compactare este dată de
between these factors and the frequency with which relaŃia dintre aceşti factori şi de frecvenŃa cu care sunt
agricultural works are carried out [8]. executate lucrările agricole [8].
According to Barik et al. (2014), soil compaction is După Barik şi alŃii (2014), compactarea solului este
influenced by: texture, moisture content, size of the influenŃată de: textură, conŃinut de umiditate, mărimea
external load, size of the tire, tire inflation pressure, tire sarcinii exterioare, dimensiunea pneului, presiunea
slip, speed of advance of the vehicle and the number of aerului din pneu, alunecarea pneului, viteza de înaintare
passes on the soil [2]. After [3, 4], the artificial a maşinii şi numărul de treceri pe sol [2]. După [3, 4],
compaction of agricultural soil is influenced by six compactarea artificială a solului agricol este influenŃată
important factors (figure 1). de şase factori importanŃi (figura 1).
Fig. 1 – Main factors influencing soil compaction [3]
500
Although soil moisture, initial cone index, tire size, tire Deşi umiditatea solului, indicele de con iniŃial,
inflation pressure and the number of passings have a dimensiunile pneului, presiunea de inflaŃie a pneului şi
great influence on soil compaction, Canillas and Salokhe numărul de treceri au o influenŃă majoră asupra compactării
(2003) found that axle load and the number of passings solului, Canillas şi Salokhe (2003) au descoperit că sarcina
are the most important factors which influence soil exterioară şi numărul de treceri sunt cele mai importante
compaction [19]. variabile care influenŃează compactarea [19].
Size of the external load Mărimea sarcinii exterioare

In intensive agriculture, compaction is highly influenced În agricultura intensivă, compactarea este influenŃată în
by the size of external load applied on the soil by mare măsură de mărimea sarcinii exterioare aplicată
agricultural vehicles. Many studies in literature prove that, pe sol de către maşinile agricole. În literatură există
particularly subsoil compaction, whose alleviation is numeroase studii care arată că, în special compactarea
difficult, was intensified by the trend of using higher and subsolului, a cărei ameliorare este dificilă, a fost exacerbată
heavier machinery. de tendinŃa de a folosi utilaje din ce în ce mai mari şi mai grele.
Tire of agricultural machinery apply stresses on soil Pneul maşinii agricole exercită o tensiune pe suprafaŃa
surface. Size of external load determines the size of solului. Mărimea sarcini exterioare determină mărimea
stress. For higher values of the external load, the larger tensiunii. Cu cât sarcina exterioară este mai mare, cu atât
will be the depth at which stress is distributed in the soil. adâncimea la care se propagă tensiunea în sol este mai
This increases the risk of long-term compaction and mare. Astfel, creşte riscul compactării pe termen lung şi
even of permanent compaction. As a reaction to the chiar al compactării permanente. Ca reacŃie la tensiunea
applied stress, soil is deformed, which leads to the aplicată, solul se deformează, ceea ce duce la degradarea
degradation of its structure and porosity (figure 2). structurii şi porozităŃii solului (figura 2).
Equipments used for tillage operations should be Echipamentele agricole ar trebui adaptate la capacitatea
adapted to the bearing capacity of soil, by controlling portantă a solului, prin controlul încărcării pe roată şi prin
the load on wheel and by using small inflation folosirea presiunilor de inflaŃie scăzute. Sarcina exterioară a
pressures. Trucks axle loads are usually around 6 tons camioanelor este, de obicei, în jurul valorii de 6 tone pe
in the front axle (single tires) and 17 tons in the rear puntea faŃă (un singur pneu) şi 17 tone pe puntea spate în
tandem axle (with dual tires). Sugarcane trailers (two tandem (cu pneuri duble). Remorcile pentru trestia de zahăr
axles with dual tires) usually have excessive loads of 10 (două punŃi cu pneuri duble) au de obicei sarcini excesive
tons on each axle (front and rear) [16]. de câte 10 de tone pe fiecare punte (faŃă şi spate) [16].
In order to avoid soil compaction below the normal Pentru evitarea compactării solului sub adâncimea
depth of tillage operation (20-30 cm), literature lucrării agricole de bază (20-30 cm), literatura recomandă ca
recommends that the load size should not exceed 4-6 mărimea sarcinii exterioare să nu depăşească 4-6 tone pe o
tons per single axle, for moist mineral soils, at tire singură axă, pentru soluri minerale umede, la presiunea de
inflation pressure of 50 kPa (Petelkau, 1984; Danfors, inflaŃie de 50 kPa (Petelkau, 1984; Danfors, 1994). Pentru
1994). For tandem tires, Danfors (1994) proposed a limit pneurile în tandem, Danfors (1994) propune o limită de 8-10
of 8-10 tons on moist soils. On dry soils, axle load can tone pe solurile umede. Pe solurile uscate, sarcina exterioară
be higher, without causing subsoil compaction [1]. poate fi ridicată, fără a provoca compactarea subsolului [1].
Fig. 2 – Stages of compaction, from soil stress to soil deformation and changes in structure and porosity [15]
501
Radford et al. (2000) studied the changes of some soil Radford şi alŃii (2000) au studiat modificarea unor
properties after the application of a load of 10 tons on the proprietăŃi ale solului după aplicarea unei sarcini de 10 tone
front axle and 2 tons on the rear axle, to a wet Vertisol. pe roata faŃă şi 2 tone pe roata spate, pe un Vertisol umed.
Compaction was mostly restricted to the top 20 cm of the Compactarea s-a manifestat până la adâncimea de 20 cm,
soil, proved by the reduction in the number of pores per fapt dovedit prin reducerea numărului de pori pe unitate de
unit area in each of the three size ranges at both zero (soil suprafaŃă în cele 3 game dimensionale, la 0 cm (suprafaŃa
surface) and 10 cm depth [13]. solului) dar şi la 10 cm adâncime [13].
From the research conducted by Hammel (1994) on a Din studiile realizate de Hammel (1994) pe un sol fin
silt loam soil, on which loads of 5, 10 and 20 tons were argilos la aplicarea sarcinilor de 5, 10 şi 20 tone, s-a
applied,it was observed the increase of bulk density and of observat creşterea densităŃii aparente şi a indicelui de
cone index in the subsoil to depths of 75 cm, and these con în subsol până la adâncimea de 75 cm, iar aceste
increases persisted for 3 years. 10 tons load didn’t creşteri au persistat 3 ani. Sarcina de 10 tone nu a
affected crop yield, but the 20 tons load reduced root afectat producŃia, însă cea de 20 tone a redus
growth and yield in dry years [20]. dezvoltarea rădăcinilor şi producŃia în anii secetoşi [20].
Soil moisture Umiditatea solului

Soil moisture is the main property affecting soil Umiditatea este principala proprietate a solului care îi
strength during compaction. As soil moisture increases, afectează rezistenŃa în timpul compactării. Pe măsură ce
the strength of unsaturated soils decreases rapidly, thus creşte umiditatea, rezistenŃa solurilor nesaturate scade
increasing the potential of soil compaction. Saturated soils rapid, crescând astfel potenŃialul de compactare. Solurile
can’t be compacted without water draining out from them saturate nu pot fi compactate fără drenarea apei din ele
[1]. [1].
Soil compaction and soil moisture are only Compactarea solului şi umiditatea solului sunt
significant when comparing soils of the same depth, semnificative numai dacă se compară soluri cu
as it is difficult to compare results from considerable aceeaşi adâncime, deoarece este dificilă compararea
variations between depths in the same soil profile and rezultatelor având în vedere variaŃiile considerabile
between profiles [13]. între adâncimi în acelaşi profil de sol şi între profiluri
Using soil bulk density as indicator of compaction, [13].
Ishaq et al. (2001) showed that the vulnerability of soil to Folosind densitatea aparentă a solului ca indicator
compaction increases with increasing water content up to al compactării, Ishaq şi alŃii (2001) au demonstrat că
a certain limit, and then it decreases with the increasing vulnerabilitatea solului la compactare creşte cu mărirea
water contents (figure 3). The experiment was carried out conŃinutului de apă până la o anumită limită, după care
in laboratory conditions, on sandy clay loam soil. It was începe să scadă cu creşterea conŃinutului de apă
found that the soil was compacted to its maximum (figura 3). Experimentul s-a desfăşurat în condiŃii de
capacity at a soil moisture content of 120 g/kg. Similar laborator, pe un lut argilo-nisipos. S-a putut observa că
results were obtained from the experiments conducted by la un conŃinut de umiditate de 120 g/kg, s-a atins
Smith et al. (1997), after the application of various gradul maxim de compactare. Rezultate asemănătoare
pressures on 35 soils with different textures [18]. au obŃinut Smith şi alŃii (1997), după aplicarea a diferite
presiuni pe 35 soluri cu texturi diferite [18].
Fig. 3 – Variation of bulk density with soil water content [18]
Size and shape of the contact surface. Type of the Mărimea şi forma suprafeŃei de contact. Tipul
rolling body organului de rulare
Area of the contact surface between the soil and the Aria suprafeŃei de contact dintre sol şi organul de
rolling body is known to have a great influence on the way rulare are o influenŃă majoră asupra modului de
stress is distributed in the soil. propagare a tensiunilor în sol.
Using dual tires is a method of increasing the soil Utilizarea pneurilor duble este o metodă de a creşte
surface over which the load is distributed. However, the suprafaŃa solului pe care este distribuită încărcarea.
increase of contact surface doesn’t necessary mean the Totuşi, creşterea suprafeŃei de contact nu înseamnă
decrease of stress intensity in the soil, but the limitation of neapărat scăderea intensităŃii tensiunii în sol, ci limitarea
high stress distribution deeper in the soil (figure 4) [3]. distribuŃiei tensiunilor mari în adâncime (figura 4) [3].
From the measurement of pressures on the soil under La măsurarea presiunilor pe sol sub pneuri duble s-a
dual tires it was observed that near soil surface (18 cm observat că la suprafaŃa solului (18 cm adâncime) apar
depth) similar pressures occur, while at depths of 50 cm presiuni similare, în timp ce la adâncimi de 50 cm
502
the pressures are decreased by 50% when using dual tires presiunile sunt reduse cu 50% dacă se utilizează pneuri
instead of single tires [20]. duble în loc de un singur pneu [20].
Febo and Planeta (2000) shown that in order to reduce Febo şi Planeta (2000) au arătat că pentru reducerea compactării
compaction it is preferable the use of wider wheels fitted este preferabilă utilizarea roŃilor cu lăŃime mare, echipate cu
with radial tires, as opposed to the use of metal tracks or of pneuri radiale, comparativ cu utilizarea şenilelor de metal sau a
diagonal-ply tires, which usually destroy the structure of pneurilor cu pliuri diagonale, care distrug în mai mare măsură
arable layers. Tractors with rubber tracks led to higher structura straturilor arabile. Tractoarele cu şenile de cauciuc
compaction of topsoil, but in this case subsoil compaction produc un grad mai mare de compactare a stratului superior al
is not very severe [13, 17]. solului, însă şenilele nu compactează sever subsolul [13, 17].
Fig. 4 – Size of contact surface influence on stress distribution [3]
Jansson and Johansson (1998) conducted a Jansson şi Johansson (1998) au comparat utilizarea unui
comparative study on the effects of using a wheeled vehicul pe roŃi cu cea a unui vehicul pe şenile. Datele
vehicle and a tracked vehicle. Experimental data showed experimentale au arătat că, deşi urmele produse de
that, despite the fact that ruts produced by the wheels vehiculul pe roŃi au fost mai adânci decât cele ale vehiculului
were deeper than the ones produced by tracked vehicle, pe şenile, modificările produse de cele două vehicule asupra
changes in some soil properties (bulk density, penetration unor proprietăŃi ale solului (densitatea aparentă, rezistenŃa la
resistance, air permeability, hydraulic conductivity, penetrare, permeabilitatea aerului, conductivitatea
porosity and pore size distribution) were similar, hidraulică, porozitatea, distribuŃia granulometrică a porilor)
excepting in the layer of soil found at 5-10 cm depth. au fost similare, cu excepŃia stratului de sol aflat la 5-10 cm
Wheeled vehicle reduced soil bulk density decreased at de la suprafaŃă. Densitatea aparentă a scăzut la trecerea
the passage of wheeled vehicle and increased in case of vehiculului pe roŃi şi a crescut la trecerea celui pe şenile,
tracked one, despite its lower contact pressure [13]. deşi presiunea de contact a acestuia este mai mică [13].
Increasing the number of axles under trailers could Creşterea numărului de osii sub remorci ar putea reduce
reduce the axle load on the soil surface and thus, reduce sarcina exterioară de pe suprafaŃa solului şi astfel s-ar
the soil contact stress. Bedard et al. (1997) discovered reduce presiunea de contact cu solul. Bedard şi alŃii (1997)
that oversized tires are more effective in reducing soil au descoperit că pneurile supradimensionale sunt mai
bulk density than increasing the number of axles from 2 eficiente în reducerea densităŃii aparente a solului decât
to 3 [20]. creşterea numărului de osii la 2 la 3 [20].
Number of passes on the soil Numărul de treceri pe sol

The number of passes influences the number of soil Numărul de treceri influenŃează numărul solicitărilor
loading events. asupra solului.
Experiments conducted on mineral soils shown that Experimentele realizate pe soluri minerale au arătat
an increase in the number of passes in the same tracks că prin creşterea numărului de treceri pe aceleaşi urme
produced increased subsoil compaction and increased s-a produs creşterea gradului de compactare a
depth of the compacted layer of soil, thus stress was subsolului şi a adâncimii straturilor de sol compactate,
distributed deeper in the soil (figure 5). Usually, the use deci tensiunile s-au propagat mai adânc în sol (figura 5).
of heavier agricultural vehicles reduces the number of De obicei, prin folosirea maşinilor agricole grele se
passes / unit of soil area / work, due to the increased reduce numărul de treceri / unitate de suprafaŃă de sol /
working width [1]. lucrare, datorită lăŃimii mari de lucru [1].
Pytka (2005) showed that the most evident deformation Pytka (2005) a arătat că cea mai evidentă deformaŃie
of the soil is caused by the first two passes of tractor tires a solului este provocată de primele două treceri ale
and that soil deformation decreases during the following tractorului cu pneuri, iar deformaŃia solului scade la
passes [13]. următoarele treceri [13].
Jorajuria şi Draghi (2000) found that ten passes of the Jorajuria şi Draghi (2000) au observat că 10 treceri
agricultural vehicle on the soil is a critical number and that, ale vehiculului pe sol reprezintă numărul critic peste
beyond it, the advantages of using a light tractor are care avantajele utilizării tractoarelor uşoare sunt practic
practically canceled. However, the first passage of the anulate. Totuşi, prima trecere a roŃii provoacă cea mai
wheel causes the larger part of total soil compaction [13]. mare parte din compactarea totală a solului [13].
503
Fig. 5 – Influence of number of passes on stress distribution depth [3]
Canarache et al. (1984) found that, in Romanian Canarache şi alŃii (1984) au descoperit că, în solurile
3
soils, for an increase in bulk density of 100 kg/m , din România, unei creşteri a densităŃii aparente cu 100
3
maize yield decreased with 18%, compared to the kg/m îi corespunde o scădere cu 18% a producŃiei de
yield obtained on non-compacted plots. Most of the porumb, comparativ cu producŃia obŃinută pe parcele
changes in soil properties and in maize yield were necompactate. Majoritatea modificărilor proprietăŃilor
recorded between 0 and 8-10 passes of the tractor, solului şi ale producŃiei de porumb s-au înregistrat între 0
while with over 15-20 passes the changes became şi 8-10 treceri ale tractorului, iar la peste 15-20 treceri
negligible [5]. modificările au fost neglijabile [5].
Type of soil Tipul de sol

The state of soil compaction can be evaluated by its Starea de compactare a solului poate fi evaluată prin
bulk density, which is specific to the type of soil, intermediul densităŃii aparente a acestuia, care este
depending on its texture. specifică fiecărui tip de sol, în funcŃie de textură.
Horn et al. (1995) shows that soils susceptibility to Horn ş.a (1995) consideră că predispoziŃia solurilor la
compaction varies with their texture. Silt loam soils with compactare variază în funcŃie de textură. Luturile fine cu
low content of colloids are more susceptible to conŃinut scăzut de coloizi sunt mai predispuse la
compaction than medium or fine textured loamy and compactare decât luturile cu textură medie sau fină şi decât
clayey soils at low soil moistures, while the silt loam soils solurile argiloase la conŃinuturi mici de apă, iar solurile
are slightly susceptible to compaction [18]. nisipoase sunt uşor mai predispuse la compactare [18].
From the research conducted by Ellies et al. (2000) Cercetările realizate de Ellies şi alŃii (2000) au
it was found that in a soil with coarse structure, the arătat că în solul cu textură grosieră, direcŃia
dominant direction of stress propagation is vertical, predominantă de propagare a tensiunilor este
while in a soil with finer structure, stress propagation is verticală, iar în sol cu textură mai fină tensiunile se
multidirectional. Also, in soils with good structure propagă multidirecŃional. În solul bine structurat (sol
(aggregated soils), compaction due to axle load does agregat) compactarea datorată sarcinii exterioară nu
not occur at high depth [13, 17]. s-a manifestat la adâncime mare [13, 17].
Tire inflation pressure Presiunea de inflaŃie a pneului

Tire inflation pressure influences the stress distribution Presiunea din pneu influenŃează distribuŃia
in soil and the shape of the contact surface between the tensiunilor în sol şi forma suprafeŃei de contact dintre
tire and the soil. pneu şi sol.
In agricultural soils, due to higher tire inflation În cazul solului agricol, datorită presiunilor mai mari
pressures are formed smaller contact surfaces, at higher în pneuri se formează suprafeŃe de contact mai mici, la
soil deformation, and stresses are transmitted to greater deformări mai mari ale solului, iar tensiunile se transmit
depths in the soil. At lower inflation pressure, the tire la adâncimi mai mari. La presiuni de inflaŃie mai mici,
deformation is larger, ground contact area increases, the pneul se deformează mai mult, suprafaŃa de contact cu
average pressure in the contact patch is smaller, so the solul creşte, presiunea medie în pata de contact este
soil deforms less and the stress will propagate at mai mică, deci solul se deformează mai puŃin şi
shallower depths [3]. tensiunile se propagă la adâncimi mai mici [3].
Studies carried out by Danfors (1994) showed that by Studiile realizate de Danfors (1994) au arătat că prin
reducing tire inflation pressure from 150 kPa to 50 kPa reducerea presiunii de inflaŃie de la 150 kPa la 50 kPa
(for axle loads higher than 8 tons) was reduced the (pentru sarcini pe osie mai mari de 8 tone) s-a redus compactarea
compaction of moist clay soils only down to a depth of 0,3- solurilor argiloase umede doar până la adâncimea de
0,4 m, not in the deeper layers of soil [1]. 30-40 cm, nu şi în straturile mai adânci de sol [1].
Arvidsson and Keller (2007) studied the influence of Arvidsson şi Keller (2007) au studiat influenŃa sarcinii
wheel loads (11, 15 and 33 kN) and tire inflation pressure pe roată (11, 15 şi 33 kN) şi a presiunii de inflaŃie (50,
(50, 75 and 150 kPa) on soil stress distribution. They 75 şi 150 kPa) asupra distribuŃiei tensiunilor în sol. S-a
found that of the two factors, tire inflation pressure has a observat că dintre cei doi factori, presiunea din pneu are
high influence on the stress measured at 10 cm depth, mare influenŃă asupra tensiunilor din sol măsurate la
while stress at over 30 cm depth in the subsoil is adâncimea de 10 cm, însă tensiunile la peste 30 cm în
influenced by wheel load [5]. subsol sunt influenŃate de sarcina pe roată [5].
Perdok and Tijink (1990) and Wood and Burt (1987) Perdok şi Tijink (1990) şi Wood şi Burt (1987) au
conducted soil-bin experiments using 18.4-38 radial tires, efectuat teste în canale de sol cu anvelope 18.4-38,
on both firm and loose soils. In this study, tire inflation atât pe soluri rigide cât şi pe solurile arate. În acest
pressure was modified in the range of 110-140 kPa for the studiu s-au folosit presiuni de inflaŃie cuprinse între 110-
dynamic loads of 10 and 20 kN, in order to vary the 140 kPa şi sarcini dinamice de 10 şi 20 kN, pentru a
ground pressure. It was found that tire inflation pressure is varia presiunea pe sol. S-a observat că presiunea din
504
responsible of the magnitude of the horizontal pneu determină magnitudinea componentelor orizontale
components of the forces in the centre of the contact area ale forŃelor în centrul suprafeŃei de contact dintre sol şi
between the soil and tire, and the distribution of the pneu, dar şi distribuŃia greutăŃii dinamice pe conturul
dynamic weight at the edge of the contact area [6]. acestei suprafeŃe [6].
The compaction of agricultural soil is mainly caused by Compactarea solului agricol este cauzată în principal de
wheel traffic and exacerbated if heavy vehicles are used traficul vehiculelor pe roŃi şi este intensificată în cazul în
in unfavorable soil conditions. care vehiculele grele sunt folosite în condiŃii nefavorabile de sol.
The level of artificial compaction, induced by Nivelul de compactare artificială, indusă de vehiculele
agricultural vehicles, depends on soil properties such as agricole, depinde de proprietăŃile solului (precum
structure, texture, moisture content), the size of the structura, textura, umiditatea), de mărimea sarcinii
external load, the contact pressure (which is determined exterioare, de presiunea de contact (determinată de
by tire size, tire inflation pressure and external load) and dimensiunile pneului, presiunea de inflaŃie şi sarcina
the number of passes on the soil. exterioară) precum şi de numărul de treceri pe sol.
Artificial compaction of agricultural soil is an extremely Fenomenul de compactare artificială a solului agricol este
complex phenomenon, and research carried out so far unul extrem de complex, iar cercetările efectuate până în
worldwide for its assessment have not yet been able to prezent pe plan mondial pentru aprecierea sa nu au reuşit
fully explain the influence of each factor or the încă să lămurească în totalitate influenŃa fiecărui factor
interdependence of these factors. determinant şi nici interdependenŃa acestor factori.
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506
ASPECTS REGARDING THE CULTURE TECHNOLOGY AND MEASURES FOR CULTURE

DISEASES AT CUCUMBER (CUCUMIS SATIVUS) GREENHOUSES
/
ASPECTE PRIVIND TEHNOLOGIA DE CULTURĂ ŞI MĂSURI DE COMBATERE A BOLILOR
LA CULTURILE DE CASTRAVEłI (CUCUMIS SATIVUS) DIN SERE
1) 1) 1) 1)
Eng. Grigore I. , PhD. Eng. Marin E. , PhD. Eng. Sorică C. , PhD. Eng. Mateescu M. ,
2) 3)
PhD. Eng. Popescu C. , PhD. Eng. Caba Ioan
1) 2) 3)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; SC HOFIGAL SA / Romania; MUNAX SRL Timişoara / Romania
Tel: 0721.505.338; E-mail: ionica_grigore2001@yahoo.com
Abstract: This paper aims to offer a rich and as updated Rezumat: Prezenta lucrare îşi propune ca să ofere o
information regarding the issues of culture and combating informaŃie cât mai bogată şi actualizată asupra unor
diseases and pests at cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) aspecte de cultură şi combaterii bolilor şi dăunătorilor la
cultivated in greenhouses. This paper is addressed both to castraveŃii (Cucumis sativus) cultivaŃi în sere. Lucrarea se
specialists in exploiting larger farms, farmers as well as adresează atât specialiştilor, fermieri în exploataŃii mai
gardeners and vegetable growers in family gardens, mari, cât şi grădinarilor şi cultivatorilor de legume din
highlighting the most important links and the appropriate grădinile familiale, evidenŃiind verigile cele mai importante
measures for achieving quality products and favorable şi măsurile ce se impun pentru obŃinerea unor produse de
economic conditions. calitate şi în condiŃii economice avantajoase.
Keywords: technology, cucumbers, diseases, pests, greenhouses Cuvinte cheie: tehnologie, castraveŃi, boli, dăunători, seră
The cucumber (Cucumis sativus) (fig. 1) is a vegetable Castravetele (Cucumis sativus) (fig. 1) este o plantă
plant from Cucurbitaceae family which includes courgette, legumicolă din familia Cucurbitaceae care include
pumpkin, yellow and green watermelon, etc., and it is dovlecelul, dovleacul, pepenele galben şi cel verde etc., şi
widely grown. It comes from India and is cultivated in este cultivat pe scară largă. Provine din India şi este
tropical and temperate regions. It is cultivated in many cultivat în regiuni tropicale şi temperate. Se cultivă în
varieties, due to the diversity of the fruit. The plant is a numeroase varietăŃi, datorită diversităŃii fructelor. Planta
vine creeping cucumber 1.5 ... 2 m length, which grows by de castravete este o viŃă târâtoare de 1,5…2 m lungime,
clinging to the trellis or other support structures using its care creşte agăŃându-se pe spaliere sau alte structuri de
curved needles. The plant has large leaves covering the susŃinere cu ajutorul cârceilor. Planta are frunze mari care
fruit. It is cylindrical, elongated, with rounded edges and acoperă fructul. Acesta este cilindric, alungit, cu margini
can grow up to a maximum of 60 cm, with a diameter of 10 rotunjite şi poate creşte până la maximum 60 cm, cu un
cm [12], diametru de 10 cm [12],
In Romania the cucumber contains 95% water, carotenoids, În România castravetele, care conŃine 95% apă,
vitamins A, B, C, fibers, calcium salts, iron, sulfurus, magnesium, carotenoide, vitamine A, B, C, fibre, săruri de calciu, fier,
phosphorus, sodium, potassium, mucilage and erepsine sulf, magneziu, fosfor, sodium, potasiu, mucilagii şi
and it is cultivated in greenhouses and intense crops. erepsină, este cultivat în sere şi culturi intense.
Fig. 1 - Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) [6]
507
The cucumber is an annual plant and needs heat and it Castravetele este o plantă anuală, care are nevoie de
is sensitive to freezing temperatures in an earlier stage căldură şi este sensibilă la îngheŃ, într-un stadiu mai mare
than most vegetables. It is a creeping stem plant and is decât cele mai multe legume. Este o plantă târâtoare stem
often grew up on support frames or trellises. The leaves şi este adesea crescut pe cadre de susŃinere sau spaliere.
are hairy and have 3 ... 5 lobes; branches starting from the Frunzele sunt păroase şi au 3…5 lobi; ramificaŃii pornesc
leaves to support the climbing. Plants are typically mono de la frunze pentru suport de căŃărare. Plantele sunt, de
(male and female flowers on separate plants), but a obicei, monoice (flori masculine şi feminine pe plante
number of systems show variety of sex differentiation. separate), dar soiurile arată o serie de sisteme de
Female flowers are yellow, with 5 petals and develops a diferenŃiere de sexe. Florile de sex feminin sunt de culoare
cylindrical fruit for harvesting, which can reach 60 galbenă, cu 5 petale şi dezvolta un fruct cilindric, care
centimeters in length and 10 centimeters in diameter. poate atinge 60 de centimetri în lungime şi 10 centimetri în
Color may vary from green to yellow and whitish, and diametru. Culoarea variază de la verde la galben şi la
some fruits have many varieties or are bicolored with albicios şi la multe soiuri, fructele sunt bicolore cu dungi
longitudinal stripes from stem to apex, [11]. longitudinale de la stem la apex. [11]

The cucumber is one of the most sensitive crop plants in Castravetele se numără printre cele mai sensibile
terms of climatic factors. It is a very particular vegetable plante de cultură, în ceea ce priveşte factorii climatici. Este
specie which has a high sensitivity to heat and humidity o specie legumicolă foarte pretenŃioasa la căldura şi
from the soil and air. Knowing the requirements of each of umiditatea din sol şi aer. Cunoaşterea cerinŃelor fiecărei
cucumber species to environmental factors (heat, light, air, specii de castraveŃi faŃă de factorii de mediu (căldură, lumină,
gas, water and soil), and especially their influence upon aer, gaze, apă şi sol.) şi mai ales a influenŃei acestora
them is of particular importance because the technology asupra lor, prezintă o importanŃă deosebită deoarece prin
used for their control may intervene in close accordance tehnologia aplicată se poate interveni pentru dirijarea lor în
with the agrotechnical requirements. strânsă concordanŃă cu cerinŃele agrotehnice.
A normal fructification takes place within temperatures O fructificare normală, are loc în limita temperaturilor de
of 18 ... 35° C. At temperatures above 35° and belo w 18°, 18…35°C. La temperaturi de peste 35° şi sub 18°,
plant growth ceases and at a temperature of 12°, ex tended creşterea plantelor încetează, iar la o temperatura de 12°,
for several days, the haulms will be chopped down from prelungită mai multe zile, vrejii se retează de la faŃa solului
the plants to the ground and will fall and perish. Variations şi plantele cad şi pier. VariaŃiile mari de temperatură, de
in temperature are also very harmful to cucumbers. The asemenea, sunt foarte dăunătoare castraveŃilor. Cu cât
light is more intense, cucumbers supports higher lumina este mai intensă, castraveŃii suportă temperatura
temperature within the limits mentioned and vice versa at mai ridicată, în limitele amintite şi invers, noaptea, când
night when light is missing or cloudy days when light is lumina lipseşte sau în zilele noroase, când lumina este slabă,
poor, the temperature should also be lower. temperatura trebuie să fie de asemenea mai scăzuta.
Also, the various phases of vegetation requirements for De asemenea, la diferite faze de vegetaŃie cerinŃele faŃă
the temperature are also different. Table 1 shows the de temperatură sunt şi ele diferite. În tabelul 1 este
optimum temperatures for the vegetation phases: prezentă temperatura optimă, pe faze de vegetaŃie:
Table 1
The optimum temperature, per vegetation phase for cucumber cultures
Temperature [ºC]
During the seed germination 32
After emmergence 18…20
At plantation 32
during vegetative growth: in sunny days 25…28
during vegetative growth: in cloudy days 20
during the fruition phase 25…28
These requirements must be taken into consideration De aceste cerinŃe trebuie să se Ńină seama atunci când
when cucumber culture are grown in greenhouses where cultura castraveŃilor se face în sere unde factorul
temperature factor can be conducted. [7] temperatură se poate dirija. [7]
RESULTS REZULTATE
Cucumbers, and although grow and produce under CastraveŃii, deşi cresc şi produc şi în condiŃii de lumină
less light and shorter days in spring and autumn, are mai putină şi zi mai scurtă, primăvara şi toamna, sunt
still pretentious to light. Their vegetation period, their totuşi pretenŃioşi faŃă de lumină. Durata perioadei lor de
development from emergence until fruition and their vegetaŃie, a dezvoltării lor de la răsărire până la fructificare
productivity are closely related to light factor. şi productivitatea lor sunt strâns legate de factorul lumină.
Assimilation and therefore feeding the plant depends on AsimilaŃia şi deci hrănirea plantei depinde de intensitatea
light intensity. Plant nutrition begins at the light intensity luminii. Planta începe procesul de nutriŃie la o intensitate a
of 400 ... 500 lux (less light), but it only intensifies if the luminii de 400…500 lucşi (lumina slabă), dar el se intensifică
brightness is exceeding 1000 lux (light moderate). With abia când luminozitatea depăseşte 1000 lucşi (lumina moderată).
more light the plants have even since the seedling Cu cât plantele au lumină mai multă încă începând din
stage, the growth and development is active, faza de răsad, cu atât creşterea şi dezvoltarea lor este mai
developing better, faster, come to fruition soon and give activă, se dezvoltă mai bine, mai repede, ajung la
higher production [8. fructificare mai curând şi dau producŃii mai mari. [8]
Planting cucumbers at small distances side by side, Plantarea castraveŃilor la distanŃe mici, unul lângă altul,
508
will reduce the amount of light which each plant va reduce din cantitatea de lumina necesară fiecărei
requires, no light will obviously have a negative impact plante, lipsa luminii va influenŃa negativ asupra florilor şi
on flowers and fruits. Result: small fruit and less evident asupra fructelor. Rezultat: fructe mici şi mai puŃin
developed (fig. 2). [3] dezvoltate (fig. 2). [3]
Fig. 2 - The negative impact for the lack of light on the cucumber fruit grown under glass [3]
The soil humidity has a decisive role in the culture of Umiditatea solului are un rol hotărâtor în cultura castraveŃilor.
cucumbers. Optimal environment for the development and Mediul optim pentru dezvoltarea şi fructificarea castraveŃilor
fruition of cucumbers is a warm and stationary moister air. este un mediu cald, umed şi cu aer staŃionar. Cultura
Cucumber crop grows well in soils with a humidity of 70 ... castraveŃilor dă rezultate bune în soluri cu o umiditate de
80% of field capacity. 70…80 % din capacitatea de câmp.
A too high humidity of the soil will cause illness to the O umiditate prea mare a solului provoacă îmbolnăvirea
plants, rotting fruit and reduced production. Prolonged plantelor, putrezirea fructelor şi scăderea producŃiei. InsuficienŃa
insufficiency of moisture in the soil, given the cucumbers prelungită a umidităŃii din sol, dat fiind sistemul radicular
with a superficial root system that can not benefit from the superficial al castraveŃilor, care nu pot beneficia de
depth of soil moisture leads to stagnation in growth of umiditatea din adâncime a solului, duce la stagnarea în
plants, fruiting termination, deformation and format vegetaŃie a plantelor, încetarea fructificării, deformarea şi
appearance also yellow fruits and bitter taste. îngălbenirea fructelor formate şi apariŃia gustului amar.
Care must be made to maintain soil moisture in a O grijă deosebită trebuie depusă pentru menŃinerea solului
constant state all the time, especially during vegetative într-o stare de umiditate cât mai constantă tot timpul, în
development until the early harvest. Cucumbers also special în perioada dezvoltării vegetative, până la începutul
require high atmospheric humidity, up to 80 ... 90%. This is recoltărilor. CastraveŃii cer de asemenea umiditate
done in greenhouses by watering or heavy watering atmosferică ridicată, până la 80…90 %. Aceasta se realizează
intervals. [8] în sere prin udări sau udarea abundentă a intervalelor. [8]
General aspects regarding the diseases of cucumbers Aspecte generale privind bolile castraveŃilor cultivaŃi
grown in greenhouses în sere
Any disorder that occurs in the structure and functions Orice tulburare care apare în structura şi funcŃiile unui
of the organism, under the influence of a pathogen or any organism, sub influenŃa unui agent patogen sau de alta
other, followed by biochemical, physiological, cytological, natură, urmată de modificări biochimice, fiziologice,
histological, anatomical and morphological called citologice, histologice, anatomice şi morfologice, poartă
disease. For accurate diagnosis of disease symptoms denumirea de boală. Pentru diagnosticarea cu precizie a
detailed knowledge is required, which is the main unei boli este necesară cunoaşterea detaliată a
macroscopic criterion and presenting various forms in the simptomelor, care reprezintă principalul criteriu macroscopic
disease over time. All visible changes occurred in the şi care prezintă diferite forme în evoluŃia bolii în timp.
pathogenesis, forming a picture of the disease Totalitatea modificărilor vizibile survenite în procesul de
symptomatically. patogeneză, alcătuiesc tabloul simptomatologic al bolii.
The evolution of the disease process should be viewed in EvoluŃia procesului patologic trebuit privită în contextul
the context of the interaction between host plant - pathogen interacŃiunii dintre planta gazdă - agentul patogen - factorii
- external factors. After etiology (cause of disease) diseases externi. După etiologie (cauza bolii) bolile sunt grupate în
are grouped into non-communicable diseases (physiological) boli neinfecŃioase (fiziologice) şi boli infecŃioase (parazitare).
and infectious diseases (parasitic). Non-infectious diseases Bolile neinfecŃioase sunt cauzate de acŃiunea nefavorabilă
are caused by the action of unfavorable environmental a factorilor de mediu (edafici, climatici) sau tehnologiei de
factors (edaphic, climatic) or inadequate culture technology. cultură necorespunzătoare. Bolile infecŃioase sunt
Infectious diseases are caused by phytopathogens [2]. provocate de agenŃi fitopatogeni [2].
In general, the intensity of the attack and the amount of În general, intensitatea atacului şi volumul pagubelor
damage caused by the disease are higher in the cucumber pricinuite de bolile castraveŃilor sunt mai mari la culturile
crops grown in greenhouses, where the emergence and din sere, unde apariŃia şi dezvoltarea acestora sunt
development are favored by artificial environmental favorizate de condiŃiile artificiale de mediu. AgenŃii care
conditions. Agents causing diseases in cucumbers can be provoacă bolile la castraveŃi pot fi de trei feluri: virusi,
in a number of three types: viruses, mushrooms and bacteria. ciuperci si bacterii.
Among the viral diseases which includes the mosaic of Dintre bolile virotice se numără şi mozaicul castraveŃilor
509
cucumbers which is the most dangerous disease in this care este cea mai periculoasă boală din aceasta categorie
category because it attacks the young leaves and in some din cauză că atacă frunzele tinere şi în unele cazuri şi
cases the fruits also (fig. 3). Cucumis virus is caused by fructele (fig. 3). Este provocat de Cucumis virus 1, care se
one virus, which is transmitted by insects. On the diseased transmite prin intermediul insectelor. Pe frunzele bolnave
leaves appear mottled spots and light wrinkles. Attacked apar pete marmorate şi uşoare încreŃituri. Fructele atacate
fruits turn into yellow and get deformed, production is se îngălbenesc şi se deformează, producŃia fiind
compromised. Mosaic illness may occur after 45 ... 50 compromisă. Îmbolnăvirile de mozaic pot apărea după
days after planting. Low temperature during the day, 45…50 zile de la plantare. Temperatura scăzută ziua,
favorites the attack on leaves and stems, and high favorizează atacul pe frunze şi tulpini, iar temperaturile
temperatures (over 27ºC) favor the disease on fruit. [4] ridicate (peste 27ºC) favorizează apariŃia bolii pe fructe. [4]
Measures to be taken have a preventive nature. The seeds Măsurile ce trebuie luate sunt de natura preventivă.
should be disinfected before sowing. Temperature SeminŃele trebuie dezinfectate înainte de semănat.
correction help prevent mosaic. Corectarea temperaturii contribuie la prevenirea mozaicului.
Fig. 3 - The cucumber mosaic [4]
The most wide spread fungal diseases are anthracnose Cele mai răspândite boli provocate de ciuperci sunt:
and cucumber downy mildew. antracnoza şi mana castraveŃilor.
Anthracnose (fig. 4) is caused by the fungus Antracnoza (fig. 4) este provocată de ciuperca
Coletotrichum lagenarium and it attacks the fruit, stem and Coletotrichum lagenarium şi atacă fructele, tulpina şi frunzele.
leaves. Barely emerged plants appear with brown-blackish La plantele abia răsărite apar pete de culoare brun-
spots on cotyledons. The leaves develop brown spots that negricioasă pe cotiledoane. Pe frunze apar pete cafenii care
expand, come together and tear leaf. On the underside se măresc, se împreunează şi frunza se sfâşie. Pe faŃa
there is a reddish mold. Fruits attacked have the same inferioară apare un mucegai roşiatic. Fructele atacate prezintă
symptoms. In these spots are located bacteria that cause aceleaşi simptome. În aceste pete se localizează bacterii care
fruit rot eventually. Disease transmission is by seed. Seed provoacă în final putrezirea fructelor. Transmiterea bolii se
treatment is the only means of preventing the cultural face prin sămânŃă. Tratarea seminŃelor este singurul mijloc de
hygiene. The seeds are disinfected before seeding prevenire prin igienă culturală. SeminŃele se dezinfectează
sublimed (1 g in 1 liter of water for 10 minutes). Spraying înainte de semănat cu sublimat (1 g la 1 litru apa timp de 10
with 1% Bordeaux mixture to prevent the spread of the minute). Stropirile cu zeama bordeleză 1% la apariŃia bolii
disease. The fungus overwinters in plant debris. Control împiedică răspândirea. Ciuperca iernează în resturile de
measures during the growing season are conducting plante. Măsurile de combatere în perioada de vegetaŃie sunt
chemical treatments with Dithane M45 is best known efectuarea unor tratamente chimice cu Dithane M45 care este
contact fungicide. [5] cel mai cunoscut fungicid de contact. [5]
Fig. 4 - The cucumber anthracnose [9]
510
Manna at cucumbers is caused by the fungus Mana la castraveŃi este cauzată de ciuperca
(Pseudoperonospora cubensis sin. with Cubensis (Pseudoperonospora cubensis sin. cu Peronoplasmopara
Peronoplasmopara). The morphology of the fungus cubensis). Morfologia ciupercii Pseudoperonospora
Pseudoperonospora cubensis is shown in Figure 5 which cubensis este prezentată în figura 5. Ciuperca prezintă
has a mushroom spawn more branched, expanding un miceliu mult ramificat, care se dezvoltă în spaŃiile
intercellular tissue spaces. From the spawn it get out intercelulare ale Ńesuturilor. De pe miceliu ies prin ostiola
through ostiola stomata. Dissemination of conidia is stomatelor. Diseminarea conidiilor se face cu ajutorul
done using air currents, rain water through the gears, of curenŃilor de aer, al apei de ploaie, prin intermediul
the clothing. Once they arrived on host plant leaves, they uneltelor, al îmbrăcămintelor. Ajunse pe frunzele
germinate in water droplets and produce zoospore, plantelor-gazde, ele germinează în picături de apă şi
which, after swimming in the infected water will start emitting produc zoospori, care, după ce înoată în apă, emit
filaments that penetrate the tissue through stomata. filamente de infecŃie ce pătrund în Ńesuturi prin stomate.
The infection occurs within 24 hours. The Procesul de infecŃie se petrece în decurs de 24 ore.
incubation period lasts 4 ... 5 days. Over winter, the Perioada de incubaŃie durează 4…5 zile. Peste iarnă,
fungus resistant as spores, yellow, spherical. In spring, ciuperca rezistă sub formă de spori, gălbui, sferici.
after decomposition, zoospore tissue will germinate Primăvara, în urma descompunerii Ńesuturilor oosporii
and give rise to numerous zoospore, producing primary germinează şi dau naştere la numeroşi zoospori, care
infections. Sometimes conidia remain viable haulms produc infecŃiile primare. Uneori şi conidiile rămân viabile
greenhouse crops, the crops that spread the field. The pe vrejii culturilor de sere, de pe care se răspândesc la
conidia can survive the high temperatures up to 40 ° C culturile din câmp. Conidiile pot supravieŃui şi la
[1]. temperaturi mai ridicate, până la 40 °C [1].
Fig. 5 - The morphology of the Pseudoperonospora cubensis fungus [1]

(a) Sporangiophore (50 µm). (b) Sporangia attached to distal end of sporangiophores. (c) Sporangia
germinating via cytoplasmic cleavage. (d) Left panel: zoospores. Right panel: encysted zoospore with germ tube. (e) Intercellular
growth: H, haustorium; IH, intercellular hyphae; S, stomata. (f) Scanning electron micrograph of sporangiophore (20 µm). (g) Scanning
electron micrograph of multiple sporangiophores emerging through stomata (20 µm).
Manna at cucumbers attack almost all plant organs such Mana castraveŃilor atacă aproape toate organele plantei
as: leaves, flowers, fruits and haulms. The disease begins ca: frunze, flori, fructe şi vrejii. Boala debutează pe frunze,
on the leaves, the emergence of the green-yellow spots prin apariŃia unor pete de culoare verde-gălbuie, ce vor
that will become yellow and finally will turn open brown. devenii galbene şi la final brun-deschise. Adesea, petele
Often spotting a polygonal shape - Limited ribs. On the au o forma poligonală – limitate de nervuri. Pe fata
underside of the leaf appears grayish-purple feather inferioară a frunzei apare un puf cenuşiu-violaceu,
representing fungus fructifications. Thanks attack leaves reprezentând fructificaŃiile ciupercii. Datorită atacului
which will dry and fall. When favorable conditions for frunzele se usucă şi cad. Atunci când boala are condiŃii
disease to develop is completed and the lack of specific favorabile de dezvoltare, completate şi de lipsa
fungicide treatments, the disease spreads rapidly from leaf tratamentelor cu fungicide specifice, boala se extinde rapid
sheaths - ultimately leading to rapid loss of leaf "dry la tecile frunzelor – conducând în final la pierderea rapidă a
leaves." The attack continues on flowers and young fruits frunzelor “uscarea frunzelor”. Atacul continuă pe florile şi
"causing their fall," finally attack the fungus reaches the fructele tinere „provocând căderea acestora”, în final atacul
plant haulms leading to drying and compromise their ciupercii ajunge pe vrejii plantei conducând la uscarea
culture. The appearance of the disease is favored by the acestora şi compromiterea culturii. ApariŃia bolii este
presence of water droplets on the leaves and the favorizată de prezenŃa picăturilor de apă pe frunze şi
temperature between 16..22 ° C. [10] temperaturii între 16..22°C. [10]
511
The appearance and evolution of downy mildew in ApariŃia şi evoluŃia manei castraveŃilor în sera din
greenhouse cucumbers within INMA Bucharest cadrul INMA Bucureşti
In the greenhouse from the INMA Bucharest are grown În sera din cadrul INMA Bucureşti au fost cultivaŃi două
two varieties of cucumbers, first Cornichon de Paris - soiuri de castraveti, primul Cornichon de Paris - Cucumis Sativus
Cucumis sativus and second Marketmore. Planting scheme şi al doilea Marketmore. Schema de plantare a castraveŃilor din
cucumbers variety Cornichon de Paris is shown in Figure 6. soiul Cornichon de Paris este prezentată în figura 6.
Fig. 6 - Planting scheme for cucumbers Cornichon de Paris variety
Planting scheme for Marketmore cucumbers variety is Schema de plantare a castraveŃilor din soiul Marketmore
shown in Figure 7. este prezentată în figura 7.
Fig. 7 - Planting scheme for cucumbers Marketmore variety
In the period 19.08.-09.19.2014 the emergence and În perioada 19.08.-19.09.2014 a fost urmărită apariŃia
development was monitored for cucumber downy mildew. şi evoluŃia manei castraveŃilor. Primele simptome ale
The first symptoms of late blight occurrence in greenhouse apariŃiei manei castraveŃilor în seră au fost când pe frunze
cucumbers were when the leaves have emerged a large au apărut unui număr foarte mare de pete, cu diametrul
number of spots with a diameter of 2 ... 24 mm, usually de 2…24 mm, de regulă colŃuroase, de culoare verde-
angular, yellowish green (fig. 8) gălbuie (fig. 8).
Fig. 8 - The appearance of cucumber downy mildew
Following evolution of the disease while yellowish green Urmărind în timp evoluŃia bolii petele de culoare verde-
spots have taken the lemon yellow color, it took for only a gălbuie au căpătat culoarea galbenă ca lămâia, pentru ca
few days to become brown (fig. 9) numai după câteva zile să devină brune deschis (fig. 9)
512
Fig. 9 - The disease spots have become yellowish green and colored as lemon yellow
On the right spot per inner face of the leaf it has been În dreptul petelor, pe faŃă interioară a frunzelor, s-a
formed a puff of gray-violet, consisting of asexual format un puf cenuşiu-violaceu, alcătuit din organele de
propagation of the fungus bodies (Fig. 10). înmulŃire asexuată a ciupercii (fig. 10).
Fig. 10 - On the right spot per inner face of the leaf was formed a puff of gray-violet, consisting of asexual propagation of the fungus
bodies
Control measures are taken immediately after the Măsurile de combatere se iau imediat după apariŃia
disease by reducing humidity using for wetting with a bolii prin reducerea umidităŃii, folosind la udat o cantitate
small amount of water. mai redusă de apă.
This measure is completed by spraying plants with Această măsură este completată prin stropirea plantelor
different products, from previous experience observing cu diverse produse, din experienŃele anterioare constatându-se că
that it gives good results in combating blight treatments în combaterea manei dau rezultate bune tratamentele cu
with bordelaise juice 0.75 ... 1% Dithane M-45 at a zeama bordoleză 0,75…1 % şi Dithane M-45 în
concentration of 0.2% by alternation. Application is concentraŃie de 0,2 % prin alternare. Aplicarea tratamentelor
repeated for treatments every 8 ... 10 days. se repetă la intervale de 8…10 zile.
For cucumbers that are grown under glass is Pentru castraveŃii culŃivaŃi în seră este extrem de
extremely important to know technology for culture as important de cunoscut tehnologia de culturǎ, deoarece
requirements for the product that increases from one cerinŃele pentru acest produs creşte de la un an la
year to another. altul.
Accurate diagnosis of a disease at cucumbers Diagnosticarea cu precizie a unei boli la castraveŃi
requires detailed knowledge of the symptoms, which presupune cunoaşterea detaliată a simptomelor, care
takes different forms in the disease over time. îmbracă diferite forme în evoluŃia bolii în timp.
Combating diseases of greenhouse cucumber crops Combaterea bolilor la culturile de castraveŃi din seră
are accomplished through proper and timely se realizează prin aplicarea corectă şi la timp a măsurilor
implementation of cultural hygiene measures, and de igienă culturală şi prin aplicarea unor tratamente
applying chemical phyto-sanitary treatments. fitosanitare cu substanŃe chimice.
[1]. Savory E.A., Granke L.L., Quesada-Ocampo L.M., [1]. Savory E.A., Granke L.L., Quesada-Ocampo L.M.,
Varbanova M., Hausbeck M.K. and Day B. (2011) - The Varbanova M., Hausbeck M.K. and Day B. (2011) - The
cucurbit downy mildew pathogen Pseudoperonospora cucurbit downy mildew pathogen Pseudoperonospora
cubensis, MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 12(3), cubensis, MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 12(3),
217–226, DOI: 10.1111/J.1364-3703.2010.00670.X; 217–226, DOI: 10.1111/J.1364-3703.2010.00670.X;
[2]. Paraschivu A.M. (2010) - Plant diseases, symptoms, [2]. Paraschivu A.M. (2010) - Bolile plantelor-simptomatologie,
causation, prevention and combating, EUC 2010, ISBN cauzalitate, prevenire şi combatere, EUC 2010, ISBN
513
973-8043-87-5; 973-8043-87-5;
3]. http://www.agrokit.ro/castaveti-solar; [3]. http://www.agrokit.ro/castaveti-solar;
[4]. http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/viruses/ [4]. http://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/viruses/
Pages/Cucumbermosaic.aspx; Pages/Cucumbermosaic.aspx;
[5]. http://www.botanistii.ro/blog/tratamente-informatii-legume- [5]. http://www.botanistii.ro/blog/tratamente-informatii-legume-
castraveti; castraveti;
[6]. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cucumis_sativus_ [6]. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cucumis_sativus_
Blanco2.299-cropped.jpg; Blanco2.299-cropped.jpg;
[7]. http://decostyle.mayra.ro/legume/legume/castravetii- [7]. http://decostyle.mayra.ro/legume/legume/castravetii-
cerintele-fata-de-temperatura/397; cerintele-fata-de-temperatura/397;
[8]. http://decostyle.mayra.ro/legume/legume/castravetii- [8]. http://decostyle.mayra.ro/legume/legume/castravetii-
si-nevoia-de-lumina-si-umiditate/398; si-nevoia-de-lumina-si-umiditate/398;
[9]. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-180-W.pdf [9]. https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/BP/BP-180-W.pdf
[10]. http://fdh.ro/blog/2010/12/09/mana-castravetilor-si- [10]. http://fdh.ro/blog/2010/12/09/mana-castravetilor-si-
pepenilor-cucurbitaceelor/ pepenilor-cucurbitaceelor/
[11]. http://www.fitomag.ro/castravete/ [11]. http://www.fitomag.ro/castravete/
[12]. http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castravete [12]. http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castravete
514
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE USE OF SCREW CONVEYOR WITH BRUSHES IN THE

SEED TREATMENT
/
CONSIDERATII PRIVIND UTILIZAREA TRANSPORTORULUI ELICOIDAL CU PERII IN
PROCESUL DE TRATARE A SEMINTELOR
PhD.Stud. Eng. Zaica Al., Ph.D. Eng. Păun A., PhD.Stud. Eng. Ivancu B., Ph.D. Eng. Visan A
Phone: 0726147336; E-mail: zaica_alexandru@yahoo.com
Abstract: Rezumat: Pentru aplicarea substanŃelor chimice in

To apply chemical substances in liquid chemical procesul de tratare chimica lichida sunt utilizate diferite
treatment process are used different methods, metode, instalaŃii si echipamente tehnice de tipul
installations and technical equipment as brush screw transportor elicoidal cu perii. În lucrare se prezintă câteva
conveyor type. The paper presents some theoretical consideraŃii teoretice si constructive referitoare la acest
and constructive considerations about this equipment utilaj component al instalaŃilor pentru tratarea seminŃelor
which is part of cereal seed treatment plants. de cereale.
Keywords: cereal seeds, chemicals, screw conveyor Cuvinte cheie: seminŃe de cereale , substanŃe chimice ,
with brush, chemical treatment. melc cu perii, tratare chimica.
Chemical treatment represents nowadays, the most Tratamentul cu substanŃe chimice reprezintă astăzi
widespread mean to control or prevent some of disease, mijlocul cel mai răspândit pentru combaterea sau
mainly due to high efficiency, low cost and ease of prevenirea unor boli, datorită în principal eficienŃei ridicate,
application [4], costului scăzut şi uşurinŃei de aplicare [4],
Number of toxic substances used for the treatment is Numărul substanŃelor toxice folosite pentru tratare este foarte
high, their compositions are highly varied, and they may mare, compoziŃia acestora extrem de variată, iar aplicarea se poate
be applied wet, semi-dry and especially dry. face pe cale umedă, semiuscată şi în special pe cale uscată.
The wet treatment consists in wetting of seeds solution Tratarea pe cale umedă constă în umectarea
for a period of time. seminŃelor în soluŃii pentru un anumit timp.
Semi-wet treatment is usually done by the gutter Tratarea semiumedă se face de obicei prin mocirlire
(slurry), which consists in forming slurry of the pesticide in (slurry), care constă în formarea unei suspensii a pesticidului
a small amount of water and then mixing the seed with the într-o cantitate redusă de apă şi apoi amestecarea seminŃelor
suspension which will adhere to their surface. Also can be cu această suspensie care va adera la suprafaŃa lor. Tot ca
considered semi-wet treatment method and the spreading tratament semiumed este considerată şi metoda de
of the pesticide in the aerosols form. împrăştiere a pesticidului sub formă de aerosoli.
Dry treatment is simply dusting pesticide made by Tratarea uscată constă în simpla prăfuire cu pesticid, efectuată
mixing the seeds in special machines drums. prin amestecarea cu seminŃe în tobele unor maşini speciale.
As variants of dry treatment are considered seeds Ca variante ale tratării uscate sunt considerate drajarea
pelleting with incorporation of a pesticide in the coated seminŃelor cu înglobarea unui pesticid în drajeu, precum şi
tablet, and the impregnation or infusion of the pesticide in impregnarea sau infuzarea acestui pesticid în straturile
the external layers of the seeds by various methods, such externe ale seminŃelor prin diferite metode, cum ar fi de
as, for example vacuum infiltration. exemplu infiltrarea în vacuum..
By "seed treatment" means any process in which the Prin „tratamentul seminŃelor” se înŃelege orice proces la
seed are subject to before sowing, in order to obtain large care sunt supuse seminŃele înainte de semănat, cu scopul
and stable productions. obŃinerii unor producŃii mari şi stabile.
In scientific literature the seeds treatment are In literatura de specialitate tratamentele la sămânŃă se
classified: diferenŃiază în:
- disinfection treatment - operation applied to eliminate a - tratament de dezinfectare - operaŃiune aplicată pentru
pathogen agent that has entered in to the seed; eliminarea unui agent patogen care a pătruns în seminŃe;
- disinfestations treatment - operation to destroy spores - tratament de dezinfestare – operaŃia de distrugere a
or other forms of pathogenic organisms found on the sporilor sau altor forme de organisme patogene care se
seeds tegument; găsesc pe tegumentul seminŃelor;
- protection treatment – operation that has the purpose - tratament de protecŃie – operaŃiune care are rol de a
to protect the seeds from soil microorganisms. proteja seminŃele de microorganismele din sol.
Once the mode of action treatments are divided into După modul de acŃiune tratamentele se împart în
contact and systemic treatments. tratamente de contact şi tratamente sistemice.
By their nature differs [4]: După natura lor se diferenŃiază [4]:
- physical treatments consisting of subjecting seeds - tratamente fizice care constau în supunerea
of physical processes, ultraviolet radiation, tegument seminŃelor unor procese fizice, radiaŃii ultraviolete,
scarification, thermal shock to seed and soil scarificarea tegumentelor, şocuri termice pentru
disinfection, inactivating viruses, ionizing radiation; dezinfecŃia seminŃelor şi a solului, inactivarea virusurilor,
- biological treatments, consisting in treating the seeds radiaŃii ionizante;
with microorganisms or mixtures of biologically active - tratamente biologice care constau în tratarea seminŃelor
extracts, whose role is to protect the seeds of the action of cu amestecuri de microorganisme sau cu extracte
micro-organisms and pathogens; biologic active, care au rolul de a proteja seminŃele de
- chemical treatment, represented by dipping or mixing acŃiunea unor microorganisme sau agenŃi patogeni;
515
mass planting seeds with chemicals; insecticides, - tratamente chimice: reprezentate de imersia sau
bactericides, fungicides, growth and germination amestecarea masei de seminŃe pentru semănat cu
stimulants, nutrients, or mixtures thereof, where the substanŃe chimice; insecticide, bactericide, fungicide,
various pigments are added to increase the effectiveness stimulenŃi de creştere şi germinare, nutrienŃi sau amestecuri
of the treatment applied to the seed. ale acestora, la care se adaugă diferiŃi pigmenŃi pentru
Mobile installation for seeds treated with liquid creşterea eficienŃei tratamentelor aplicate la sămânŃă.
substances, IMTS 2 (fig. 1)[5] is intended for wet cereal InstalaŃia mobilă de tratat seminŃe cu substanŃe lichide -
seed treatment and crops with fungicides before IMTS 2 (fig. 1) [5], este destinată tratării seminŃelor de cereale
packaging. Can be used on platforms or in warehouses, şi plante tehnice pe cale umedă, cu insectofungicide, înainte
in the farms producing seed, and seed conditioning de ambalare. Poate fi utilizată pe platforme sau în magazii, in
centers. cadrul fermelor agricole producătoare de sămânŃă, cât şi a
Seed treatment equipment MTS-3 (fig. 2) [6], is a centrelor de condiŃionare a seminŃelor.
technical solution that supports solving aspects of Maşina de tratat seminŃe MTS-3 (fig. 2) [6], reprezintă o
pesticide application materials in the recommended soluŃie tehnica care vine in sprijinul rezolvării aspectelor
amount of seed surface in recommended quantity as legate de aplicarea substanŃelor pesticide pe suprafaŃa
evenly as possible. seminŃelor in cantitatea recomandata si in mod cat mai
uniform.
Fig. 1 - Seed treatment mobile installation with liquid solutions – Fig. 2 – Seed treatment machine with screw conveyor with
IMTS 2 [5] brushes, MTS-3 [6]
Presently using screw conveyor machines to treat In prezent utilizarea transportorului elicoidal la maşinile
seeds is widespread, there are many manufacturing de tratat seminŃe este foarte răspândita, existând numeroase
companies wich have models that use this type of firme producătoare care au modele ce folosesc acest tip
conveyer because of its efficiency (fig. 3) and (fig.4) de transportor datorita eficientei lui. (fig. 3) si (fig.4).
Fig. 3 -Seed treatment machine, BV 2590 [7] Fig. 4 – Seed treatment machine, MT PS-5 ‘Fermer’ [8]

Mobile installation seeds treated with liquid substances InstalaŃia mobilă de tratat seminŃe cu substanŃe lichide -
carried by INMA Bucharest consists mainly of (fig.5.) : IMTS 2 realizata de INMA Bucureşti se compune in principal
framework 1; a bunker 2 provided at the bottom with a din (fig. 5): cadrul 1; buncărul de alimentare 2 prevăzut la
clack to ensure uniformity of the flow of seeds; atomizer partea inferioară cu un şibăr care asigură uniformitatea
drum 3, inside which there is mounted a spreading disc; curgerii seminŃelor; toba cu pulverizator 3, în interiorul căreia
Liquid dispenser 4; homogenizer conveyor 5; fluid este montat discul de împrăştiere; dozatorul de lichid 4;
reservoir 6; electrical installation for power and control 7 transportorul omogenizator 5; rezervorul cu lichid 6 şi
(fig. 5 a) instalaŃia electrică de forŃă şi comandă 7 (fig 5 a).
Cleaned beans sorted and calibrated reach free-fall Boabele curăŃate, sortate sau calibrate ajung prin cădere
into the bunker. Under the bunker is fitted with a liberă în buncărul de alimentare. Sub buncărul de alimentare
vibrating part feeder to maintain a constant capacity of este montat un alimentator vibrator cu rol de menŃinere constantă
the installation work. Seed treated, vibrating feeder a capacităŃii de lucru a instalaŃiei. SămânŃa de tratat, la ieşire
output is dispersed on the outer surface of the atomizer din alimentatorul vibrator, este dispersată pe suprafaŃa
516
drum inner cone. Inside the cone, the liquid is finely exterioară a conului interior al tobei cu pulverizator. Din
pulverized by means of a spreading disc with a speed interiorul conului, lichidul este fin pulverizat cu ajutorul unui
of 3000 rev / min. The liquid used for seed treatment is disc de împrăştiere, având o turaŃie de 3000 rot/min. Lichidul
sent to the pump in the bowl with level adjustment, folosit pentru tratarea seminŃelor este trimis de pompă în
where using a special dispenser spray reaches the vasul cu nivel reglabil, de unde cu ajutorul unui dozator
drum. The excess fluid is returned to the dispenser special ajunge în toba de pulverizare. Surplusul de lichid din
fluid reservoir which is taken from the new pump and dozator este returnat în rezervorul de lichid de unde este
recirculated. The drive pump is simultaneous with preluat din nou de pompă şi recirculat. AcŃionarea pompei
screw conveyor with brushes drive [3]. este simultană cu acŃionarea melcului transportor cu perii [3].
a b
Fig. 5 - Seed treatment mobile installation with liquid solutions - IMTS 2[5]
a - equipment drawing, b-drawing of relon yarn screw)
As a result of the forces of friction between the surface Ca urmare a forŃelor de frecare dintre suprafaŃa
of the screw, the screw rotating to the surface of the melcului, prin rotirea melcului particulele sunt ridicate
material particles are lifted and pushed forward in order to către suprafaŃa materialului si împinse spre înainte,
encourage the process of mixing (fig 5. b).. favorizându-se procesul de amestecare (fig 5. b).
During the working process these phenomena occur: In timpul procesului de lucru au loc următoarele
Helical motion of a point is the result of the composition fenomene:[2]
of the two movements[2]: Mişcarea elicoidala a unui punct este rezultatul
- The rotation, characterized by the angle of rotation compunerii a doua mişcări:
around the axis circumference of the spiral with the - Mişcarea de rotaŃie, caracterizata de unghiul de rotire
peripheral velocity vp = π • D • N / 60, where the screw in jurul axei, circumferinŃa spirei având viteza periferica
diameter D m, n - screw speed in rpm / min; vp = π · D· n / 60 , unde D- diametrul melcului in m, n -
- Movement in the axial direction characterized by turaŃia melcului , in rot/min;
distance p with submitting material per revolution of the - Mişcarea pe direcŃia axiala caracterizata de distanta p
screw, the speed will = p • n / 60, where p - is screw cu care înaintează materialul la fiecare rotaŃie a
pitch in [m]. melcului, cu viteza va = p·n /60, unde p – pasul melcului in [m].
Taking into account that the material movement occurs łinând seama ca la deplasarea materialului apar
following resistance: următoarele rezistenŃe:
- Weight component in the direction of travel (the inclined - componenta greutăŃii după direcŃia de deplasare (la
conveyors); transportoarele înclinate);
- Friction material in the gutter; - frecarea materialului în jgheab;
- The resistance of the material mixing; - rezistenŃa opusă de material la amestecare;
- Friction material screw propeller; - frecarea materialului de elicea melcului;
- Friction spindles in the bearings; - frecarea fusurilor în lagăre;
- Friction transmission elements. - frecarea din elementele transmisiei.
and notations in figure 3.b, resulting: si de notaŃiile din figura 3.b , rezulta:
weight component in the direction of movement is the - componenta greutăŃii după direcŃia deplasării are
expression qL0 sin β = qH ; expresia: qL0 sin β = qH ;
- Component in the direction normal weight has the - componenta greutăŃii după direcŃia normală are
expression: qL0 cos β; expresia: qL0 cos β;
- Resistance due to friction material chute has the - rezistenŃa datorită frecării materialului de jgheab are
expression: µ qL0 cosβ = µ qL. expresia:µ qL0 cosβ = µ qL .
Resistance due to mixing in the gutter material is - rezistenŃa datorită amestecării materialului în jgheab
evaluated based on experimental results, increasing se evaluează pe baza unor rezultate experimentale,
resistance to displacement by a factor k0, whose value multiplicând rezistenŃele la deplasare cu un coeficient k0,
depends on the material. a cărui valoare depinde de natura materialului.
Axial force required overcoming resistance is mentioned: - ForŃa axială necesară învingerii rezistenŃelor amintite este:
Fa = k0 (µ qL+ qH ) , [N] (1)
517
where: µ - coefficient of friction of the material by the screw unde: µ - coeficient de frecare a materialului cu elicea
propeller, q - weight per meter of material transported melcului; q - greutatea pe metru liniar a materialului
[N / m]; L - length of the conveyor [m] horizontal transportat [N / m]; L - lungimea transportorului [m], pentru
conveyors and inclined conveyors horizontal transportoare orizontale sau proiecŃia orizontală a
projection; H - pumping transported material [m], if transportoarelor înclinate; H - înălŃimea de ridicare a
inclined conveyors, k 0 = 1,1-1,2 for mild and non- materialului transportat [m], în cazul transportoarelor
abrasive materials; înclinate, k0= 1,1-1,2 pentru materiale uşoare şi neabrazive;
Moment of torsion required to be applied to the screw Momentul de torsiune necesar a fi aplicat la arborele
shaft to overcome the axial force given by equation (1) will melcului pentru a învinge forŃa axială dată de relaŃia (1), va
have the expression: avea expresia:
M = Fa r1 tg (γ +ρ ) , [Nm] (2)
where: r1 - the distance from the axis of the shaft to the unde: r1 - distanŃa de la axa arborelui până la punctul de
point of application of the axial force [m]; γ - angle of the aplicaŃie a forŃei axiale în [m]; γ - unghiul de înclinare a
screw propeller; ρ - angle of friction between the material elicei melcului; ρ - unghi de frecare între material şi elice,
and propellers, tg ρ = µ ; ; [m] where = 0.7 to 0.9 tg ρ = µ ; [m] unde = 0,7 – 0,9 (valorile mai
(lower values correspond to higher fill factor and the mici corespund unui coeficient de umplere mai mare, iar cele
highest correspond to a lower fill factor). mai mari corespund unui coeficient de umplere mai mic).
Power screw shaft required overcoming resistance can Puterea necesara învingerii rezistentelor la arborele
be determined: melcului se poate determina:
(3)
where: M - screw shaft moment of torsion [Nm]; - unde: M – momentul de torsiune la arborele melcului [N
angular velocity of the shaft [rad / sec]. m]; - viteza unghiulara a arborelui [rad/sec].
A technical parameter characteristic of screw conveyors Un parametru tehnic caracteristic al transportoarelor cu
is productivity melc este productivitatea:
, [t/h] (4)
where D - diameter of screw propeller [m] d - diameter unde: D - diametrul elicei melcului [m]; d – diametrul
of shaft [m]; p - screw propeller pitch [m]; n - screw speed arborelui [m]; p - pasul elicei melcului [m]; n - turaŃia
[r / min.]; - filling coefficient, C coefficient that takes into melcului [rot/ min.]; - coeficient de umplere; c- coeficient
account the angle of the conveyor, the weight of the ce Ńine seama de unghiul de înclinare al transportorului,
3
material transported [t / m3] . filling coefficient: ψ = (0.35- greutatea volumica a materialului transportat [t/m ];
0.45) - for grain; ψ = (0.45-0.55) - threshed material coeficientul de umplere: ψ =(0,35-0,45) - pentru grăunŃe; ψ
c coefficient values decrease productivity depending on =(0,45-0,55) - pentru materiale treierate valorile
the angle of inclination of screw β. Tabel 1 [1]. coeficientului c de micşorare a productivităŃii in funcŃie de
unghiul β de inclinare al melcului, tabelul 1 [1].
Tabel 1 [1 ]
Reduction of coefficient values c depending on the angle β
β0 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
c 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.65 0.58 0.52 0.48 0.44 0.34 0.3 0,25
Power can be expressed in function of the coefficient of Puterea se poate exprima si in funcŃie de coeficientul de
resistance to displacement w, this expression becomes rezistenta la deplasare w, expresia acesteia devenind :
[kw] (5)
Where: w = 1.5-1.6 for seeds; g - acceleration of gravity unde: w = 1,5-1,6 pentru seminŃe; g - acceleraŃia
[m / s²]; L - length of the horizontal transport [m]; H – lift gravitaŃionala [m/s²]; L – lungimea de transport pe
height [m]. orizontala [m]; H – înălŃimea de ridicare [m].
Coefficient 1.1 takes into account the additional Coeficientul 1,1 tine seama de rezistentele suplimentare la
resistances to the movement material. To account for the deplasarea materialului. Pentru a tine seama de
weight of the shaft and the crushing strength calculated greutatea arborelui si de rezistenta la mărunŃire puterea
resistance should be increased by (0, 5-1) kW. calculata trebuie majorata cu (o,5-1) kW.
RESULTS REZULTATE
Analyzing the relations presented in the previous Analizând relaŃiile prezentate la capitolul anterior
chapter result that the mixing-transport with a relon yarn rezulta ca in procesul de amestecare-transport cu un
helical screw conveyor occur the following factors related transportor cu melc elicoidal din fire de relon intervin
to: următorii factori care Ńin de:
- nature of the components; - natura componentelor;
- physical state of the components; - starea fizica a componentelor;
518
- properties of components in the mixture (solubility, - proprietăŃile componentelor din cadrul amestecului
viscosity, humectability, particle size and shape of (solubilitate,vâscozitate,umectabilitate, granulometria si
seeds); forma seminŃelor);
- the intensity of mixing; - intensitatea amestecării;
- the operating mode of conveyor; - regimul de funcŃionare al transportorului;
- quantitative ratio of participation in mixture of - raportul cantitativ de participare in amestec al
components; componentelor;
- the quantity or debit of product; - cantitatea sau debitul de produs;
- during of mixing (for intermittent operation); - durata amestecării (pentru regimul intermitent de funcŃionare;
- working temperature; - temperatura de lucru;
- type of mixer (with coiled metal screw, relon yarn - tipul amestecătorului (cu şnec cu spira metalica, cu
screw). spira din fire de relon).
All these factors can be studied and determined during ToŃi aceşti factori pot fi studiaŃi si determinaŃi in timpul
experiments in exploitation conditions with mobile experimentărilor in condiŃii de exploatare cu InstalaŃia
installation for seed treated with liquid substances- IMTS 2. mobilă de tratat seminŃe cu substanŃe lichide - IMTS 2.
Theoretical approach in the case of a screw conveyor Abordarea teoretica in cazul unui transportor elicoidal
with relon yarn shows that during the work process (wet cu melc din fire de relon demonstrează ca in timpul
seed treatment) helical motion of a point is the result of procesului de lucru ( tratarea seminŃelor pe cale umeda)
the composition of two movements: rotational mişcarea elicoidala a unui punct este rezultatul
movement, characterized by the angle of rotation compunerii a doua mişcări: mişcarea de rotaŃie,
around axle, coil circumference having peripheral speed caracterizata de unghiul de rotire in jurul axei,
vp and movement in the axial direction characterized by circumferinŃa spirei având viteza periferica vp si mişcarea
the distance p with submitting material for each rotation pe direcŃia axiala caracterizata de distanta p cu care
of the screw. înaintează materialul la fiecare rotaŃie a melcului.
Also as a result of wet movement material in the Totodată ca urmare a deplasării materialului umed in
conveyor casing appear following resistances: carcasa transportorului apar următoarele rezistenŃe:
- weight component in the direction of movement (the - componenta greutăŃii după direcŃia de deplasare (la
angled conveyors); transportoarele înclinate);
- friction material (seeds + chemical substance) in the - frecarea materialului (seminŃe + substanŃa chimica)
trough; în jgheab;
- the resistance of the material in mixing; - rezistenŃa opusă de material la amestecare;
- screw spiral friction material; - frecarea materialului de spira melcului;
- composition of the spiral screw; - compoziŃia spirei melcului;
- friction spindles in the camps; - frecarea fusurilor în lagăre;
- friction from transmission elements. - frecarea din elementele transmisiei.
For quality treatment is necessary to analyze all the Pentru un tratament de calitate se impune analiza
factors involved in the treatment of seeds with tuturor factorilor implicaŃi in procesul de tratare a
installations that have in their component for mixing and seminŃelor cu ajutorul instalaŃiilor care au in componenta
transport a relon yarn spiral screw conveyor and lor pentru amestecare si transport un transportor elicoidal
determination on experimental path with different seeds cu spira din fire de relon si determinarea pe cale
and various chemicals substances to optimal treatment experimentala cu diferite seminŃe de cereale si substanŃe
solutions. chimice diverse a soluŃiilor optime de tratare .
[1]. Florean R. (2008) - Unit operations: mixing and [1]. Florean R. (2008) – OperaŃii Unitare: Amestecarea si
agglomeration, University Transilvania Publishing House, Aglomerarea, Editura Universitatii Transilvania, pg. 16;
pg. 16; [2]. Hapenciuc M. (2004) – Echipamente de transport in
[2]. Hapenciuc M., (2004) - Transport Equipment in Food industria alimentara, Editura FundaŃiei Universitare‚
Industry, Publishing University Foundation, Dunarea de Dunarea de Jos” Galati, pg. 163-167;
Jos "Galati, pg.163-167; [3]. Manea D. şi colectivul (2012) - Cercetări
[3]. Manea D. and the research collective (2012) - interdisciplinare privind tratarea seminŃelor cu hidrolizate
Interdisciplinary research on seed treatment with de colagen în vederea creşterii indicatorilor calităŃii,
hydrolyzed collagen, to increase the quality indicators, reducerii pesticidelor şi dezvoltarea durabilă a producŃiei
pesticide reduction and sustainable development of agricole, INMA Bucureşti - Studiu tehnologic privind
agricultural production, INMA Bucharest - Technological echipamentele de tratare a seminŃelor, contr.
study on seed treatment equipment, contr. No. 112 / nr.112/26.07.2012;
26.07.2012; [4]. Stepan E. şi colectivul (2012) - Cercetări
[4] Stepan E. and the research collective (2012) - interdisciplinare privind tratarea seminŃelor cu hidrolizate
Interdisciplinary research on seed treatment with de colagen în vederea creşterii indicatorilor calităŃii,
hydrolyzed collagen, to increase the quality indicators, reducerii pesticidelor şi dezvoltarea durabilă a producŃiei
pesticide reduction and sustainable development of agricole, ICECHIM Bucureşti - Studiu documentar privind
agricultural production, ICECHIM Bucharest - potenŃialul de utilizare a hidrolizatelor de colagen in
519
Documentary study on the potential use of collagen tratarea seminŃelor, din cadrul proiectului, contr.
hydrolysates in seed treatment, contr. No. 112 / nr.112/26.07.2012;
26.07.2012; [5]. Fişă tehnica INMA Bucureşti - InstalaŃie mobila de
[5]. Technical sheet INMA. Seed treatment mobile tratat seminŃe;
installation. [6]. Prospect firma AEROMEX – Ucraina;
[6] AEROMEX brochure. Ukraine; [7]. Prospect firma DAGUET – Franta;
[7] DAGUET brochure. France; [8]. Prospect firma MONDISTAR – Moldova.
[8] MONDISTAR brochure. Moldova.
520
CURRENT STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT OF NUTRITIVE CUBES SEEDLING EQUIPMENTS

/
STADIUL ACTUAL DE DEZVOLTARE A ECHIPAMENTELOR DE SEMĂNAT ÎN CUIBURI
NUTRITIVE
Eng. Milea D., Ph.D. Eng. Vişan A.L., Eng. Bogdanof C.G.,
INMA Bucureşti -
Tel: 021.269.32.49; E-mail: milea_dumitru57@yahoo.com
Abstract: In the paper are presented the current stage of Rezumat: În lucrare sunt prezentate tendinŃele de dezvoltare a
development of nutritive seedling nests equipments. This echipamentelor de semănat pentru producerea materialului
subject has a great importance in agriculture because in săditor în cuiburi nutritive. Acest domeniu are o importanŃă
national statistics, can be observed that vegetable cultures deosebită în agricultură deoarece în statisticile naŃionale,
is under developed and for this reason it was necessary to figurează că sectorul legumicol este sub dezvoltat şi din aceste
do this study. considerente a fost necesar acest studiu.
Keywords: seeding equipment, nutritive nests, alveoli, Cuvinte cheie: echipament de semănat, cuiburi nutritive,
small seeds alveole, seminŃe mici.
Nutritive nests seedling equipments known an real Echipamentele de semănat în cuiburi nutritive cunosc
technological upsurge on agriculture industrial market, un avânt tehnologic real pe piaŃa industriei agricole, respectiv
namely on vegetable and flower seedlings, because in the pentru producerea răsadurilor legumicole şi floricole,
intensive agriculture and climate change, was identify the deoarece în contextul agriculturii intensive şi schimbărilor
necessity to obtain good quality seedlings to be planted in climaterice, se identifică nevoia de a obŃine răsaduri de bună
greenhouses as soon as possible or to replaced the calitate care să fie introduse în sere cât mai curând posibil
culture in case of calamity. sau de a înlocui culturile în caz de calamitate.
These equipments have created a special niche on Aceste echipamente şi-au creat o nişă specială pe
seedlings market and get special attention from big piaŃa răsadurilor şi capătă o atenŃie deosebită din partea
farmers that apply a management policy based on marilor fermieri, care aplică o politică de management
intensive agriculture principles, which requires increasing bazându-se pe principiile agriculturii intensive, ce impune
the productivity of greenhouses cultures, salaries and creşterea productivităŃii culturilor în sere, solarii şi chiar pe
even on the field. câmp.
Using this type of equipments it aims to maximize Prin utilizarea acestor echipamente se măreşte să se
the seedling material productivity by assuring the maximizeze productivitatea materialului semincer prin
optimal conditions (temperature, humidity, nutritive crearea condiŃiilor optime (de temperatură, de umiditate,
substances access, assuring the same seeding de acces la substanŃe nutritive, de asigurarea a condiŃiilor
conditions) to germinate and plant growth, assuring in optime de semănare) de germinare şi dezvoltare a
the same time an uniform development mini- plantelor, asigurand în acelaşi timp o creştere uniformă a
seedlings and a good use of energetic and nutritive mini-răsadurilor şi o utilizare eficientă a resurselor
resources. energetice şi nutritive.
In the less developed countries, the nutritive seedling În Ńările mai puŃin dezvoltate semănarea în cuiburi
nests, known also as alveolar seedling, it is mainly nutritive, cunoscută ca şi semănatul în alveole, se face în
manually made and the human operator uses the seedling mare parte manual şi operatorul uman utilizează procedura
procedure seed by seed using mechanical devices or de semănat sămânŃă cu sămâŃă utilizând dispozitive
vacuum instruments. These methods are used by small mecanice sau instrumente cu vacuum, Fig.1. Astfel de
farmers, but despite of this hard labor this methods are metode sunt folosite de micii fermieri, dar în ciuda dificultăŃii
efficient due to a high grade of seedling germination. [15, acestei operaŃii ele sunt efectuate datorită gradului ridicat de
16, 17] germinare a materialului semincer.[15, 16, 17]
Taking in to consideration the advantages and the Având în vedere avantajele şi necesitatea acestor
necessity of that equipment in Romanian agriculture it is echipamente în agricultura românească se impune a se
required a study regarding the current state of development of efectua un studiu privind stadiul actual al echipamentelor
nutritive seedling nests equipments on international level. de însămânŃare în cuiburi nutritive pe plan mondial.
Mini seeders form Pinetreeag. [16] Needle manual seeder.[15]

Fig.1 - Manual seeding instruments
521

Following research carried out on current state of În urma activităŃilor de cercetare privind stadiul actual
development regarding the seedling equipment in nutrient de dezvoltare a echipamentelor de semănat în cuburi
nests - alveole, it was found that the main developers of nutritive – alveole, au fost identificaŃi principalii producători
such equipment in Europe, from Italy and Holland, but de asemenea echipamente din Europa: Italia, Olanda şi
also from the United Kingdom. Anglia.
In the following paragraphs it was made a short În ceeace urmează a fost realizată o sinteză al
analyze of those equipments in the terms of functional acestor echipamente din punct de vedere funcŃional şi
and constructive point of view at European level. constructiv la nivel european.
The Row Seeder SP13A, trade by MOSA Semănătoarea pe rânduri SP13A, comercializată de firma
Company - Italia, is a fully pneumatic that works in MOSA – Italia, este complet pneumatică şi funcŃionează în regim
semiautomatic regime, designed to meet all semiautomat. Aceasta este proiectată pentru a îndeplini toate cerinŃele
requirements from small and medium nurseries producerii de răsaduri în medii protejate mici şi medii, (adecvate pentru
(suitable for sowing a very small quantity of raw seeds semănarea unui număr mic de rânduri cu administrare de substanŃe
and nutritive pills) into any type of tray. It also nutritive sub firma de granule) pentru orice tip de tavă. De asemenea
includes a dibbling mechanism to make centering aceste maşini pot include un mecanism de tasare şi amprentare a
holes into the cavities. Fig. 2. solului în vederea obŃinerii unor cavităŃi centrale în alveole, Fig. 2.
Another Italian company that presents a similar O altă firmă Italiană care prezintă un produs similar
model is the ATLANTIC Company, but in the presentation este compania ATLANTIC, dar în catalogul de prezentare
catalog is mentioned that has many optional devices as: este menŃionat că acesta dispune de mai multe
aspiration system of the remaining seeds in tray; rubber dispozitive opŃionale că: sistem de aspirare a seminŃelor
nozzles for pelted seed and a kit with different types of rămase în tavă, duze din cauciuc pentru plantarea
needles, with internal channels between 0.15. to 1.50 seminŃelor şi un set de ace de tipuri diferite (cu canale
[mm].[1] interne de 0,15 … 1,5 [mm]).[1]
The DA-ROS Company, Fig. 3, also has designed Compania DA-ROS, Fig. 3, de asemenea a proiectat
a semi-automatic seeder SEM100 for small and o semănătoare semi-automată SEM100 pentru seminŃe
medium seeds which has many optional devices, see mici şi medii care este prevăzută cu multe dispozitive
Table 1. obŃionale, Tabelul 1.
Fig.2 - Row Seeder SP13A. [14] Fig.3 - Semi-automatic seeder SEM100. [8]
Table 1
The technical properties of seeders from MOSA and DA-ROS. [8, 14]
Technical data/Model SP13A SEM100
Company MOSA DA-ROS
Power Compressed air 100 [l/min]; 2.25-3 HP Compressed air 50/100 [l/min]
Compressed air – 5 [bar]
Max. tray dimension 720 x 480 x 130 [mm] 700x500x130 [mm]
Dimensions 1400 x 700 x 1350 [mm] 1380 x 675 x 1200 [mm]
(L x W x H)
Weight 80 [kg] 70 [kg]
Seeding capacity 30 [row/min] max 30 rows /min
Dibbling mechanism
Aspiration system of the remaining seeds;
Options Dibbling mechanism
Different types of tray;
Set seeding bars and/or nozzles
The latest seeding machine has an electronically Cel mai nou model de maşină de semănat este dotată cu
controlled drum, made by the URBINATI Company, un tambur comandat electronic, realizat de firma URBINATI –
which permits the seeding of one and more husked or Italia, ce permite semănarea unei seminŃe sau a unui grup de
unhusked seeds in the same cell, from this reason. This seminŃe, corticate sau nedecorticate. De asemenea aceasta
model can be ordered with 1 until 3 seeding drums. This poate utiliza de la 1 până la 3 unităŃi de semănat cu tambur.
type of machine is a LAMBDA seeder, which can Acest model de maşină este de tip LAMBDA şi poate opera ca
operate as multi-seeding equipment, administrating in un echipament multiplu de semănat, administrând în acelaşi
522
the same time with the seeds the nutrient granulated timp cu sâmânŃa şi substanŃele nutritive granulate. Acest
material. Also this equipment has an electro-pneumatic echipament dispune de un sistem elector-pneumatic ce permite
system, suitable for every kind of alveolar tray and utilizarea tuturor dimensiunilor de tăvi alveolare şi seminŃe.
seed. The displacement belt system enables to become Sistemul cu bandă transportoare permite adaptarea acestei
a seedling complete line by adding a: tray filler, a maşinii într-o linie completă de semănat prin adăugarea unor
covering and watering unit, etc.[18] module de: umplere a tăvilor, nivelare şi udare, etc.[18]
The models KAPPA si SF 13, were created for New Modelele KAPPA şi SF 13, au fost create pentru fermierii din
Zealand farmers at a lower cost and can be operated Noua Zeelanda şi sunt cel mai accesibile şi pot fi deservite de o
by one person. These models have proven to be very singură persoană. Aceste modele s-au dovedit a fi cele mai
popular with nursery farmers because, have an populare modele pentru cultivatorii din sere, deoarece au un
automatic tray indexing system and nozzles seed sistem automat de indexare a tăvii şi un mecanism de plantare
sowing mechanism. The machines have a low grade o cu duze a seminŃelor. Maşinile prezintă un grad de complexitate
complexity and yet effective in exploitation, Fig.5 and 6. redus, dar eficiente în exploatare, Fig.5 şi 6.
Fig.4 - LAMBDA drum seeder with one seedling unit and two from URBINATI. [18]
Fig.5 - SF 13 row seeder – URBINATI [18] Fig.6 - KAPPA row seeder - URBINATI [18]
Table 2
Technical seeding equipments made by URBINATI.[18]
Technical data LAMBDA LAMBDA A LAMBDA E KAPPA KAPPA E SF SF/L
Integrated elelctronical panel Automatic advacement
100 – 650 Integrated elelctronical panel
Production Adjustable Adjustable
tray Up to 2400 rows/hour
100 – 600 tray 1700 rows/hour
Tray 580 x 400 750 x 400 750 x 500 750 x 400 750 x 500 600 x 400 750 x 500
dimensions [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
Dimensions
2277 x 1137 x 1100 [mm] 1630 x 931 x 1276 [mm] 1404 x 673 x 1247 [mm]
(L x W x H)
Weight 280 [kg] 200 [kg] 68 [kg] 70 [kg]
Vacuum Pump 750 PVA Venturi system Venturi system
Air Max. 190 [l/min]
Max. 100 [l/min] Max. 190 [l/min]
consumption 80 psi
1 [kW], 400 [V], 3F, 50/60
Installed Power 3.5 [kW], 400 [V], 3F, 50/60 [Hz]
[Hz]
1 tray setup of your choice
vacuum jar for seed
automatic dibbler kit of nozzles: 0.20 – 0.7
Options collection
a covering watering unit kit of silicon nozzles
kit of nozzles: 0.20 – 0.7
kit of silicon nozzles
523
The Drum Seeder DS11, made by FILER SYSTEMS - Semănătoarea cu tambur DS11, relizată de FILER
Nederland, has been designed to be extremely accurate SYSTEMS – Olanda, a fost proiectată pentru a fi foarte
sowing at high speeds of both husked and un husked precisă în semănarea seminŃelor corticate sau nedecorticate.
seeds. Thanks to the innovative design of the drum and Datorită designului inovativ a tamburului şi a sistemului
adjustable vacuum system, the seeds are extremely well reglabil de vacuum, seminŃele sunt foarte bine separate,
separated, resulting in a much-improved sowing results, înregistrând rezultate îmbunătaŃite la semănare, Fig.7.
Fig.7. Sowing multiple seeds per cell is also possible. Este de asemenea posibil să fie semănate mai multe
seminŃe.
Fig.7. Drum Seeder DS11- Filer Systems.[9]
Viser another Netherland Company, with experience over Viser, este o altă companie Olandează, cu experienŃă
40 years, has developed a seeding range that is suitable for de peste 40 de ani, ce a realizat o gamă largă de semănători
all capacity needs and types of seeds. pentru toate capacităŃiile şi toate tipurile de seminŃe.
The Granette 2000 Tex Seeder is a complete Semănătoarea Granette 2000 TEX, face parte din cadru
programmable needle seeder mounted on a conveyor belt. semănătorilor cu ace modulare complet programabile montate
By using the programmable TEX computer several settings pe o banda transportoare. Prin intermediul calculatorului
can be made and stored in the memory. The unique nozzle programabil „TEX”, se poate regla regimul de funcŃionare şi
design features a self cleaning mechanism that cleans out memorare. Caracteristicile unice ale duzelor permite
the nozzle tip after every seeding cycle. IN this way are implementarea unui mecanism de autocurăŃire, care le
avoided blockages and therefore reduces the number of desfundă după fiecare ciclu de semănat. Astfel sunt evitate
seeding errors, Fig. 8. blocajele şi implicit numărul erorilor la semănat, Fig. 8.
Over-head sowing machine OHS-II is a high speed, Maşina de semănat „Over-head sowing” - OHS II este
very accurate and flexible machine for seeding almost any foarte rapidă, precisă şi flexibilă în procesul de semănat a
kind of seed. OHS means ‘overhead seeder’, which means seminŃelor, iar numele ei reprezintă faptul că maşina poate
the machine can seed one entire tray per cycle by using an semăna o tavă alveolară la un ciclu prin utilizarea unui
overhead system. This is formed by a vacuum plate, sistem superior. Acesta este compus dintr-o placă
called: the ‘seeding plate’. The nozzles of the seeding superioară numită placă de semănat. Duzele de pe placa
plate are being cleaned by means of compressed air that is de semănat sunt curăŃate cu ajutorul aerului comprimat
blown through the nozzles after releasing the seeds in the după ce au fost eliberate seminŃele în tuburile de divizare.
tube divider. By changing the seeding plate it is possible to Schimbând placa de semănat este posibil să semene mai
seed multiple seeds per cell. multe seminŃe pe celulă.
Fig.8 - Granette 2000 Tex Seeder – VISSER. [19] Fig. 9 - OHS-II sowing machine – VISSER [20]
“Granudine” - very small seed type seeder is perfect “Granudine” – semănătoarea pentru seminŃe foarte mici,
for seeding unhusked seeds equally in bigger amounts, in este folosită pentru semănatul seminŃelor corticate în mod egal
pots or plug trays, with a high capacity. în grupuri, în ghivece sau tăvi alveolare, de capacitate ridicată.
Seed species, such as Alyssum, Lobelia, different kind Tipurile de seminŃe, ca Alyssum şi Lobelia, sunt câteva tipuri
of annuals and herbs are easy to process with the de plante perene şi ierburi uşor de procesat cu „Granudine”.
“Granudine”. The seeder is equipped with a seed hopper, Semănătoarea este dotată cu un buncăr de alimentare, cu un
524
tube divider and seeding plate. The variety in the amount sistem de divizare cu tub şi o placă de plantare. Cantitatea de
of seeds is obtained by changing the seeding plate with a seminŃe poate să varieze prin schimbarea plăcii de semănare
model with a different size vent. cu un alt model ce are orificii cu alte dimensiuni.
Fig. 10 - Granudine – VISSER. [21]
Semi-automatically stand-alone step seeder - SA 10 Semănătoarea semi-automată - SA 10, are un suport din otel
has stainless steel tray support to move the trays. Also has inoxidabil pentru a susŃinere tava de seminŃe în vederea realizării
a completely pneumatically control. avansului. De asemenea are un sistem de control complet pneumatic.
Fig.11 - SA-10 Semi-automatic stand-alone– VISSER [22]
Table 3
Technical seeding equipments made by VISSER.[19, 20, 21, 22]
Technical data DS 11 Granette 2000 OHS-II Granudine SA 10
Compressor
200 to 1.500
Production capacity 450 [l/min] 700 trays/ hour
trays/hour
220 trays/hour
600 x 400 x 100
Tray dimensions 580 x 400 [mm] 600 x 400 [mm] 600x400x120 [mm]
[mm]
Dimensions 1500 x 600 x 2500 x 780 x 1230 3500 x 1850 x 1500 x 600 x 1400x 675x1175 [mm]
(L x W x H) 1200 [mm] [mm] 2200 [mm] 1200 [mm] (+/- 50)
Weight 250 [kg] 250 kg
Vacuum Pump -
Air consumption 250 [l/min] 150 [l/min]
Installed Power 2.5 [kW] 16.4 [kW]
Dibbling unit
1 set of nozzles and 1
Set for an extra
Options sowing/pressing die
tray size
Compressor
Extra nozzles
The Hamilton Company – England, designed the Compania Hamilton – Anglia, a realizat echipamentul
Handy Seeder for the grower who wants to get started „Handy Seeder” pentru micii fermieri care doresc să îşi
sowing and their own plugs, but do not have the necessary producă propriile mini-răsaduri, dar nu au fondurile necesare
funding to buy an automatic seeder, see fig. 12. pentru a achiziŃiona o semănătoare automată, fig. 12.
The seeds are vibrated in a stainless steel seed tray SeminŃele sunt antrenate într-o mişcare vibratorie în tava
and picked up by holes vacuum device. The handle is de oŃel inoxidabil si apoi sunt preluate de dispozitivul de
moved from the pickup position to the discharge vacuum cu găuri. Mânerul este deplasat de la poziŃia de
position, just above the plug tray. A small vent in the aspirare deasupra răndului anveolar pentru a elibera seminŃele,
handle is covered to release the seeds onto the surface exact deasupra tăvii alveolare. Orificiul din mâner schimbă
of the compost. The tray is moved by hand to the next valoarea presiunii de absorbŃie eliberând seminŃele pe suprafaŃa
525
row and the process can be repeated. The vacuum and compostului. Tava este deplasată manual pe rândul următor şi
vibration can be adjusted for different seed sizes and se repetă procesul de lucru. Presiunea de vacuum şi vibratorul
weights. pot fi reglate în funcŃie de dimensiunea şi masa seminŃei.
Handy Seeder [10] Natural Seeder TSC200 [11] Natural Seeder P100PLC [12] Natural Seeder ECC100P [13]
Fig. 12 - HAMILTON Seeders
The Natural Seeder TC 200 is the industry standard „Natural Seeder TSC200” este o semănătoare
seeder, ideal for the small and medium sized greenhouse standard industrială, ideală pentru sere mici şi medii,
operation; this machine delivers the versatility and prezentând o versatilitate şi precizie adecvată. Acest
accuracy you need. This model presents three methods for model prezintă trei metode de idexare a tăvii sub
indexing the tray under the seeder unit. The entry-level dispozitivul de semănat. Modelul iniŃial prezintă un
model utilizes a hand operated mechanism to step plug mecanism manual de avans al tăvii rând cu rând, iar
trays line-by-line under the seeder, and has the same precizia de semănat este identică cu cele mai scumpe
precision like the most expensive seeding lines. linii.
The model P100 PLC, has an automate indexing Modelul P100PLC, prezintă un mecanism automat de
mechanism of alveolar tray, that is controlled by a PLC to indexare a deplasării tăvii alveolare, comandată de o
synchronize to the ratchet mechanism of the plug tray with unitate PLC pentru sincronizarea mecanismului cu clichet
the seedling unit. The model ECC100P is complex a tăvii cu sistemul de semănat. Modelul ECC100P este un
equipment that has a plug tray displacement unit on echipament complex ce prezintă un sistem de deplasare a
conveyor belt. Also this model is the most performing, tăvii alveolare pe bandă rulantă. Acest ultim model este cel
because it has a seedling unit controlled by a PLC and a mai performant, pentru că are o unitate de însămânŃat
roller dibbler. controlată de un PLC şi tambur cu striaŃii tip crampon.
Table 4
Technical seeding equipments made by HAMITON [10, 11, 12, 13]
Natural Seeder Natural Seeder
Technical data/Model Handy Seeder Natural Seeder TSC200
P100PLC ECC100P
Power Vacuum supplay sorce
Seeding capacity 110 trays/hour
Tray Indexer, Kit of: 0.3 Conveyor system with
3 pick-up tubes of your
[mm] Self-clearing Nozzle PLC controls, 0.3 [mm]
choice: 0.3 [mm] for Needle Nozzle Bar Kit
Bar, 0.6 [mm] Nozzle Bar, Self-clearing Nozzle Bar,
Options small seeds, 0.5 [mm] for and Hand-stepping
Multi-Sow / Dwell Control Vermiculite Coverer,
larger seeds and 0.7 Mechanism
and mounting on Lobelia Kit, Roller Dibbler
[mm].
baseboard. and Needle Nozzle Bar Kit
USA companies which manufacture seedling Companiile din USA care produc echipamente de
equipment for small and smallest seeds in plug trays are: semănat seminŃe mici şi foarte mici în suporturi alveolare
BLACKMORE, BOULDIN and LAWSON, fig. 12. sunt: BLACKMORE, BOULDIN şi LAWSON, fig. 12.
The BLACKMORE company is present on this market Compania BLACKMORE, este prezentă pe acest
segment with three models, which incorporates a needle segment de piaŃă cu trei modele, care încorporează un
seeder system and also other performing systems in these sistem de semănat cu ace şi alte sisteme performante în
automotive equipments in order to increase the quality of echipamentele lor automate pentru a mări calitatea
this technologic process. procesului tehnologic.
The “Can-Duit” seeder is designed for small farmers Semănătoarea "Can-Duit" este proiectată pentru micii
and for research groups, how labor is not so high and the fermieri şi pentru echipele de cercetare, a căror volum de lucru
seeding process of a plug tray can take place in 1-2 nu este foarte ridicat iar procesul de însămânŃare a unei tăvi
minutes, in accordance with seed properties. poate fi realizat în 1-2 minute, în funcŃie de proprietăŃile seminŃei.
The “Turbo/Needle” seeder, establishes a now Semănătoarea „Turbo/Needle” stabileşte un nou
standard regarding the seedling automotive systems with standard pentru sistemele automate de semănat cu ace.
needles. Can work with any type of seeds begging with Aceasta seamănă orice tip de sămânŃă pornind de la cele
begonia and ending with melons, and also for pumpkin, de begonie până la cele de pepeni, şi chiar cele de
peas, corn and bean. On which can be added a double dovlecei, mazăre, porumb şi fasole. La aceasta se poate
seeding system in order to increase the machine ataşa un sistem dublu de însămânŃare pentru a mări
526
productivity, up to 300 trays/hour. This machine has a long productivitatea, până la 300 de tăvi/oră. Aceste maşini au
life time and grade of reliability, and it can be used for o durată de viaŃă şi un factor de încredere ridicat, iar
almost all types of trays. acestea pot fi utilizate pentru majoritatea tipurilor de tăvi.
But the most performant equipment is the cylinder Cea mai performantă semănătoarea cu cilindru, este
seeder, that has a regulation system with 4 positions of prevăzut cu un sistem de reglare cu 4 poziŃii a dispozitivului
the seeder devise, in accordance with the tray type, in de însămânŃat, în funcŃie de tipul tăvii printr-o simplă rotire;
this way in only 5 seconds it can be change the channel astfel în doar 5 secunde se pot schimba dimensiunile
dimension, in 20 seconds it can be adjusted the seeding canalului; în 20 de secunde se poate regla viteza de
speed, the working post preparing it can be without însămânŃat; selectarea posturilor de lucru se face fără a
changing the harware part and in 1 minute can be schimba partea hardware şi într-un minut se poate schimba
relaced the seeding device. This model is designed to dispozitivul de însămânŃat. Acest model este astfel proectat
be used in the frame of the seedling technology and to pentru a funcŃiona în cadrul tehnologiei de semănat şi a
have the same interface with filler and watering asigura interfaŃa cu echipamentul de umplere a tăvilor şi
equipments.[3] echipamentul de stropit.[3]
Can-Duit Seeder [2] Turbo-Needle Seeder [3] Cylinder seeder [4]

Fig. 13 - BLACKMORE seeders
Table 5
Seeder equipments from BLACKMORE [2, 3, 4]
Technical data/Model Can - Duit Turbo-Needle Cylindre
Seeding capacity 0,5 – 1 tray/min 300 trays/h 1200 trays/hour
Vacumm pomp yes
Compresor yes
Base kit with 16 adaptors,
Options Duble seeding system Duble seeding system
Clinig wire; 3 tipes of needles
The model 18320, made by BOULDIN and Modelul 18320, fabricat de compania „BOULDIN and
LAWSON Company, is an entry-level seeder which LAWSON”, este primul model de semănătoare care
requires manually operated tray indexing. All the necesită o indexare manuală a tăvii anveolare. Toate
systems are air powered systems, including the sistemele sunt acŃionate pneumatic, inclusiv sistemul
automatic seed ejection, adjustable vibrator and automat de eliberare a seminŃelor, vibrator reglabil şi
vacuum controls with push-button needle cleaner, sistem de curăŃare a acelor prin vacuum acŃionat de un
Fig.14. buton de comandă, Fig.14.
The Forestry Seeder, made also by BOULDIN and Modelul “Forestry Seeder”, fabricat de asemenea de
LAWSON Company, can sow a wide variety of seed compania „BOULDIN and LAWSON”, poate funcŃiona
types in to most standard nursery and seeding trays. This pentru o varietate mare de tăvi alveolare standard. Acest
model was designed for growers who demands speed model a fost realizat pentru cultivatorii care au nevoie de
and accuracy when sowing small, difficult and odd- viteză şi de precizie în procesul de semănt seminŃe mici,
shaped seeds. Linear action seeding increases accuracy, dificile şi cu forme neregulate. AcŃiunea unităŃii de semănat
with an adjustable vibrator, vacuum controls and large creşte precizia datorită: vibratorului reglabil, unităŃii de
capacity top coating unit for uniform covering of seeding control a vacumului şi un dispozitiv de acoperire uniformă
cell trays. The PLC can provide a quick and easy a tăvilor alveolare.PLC-ul asigură o reglare şi o flexibilitate
change-over. ridicată.
The Precision Needle Seeder will give you increased Modelul Semănătorii de Precizie cu Ace, oferă o
sowing accuracy, simplicity of operation, quick change- precizie ridicată de semănare, simplificare a opraŃiilor,
over, and low maintenance. reglabitate ridicată şi mentenanŃă scăzută.
527
Model 18320 [5] Forestry seeder no.18200 [6] Precision Needle Seeder no.18311 [7]
Fig.13 - BOULDIN and LAWSON seeders
Table 6
Technical properties of BOULDIN and LAWSON seeders [5, 6, 7]
Technical data Model 18320 Model 18200 Model 18311
Compressed air with min. 5.52
Power 110 [V]/single phase 110 [V]/ single phase /60 [Hz]
[bar] at 7CFM
Up to 3000 cell plug trays / Up to 200 trays /hour
Production 100288 cell plug trays / hour
hour 300 with optional seeding head
up to 432 [mm] wide and 89 [mm]
Max. tray dimension
high
Dimensions 1270 x 685,8 x 406.4 [mm] Small
1524 x 914.4 x 1219.2 [mm] 2514.6 x 711.2 x 1320.8 [mm]
(L x W x H) enough for tabletop operation
Weight 20.87 [kg] 173.27 [kg] -
Portability Light weight and compact - 101 casters optional
Semi-automatic tray indexing Multi-row seeder 220[V] /single or three phase/ 50 [Hz]
Options Various tray setups Illuminated dust separation Illuminated dust separation seed pan
Seven sets of needles seed pan; Eight sets of needles Eight sets of needles
In this study it can be seen that this type of equipments În acest studiu se observă că aceste tipuri de
have been developed and commercialized in countries with echipamente au fost dezvoltate şi comercializate în Ńări cu
traditions and concerns from Europe and the world, in the tradiŃii şi preocupări din Europa şi din lume, în domeniul
agriculture industry, respectively on vegetable and floriculture field. agriculturii, respectiv legumiculturii şi floriculturii.
The models presented above has the following Modelele prezentate mai sus au următoarele avantaje
advantages to users: pentru utilizatori:
- reducing labor required for the seeding operation, - Diminuarea forŃei de muncă necesară pentru operaŃiunea
that need high mental and physical effort from the de semănat, ce necesită un efort fizic şi psihic ridicat din partea
operator; operatorului;
- productivity growth of alveolar seeding process using - Mărirea productivităŃii procesului de semănat în alveole
semi-autotimatic or automatic equipments and machines; utilizând echipamente şi maşini semi-automate şi automate;
- the seedling material used, cover a large range of - Tipul materialului semincer folosit acoperă o gamă largă
seeds, form the smallest one that can be compared with de seminŃe, de la cele foarte mici care pot fi comparate cu
the granulation of sand, to the bigseeds; form round granulaŃia nisipului, până la cele mai mari; de la cele cu formă
seeds to those with unregulated shape; form smooth regulată până la cele mai neregulate; de la cele cu suprafaŃa
seeds to burr and porosities seeds; netedă până la cele cu rizuri şi porozităŃi;
- Depending on the workload and greenhouses capacity - În funcŃie de volumul de muncă şi de capacitatea serelor
can be chosen an equipment that meets the needs and se poate alege un echipament care să corespundă nevoilor şi
requirements of farmers and seedling material; cerinŃelor fermierilor şi a materialului semincer;
- Those equipments have the advantage that they are - Aceste echipamente prezintă avantajul că foloseşte ca
used as working agent the compressed air, fluid that agent de lucru aerul comprimat, agent ce nu prezintă pericol
does not present a contamination risk of both seeds de contaminare atât a materialului semincer cât şi a
and compost, and work environment; compostului, şi a mediului de lucru;
- -the seeding accuracy can reach 99.9%, a value - Precizia de însămânŃare poate să ajungă la 99,9%,
that depends on the seed type and size. Once the valoare ce depinde de tipul seminŃei şi de dimensiunile
adjustment parameters were set, the repeatability of acesteia. Odată stabiliŃi parametri de reglare, repetabilitatea
this process is very high and constant in time; acestui proces este foarte ridicată şi constantă în timp;
- The plugs obtained from this process, have the - Mini-răsadurile rezultate în urma acestui proces,
same development rate and use at maximum the înregistrează acelaşi grad de dezvoltare şi utilizează la maxim
528
energetic and nutritional resources from greenhouses; resursele energetice şi nutritive din sere;
- The plugs quality is superior and can cover the - Calitatea mini-răsadurilor este superioară şi poate
farmers production expenses; acoperi cheltuielile de producŃie ale fermierilor.
At national level, these devices are not promoted La nivel naŃional, aceste echipamente nu sunt
to farmers in the field of activity, but are necessary to promovate fermierilor din domeniu, dar sunt necesare
upgrade this segment of agriculture to meet the pentru modernizarea acestui segment de agricultură care
demand for seedling on internal market, by să asigure satisfacerea cerinŃelor de răsad a pieŃii interne,
manufacturing of such equipment of nutritive cubs prin fabricarea unor astfel de echipamente de semănat
seeding at competitive price. seminŃe în cuiburi nutritive la un preŃ competitiv.
This study was conducted in order to support the Acest studiu a fost realizat în sprijinul fermierilor
local farmers, who are encouraged to develop activities in autohtoni, care sunt încurajaŃi să dezvolte activităŃi în
this area and to offer a choice of their adequate and acest domeniu şi oferă posibilitatea unei alegeri adecvate
equipment as needed, especially now when it is made a ale acestora în funcŃie de nevoi şi dotare, mai ales acum
particular focus in accessing the European funds când se pune un accent deosebit în accesarea Fondurilor
regarding the development of local agriculture (especially Europene în vederea dezvoltării agriculturii locale
for youth, small and medium farms). (respectiv pentru tineri, ferme mici şi mijlocii).
[1] *** ”PROMASTER” catalog data sheet, ATLANTIC [1] *** ”PROMASTER” fisa de produs, ATLANTIC MAN,
MAN., www.atlanticgroup.it; www.atlanticgroup.it;
[2] *** „Can-Duit Seeder” catalog data sheet, Blackmore [2] *** „Can-Duit Seeder” fisa de produs, Blackmore
Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com ; Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com ;
[3] *** „Turbo/Needle Seeder” catalog data sheet, [3] *** „Turbo/Needle Seeder” fisa de produs, Blackmore
Blackmore Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com ; Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com ;
[4] *** „Cylinder Seeder” catalog data sheet, Blackmore [4] *** „Cylinder Seeder” fisa de produs, Blackmore
Company Inc.,www.blackmoreco.com ; Company Inc., www.blackmoreco.com ;
[5] *** „Compact Needle Seeder” catalog data sheet, [5] *** „Compact Needle Seeder” fisa de produs, Bouldin
Bouldin and Lawson LLC.,www.bouldinlawson.com ; and Lawson LLC., www.bouldinlawson.com;
[6] *** „Forestry Seeder” catalog data sheet, Bouldin and [6] *** „Forestry Seeder” fisa de produs, Bouldin and
Lawson LLC.,www.bouldinlawson.com ; Lawson LLC., www.bouldinlawson.com ;
[7] *** „Precision Needle Seeder” catalog data sheet, [7] *** „Precision Needle Seeder” fisa de produs, Bouldin
Bouldin and Lawson LLC., www.bouldinlawson.com ; and Lawson LLC.,www.bouldinlawson.com ;
[8] *** „SEM100 SEEDER” catalog data sheet, Da-Ros [8] *** „SEM100 SEEDER” fisa de produs, Da-Ros SRL,
SRL, www.da-ros.com; www.da-ros.com;
[9] *** „Drum Seeder DS11” catalog data sheet, Filer [9] *** „Drum Seeder DS11” fisa de produs, Filer Systems
Systems B.V., www.filersystems.com; B.V., www.filersystems.com;
[10] *** „Handy Seeder” catalog data sheet, HAMILTON [10] *** „Handy Seeder” fisa de produs, HAMILTON
DESIGN LTD,, www.hamilton-design.co.uk; DESIGN LTD, www.hamilton-design.co.uk;
[11] *** „Natural Seeder TSC200”, catalog data sheet, [11] *** „Natural Seeder TSC200”, fisa de produs,
HAMILTON DESIGN LTD, www.hamilton-design.co.uk; HAMILTON DESIGN LTD, www.hamilton-design.co.uk;
[12] *** „Natural Seeder P100PLC” catalog data sheet, [12] *** „Natural Seeder P100PLC” fisa de produs,
HAMILTON DESIGN LTD, www.hamilton-design.co.uk; HAMILTON DESIGN LTD, www.hamilton-design.co.uk;
[13] *** „Natural Seeder ECC100P” catalog data sheet, [13] *** „Natural Seeder ECC100P” fisa de produs,
HAMILTON DESIGN LTD,www.hamilton-design.co.uk; HAMILTON DESIGN LTD,www.hamilton-design.co.uk;
[14]. *** „OrtoFloroVivaismo” machine catalog , Mosa [14]. *** Catalog de masini „OrtoFloroVivaismo”, Mosa
Green SRL, http://www.mosagreen.it.; Green SRL, http://www.mosagreen.it.;
[15] *** Professional Seeder – Lee Valy Tools, [15] *** Professional Seeder – Lee Valy Tools,
www.leevally.com www.leevally.com ;
[16] *** PINETREEAG - Mini seeders, www.pinetreeag.com; [16] *** PINETREEAG - Mini seeders, www.pinetreeag.com;
[17]. Sărăcin I., Pandia O., Bozgă I., Ganea I. (2014) - [17]. Sărăcin I., Pandia O., Bozgă I., Ganea I. (2014) -
Studii privind realizarea unui echipament pneumatic Studii privind realizarea unui echipament pneumatic
pentru semănatul seminŃelor mici în alveole, INMA TEH pentru semănatul seminŃelor mici în alveole, INMA TEH
2014, Vol.43, no. 2/2014, pag.15-21; 2014, Vol.43, no. 2/2014; pag.15-21;
[18] *** „Nursery technology” catalog data sheet, URBINATI, 2014; [18] *** (2014) Catalog „Nursery technology”, URBINATI,
[19] *** „GRANETTE2000” catalog data sheet, VISSER [19] *** „GRANETTE2000” fisa de catalog, VISSER NA,
NA, www.visser-na.com; www.visser-na.com;
[20] *** „OHSII” catalog data sheet, VISSER NA, [20] *** „OHSII” fisa de catalog, VISSER NA, www.visser-
www.visser-na.com; na.com;
[21] *** „GRANUDINE” catalog data sheet, VISSER NA, [21] *** „GRANUDINE” fisa de catalog, VISSER NA,
529
www.visser-na.com; www.visser-na.com;
[22] *** „SA-10” catalog data sheet, VISSER NA, [22] *** „SA-10” fisa de catalog, VISSER NA, www.visser-
www.visser-na.com; na.com;
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CURRENT STAGE OF INSTALLATIONS FOR SEED SEPARATION IN AIRFLOW

/
STADIUL ACTUAL AL INSTALAłIILOR DE SEPARARE A SEMINłELOR IN CURENTI DE AER
1) 2) 1)
Phd. Stud. Eng. Birsan (Mitu) M. , Prof. Ph. Eng. Căsăndroiu T. , Phd. Stud. Eng. Matache M. ,
1) 1)
Phd. Stud. Eng. Ciobanu V. , Phd. Stud. Eng. Rosu (Nitu) M.
1)
INMA Bucharest / Romania; 2)University POLITHNICA Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0724190473; E-mail: marymmsa@yahoo.com
Abstract: Considering that the current trend is to use Rezumat: Având în vedere că tendinŃa actuală este de a
aerodynamic separation installations, replacing the se folosi instalaŃii de separare aerodinamică, înlocuindu-
classical separation (on site), and this paper studies se astfel separarea clasică (pe site), lucrarea de faŃă
the working process of these systems. studiază procesul de lucru al acestor instalaŃii.
Keywords: aerodynamic separation, air stream, solid Cuvinte cheie: separare aerodinamică, curenŃi de aer,
particles, pneumatic separators, floating speed. particule solide, separatoare pneumatice, viteză de plutire
From the process of harvesting, the material obtained In urma procesului de recoltare, materialul obŃinut se
is presented in the form of a mixture of the basic culture prezintă sub forma unui amestec din cultura de bază şi
and different mineral or organic impurities, which is why it diferite impurităŃi de origine minerală sau organică, motiv
cannot meet the required quality of the standards in pentru care el nu poate satisface cerinŃele de calitate
force. Thus, before taking a certain destination impuse conform standardelor în vigoare. Astfel, înainte
(industrialization, keeping, storage, etc.) the harvested de a primi o anumită destinaŃie (industrializare, păstrare,
product must be subjected to cleaning and sorting depozitare, stocare etc.), produsul recoltat trebuie să fie
operations. supus unor operaŃii de curăŃire şi sortare.
An efficient cereal seed separation and sorting has a O separare şi o sortare eficientă a seminŃelor de cereale
great importance in the production of quality food au o importanŃă deosebită în producŃia de produse alimentare
products based on cereals. These operations are carried pe bază de cereale de calitate. Aceste operaŃii sunt efectuate
out using machines and installations that must meet cu maşini şi instalaŃii care trebuie să îndeplinească anumite
certain requirements, for a good progress of the work cerinŃe, pentru desfăşurarea în bune condiŃii a procesului
process, such as: to ensure the obtaining of a quality de lucru cum ar fi: să asigure obŃinerea unui produs de
product that satisfies the requirements of the standards in bună calitate care să satisfacă cerinŃele standardelor în
force, does not cause harm to the material particles, to vigoare; să nu producă vătămarea seminŃelor; să fie
be simple from a constructive point of view, to allow simple din punct de vedere constructiv; să permită
adjustment in wide limits of the functional parameters reglarea în limite largi a principalilor parametri funcŃionali
related to the work process specific to every machine, to legaŃi de procesul de lucru specific fiecărei maşini; să
require an energy consumption as low as possible. necesite un consum de energie cât mai redus.
These machines go through a permanent Aceste aparate sunt într-o permanentă transformare,
transformation, both in terms of technical performance atât din punctul de vedere al performanŃelor tehnice, cât
and also the creativity and design tending to maximize şi al creativităŃii şi al design-ului tinzând către o
reliability, which leads to the manufacturing of an maximizare a fiabilităŃii, ceea ce duce la realizarea unui
impressive number of machine options. număr impresionant de variante de utilaje.
The equipments that will be presented and analyzed Cele mai des întâlnite pentru realizarea curăŃirii şi
bellow are most commonly found in production for achieving precurăŃirii seminŃelor sunt echipamentele ce vor fi
seed purification with the help of technical systems that work prezentate şi analizate în continuare, care lucrează pe
on the principle of separating seeds according to their principiul separării după proprietăŃile aerodinamice,
aerodynamic properties, a type of separation also called separare denumită şi separare aerodinamică sau
aerodynamic or pneumatic separation [1]. pneumatică [1].
Pneumatic or aerodynamic separation represents, in Separarea pneumatică sau aerodinamică
the case of products obtained from agriculture, the first reprezintă, în cazul produselor obŃinute din agricultură,
conditioning operation for the storage of cereals and prima operaŃie de condiŃionare. Separarea pneumatică
oleaginous seed. Pneumatic separation takes place are loc în mod diferenŃiat, în funcŃie de masa
differentially, depending on the mass of the particles, the particulelor, viteza aerului şi de direcŃia curentului de
air speed and the direction of the air stream [1]. aer [1].
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODĂ

The concerns of the agricultural machines designers and Preocupările proiectanŃilor şi constructorilor de maşini
constructers are focused on the direction of increasing agricole se canalizează în direcŃia creşterii calităŃii
the quality of the seeds used both for sowing and for seminŃelor de cereale folosite atât pentru semănat, cât şi
consumption by making new machines and installations pentru consum prin realizarea unor noi maşini şi instalaŃii
for cleaning and sorting seeds, or by continuously pentru curăŃirea şi sortarea seminŃelor, sau prin îmbunătăŃirea
improving the performance of the existing machines. continuă a performanŃelor utilajelor existente.
Analyzing the achievements in the country and Analizând realizările în Ńară şi străinătate, au fost
abroad, were identified many equipments that conduct air identificate mai multe echipamente care efectuează
stream separation. The most effective ones will be separarea în curenŃi de aer. Cele mai eficiente dintre ele
presented bellow. vor fi prezentate în cele ce urmează.
RESULTS REZULTATE
Daguet air separators (fig. 1) are manufactured by the Pneumoseparatoarele Daquet (fig. 1), sunt realizate
531
French company “Daguet”, and their functional principle de firma franceză ”Daquet”, al căror principiu funcŃional
consists in extracting reverse compared to the flowing constă în extragerea în sens invers sensului de curgere a
direction of the mixture of light components, whose amestecului a componentelor uşoare, a căror viteză de
transportation speed is inferior to the floating speed of transport este inferioară vitezei de plutire a seminŃelor
the base crop seeds. culturii de bază.
This is achieved with the help of centrifugal, mono Acest lucru îl fac cu ajutorul ventilatoarelor centrifuge
vacuum, high efficacy ventilators, equipping them. The monoaspirante de mare eficacitate cu care sunt echipate.
two versions are simple and compact and are fitted in the Cele două variante sunt simple şi compacte şi se
upper extremity of the equipment column in the technical montează în extremitatea superioară a coloanei de utilaje
tunnel of high capacity silos. din tunelul tehnic al silozurilor de mare capacitate.
Fig. 1 – Daguet air separators diagram [4]

a) version DA.67; b) version SP-68 ; A –pre cleaned seed collectors; B –impurities collector;
1 – electric motor; 2 – feeding tube; 3 – impurities aspiration chamber; 4 – uniform distribution cone; 5 – funnel for collecting pre cleaned seeds
The Canadian company „Carter day” manufactured Firma canadiană „Carter day” a realizat precurăŃitorul
the mobile scalperator (fig. 3), whose functional principle mobil (fig. 2), al cărui principiu funcŃional combină
combines the advantages of both methods of separation avantajele a două metode de separare – reŃinerea
– retention of large particles on the cylindrical sieve and particulelor mari pe sita cilindrică şi antrenarea totală a
total entrainment of the small particles by an ascending particulelor uşoare de către un curent ascendent de aer.
air stream. The air is distributed in counter stream in the Aerul este repartizat în contracurent în masa de seminŃe
cereal mass (passed through the sieve) through the (trecute prin sită) prin canalul de aspiraŃie. Aici
aspiration channel. Here, it engages small particles, antrenează particulele uşoare, eliminându-le, după ce
eliminating them, after first passing through the expansion mai întâi au fost trecute prin camera de expansiune pentru
room for retaining, by setting at the base of the chamber, the reŃinerea, prin depunere la baza camerei, a particulelor
heavy impurity particles that are evacuated afterward. grele de impurităŃi, care sunt evacuate mai apoi.
Fig. 2 – Scalperator flow diagram [2]
The Danish company „Konskilde” achieved in two Firma daneză „Konskilde” a realizat, în două variante:
versions: the version with electric drive and the version cu acŃionare electrică şi cu acŃionare de la priza de
driven from the tractor’s PTO, a seed cleaner solution – putere a tractorului, o soluŃie de separator – KDC 8000
KDC8000 (fig. 3) that combines the separation (fig. 3) care îmbină posibilităŃile de separare ale sitelor
possibilities of cone and cylinder sieves with the ones of conice şi cilindrice cu cele ale câmpului aerodinamic.
the aerodynamic field. Astfel, amestecul de cereale şi impurităŃi ajunge din
The unclean grain flows from the hopper (1) into the pâlnia de alimentare (1) pe sita conică interioară (2) care
conical inner screen (2) that keeps the large impurities reŃine impurităŃile mari şi permite trecerea cerealelor şi a
and allows the grain and small impurities to pass through, impurităŃilor mici, care cad pe sita cilindrică exterioară (3).
on the outer cylindrically screen (3). Its dimensions are Dimensiunile acesteia sunt proiectate astfel încât să
designed to keep the grain back and to allow light reŃină cerealele şi să permită căderea impurităŃilor uşoare
impurities to fall through. prin sită.
This separator is installed with an inclination of approx. Acest separator este instalat cu o înclinare de cca. 9 º
9 º to the rear, for aiding the material to move across the spre spate, pentru a ajuta deplasarea materialului pe site
532
screens as a result of the rotary movement of the drum ca urmare a mişcării de rotaŃie a tamburului (cca. 22
(approx. 22 rpm). After this mechanical cleaning, the rpm). După curăŃirea mecanică, materialul supus
unclean material is lead to the pneumatic cleaner (9) separării este condus la curăŃitorul pneumatic (9) unde
where are extracted the light impurities and dust. sunt extrase praful şi impurităŃile uşoare.
The impurities from both screens are collected in a ImpurităŃile din ambele site sunt colectate într-un
trough at the bottom of the unit, where is an auger (4) jgheab în partea de jos a unităŃii, în care se găseşte
that das the evacuation of it through (13) (used when transportorul elicoidal (4) ce efectuează evacuarea
grading malting barley) or through the screenings outlet acestora prin (13) (când se separă orz de bere) sau prin
(5). The large impurities, separated by inner screen can orificiul de evacuare (5). ImpurităŃile mari, separate prin
also be discharged separately, through (12). sita conică pot fi evacuate şi separat, prin (12).
The cleaning efficiency generally depends on the EficienŃa separării depinde, în general, de capacitatea
capacity because a smaller load on the screens provides de curăŃare deoarece o încărcare mai mică a sitelor
a better separation of impurities. asigură o bună separare de impurităŃi.
The capacity guidelines of the KCD8000 cleaner is 80 Capacitatea de precurăŃare a utilajului KCD8000 este
t/h for pre-cleaning, but depends on the way it is installed în medie de 80 t/h, dar depinde de modul în care este
and what sieves are used, thus: at a higher inclination instalat şi de sitele ce se folosesc, astfel: la o înclinaŃie
(makes the unclean material to pass faster over the mai mare (ce permite trecerea mai rapidă a materialului
sieves) the capacity increase, but the cleaner’s efficiency de separat pe site) creşte capacitatea, dar scade
is reduced; using sieves with smaller holes provide better eficienŃa de curăŃare; iar nişte site cu găuri mai mici
cleaning at a lower capacity. asigură o curăŃare mai bună, dar la o capacitate redusă.
Fig. 3 – Flow diagram of KDC8000 combined cleaner [6]

1 – hopper, 2 – inner screen, 3 – outer screen, 4 – auger, 5 – screenings outlet, 6 – fan, 7 – venturi, 8 – scoop elevating section, 9 – pneumatic
cleaner, 10 – cleaned grain outlet, 11 – air bleed, 12 – outlet from inner screen, 13 – outlet used when grading malting barley
In order to clean cereal mixtures, Marot company Pentru precurăŃirea amestecurilor cerealiere firma
manufactures an aspiration pre-cleaner (fig. 5), with Marot realizează un precurăŃitor cu aspiraŃie (fig. 5), cu
centrifugal double-aspirating ventilator and sediment chamber, ventilator centrifug dublu-aspirant şi cameră de
equipment that valorizes the separation principle achieved sedimentare, utilaj ce valorifică principiul de separare
using an aerodynamic field aspirated according to the realizat cu ajutorul câmpului aerodinamic aspirat după
flowing difference of the components of the mixture. diferenŃa de plutire a componentelor amestecului.
Fig. 5 – Aerodynamic pre-cleaner [3]

G – intake, P – clean product evacuation, M – settling chamber, V – evacuation of aspirated light impurities
For the seeds pre-cleaning, too, INMA has realized the Tot pentru precurăŃirea seminŃelor INMA Bucureşti a
experimental model of TC 600 Combined Separator. This realizat modelul experimental Separator Combinat TC600.
technical equipment makes the separation of impurities Acest echipament tehnic realizează o separare a impurităŃilor
on the aerodynamic properties difference between seeds pe baza diferenŃei de proprietăŃi aerodinamice între seminŃe
and impurities, being driven by electro-vibrators and şi impurităŃi, cu acŃionare cu electrovibratoare şi cu
technical and functional parameters raised to global. The parametrii tehnico-funcŃionali de nivelul celor de pe plan
operating principle is shown in fig. 5. mondial. Principiul de funcŃionare este prezentat in fig. 5.
533
Fig. 5 - Flow sheet of the TC 600 combined separator: [5]

1. - case; 2. - hopper; 3. - flow adjustment system; 4. – separation plan (vibrating sieve); 5. – air flow adjustment valve in the vertical
channel; 6. - air flow adjustment aspiration valve of the sieve; 7. – the suction opening; 8. – small impurities evacuation funnel; 9. –
clean product evacuation funnel; 10. – electro-vibrator; 11. – elastic elements; 12. – side viewfinder; 13. – visiting cap;
A – product supply; B – clean product evacuation; C – small impurities evacuation; D - evacuation of aspirated light impurities
Through the hopper (2) and flow adjustment device (3) Prin pâlnia de alimentare (2) pătrunde în utilaj materialul
the cleaning product is entering the equipment. The ce necesită a fi curăŃat, fiind controlat de dispozitivul
product arrives on the sieve that is actuated by those two pentru controlul debitului (3). Produsul ajunge pe sita
electro-motors, where it will be separated by size and acŃionată de cele două electrovibratoare, unde este
airflow. supus separării atât după marime, cât şi în curent de aer.
The airflow separation is achieved with the double Separarea în curent de aer se efectuează cu ajutorul
aspiration channel that is provided with independent air dublului canal de aspiraŃie prevăzut cu dispozitive independente
control devices (5, 6); above the vibrating sieve is located de reglare a aerului (5, 6). Peste sita vibratoare este amplasat
a suction channel and controls the layered suction and un canal de aspiraŃie şi controlează aspiraŃia stratificată,
the other is vertically mounted and controls the impurities iar celălalt este montat vertical şi controlează aspiraŃia
suction from the light product fraction. impurităŃilor de la fracŃia produselor uşoare.
Modifying the cross-section of the suction channels Modificând secŃiunea transversală a canalelor de
with the aid of control valves is achieved the control of aspiraŃie cu ajutorul supapelor de reglaj se realizează
the rate of air flow. The impurities are progressive reglarea vitezei curentului de aer din acestea. ImpurităŃile
removed, with the product sliding on sieves (small se elimină progresiv, odată cu deplasarea produsului pe
impurity - C), under the action of ascending air current sită (impurităŃi mici – C), sub acŃiunea curentului ascendent
(light impurities located on sieve - D) and the second de aer (impurităŃi uşoare aflate pe sită – D), cât şi în al
suction channel where the clean product suffers a new doilea canal de aspiraŃie unde produsul curăŃat este
removal of light impurities. supus unei noi aspiraŃii a impurităŃilor uşoare.
The working process can be visualized due to inspection Întregul proces de lucru se poate vizualiza datorită
windows (12) with who is provided combined separator. ferestrelor de inspectare (12) cu care este prevăzut
With the aid of elastic elements (11) is achieved the separatorul combinat. Cu ajutorul elementelor elastice
dampening of the vibrations of sieve, that allows the (11) se realizează amortizarea vibraŃiilor sitei, ceea ce
protection of the foundation against shock vibrations. permite protejarea fundaŃiei împotriva şocurilor vibratorii.
On conducting this study was found that the Cu ocazia realizării acestui studiu s-a constatat că
aerodynamic separation can’t replace the separation on separarea aerodinamică nu poate înlocui separarea pe
sieves. Moreover, it is recommended to combine the site. De altfel, chiar se recomandă combinarea separării
separation in air stream with the sieve separation in order în curenŃi de aer cu separarea pe site pentru creşterea
to grow the purity degree of the separated product, so gradului de puritate a produsului separat, care să
that it meets the requirements of the standards in force. satisfacă cerinŃele standardelor în vigoare.
This fact is highlighted by the technical solutions Acest lucru este evidenŃiat de soluŃiile tehnice prezentate
presented above, that achieve a better cleaning when the mai sus, care realizează o curăŃare mai bună atunci când
principles by which the separation is made are combined. se combină principiile după care se face separarea.
[1]. Căsăndroiu T. (1993) – Equipment for primary [1]. Căsăndroiu T. (1993) – Utilaje pentru prelucrarea primară
processing and storage of agricultural products, Course, şi păstrarea produselor agricole, Curs, Vol. 1, Universitatea
Vol. 1, University Politehnica of Bucharest; Politehnica Bucureşti;
[2]. *** Prospect CARTER DAY company; [2]. *** Prospect firma CARTER DAY;
[3]. *** http://www.cfcai.com; [3]. *** http://www.cfcai.com;
[4]. *** Prospect DAGUET company; [4]. *** Prospect firma DAGUET;
[5]. *** Prospect INMA, Flow diagrams of seeds sorting [5]. *** Prospecte INMA, scheme tehnologice de maşini
machines; de sortat seminŃe;
[6]. *** http://www.kongskilde.com/ [6]. *** http://www.kongskilde.com/
534
DISTRIBUTION APPARATUS USED ON SPREADING EQUIPMENTS TO MANAGE

GRANULATED CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS
/
APARATE DE DISTRIBUTIE UTILIZATE PE ECHIPAMENTELE DE ADMINISTRAT
INGRASAMINTELE CHIMICE GRANULATE
1) 1) 2) 1)
Ph.D. Stud. Ing. Petcu A.S. , Ph.D. Ing Popa L. , As. Ph.D. Ing Stud. Toderaşc P. , Ph.D. Ing Ciupercă R. ,
1) 2)
Ph.D. Stud. Ing Stefan V. ,As. Ph.D. Ing Avramescu A.-M.
INMA Bucharest / Romania 1); Politehnica University of Bucharest / Romania 2)
Tel: 0752061925 ; E-mail: albert_petcu@yahoo.ro
Abstract: The administration of fertilizer is the most Rezumat: Administrarea de îngrăşăminte reprezintă cea
important measure to enhance the productive potential of mai importantă măsură în vederea creşterii potenŃialului
the soil. In this paper we will present some constructive productiv al solului. In aceasta lucrare se vor prezenta
solutions of distribution devices that are attached to the cateva soluŃii constructive ale aparatelor de distributie care
equipment to administer granulated chemical fertilizers, sunt atasate echipamentelor de administrat ingrasaminte
revealing in highlighting their advantages and chimice granulate, scoŃând în evidenŃă avantajele si
disadvantages, according to agro-tehnical requirements. dezavantajele acestora, conform cerintelor agrotehnice.
Keywords: administration, equipment, fertilizer, Cuvinte cheie: administrare, aparate, îngrăşăminte

constructive solutions; chimice, soluŃii constructive;
Chemical fertilizers represented, in our country, since Îngrăşămintele chimice au reprezentat, în Ńara noastră,
the beginning of the century IX, a solution for expanding încă de la începutul secolului IX, o soluŃie pentru
the amount of nutrients, with a view to improving the completarea necesarului de substanŃe nutritive, în vederea
conditions of growth and development of agricultural îmbunătăŃirii condiŃiilor de creştere şi dezvoltare a
plants, namely to improve the general condition of fertility plantelor agricole, respectiv de ameliorare a stării generale
of the soil. de fertilitate a solului.
Intensive agriculture, soil washing by pluvial waters, Agricultura intensivă, spălarea solurilor de către apele
pluviale, nerespectarea rotaŃiei culturilor conduc la
rotation crop failure leading to impoverishment of the soils
sărăcirea solurilor în substanŃe minerale şi incapacitatea
in minerals and the inability to ensure a good plant growth.
de a asigura o bună creştere a plantelor. Fertilizarea
Fertilization consists in the addition of minerals, with constă în adăugarea de substanŃe minerale, cu diverse
various specific equipment, on soils impoverished in echipamente specifice, pe solurile sărăcite în substanŃe
nutrients mineral fertilizers, by completing the necessary nutritive, îngrăşămintele minerale completând necesarul
nutrients for plant development, leading to increased crop de substanŃe nutritive pentru dezvoltarea plantelor,
productivity [2]. conducând la creşterea productivităŃii recoltelor [2].
Determine the type of the most suitable fertilizer for Stabilirea tipului de îngrăşământ cel mai potrivit pentru
plants to be cultivated, optimal management in time and plantele care urmează a fi cultivate, administrarea optimă
quantity of fertilizer choice ensures an increase in în timp şi cantitate a îngrăşământului ales asigură o
productivity, in general, by 50%, and in some cultures creştere a productivităŃii, în general, cu 50%, iar la unele
even with 80% [4,5]. Enriching substances nutritious soil culturi chiar cu 80% [4,5]. ÎmbogăŃind substanŃele
and at the same time, enhancing physical, chemical and hrănitoare ale solului şi totodată, ameliorând
biological characteristics thereof, fertilizers and plant caracteristicile fizice, chimice şi biologice ale acestuia,
environment ensures optimal development conditions and îngrăşămintele asigură plantelor un mediu optim şi condiŃii
incomparable better [2,5]. de dezvoltare incomparabil mai bune [2,5].
Pentru a creşte şi a se dezvolta normal, plantele au
To grow and develop normally, plants need carbon,
nevoie de carbon, hidrogen şi oxigen, pe care le iau din
hydrogen and oxygen, which they take in from air and
aer şi apă, plus 13 elemente minerale esenŃiale numite
water, plus 13 essential mineral elements called nutrients substanŃe hrănitoare sau fertilizatori, pe care în mod
or fertilizers, which normally they take from the soil [2,4,5]. normal le iau din sol [2,4,5]. După o folosire neraŃională a
After irrational using soil resources, these nutrients resurselor pedologice, acestea sărăcesc în substanŃe
impoverish and human intervention is required by hrănitoare şi este necesară intervenŃia omului prin
application supported by specific chemical fertilizers, aplicarea susŃinută de îngrăşăminte chimice specifice,
based on soil deficiencies. Therefore, replace nutrients funcŃie de carenŃele solului. Prin urmare, îngrăşămintele
fertilizers on plants absorb them from the soil, and without înlocuiesc nutrienŃii pe care plantele îi absorb din sol, iar
these harvests would be reduced [2,4,5] fara acestea recoltele ar reduse [2,4,5]
The economic and balanced use of fertilizer is Folosirea economică şi echilibrată a îngrăşămintelor
influenced by various factors such as climate, soil and este influenŃată de diferiŃi factori cum sunt: planta, clima şi
plant. Plants absorbed from the soil nutrients in amounts solul. Plantele asimilează din sol substanŃe nutritive în
that vary depending on periods of development. If, under cantităŃi care variază în funcŃie de perioadele de
the same conditions, the nutrient needs vary from plant to dezvoltare. Dacă, în aceleaşi condiŃii, necesarul de
plant, nutritious elements in fertilizer uptake varies and it substanŃe nutritive variază de la plantă la plantă,
asimilarea elementelor hrănitoare din îngrăşăminte variază
according to the characteristics of the roots of the plant.
şi ea în funcŃie de caracteristicile rădăcinilor plantei. Din
For this reason, the fertiliser is given closer to the root of
acest motiv, cu cât îngrăşământul este administrat mai
the plant, with both plants will assimilate better the aproape de rădăcina plantei, cu atât plantele vor asimila
535
substances that are necessary. Even though there are mai bine substanŃele care le sunt necesare. Chiar dacă
other factors, heat and pluvial waters distribution largely există şi alŃi factori, căldura şi repartiŃia pluvială
influences the process of assimilation by plants of influenŃează în mare măsură procesul de asimilare de
nutrients from fertilizer [3,5]. către plantă a substanŃelor nutritive din îngrăşământ [3,5].
MATERIALE SI METODA
MATERIALS AND METHODS Maşinile şi echipamentele pentru aplicat îngrăşăminte
Machinery and equipment for applied chemical chimice au ca destinaŃie administrarea pe suprafaŃa solului
fertilizers to the soil surface as a destination of the sau distribuirea şi încorporarea în sol a îngrăşămintelor şi
administration, distribution and the incorporation fertilizers conform cerinŃelor agrotehnice ale plantelor de cultură.
according to agronomic requirements of the crop. Echipamentele de administrat ingrasaminte chimice
The granular chemical fertilizer distribution equipments granulate sunt maşini cu acŃionare mecanică, semipurtate
are mechanically operated machine, semi-mounted or sau purtate. În Figura 1. este prezentată o maşină de
mounted. Figure 1 presents a semi-mounted fertilizer împrăştiat îngrăşăminte chimice semipurtată.
spreaders. Principalele component sunt:
The main components are: - cadru prevăzut cu roŃi şi dispozitiv de tracŃiune,
- framework with wheels and traction device, - benă pentru îngrăşământ,
- trailer body for the fertilizer, - transportor,
- conveyor, - dozator,
- the dispenser, - distribuitor şi mecanism de transmisie.
- the distributor and transmission mechanism. În timpul lucrului îngrăşămintele din benă sunt
While working trailer body fertilizers are driven by the antrenate de banda transportorului, trec prin fanta
conveyer belt, passing through the dispenser slit and then dozatorului şi apoi sunt dirijate cu ajutorul unui jgheab pe
routed through a tray on the distributor disk performing the discul distribuitor care realizează împrăştierea lor pe sol.
spreading on the ground. Echipamentele tehnice de imprastiat ingrasaminte
Technical equipment of granulated chemical fertilizers chimice granulate pot fi purtate sau semipurtate şi trebuie
spreaders can be mounted or semi mounted and must să răspundă următoarelor cerinŃe:
meet the following requirements: - Sa asigure distribuirea mai multor tipuri de
-To ensure the distribution of different types of fertilizers; îngrăşăminte;
-To achieve the requirements imposed the norm of - Sa realizeze norma de îngrăşământ impusă de
fertilizer plants; cerinŃele plantelor;
-To achieve uniform distribution (maximum deviation +/- - Sa realizeze uniformitatea distribuŃiei (abaterea
20%); maximă +/- 20%);
-To ensure an easy exploitation [10]. - Sa asigure exploatarea uşoară [10].
Fig. 1-Scheme of operation of the chemical fertilizer machine [9]:

1-framework; 2-traction device; 3-wheels; 4-the hopper; 5-conveyor; 6-tray; 7-disc spreader; 8- cardanic transmission;
9-the driving gear wheel; 10-dispensing handles of the mixers; 11-fertilizers
RESULTS REZULTATE
Distribution equipment with pneumatic action Aparatele de distribuŃie cu acŃiune pneumatică
ensures the distribution of fertilizer dosage asigură distribuirea îngrăşămintelor dozate mecanic cu
mechanically by means of a current of air created by a ajutorul unui curent de aer creat de un ventilator (Fig. 2.).
fan (Fig. 2.). The airflow at a speed of about 30-35 m/s, Curentul de aer cu o viteză de circa 30 –35 m/s, trece prin
passes right through a dispenser and picks up the dreptul unui dozator şi preia îngrăşământul. Particulele
fertiliser. The particles are entrained by the air stream sunt antrenate de curentul de aer şi transportate până la
and transported to distribution head, then through the capul de distribuire, apoi prin tuburile de conducere, ajung
driving tubes, arrive at the ends of the spreader and are la capetele de împrăştiere şi sunt administrate pe sol.
administered on the ground. Numărul capetelor de împrăştiere este de 8 - 20, şi se
The number of scattering is 8-20, and shall be adoptă în funcŃie de lăŃimea de lucru şi de înălŃimea de
adopted according to the width and height of the layout dispunere a conductelor faŃă de sol.
of the pipes toward the ground Dozarea îngrăşămintelor este constantă şi se
Dosing of fertilizers is constant and is achieved realizează prin intermediul unor aparate de dozare
through mechanical dosing machines (rollers with mecanice (cilindrii cu pinteni, cu caneluri sau tambure cu
spurs, with grooves or drums with alveoli), and alveole), iar transportul îngrăşămintelor la capetele de
transport of fertilizer at the ends of the scattering and împrăştiere şi împrăştierea lor pe suprafaŃa solului se
scattering them on the surface of the soil is done realizează pneumatic. LăŃimea de lucru a acestor maşini
536
pneumatically. The width of these machines is included este cuprinsă în intervalul 8 ÷ 12 m şi nu depinde de
in the range 8-12 m and does not depend on the state starea de agregare a îngrăşămintelor (granule, cristale
of aggregation of fertilizers (granular, powder or sau praf).
crystals). Gradul de uniformitate pe lăŃimea de lucru este ridicat
The degree of uniformity across the working width is dar cu toate acestea la toate echipamentele tehnice cu
high but nonetheless to all machinery with the transport pneumatic apare pericolul formării condensului
pneumatic transport the danger of condensation pe pereŃii interiori ai tuburilor, fenomen care poate provoca
appears on the inner walls of the tubes, a phenomenon
aderarea materialului vehiculat la pereŃii tuburilor şi care în
which can cause the associated material to the walls
final provoacă înfundarea conductelor. Pentru a prevenii
joining the tubes and that finally causes clogging the
pipes. To prevent clogging of the pneumatic system, it înfundarea se recomandă ca sistemul pneumatic să
needs to operate without distributing fertilizers a period funcŃioneze în gol o perioadă de timp în care se elimină
of time in which eliminates condensation. condensul.
Fig. 2- Scheme of the machine for mineral fertilizers administration with individual mechanical dosing and pneumatic transport [8]: 1-
bunkers; 2-fan; 3-hoppers; 4-Central ramp; 5-connecting pipes; 6-head spreader
Distribution devices with mechanical action. Aparatele de distribuŃie cu acŃiune mecanică.

In this category belong: distribution equipment with Din această categorie fac parte: aparate de distribuŃie
discs with notches, distribution equipment with discs cu discuri cu crestături, aparate de distribuŃie cu discuri cu
with notches, etc. [6]. crestături,etc. [6].
Acestea sunt utilizate la echipamentele pentru
These are used on devices for embedded fertilizers
încorporat îngrăşăminte (Figura 3A. si 3B.) concomitent
(Figure 3A and 3B), concurrently with the establishment cu înfiinŃarea culturii (prin semănat sau plantat), sau în
of culture (through seeding or planting), or in the period perioada de vegetaŃie. Au distribuitoarele amplasate
of vegetation. Routers are placed horizontally on the orizontal, pe fundul cutiei de alimentare. În timpul lucrului,
bottom of the supply box. During operation, the disc discul care se găseşte în mişcare de rotaŃie, antrenează
found in rotary motion causes the fertiliser from the box, îngrăşământul din cutie şi îl trimite în tuburile de
and send it in the driving, where arriving in openers. conducere, de unde ajunge în brăzdare. Reglarea
flow adjustment is achieved by adjusting the slot cover debitului distribuitorului se realizează prin reglarea fantei
and by changing the gear ratio. şi prin schimbarea raportului de transmisie.
Latimea de lucru ale acestor aparate poate fi de 3-4m
Working width of these aparatus is 3-4 m and can
si pot asigura o uniformitate de distributie ridicata (80-
ensure a uniformity of higher distribution (80-85%), 85%), indifferent de starea de granulatie a
regardless of the granulation of the fertilizer. The major ingrasamantului. Dezavantajul major al acestor aparate
disadvantage of these devices is the ability to clog este posibilitatea de a se infunda foarte usor. Totodată,
easily. At the same time, under the action of high- sub acŃiunea mecanică de mare intensitate a agitatoarelor
intensity of mechanical agitators, dosing systems and şi sistemelor de dozare şi împrăştiere, îngrăşămintele se
scatter, fertilizers turns and into paste and they calcify transformă în pastă şi se pietrifică pe organele de lucru.
on the working bodies. Because of the disadvantages Datorită dezavantajelor prezentate, precum şi capacităŃii
presented, as well as working capacity relatively small, de lucru relativ mici, aceste maşini au o utilizare din ce în
ce mai restrânsă.
these machines have an increasingly narrower.
537
Fig. 3A. - Scheme of the distribution device with notched discs [2]: Fig 3B. Scheme of the equipment of embedded the solid chemical
1-box for fertilizers; 2-shaker; 3-distributor; 4-shutter; 5-tube
driving; 6-gear
fertilizers [2]: 1-supply box, 2-shaker, 3 distribution aparatus‐ 4
driving tube 5- plow

Distribution devices with centrifugal action are Aparatele de distribuŃie cu acŃiune centrifugală sunt
made with oscillating tube distributors or disk with realizate cu distribuitori cu tub oscilant sau distribuitori de
pallets distributors (with one disc or two discs). tip disc cu palete (cu un disc sau cu două discuri).
These devices ensure a working width larger than Aceste aparate asigură o lăŃime de lucru mai mare
the constructive width of the machine [8]. decât lăŃimea constructivă a maşinii [8].
Distribution device with oscillating tube (Fig 4.) Aparatul de distribuŃie cu tub oscilant (Fig 4.) are în
consists of a box, located below the dispenser machine, componenŃă o casetă, amplasată sub dozatorul maşinii, pe
which assembles various conical rods tubes, depending care se montează diferite tuburi tronconice, în funcŃie de
on the scattering way of the fertilizer. During working modul de împrăştiere a îngrăşămintelor. În timpul lucrului
hours the pendular movement receives, oscillating tubul oscilant primeşte mişcare pendulară, prin intermediul
through a mechanism with eccentric, a sector of a unui mecanism cu excentric, pe un sector de cerc,
circle, running 350-550 races /min. length of the sector executând 350–550 curse/min. Lungimea sectorului de
of a circle you can change the default width of the cerc se poate modifica, implicit lăŃimea de lucru a maşinii
working of the machine [6]. [6].
From the supply box, fertilizers and go through the Din cutia de alimentare, îngrăşămintele trec prin
dispenser, where determination of the quantity of dozator, unde are loc dozarea cantităŃii de îngrăşăminte,
fertilizer, then get into swinging tube and under the apoi ajung în tubul pendular şi sub acŃiunea forŃei
action of centrifugal force, are scattered on the surface centrifuge, sunt împrăştiate pe suprafaŃa solului. Acest tip
of the soil. This type of apparatus, equipped with de aparat, echipat cu diferite tuburi tronconice poate
various tubes and conical rods can scatter fertilizers in împrăştia îngrăşămintele şi în benzi ( utilizat la fertilizarea
bands (used to fertilize the fruit trees and vines) [7]. pomilor fructiferi şi la viŃa de vie) [7].
Fig 4. -The construction and working process of the device to manage the solids chemical fertilizers with oscillating tube: [6]
1-box of fertilizer; 2-shaker; 3-oscillating square tapering tube; 4.5-the scattering of material
Centrifugal distribution apparatus disk type with Aparatul de distribuŃie centrifugal de tip disc cu
pallets with one disk is represented by a horizontal palete cu un singur disc este reprezentat printr-un disc
disk-which are attached straight or curved pallets. orizontal pe care sunt fixate palete drepte sau curbe. În
During operation, the distributor disc is in rotary motion timpul lucrului, discul distribuitor se află în mişcare de
with speeds of 500-800 Rot/min. fertilisers are dosed in rotaŃie cu turaŃia de 500 – 800 rot/min. Îngrăşămintele sunt
538
the amount adjusted, get on the distributor disc with the dozate în cantitatea reglată, ajung pe discul distribuitor cu
help of a conveyour belt or gravitationally, where ajutorul unui transportor cu bandă său gravitaŃional, de
fertilizer particles are picked up by the pallets under the unde, particulele de îngrăşământ sunt preluate de palete şi
action of centrifugal force and are administered on the sub acŃiunea forŃei centrifuge sunt administrate pe
surface of the soil [7]. This equipment can make suprafaŃa solului [7]. Aceste echipamente pot realiza
fertilizer management on a high de12m up to 32 m with administrarea îngrăşămintelor pe o lăŃime de12m până la
a departure from the uniformity of the distribution of up 32m cu o abatere de la uniformitate de distribuŃie de până
to 20%. Constructive solutions adopted for dosing la 20%. SoluŃiile constructive adoptate pentru sistemele de
systems must allow for easy adjustment of quantities of dozare trebuie să permită reglarea uşoară a cantităŃilor de
fertilizer per hectare managed îngrăşământ administrate pe hectar
Fig. 5- Scheme of the spreading machine towed with Fig. 6 - Scheme of the mounted equipment to manage
centrifugal action with oscillating bottom type conveyor [1] chemical fertilizers by centrifugation with an disc [8]
1-frame; 2-conveyer; 3 vibrator motor; 4-connecting rod; 1-the bunker; 2-frame; 3-the camps; 4- distribution
5-guiding rail; 6- spreader disc; 7-clamshell aparatus; 5-connecting rod-crank mechanism; 6-bielete;
7-dispenser with slits; 8- alimentation hopper
In Figure 5. Is a schematic diagram of a semi-trailer În Figura 5. este prezentată schema unei semiremorci
for spreading fertilizer by centrifugation, fitted with pentru împrăştierea îngrăşămintelor prin centrifugare,
vibrating platform. At the bottom of the hopper is prevăzută cu platformă vibratoare. Fundul benei este fixat
attached to the frame of the semi-trailer with a de saşiul al semiremorcii prin intermediul bielelor , şi
connecting rod, and oscillation movement receives from primeşte mişcarea de oscilaŃie de la reductorul, prin bielele
the reduction gear by the connecting rod. The amount of . Cantitatea de material ce cade pe discul de împrăştiere
material that falls on the spreader is adjustable with the se reglează cu ajutorul şuberului.
suber. In Figura 6. este prezentată schema de principiu a
Figure 6 is a schematic diagram of a machine mounted unei maşini purtate de împrăştiat îngrăşăminte minerale
on a centrifugation mineral fertilizer spreader, which is prin centrifugare, la care buncărul este fixat articulat de
hinged to the bunker in the camps. At the bottom in the cadrul prin lagăre. În partea inferioară sub buncăr, este
bunker is disposed distribution machine with disk type dispus aparatul de distribuŃie centrifug de tip disc cu
centrifugal paddle mounted on the secondary shaft bevel palete, montat pe arborele secundar al reductorului cu
gear driven by the PTO of the tractor, through the angrenaj conic, acŃionat de la priza de putere a tractorului,
transmission shaft. Agitation of the material in the hopper prin transmisia cardanică. Agitarea materialului din buncăr
is carried out by a crank and connecting rod mechanism se realizează de la un mecanism bielă manivelă spaŃial
by means of an eccentric, the disc mounted on the shaft printr-un excentric, montat pe arborele discului prin
by means of connecting rods. The hopper is driven in intermediul unei bielete. Buncărul este antrenat în mişcare
oscillatory motion equal to the frequency of rotation of the oscilatorie egală cu frecvenŃa de rotaŃie a discului
centrifugal disc. Fertilizers dosing dispenser with centrifug. Îngrăşămintele dozate de dozatorul cu fante
adjustable slots are routed through the funnel, adjustable reglabile, sunt dirijate prin pâlnia, reglabilă ca poziŃie, pe
in position on the centrifugal disc, where it is taken by the suprafaŃa discului centrifug, de unde sunt preluate de
pallets and scattered on the land surface [7]. paletele acestuia şi împrăştiate pe suprafaŃa terenului [7].
The distribution of granular fertilizers to the soil surface DistribuŃia îngrăşămintelor minerale granulate pe
is conducted by a disc with paddle, arranged horizontally, suprafaŃa solului este realizată de un disc cu palete,
which rotates at a constant speed. Constructively, these dispus orizontal, ce se roteşte cu o turaŃie constantă.
machines use one or two distribution devices type disks Constructiv, aceste maşini folosesc unul sau două aparate
with paddle, and disks can have a flate shape or a de distribuŃie tip discuri cu palete, iar discurile pot avea
tronconic shape (Fig.7a and 7b). The pallets may be formă plată sau tronconică (Fig.7a şi 7b). Paletele
straight discs (arranged radially or inclined to the radial discurilor pot fi drepte (dispuse radial sau înclinat faŃă de
direction) and curved, having the same length or different direcŃia radială) sau curbe, având aceeaşi lungime sau
lengths (in the case of disc-shaped rosette Fig. 8) [9]. lungimi diferite (în cazul discurilor în formă de rozetă, Fig.
8) [9].
539
Fig.7 - Centrifugal distributors disk type with pallets (single disc) [8]:
a) straight pallets; b) curved pallets; c) establishment of uniformity of distribution of fertilizers
Bl - working width of the machine; l - the width of the overlapping two passes of the machine;
1 first pass of the machine; 2 - The following passages of the machine
Fig.8 - Spreading disc rosette shaped [9]
The uniformity of the distribution of the fertilizer Uniformitatea de distribuŃie a îngrăşămintelor

depends on a number of factors: the speed of the depinde de o serie de factori: turaŃia distribuitorului;
distributor; diameter and shape of the disc; the pallets diametrul şi forma discului; înclinarea paletelor; modul şi
tilting; how and where the alimentation on the disk; disc locul de alimentare a discului; paralelismul discului cu
parallel to the ground surface; distance from the soil suprafaŃa solului; distanŃa faŃă de suprafaŃa solului; viteza
surface; wind speed; the particle size of the fertilizer [7]. vântului; mărimea particulelor de îngrăşământ [7].
Due to the different lengths of pallets with different Datorită paletelor de lungimi diferite cu poziŃii diferite
positions relative to each other, through the mouth of the una faŃă de cealaltă, trecând prin dreptul guri de
food, they are charged with different amounts of material alimentare, acestea sunt încărcate cu diferite cantităŃi de
to administer them at different distances, making different material pe care le administrează la distanŃe diferite,
working widths. The curves obtained are overlapping realizând lăŃimi de lucru diferite. Curbele de administrare
coaxial administration, thus achieving uniformity of obŃinute se suprapun coaxial, realizându-se astfel
distribution across the width of the working layer of the uniformitatea de distribuŃie pe lăŃimea de lucru, stratul
fertilizer is administered in the central portion of administrat de îngrăşăminte fiind pe porŃiunea centrală
approximately constant thickness (Fig. 9). de grosime aproximativ constantă (Fig. 9.).
Fig 9 - Scheme uniformity curves [9]

a - rosette disc type; b - flat disc type
Centrifugal distribution apparatus disk type Aparatul de distribuŃie centrifugal de tip disc cu
with pallets with two disks(Fig.10.) performing the palete cu două discuri (Fig.10.) execută procesul de
work in the same way as a drive machine, but provides a lucru în acelaşi mod ca şi aparatul cu un disc, dar
greater working width by about 30-40% and a satisfactory realizează o lăŃime de lucru mai mare cu circa 30–40% si
uniformity distribution compared to the distribution o uniformitate satisfacatoare de distributie fata de discul
apparatus one disk type with pallets of the same length. cu palete de aceeasi lungime.
The machines equipped with centrifugal action Maşinile echipate cu aparate de distribuŃie cu acŃiune
distribution apparatus have high safety in operation, centrifugă au siguranŃă mare în exploatare, sunt simple şi
540
simple and easy, have high capacity, but the uniformity of uşoare, au capacitate mare de lucru, dar cerinŃele privind
distribution requirements are not being met. uniformitatea de distribuŃie nu sunt satisfăcute.
These machines are particularly suitable for application to Aceste maşini se pretează în special la aplicarea pe
the soil surface of the fertilizer granules [1,6,7,8,10]. suprafaŃa solului a îngrăşămintelor granulate [1,6,7,8,10].
Fig. 10 - Centrifugal distributor with two disks with pallets [10]:

1 - distribution disc; 2 - pallets; 3 - the scattering; 4 – guards for protecting the discs
As discussed are the following conclusions: Conform celor prezentate se desprind următoarele concluzii:
• the most common chemical fertilizer equipment are the • echipamentele de administrat îngrăşăminte chimice cele
mounted and semi-mounted type; mai frecvent întâlnite sunt de tipul purtate şi semipurtate;
• există o varietate mare de aparate de distribuit
• there are a variety of distribution apparatus designed
proiectate pentru diferite capacitati de lucru, pentru
for various working capacities, of the type of fertilizers etc.;
diferite tipuri de ingrăşăminte;
• the uniformity of the distribution of fertilizers vary from • uniformitatea distribuŃiei de îngrăşăminte chimice
one machine to another, so air distribution apparatus diferă de la un apărat la altul, astfel aparatele cu
having a uniformity of 85-90%, the mechanical action can distribuŃie pneumatică au o uniformitate de 85-90%, cele
achieve a uniformity of 80-85% and the centrifugal cu acŃiune mecanică pot ajunge la o uniformitate de 80-
85%, iar cele cu distribuŃie centrifugală abaterea de la
distribution deviation the uniformity can reach up to 20%;
uniformitate poate ajunge până la maxim 20% ;
• working width of these apparatus differ as well as the • lăŃimea de lucru ale acestor aparate diferă astfel:
uniformity, as follows: pneumatic apparatus has a working aparatele cu acŃionare pneumatică au o lăŃime de lucru
width of between 8 and 12 m, 3…4 m for the mechanically cuprinsă între 8 şi 12 m, aparatul cu acŃionare mecanică
operated unit, and the centrifugal operated between 12 3…4 m, iar cel cu acŃionare centrifugală între 12 şi 52m în
cazul celui cu disc sau discuri iar în cazul celui cu tub
and 52m for the disc or discs and in the case of oscillating
oscilant utilizat de regulă la administrarea îngrăşămintelor
tube commonly used in administration of fertilizers in la plantaŃiile pomicole şi cele viticole, are o lăŃime de lucru
orchards and vineyards, has a working width of between 1 cuprinsa intre 1 şi 14 m.
and 14 m. • lăŃimea de distribuŃie in cazul aparatelor centrifugale
• the distribution width for centrifugal devices is este influenŃata de: înălŃimea discurilor faŃă de sol;
distanŃa dintre discuri; diametrul si forma discului dar şi
influenced by: the disc height from the ground; the
dispunerea paletelor pe disc;
distance between the disks; diameter and shape of the • normele de îngrăşământ impuse de cerinŃele plantelor
disks and also the layout of pallets . se poate corela cu ajutorul unor dozatoare montate pe
• fertilizer standards required by the plant can be aceste echipamente;
correlated using dispensers mounted on the equipment; • toate aceste aparate de distribuŃie realizează o
distribuire a mai multor tipuri de îngrăşăminte chimice
• all these distribution apparatus provides a distribution
solide;
of several types of solid fertilizers; • majoritatea aparatelor de administrat îngrăşăminte
• most of the devices rely on chemical fertilizer chimice se bazează pe principiu centrifugal sunt
centrifugal principle and are the most common; echipamente cu un disc sau cu două discuri cu palete, ce
• are equipments with a disk or two disks with pallets, pot fi acŃionate de la priza de putere a tractorului dar mai
rar se întâlnesc şi echipamente la care distribuŃia se face
can be operated from the tractor PTO but rarely meet and
hidrostatic;
equipment that distribution is hydrostatic; • alimentarea aparatului de distribuŃie cu acŃiune
• alimentation distribution unit with centrifugal action, if centrifugală, în cazul echipamentelor purtate, se face
mounted equipment is done by gravity; gravitaŃional;
• the alimentation of the distribution unit with centrifugal • alimentarea aparatului de distribuŃie cu acŃiune
centrifugală, în cazul echipamentelor semipurtate, se face
action, if semi-mounted equipment is made with a rubber belt
cu ajutorul unui transportor de tip bandă cauciucată, lisa
conveyor type, with lisa, or chain conveyor with pockets; sau cu rifluri, sau transportor cu lanŃ cu alveole;
[1]. Alexandru T. (2005) – Horticultural Machinery, Sitech [1]. Alexandru T. (2005) – Maşini horticole. Editura Sitech,
Publishing House, Craiova. Craiova.
[2]. Blaga Gh.(2002) – Pedology , Mega Publishing House, [2]. Blaga Gh.(2002) – Pedologie” Editura Mega, Cluj-
541
Cluj-Napoca. Napoca.
[3]. Dumitru M. (2000) - Code of good agricultural practice, [3]. Dumitru M. (2000) - Cod de bune practici agricole,
Vox Publishing House, Bucharest. Editura Vox, Bucureşti.
[4].http://miboagro.blogspot.ro/p/ingrasaminte- [4].http://miboagro.blogspot.ro/p/ingrasaminte-
agricole.html - Agricultural fertilizers agricole.html - Ingrasaminte agricole
[5]. Madjar R., Davidescu V. (2009).– Agrochemical, USAMVB [5]. Madjar R., Davidescu V. (2009).– Agrochimie, USAMVB
[6]. Neagu T., Popescu T. (1982) – Tractors and [6]. Neagu T., Popescu T. (1982) – Tractoare şi
machinery for horticulture, Didactic and Pedagogic maşini horticole, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Publishing House, Bucharest. Bucureşti.
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G.,(2010) - Researches concerning the achievement of a (2010) - Cercetări privind realizarea unei maşini destinata
machine for spreading mineral fertilizers, with the possibility of fertilizării cu ingrasaminte chimice solide, cu posibilitatea
spreading low rates, Scientific symposium "Sustainable distribuirii unor norme reduse, Simpozionul ştiinŃific
Agriculture - Agriculture Future "sixth Edition, Craiova, „Agricultura Durabilă – Agricultura Viitorului” EdiŃia a VI-a,
November 2010 publication:" Annals of University of Craiova: Craiova, noiembrie 2010, PublicaŃia: “Analele Universitarii
Agricultural Montanology Cadastre, Universitaria Publishing din Craiova: Agricultura Montanologie Cadastru, Editura
House, Craiova vol.XL / February 2010; pag.518 ... 522. Universitaria, Craiova vol. XL/2 2010; pag.518...522.
[8]. Popescu O. (2006) – Horticultural machinery , Printech [8]. Popescu O. (2006) – Maşini horticole, Editura
Publishing House, Bucharest Printech, Bucureşti.
[9]. Scripnic V., Babiciu P. (1979) - Agricultural Machinery [9]. Scripnic V., Babiciu P. (1979) - Maşini
Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest. Agricole,Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
[10]. Toma D. (1981) - Farm Machinery, Didactic and [10]. Toma D. (1981) - Maşini agricole, Editura Didactică
Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest. şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
542
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENERGETIC PLANT STEM - REVIEW

/
PROPRIETĂłILE MECANICE ALE TULPINILOR PLANTELOR ENERGETICE - REVIEW
1) 1) 1) 1)
PhD. Eng. Moiceanu G. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Paraschiv G. , Lect. PhD. Eng. Dinca M. ,
1) 2)
PhD. Stud. Eng. Chitoiu M. , PhD. Eng. Vlădut V.
1) 2)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; INMA Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0745.201.365; E-mail: moiceanugeorgiana@gmail.com
Abstract: An important component of modern society is Rezumat: O componentă foarte importantă a societăŃii moderne
represented by renewable energy. This type of energy este reprezentată de energia regenerabilă. Acest tip de
can be obtained through energetic plant processing, wind energie poate fi obŃinut prin procesarea plantelor energetice,
energy, solar energy, etc. Taking into consideration the energie eoliană, energie, solară etc. Luând în considerare
potential of energetic plants regarding a sustainable potenŃialul plantelor energetice privind asigurarea unui viitor
future from an energetic point of view in this paper a sustenabil din punct de vedere energetic în această lucrare
review regarding the way in which mechanical properties este prezentat un review privind modul în care proprietăŃile
influence the processing stage. Considering that the mecanice ale acestora influenŃează procesul de prelucrare.
equipment used for this process are in continuing Având în vedere faptul că echipamentele utilizate sunt în
development, knowing the energetic plant stem continuă dezvoltare, cunoşterea proprietăŃilor mecanice ale
mechanical properties is a major component in creating tulpinilor plantelor energetice este o componentă importantă
and developing these machines. Energetic plant în crearea şi dezvoltarea acestor utilaje. ProprietăŃile
mechanical properties are important data for mecanice ale plantelor energetice constituie date importante
mathematical modelling of the processes to which the în modelarea matematică a proceselor la care sunt supuse
stems are subjected to. Studying shearing resistance, tulpinile. Studiind rezistenŃa la forfecare, rezistenŃa la
compression/stretching resistance, cutting resistance, compresiune/întindere, rezistenŃa la tăiere, rezistenŃa la
communition resistance as well as the elasticity module, încovoiere, rezistenŃa la mărunŃire precum si modulul de
we can see that all the data lead to creating an adequate elasticitate, se constată că toate datele acumulate conduc la
design for the equipment. The main objective of this paper crearea unui design adecvat al echipamentelor. Obiectivul
is to create a synthesis regarding energetic plant principal al acestei lucrări este acela de a alcătui o sinteză cu
mechanical properties. privire la proprietăŃile mecanice ale plantelor energetice.
Keywords: mechanical properties, mathematical modelling, Cuvinte cheie: proprietăŃi mecanice, modelare
energetic plants matematică, plante energetice
Nowadays, fossil fuels as gas, coal, etc. represent the In prezent, combustibili fosili precum gazele, carbunii
main source of energy in the world. Studies regarding the etc. reprezintă principala sursa de energie din lume. Studii
quantities of these resources and the use by consumers privind cantitatea acestor resurse şi utilizarea lor de către
show that in approximately 40-50 years they will consumatori prezintă faptul că în aproximativ 40 - 50 de ani
considerable diminish, some will even drain. Also, these se vor diminua considerabil, unele chiar vor seca. Totodată,
energy sources produce annually environment degradation aceste surse de energie utilizate în prezent produc anual
through acid rains, global warming, air pollution, etc. degradarea mediul înconjurător prin provocarea de ploi
Regarding the lowering of this constant degradation, more acide, încalzire globală, poluarea aerului etc. In vederea
and more countries have analysed the possibility to replace diminuării acestei degradări constante din ce în ce mai
fossil fuels with renewable energy sources that don’t have multe Ńări au analizat posibilitatea de a înlocui combustibilii
the same negative impact on the environment. [12] fosili cu surse de energie regenerabila care nu au acelaşi
The varied number of energetic plants nowadays impact asupra mediului [12]
imposes to the researchers extensive studies regarding Numărul variat al plantelor energetice din zilele noastre
their characteristics under use for technological processes. impune cercetătorilor un studiu amănunŃit asupra
Among these characteristics both biological characteristics caracteristicilor acestora pentru utilizarealor în cadrul
influenced by culture conditions [13, 28] as well as physical diferitelor procese tehnologice. Între aceste caracteristici se
properties that greatly influence processing stages were indentifică atât caracteristicile bilogice influenŃate de
identified. condiŃiile de cultură [13, 28], cât şi proprietăŃile fizice care
The study of this paper is focused on presenting influenŃează în mare parte procesele de prelucrare
energetic plant stem mechanical properties and the Studiul acestei lucrări se concentrează pe prezentarea
influence that they have on these processes. proprietăŃilor mecanice ale tulpinilor plantelor energetice şi
influenŃa pe care aceastea o au asupra acestor procese.
MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIALE ŞI METODA

Outlining physical properties of energetic plant stems EvidenŃierea proprietăŃilor mecanice ale tulpinilor
was the focus of many researchers, this current paper plantelor energetice a fost studiată de numeroşi cercetări, în
showing research papers and studies from speciality lucrarea de faŃă fiind prezentate lucrări de cercetare şi studii
sites, ASABE, articles published in journals from preluate de pe site-uri de specialitate, ASABE, articole
international data base (ScienceDirect, Springerlink, etc.) publicate în jurnale din baze de date internaŃionale
or volumes of some national and international (ScienceDirect, Springerlink, etc.) sau volume ale unor
conferences which had as an interest this theme, and are conferinŃe naŃionale si internaŃionale care au avut ca
presented as bibliographical sources. interes aceasta tematică şi utilizate ca surse bibliografice.
543
RESULTS AND DISCUTION REZULTATE ŞI DISCUTII

According to scientifical papers [1...28], the Conform lucrărilor ştiinŃifice [1...28], procesul de prelucrare al
processing state of energetic plants and its optimisation plantelor energetice precum şi optimizarea acestuia pot fi
can be realised through establishing the mechanical realizate prin stabilirea proprietăŃilor mecanice ale plantelor
properties of plants used to yield biogas. utilizate în vederea obŃinerii de biogaz.
Determining mechanical properties of energetic plants is Determinarea proprietăŃilor mecanice ale plantelor
a part of a complex process, mainly because of the energetice face parte dintr-un proces complex, mai ales
composite structure of plants being different from one plant datorită faptului ca structura compozită a plantelor este
to another [3]. diferită de o plantă la alta [3].
Generally the most used procedure in determining În general cea mai utilizată procedură de determinare
mechanical properties is realized in lab conditions where a proprietăŃilor mecanice se realizează în condiŃii de
each component can be analysed individually. Data taken laborator unde fiecare componentă poate fianalizată
during lab trials can be used as input data inside individual. Datele preluate din cadrul încercărilor de
mathematical models used to determine parameters that laborator pot fi utilizate ca date de intrare în cadrul
affect energy consumption during the processing stage [4]. modelelor matematice folosite pentru a determina
An example in this purpose can be given by the difference parametrii care afectează consumul de energie în timpul
between the energy associated to the obtained product procesului de prelucrare [4]. Un exemplu în acest sens
after communition and the energy associated to the raw poate fi dat de diferenŃa dintre energia asociată
material, which is equal with the consumed energy for the produsului obŃinut după mărunŃire şi energia asociată
communition process. materiei prime, care este egală cu energia consumată
The theory of free communition can be expressed pentru procesul de mărunŃire.
through the relation: Teoria liberei mărunŃiri se poate transpune în
relaŃia:
E p − Em = η ⋅ Ec (1)
Where unde:
Ep – communition energy; Ep - energia produsului de mărunŃire;
Em – raw material energy; Em - energia materiei prime;
Ec – consumed energy by tje communition Ec - energia consumată de utilajul de mărunŃire;
equipment; η - randamentul energetic al utilajului.
η - equipment energetic efficiency.
Table 1
Different biomass types mechanical and physical properties
Moisture
Nr. True density
Plant type content, Bulk density, [kg/m3] Specific energy, [kN/m] Ash content, [%] Paper no.
crt. [kg/m3]
[%wb]
1 Wheat straw 8.30 108 1210 15 8.32 [25]
2 Switchgrass 8 151 1090 86.5 5.49 [26, 27
3 Corn stover 11 - 15 148 1280 31.5 7.46 [26, 27]
4 Barley straw 6.98 98 1100 53k Wh/t 10.72 [25]
5 Miscanthus 8.5 1170 1080 4.4 kW 2.3 [7]
Resistance at shearing and bending RezistenŃa la forfecare şi încovoiere

During outlining plant behavior at different processes in În vederea evidenŃierii comportamentului plantelor în
the paper [14], the authors had studied shearing and timpul diferitelor procese în lucrarea [14] autorii au
bending resistance for saffron stems as well as their studiat rezistenŃa la forfecare şi încovoiere a tulpinilor de
elasticity module. şofran precum şi modulul de elasticitate al acestora.
Thus, considering the fact that the cutting/grinding Astfel, considerând faptul că procesul de
process is made out of processes like compression, tăiere/tocare este format din procese precum
shearing, bending, stretching and friction [15, 23] the compresiune, forfecare, încovoiere, întindere şi frecare
authors have tested saffron stems at different values of [15, 23] autorii au testat tupinile de şofran la valori
humidity content. For determining the shearing resistance diferite ale conŃinutului de umiditate. Pentru determinarea
the equation was: rezistenŃei de forfecare ecuaŃia utilizată a fost:
(2)
Where: unde:
– shearing resistance; - rezistenŃa la forfecare;
Fs – shearing force during disposal (N); Fs - forŃa de forfecare în momentul cedării (N);
2 2
A – Area of the stem surface subjected to shearing (mm ). A - aria suprafeŃei tulpinii supuse forfecării (mm .
Also, using the same equipment stems have been Totodată, folosind acelaşi echipament tulpinile au fost
subjected to bending tests by placing them on a metallic supuse testelor de încovoiere prin plasarea lor pe un suport
support, than applying force in the center at a load rate of metalic, apoi aplicându-se forŃa în centrul probelor la o rată
1mm/min (similar to the shearing test). Calculus formula de încărcare de 10 mm/min (similară testului de forfecare).
for bending formula was: Formula de calcul pentru rezistenŃa la încovoiere a fost:
544
(3)
where: unde:
– bending resistance (MPa); - rezistenŃa la încovoiere (MPa);
Fb – bending force (N); Fb - ForŃa de încovoiere (N);
y – distance from de neutral axe to the most distant y - distanŃa de la axa neutră la cel mai depărtat
point (mm); punct (mm);
l – distance between the two supports used during l - distanŃa dintre cele două suporturi folosite în
experimentation (50mm); cadrul încercărilor experimentale (50 mm).
Using statistical data analysis ANOVA the Folosind ca metodă de prelucrare a datelor analiza statistică
conclusions reffering shearing resistance values have a datelor ANOVA concluziile referitoare la valorile rezistenŃei
outlined a rise together with a rise in humidity from 4 to la forfecare au evidenŃiat o creştere odată cu creşterea conŃinutului
8.46Mpa, results confirmed in the paper [1,2,17], when de umiditate de la 4 la 8.46 MPa, rezultate confirmate şi în
the bending resistance dropped with a rise in stem lucrarea [1, 2, 17] pe când rezistenŃa la încovoiere a scăzut
humidity content. odată cu creşterea conŃinutului de umiditate al tulpinilor.
The average values of the bending stress, Young’s Valorile medii ale tensiunii la incovoiere, modulul lui
modulus, shear stress, and shear energy varied from 50.59 Young, tensiunea la forfecare, si energia de forfecare a
to 26.91 MPa, 2.52 to 1.22 GPa, 4.00 to 4.00 MPa, and variat intre 50.59 la 26.91 MPa, 2.52 la 1.22 GPa, 4.00
231.45 to 730.02 mJ, respectively, as the moisture content la 4.00 MPa, si 231.45 la 730.02 mJ, respectiv,
increased from 8.61 to 37.16%. umiditatea de la 8.61 la 37.16%.
Also a study about shearing resistance is presented Tot un studiu efectuat în vederea prezentării rezistenŃei la
in paper [24], where the authors have used as raw forfecare este prezentat în lucrarea [24] unde autorii au
material rise stems. Their conclusions showed a rise in utilizat ca materie primă tulpini de orez. Concluziile cercetărilor
shearing resistance together with a rise in stem experimentale au evidenŃiat creşterea rezistenŃei la forfecare
humidity content. odată cu creşterea conŃinutului de umiditate al tulpinilor.
This effect of stem height on shearing energywas Acest efect al inaltimii tulpinii asupra energiei
also reported by [2] for alfalfa stem and [18] for barley forfecarii a fost de asemenea raportat de catre [2]
stem. pentru tulpini de alfalfa si [18] pentru tulpini de orz.
Fig. 1 – Miscanthus stem shearing cutting scheme
Similar to papers presented earlier, in [21], the Similar lucrarilor prezentate anterior, în [21], autorii au
authors have subjected Miscanthus Giganteus to supus testelor de forfecare tulpini de Miscanthus x Giganteus.
shearing tests. These tests had as a basis subjecting Testele au constat in supunerea epruvetelor din tulpini de
sten samples at repeated shearing stresses after which micanthus la solicitari de forfecare repetate în urma cărora
rupture point, bioflow point and the proportionality limit s-au determinat punctul de rupere, punctul de biocurgere şi
(characteristic of stem elasticity on a transversal limita de proporŃionalitate (caracteristică a elasticităŃii tulpinilor
section) were determined, from the force-deformation pe secŃiunea transversal) de pe curba forŃă-deformaŃie.
curve. Samples were put on the support frame so that Probele de material au fost aşezate pe placa de sprijin astfel
the applied force on the shearing frame will be at the încât forŃa aplicată prin placa de forfecare să se afle la
half of the sample. During application the shearing frame jumatatea epruvetei. În momentul aplicării testelor placa de
goes throw an orifice until the moment of rupture point forfecare trece printr-o fantă până în momentul în care era
detection. During tests the Hounsfield mechanical trail detectat de către aparat punctul de rupere.În cadrul testelor
apparatus was accessorised with metallic shearing aparatul de încercări mecanice Hounsfield a fost prevăzut
plates of 100x70x3 dimensions (fig.1), and the shearing cu plăci metalice de forfecare de dimensiuni 100x70x3
angle (plate opening) was different, of 30, 50, 60 and (fig.1), iar unghiul de forfecare (deschidere a plăcilor) a fost
o o
75 . diferit, şi anume 30, 50, 60 şi 75 .
Because the material probes had variations in large Deoarece probele de material au avut variaŃii în limite largi
diameter limits, their mass and the weight of the ale diametrului, masei acestora şi grosimii învelişului
lignocellulose layer, variation of rupture forces, both to lignocelulozic, variaŃiile forŃelor de rupere, atât la strivire, cât şi
crushing, as well as shearing, regardless of plate la forfecare, indiferent de unghiul plăcii de lucru, precum şi
angle, as well as necessary energy at shearing and the ale energiei necesare la forfecare sau ale forŃei
545
bioflow point corresponding force are between large corespunzătoare punctului de biocurgere se încadrează în
limits. Still, it was observed that the shearing energy limite destul de largi. Totuşi, s-a constat că variaŃia energiei
variation with miscanthus plant diameter has an de forfecare cu diametrul plantelor de miscanthus are o
exponential variation rising from 0.308 J for 4.29mm variaŃie exponenŃială crescând de la 0.308 J pentru diametrul
diameter, at 2.315J for 7.95mm. With all these, the de 4.29 mm, la circa 2.315 J pentru diametrul de 7.95 mm.
results are similar to other papers on experimental Cu toate acestea datele rezultate sunt similare lucrărilor
testing. utilizate ca model în efectuarea testelor experimentale.
Cutting resistance and cutting energy RezistenŃa la tăiere şi energia de tăiere

Also, in the paper [19] the authors analysed the De asemena, in lucrarea [19] autorii au analizat rezistenta
cutting resistance of sugarcane stems. During testing la tăiere a tulpinilor de trestie de zăhar. În vederea efectuării
the plants were dryed in natural conditions, at 25 testelor experimentale plantele au fost uscate în condiŃii
degrees and 55% humidity. Testing the plants at naturale si anume la aproximativ 25 de grade si 55%
different values of the humidity content, stems have umiditate. Testand plantele la diferite valori ale continutului
been brought at wanted values through saturation or de umiditate tulpinile au fost aduse la valorile dorite prin
drying. Cutting blade of the Instron Universal Testing saturare sau uscare. Lama de tăiere a echipamentului Instron
o
Machine had an inclination angle of 30 and the angle Universal Testing Machine (Instron UTM/SMT-5, SANTAM
o
of cutting blade of 60 . In accordance with the humidity Company, Tehran, Iran) utilizat a avut un unghi de înclinare
o o
content and area if cutting section, the cutting de 30 şi unghiul de lamei tăietoare 60 . În funcŃie de conŃinutul
resistance and cutting energy of sugarcane stems were de umiditate şi aria secŃiuni tăiate s-a determinat rezistenta la
determined. Conclusions of these tests showed an tăiere şi energia la tăiere a tulpinilor testiei de zahăr. Concluziile
optimum cutting resistance when the humidity content testelor au evidenŃiat o rezistenŃă la tăiere oprimă atunci
was between 50-75%. când avem un conŃinut de umiditate cuprins între 50- 75%.
Using a similar knife, V shaped, in [20] miscanthus Folosind un cuŃit similar, în formă de V, în [20] s-a
stems cutting resistance was determined. determinat rezistenŃa la tăiere a tulpinilor de miscanthus.
Fig. 2 - Miscanthus stem cutting V shaped blade [20]
o
Cutting blades (shearing) had an opening angle of 30 , Lamele de tăiere (forfecare) au avut un unghi de
o o
and different sharpening angles (i=10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ). It deschidere de 30 , si unghiuri de ascuŃire diferite (i=10,
o
was observed that the cutting force drops from the base to 20, 30, 40 50 ). S-a constat că forŃa de tăiere scade de la
the top of the plant, together with a drop in average stem bază spre vârful plantei, odată cu scăderea diametrului
diameter, curve of cutting variation presenting a decreasing mediu al tulpinii, curba de variaŃie a forŃei de tăiere
exponential variation. prezentând o variaŃie exponenŃială descrescătoare.
o
Similarly, using a cutting blade with a 50 opening angle Similar folosind o lamă de tăiere cu un unghi de deschidere
o
in [10] the authors realized experimental researches de 50 în [10] autorii au realizat cercetări experimentale privind
regarding miscanthus plant cutting resistance. Conclusions rezistenŃa la tăiere a plantelor de miscanthus. Concluziile
of the tests have showed a drop in cutting force values until testelor au evidenŃiat o scădere a valorilor forŃei de tăiere a
o o
the angle of 30-40 , after which the force rises for cutting plantelor de miscanthus până la un unghi de 30 – 40 , după
o o
angles of over 40 . care forŃa creşte pentru unghiuri de ascuŃire de peste 40 .
In paper [5] the authors have determined a cutting In lucrarea [5] autorii au derminat rezistenta la tăiere
resistance of reed stalks using 6 knives with different blade a tulpinilor de stuf folosind 6 cuŃite cu diferite unghiuri
inclination angles. de înclinare a lamei.
Fig. 3 – Knives with different blade cutting angles [5]
Conclusions refer to the fact that the consumed energy Concluziile evidenŃiate fac referire la faptul că valorile
values during the moment of cutting operation haven't energiei consumate în momentul operaŃiei de tăiere nu a
presented large variations for different cutting blades [5]. prezentat variaŃii mari pentru diferite lame de tăiere [5].
Similarly in [6] the authors used hemp stems for Similar in [6] autorii au supus testelor de tăiere tulpini de
testing. Cutting resistance presented values between cânepă. RezistenŃa la tăiere a prezentat valori cuprinse intre
2 2
11.8 and 19.4 N/mm . Also, the lowest energy value 11.8 şi 19.4 N/mm . De asemenea, cel mai scazut consum
o
consumed was for the blade angles of 25 and 45 . For de energie s-a constatat a fi pentru lamele cu unghi de tăiere
546
o
all knives used during experimental testing the maximum de 25 si 45 . Pentru toate cuŃitele folosite în timpul testelor
cutting force dropped with 40% for knives inclined from 0 experimentale forŃa maximă de tăiere a scăzut cu aproximativ
0
to 20 °. 40% pentru cuŃitele cu lame de tăiere înclinate de la 0 la 20 .
Other studies determined that the cutting speed and the Alte studii au determinat faptul ca viteza de taiere si
blade configuration play a critical role in crops harvesting configurarea lamelor joaca un rol critic in procesul de
process. Maughan J.D. et al. (2014),[.9.] investigated the recoltare. Maughan J.D. et al. (2014),[.9.] a investigat
effects of cutting speed, blades bevel angle and fixation on efectele vitezei de taiere, unghiul lamelor si fixarea de
the power consumption during Miscanthus harvesting. puterea consumata in timpul recoltarii. Autorii au folosit
Authors used a rotary platform with only one cutting end, o platform rotativa cu un singur capat de taiere, actionat
driven by a hydraulic motor with measuring instruments of de un mtor hidrauloc cu instrumente de masura pentru
stalk bending force and cutting speed. The results forta de incovoiere a cozilor si viteza de taiere.
indicated that the cutting speed and the blades angle Rezultatele au aratat ca viteza de taiere si unghiul
directly influence the power and efficiency of the lamelor influenteaza direct puterea si eficienta
Miscanthus harvesting machines. Instead it was echipamentului de recoltat miscanthus. S-a determinat
determined that the way to fix the blade was insignificant. ca metoda de reparare a lamei nu era semnificativa.
Compression resistance RezistenŃa la compresiune

Another property of energetic plants analysed by O altă proprietate a platelor energetice analizată de către
researchers is plant compression resistance. Thus, in cercetători face referire la rezistenŃa plantelor la compresiune.
paper [11] Miscanthus plant stems were subjected to Astfel, în lucrarea [11] s-au supus testelor de compresiune
tests. The Hounsfield apparatus was fitted with an tulpini de Miscanthus X Giganteus. Aparatul Hounsfield utilizat
adaptor connected to a loading cell. Data resulted have în timpul experimentelor a fost dotat cu un adaptor conectat
showed the influence of stem diameter on tests, the la o celulă de încărcare. Datele rezultate au evidenŃiat influenŃa
bigger the diameter of the stem the larger the necessary diametrului tulpinilor asupra testelor, cu cât diametrul tulpinilor
compression force. era mai mare cu atât şi forŃa necesară de compresiune era mai mare.
Fig. 4 – A typical stress-strain curve for plants - compresiune
Other studies [22] showed the miscanthus plant behavior Alte studii [22] au urmărit evidenŃierea comportamentului
subjected to compression tests through compression plantelor de miscanthus supuse testelor de compresiune prin
stress determinations and young module. Knowing the determinarea tensiuni de compresiune şi a modului lui Young.
loading feed and the contact surface s for each loading Cunoscand sarcina de încarcare si suprafata de contact a fost
feed (2 square surfaces, superior and inferior, equal at determinata tensiunea de compresiune s pentru fiecare sarcina
de încărcare (au fost considerate 2 suprafete dreptunghiulare,
the sample contact with the apparatus mass and with
superioara si inferioara, egale la contactul epruvetei cu masa
the pressure plate). Through regression analysis the 2 aparatului si cu placa de presiune). Prin analiză de regresie au
parameters were determined. Test conclusions as for fost determinaŃi cei doi parametrii. Concluziile testelor ca
deformation until crushing at transversal compression pentru deformarea pana la strivirea plantelor de miscanthus la
stresses are necessary for static loads larger than 2.5 solicitari de compresiune tranversale sunt necesare încarcari
daN. statice mai mari de 2.5 daN.
During the process of transversal compression În timpul procesului de comprimare transversala planta se
process the plant deforms, and this deformation keeps a deformeaza, deformare care isi pastreaza o oarecare valoare
value after removing the load pressure. So as a result , dupa înlaturarea sarcinii de încarcare. Rezulta asadar ca tulpinile
the miscanthus plat stem has a plastic-elastic behavior plantei de miscanthus au o comportarea elasto-plastica în timpul
during the process of compression which assumes an procesului de comprimare ceea ce presupune o cantitate de
energy quantity accumulated in the plant without being energie acumulata în planta fara ca acesta sa fie transformata în
transformed in smaller parts, thus without being crushed particule mai mici, deci fara a fi strivita pana la rupere, acest
until rupture, thi behavior being showed in [16]. comportament elasto-plastic fiind evidenŃiat şi în [16].
In [8], therewere used different compaction speeds for In [8], s-au folosit diferite viteze de compactare
the oak sawdust in the limits 0.24–5.0 MPa/s. It was pentru rumegusul de stejar in limitele 0.24–5.0 MPa/s.
concluded that the density of compacted dry material A fost concluzionat faptul ca densitatea materialului
measured at 2 min after compression decreases with the uscat compactat masurat la 2 min dupa compresie a
increasing compaction rate up to 3 MPa/s, above this scazut odata cu cresterea ratei de compactare de pana
value of the compression speed there are not detected la 3MPa/s, peste aceasta valoare nu s-au mai detectat
any significant influences regarding the density of the alte influente semnificative legate de densitatea
547
compacted material. materialului compactat.
It is necessary to know the mechanical properties of Este necesar a cunoaşte proprietăŃile mecanice ale
energetic plants due to the influence that it has on the plantelor energetice datorită influenŃei pe care aceastea
processing stage. o exercită asupra proceselor de prelucrare.
In this purpose, the fact that initial properties are În aceste sens, este menŃionat şi în lucrările prezentate
necessary for realizing performant equipment and with a anterior faptul că proprietăŃile iniŃiale ale plantelor sunt
low energy cost is mentioned in previous papers. Also, necesare pentru realizarea unor echipamente performante şi
knowing mechanical properties of different types of cu un consum redus de energie. Totodată, cunoaşterea proprietăŃile
energetic plants contributes for the design of the mecanice ale diferitelor tipuri de plante energetice contribuie
machines. Tension and cutting resistance values, la designul maşinilor. Valorile tensiunilor şi rezistenŃelor la
compression, shearing, bending differ according to the tăiere, comprimare, forfecare, încovoiere diferă în funcŃie de
humidity content of the plants, considerably influencing conŃinutul de umiditate al plantelor, influenŃând considerabil
equipment rotor, the action angle of the shearing/cutting turaŃia rotorului echipamentului, unghiul de acŃiune al lamelor
blades, feed flow, applied forces, etc. de tăiere/forfecare, feed flow, forŃele aplicate etc.
It must be mentioned that the physical properties of Trebuie menŃionat faptul că şi proprietăŃile fizice ale
energetic plants influence the technological process. plantelor energetice infuenŃează procesul tehnologic.
Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013 of sprijinul Ministerului Fondurilor Europene prin Programul
the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Operational Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane
Agreement POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132395 and with the 2007-2013, Contract nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132395 si al
support of the University "Politehnica" from Bucharest. Universitatii Politehnica in Bucuresti.
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550
MODERN STATISTICAL METHODS IN THE PRODUCT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

/
METODE STATISTICE MODERNE ÎN MANAGEMENTUL CALITĂłII PRODUSELOR
1) 2)
Stud. Manole B. , Prof. Eng. PARASCHIV G.
1)
University of Essex, BA European Studies and Modern Languages, U.K.; 2)P.U. Bucharest (RO)
Tel: 0727378361; E-mail: constantinmanole@ymail.com
Abstract: The current conception offered to the role of Rezumat: În concepŃia modernă, rolul controlului de
quality control is that of operating and intervening actively calitate este de a acŃiona şi interveni în mod operativ în
throughout all the stages of the technological process, for toate fazele procesului tehnologic, pentru ca produsul final
the final product to match the terms of the technical să corespundă condiŃiilor impuse de documentaŃia
documentation, and for the defective fraction to be within tehnică, iar fracŃiunea defectivă să se înscrie în limitele
the limits imposed by standards, contracts and/or through stabilite de standarde, contracte şi/sau prin înŃelegeri între
agreements set between the producer and the beneficiary. producător şi beneficiar. În cadrul lucrării se prezintă unele
Within this study, some aspects concerning the use of aspecte privind utilizarea metodelor statistice moderne în
modern statistical methods in the product quality managementul calităŃii cu referire, în special, la produsele
management are illustrated, in the case of food products, agroalimentare. Totodată, prin prelucrarea datelor
particularly. Further, through the processing of experimentale aferente unui eşantion din cadrul unui lot
experimental data related to a sample within a product de produse, în lucrare se face referire şi la capabilitatea
batch, the study also refers to the machinery and maşinilor şi utilajelor de a răspunde caracteristicilor de
equipment capacity to respond to the quality features calitate prevăzute în standarde, norme sau alte
provided in the standards, norms or other regulations. reglementări.
Keywords: management, statistical methods, product Cuvinte cheie: management, metode statistice, calitatea
quality, Gaussian distribution, product batch, sample produselor, distribuŃie Gauss, lot de produse, eşantion
According to various specialists in the theory and După opinia mai multor specialişti care se ocupă cu
quality management practice [1, 3, 4], products’ quality teoria şi practica managerială în domeniul calităŃii [1, 3, 4],
control is meant to actively operate and intervene controlul de calitate al produselor are rolul de a acŃiona şi
throughout the entire fabrication process, in such a way interveni în mod operativ pe întreg procesul de fabricaŃie,
that all the elements which characterize the final product pentru ca toate elementele care caracterizează produsul
to correspond to the requirements registered in the project final să corespundă cerinŃelor înscrise în documentaŃia de
documentation, the overall drawing, or in the contract proiect, pe desenele de ansamblu sau în contractul dintre
between the beneficiary and the producer. beneficiar şi producător.
There are various control methods [2]: Există mai multe metode de control [2]:
- Self-check; - autocontrolul;
- Manufacturing stream check; - controlul pe flux de fabricaŃie;
- Integral check; - controlul integral;
- Empirical survey check; - controlul prin sondaj empiric;
- Statistical check of quality. - controlul statistic al calităŃii.
The statistical check of products’ quality is the most used Controlul statistic al calităŃii produselor este cea mai
control method and is based on the control through sampling, utilizată metodă de control şi se bazează pe controlul prin
within which through the extracted sample (n), controlled in its eşantionare, în cadrul căruia prin eşantionul extras (n),
entirety, different results and conclusions upon the entire controlat în totalitate, se obŃin rezultate şi concluzii asupra
manufacturing process or batch of final products concerning întregului proces de fabricaŃie sau lot de produse finite
the stability of the manufacturing, compatibility of fabrication privind stabilitatea fabricaŃiei, compatibilitatea proceselor
processes, as well as the precision for the execution of quality de fabricaŃie, precum şi precizia de realizare a
characteristics are obtained [5]. caracteristicilor de calitate [5].
WORKING METHOD METODA DE LUCRU

The manufacturing of a quality product is carried Fabricarea unui produs de calitate nu se desfăşoară
according to an open cycle (fig. 1), rather than a closed după un ciclu închis, ci după un ciclu deschis (fig. 1),
one, called the “quality spiral” [6]. numit ”spirala calităŃii” [6].
Fig. 1 – Quality spiral
551
The quality spiral usually includes the next steps: Spirala calităŃii cuprinde, în general, următoarele etape:
1. Scientific research; 1. Cercetarea ştiinŃifică;
2. Marketing study; 2. Studiul de marketing;
3. The planning and preparation of the technical documents; 3. Proiectarea şi şi întocmirea documentaŃiei tehnice;
4. Establishing the unit sizes and the product’s 4. Stabilirea tipo-dimensiunilor şi specificaŃiilor
specifications; produsului;
5. Planning of the manufacturing process; 5. Planificarea procesului de fabricaŃie;
6. The technical and material supply; 6. Aprovizionarea tehnico-materială;
7. Establishing the equipment and the measuring devices; 7. Stabilirea utilajelor şi aparatelor de măsură;
8. The production process; 8. Procesul de producŃie;
9. The control of the technological process; 9. Controlul procesului tehnologic;
10. Inspection and the final control; 10. InspecŃia şi controlul final;
11. Analysis, trials, tests; 11. Analize, încercări, probe;
12. Selling of products; 12. Desfacerea produselor;
13. The servicing; 13. Service-ul;
14. Scientific research (the cycle is resumed at a different 14. Cercetarea ştiinŃifică (ciclul se reia la un alt nivel
qualitative level). calitativ).
Fig. 2 – The life cycle of a product
The life cycle of a product (fig. 2) Ciclul de viaţţă al unui produs (fig. 2)
The commercial existence of the product [3] begins Viaţa comercială a produsului [3] începe cu lansarea
with its launching in the manufacturing and ends with the lui în fabricaţie şi se termină odată cu terminarea
finishing of the manufacturing. If the production stops fabricaţiei. Dacă producţia nu se mai vinde, înseamnă că
being sold it means that the manufactured products do produsele fabricate nu mai corespund din punct de
not correspond in quality to the beneficiary’s demand vedere calitativ exigenţelor beneficiarului şi producerea
anymore and their manufacturing must be terminated. lor trebuie întreruptă.
The life cycle of a product must not include the Ciclul de viaţă al uni produs nu trebuie să includă
obsolescence of it. Before a product to start being uzura morală a acestuia. Înainte de a începe declinul unui
dismissed, a new product, with higher characteristics produs, trebuie să înceapă pregătirea de fabricaţie a unui
and representing a perfect substitute, must be nou produs, cu caracteristici superioare, care să-l
manufactured. înlocuiască pe cel în declin.
The advantages of the statistical check of quality Avantajele controlului statistic al calităţţii
The main advantages of the statistical control of quality Principalele avantaje ale controlului statistic al calităţii
are the following: sunt:
- A lower cost for the products’ control; • cost mai redus pentru controlul produselor;
- The number of damaged products is lower because • numărul de produse deteriorate este mai mic,
it refers to the sample and not the entire batch; deoarece se referă la eşantion, şi nu la întregul lot;
- Control time is also reduced due to the same reason; • timpul de control se reduce din acelaşi motiv;
- The dismissal of a batch leads the company to apply • respingerea unui lot determină întreprinderea să
preventive measures. aplice măsuri preventive.
552
The risks of the statistical check of quality Riscurile controlului statistic al calităţţii
The statistical control implies the control of a batch of n Deoarece controlul statistic presupune controlarea
products from a lot of N products, such that n<<N, and unui eşantion de n produse dintr-un lot de N produse,
the conclusions refer to all the N products, therefore, astfel încât n<<N, iar concluziile se refera la toate
certain risks may arise: produsele N, pot aparea urmatoarele riscuri:
- the provider’s risk, α – to reject the lot, even if in c) riscul furnizorului, α – de a se respinge lotul chiar
the case of an integrated control an appropriate dacă la un control integral s-ar constata un lot
lot would be found; corespunzator;
- the beneficiary’s risk, β – to accept a lot, even if ci) riscul beneficiarului, β – de a accepta un lot chiar
in the case of an integrated control an daca la un control integral s-ar constata un lot
inappropriate lot would be found. necorespunzator .
As an example (fig. 3), let us assume that we want to Pentru exemplificare (fig. 3), să presupunem că dorim
accept all the lots whose flaws do not represent more să acceptăm toate loturile ale căror defecte nu reprezintă
than 3% and to dismiss all the lots which have more or mai mult de 3% şi să respingem toate loturile care
less than 3% flaws. prezintă defecte mai multe sau cel puţin egale cu 3%.
Fig. 3 – Risk control through sampling
Let us assume the case of a batch of 1000 product Să admitem cazul unui lot de 1000 de unităţi de
units, of which 4% (40 units, checked one by one) are produs, din care 4% (respectiv 40 de unităţi, controlate
faulty. bucată cu bucată) sunt cu defecte.
- A quality check machine draws a batch of 40 units and - Un controlor de calitate prelevează un eşantion de 40 de
does not find any flawed unit. As a consequence, unităţi şi nu găseşte niciuna defectă. În consecinţă,
it accepts the batch, although actually the batch acceptă lotul, deşi în realitate lotul conţine piese cu
contains faulty parts of around 3%. defecte în proporţie de 3%.
- On the other side, the 40 units batch could have - Pe de altă parte, eşantionul de 40 de unităţi ar fi putut,
contained, in a likely chance, 1, 2, 3 … or even 40 printr-o şansă a probabilităţii, să conţină 1, 2, 3 ... sau
faulty parts. chiar 40 de piese cu defecte.
Consequences: Consecinţţe:
- A good quality batch can be rejected; - un lot de bună calitate poate fi respins;
- A bad quality batch can be accepted. - un lot de calitate necorepunzătoare poate fi acceptat.
The economic advantages of the statistical check (through Avantajele economice ale controlului statistic (prin
sampling) compared to the total check (unit by unit) eşşantionare) faţţă de controlul total (bucată cu bucată)
The advantages lie in the total costs that both Avantajele rezidă din costurile totale pe care le implică
procedures entail. Let us assume that no checking error ambele procedee. Să presupunem că nu se produce nici
is produced and the costs of replacing a faulty product is o eroare de control, iar costul înlocuirii unui produs defect
incurred by the producer. este suportat de către fabricant.
If: N – the number of products that constitute the batch; n Dacă: N – numărul de produse ce compun lotul; n –
– the number of products that constitute the batch numărul de produse ce compun eşantionul lotului, atunci
sample, then the total cost for a unit by unit control will be: costul total în cazul controlului bucată cu bucată va fi:
C1 = N*Cctrl
(1)
Where Cctrl is the cost of the checking per product. Unde Cctrl este costul controlului pe produs. Costul total
The total cost of the checking through sampling will be: al controlului prin eşantionare va fi:
553
C2 = n*Cctrl + (N-n)*fd*Cp,
(2)
Where: fd is the defective fraction (the percentage of In care: fd este fracŃiunea defectivă (procentul de
faulty parts from the batch); Cp – the costs of the damages piese cu defecte din lot); Cp – costul pagubelor cauzate
caused by the products with undetected flaws at checking; de produsele cu defecte nedepistate la control;
From the equalization of the two costs (C1 = C2), we have: Din egalarea celor două costuri (C1 = C2), se obŃine:
N* Cctrl = n* Cctrl + (N-n)*fd*Cp
(3)
from where: fd = Cctrl/Cp . de unde rezultă: fd = Cctrl/Cp .
Example: Exemplu:
Let us assume: Cctrl = 1 Romanian leu, the cost of checking per Fie: Cctrl = 1 leu, costul controlului pe produs; Cp = 50
product; Cp = 50 Romanian leu, the cost of the damages caused lei, costul pagubelor cauzate de produsul cu defecte
by the products with undetected flaws at checking. It follows nedepistat la control. Rezultă: fd= Cctrl/Cp = 1/50 = 2%
that: fd= Cctrl/Cp = 1/50 = 2% (the defective fraction in the batch). (fracŃiunea defectivă din lot).
In conclusion, with the above case, if it is expected În concluzie, în cazul considerat, dacă este de
that the percentage of faulty units to be higher than 2%, aşteptat ca procentul de unităŃi defective să fie mai mare
the unit by unit checking will be used; otherwise, the de 2% se va utiliza controlul bucată cu bucată; în caz
sampling checking will be used. contrar, se va efectua controlul prin eşantionare.
The proficiency of the machinery and equipment Capabilitatea maşinilor şi utilajelor
By machinery and equipment proficiency [2] we Prin capabilitatea maşinilor şi utilajelor [2] se
understand the possibility of these to achieve înŃelege posibilitatea acestora de a realiza repere sau
benchmarks or products within the tolerance limits produse în limitele de toleranŃă prescrise de
prescribed by the technical documentation. documentaŃia tehnică.
The machinery and equipment proficiency is given by the Capabilitatea maşinilor şi utilajelor este dată de
following ratio: raportul:
C = (6σ)/(Lmax – Lmin), (4)
Where: σ is the standard deviation; Lmax – the maximum unde σ este abaterea medie pătratică; Lmax – valoarea
prescribed value; Lmin – the minimum prescribed value. maximă prescrisă; Lmin – valoarea minimă prescrisă.
It is recommended that: Se recomandă ca:
0,6 ≤ C = (6σ)/(Lmax – Lmin) ≤ 0,8
(5)
Where C < 0.6 – the machinery (equipment) is too În cazul în care C < 0,6 - maşina (utilajul) este prea
accurate for the quality conditions imposed to the precisă pentru condiŃiile de calitate impuse produsului,
product, therefore it would be an irrational use of it. If C > deci se face o utilizare neraŃională a ei. Dacă C > 0,6,
0.6, the machinery (equipment) cannot ensure the maşina (utilajul) nu poate asigura realizarea preciziei
achievement of the imposed precision. impuse.
Law of normal distribution (Gauss-Laplace) Legea distribuŃiei normale (Gauss-Laplace)
Let us assume a batch of identical products (tin cans, Să considerăm un lot de produse identice (cutii de
sugar bags, different sorts of bread etc.). The time conserve, pungi de zahăr, diverse sortimente de pâine
periods where the defective fractions of this batch are etc.). Momentele de timp la care se manifestă fracŃiunile
distributed, in the case of a very large number of defective ale acestui lot se repartizează, în cazul unui
products, is made according to a statistical distribution număr foarte mare de produse, după o lege de distribuŃie
law, called the law of normal distribution. statistică numită legea distribuŃiei normale.
Normal distribution, also known as Gauss-Laplace, DistribuŃia normală, cunoscută şi sub denumirea Gauss-
represents a distribution law of a random variable around Laplace, reprezintă o lege de distribuŃie a unei variabile
its average and is given by the following relation: aleatoare în jurul mediei sale şi este dată de relaŃia:
−
( x − m )2
f (x) =
1 2σ 2
⋅e (6)
σ ⋅ 2π
where: în care:
m represents the arithmetic mean of the n random m reprezintă media aritmetică a celor n variabile
analysed variables; aleatoare analizate;
standard deviation; abaterea medie pătratică;
e – the base of the natural logarithm, e = 2,71828 e – baza logaritmului natural, e = 2,71828
The arithmetic mean is given by relation (7): Media aritmetică este dată de relaŃia (7):.
n
x1 + x 2 + ... + x n−1 + x n ∑ xi
i =1
m= = (7)
n n
554
and the standard deviation, given relation (5): iar abaterea medie pătratică – de relaŃia (8):
∑ (xi − m )
n
2
σ =
(x1 − m ) + ( x2 − m )
2 2
+ ... + (x n −1 − m ) + ( x n − m )
2
=
2
i =1
(8)
n n
Or by the relation (9), in the case where one or more Sau de relaŃia (9), în situaŃia în care se elimină una sau
values, considered atypical (such as: a pack of biscuits mai multe valori, considerate atipice (cum ar fi: un pachet
nibbled by mice, a cracked pack of flour, a pack of eggs de biscuiŃi ros de şoareci, o pungă de făină cu ambalajul
with one or more cracked eggs etc.) are eliminated. fisurat, un cofrag cu unul sau mai multe ouă sparte etc.).
In this case, for k atypical values, the relation of În acest caz, pentru k valori atipice, relaŃia de calcul a
calculus of the standard deviation, becomes: abaterii medii pătratice, capătă forma:
n −k
∑ (x i − m )
2
σ =
(x1 − m ) + ( x2 − m )
2 2
+ ... + (x n − k −1 − m ) + ( x n− k − m )
2
=
2
i =1
(9)
n−k n−k
The normal standardized distribution DistribuŃia normală normată

Let us consider the law of the normal distribution (6) and Să considerăm legea distribuŃiei normale (6) şi să
have (x-m)/σ = z. The expression (10) is a function of the notăm (x-m)/σ = z. Să observăm că expresia (10) este
variable z, thus: funcŃie de variabila z, respectiv:
2
z
f (z ) = σ ⋅ f (x) =
1 −
⋅e 2 (10)
2π
The function f(z) is known as standardized normal FuncŃia f(z) poartă denumirea de funcŃie normală
function. normată.
Graphical representation of the function f(z) Reprezentarea grafică a funcŃiei f(z)
The graphical representation of the standardized Reprezentarea grafică a funcŃiei normale normate
normal function f(z) includes the following steps: f(z) cuprinde următoarele etape:
• the limit of the function at the interval ends; - limita funcŃiei la capetele intervalului;
• the first derivative; - prima derivată;
• the second derivative; - derivata a doua;
• the variation data panel of the function f(z); - tabloul de variaŃie a funcŃiei f(z);
• the graphical representation of the function f(z). - reprezentarea grafică a funcŃiei f(z).
The limit of the function at the interval ends: Limita funcŃiei la capetele intervalului:
 1 −
z2 
lim f ( z ) = lim  = 1 1
⋅e 2 ⋅ lim =0
z→ ±∞
 2π  2π z
2
(11)
  2
e
z→ ±∞ x →±∞
The first derivative: Prima derivată:
 2z − z 2   z
2

(z ) = 1 1 −
f /
⋅ − ⋅e 2  =− ⋅ z ⋅ e 2 
2π  2 
 2π  

(12)
The first derivative is cancelled for z=0. Prima derivată se anulează pentru z=0.
The second derivative: Derivata a doua:
 −z2 z2  z2
f //
(z ) = − 1  2z  − 2
⋅ e 2 + z ⋅  − ⋅ e =
1
⋅e
−
2 (
⋅ z 2 −1 )
2π   2  
 2π (13)
The second derivative is cancelled for z1=-1; z2=1. Derivata a doua se anulează pentru z1=-1; z2=1.
The value of the function in its origins: Valoarea funcŃiei în origine:
0
f (0 ) =
1 − 1
⋅e 2
= ⋅1 = 0,3989 (14)
2π 2π
This value also corresponds to the point where the first Această valoare corespunde şi pentru punctul în
derivative is cancelled. care se anulează prima derivată.
The value of the function in the point where the Valoarea funcŃiei în punctele în care se
second derivative is cancelled: anulează derivata a doua:
555
1
f (− 1) = f (1) =
1 − 1
⋅e 2
= = 0, 2420 (15)
2π 2π ⋅ e
For a more accurate representation of the function’s Pentru o reprezentare mai precisă a graficului
graphic f(z), we also calculate the value of the function in funcŃiei f(z), se calculează şi valoarea funcŃiei în
the points “-2”, “2”, “-3”, “3”: punctele „-2”, „2”, „-3”, „3”:
4
f (− 2 ) = f (2 ) =
1 − 1 1
⋅e 2
= ⋅ e −2 = = 0 ,0540
2π 2π e 2
2π
9
f (− 3 ) = f (3 ) =
1 − 1 1 (16)/(17)
⋅e 2 = ⋅ e − 4 ,5 = = 0,0043
2π 2π e 4 ,5
2π
Table 1
The variation data panel of the function f(z)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 +∞
f ′( z ) + + + + 0 - - - -
f ′′(z ) 0 0,0043 0,0540 0,2420 0,3989 0,2040 0,540 0,0043 0
f (z ) 0,3989
Fig. 4 – Graphical representation of the curve f(z)
The function Φ(z) FuncŃia Φ(z)

The function Φ(z) defines the area of the surface FuncŃia Φ(z) defineşte aria suprafeŃei de sub curba
under the curve f(z). However, since from a theoretical f(z). Cum însă, din punct de vedere teoretic, pentru un
point of view, for an infinite number of products the număr infinit de produse probabilitatea distribuŃiei este
distribution probability is 100%, respectively 1, it results 100%, respectiv 1, rezultă că:
that:
∫− ∞ f (z )dz = 100 % = 1 ∫− ∞ f (z )dz = ∫0 f (z )dz = 0 ,5

+∞ 0 +∞
⇒
(18)
Evaluating the area Φ(z) for the interval [-3σ, +3σ] Evaluarea ariei Φ(z) în intervalul [-3σ, +3σ]
For an approximate evaluation of the area Φ(z) for the interval Pentru evaluarea aproximativă a ariei Φ(z) în
[-3σ,+3σ], we divide the area under the curve f(z) between the intervalul [-3σ,+3σ], împărŃim suprafaŃa de sub curba f(z)
symmetrical elementary surfaces A1, A2, A3 (fig. 5). în suprafeŃele elementare simetrice A1, A2, A3 (fig. 5).
Fig. 5 – The elementary surfaces of the area Φ(z)
556
The surfaces A1, A2 and A3 are rectangular trapezoid SuprafaŃele A1, A2 şi A3 sunt în formă de trapez
shaped. Their areas are, respectively: dreptunghic. Ariile lor sunt, respectiv:
A1 =
[ f (0 ) + f (1)] = 0, 3989 + 0 ,2420
= 0,32045
2 2
A2 =
[ f (1) + f (2 )] = 0, 2420 + 0 ,0540 = 0,14800 (19)
2 2
A3 =
[ f (2 ) + f (3 )] 0, 0540 + 0 ,0043
= = 0 ,02915
2 2
The approximation of the area Φ(z) for the Aproximarea ariei Φ(z) în intervalul [-3σ,+3σ] va fi:
interval [-3σ,+3σ] will be:
A = 2 ( A1 + A2 + A3 ) = 2(0, 32045 + 0,14800 + 0 ,02915 ) = 0,9973 = 99 ,53 % (20)
Which means approximately 99,52% of the values are Adică aproximativ 99,52% din valori se situează în
situated in the interval [-3σ,+3σ]. intervalul [-3σ,+3σ].
The evaluation of the areas A1, A2, A3 based on the Evaluarea ariilor A1, A2, A3 în baza definiŃiei
definition of the function Φ(z) funcŃiei Φ(z)
On the basis of the function’s Φ(z) [2] definition, the În baza definiŃiei funcŃiei Φ(z) [2], aria suprafaŃei
area of the surface comprised in the interval [-3σ,+3σ] is cuprinsă în intervalul [-3σ,+3σ] este dată de
given by the relations: relaŃiile:
 1 z
2

A1 = ∫ f (z )dz = ∫ dz = Φ(1) = 0,34134
−
1  1
⋅e 2
0  2π
0 
 
 1 z2 
A2 = ∫10 f ( z )dz = ∫12  dz = Φ(2 ) − Φ (1) = 0,13591
−
⋅e 2
 2π 
 
(21)
 1 z2 
A3 = ∫ f ( z )dz = ∫ ⋅ e 2 dz = Φ(3 ) − Φ(2 ) = 0 ,0214
−
1 3
0  2π
2 
 
A = 2 ( A1 + A2 + A3 ) = 2(0, 34134 + 0,13591 + 0 ,0214 ) = 0 ,9973 = 99 ,73 %
Control plans for the product batches with attributive Planuri de control pentru loturi de produse cu
features caracteristici atributive
Attributive features are those characteristics which fall Caracteristicile atributive sunt acele caracteristici
within the adequate/inadequate type of prescriptions. care se încadrează la nivelul prescripŃiilor sub forma
What is characteristic to the sequential control plan is that corespunzător/necorespunzător. Caracteristic pentru
the number of unities which are to be checked is not planul de control secvenŃial este faptul că numărul unităŃilor
determined from the outset, but the decision is taken after care se controlează nu este dinainte fixat, decizia fiind
verifying every unit. luată după verificarea fiecărei unităŃi în parte.
For taking decisions the equations of two lines must Pentru luarea deciziilor se stabilesc ecuaŃiile a două
be established, An – the line of acceptance and Rn – the drepte, An – dreapta de acceptare şi Rn – dreapta de
line of rejection: respingere:
An = ρ ⋅ n + h1 ; Rn = ρ ⋅ n + h 2 (22)
Where: Unde:
1 − p1 β 1− β
lg lg lg
1 − p2 1−α α
ρ= ; h1 = ; h2 = (23)
p2 1− p2 p 1 − p2 p 1 − p2
lg − lg lg 2 − lg lg 2 − lg
p1 1 − p1 p1 1 − p1 p1 1 − p1
The lines An and Rn have the same angular coefficient Dreptele An şi Rn au acelaşi coeficient unghiular (ρ),
(ρ), so they are parallel. The sizes p1, p2, α and β deci sunt paralele. Mărimile p1, p2, α şi β reprezintă:
represent: - p1 – fracŃiunea defectivă acceptată în procesul de
- p1 – the accepted defective fraction in the production fabricaŃie;
557
process; - p2 – fracŃiunea defectivă tolerată de beneficiar;

- p2 – the defective fraction tolerated by the beneficiary; - α – riscul producătorului;
- α – consumer’s risk; - β – riscul beneficiarului.
- β – beneficiary’s risk. Numărul minim de unităŃi de produs supuse
The minimum number of unit products subject to controlului rezultă din ecuaŃia An = 0, respectiv:
checking follow from the equation An = 0, thus:
h1
n m in = (24)
ρ
Application AplicaŃie
Let us consider batches of the product “First quality Se consideră loturi din produsul „Unt de masă
butter”, evaluated after the sequential check method [2]. calitatea I-a”, evaluate după metoda controlului
The batches weigh up to 5000 kg, where the product is secvenŃial [2]. Loturile au greutatea până la 5000 kg,
packed in 250 g butter packs. The contracting parties produsul fiind ambalat în pacheŃele de unt de 250 g.
established the acceptance of the product to be made PărŃile contractante au stabilit ca recepŃia produsului să
dependent upon the fat content, which has to be of 74± se facă după conŃinutul de grăsime, care trebuie să fie
0,5%. 74± 0,5%.
The terms of the contract stipulate the following: CondiŃiile contractuale prevăd:
- p1 = 8% = 0,08 – the defective fraction - p1 = 8% = 0,08 – fracŃiunea defectivă acceptată în
accepted in the production process; procesul de fabricaŃie;
- p2 = 12% = 0,12 – the defective fraction - p2 = 12% = 0,12 – fracŃiunea defectivă tolerată de
tolerated by the beneficiary; beneficiar;
- α = 5% = 0,05 – the producer’s risk; - α = 5% = 0,05 – riscul producătorului;
- β = 10% = 0,1 – the beneficiary’s risk. - β = 10% = 0,1 – riscul beneficiarului.
Answer the following: Se cere:
- Establish the equations of the acceptance lines - Să se stabilească ecuaŃiile dreptelor de acceptare,
and of the rejection lines. respectiv de respingere;
1 − p1 1 − 0 ,08
lg lg
1 − p2 1 − 0,12
ρ= = = 0 ,099
p2 1− p2 0 ,12 1 − 0 ,12
lg − lg lg − lg
p1 1 − p1 0,08 1 − 0, 08
β lg
0,10
lg
1 − α 1 − 0 ,05
h1 = = = −5 ,004
p2 1− p2 0,12 1 − 0 ,12
lg − lg lg − lg (25)
p1 1 − p1 0 ,08 1 − 0,08
1− β 1 − 0 ,10
lg lg
h2 = α =
0,05
= 6 ,424
p2 1 − p2 0 ,12 1 − 0,12
lg − lg lg − lg
p1 1 − p1 0, 08 1 − 0 ,08
It results that: Rezultă:
An = 0,099 n − 5,004 ; R n = 0 ,099 n + 6, 424

(26)
The minimum number of unity packs subject to Numărul minim de pachete de unităŃi supuse
checking will be: controlului va fi:
h1 − 5,004
n m in = = = 50 ,5 (27)
ρ 0, 099
Let us have nmin = 51 product units. Se adoptă nmin = 51 unităŃi de produs.

The control chart is shown in fig. 6. Diagrama de control este prezentată în figura 6.
558
Fig. 6 – Control chart
Interpreting the control chart Interpretarea diagramei de control

Let us assume the product with the serial number 40 Să admitem că produsul cu nr. de ordine 40 s-a
has been identified as unsuitable. identificat ca necorespunzător.
-For the batch to be accepted, all the other products -Pentru ca lotul să fie acceptat, trebuie ca toate
that are checked have to be adequate. Their number celelalte produse controlate să fie corespunzătoare.
results from the following equation: Numărul acestora rezultă din ecuaŃia:
1 − h1 1 − (− 5,004 )
An = ρ ⋅ n1 + h1 = 1 ⇒ n1 = = = 60 , 65 ≅ 65 produse
ρ 0, 099 (28)
So, for accepting the batch, 65 – 40 = 15 products Deci, pentru acceptarea lotului, trebuie ca 65 – 40 =
must be adequate. 15 produse să fie conforme.
-For the batch to be rejected, all the other products - Pentru ca lotul să fie respins, trebuie ca toate celelalte
that are checked have to be inadequate. Their number produse controlate să fie necorespunzătoare. Numărul
results from the equation (24), where n2 = 40: acestora rezultă din ecuaŃia (24), în care n2 = 40:
Rn = ρ ⋅ n 2 + h2 ⇒ R n = 0,099 ⋅ 40 + 6 ,424 = 10 ,36 ≅ 11 produse
(29)
Therefore, for the batch to be dismissed, all the other Deci, pentru respingerea lotului, trebuie ca toate
11– 1=10 products must be inadequate. celelalte 11–1 =10 produse să fie necorespunzătoare.
If none of the two requirements is fulfilled, the control Dacă nici una din cele două condiŃii nu este
will be continued until the acceptance or rejection îndeplinită, se continuă controlul până când se ajunge fie
domains are reached. în domeniul de acceptare, fie în domeniul de respingere.
The purpose of the quality check is that of operating Rolul controlului de calitate este de a acţiona şi
and intervening actively throughout all the stages of a interveni în mod operativ pe întreg procesul de fabricaţie
product’s manufacturing process, for the final product to a unui produs, pentru ca acesta să corespundă în
match its production purpose entirely. The statistical întregime scopului pentru care a fost realizat. Controlul
check of products’ quality is the mostly used control statistic al calităţii produselor este cea mai utilizată
method. It is based on the control through sampling, metodă de control şi se bazează pe controlul prin
within which, through the extracted sample (n), controlled eşantionare, în cadrul căruia prin eşantionul extras (n),
entirely, various results and conclusions regarding the controlat în totalitate, se obţin rezultate şi concluzii
entire production process or the final products batch asupra întregului proces de fabricaţie sau lot de produse
concerning the production stability, the compatibility of the finite privind stabilitatea fabricaţiei, compatibilitatea
production processes, as well as the precision used to proceselor de fabricaţie, precum şi precizia de realizare a
create quality features, are obtained. caracteristicilor de calitate.
Concerning the sequential control plan, the equations Referitor la planul de control secvenţial, pentru luarea
of two lines, An – the acceptance line and Rn – the deciziilor se stabilesc ecuaţiile a două drepte, An –
rejection line, will be established for taking decisions. In dreapta de acceptare şi Rn – dreapta de respingere. În
this case, the number of checked units is not determined acest caz, numărul unităţilor care se controlează nu este
from the outset, the decision being taken after verifying dinainte fixat, decizia fiind luată după verificarea fiecărei
every unit. unităţi în parte.
559
[1]. Cucu M. Rădescu O., Antonescu V., (2000) - Quality, [1]. Cucu M. Rădescu O., Antonescu V., (2000) -
Culture, Ethics, Tribuna calităŃii nr. 1–2; Calitate, cultură, etică, Tribuna calităŃii nr. 1–2;
[2]. Juran G. jr. (1973) - Product Quality. Practical Treaty [2]. Juran G.jr. (1973) - Calitatea produselor. Tratat
of Design, Execution and Control (translation from practic de proiectare, realizare şi control (traducere din
English – USA), Technical Publishing House, Bucharest; limba engleză – SUA), Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti;
[3]. Kifor C., Oprean C. (2002) - The Engineering of [3]. Kifor C., OPREAN, C (2002) - Ingineria calităŃii,
Quality, ULBS Publishing House, Sibiu; Editura ULBS, Sibiu;
[4]. Oprean C. (2004) - Quality Management, ULBS [4]. Oprean C. (2004) - Managementul calităŃii, Editura
Publishing House, Sibiu; ULBS, 2004.
[5]. Rotaru G., Borda D., Sava N., Stanciu S. (2005) - [5]. Rotaru G., Borda D., Sava N., Stanciu S. (2005) -
Quality Management in the Food Industry, Academica Managementul CalităŃii în Industria Alimentară, Ed.
Publishing House, GalaŃi, 2005; Academica, GalaŃi.
[6]. Ţiţu M. (2008) - Reliability and Maintenance, AGIR [6]. łiŃu M. (2008) - Fiabilitate şi mentenanŃă, Editura
Publishing House, Bucharest. AGIR, Bucureşti.
560
A GEOMETRIC MODELING OF SCREWDRIVER PRODUCT DESIGN

/
MODELAREA GEOMETRICĂ A DESIGNUL DE PRODUS – SURUBELNIłĂ
1 1 2
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A.-M. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S. , As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Jugănaru E.-C. ,
1 3 1
As. Ph.D. Eng. Toderaşc P. , Ph.D. Stud. Petcu A.S. , As. Ph.D. Stud. Rugescu A.-M. M.
1
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Department of Engineering Graphics and Industrial Design, Bucharest, Romania
2
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology, Bucharest, Romania
3
National Research – Development Institute for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry, Romania
Tel: 0724.594.846; E-mail: avr_ana@yahoo.com
Abstract: In this paper we have presented a tool that Rezumat: În acest articol am prezentat o unealtă ce ar
could be useful to both professionals and the common putea fi folositoare atât profesioniştilor, cât şi omului de
man, for its use in home environment. Switching from one rând, pentru utilizarea ei în gospodărie. Trecerea de la o
screwdriver to another is easy, made in less than 5 şurubelniŃă la alta se face uşor, în mai puŃin de 5 secunde,
seconds, thus canceling the excruciating kits with more renunŃându-se astfel la trusele chinuitoare cu mai multe
pieces, several headsets or kits that are heavy and piese sau cu seturi de capete, truse ce sunt incomode şi
inconvenient. Throughout time there have appeared grele. De-a lungul timpului au apărut mai multe modele de
several models of screwdrivers, some of them are being şurubelniŃe, unele dintre ele fiind folosite în anumite
used in certain industries and others worldwide. In this industrii, iar altele la nivel mondial. În articolul de faŃă am
paper we have proposed a screwdriver which is authentic propus o surubelniŃă cu un design autentic şi simplu.
and has a simple design. The design of each component Designul fiecărei componente în parte, cât şi a întregului
as well as the entire product is more conceived for produs, este gândit mai mult pentru practicalitate, în
practicality to the detriment of appearance. detrimentul aspectului.
Key words: Screwdriver, concept, design, ergonomic, Cuvinte cheie: ŞurubelniŃă, concept, design, ergonomic,
ecological ecologic
From the moment that men began to think and to Din momentul în care a început să gândească şi să-şi
construiască propriile locuinŃe, de sine stătătoare, omul a
build their homes, self-contained, the men realized that the
realizat că pentru îmbinarea diferitelor materiale de
combination of different building materials requires a construcŃii are nevoie de un liant potrivit pentru acestea,
binder suitable for them to bring the greatest durability care să aducă o cât mai mare durabilitate construcŃiei.
possible of the construction. Astfel au aparut, de-a lungul timpului, argila, cuiul,
Over time has appeared the clay, nail, mortar, mortarul, cimentul, nitul sau şurubul. Între sistemele de
cement, rivet or bolt. Between systems of various prindere ale diverselor îmbinări un loc aparte il deŃine
connections fastening a bolt holds special place in his şurubul, în strânsa lui legatură cu şurubelniŃa, pentru
close relationship with screwdriver for easy enjoyment to folosinŃa sa uşoară în îmbinare, rezistenŃă şi pentru faptul
merge strength and that can be reused [8]. Form and the că poate fi reutilizat [8]. Forma şi modul de lucru al acestui
operating mode of this new element grip strength was the nou element de prindere, rezistenŃa sa şi faptul că putea fi
fact that it could be reused, universally made for an entire refolosit, l-a facut universal pentru o întreagă gamă de
range of industrial and construction operations so tool operaŃiuni din industrie şi construcŃii, astfel că producătorii
manufacturers, including electric conceived industrial de unelte, inclusiv electrice, au conceput o versiune
version screwdriver. It had been born as one of the tools industrială a şurubelniŃei. Se născuse astfel una dintre
that will give a miraculously boost for the industrial uneltele ce vor da un avânt miraculos productivităŃii
productivity [5]. industriale [5].
THE PRODUCT EVOLUTION EVOLUłIA PRODUSULUI

The screwdriver is a tool consisting of a metal rod ŞurubelniŃa este o unealtă metalică alcătuită dintr-o
with a handle, having a widened blade top and serving for tijă cu mâner, având vârful lăŃit ca un tăiş şi servind la
screwing and unscrewing. For a better understanding of its înşurubarea şi deşurubarea şuruburilor. Pentru a înŃelege
usefulness, we need to go through a several steps in the mai bine utilitatea ei, trebuie să parcurgem câŃiva paşi din
history, noting also the evolution of the screw. In ancient istorie, notând, de asemenea, evoluŃia şurubului. În
times, the screw was first used as a component of screw antichitate, şurubul a fost utilizat prima oară ca o
pump (invention of Archimedes) by Sennacherib, king of componentă a pompei şurub (invenŃie a lui Arhimede) de
Assyria for irrigation systems to the Hanging Gardens of către Sennacherib, regele Assyriei, pentru sistemele de
Babylon, in the 7th century AC. He was described later by irigaŃie pentru Grădinile suspendate din Babylon, în
the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarent (428-350 secolul 7 AC. El a fost descris ulterior de către
AC). By the 1st century BC, wooden screws were used in matematicianul grec Archytas din Tarent (428 – 350 AC).
devices such as oil and wine presses. The metal screws Până în secolul 1 IH, şuruburile de lemn erau utilizate la
used for fastening have not appeared in Europe until the aparate precum presele de ulei şi de vin. Şuruburile de
1400s [4, 5, 8]. metal utilizate pentru fixare nu au apărut în Europa până
The metal screw did not become a widely used body în anii 1400 [4, 5, 8].
for merging until end of the eighteenth century when Şurubul de metal nu a devenit un organ de îmbinare
mechanized tools have been developed for mass foarte utilizat până la sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea, când
production. The screwdriver is a tool for fastening and s-au dezvoltat uneltele mecanizate, pentru producŃia în
masă. ŞurubelniŃa este o unealtă pentru inserarea şi
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inserting screws. It is made of a handle and a tip (head), prinderea şuruburilor. Este alcătuită dintr-un mâner şi un
which fells in gear with a screw, resulting in a mechanism vârf (cap), care intră în angrenaj cu un şurub, rezultând un
for applying torque, by rotation of the tip. A common hand- mecanism de aplicare a momentului de torsiune, prin
rotaŃia vârfului. O şuribelniŃă comună de mână are un
held screwdriver has a handle that is almost cylindrical,
mâner care este aproximativ cilindric, ce are încastrat un
having a built-in shaft, which ends with a tip that is ax, care se termină cu un vârf ce este construit să se
designed to fit a specific type of bolt [4]. potrivească unui anumit tip de şurub [4].
The screwdriver was invented in Germany in the late ŞurubelniŃa a fost inventată în Germania la sfârşitul
fifteenth century. The first documentations regarding this secolului al XV-lea. Primele documentaŃii despre această
tool appeared in Medieval Castle Wolfegg book published unealtă au apărut în Cartea Medievală a Castelului
sometime between 1475 and 1490. The original Wolfegg, publicată undeva între 1475 şi 1490. ŞurubelniŃa
originală avea un mâner în formă de pară şi era utilizată
screwdriver had a pear shaped handle and was used for
pentru şuruburile crestate [4].
slotted screws [4]. ŞurubelniŃa a fost, evident, dependentă de şurub, şi a
The screwdriver was obviously a screw dependent devenit populară la nivel mondial odată cu momentul în
and became popular worldwide with screws when they care şuruburile au devenit uşor de produs. Şuruburile au
become easier to produce. The screws have been very fost foarte dificil de produs înainte de prima revoluŃie
difficult to produce on the first industrial revolution, industrială, necesitând producerea unui elicoid pe o
requiring the production of a helix on a conical surface. suprafaŃă conică. Doi fraŃi, Job şi William Wyatt, au găsit o
Two brothers, Job and William Wyatt, found a way to modalitate de a produce un şurub într-un aparat care tăia
produce a screw in a machine that cut the slotted head mai întâi capul crestat şi apoi sculpta elicoidul. Deşi, în
first and then carve helix. Although, eventually, their cele din urmă, afacerea lor a eşuat, a condus la o
business failed, has led to a real boost in popularity of the creştere semnificantă a popularităŃii şurubului şi a
screw and screwdriver. This increase in popularity has led şurubelniŃei. Această creştere a popularităŃii a condus la
to the refining and diversification of screwdrivers. rafinarea şi diversificarea şurubelniŃelor.
One of the most popular designs of the screwdriver Unul dintre cele mai populare design-uri ale
was conceived by the Canadian PL Robertson, without şurubelniŃei a fost conceput de către canadianul P.L.
realizing it, when he patented screw hole in 1907. These Robertson, fără să-şi dea seama, când a patentat şurubul
screws have grown in popularity and still are some of the cu cavitate, în 1907. Aceste şuruburi au crescut în
favorite mechanics. Nevertheless Robertson has had popularitate şi încă sunt unele dintre preferatele mecanicii.
Cu toate acestea, Robertson a întâmpinat probleme cu
problems with promoting his invention in the automotive
promovarea invenŃiei sale în industria auto care era în
industry which was growing because he was not willing to mare creştere, deoarece nu era dispus să renunŃe la
give up the patent. Meanwhile, Henry F. Phillips has patentare. Între timp, Henry F. Phillips a patentat propria
patented his own invention, an improved version with a sa invenŃie, o versiune îmbunătăŃită cu o cavitate în formă
cross-shaped cavity, known today as the Phillips screw. It de cruce, cunoscut astăzi ca şurubul Phillips. Acesta a fost
was formally submitted to the American Screw Company prezentat Companiei Americane de Şuruburi şi, în urma
unui proces, în 1936 a intrat în folosinŃă în industria auto.
and, following a trial, in 1936, came into use in the
Şurubul Phillips a devenit şi a rămas cel mai popular în
automotive industry. Phillips screw became and remained întreaga lume, deşi unii dintre experŃi încă preferă şurubul
the most popular worldwide, although some experts still lui Robertson.
prefer Robertson screw. ŞurubelniŃa rămâne una dintre cele mai utilizate
The screwdriver remains one of the most used tools unelte atât în domeniul producŃiei profesioniste, cât şi în
in both the professional production and people's homes. casele oamenilor. ŞurubelniŃa ebenistului are unul dintre
The Ebeniste screwdriver has one of the longest handles cele mai lungi mânere, cu secŃiunea ovală sau elipsoidă.
with oval or ellipsoid section. It is designed to improve the Aceasta are rolul de a îmbunătăŃi aderenŃa şi de a preveni
adhesion and prevent the tool to emerge from the groove unealta să iasă din crestătura şurubului. Această formă
of the screw. This shape is been popular for approximately este populară de aproximativ 200 de ani şi este asociată,
200 years and is usually associated with flat tip screw slot, de obicei cu vârful plat pentru şurubul cu crestătură, dar a
but has been used with many types of tip. Modern fost utilizată cu foarte multe forme ale vârfului.
screwdrivers, made of plastic, use a hexagonal handle ŞurubelniŃele moderne, din plastic, utilizează un mâner cu
section in order to meet the same conditions, and it can be secŃiunea hexagonală, pentru a îndeplini aceleaşi condiŃii,
said that has evolved greatly from pear-shaped handle in şi se poate spune că a evoluat foarte mult de la mânerul în
the late fifteenth century. formă de pară de la sfârşitul secolului al XV-lea.
Screwdrivers exist within a wide variety of sizes to ŞurubelniŃele există într-o largă varietate de mărimi,
accommodate a variety of screws, to those of the jeweler, pentru a se adapta varietăŃii de şuruburi, de la acelea de
the largest ones. When using a screwdriver which not bijutier, la cele mai mari. Dacă se utilizează o şurubelniŃă
care nu este pe măsura şurubului, acesta poate fi avariat
measure with the screw, it may get broken while being
în timp ce este strâns. Când se strânge cu forŃă, este
tightened. When it cuddle with force, it is appropriate to indicat să se apese cât mai puternic asupra şurubului.
push the screw as strong as possible.
MATERIAL AND METHOD Propunerea produsului
Product proposal De-a lungul timpului au apărut mai multe modele de
Over time there have appeared several models of şurubelniŃe, unele dintre ele fiind folosite în anumite
screwdrivers, some of which are used in certain industries industrii, iar altele la nivel mondial.
and others worldwide.
Cea mai simplă formă o reprezintă şurubelniŃa
The simplest form of a screwdriver is formed from a
formată dintr-un mâner de plastic şi un ax de oŃel ce are la
plastic handle and a shaft of steel which has at one end
562
one of the shapes described above. The handle is made, capăt una dintre formele prezentate mai sus. Mânerul
more precisely, from cellulose acetate which is extruded este confecŃionat, mai exact, din acetat de celuloză, ce
through a hole having a desired shape. The method of este extrudat printr-un orificiu, luând forma dorită.
assembly thereof varies depending on the desired quality Modalitatea de asamblare a acestuia diferă în funcŃie de
of the tool. calitatea dorită a uneltei.
Another type of construction is the screwdriver with a O altă formă constructivă o reprezintă şurubelniŃa
set of interchangeable heads. Their shaft ends in a model care are un set de capete interschimbabile. Axul acestora
that can be attached to the ends of different shapes and se termină într-un model la care pot fi ataşate capete de
sizes. diferite forme şi dimensiuni.
Its advantages are enhanced practicality, much Avantajele acesteia sunt practicalitatea sporită, spaŃiul
smaller space it occupies a kit of its kind to one with one mult mai mic pe care îl ocupă o trusă de acest gen, faŃă de
screwdriver for each head model and rapid transition from una cu câte o şurubelniŃă pentru fiecare model de cap şi
one type of screwdriver to another, as needed, by simply trecerea rapidă de la un tip de şurubelniŃă la altul, în
changing the head [4]. funcŃie de mecesităŃi, prin simpla schimbare a capului [4].
Another embodiment which took the scale is the O altă variantă constructivă, care a luat amploare este
powered screwdriver. The first electric screwdriver was şurubelniŃa acŃionată electric. Prima şurubelniŃă electrică a
fost concepută si fabricată de către compania germană
developed and manufactured by the German company
FEIN in anul 1925, forma şi modul ei de acŃionare fiind
FEIN in 1925, and how it drives shape resembling of an
rotary hammer, only a much smaller scale. In these days, asemănătoare cu a unui ciocan rotopercutor, doar ca la o
the electric screwdrivers are made of: batteries; engine; scară mult mai mică. Astăzi, şurubelniŃele electrice sunt
alcătuite din: baterii; motor; cutie de viteze; întrerupător;
gearbox; swich; gripping mechanism of the screwdriver
mecanism de prindere a capului de şurubelniŃă [3, 5, 7].
head [3, 5, 7].
Fig. 1 – Example of the screwdriver [10]
RESULTS REZULTATE
Geometric modeling of product design –screwdriver Modelarea geometrică a designului de produs – şurubelniŃă
Constructive variant of the proposed product is found Varianta constructivă a produsului propus se
in the picture 2. regăseşte în figura 2.
The design of each component as well as the Designul fiecărei componente în parte, cât şi a
entire product is conceived more for practicality to the întregului produs, este gândit mai mult pentru
detriment of appearance. Nevertheless it is observed a practicalitate, în detrimentul aspectului. Cu toate acestea,
continuing trend line and angles which form the se observă o tendinŃă de continuitate a unghiurilor şi a
product. liniilor ce alcătuiesc produsul.
Fig. 2 – Product design
Organization forms of product Organizarea formelor produsului

In the most part, product components are obtained by În ce mai mare parte, componentele produsului sunt
the casting and machined cutting techniques [6]. The final obŃinute prin procedee de turnare, şi prelucrate [6]. Forma
form of product consists of the following parts: finală a produsului este alcătuită din următoarele piese:
• main body; • corpul principal;
563
• the head, that contains the articulation • capul, ce conŃine sistemul de articulaŃie;
system; • şurubelniŃele propriu-zise;
• proper screwdrivers; • inelul pe care se articulează acestea;
• ring that those are articulated on; • şurubul care prinde capul cu articulaŃiile de
• head screw that secures the main body joints corpul principal (standardizat);
(standardized); • capacul corpului principal;
• the cover of the main body; • inelul ce permite fixarea şurubelniŃelor pe
• the ring that allows fixation of screwdrivers lângă corp.
along the body. Corpul principal se obŃine prin turnarea sub presiune a
The main body is obtained by high pressure castings unui cilindru cu diametrul de aproximativ 43 mm şi
of a cylinder with a diameter of about 43 mm and a height înălŃimea de 105 mm [3]. Apoi, prin procedee de aşchiere
of 105 mm [3]. Then by cutting processes the material se înlătură materialul în surplus, dându-se forma finală, se
realizează canalele în care vor intra tijele şurubelniŃelor, şi
excess is removed, giving the final shape that performes
se vor realiza găurile pentru lăcaşul bateriilor şi pentru
channel that will enter the screwdrivers rods, and will make prinderea capului de corpul principal.
holes for mounting bay batteries and head main body. Capul este realizat prin turnarea unui cilindru cu
The head is made by molding a cylinder with a diametrul de 30 mm şi înălŃimea de 35 mm, după care se
diameter of 30 mm and a height of 35 mm, after which the înlatură surplusul de material şi se realizează canalele
material excess is removed and carried, and channels that care permit mobilitatea şurubelniŃelor şi găurile de prindere
allow for the mobility of the screwdrivers and its mounting prin strunjire [3, 4].
ŞurubelniŃele sunt realizate prin forjare la rece,
holes by turning process [3, 4].
deoarece se pot obŃine finisări mai bune ale suprafeŃelor şi
Screwdrivers are made by cold forging because it can un control superior asupra dimensiunilor, după care se
obtain better finishing of the surfaces and a superior finisează şi se dă gaura prin care va trece inelul de
control over dimensions and then the hole is given and articulaŃie.
smoothed and which will pass through the articulation ring. Pentru inelul de articulaŃie se realizează o tijă metalică
The joint ring is made of a cylindrical metallic rod and cilindrică cu diametrul de aproximativ 2,2 mm, din care se
it has diameter of approximately 2.2 mm, are being cut to taie bucăŃi de dimensiuni fixe, care, prin deformare, se
transformă într-un inel care nu este închis complet,
fixed length pieces, which through deformation is
deoarece este nevoie de un spaŃiu pentru a introduce
transformed into ring that is not closed completely because şurubelniŃele.
it requires a space to insert screwdrivers. Capacul corpului principal se realizează asemănător
The cover of the main body is made by casting a corpului, prin turnarea unui cilindru cu diametrul de
cylinder with a diameter of about 43 mm and a height of aproximativ 43 mm şi înălŃimea de aproximativ 23 mm,
about 23 mm, followed by cutting and removing the excess după care se înlătură prin aşchiere surplusul de material,
dându-se forma finală, şi se realizează găurile şi filetul prin
material, giving the final form, and is realizes the thread
strunjire [2, 6, 9].
hole by turning [2, 6, 9]. Având în vedere destinaŃia produsului, adică utilizarea
Due to products destination, meaning its daily use by zilnică de către persoane care se ocupă cu reparaŃiile
people dealing with repairs of small and medium sized obiectelor de dimensiuni mici şi medii, cât şi utilizarea în
objects and household use, it was desired a product which gospodărie, s-a dorit realizarea unui produs cu dimensiuni
is accessible in dimensions for use with lightweight but care să permită utilizarea accesibilă, cu o greutate redusă,
have a low production cost [3, 6, 7]. dar care să aibă şi un cost de producŃie scăzut [3, 6, 7].
Astfel, materialul predominant este plasticul, iar
Thus the predominant material is plastic and the
componentele care necesită o rezistenŃă sporită, sunt
component that requires high strength is made of steel, as
confecŃionate din oŃel, după cum urmează [4]:
follows [4]:
• corpul principal este confecŃionat din plastic
• the main body is made of rigid plastic in order
rigid, pentru a permite prelucrarea sa prin
to allow processing by cutting; aşchiere;
• the cover is made of the same plastic; • capacul este confecŃionat din acelaşi plastic;
• the head joints are made of OL 37 steel; • capul cu articulaŃii este confecŃionat din oŃel
• the ring joints along with screwdrivers are OL 37;
made of OL 37 steel; • inelul de articulaŃii împreună cu şurubelniŃele
sunt făcute tot din OL 37;
• the ring that allows screwdrivers attachment
• inelul ce permite prinderea şurubelniŃelor pe
besides the main body is made of plastic.
lângă corpul principal este realizat din plastic.
The main body color is black, also gray combined with Culoarea corpului principal este negru, şi este
jointed head and chrome steel screwdrivers for a pleasant combinat cu gri-ul capului cu articulaŃii, şi oŃelul cromat al
contrast [1]. şurubelniŃelor, pentru un contrast plăcut [1].
Technical solutions for mounting technology SoluŃii tehnice pentru tehnologia de montaj
Assembly of components is exclusively handmade Montajul componentelor se face exclusiv manual,
also realizing it is relatively simple. For example, it is acest lucru realizându-se relativ simplu. De exemplu, se
estimated that a man can install the entire product within estimează că un om poate monta întregul produs în
approximately 5 minutes. If product market demand will aproximativ 5 minute. Dacă cererea produsului pe piaŃă va
greatly increase, there will be an assembly line. Assembly creşte foarte mult, se va realiza o linie de asamblare.
process is performed following six well-defined steps that Procedeul de montaj se realizează urmărind 6 paşi bine
we will go through also with the help of images. First, it definiŃi pe care îi vom parcurge şi cu ajutorul imaginilor. În
arranges the joint screwdrivers on the ring. These are
564
inserted through the space left for fixing the ring, figure 3. primul rând, se aranjează şurubelniŃele pe inelul de
The ring is then placed inside the channel on head of articulaŃie. Acestea se introduc prin spaŃiul lăsat pentru
the joint, at the same time, being placed a screwdriver in fixarea inelului, figura 3.
specially designed channels, figura 3. Inelul este plasat apoi în canalul de pe interiorul
capului de articulaŃie, plasându-se în acelaşi timp
şurubelniŃele în canalele create special, figura 3.
Fig. 3 - Assembly of components
The next step is fixing the articulation head to the Următorul pas este fixarea capului de articulaŃie pe
main body of the piece; taking into consideration that the corpul principal al piesei, avându-se în vedere ca feŃele
extension flat sides have to coincide with the ones inside plate de pe prelungire să coincidă cu cele din interiorul
the hole from the body. Further will be introduced the găurii date în corp. În continuare, se va introduce şurubul
threaded screw hole in the head joint by attaching it to the în gaura cu filet realizată în capul de articulaŃie, fixându-l
main body, figure 4. de corpul principal, figura 4.
Fig. 4 - Assembly of components
The next step is to screw the cover. The final part is Pasul următor este înfiletarea capacului. Partea finală
the attachment ring assembly which helps catching a asamblării o reprezintă fixarea inelului ce ajută la
screwdrivers attached to the main body, figure 5. This is prinderea şurubelniŃelor pe lângă corpul principal, figura 5.
Acesta se montează prin forŃarea sa în canalul special
mounted by forcing its channel especially created for him.
creat pentru el. Corpul principal are o nervură pe care se
The main body has a rib on which "fits" the ring, not ”mulează” inelul, pentru a nu-i permite să se învârtă în
allowing it to rotate around the body. jurul corpului.
Fig. 5 - Assembly of components – final product
In this paper we have presented a tool that could be În acest articol am prezentat o unealtă ce ar putea fi
useful to both professionals and the common man, for its folositoare atât profesioniştilor, cât şi omului de rând,
use in the household environment. The transition from one pentru utilizarea ei în gospodărie. Trecerea de la o
screwdriver to another is made easy, in less than 5 şurubelniŃă la alta se face uşor, în mai puŃin de 5 secunde,
renunŃându-se astfel la trusele chinuitoare cu mai multe
seconds, thus canceling the excruciating kits with more
piese sau cu seturi de capete, truse ce sunt incomode şi
pieces or headsets, kits that are awkward and heavy. grele.
Also the incorporated flashlight LED makes it more De asemenea, lanterna cu leduri încorporată o face
useful compared to other similar products, is very useful in mult mai utilă faŃă de celelalte produse asemănătoare, fiind
many dark places where you can find screws. Is foarte utilă în nenumăratele spaŃii întunecoase unde se pot
565
manufactured from cheap materials, durable, relatively găsi şuruburi. Este fabricată din materiale ieftine,
easy to process, there is no strong friction between parts, rezistente, relativ simplu de prelucrat, nu există frecări
things that makes us easy to estimate a very high lifetime puternice între piese, lucruri care ne fac să estimăm o
of the product. durată de viaŃă a produsului foarte mare.
Over the past years the recycling problem and În ultimii ani, problema reciclării şi a protecŃiei mediului
environmental protection matter increased, being promoted s-a accentuat, fiind promovate produsele cât mai puŃin
as environmentally friendly the products that are both poluante, atât în timpul vieŃii lor, cât şi după defectarea
during their lives and after their malfunction. Multifunctional acestora. ŞurubelniŃa multifuncŃională se supune acestor
screwdriver shall submit to such rules, being made of reguli, fiind confecŃionată din materiale care pot fi reciclate
materials that can be easily recycled. cu uşurinŃă. Totodată, acestea au o disponibilitate sporită,
They also have a high availability, with no risk of neexistând riscul de a rămâne fără materii prime în timpul
running out of raw materials during the mass production. producŃiei. Diversitatea mare a formelor şurubelniŃelor
The large diversity of screwdrivers shapes available on the existente pe piaŃă se datorează faptului că acestea
market is due to the evolution in terms of shape, quality evoluează din punct de vedere al formei, a calităŃii şi a
and ergonomics. Although the basic geometric shape is ergonomicităŃii. Deşi forma geometrică de bază este în
generally the same, they are constantly trying to improve general aceeaşi, se încearcă în mod constant
them by using quality materials or by revolutionizing their îmbunătăŃirea lor prin utilizarea materialelor de calitate sau
functionality, as is the case of this paper. The version prin revoluŃionarea funcŃionalităŃii lor, aşa cum este cazul
proposed in this paper will be appreciated for its în acest articol. Varianta propusă aici va fi apreciată pentru
practicality. practicalitatea ei.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MULłUMIRI
The first author wishes to Mr. Andrei Mintianschi for Primul autor doreşte să mulŃumească domnului Andrei
the support given to geometric modeling of the product Mintianschi pentru sprijinul oferit la modelarea geometrică
design. a produsului.
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J. Koppa, R.Dale Huchingson, Effects of pneumatic J. Koppa, R.Dale Huchingson, Efectele şurubelniŃelor
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Industrial Ergonomics, Volume 16, Issue 3, September Ergonomie industrială, Volum 16, EdiŃia 3, septembrie
1995, pp. 175-189; 1995, pp. 175-189;
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O’Brien, The effects of work height, workpiece orientation, O’Brien, Efectele înălŃimii de lucru, orientare piesei şi tipul
gender, and screwdriver type on productivity and wrist şurubelniŃei asupra productivităŃii şi deviaŃia încheieturii
deviation, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, mâinii, Jurnal InternaŃional de Ergonomie industrială,
Volume 33, Issue 4, April 2004, pp. 339-346; Volum 33, EdiŃia 4, aprilie 2004, pp. 339-346;
[7]. Steven L. Johnson, Larry J. Childress, Powered [7]. Steven L. Johnson, Larry J. Childress, Utilizarea şi
screwdriver design and use: Tool, task, and operator designul puterii şurubelniŃei: efectele instrumentului,
effects, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, sarcinilor si operatorului, Jurnal InternaŃional de Ergonomie
Volume 2, Issue 3, May 1988, pp. 183-191; industrială, Volum 2, EdiŃia 3, mai 1995, pp. 175-189;
[8]. Tony Cederqvist, Mats Lindberg, Screwdrivers and [8]. Tony Cederqvist, Mats Lindberg, ŞurubelniŃe şi
their use from a Swedish construction industry perspective, utilizarea lor dintr-o perspectivă suedeză în industria
Applied Ergonomics, Volume 24, Issue 3, June 1993, pp. construcŃiilor, Ergonomie Aplicată, Volum 24, EdiŃia 3, iunie
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[10]. *** www.dedeman.ro [10]. *** www.dedeman.ro
566
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REGARDING THE HUMIDITY INFLUENCE ON HUSKING

PROCESS OF THE SUNFLOWER SEEDS
/
CERCETĂRI EXPERIMENTALE PRIVIND INFLUENłA UMIDITĂłII SEMINłELOR DE
FLOAREA SOARELUI ASUPRA PROCESULUI DE DECORTICARE
1) 2) 1)
As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S. ,
1) 1) 2)
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A-M , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. Biriş S.Ş. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Ciobanu V.
1)
Politehnica University of Bucharest / Romania 2) INMA Bucharest / Romania 2);
Tel: 0748537194; E-mail: petruta.toderasc@yahoo.com
Abstract:Husking plays an important role in the Rezumat: Decorticarea are un rol important în procesul de
manufacturing process because the shell absorbs an fabricare a acestora deoarece coaja absoarbe o cantitate
appreciable amount of oil that the pressing and extraction apreciabilă de ulei pe care la presare şi extracŃie o cedează
gives up harder than the core. This paper presents the mult mai greu decât miezul. În lucrare se prezintă studiul
study of efficiency miller DS-1 for different types of eficienŃei decorticatorului DS-1 pentru diferite tipuri de seminŃe
sunflower seeds. The results and conclusions of this study de floarea soarelui. Rezultatele şi concluziile acestui studiu
are useful in identifying optimal operating parameters to sunt utile în identificarea parametrilor optimi de funcŃionare
achieve maximum efficiency for equipment shelling pentru a obŃine randament maxim în cazul echipamentului de
sunflower seeds. decorticare a seminŃelor de floarea soarelui.
Keywords: vegetable oils, milling, sunflower. Cuvinte cheie: uleiuri vegetale, decorticare, floarea soarelui
Oils and fats found in nature in plant tissues are Uleiurile şi grăsimile vegetale se găsesc în natură în Ńesutul
concentrated in the seeds, the pulp, tubers or seeds. To plantelor, fiind concentrate în seminŃe, în pulpă, în sâmburele fructelor,
our country main raw material is the oil seed producing în tuberculi sau în germeni. Pentru Ńara noastră principala materie
plants. primă o reprezintă plantele oleaginoase producătoare de seminŃe.
Sunflower seed (Figure 1) consists of the outer shell SămânŃa de floarea-soarelui (figura 1.) se compune din
(hull), a thin peel (skin) and the core itself consists of two învelişul exterior (coaja), o peliŃă subŃire (tegumentul) şi miezul
cotyledons. The skin is intergrown with cotyledons. On the propriu-zis, compus din două cotiledoane. Tegumentul este
other hand it also adheres to the seed shell. At peeling, concrescut cu cotiledoanele. Pe de altă parte acesta aderă şi la
the skin breaks remaining part adherent to the shell, and coaja seminŃelor. La decojire, tegumentul se rupe rămânând o
the rest of the core. [1] parte aderentă la coajă, iar restul la miez.[1]
Fig. 1- Anatomical structure of sunflower seed: 1 outer shell (shell)

2 The skin, 3 Cotyledons
In the description of the anatomy of the oleaginous La descrierea structurii anatomice a seminŃelor s-a
seed has been shown that the seed grains which can arătat că seminŃele oleaginoase pot fi împărŃite în seminŃe
be divided into the peel and seeds can not be debark. care se pot decoji şi seminŃe care nu se decojesc. La
The seed who can be debark, the core shell can be seminŃele care se decojesc, coaja poate fi separată de
separated by mechanical means, while those who do miez prin mijloace mecanice, pe când la cele care nu se
not debark this separation is not possible, since peel decojesc această separare nu este posibilă, deoarece
intimately adhere to the core. coaja aderă intim la miez.
Seed debarking have the following advantages: Decojirea seminŃelor prezintă următoarele avantaje:
- Increases processing capacity of the plant is - se măreşte capacitatea de prelucrare a instalaŃiilor,
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removed from the beginning of the manufacturing deoarece se elimină de la începutul procesului de fabricaŃie
process much of the shells almost completely oil free; o mare parte a cojilor lipsite aproape complet de ulei;
- Improved quality of grits by reducing the content of - se imbunătăŃeşte calitatea şrotului prin reducerea
cellulose, the substance that is assimilated than some conŃinutului de celuloză, substanŃă care nu este
animals (cattle); asimilată decât de unele animale (bovine);
- Reduce engine wear, especially of mechanical - se reduce uzura maşinilor, în special a valŃului şi a
presses, and roller, because the skin contain silica, preselor mecanice, deoarece coaja conŃine şi silice, care
which acts as an abrasive material; se comportă ca un material abraziv;
- Reduce the loss of oil in the meal as it absorbs a - se reduc pierderile de ulei în şrot, deoarece coaja
substantial amount of peel oil in which an extraction absoarbe o cantitate apreciabilă de ulei pe care la
yield harder than the core. extracŃie o cedează mai greu decât miezul.
Seed peeling presents some drawbacks, namely: Decojirea seminŃelor prezintă şi unele dezavantaje, şi anume:
- Loss of oil in the middle crust during descojirii - pierderi de ulei în miezul antrenat cu coaja în cursul
trained; descojirii;
- Require additional facilities in the form of peeling - necesită instalaŃii în plus sub formă de descojitoare şi
equipment and annexes; utilaje anexe;
- Energy and extra labor. - consum de energie şi manoperă în plus.
The main disadvantage of debarking sunflower seed Dezavantajul principal al descojirii seminŃelor de
consisting of: a high investment for carrying out the floarea-soarelui constă în: investiŃie ridicată pentru
operation. realizarea operaŃiei.
In principle, the debarking can be divided into two În principiu, procesul de decojire poate fi împărŃit în
stages, namely: două faze, şi anume:
- Peeling the hull from core - desprinderea cojii de miez,
- Separation of the hull from the mixture. [3] - separarea cojii din amestecul rezultat. [3]
Whatever the debarking equipment type is, and his Indiferent de tipul decojitorului, precum şi de locul lui
place in the cleaning of grain, technological effect is în procesul de curăŃire a cerealelor, efectul tehnologic
determined by the following factors: este determinat de următorii factori:
- Speed of pallets; - viteza paletelor;
- Path length debarking cereals; - lungimea traiectoriei cerealelor în decojitor;
- Distance between the pallets and mantle; - distanŃa dintre palete şi manta;
- The nature of the mantle, the coefficient of friction - natura mantalei, respectiv coeficientul de frecare al
respectively of the mantle; mantalei;
- Specific loading - încărcarea specifică.
The pallets speed directly affects the technological Viteza paletelor influenŃează în mod direct efectul
debarking effect. Increased peripheral speed of the tehnologic de decojire. Creşterea vitezei periferice a
debarking equipment blades, debarking efficiency paletelor decojitorului, determină creşterea eficienŃei
increases. However the peripheral speed can be decojirii. Cu toate acestea viteza periferică poate să
increased only up to a certain level limited by the crească doar până la o anumită valoare, limitată de
mechanical strength of the grain. Exceeding a specific rezistenŃa mecanică a bobului. Depăşirea unei anumite
peripheral speeds can result in detrimental effects such viteze periferice poate determina efecte negative, cum ar
as increase in the percentage of breakage of grains and fi: spargerea boabelor şi creşterea procentului de boabe
broken grains and breaking of the coating seminal and sparte precum şi ruperea învelişului seminal şi al stratului
aleurone layer. aleuronic.
Path length of the seed in the debarker depends Lungimea traiectoriei seminŃelor în decojitor
on the dimensional characteristics of the mantle, length depinde de caracteristicile dimensionale ale mantalei,
and diameter, and the angle α. The diameter and length lungime şi diametru. Cu cât diametrul şi lungimea mantalei
of the mantle is higher, the longer is the path of each este mai mare, cu atât va fi mai lungă traiectoria descrisă
grain described. de fiecare bob.
The distance between the pallets and mantle DistanŃa dintre palete şi manta influenŃează
influence debarking efficiency. The distance between eficienŃa decojirii. Cu cât distanŃa dintre palete şi manta
the palles and the mantle is smaller, the friction increases este mai mică, cu atât se intensifică frecările din interiorul
within the debarker. A distance too small increases the decojitorului. O distanŃă prea mică, determină creşterea
percentage of scrap. Typically, the distance between the procentului de spărturi. În mod obişnuit, distanŃa dintre
blades and mantle take between 15 and 30 mm. palete şi manta se ia intre 15 şi 30 mm.
The nature of the mantle influences the debarking Natura mantalei influenŃează decojirea ca urmare a
due to the influence by the values of the coefficients of influenŃei dată de valorile coeficienŃilor de frecare. Cel mai
friction. The lowest coefficient of friction, the lower mic coeficient de frecare, respectiv cea mai mică eficienŃă
efficiencies that are obtained in the case of the woven se obŃine în cazul mantalei din sârmă împletită, care are
wire mantle, which has a circular section. Next, in order secŃiunea circulară. Urmează, în ordinea crescătoare a
of increasing friction coefficients, perforated plate coeficienŃilor de frecare, mantaua din tablă perforată, apoi
mantle, then woven wire with square cut and abrasives sârmă împletită cu secŃiune pătrată şi materiale abrazive.
materials. Încărcarea specifică.
The specific load of the debarkers influence Încărcarea specifică a decojitoarelor, influenŃează în
debarking efficiency to a lesser extent. However it can măsură mai mică eficienŃa decojirii. Cu toate acestea ea
not be neglected. nu poatre fi neglijată.
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When the specific charge is lower, the more efficient Cu cât încărcarea specifică este mai mică, cu atât
the debarking is. This is explained by the fact that with este mai eficientă decojirea. Acest lucru se explică prin
decreasing the amount of grain processed debarker, faptul că odată cu scăderea cantităŃii de cereale
debarking effect increases due to friction between the prelucrate în decojitor, creşte efectul decojirii datorat
pallets and the grain and the grain and mantle, to the frecărilor dintre palete şi cereale şi dintre cereale şi
detriment of friction between grains with different manta, în detrimentul frecărilor între boabe cu viteze de
speeds. Free space for the movement of grain by the deplasare diferite. SpaŃiul liber pentru deplasarea
impingement increases by decreasing the specific load. cerealelor prin ricoşare, creşte prin scăderea încărcării
With increasing specific load spaces decreases, specifice. Odată cu creşterea încărcării specifice, spaŃiile
increases friction between grains speeds and different libere se micşorează, se intensifică frecările dintre boabe
directions of travel, reducing friction between the cu viteze şi direcŃii diferite de deplasare, scăzând frecările
blades, grain and mantle. [5] dintre palete, cereale şi manta.[5]
After breaking the seed it results a mixture of whole După spargerea seminŃelor rezultă: un amestec de
and broken cores, whole and chopped peel, core mieji întregi şi sparŃi, coji întregi şi mărunŃite, miez cu rest
residue shell undebarked whole seeds. Separation of de coajă, seminŃe întregi nedecojite. Separarea cojilor din
the hulls of the mixture takes place in equipment that acest amestec are loc în utilaje care combină cernerea
combines sieving through the sieve (separation by the prin sită (separarea după diferenŃa de mărime) cu
difference in size) were separated by density difference separarea după diferenŃă de masă volumică prin aspiraŃie
sucked into the upward air flow produced by a fan. într-un curent de aer ascendent produs de un ventilator.
Separation kernel shells can be achieved by Desprinderea cojilor de miez se poate realiza pe cale
chemical and mechanical. In practice only uses the chimică şi mecanică. În practică se utilizează numai
latter method. ultima metodă.
Debarking the oilseeds by mechanical means can Decojirea seminŃelor oleaginoase prin mijloace
be obtained by: striking, cutting, rubbing and pressing. mecanice poate fi obŃinută prin: lovire, tăiere, frecare şi
After skinning obtained: unbroken seeds, core itself, presare. În urma decorticării se obŃin: seminŃe nesparte,
core large percentage of hulls, hulls with a small core miez propriu-zis, miez cu procent mare de coji, coji cu un
and clean peel. [4] procent mic de miez şi coji curate. [4]
Sunflower seeds undergo debarking must meet the SeminŃele de floarea-soarelui supuse decojirii trebuie
following conditions: să îndeplinească următoarele condiŃii:
- Humidity - up to 8%; - umiditate – maxim 8%;
- Foreign - maximum 1%. - corpuri străine – maxim 1 %.
MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALE SI METODA

The study goal is to find the optimal operating Scopul studiului este de a găsi parametri optimi de
parameters to achieve maximum efficiency for funcŃionare pentru a obŃine randament maxim în cazul
husking equipment of sunflower seeds and for this echipamentului de decorticare a seminŃelor de floarea soarelui
have been studied three types of sunflower seeds of iar pentru aceasta au fost studiate trei tipuri de seminte de
different sizes and degree of contamination as floarea soarelui, de dimensiuni şi grad de impurificare diferite,
follows : dupa cum urmeaza:
- Variety I: small seeds and high degree of - Soiul I: seminŃe de dimensiuni mici şi cu grad de
contamination; impurificare ridicat;
- Variety II medium sized seed with high - Soiul II: seminŃe de dimensiuni medii şi cu grad de
environmental contamination; impurificare mediu;
- Variety III: large seeds and low impurity level. - Soiul III: seminŃe de dimensiuni mari cu grad de impurificare scăzut.
Of the three varieties of sunflower seeds were Din cele trei soiuri de seminŃe de floarea soarelui au fost
prepared by 3 samples which were modified moisture pregătite cate 3 probe carora li s-a modificat umiditatea
according to Table 1. Weight of each sample is 500 g. conform tabelului 1. Masa fiecărei probe este de 500 g.
Table 1
Probele de floarea soarelui utilizate la decorticare
variety I variety II variety III
Moistened Moistened Moistened Moistened Moistened Moistened
Initially with 7 ml with 10 ml Initially with 7 ml of with 10 ml Initially with 7 ml with 10 ml
of water of water water of water of water of water
6.12% 6.43% 7.38% 6.08% 6.47% 7.27% 6.77% 7.97% 8.52%
To achieve the husking process was used DS-1 Pentru realizarea decorticării s-a utilizat decorticatorul
seeds miller. The method is further used for the de seminŃe DS-1 care. Procedeul se utilizează pentru
separation of the core from the sunflower seeds separarea ulterioară a miezului din seminŃele de floarea-
intended for use in press oil, thus obtaining an increase soarelui în scopul utilizării lor la presa de ulei, obŃinându-
in the efficiency of oil extraction. se astfel o creştere a eficienŃei în extracŃia uleiului.
The technical characteristics of the DS-1 miller Caracteristicile tehnice ale decorticatorului DS-1
(Figure 2) (figura 2.)
- Capacity: 100 kg / h; - capacitate:100 kg/h;
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- Effectiveness: 80%; - eficacitate: aproximativ 80%;

- Dimensions (LxWxH): 1650x800x1720 mm - gabarit (Lxlxh): 1650x800x1720 mm
- Weight: 300 kg - greutate: 300 kg
- Installed power: 1.12 KW - putere instalată: 1.12 KW
Fig. 2- Shelled seeds DS-1 [2]
The husking equipment consists of frame (1) seed Decorticatorul se compune din batiu (1), spărgător de
cracker (2) motor (3), belt drive system (4), eccentric seminŃe (2), motor (3), sistem de antrenare cu curele(4),
arm (5) tour selector (6) return selector (7) system of excentric cu braŃe (5), selector tur (6), selector retur (7),
absorbtion-exhaust shells (8) and control panel (9). sistem de absorbŃie- evacuare a cojilor (8) şi panou de
Seed breaker can be adjusted from the rosettes (10) comandă (9). Spărgătorul de seminŃe se poate regla din
and (11). rozetele (10) şi (11).
In Figure 3 is presented an issue during În figura 3. Se prezintă un aspect din timpul
experimental research. cercetărilor experimentale.
Fig. 3 - One aspect during experimental research
After entering seed peeling hopper (2) they are După introducerea seminŃelor în buncărul
involved in the burst, constant flow through a dispenser. spărgătorului (2), acestea sunt antrenate în sectorul de
Seeds are projected with the rotot palettes of a spargere, cu debit constant, prin intermediul unui dozator.
sector teeth . The evacuation peeling equipment will SeminŃele sunt proiectate de paletele unui rotor pe un
find a tour selector (6) whole cores and broken hulls, sector dinŃat şi aparte. La evacuarea spărgătorului se vor
and a percentage of unbroken grains. Due to vibration regăsi pe selectorul tur (6) mieji întregi, mieji şi coji sparte,
received from the eccentric arm (5), the cracked şi un procent de seminŃe nesparte. Datorită mişcării
material obtained moves towards the sieve Absorption vibratorii primită de la excentricul cu braŃe (5), spărtura
and exhaust system shells (8), together with a selection obŃinută se deplasează pe site, spre sistemul de absobŃie
of both cores and hulls on size. On the first screen the si evacuare a cojilor (8), simultan cu o selectare atat a
570
whole cores and the broken hulls will remain that will be miejilor cât şi a cojilor pe dimensiuni. Astfel, pe prima sită
absorbed by the first hood; the second screen will vor rămâne mieji întregi si coji întregi, care vor fi absorbite
remain broken cores and broken hulls that will be de prima hotă; pe sita a doua vor rămâne mieji sparŃi şi
absorbed by a second hood and small cracks core will coji sparte care vor fi absorbite de hota a doua iar
be discharged directly to the output of the core. After spărturile mici de miez vor fi evacuate direct la iesirea
removing the husks result selector return falls (7) which miezului. După îndepărtarea cojilor rezultatul cade pe
is designed for separating core unbroken whole seeds selectorul retur (7) care are rolul de separare a miezului de
are discharged from the end and then back into the seminŃe întregi nesparte care sunt evacuate la capăt şi apoi
bunker cracker. This makes it possible of seed husking reintroduse în buncărul spărgătorului. Astfel, se crează
in a proportion of up to 80% -90% depending on the posibilitatea decorticării seminŃelor într-un procentaj de până
quality of the seed. [2] la 80%-90% funcŃie de calitatea seminŃelor.[2]
RESULTS REZULTATE
Experimental results on the use of seed husking Rezultate experimentale privind utilizarea
equipment DS-1 for the nine samples are presented decorticatorului de seminŃe DS-1 pentru cele nouă probe
numerically in Table 2 and graphically in Figure 4. se prezintă numeric în tabelul 2 şi grafic în figura 4.
Table 2
The material balance for the nine samples obtained from husking
Vriety I Variety II Variety III
Moistened Moistened Moistened Moistened Moistened Moistened
Initially with 7 ml with 10 ml Initially with 7 ml with 10 ml Initially with 7 ml with 10 ml of
of water of water of water of water of water water
Core [g] 397.4 371.7 347.5 412.3 386.6 361.4 421.7 391.5 368.3
Whole seed [g] 53.5 76.4 93.7 49.1 74.8 88.5 47.2 72.3 82.8
Husks +
43.9 47.2 54.6 32.8 34 45.9 24.7 30.4 43.7
impurities [g]
Losses [g] 5.2 4.7 4.2 5.8 4.6 4.2 6.4 5.8 5.2
Fig. 4- Variation of mass balance for the nine samples
Seed moisture content increases inversely with Umiditatea seminŃelor creşte invers proporŃional cu
seed impurities because impurities absorb more water conŃinutul de impurităŃi al seminŃelor deoarece impurităŃile
which is why the same amount of water used for absorb multă apa motiv pentru care la aceeasi cantitate
wetting notice a considerable difference between the de apa folosită de umectare observăm o diferenŃă
variety I and variety III. While the seed moisture considerabilă intre soiul I şi soiul III. În timp ce umiditatea
increases, the amount of the core obtained by the seminŃelor creşte, cantitatea de miez obŃinut în urma
husking process decreases. procesului de decorticare scade.
It leads to a higher yield of seed machine when the Se obŃine un randament mai crescut al utilajului
humidity is lower. atunci cand umiditatea seminŃelor este mai scăzută.
571
CONCLUSIONS CONCLUZII:
Husking plays an important role in the production of skin Decorticarea are un rol important în procesul de
oil as absorbing a large amount of oil. fabricare a uleiurilor deoarece coaja absoarbe o
Debarking involves breaking and detaching shell core, cantitate mare de ulei.
peel separation from the mixture. Hitting is done paddle Decojirea implică spargerea şi detaşarea cojii de
drums burst. miez, cu separarea cojilor din amestecul rezultat.
Moisture content of the seeds increases in inverse Lovirea se realizează în tobe de spargere cu palete.
proportion to the seed impurities. Umiditatea seminŃelor variază invers proporŃional cu
Husking equipment yield increases inversely with seed conŃinutul de impurităŃi al seminŃelor.
moisture. Randamentul decorticatorului variază invers
proporŃional cu umiditatea seminŃelor.
REFERENCES
[1]. Vrânceanu Alex. Viorel - "Sunflower", Publishing House BIBLIOGRAFIE:
of Rep. Socialist Romanian, Bucharest, 1974. [1]. Vrânceanu Alex. Viorel – „Floarea-soarelui”, editura
[2]. *** Technical Paper miller DS-1 Academiei Rep. Socialiste Româneşti, Bucureşti, 1974.
[3]. https://www.scribd.com/doc/133235829/Procese- [2]. ***Cartea tehnică a decorticatorului DS-1
eqipment-Si-Si-purification-separation [3]. https://www.scribd.com/doc/133235829/Procese-
[4]. http://www.scrigroup.com/afaceri/agricultura/ TEHNOLOGIA-OIL- Si-Echipamente-de-Separare-Si-Purificare
VEGETALE91292.php [4]. http://www.scrigroup.com/afaceri/agricultura/
[5] https://www.scribd.com/doc/70532547/s TEHNOLOGIA-ULEIURILOR-VEGETALE91292.php
[5]. https://www.scribd.com/doc/70532547/s
572
EVOLUTION OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN ROMANIA

/
EVOLUłIA AGRICULTURII ECOLOGICE ÎN ROMÂNIA
Eng. Găgeanu I., Eng. Găgeanu G., Phd. Eng. Alexandru I., Phd. Eng. Brăcăcescu C.
Tel: +40 762676642; e-mail: iulia.gageanu@gmail.com
Abstract: Organic farming (biological, ecological) is a Rezumat: Agricultura ecologică (biologică, organică)
production system that sustains the welfare of soils, reprezintă un sistem de producŃie care susŃine bunăstarea
ecosystems and people. This type of agriculture is solurilor, a ecosistemelor şi a oamenilor. Aceasta are la
based on ecological systems, biodiversity and life bază sistemele ecologice, biodiversitatea şi ciclurile de
cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than using viaŃă adaptate condiŃiilor locale, în locul utilizării
chemicals with adverse effects. substanŃelor chimice cu efecte adverse. Agricultura
Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation ecologică combină tradiŃia, inovaŃia şi ştiinŃa în beneficiul
and science for the benefit of the environment and mediului înconjurător şi promovează relaŃiile echitabile
promotes fair relationships and a good quality of life precum şi o calitate bună a vieŃii tuturor celor implicaŃi.
for all those involved. România se bucură de un potenŃial de dezvoltare
Romania has a significant unused growth potential. important, însă nefolosit. InvestiŃiile şi competitivitatea din
Investment and competitiveness in Romania are still România constituie încă elemente care trebuie
elements that need to be improved to achieve an îmbunătăŃite, pentru a se reuşi o accelerare a creşterii
acceleration in the economic growth and to ensure economice şi asigurarea unei convergenŃe a veniturilor cu
convergence to the EU income. cele din UE. Obiectivele, principiile şi normele aplicabile
The objectives, principles and rules of organic producŃiei ecologice sunt cuprinse în legislaŃia comunitară
production are contained in the EU and national şi naŃională din acest domeniu. Aceste norme, alături de
legislation in this field. These rules, together with definirea metodei de producŃie în sectorul de producŃie
defining the production method in the plant, animal vegetală, animalieră şi de acvacultură reglementează şi
and aquaculture sector regulate the following aspects următoarele aspecte legate de sistemul de agricultură
of organic farming system: processing, labeling, trade, ecologică: procesarea, etichetarea, comerŃul, importul,
import, inspection and certification. inspecŃia şi certificarea.
Keywords: organic agriculture, organic legislation, Cuvinte cheie: agricultură ecologică, legislaŃie ecologică,
organic crops, livestock. culturi ecologice, efective de animale.
Organic agriculture generates products using Agricultura ecologică generează produse folosind
methods that preserve the environment and avoid most metode care conservă mediul înconjurător şi evită
synthetic materials, such as pesticides and antibiotics. utilizarea majorităŃii materialelor sintetice, cum ar fi
The European regulations describe how farmers grow pesticidele şi antibioticele. Regulamentele europene
crops and raise livestock and which materials they may descriu cum fermierii trebuie să-şi cultive plantele şi să-şi
use. crească animalele şi ce materiale trebuie să folosească.
Organic farmers and food processors follow a defined Fermierii ecologici şi procesatorii de alimente ecologice
set of regulations and standards to produce organic food urmează o serie de regulamente şi standarde bine definite
and fiber. These cover the product from farm to table, pentru producerea de alimente şi fibre ecologice. Aceste
including soil and water quality, pest control, livestock regulamente acoperă produsul de la fermă la consumatorul
practices, and rules for food additives. final, incluzând calitatea apei, controlul dăunătorilor, practici de
Organic agriculture is present in more than 160 creşterea animalelor şi reguli pentru aditivii alimentari.
countries worldwide. The share of organic agricultural land Agricultura ecologică este prezentă în mai multe 160
in the total amount of agricultural land and the number of de Ńări pe glob. Cota terenurilor ecologice în totalul
organic farmers and producers is continuously growing. terenurilor agricole şi numărul fermierilor şi producătorilor
The organic market is also growing, not only in Europe ecologici este în continuă creştere. PiaŃa ecologică este
and North America, but in many emerging and transition de asemenea în creştere, nu doar în Europa şi America de
economies. Nord, dar şi în multe economii emergente şi de tranziŃie.
However, the roots of this type of agriculture are Cu toate acestea, rădăcinile acestui tip de agricultură
found in Europe, where development was led by a se găsesc în Europa, unde dezvoltarea ei a fost a fost
solid base of producers and consumers that are asigurată de o bază solidă de producători şi consumatori
convinced of the ecological and social benefits of care sunt convinşi de beneficiile ecologice şi sociale ale
organic methods. Positive development of the organic metodelor agriculturii ecologice. Dezvolatrea pozitivă a
sector is also due to some political measures of sectorului ecologic este datorată şi unor măsuri politice de
support such as financing under rural development susŃinere, cum ar fi finanŃarea sub programme de
programs, legal protection, action plans and support dezvoltare rurală, protecŃie legală, planuri de acŃiune şi
for research and consultancy. suport pentru cercetare consultanŃă în domeniu.
Organic agriculture represents a field where Romania Agricultura ecologică constituie un sector pentru care
has significant development opportunities, this being an România are mari oportunităŃi de dezvoltare fiind un
important instrument in preserving nature and revitalizing instrument important în conservarea naturii şi revitalizarea
rural areas. spaŃiului rural.
573
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Romania has favorable conditions for the
promotion of organic agriculture namely: fertile and România dispune de condiŃii favorabile pentru
productive soils, chemical treatments and promovarea agriculturii ecologice şi anume: soluri fertile şi
technological modernization have not yet reached the productive, chimizarea şi tehnologizarea nu au atins încă
levels of industrialized countries, traditional Romanian nivelurile din Ńările puternic industrializate, agricultura
agriculture is based on using clean technologies, at românească tradiŃională se bazează pe utilizarea de
least 15% of the arable area can be easily converted tehnologii curate, cel puŃin 15% din suprafaŃa agricolă se
to this type of agriculture, it is possible to define green poate converti cu uşurinŃă spre acest tip de agricultură,
unpolluted perimeters where to apply organic farming există posibilitatea să se delimiteze perimetre ecologice,
practices, the demand for organic products is growing, nepoluate unde să se aplice practicile agriculturii
organic farming can become a source of employment ecologice, cererea pentru produse ecologice este în
in rural areas. creştere, agricultura ecologică poate deveni o sursă de
EU legislation on organic farming and other ocupare a populaŃiei din mediul rural.
regulations apply. The first national legislation in on În România se aplică atât legislaŃia europeană pentru
organic farming in Romania - the Emergency agricultura ecologică cât şi alte reguli. Prima legislaŃie
Ordinance of the Government O.U.G nb. 34/2000 - naŃională din România în acest domeniu – OrdonanŃa de
was issued in 2000. This was followed by Law UrgenŃă a Guvernului OUG nr. 34/2000 – a fost eliberată în
38/2001 in 2001. The legislation is up-to-date and anul 2000. Aceasta a fost urmată de legea 38/2001 în anul
follows EU Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic 2001. LegislaŃia este la zi şi urmează regulamentul CE al
production and labelling of organic products and Uniunii Europene numărul 834/2007 privind producŃia
repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91. ecologică şi etichetarea produselor ecologice, precum şi de
Organic producers must be certified by one of the abrogare a Regulamentului (CEE) nr. 2092/91.
registered control bodies. There is a national logo for Producătorii ecologici trebuie să fie certificaŃi de către
organic products, which is owned by the Ministry of unul din organele de control acreditate. Există o siglă
Agriculture and Rural Development. It can be used for naŃională pentru produsele ecologice, care este deŃinută
products that comply with the Romanian Organic de Ministerul Agriculturii şi Dezvoltării Rurale. Aceasta
legislation. poate fi folosită pentru produsele care sunt conforme cu
legislaŃia română în domeniul agriculturii ecologice.
Fig.1 - EU and MARD logos for organic agriculture [7]
From 2006 to 2012 Romania had a consistent Din anul 2006 până în anul 2012, România a înregistrat o
growth in the organic agricultural land, going from a creştere consistentă a terenului agricol ecologic, ajungând de
share of 0.8 to 2.1 in 7 years. Regarding the wild la o pondere de 0,8% la 2,1 în şapte ani. În ceea ce priveşte
collection, in seven years the growth was as almost as colectarea din flora spontană, în şapte ani, creşterea a
30 times big (table 1). fost de peste 30 de ori (tabel 1).
Table 1 [3]
Organic agricultural land (including in-conversion area) and wild collection in Romania
Share of organic Wild collection
Year Area
agricultural land [%] (no details)
2006 107582 0.8 38700
2007 131456 0.9 58728
2008 140132 1.02 81279
2009 168288 1.22 88883.4
2010 182706 1.3 77294
2011 229946 1.67 338051
2012 288,261 2.10 1082138
In 2012, Romania was in the top ten countries that had În anul 2012, România s-a numărat printre primele
the highest increase of organic agricultural land (fig. 1). zece Ńări care au înregistrat cea mai mare creştere a
Romania was the seventh worldwide and second in suprafeŃei terenului arabil ecologic (fig. 1). România a fost
Europe. a şaptea în lume şi a doua în Europa.
574
Fig. 2 - Top ten countries with the highest increase of organic agricultural land in 2012 [5]
Tendency to grow is also present in the sector of Se înregistrează o tendinŃă de creştere şi în sectorul
organic cereal and oil seed crops. The organic cereal area ecologic al cerealelor şi a plantelor oleaginoase. SuprafaŃa
has grown in seven years more than five and a half times cultivată cu cereale ecologice a crescut în şapte ani de
and the organic oilseed area more than two and a half peste cinci ori şi jumătate, iar suprafaŃa cultivată cu plante
times. oleaginoase cu mai mult de două ori şi jumătate.
Table 2 [2,4,6]
Organic cereal area
Year Organic area Organic share Area fully Area under
[ha] [%] converted conversion
2006 16310 no data 9120 7190
2007 32222 no data 15041 17181
2008 56337 no data 25295 31042
2009 63446 no data 30582 32864
2010 72298 1.4 32561 39737
2011 79167 1.6 40285 38882
2012 105149 2.0 51903 53246
Table 3 [2,3,4]
Organic oilseed area
Organic area Organic share Area fully Area under
Year
[ha] [%] converted conversion
2006 16058 no data 10756 5302
2007 25093 no data 11318 13775
2008 23424 no data 9439 13984
2009 33225 no data 15311 17914
2010 45522 3.7 21700 23822
2011 46046 3.3 25926 20120
2012 43923 3.0 26907 17016
Numărul de operatori (producători, procesatori şi

The number of operators (producers, processors and
comercianŃi, importatori şi exportatori) înregistraŃi în
traders, importers and exporters) registered in the organic sistemul de agricultură ecologică la MADR a fost de
agriculture system at M.A.R.D. in 2012 was 15544. Their 15544 în anul 2012. Numărul lor a crescut aproape de
number increased almost five times since 2006, when the cinci ori din anul 2006, când numărul lor a fost de 2,5 ori
number was 2.5 times smaller than the EU average at that mai mic decât media din Uniunea Europeană la vremea
time (8749). In 2012 the number of organic operators in respectivă (8749). În 2012, numărul operatorilor din
Romania was 1.5 times bigger than the EU average. This agricultura ecologică a depăşit de 1,5 ori media UE. Acest
was due in particular to existing support measures for the fapt s-a datorat în principal măsurilor existente pentru
conversion period provided under art. 68 of the Council susŃinerea în perioada de conversie furnizate în baza art.
575
Regulation (EC) no. 73/2009 establishing common rules 68 al Regulamentului CE nr. 73/2009 pentru stabilirea de
for direct support schemes for farmers under the common reguli comune pentru scheme de suport direct pentru
agricultural policy and establishing certain support fermieri sub politica agricolă comună şi stabilirea de
schemes for farmers. scheme specifice de suport pentru fermieri.
Table 4 [7]
Organic producers
Year Number of producers
2006 3409
2007 3834
2008 4191
2009 3228
2010 3155
2011 9703
2012 15544
Organic product market - the demand for organically PiaŃa produselor ecologice – cererea de produse
certified products is steadily increasing. Currently, the certificate ecologic este în continuă creştere. În prezent,
domestic market for organic products is expanding. piaŃa internă a produselor ecologice este în expansiune.
Organic products are marketed directly from the farm gate Produsele ecologice sunt puse în vânzare direct la locaŃia
or through specialized stores as well as through the de producŃie sau prin reŃeaua de supermarketuri.
network of supermarkets. Următoarele produse au fost puse în vânzare în anul
The following products have been marketed in 2011 in 2011 pe piaŃa internă: fructe şi legume proaspete, produse
the domestic market: fresh fruit and vegetables, products
procesate din fructe şi legume, plante pentru ceai, pâine,
processed from fruit and vegetables, herbal teas, bread,
paste făinoase, făină, produse procesate din lapte de vacă
pasta, flour,processed products of cow and sheep milk
(butter, sheep’s feta), eggs, oil, wine made from organically sau oaie (unt, brânză de oaie), ouă, ulei, vin din struguri
certified grapes, products processed from soy, honey, etc. certificaŃi organic, produse procesate din soia, miere, etc.
The top-selling products are cereals (wheat and maize), Cele mai bine vândute produse au fost cerealele (grâu şi
vegetables, honey and wine. porumb), legumele, mierea şi vinul.
Export - The Romanian organic sector is highly export- Exporturile – sectorul ecologic din România este
oriented. In the last three years, conversion subsidies have intens orientat către export. În ultimii trei ani, subvenŃiile
made organic farming more attractive, leading to strong pentru perioada de conversie au făcut agricultura ecologică
growth in the certified area. mai atractivă, ducând la o creştere substanŃială în zona
A large portion of the products obtained from certificată ecologic.
organic agriculture was designed for export. A percentage O mare parte din produsele obŃinute din agricultura
of about 70-80% of the Romanian production of organic ecologică au fost destinate exportului. Un procent de
products is exported annually. The main export products aproximativ 70-80% din producŃia ecologică din România
are cereals and collected wild mushrooms and berries. este exportat anual. Principalele produse exportate sunt
cerealele şi ciupercile şi fructele colectate din flora spontană.
Table 5 [3]
The Romanian market for organic food
Share of all
Retail sales
Year / €/pers retail sales
[mio €]
[%]
2006 2.5 0.1 no data
2007 2.5 0.1 no data
2008 3 0.1 no data
2009 45 2 no data
2010 80 3.7 no data
2011 80 4 no data
2012 80 4 0.4
Imports - The import of organic products has grown Importurile – importurile de produse ecologice au
annually, with the involvement of the hypermarkets in retail crescut anual, cu implicarea hipermarketurilor în distribuŃia
distribution. Therefore, in 2007 the value of imports was de tip retail. Astfel, în anul 2007, valoarea importurilor a
about 5million, and in 2011, it has reached a value of ca. fost de aproximativ 5 milioane de euro, iar în 2011 a ajuns
75 million euro (estimates – according to the data available la o valoare de circa 75 milioane de euro (estimări-conform
in the market) [5]. datelor disponibile) [5].
576
Fig. 2 - Top ten countries with largest number of organic beehives – 2012 [3]
There were more than 1 milion organic beehives Au fost mai mult de un milion de stupi ecologici de albine
reported in 2012, which represents more than 1% of the raportaŃi în anul 2012, reprezentând mai mult de 1% din
total globall beehives. Their number has almost doubled totalul stupilor de albine la nivel global. Numărul acestora
since 2007 when there were 525.000 beehives. The aproape s-a dublat faŃă de anul 2007 când existau 525.000
organic beehives are mainly concentrated in Europe de stupi ecologici. Stupii ecologici de albine sunt concentraŃi
(57%). Romania has also known a growth in the number of în principal în Europa (57%). România a cunoscut de
th th
organic beehives, being, in 2012, the 6 worldwide and 4 asemenea o creştere a numărului de stupi organici, fiind, în
in Europe [8]. anul 2012, pe locul 6 mondial şi pe 4 în Europa [8].
It is very important that each farmer, processor or Este foarte important ca fiecare fermier, procesator
importer in the chain of of production and distribution of sau importator din lanŃul de producŃie şi distribuŃie al
organic agriculture should be inspected at least once a agriculturii ecologice să fie inspectat cel puŃin o dată pe an
year to ensure compliance with the Regulations. pentru a se asigura respectarea Regulamentelor.
In Romania, the control and certification of organic În România, controlul şi certificarea produselor
products is currently provided by private Inspection and ecologice este asigurată în prezent de Organisme de
InspecŃie şi Certificare private. Acestea sunt aprobate
Certification Bodies. They are approved by the Ministry
de Ministerul Agriculturii şi Dezvoltării Rurale, pe baza
of Agriculture and Rural Development, on the basis of
criteriilor de independenŃă, imparŃialitate şi competenŃă
independence, impartiality and competence established in
stabilite în Ordinul nr. 181/2012 pentru aprobarea
the Order no. 181 / 2012 for approving the rules on the regulilor privind organizarea sistemului de inspecŃie şi
organization of the inspection and certification in organic certificare în agricultura ecologică.
agriculture. În anul 2012, au existat 13 organisme de certificare ce
In 2012, there were 13 certification bodies that have şi-au desfăşurat activitatea pe teritoriul României în
operated in Romania in accordance with the national and conformitate cu legislaŃia naŃională şi comunitară în
Community legislation in the field of organic agriculture, domeniul agriculturii ecologice, iar în 2013 existau 14
and in 2013 there were 14 bodies approved by MARD. organisme aprobate de către M.A.D.R.
Of the total number of certification bodies, only four of Din numărul total de organisme de certificare, numai
them are accredited by the Romanian Accreditation patru sunt acreditate de AsociaŃia de Acreditare din
Association, while the others are bodies from outside the România, celelalte fiind organisme din afara Ńării ce au
country that have branches in Romania, with accreditation sucursale în România, având acreditări din partea unor
from bodies in the country of origin. organisme din Ńara de provenienŃă.
Organic products market is growing rapidly in most PiaŃa produseler ecologice are o creştere rapidă în
developed countries and developing countries as well, but majoritatea Ńărilor dezvoltate, dar şi a celor în curs de
the latter extends at a slower pace. dezvoltare, cu un ritm mai scăzut.
The still modest share of organic products in Ponderea încă scăzută a produselor ecologice în
international trade in food and drink is ample evidence of comerŃul internaŃional de alimente şi băuturi reprezintă o
the development potential of these products in the long dovadă clară a potenŃialului de dezvoltare pe termen lung
term. al acestor produse.
Long-term food security ensurance by reducing the Asigurarea securităŃii alimentare pe termen lung prin
effect of the factors that have led to the food crisis must reducerea efectului factorilor care au dus la criza
consider: sustained increase of food availability through alimentară trebuie să ia în considerare: susŃinerea
577
increased production and quality from small farmers, crescută a diponibilităŃii hranei prin producŃie şi calitate
extending coverage and effectiveness of social protection crescută de la micii fermieri, extinderea acoperirii şi
systems, improving food risk management, improving eficacităŃii sistemelor de protecŃie socială, îmbunătăŃirea
access to international markets for food, obtaining a managementului riscurilor alimentare, obŃinerea unui
broader international consensus on biofuels policies and consens interaŃional mai extins asupra practicilor pentru
practices to avoid damage that threatens global food evitarea pericolelor care ameninŃă securitatea globală
security. In these circumstances, issues related to alimentară. În aceste circumstanŃe, problemele legate de
ensuring the safety throughout the food supplies food asigurarea securităŃii prin lanŃuri de distribuŃie a hranei au
chain, acquires a special importance. o mare importanŃă.
Romania is a country with huge potential in this sector, România este o Ńară cu un uriaş potenŃial în acest
but consumption of organic products is at an extremely low sector, dar consumul de produse ecologice este scăzut din
due to lack of information on the benefits of consuming cauza lipsei de informare asupra beneficiilor consumului
green products, but also because prices much higher than produselor “verzi”, dar şi din cauza preŃurilor mult mai mari
those of conventional products. decât cele ale produselor convenŃionale.
[1]. The World of Organic Agriculture Statistics and [1]. Beate Huber (2013)- The World of Organic Agriculture:
Emerging trends, 2008- 2014, FIBL IFOAM; Regulations and Certification Emerging Trends 2013;
[2]. Helga Willer and Julia Lernoud (2013) - Organic [2]. European Commission (2013) - Facts and figures on
Agriculture Worldwide: Key results from the FiBL-IFOAM organic agriculture in the European Union;
survey on organic agriculture worldwide 2013. Part 1: [3]. FIBL IFOAM (2008-2014) - The World of Organic
Global data and survey background; Agriculture Statistics and Emerging trends;
[3]. Helga Willer and Julia Lernoud (2013) - The World of [4]. Helga Willer and Julia Lernoud (2013) - The World of
Organic Agriculture. The Results of the Latest Survey on Organic Agriculture. The Results of the Latest Survey on
Organic Agriculture Worldwide; Organic Agriculture Worldwide;
[4]. Facts and figures on organic agriculture in the [5]. Helga Willer and Julia Lernoud (2013) - Organic
European Union, 2013, European Commission; Agriculture Worldwide: Key results from the FiBL-IFOAM
[5]. Beate Huber (2013)- The World of Organic Agriculture: survey on organic agriculture worldwide 2013. Part 1:
Regulations and Certification Emerging Trends 2013; Global data and survey background;
[6]. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/ [6]. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/
statistics/search_database; statistics/search_database;
[7]. http://www.madr.ro/ro/agricultura-ecologica.html [7]. http://www.madr.ro/ro/agricultura-ecologica.html
[8] http://faostat3.fao.org/faostat-gateway/go/to/home/E [8] http://faostat3.fao.org/faostat-gateway/go/to/home/E
578
BIOMASS GRINDING/MILLING RESISTANCE AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION - REVIEW

/
REZISTENTA BIOMASEI LA TOCARE/MARUNTIRE SI CONSUMUL SPECIFIC DE ENERGIE -
REVIEW
1) 1) 1) 1)
PhD. Stud. Eng. ChiŃoiu M. , PhD. Eng. Moiceanu G. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Voicu Gh. , Prof. PhD. Eng. Paraschiv G. ,
1) 2)
Lect. PhD. Eng. Dincă M. , PhD. Stud. Eng. Voicea I.
1) 2)
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest / Romania; INMA Bucharest / Romania
Tel: 0725.609.113; E-mail: chitoiu_mihai@yahoo.com
Abstract: Energetic plants are considerend renewable Rezumat: Plantele energetice sunt considerate resurse
energy and are promoted through cultures dedicated regenerabile şi sunt promovate prin culturi dedicate pentru
for energy yielding, obtaining high production with obŃinerea de energie, respectând regulile economice,
minimum inputs. High volume of material, low biomass obŃinerea de producŃii mari cu inputuri minime. Volumul ridicat
density resulted ot of agricultural matter represents a de material, densitatea scăzută a biomasei rezultată din
significant impediment on using it as processing materiale agricole reprezintă un impediment semnificativ în
material, including bioenergy production. Out of this cadrul utilizării acesteia ca materie primă pentru multe
reason it must be efficiently processed both for procese, înclusiv cel de producere de bioenergie. Din acest
reducing transportation costs and storage as well as for motiv materialul trebuie procesat eficient atat pentru reducerea
refining the pelletization process of biomass. High costurilor de transport si stocare cat si pentru eficientizarea
costs for producing pellets represents the main procesului de peletizare a biomasei. Costurile ridicate pentru
problem in efficiency for this process. Communition of producerea peletilor reprezinta principala problema in
material consumes the highest level of energy out of eficientizarea acestui proces. Maruntirea materialului consuma
the entire pelletization technological flow, researches cel mai ridicat nivel de energie din intreg procesul de
on this matter have been made and are still being peletizare, cercetari in aceasta privinta s-au facut si inca se fac
made for refining this process in order to lower energy pentru eficientizarea acestui process in vederea scaderii
consumption. This review presents results of consumului energetic. Acest review prezinta rezultate ale
researchers on this field of work, with preponderance cercetarilor in acest domeniu, cu preponderenta pe maruntirea
on material communition with the help of hammer mills. materialului cu ajutorul morilor cu ciocane.
Keywords: miscanthus, humidity content, communition Cuvinte cheie: miscanthus ,continut de umiditte, proces de
content, hammer mills maruntire, moara cu ciocane
Biomass represents the most abundant renewable Biomasa reprezintă resursa regenerabilă cea mai
energy source in the world. This includes absolutely all abundentă de pe planetă. Aceasta include absolut toată
organic matter produced through metabolic processes of materia organică produsă prin procesele metabolice ale
living organisms. Biomass is the first form of life used by organismelor vii. Biomasa este prima formă de energie
man, once with the discovery of fire. utilizată de om, odată cu descoperirea focului.
The vegetal matter obtained from agriculture represents Materia vegetala provenita din agricultura reprezinta o
a renewable energy source that is found abundantly in R sursa de energie regenerabila care se gaseste din abundenta
Romania. The main process through which this matter must in Romania. Principalul proces prin care aceasta materie
go in order to increase its energetic power is pelletization. trebuie sa treaca pentru cresterea puterii energetice este
Reaching this final step out of the entire technological flow, peletizarea. Pentru a ajunge in acest ultim pas din intreg fluxul
it must first be dryed and grinded. tehnologic, mai intai material trebuie uscata si maruntita.
Communition is a process through which dimesion is Maruntirea este un process prin care materialelor solide le
reduced for solid materials. Fibre is a morphological term este redusa dimensiunea.Fibra este un termen morphologic
given to a substance that is characterized by its length on dat unei substante caracterizate de lungimea ei pe suprafata
the section surface, rugosity and flexibility. Fibrous de sectiune, rugozitate si flexibilitate. Materialele fibroase sunt
materials are the materials that are composed out of fibre. materialele care sunt compuse din fibre.
MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIALEŞI METODA

Outlining energy consumption, during the process of EvidenŃierea consumului de energie in timpul procesului
biomass communition was studied by numerous de maruntire a biomasei a fost studiată de numeroşi cercetări,
researchers, the present paper presents research papers în lucrarea de faŃă fiind prezentate lucrări de cercetare şi studii
and studies from speciality sites, ASABEm articles preluate de pe site-uri de specialitate, ASABE, articole
published in international data bases (ScienceDirect, publicate în jurnale din baze de date internaŃionale
Springerlink, etc.) or volumes of national and international (ScienceDirect, Springerlink, etc.) sau volume ale unor
conferences that had as a special interest this theme, and conferinŃe naŃionale si internaŃionale care au avut ca interes
used as bibliographical sources. aceasta tematică şi utilizate ca surse bibliografice.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS REZULTATE ŞI DISCUTII

Biomass communition is the main energy consumer, so Maruntirea biomasei este principalul consumator de energie,
579
researches regarding equipment used for communition, like astfel ca cercetari privind echipamentele folosite pentru
particularities regarding grinding material or revolution maruntire, cum ar particularizari privind materialul de maruntit
changes and knife construction, are very useful because sau modificari ale turatiei si constructiei cutitelor, sunt foarte
they can lead to considerably reducing production costs. utile pentru ca astfel se pot reduce considerabil costurile.
Biomass particle size produced by a hammer mill Marimea particulelor biomasei produse de catre o moara
depends on the mill’s operational factors. Himmel et al. cu ciocane depinde de factorii operationali ai morii. Himmel
1985 observed that retaining straws on a 60 screen et al 1985 [3] au observant ca retinerea paielor pe o sita 60
decreased with a decrease in screen size from 3.18 to scadea odata cu scaderea marimii sitei de la 3.18 la
1.59mm, fact that shows the distribution curve towards a 1.59mm, fapt care arata curba de distributie catre o marime
lower size. They observed a change in the distribution mai mica. Au observant o schimbare in curba de distributie
curve towards larger sizes for wood when negative catre marimi mari pentru lemn cand presiunea negative a
pressure was applied. This negative pressure of 25mm fost aplicata. Aceasta presiune negativa de 25mm a dus la
lead to a rise in feeding with 50% without high rises in cresterea ratei de alimentare cu 50% fara cresteri mari in
consumed power. puterea consumata.
[1] shows experiments realized by authors with the [1] prezinta experimentele realizate de catre autori cu
purpose of grinding different types of biomass. They scopul de a marunti diferite tipuri de biomasa. Acestia au
designed a pilot equipment for biomass communition at conceput un echipament pilot de maruntire a biomasei la
different particle dimensions. Materials used as samples diferite dimensiuni ale particulelor. Materialele utilizate ca
were corn stover but also biomass residue, all having mostre a fost ales coceanul de porumb dar si alte reziduuri de
different humidity content but also different particle biomasa, toate aceastea avand continut diferit de umiditate
dimensions of particles previously milled. Following dar si dimeniuni diferite ale particulelor tocate grosier anterior.
communition process they observed a drop in humidity In urma procesului de maruntire s-a constatat o scadere a
level with approximately 3-5% for each type of biomass continutului de umiditate cu aproximativ 3 - 5% pentru fiecare
used. This fact must be taken into consideration in the tip de biomasa utilizat. Acest fapt trebuie luat in considerare in
moment the biomass up process is analysed. A momentul in care procesul de urcare al biomasei este analizat.
comparative analysis between corn stover and biomass O analiza comparativa intre cocenii de porumb si reziduurile
residue showed a finer grinding and a lower energy de biomasa au evidentiat o marunire mai fina si un consum
specific consumption for corn stover. specific de enegie scazut pentru coceni.
Fig.1 –Pilot Hammer mill used during experimentation [1]
In the papers [6] and [8] the authors subjected wheat, In lucrarile [6] si [8] autorii au supus paie de grau, orz si iarba
rise and switchgrass straws to communition tests. For salbatica testelor de maruntire. Pentru efectuarea experimentelor
experimentation they used hammermills. Their results acestia au utilizat mori cu ciocane. Rezultatele testelor au
showed that switchgrass, unlike wheat and rise, had the aratat faptul ca iarba salbatica, spre deosebire de paiele de
largest value for consumed energy, for each screen grau si orz, a avut cea mai mare valoarea a consumului
used but also for different humidity levels. For wheat specific de energie, pentru fiecare sita folosita dar si la valori
straws with a humidity content of 4-7% and screen diferite ale continutului de umiditate. Pentru paiele de grau cu
dimensions of 0.8, 1.6, 3.2mm specific energy un continut de umiditate cuprins intre 4 - 7% si dimeniuni ale
consumption was of 51.6, 37.0 respectively 11.4kWh/t. A sitelor de 0.8, 1.6, 3.2 mm consumul specific de energie a fost
conclusion reffered to the fact that value of specific 51.6, 37.0 respecitv 11.4 kWh/t. O concluzie a testelor a facut
energy consumption was higher as the screen orifices referire la faptul ca valoarea consumul specific de energie era
got smaller. cu atat mai mare cu cat dimensiunile orificiilor sitei sunt mai mici.
AR Womac et al. researched this subject using three AR Womac et al. [9] au cercetat acest subiect folosind
types of mills: hammermill, disc mill and knife mill, looking 3 tipuri de mori: cu ciocane, cu discuri si cu cutite, avand
for data acquisition regarding energetic consumption and in vedere achizitia de date privind consumul energetic si
direct monitoring of mechanical energy. Materials used for monitorizarea directa a energiei mecanice. Materiile prime
experimentations were: corn stalks, wheat straws, and folosite au fost: coceni porumb, paie de grau si
miscanthus. miscanthus.
580
Fig. 2 –Hammer mill used during experimentation [9]
A commercial hammermill Schuttle Buffalo was used O moara cu ciocane comerciala Schuttle Buffalo a fost
for experimets, with a rotor diameter of 230mm, folosita pentru experimente, cu un diametru al rotorului de
equipped with a diesel engine of 18kW. 230mm, echipata cu un motor pe motorina de 18kW.
Results obtained showed that refining the Rezultatele obtinute au aratat ca eficientizarea
communition process has as main points the following procesului de maruntire are ca elemente principale
elements: revolution changing, screen changing, feed urmatoarele puncte: modificarea turatiei, modificarea
rate. sitelor, si rata de alimentare.
Engine consumed power was determined at different S-a determinat puterea consumata a motorului la diferite
revolutions from 1500 to 3500rpm, forl all the three turatii de la 1500 la 3500 rpm pentru toate cele 3 tipuri de
types of material from experimentations, feeding being material din experimentari, alimentarea facandu-se cu
done with the help of a conveyer belt. Also, ajutorul unei benzi transportoare. De asemenea
experiments looked to modify screens, from 0.020mm experimentarile au avut in vedere si modificarea sitelor , de
to 4,750mm. la 0,020mm pana la 4,750mm,
So it could be discovered that the consumed power Astfel s-a putut afla ca puterea consumata crestea
rose curbilinear with 66% from 1.72kW to 1500rpm up to curbiliniu cu 66% de la 1.72Kw la 1500 rpm pana la 5.06kW
5.06kW at 3500rpm, the rise of consumption being la 3500 rpm, cresterea consumului fiind atribuita cresterii
attributed to te rise of revolution turatiei.
Fig. 3 - Revolution and consumed power ratio of the hammer mill
Z Miao et al. Researched mechanical communition of Z Miao et al. [5] au cercetat maruntirea mecanica a
Miscanthus plant with the help of a Retsch SK100 hammer plantei Miscanthus cu ajutorul unei mori cu ciocane Retsch
mill. Their results showed that consumed energy in the SK100. Rezultatele acestora au aratat ca energia
process of plant communition and screen orifices diameters consumata in procesul maruntirii plantei si diametrele
used were in a strong relation. Specifical humidity strongly orificiilor sitelor folosite erau in stransa relatie. Umiditatea
affected consumed energy, especially for fine communition. specifica a afectat foarte puternic energia consumata, in
Accordind to experimentation, hammer mill had a lower special pentru maruntirea fina. Conform experimentelor
consumption in the communition mill. Biomass acestora moara cu ciocane a avut un consum mai mic in
communition is the process that affects the entire procesul de maruntire al plantei energetice miscanthus
technological flow. decat o moara cu cutite. Maruntirea biomasei este procesul
Results obtained in [5] that biomass specific humidity care afecteaza intreg fluxul tehnologic.
influences the energy consumed in order to obtain finer Rezultatele obŃinute în [5] au aratat ca umiditatea specifica
particles, conclusion resembling with a study made by a biomasei influenteaza energia consumata pentru a produce
Hess in [2] which shows that biomass humidity negatively particule fine, concluzie asemanatoare cu un studio facut de Hess
influences the mill capacity and rises costs. Results have in [2] care arata ca umiditatea biomasei influenta negative capacitatea
also showed miscanthus density using a screel larger morii si crestea costurile. Rezultatele au aratat de asemenea
than 4 or 6mm, leading to a lower cost for transporrtation densitatea miscanthus folosind o sita mai mare de 4 sau 6 mm
581
of biomass. In other words, rising biomass density la orificii rezulta intr-un cost mult mai mic al transportului biomasei.
coefficient, the quantity of biomass was larger in one In alta ordine de idei, crescand densitatea biomasei, cantitatea
transport. de biomasa era mult mai mare intr-un singur transport.
Fig. 4 - Energy consumption comparison between a Retch SK100 hammer mill and a SM2000 knife mill
Fig. 5 - Communition energy consumption (kJ kg−1 DM) for Miscanthus, switchgrass, willow and energetic cane
Another scientific article which researched necessary Un alt articol stiintific care a urmarit evidentierea puterii
power during communition process is [7] in which the neceara in timpul procesului de maruntire este [7] in care
authors used as material miscanthus stems. Material autorii au folosit ca materie prima tulpini de miscanthus.
probes were subjected to communition process with the Probele de material au fost supuse procesului de maruntire
help of a lab mill Grindomix GM 200, at different cu ajutorul unei mori de laborator Grindomix GM 200, la
revolutions: 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000 rpm. Through turatii diferite: 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000 si 7000 rpm. Prin
regression analysis the data were processed, and analiza de regresie datele au fost prelucrate astfel obtinandu-
variation curves regarding grinded material distribution on se curbele de variatie privind distribuia materialului maruntit
dimension classes according to mill rotor revolution being pe clase de dimenisuni in functie de turatia rotorului morii.
obtained. Also, grinding specific energy and power Totodata, au fost trasate si curbele de variatie ale puterii si
variation curves were drawned, for stems according to energiei specifice de maruntire pentru tulpini functie de
rotor revolutions (fig.6). Taking into consideration the fact turatia rotorului (fig. 6). Avand in vedere faptul ca tulpinile si
that stems and leaves were grinded separately it could be frunzele au fost maruntite separat s-a putut aprecia că,
appreciated that, for stem grinding, rotor revolution must pentru mărunŃirea tulpinilor, turaŃia rotorului maşinii de
be bigger than 2000rpm than in the case of leaf grinding, mărunŃit trebuie sa fie mai mare cu circa 2000 rot/min decât
which means a rise of periferic speed with 10m/s în cazul mărunŃirii frunzelor ceea ce înseamnă o creştere a
approximately. vitezei periferice cu aproximativ 10m/s.
480 Experimental data Experimental data

1.1
Size reduction energy, MJ/kg
-n/3611
470 E = -1.8+3.2(1-e )
Size reduction power, W
1.0 2
R = 0.981
460 P = 0.01 x + 380.5
2 0.9
R = 0.868
-4
450 E = -0.03+1.3 10 n
0.8 2
R = 0.975
-5
440 P=385.7 exp(2*10 )
2 0.7
R = 0.872
430
0.6
420
4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Rotation speed, rpm Rotation speed, rpm
Fig. 6 - The variation curves of power and grinding specific energy
582
Energy consumed I the process of communition Energia consumata in procesul de maruntire ramane in
remains the mail factor that determines a high cost on continuare principalul factor care determina costul ridicat al
pellets. peletilor.
The efficiency of a communition mill for biomass Randamentul unei mori pentru maruntit biomasa difera
differs from one material to the next, and this is because de la un material de maruntit la altul, si acest lucru
it is affected by a large number of factors: humidity, bulk deoarece este afectata de un numar mare de factori:
density, etc. umiditatea, densitatea in vrac, etc.
Biomass humidity strongly influences the energetic Umiditatea biomasei influenteaza puternic consumul
consumption for the communition process, even more in energetic al procesului de maruntire, mai ales in cazul
the case of fine communition, nonetheless, both for a maruntirii fine, cu toate acestea atat pentru o granulatie
large and small granulation grinded material, the mare a tocaturii cat si pentru granulatie fina, moara cu
hammermill proved to be more efficient than the knife ciocane este mai eficienta energetic decat moara cu
mill from an energy efficiency point of view. cutite.
Future studies in this field will lead to lowering the Studii viitoare in acest domeniu pot duce la reduceri de
prices on the entire pellet production technological flow, costuri in intreg fluxul tehnologic de productie al peletilor, in
especially in the bilmass communition process. special in procesul de maruntire a biomasei,
This work was partially supported by the strategic grant Aceasta lucrare a fost sprijinita partial de catre proiectul
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137070 (2014) of the Ministry of Grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137070 (2014) al Ministerului
National Education, Romania, co-financed by the European National al Educatiei, Romania, cofinantat prin Fondul
Social Fund – Investing in People, within the Sectoral Social European – Investeste in oameni!, in cadrul
Operational Programme Human Resources Development Programului Operational Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor
2007-2013. Umane 2007-2013.
[1]. Gil M., Gonzalez A., Gil A. (2008) - Evaluation of milling [1]. Gil M., Gonzalez A., Gil A. (2008) - Evaluarea cerintelor
energy requirements of biomass residues in a semi- necesarului de energie la tocarea reziduurilor de biomasa
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industrial pilot plant for co-firing, Proceedings of 16 intr-o fabrica industriala pilot pentru co-ardere, Lucrările
European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, celei de-a 16-a ConferinŃă şi Târg European de Biomasă,
http://www.conference-biomass.com/; http://www.conference-biomass.com/;
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biomass feedstocks and logistics for ethanol production, biomasa celulozica si logistica pentru productia etanolului -
Biofuels Bioprod. Bioref., vol. 1, pg. 181–190; Biocombustibil Bioprod. Bioref. 1, pag. 181–190.
[3]. Himmel M., Tucker M., Baker J., Rivard C., Oh K., [3]. Himmel M., Tucker M., Baker J., Rivard C., Oh K.,
Grohmann K. (1985) - Comminution of biomass: hammer Grohmann K. (1985) - Maruntirea biomasei cu ajutorul
and knife mills. In Biotechnology and Bioengineering morilor cu ciocane si cutite. Simpozionul de Bioinginerie si
Symposium, No. 15: pp.39-58. Biotehnologie, Nr. 15: 39-58.
[4]. Niedźwiecki Ł. (2011)- Energy requirements for [4]. Niedźwiecki Ł. (2011)- Necearul de energie pentru
comminution of fibrous materials - qualitative chipping maruntirea materialelor fibroase - model calitativ de
model - Degree project in Bioenergy technology 2BT01E obtinere a talasului, - Proiect de diploma in Tehnologia
Supervisor: Professor Björn Zethraeus, Linnaeus Bioenergiei 2BT01E Profesor Björn Zethraeus, Universitatea
University, Bioenergy Technology department; Linnaeus, Departmentul de Tehnologia Bioenergiei;
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to particle physical properties - Elsevier, Industrial Crops corelatie cu proprietatile fizice ale particulelor - Elsevier,
and Products 33 pp.504–513; Produse si Culturi Industriale Nr. 33 pag. 504–513;
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Chemie Engineering Technology. 26(2): pp.207–217, Tehnologia Ingineriei chimice,. Vol. 26(2): pag.207–217,
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Maican E. (2012) – Physical characteristics of miscanthus Maican E. (2012) – Caracteristicile fizice ale plantei miscanthus si
plants and power demand at grinding process, Proceedings necesarul de putere in procesul de maruntire, Continuari
of 11th International Scientific Conference „Engineering for ale celei de-a 11 -a conferinta Stiintifica Interntionala
Rural Development”, vol.11, 24-25 mai 2012, Jelgava, „Inginerie pentru dezvoltarer rurala", vol.11, 24-25 mai
Letonia, pp.222-297 (ISSN 1691-3043); 2012, Jelgava, Letonia, pag.222-297 (ISSN 1691-3043);
[8]. Schubert G. and Bernotat S. (2004) - Comminution of [8]. Schubert G. and Bernotat S. (2004) - Maruntirea
non-brittle materials, International Journal of Mineral materialelor fragile, Jurnalul International de Procesare a
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583
[9]. Womac A.R., Igathinathane C., Bitra P., Miu P., [9]. Womac A.R., Igathinathane C., Bitra P., Miu P., Yang
Yang T., Sokhansanj S., Narayan S. (2007) - Biomass T., Sokhansanj S., Narayan S. (2007) - Procesarea biomasei
Pre-Processing Size Reduction with Instrumented Mills, si reducerea marimii acesteia cu ajutorul unor mori
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584
NEED OF DYNAMIC HARMONIZATION OF CERTIFICATION BODIES TO THE

PROVISIONS OF EU REGULATIONS IN THE FIELD OF MACHINERY
/
NECESITATEA ARMONIZĂRII DINAMICE A ORGANISMELOR DE CERTIFICARE LA
PREVEDERILE REGLEMENTĂRILOR UNIUNII EUROPENE
ÎN DOMENIUL MAŞINILOR
Eng. Epure M., Ph.D.Eng. Alexandru I., Ph.D.Eng. Brăcăcescu C., Eng.Găgeanu I.
INMA Bucharest
Tel: 0758-093832; E-mail: secretariat@inma.ro
Abstract: The machinery sector is an important part of Rezumat: Sectorul maşinilor constituie o parte
the industry, with relevance to the national and importantă a industriei, cu relevanŃă în cadrul economiei
communitarian economy. The “Machinery” Directive, naŃionale şi comunitare. Directiva “Maşini”, elaborată
originally developed in 1989, amended and modified over iniŃial în anul 1989, amendată şi modificată de-a lungul
time to its current version has a dual role: to promote the timpului până la versiunea sa actuală, are un dublu rol:
free movement of machinery within the Single Market, de promovare a liberei circulaŃii a maşinilor în cadrul
but also to guarantee a high level of protection for users PieŃei Unice, dar şi de garantare a unui înalt nivel de
and citizens. Belonging to a "new legal framework (new protecŃie a utilizatorilor şi cetăŃenilor. AparŃinând unui
legislative framework)" The Directive combines “nou cadru legal (new legislative framework)”, Directiva
mandatory health and safety requirements with voluntary îmbină cerinŃele obligatorii de securitate şi sănătate cu
harmonized standards. The machines are placed on the standardele armonizate voluntare. Maşinile sunt
market and used only if they satisfy the essential health introduse pe piaŃă şi utilizate numai dacă satisfac
and safety requirements set at EU level, if compliance cerinŃele esenŃiale de securitate şi sănătate stabilite la
has been evaluated in accordance with the applicable nivelul Uniunii Europene, dacă conformitatea lor a fost
procedures and if they are marked according to specific evaluată în concordanŃă cu procedurile aplicabile şi dacă
technical regulations applicable. sunt marcate potrivit reglementărilor tehnice specifice,
aplicabile.
Keywords: new legal frame, machine, product Cuvinte cheie: noul cadru legal, maşină, certificare
certification, accreditation. produse, acreditare
The legal basis of the Directive is represented by Temeiul juridic al Directivei este reprezentat de
article 95 of the EC Treaty (now replaced by Article 114 articolul 95 din Tratatul CE (în prezent înlocuit de articolul
of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union - 114 din Tratatul privind FuncŃionarea Uniunii Europene –
TFEU) that allows the European Union to adopt measures TFUE) care permite Uniunii Europene să adopte măsuri
to harmonize the laws of the Member States to ensure de armonizare a legislaŃiei statelor membre pentru a
the establishment and functioning of the internal market. asigura stabilirea şi funcŃionarea pieŃei interne.
Following the proposal of the European Commission, În urma propunerii Comisiei, Directiva a fost adoptată
the Directive was adopted by the European Parliament de Parlamentul European şi de Consiliu după
and the Council, after consulting the European Economic consultarea Comitetului Economic şi Social European în
and Social Committee on the co-decision procedure laid conformitate cu procedura de co-decizie stabilită la
down in Article 251 of the EC Treaty (now called ordinary articolul 251 din Tratatul CE (în prezent denumită procedura
legislative procedure in Article 294 of TFEU) [2]. legislativă ordinară la articolul 294 din TFUE) [2].
The “Machinery” Directive was originally numbered Directiva “Maşini” originală a fost numerotată
89/392/EEC and appeared on 14 June 1989. It was 89/392/EEC şi a apărut în 14 iunie 1989. Ea a fost
modified on July 20, 1991 by Directive 91/368/EEC which modificată în 20 iulie 1991 de Directiva 91/368/EEC care
introduced the concept of attachment in the definition of a introdus noŃiunea de echipament interschimbabil în
the machine and extended the application for mobile definiŃa maşinii şi a extins domeniul de aplicare la
machines and for machines designed for lifting operations. maşinile mobile şi cele destinate operaŃiilor de ridicare.
Another amendment was introduced in 1993 by Un alt amendament a fost introdus în anul 1993 prin
Directive 93/44/EEC, when the notion of safety Directiva 93/44/EEC, când s-a definit noŃiunea de
component was defined and when specific provisions componentă de scuritate şi s-au introdus de prevederi
were introduced for the machines designed for lifting and specifice pentru maşinile destinate ridicării şi deplasării
movement of people. persoanelor.
Finally, Directive 93/68 / EEC introduced harmonized În final, Directiva 93/68/EEC a introdus dispoziŃii
provisions on CE marking. armonizate privind marcajul CE
Because from the combination of these various Deoarece din combinarea acestor diferite
amendments resulted in a complex relation of amendamente a rezultat o relaŃie de interdependenŃă
interdependence, which made it difficult to establish a complexă, care a făcut dificilă stabilirea unui set unic de
single set of comprehensive requirements, in 1998 the cerinŃe cuprinzătoare, în 1998 Consiliul European a
European Council introduced in June 22, 1998 the introdus în 22 iunie 1998 Directiva 98/37/EC care a
Directive 98/37/EC which was the consolidated version of reprezentat versiunea consolidată a tuturor directivelor
all the earlier directives. anterioare.
It has been subject to minor amendments by Directive Aceasta a făcut obiectul unei modificări minore prin
98/79 / EC in relation to the exclusion of medical devices. Directiva 98/79/CE în legătură cu excluderea
585
It remained valid until December 29, 2009. dispozitivelor medicale. Aceasta a rămas valabilă până la
In 2006, the Commission decided to replace the 29 decembrie 2009.
Directive with a new one, 2006/42/EC, which contains În anul 2006 Comisia a hotărât înlocuirea directivei cu
several important modifications and brings new una nouă, 2006/42/EC, care conŃine mai multe modificări
clarifications. importante şi aduce noi clarificări.

Annex I to the Directive covers essential health and Anexa I la Directivă reglementează cerinŃele esenŃiale
safety requirements to be taken into account by the de securitate şi sănătate care trebuie luate în considerare
manufacturer in the design and development of a de către producător la proiectarea şi realizarea unui
product. produs.
Initially, these essential requirements contained a IniŃial, aceste cerinŃe esenŃiale cuprindeau un domeniu
general application field, valid for all products and de aplicare general, valabil tuturor produselor şi pericole
specific dangers to food machines, hand-held portable specifice pentru maşinile agroalimentare, maşinile
machines and / or directed by hand and machines for portabile Ńinute în mână şi/sau dirijate cu mâna şi maşinile
wood and similar materials. pentru prelucrarea lemnului şi materialelor similare.
Continued expansion of the scope of the Directive has Extinderea continuă a domeniului de aplicare a
led to the introduction of specific essential requirements directivei a condus la introducerea cerinŃelor esenŃiale
and other special groups such as moving machines, specifice şi altor grupe de maşini precum: maşini mobile,
machines that running lifting operations on objects, maşini care execută operaŃii de ridicare a obiectelor
materials or goods, machinery for underground work and materialelor sau mărfurilor, maşini destinate lucrului în
finally machines presenting hazards due to lifting or subteran şi în final maşini care prezintă pericole datorate
moving of persons [1]. ridicării sau deplasării de persoane [1].
Annex IV sets out the categories of machines subject Anexa IV stabileşte categoriile de maşini care fac
to conformity assessment procedures involving a Notified obiectul procedurilor de evaluare a conformităŃii care
Body. implică un organism notificat.
Directive 89/392 / EEC comprised 12 groups of Directiva 89/392/EEC cuprindea 12 grupe de maşini: ferăstraie
machines: Circular saws (single- or multi-blade) for circulare (simple sau multiple) pentru prelucrarea lemnului
working with wood and meat; hand-fed surface şi a cărnii; maşini de îndreptat cu avans manual pentru
planing machines for woodworking; thicknessers for prelucrarea lemnului; maşini de rindeluit pe o faŃă cu
one-side dressing with manual loading and/or alimentare şi/sau evacuare manuală pentru prelucrarea lemnului;
unloading for woodworking; band-saws with a mobile ferăstraie cu pânză panglică cu masă mobilă sau cărucior,
bed or carriage and manual loading and/or unloading cu alimentare şi/sau evacuare manuală pentru prelucrarea
for working with wood and meat; combined machines lemnului şi a cărnii; maşini combinate pentru prelucrarea
for woodworking; hand-fed tenoning machines with lemnului; maşini de cepuit cu mai multe axe cu avans
several tool holders for woodworking; hand-fed manual pentru prelucrarea lemnului; maşini de frezat cu
vertical spindle moulding machines; portable chain ax vertical cu avans manual pentru prelucrarea lemnului;
saws for woodworking; presses, including press- ferăstraie portabile cu lanŃ; prese, inclusiv prese pentru
brakes, for the cold working of metals, with manual îndoit, pentru prelucrarea la rece a metalelor, cu încărcare
loading and/or unloading, whose movable working şi/sau descărcare manuală, ale căror elemente mobile de
parts may have a travel exceeding 6 mm and a speed lucru pot să aibă o cursă superioară valorii de 6 mm şi o
exceeding 30 mm/s. Injection or compression plastics- viteză mai mare de 30 mm/s; maşini de format mase plastice
moulding machines with manual loading or unloading. prin injecŃie sau comprimare cu încărcare şi/sau descărcare
Injection or compression rubber-moulding machines manuală; maşini de format piese din cauciuc prin injecŃie
with manual loading or unloading. Cartridge-operated sau comprimare cu încărcare şi/sau descărcare manuală;
fixing guns. maşini prevăzute cu cartuşe de fixare a încărcăturii explozive.
In 1991 the list contained in Annex IV machines were În anul 1991 din lista maşinilor cuprinse în Anexa IV
excluded machines equipped with load securing au fost excluse maşinile prevăzute cu cartuşe de fixare a
explosive cartridges and introduced: machines for încărcăturii explozive şi introduse: maşini pentru lucrări
underground working of the type - mobile machinery on subterane de tipul - maşini mobile pe şine (locomotive şi
rails (locomotives and trolleys with brakes), hydraulic vagonete cu sistem de frânare), elemente de susŃinere
support elements, internal combustion engines designed cu acŃionare hidraulică, motoare cu ardere internă
to equip machines for underground works; household destinate să echipeze maşinile pentru lucrări subterane;
refuse collection machines with manual loading and maşini de colectare a resturilor menajere cu încărcare
having a compaction mechanism built in; protection manuală şi având un mecanism de compactare încorporat;
devices and removable transmission driveshafts, and dispozitive de protecŃie şi arbori cardanici de transmisie
also vehicle lifts. amovibili, precum şi elevatoarele pentru vehicule.
Directive 93/44/EEC bring a series of changes in the Directiva 93/44/EEC aduce, o serie de modificări în
name of groups of machines such as: Circular saws denumirea grupelor de maşini precum: ferăstraie circulare
(single- or multi-blade) for working with wood and (simple sau multiple) pentru prelucrarea lemnului şi a
analogous materials or for working with meat and materialelor similare sau pentru prelucrarea cărnii şi a
analogous materials; band-saws with a fixed or mobile materialelor similare; ferăstraie cu pânză panglică cu
bed and band-saws with a mobile carriage, with manual masă fixă sau mobilă şi ferăstraie cu pânză panglică cu
loading and/or unloading, for working with wood and cărucior mobil, cu alimentare şi/sau evacuare manuală
analogous materials or for working with meat and pentru prelucrarea lemnului şi a materialelor similare sau
analogous materials; combined machines for working pentru prelucrarea cărnii şi a materialelor similare; maşini
with wood and analogous materials; hand-fed vertical combinate pentru prelucrarea lemnului şi materialelor
spindle moulding machines for working with wood and similare; maşini de frezat cu ax vertical cu avans manual
analogous materials. pentru prelucrarea lemnului şi a materialelor similare.
586
Also, it introduces two new groups of machines: Totodată, introduce două noi grupe de maşini:
devices for the lifting of persons involving a risk of falling echipamente pentru ridicarea persoanelor care prezintă
from a vertical height of more than three meters and risc de cădere de la o înălŃime mai mare de 3 m şi maşini
machines for the manufacture of pyrotechnics. pentru fabricarea de articole pirotehnice.
Following the definition of the concept of "security Ca urmare a definirii noŃiunii de “componentă de securitate”,
component" in Annex IV have been included: electro- în Anexa IV au fost incluse: dispozitivele electrosensibile
sensitive devices designed specifically to detect persons proiectate pentru detectarea persoanelor în scopul
in order to ensure their safety; logic units which ensure asigurării securităŃii acestora; blocurile logice care
the safety functions of bio-manual controls; roll-over asigură funcŃii de securitate pentru comenzile bimanuale,
protection structures (ROPS) and falling-object protective structurile de protecŃie pentru combaterea efectelor
structures (FOPS). răsturnării (ROPS) şi a căderilor de obiecte (FOPS).
Concerning the contents of the CE declaration of În ceea ce priveşte conŃinutul DeclaraŃiei CE de
conformity (Annex II), it did not suffer major changes. conformitate (Anexa II), acesta nu a suferit modificări
Data was added regarding the notified body which majore. Au fost introduse date referitoare la organismul
carried out the conformity assessment also in the case of notificat care a efectuat evaluarea conformităŃii şi în cazul
machines that are to be incorporated and of course was maşinilor ce urmează să fie încorporate şi desigur a fost
indicated the content of the declaration for the safety indicat cuprinsul declaraŃiei pentru componentele de
components. securitate.
If initially in the “Machinery” Directive it was talked Dacă iniŃial în Directiva “Maşini” se vorbea de marca
about the EC mark (Annex III), Directive 93/68 / EEC EC (Anexa III), directiva 93/68/EEC schimbă această
changed the name to "CE marking". Also now the denumire în “Marcaj CE”. Tot acum sunt fixate proporŃiile
proportions that this mark must comply are fixed. It also pe care acest marcaj trebuie să le respecte. Totodată,
introduces the possibility that the control authorities of the introduce posibilitatea ca organele de control ale statelor
Member States to take action where the CE marking has membre să ia măsuri în cazul în care marcajul CE a fost
been applied incorrectly, reaching to the removal from aplicat în mod incorect, ajungând până la retragerea
the market if the non-compliance persists. produsului de pe piaŃă dacă această neconformitate persistă.
Adopted by the European Parliament and the Council Adoptată de către Parlamentul European şi Consiliul
of the European Union, the New “Machinery” Directive Uniunii Europene, Noua Directivă “Maşini” vizează progresul
refers to technical progress, focuses more on the free tehnic, se focalizează mai mult pe libera circulaŃie a
movement of goods in the EU market, provides a clearer mărfurilor pe piaŃa UE, oferă o prezentare mai clară a
scope and defines better the key terms and concepts domeniului de aplicare şi defineşte mai bine termenii şi
used. It acts as cover for harmonized standards on conceptele cheie utilizate. Ea acŃionează ca acoperire
industrial security. pentru standardele armonizate de securitate industrială.
One of the objectives of the revision of the Directive Unul dintre obiectivele revizuirii directivei a fost acela
was to clarify the limits between its scope and the one of de a clarifica limita dintre domeniul de aplicare a acesteia
the Low Voltage Directive (LVD). şi cel al directiva de joasă tensiune (LVD).
The main differences between the two directives Principalele diferenŃe între cele două directive se
refer to moving parts and classification of risks of injury referă la componentele în mişcare precum şi la
associated with them. These risks are dealt more clasificarea riscurilor de accidentare asociate acestora.
seriously and are more severe in the Machinery Aceste riscuri sunt tratate mult mai serios si severe de
Directive than in the LVD. Now there are six clearly către Directiva Maşini decât LVD. Acum, există sase
defined categories of electrical machines which are categorii clar definite de maşini electrice ce sunt excluse
excluded from the scope of the “Machinery” Directive de la scopul Directivei “Maşini” şi care cad sub incidenŃa
and covered by LVD: electrical house equipment, audio LVD: echipamentele electrocasnice, echipamentele
/ video equipment, IT equipment, office equipment, low- audio/video, echipamentele IT, echipamente de birou,
voltage switchgear and control devices and electric dispozitivele de comutaŃie şi control de joasă tensiune şi
motors. motoarele electrice.
The most significant changes to the essential Cele mai semnificative modificări ale cerinŃelor
requirements is the need and responsibility of a risk esenŃiale se referă la necesitatea şi responsabilitatea
assessment by the manufacturer, the different stages of unei evaluări a riscului de către producător, diferitele
the life span of an industrial machine are detailed and etape ale duratei de viaŃă a unei maşini industriale sunt
now include the phases of transportation, assembly / detaliate şi includ acum şi etapele de transport,
disassembly, decommissioning separated from the asamblare/dezasamblare, dezafectare separat de etapa
normal use phase, emissions of noise and vibration are de utilizare normală, emisia de zgomote şi vibraŃii are
now specific requirements. acum cerinŃe specifice.
Industrial security has become an increasingly serious Securitatea industrială a devenit o problematică tot
problem treated in the last decade, and the new Directive mai serios tratată în ultimul deceniu, iar noua Directivă
provides a detailed list of 17 security components asigură o listă detaliată de 17 componente de securitate
specified in a separate Annex. specificate într-o Anexă separată.
Regarding the conformity assessment procedures the În ceea ce priveşte procedurile pentru evaluarea
following changes have been made: conformităŃii s-au adus următoarele modificări:
- for machines that are not found in Annex IV it is no - pentru maşinile care nu se regăsesc în Anexa IV nu
longer enough just to make a technical documentation mai sunt suficiente doar dosarul tehnic şi declaraŃia
file and the EC declaration of conformity. The manufacturer CE de conformitate. Producătorul trebuie să efectueze
must conduct and internal control of production; şi controlul intern al producŃiei;
- for machines that are part of Annex IV and are - pentru maşinile care fac parte din Anexa IV şi sunt
manufactured according to the harmonized standards, fabricate conform standardelor armonizate, dacă
if the manufacturer chooses to involve a Notified producătorul alege să implice un organism notificat,
Body, the receipt and retention of the technical file primirea şi păstrarea dosarului tehnic sau atestarea
587
or its certification is no longer applicable; acestuia nu se mai aplică;

- machines that are part of Annex IV, regardless of - pentru maşinile care fac parte din Anexa IV,
how they were made (with or without compliance or indiferent de modul în care au fost fabricate (cu sau
with partial compliance with the harmonized fără respectarea sau respectarea parŃială a
standards) it was introduced the total quality standardelor armonizate) a fost introdusă procedura
assurance procedure; de asigurare totală a calităŃii;
- details on the introduction on the market of partly - au fost introduse precizări referitoare la introducerea
completed machinery. pe piaŃă a cvasimaşinilor.
It is important to be noted that according to the new Este de remarcat faptul că, potrivit noii directive,
directive, EU member states must constantly and statele membre UE trebuie să-şi evalueze constant şi
periodically assess the notified bodies. If a notified body periodic organismele notificate. Dacă un organism
no longer meets the criteria, Member States may notificat nu mai îndeplineşte criteriile statele membre pot
withdraw the notification. retrage notificarea.
The new “Machinery” Directive explains better the role Noua directivă “Maşini” explicitează mai bine rolul
of Member States in the organization of market statelor membre în organizarea supravegherii pieŃei.
surveillance. These obligations include cooperation Aceste obligaŃii includ cooperarea între autorităŃile de
between market surveillance authorities and supraveghere a pieŃei şi cerinŃe privind confidenŃialitatea
transparency and confidentiality requirements [3]. şi transparenŃa [3].
RESULTS REZULTATE
INMA-CERT (Certification Body for the conformity of INMA-CERT (Organism de certificare a conformităŃii
machinery and installations for agriculture and food maşinilor şi instalaŃiilor destinate agriculturii şi industriei
industry) operates within INMA-Bucharest for about 18 alimentare) funcŃionează în cadrul INMA-Bucureşti de cca
years and is a third-part certification body for products 18 ani şi este un organism de certificare produse, „de
whose organization and functioning comply with the terŃă parte”, a cărui organizare şi funcŃionare sunt
requirements of SR EN ISO/CEI 17065:2013 Conformity conforme cu cerinŃele: SR EN ISO/CEI 17065:2013 –
assessment - Requirements for bodies certifying Evaluarea conformităŃii. CerinŃe pentru organisme care
products, processes and services; certifică produse, procese şi servicii.
Since the beginning, INMA-CERT has understood the Încă de la început INMA-CERT a înŃeles importanŃa
importance of accreditation, which confers authority on acreditării, care conferă autoritate asupra competenŃelor
the technical skills of the body and guarantees the tehnice ale organismului şi garantează nivelul necesar
necessary level of confidence in the conformity de încredere în certificatele de conformitate emise de
certificates issued by it. acesta.
Thus INMA-CERT is the first certification body in Astfel, INMA-CERT este primul organism din
Romania, accredited by the Accreditation Association of România, acreditat de AsociaŃia de Acreditare din
Romania - RENAR - by the Accreditation Certificate no. România – RENAR - prin Certificatul de Acreditare nr.
006-C / 1996, reaccredited in 2007 by the Accreditation 006-C/1996, reacreditat în 2007 prin Certificatul de
Certificate no. PR 006 and updated on 02/05/2011, Acreditare nr. PR 006 şi actualizat în 02.05.2011, care
performing conformity assessment of products, efectuează evaluarea conformităŃii produselor, cu precădere
particularly for agriculture and food industry. cele destinate agriculturii şi industriei alimentare.
Even though they are not in Annex IV of the Chiar dacă nu se regăsesc în Anexa IV la Directiva
“Machinery” Directive, many agricultural machines must “Maşini”, multe dintre maşinile agricole trebuie să îndeplinească
meet the requirements of safety. Romanian cerinŃe complexe de securitate. Producătorii români de
manufacturers of such machinery understand that astfel de echipamente tehnice au înŃeles că certificarea
product certification; respectively conformity assessment produsului, respectiv evaluarea conformităŃii cu cerinŃele
with the requirements of the Directive and harmonized directivei şi a standardelor armonizate aplicabile, îi
standards gives it added value and increases customer conferă acestuia plusvaloare şi sporeşte încrederea
confidence, a fact evidenced by the issuance by the body clienŃilor, fapt dovedit prin emiterea de către organism a
of over 400 certificates of conformity. peste 400 de certificate de conformitate.
Through its work in the field of conformity Prin activitatea sa în domeniul evaluării conformităŃii
assessment, INMA-CERT has ensured a solid INMA-CERT şi-a asigurat o reputaŃie solidă şi este un
reputation and is an endorser for promoting products girant al promovării produselor conforme cu cerinŃele
that comply with the requirements of the applicable documentelor normative aplicabile domeniului său de
regulations in its field. activitate.
Alignment with European requirements on safety of Alinierea la cerinŃele europene privind securitatea
life, health and environmental protection has led to vieŃii, a protecŃiei sănătăŃii şi a mediului înconjurător a
dynamically adaptation of the body’s activity, managing condus la adaptarea în mod dinamic a activităŃii
to translate as faithfully as possible in their quality Organismului, reuşind să transpună cât mai fidel, în
management system documents, the provisions in the documentele proprii sistemului de management al
“Machinery” Directive, including those relating to the calităŃii, prevederile directivei “Maşini”, inclusiv cele
notification requirements. referitoare la cerinŃele de notificare.
Therefore, within the scope of Directive 2006/42/EC, Ca urmare, în domeniul reglementat de Directiva
INMA, the legal entity of which INMA-CERT is part of, 2006/42/EC, INMA, ca entitate legală din care face parte
was accredited by RENAR with the Accreditation INMA-CERT, a fost acreditat de RENAR prin Certificatul
Certificate no. ON 002/2008 updated 02.05.2011, de Acreditare nr. ON 002/2008 actualizat în 02.05.2011,
recognized by the Ministry of Labour, Family and Social recunoscut de Ministerul Muncii, Familiei şi ProtecŃiei
Protection through the Certificate of Recognition No. Sociale prin Certificatul de Recunoaştere nr.5/05.12.2005
5/05.12.2005 and notified by the European Commission şi notificat de Comisia Europeană în ianuarie 2007,
in January 2007, receiving the identification number 1804. primind numărul de identificare 1804.
588
The notified field comprises the following groups of Domeniul notificat cuprinde următoarele grupe de maşini:
machinery: Circular saws (single- or multi-blade) for ferăstraie circulare (simple sau multiple) pentru prelucrarea
working with wood and analogous materials or for lemnului şi materialelor cu caracteristici fizice similare sau
working with meat and analogous materials; Hand-fed pentru prelucrarea cărnii şi materialelor cu caracteristici
surface planing machinery for woodworking; fizice similare; maşini de îndreptat cu avans manual pentru
Thicknessers for one-side dressing having a built-in prelucrarea lemnului ; maşini de rindeluit pe o faŃă care este
mechanical feed device, with manual loading and/or prevăzută prin construcŃie cu dispozitiv de antrenare
unloading for woodworking; sawing machinery with fixed mecanizată, cu alimentare şi/sau evacuare manuală pentru
blade(s) during cutting, having a fixed or reciprocating- prelucrarea lemnului; ferăstraie cu pânză panglică, cu
movement bed or support for the work piece; band- alimentare şi/sau evacuare manuală pentru prelucrarea
saws with manual loading and/or unloading, for working lemnului şi materialelor cu caracteristici fizice similare sau
wood or analogous materials or for working with meat pentru prelucrarea cărnii şi materialelor cu caracteristici
and analogous materials; combined machinery; Hand- fizice similare; maşini combinate; maşini de frezat cu ax
fed vertical spindle moulding machinery for working with vertical cu avans manual pentru prelucrarea lemnului şi
wood and material with similar physical characteristics; materialelor cu caracteristici fizice similare; ferăstraie
Portable chainsaws for woodworking; Presses, including portabile cu lanŃ pentru prelucrarea lemnului; prese, inclusiv
press-brakes, for the cold working of metals, with prese pentru îndoit, pentru prelucrarea la rece a metalelor,
manual loading and/or unloading, whose movable cu încărcare şi/sau descărcare manuală, ale căror elemente
working parts may have a travel exceeding 6 mm and a mobile pot să aibă o cursă superioară valorii de 6 mm şi o
speed exceeding 30 mm/s; Injection or compression viteză mai mare de 30 mm/s; maşini de format mase
plastics-moulding machinery with manual loading or plastice prin injecŃie ori comprimare cu încărcare şi/sau
unloading; Injection or compression rubber-moulding descărcare manuală; maşini de format piese din cauciuc
machinery with manual loading or unloading; manually prin injecŃie ori comprimare cu încărcare şi/sau descărcare
loaded trucks for the collection of household refuse manuală; maşini de colectare a deşeurilor menajere cu
incorporating a compression mechanism; removable încărcare manuală şi având un mecanism de compactare
mechanical transmission devices including their guards; încorporat; arbori de transmisie cu articulaŃii cardanice,
guards for removable mechanical transmission devices; inclusiv protectorii lor; protectorii arborilor de transmisie cu
vehicle servicing lifts; power-operated interlocking articulaŃii cardanice; elevatoare pentru vehicule; protectori
movable guards designed; roll-over protective mobili actionaŃi cu un dispozitiv de blocare; structuri de
structures (ROPS). protecŃie pentru combaterea efectelor răsturnării (ROPS).
INMA-CERT has the capability to assess the INMA-CERT are capabilitatea de a evalua
compliance of these types of products both through the conformitatea acestor tipuri de produse atât prin
EC type examination and the full quality assurance examinare CE de tip cât şi prin procedura de asigurare
procedure. totală a calităŃii.
When the procedure "EC type examination" is applied, Atunci când aplică procedura “Examinare CE de tip”,
the body relies on tests carried out in accredited Organsimul se bazează pe încercările realizate în cadrul
laboratories, working mainly with INMA laboratory, laboratoarelor acreditate, colaborând cu precădere cu
accredited by RENAR with the Accreditation Certificate laboratorul INMA, acreditat RENAR prin Certificatul de
no. LI 451 / 05.02.2013. acreditare nr. LI 451/05.02.2013.
As a Notified Body for the Machinery Directive, INMA Ca organism notificat pentru Directiva Maşini, INMA
is registered in the CIRCABC database (Communication este înscris în baza de date CIRCABC (Communication
and Information Resource Centre for Administrator, and Information Resource Centre for Administrator,
Businesses and Citizens) having permanent access to Businesses and Citizens) având în permanenŃă acces la
information on the activities of vertical groups, and the informaŃiile referitoare la activităŃile grupurilor verticale,
"Guidelines for Use" adopted and thus becoming precum şi la“Recomandările pentru utilizare” adoptate şi
guidelines in the activity of bodies. care devin astfel linii directoare în activitatea organismelor.
The continuous evolution of the "Machinery" Directive EvoluŃia continuă a directivei “Maşini” a urmărit în
followed continuously the reduction of risks involved in permanenŃă reducerea riscurilor implicate de utilizarea
the use of technical equipment, taking into account the echipamentelor tehnice, Ńinând cont de nivelul tehnic
technical level existing at the time of construction and the existent în momentul construcŃiei şi de cerinŃele tehnice
technical and economic requirements. The procedures şi economice. Procedurile de evaluare a conformităŃii cu
for assessment of conformity with the essential health cerinŃele esenŃiale de securitate şi sănătate au fost şi ele
and safety requirements were also adapted from the adaptate din punct de vedere al pericolului iminent
point of view of the imminent danger posed by the prezentat de diferitele categorii de maşini, luând în
different types of machines, taking into account the considerare natura verificărilor necesare, rezultând, în
nature of the verification required, resulting in case of the cazul existenŃei unor factori mai mari de risc,
existence of higher risk factors, recommendation for a recomandarea pentru o certificare mai strictă, efectuată
stricter certification, made by notified bodies. de organisme de certificare notificate.
The activity of these bodies also required the Activitatea acestor organisme a necesitat şi ea
alignment to the Community notification criteria and alinierea la criteriile comunitare privind notificarea şi mai
newly to accreditation as stipulated in the Regulation nou la acreditare, aşa cum este stipulat în Regulamentul
(EC) No 765/2008 Of The European Parliament And Of nr. 765/2008 al Parlamentului European şi al Consiliului
The Council Of 9 July 2008 setting out the requirements din 9 iulie 2008 de stabilire a cerinŃelor de acreditare şi
for accreditation and market surveillance relating to the de supraveghere a pieŃei în ceea ce priveşte
marketing of products. comercializarea produselor.
Continuous optimization of the structure and activity of Optimizarea permanentă a structurii şi activităŃii organismului
the INMA-CERT body under national and European INMA-CERT potrivit reglementărilor naŃionale şi europene,
589
regulations, by adapting the organizational and functional prin adaptarea structurii organizatorice şi funcŃionale, a
structure, the documents of the quality management documentelor sistemului de management al calităŃii şi a
system and conformity assessment rules showed that, regulilor de evaluare a conformităŃii produselor au demonstrat
through the certificates of conformity issued, it că, prin Certificatele de conformitate emise, acesta a contribuit
significantly increased user confidence in product quality substanŃial la creşterea încrederii utilizatorilor în calitatea
and security level regarding their exploitation. produselor şi în gradul de securitate privind exploatarea lor.
Manufacture of agricultural machinery has been a Fabricarea de maşini agricole a reprezentat o industrie
traditional industry in our country, but the privatization of tradiŃională în Ńara noastă, dar privatizarea uzinelor,
factories, their failure to adapt to the new requirements of neadaptarea lor la noile cerinŃe ale economiei de piaŃă şi
the market economy and the low level of investment in nivelul scăzut al investiŃiilor în mijloace de producŃie
advanced means of production and quality management performante şi management de calitate au condus, în
led, in time, to the restriction of the domain of activity or timp, la restrângerea domeniului de activitate sau chiar la
even to their dissolution. This situation was reflected in desfiinŃarea lor. Această situaŃie s-a reflectat şi în
the activity of the body, which in the recent years has activitatea Organismului, care în ultimii ani a certificat din
certified increasingly fewer products manufactured in our ce în ce mai puŃine produse fabricate în Ńara noastră în
country, in favor of the imported ones. favoarea celor importate.
[1]. Directive 2006/42/EC “Machinery”; [1]. Directiva 2006/42/EC “Maşini”
[2] Guide to application of the Machinery Directive [2] Ghid de aplicare a Directivei “Maşini” 2006/42/EC-
2006/42/EC - 2nd Edition - June 2010; EdiŃia a doua-iunie 2010;
[3] Regulation (EC) No 765/2008 of the European [3]. Regulamentul nr. 765/2008 al Parlamentului
Parliament and of the Council of 9 July 2008 setting out European şi al Consiliului din 9 iulie 2008 de stabilire a
the requirements for accreditation and market cerinŃelor de acreditare şi de supraveghere a pieŃei în
surveillance relating to the marketing of products. ceea ce priveşte comercializarea produselor.
590
CEREAL SEEDS SEPARATION ON AN OSCILLATING ASPIRATOR-SEPARATOR WITH

COMBINED METHOD: ON SIEVES / WITH AIRFLOW
/
SEPARAREA SEMINłELOR DE CEREALE PE UN SEPARATOR ASPIRATOR OSCILANT
PRIN METODA COMBINATĂ: PE SITE / CU AJUTORUL CURENłILOR DE AER
Eng. Bunduchi G., PhD. Eng. Găgeanu P., PhD. Eng. Brăcăcescu C.,
PhD. Stud. Eng. Ivancu B., PhD. Stud. Eng. Zaica A.
Abstract: The paper presents the results of separation Rezumat: Lucrarea prezintă rezultatele obŃinute la separarea
of impurities from seeds mass with an oscillating impuritǎŃilor din masa de seminŃe cu un separator aspirator
aspirator- separator, using the combination method: by oscilant, utilizând metoda combinată de separare: după
floating speed and by size. The results of experimental viteza de plutire, respectiv după dimensiuni. Rezultatele
research combined with the study of phenomena that obŃinute în urma cercetărilor experimentale combinate cu
influence the separation of impurities allowed studiul fenomenelor care influenŃează procesul de separare a
optimization design of the oscillating aspirator- impurităŃilor au permis optimizarea constructivă a
separator SAO100 and founding the appropriate sieves separatorului aspirator oscilant SAO100 şi echiparea cu
and fan depending on the nature of the material that is sitele corespunzǎtoare şi ventilatorul adecvat, funcŃie de
processed. natura materialului prelucrat.
Keywords: aspiration, separator, seeds, screening sieves Cuvinte cheie: aspiraŃie, separator, seminŃe, site de cernere
In order to obtain a high quality seed material and În scopul obŃinerii unui material semincer de calitate
seeds with high purity used in consumption it was superioară şi a unor seminŃe cu o puritate superioară
required primary processing of grain and industrial plants folosite la consum, este necesară prelucrarea primară a
seeds. seminŃelor de cereale şi plante tehnice.
This technological operation includes several Aceasta operaŃie tehnologicǎ include mai multe tipuri
constructive types of technical equipment for separating constructive de echipamente tehnice pentru separarea
and removing the impurities existing in seeds mass [1, 2, şi eliminarea impurităŃilor existente în masa de seminŃe
4]. Separation of seeds with air currents are applied as a [1, 2, 4]. Separarea seminŃelor cu ajutorul curenŃilor de
secondary operation to clean grain separator with aer, se aplică ca operaŃie secundară la curăŃirea
vacuum [3]. cerealelor cu ajutorul separatorului aspirator [3].
The researches in the field have shown, that for the Cercetǎrile în domeniu au arǎtat cǎ pentru separarea
separation of air currents help the components of a cu ajutorul curenŃilor de aer a componentelor unui
mixture of seeds, the separation is better as the difference amestec de seminŃe, separarea este cu atât mai bună cu
between in floating speed of the components is higher [5, cât diferenŃa între vitezele de plutire ale componentelor
6]. este mai mare [5, 6].
With the help of the oscillating vacuum separator, Cu ajutorul separatorului aspirator oscilant, separarea
separating cereal seed is made by the action of air seminŃelor de cereale se face prin acŃiunea curenŃilor de
currents and by size, the width of the sieve. aer şi după dimensiuni, funcŃie de lăŃimea sitelor.
SAO 1000, the oscillating vacuum separator is a Separatorul aspirator oscilant SAO 1000 este o concepŃie
compact design, the casing has the possibility of compactă, carcasată cu posibilitatea de racordare la instalaŃia
connecting the suction flow system technology, facilities de aspiraŃie din fluxul tehnologic, al instalaŃiilor de precurăŃire şi
and cleaning of seed pre-cleaning silos, seed conditioning curăŃire a seminŃelor din silozuri, staŃii de condiŃionat seminŃe,
plants, FNC’s, breweries, factories, oil which protects the FNC - uri, fabrici de bere, fabrici de ulei, ceea ce protejează
environment from harm. mediul înconjurător împotriva noxelor.

For achieving the experiments it was use an Pentru realizarea experimentărilor s-a utilizat un separator
oscillating vacuum separator - SAO 1000 (fig. 1) which aspirator oscilant - SAO 1000 (fig. 1) care realizează procesul
carries the seed separation using air stream with the de separare a seminŃelor cu ajutorul curentului de aer având
base difference floating velocity, resistance coefficients la bazǎ diferenŃa vitezelor de plutire, a coeficienŃilor de
and coefficients of floating in the air, parameters that are rezistenŃă şi a coeficienŃilor de plutire în aer, paramentrii
characterized by the aerodynamic properties of the care caracterizează proprietăŃile aerodinamice ale seminŃelor
seeds in a stream of air. The link between într-un curent de aer. Legătura dintre subansamblurile între
subassemblies which have relative motion is achieved care există mişcare relativă se realizează prin intermediul
by means of rubberized cloth bellows. unor burdufuri din pânză cauciucată.
The main components of the machine (Fig. 2) are: the Principalele părŃi componente ale utilajului (fig. 2) sunt:
framework, frame with sieve, suction channel, mechanism cadrul, batiul cu site, canalul de aspiraŃie, mecanismul cu
with eccentric drive. excentric şi sistemul de acŃionare.
The framework construction is a rigid metal sheet 6 mm Cadrul este o construcŃie metalică rigidă din tablă
thick. The frame is mounted to the support frame with groasă de 6 mm. Pe cadru se montează batiul cu site,
sieve, supply visors, aspiration channels, drive system vizoarele de alimentare, canalele de aspiraŃie, sistemul de
and suspension system. acŃionare şi sistemul de suspendare.
The frame with the sieve is the main subset of the Batiul cu site este principalul subansamblu al utilajului
machine and is composed of a chassis and cleaning şi este compus dintr-o carcasă şi organele de curăŃire a
591
bodies of the material to be machined. The casing materialului de prelucrat. Carcasa este concepută în
construction is conceived of weld sheet metal. The side construcŃie din tablă sudată. PereŃii laterali sunt prevăzuŃi
walls are provided with special pins fixing the guides cu ştifturi speciale de fixare a ghidajelor în care se află
where are the shaking frames and tilt adjustment system ramele de cernere şi sistemul de reglare a înclinării
of the sieve. The frames are fitted in special guides sitelor. Ramele se montează în ghidaje speciale specifice
specific to these types of frames. Fixing longitudinal acestor tipuri de rame. Fixarea ramelor în plan longitudinal
frames is made through special blocking caps that can be se face prin intermediul unor capace speciale de blocare
easily handled using the hand wheel. ce pot fi uşor manevrate cu ajutorul unor roŃi de manevră.
Cleaning the sieve using rubber balls, who move CurăŃirea sitelor se face cu ajutorul unor bile de cauciuc,
through oscillation motion of the bedframe on a wire cloth, care se deplasează datorită mişcării de oscilaŃie a batiului, pe
so the balls jump in different directions, hitting the active o Ńesătură de sârmă, astfel încât bilele sar în diferite direcŃii,
surface of the sieve, removing the seeds and dirt stuck in lovind suprafaŃa activă a sitelor, îndepărtând seminŃele şi
the sieve opening. To uniformly distribute the material to impurităŃile blocate în orificiile sitelor. Pentru distribuirea cât
be processed upper screen surface casing is provided mai uniformă a materialului de prelucrat pe suprafaŃa sitei
with step with inclined planes. superioare, carcasa este prevăzută cu plane înclinate în trepte.
The eccentric mechanism is composed of a pulley belt Mecanismul cu excentric este format dintr-o roată de curea
mounted on a shaft with two spherical roller bearings. The montată pe un ax prin intermediul a doi rulmenŃi radial-
eccentric shaft mechanism is mounted in a welded socket oscilanŃi. Axul mecanismului cu excentric este montat presat
pressed into a sheet support. The bracket is secured to într-o bucşă sudată într-un suport din tablă. Suportul este
the bottom wall of the frame with the sieve through bolt. fixat pe peretele inferior al batiului cu site prin intermediul
Pulleys shape design allows mounting it necessary unor prezoane şi piuliŃe. Roata de curea prin forma
counterweight adjustment of oscillation circle beam frame constructivă permite montarea pe ea a unor contragreutăŃi
with sieve. necesare reglării razei cercului de oscilaŃie a batiului cu site.
The suction channel is a welded sheet metal Canalul de aspiraŃie, este o construcŃie din tablă
construction having the suction appropriate section of sudată având la aspiraŃie o secŃiune corespunzătoare
intensive aspirations. It is fitted with a clamshell for unei aspiraŃii intensive. Este prevăzut cu o clapetă pentru
adjusting the intake of air speed and the speed of reglarea vitezei aerului din zona de aspiraŃie şi a vitezei
transport of the impurities extractor channel. de transport în canal a impurităŃilor aspirante.
Fig. 2 - Separator vacuum oscillating (SAO 1000)

Fig. 1 - Separator vacuum swing - SAO 1000 1. Frame; 2. Bedframe with sieve; 3. Eccentric mechanism; 4.
(Overview) Aspiration channel; 5. Supply viewfinders; 6. Elements (Bar) of support
The increase in impurities and moisture leads to a Creşterea conŃinutului de impurităŃi şi a umidităŃii
proportional decrease in the working capacity and the duce la o scădere proporŃională a capacităŃii de lucru şi
degree of separation. a gradului de separare.
The mixture of seeds and dirt entering the machine Amestecul de seminŃe şi impurităŃi intră în utilaj prin
through tubes with viewfinder from where, by the free fall end tuburile cu vizor, de unde prin cădere liberă ajung pe
up on the inclined planes and ensures an even distribution planele înclinate şi se asigură o distribuŃie uniformă a
of the product throughout the width of the upper grid. produsului pe toată lăŃimea sitei superioare.
In this area by the existing intake of air, dust, and În această zonă prin intermediul prizei de aer existente,
some of the lighter impurities contained in the core praful şi o parte din impurităŃile uşoare conŃinute în
material, is drawn into the core network suction of the materialul de bază sunt aspirate de reŃeaua principală de
installation which is part of the equipment. aspiraŃie a instalaŃiei din care face parte utilajul.
It was also verified proper operation of the equipment Totodată, a fost verificată buna funcŃionare a aparaturii
and measuring devices used (electronic scale and şi a dispozitivelor de măsurare utilizate (cântar electronic
hectoliter balance, electronic leveling device with bubble, şi balanŃa hectolitrică, nivela electronică cu bulă,
electronic hygrometer, anemometer, inductive displacement umidometru electronic, anemometru, traductor de
transducer, tachometer, phase and frequency analyzer) deplasare inductiv, tahometru, analizor de fază şi
and measured conditions to the environment (ambient frecvenŃă) şi au fost măsurate condiŃiile de mediu
temperature and relative humidity) in which they have (temperatura mediului ambiant şi umiditatea relativă) în
been used. care acestea au fost utilizate.
RESULTS REZULTATE
592
When the product reached the upper sieve is Produsul ajuns pe sita superioară este supus
subjected to the screening process. Rough impurities procesului de cernere. ImpurităŃile grosiere (refuzul) sunt
(refusal) are moved to the bottom screen from where deplasate până la capătul sitei de unde sunt evacuate
refusals are discharged through chute. Sifting (good prin jgheabul de refuzuri. Cernutul (seminŃe bune,
seeds, small impurities and impurities close to the size of impurităŃi mici şi impurităŃile cu dimensiuni apropiate de
seeds) reaches the bottom screen which is under cele ale seminŃelor) ajunge pe sita inferioară unde este
process of separation. supus procesului de separare.
Small impurities are screened on the lower screen ImpurităŃile mici sunt cernute pe sita inferioară trecând
passing through its openings, as refusal remaining the prin orificiile acesteia, ca refuz rămânând seminŃele
good seeds. Small impurities are discharged at the bune. ImpurităŃile mici sunt evacuate pe la partea
bottom and the good seeds are discharged at the lower inferioară iar seminŃele bune sunt evacuate pe la capătul
end of the sieve and end up in the front of the suction sitei inferioare şi ajung în faŃa canalului de aspiraŃie. Aici
channel. This layer of product is subjected to the action stratul de produs este supus acŃiunii unui curent de aer
of a current of air that sucks in mass from the product care aspiră din masa de produs impurităŃile uşoare care
light impurities who reached this place. au ajuns în acest loc.
Operating the machine is made with the electric motor AcŃionarea utilajului se face cu ajutorul motorului
acting through a transmission with trapezoidal belts, electric ce acŃionează prin intermediul unei transmisii cu
eccentric mechanism. The desire diameter of the circle of curele trapezoidale, mecanismul cu excentric. Diametrul
oscilation of the bedframe with sieve is obtained by dorit al cercului de oscilaŃie al batiului cu site se obŃine
adding or removing the weights that are mounted on the prin adăugarea sau scoaterea de contragreutăŃi care se
wheel of the eccentric mechanism. montează pe roata mecanismului cu excentric.
Experiments performed with this equipment using Experimentările realizate cu acest echipament utilizând
wheat seeds followed the verification of the main features seminŃe de grâu au urmărit verificarea principalelor
required in the design phase and identification of the caracteristici impuse în faza de proiectare şi identificarea
optimum operational parameters (Table 1). parametrilor optimi în exploatare (tabelul 1).
Table 1
Parameters obtained in exploitation
Item Conducted through
Requirement M.U. Obs.*
No. the experimentations
1. The frequency of oscillation of the bedframe with sieve osc./min 450 C
2. The diameter of the circle of oscillation mm 14
3. The angle of the upper sieve α○ 8 C
4. The angle of the lower sieve α○ 10 C
5. Sieve size mm 750x1000 C
6. Airflow necessary for aspiration m3/min 90
7. Electric motor RPM rot/min 1425 C
8. Power consumption under load kW 1,5 C
Pre- Cleaning t/h 42,4 C
9. Working Capacity
Cleaning t/h 13,2 C
The degree of separation (wheat 3% Pre- Cleaning % min.30
10.
impurities and max. 14% humidity) Cleaning % min.75
Pre- Cleaning kWh/t 0,0353 C
11. Specific energy consumption
Cleaning kWh/t 0,1136 C
● * - C corresponds
Table 1 presents the results of the experiments with În tabelul 1 sunt prezentate rezultatele experimentǎrilor
oscillating vacuum separator 1000 SAO During the cu separatorul aspirator oscilant SAO 1000. Pe parcursul
experiments, it was emphasized that once the growth of experimentǎrilor s-a evidenŃiat faptul cǎ odatǎ cu
the content of impurities and humidity level the material creşterea conŃinutului de impuritǎŃi şi a umiditǎŃii
submitted to the pre-work phase was found to decrease materialului supus prelucrǎrii s-a constat o scǎdere
proportional the work capacity and the degree of proporŃionalǎ a capacitǎŃii de lucru şi a gradului de
separation. separare.
The aerodynamic properties of the seeds may vary depending ProprietăŃile aerodinamice ale seminŃelor pot depinde
on the fluid condition in which they are, position, weight, de starea fluidului în care se află, de poziŃia, greutatea,
the form and condition of the seed grain surface [7, 8]. starea şi formele suprafeŃei seminŃelor de cereale [7, 8].
The level, quality and cost of production in agriculture Nivelul, calitatea şi costul producŃiilor în agricultură
are determined equally with applied technology, the sunt determinate în egală măsură de tehnologia aplicată,
quality of the biological material used, the ensuring of the de calitatea materialului biologic folosit, de asigurarea
basic technical materials and information of the serving bazei tehnico materiale şi de informare a celor ce
such machinery. deservesc aceste echipamente tehnice.
Following the results obtained in tests with oscillating În urma rezultatelor obŃinute la încercări cu separatorul
vacuum separator SAO 1000 have found the following aspirator oscilant SAO 1000 s-au constatat următoarele
advantages: avantaje:
- Modern design concept, the complete closing - concepŃie constructivă modernă, complet carcasată
which ensures high speed penetration of the care asigură o viteză sporită de pătrundere a
product in the area of separation, on an optimized produsului în zona de separare, pe o traiectorie
trajectory; optimizată;
593
- Realization of high efficiency separation process; - realizarea procesului de separare cu eficienŃă ridicată;
- Better use of seed grain by the seed producers - valorificarea superioară a seminŃelor de cereale de
with low material costs; către producătorii de sămânŃă cu cheltuieli materiale
- Reduction of specific energy consumption easy reduse;
maintenance and operation; - reducerea consumului specific de energie întreŃinere
- Reducing the specific material consumptions; şi exploatare uşoară;
- Improving working conditions through light - reducerea consumului specific de material ;
settings, faster service for daily and periodic - îmbunătăŃirea condiŃiilor de muncă, prin reglaje
maintenance; uşoare, deservire rapidă în cazul întreŃinerilor zilnice şi
- Protecting the environment, being prevented the periodice;
dust emanations in the workplace and in the - protejarea mediului înconjurător, fiind împiedicate
atmosphere, the machine is provided with coupling emanaŃiile de praf la locul de muncă şi în atmosferă,
connections to the undusting facilities of user utilajul fiind prevăzut cu racorduri de cuplare la
units. instalaŃiile de desprăfuire ale unităŃilor utilizatoare;
All this leads to the fact that the oscillating vacuum Toate acestea conduc la faptul cǎ separatorul aspirator
separator can be successfully integrated into flows of oscilant poate fi integrant cu succes în fluxurile
pre- cleaning and cleaning facilities of seed silos, seed tehnologice ale instalaŃiilor de precurăŃire şi curăŃire a
conditioning plants, FNC - s, breweries, factories, oil seminŃelor din silozuri, staŃii de condiŃionat seminŃe, FNC -
etc. uri, fabrici de bere, fabrici de ulei etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Brǎcǎcescu C., Cojocaru I., &others (2010) - Creativity [1]. Brǎcǎcescu C., Cojocaru I. ş.a. (2010) - Creativitate şi
and innovation regarding the design of equipment of inovare privind concepŃia echipamentelor de prelucrare
cereal primary processing for obtaining high quality agro- primară a cerealelor în scopul obŃinerii de produse agro-
food products, INMATEH - Agricultural Engineering, vol. alimentare de calitate, INMATEH - Inginerie Agricolǎ,
30, no. 1/2010, pg.5-13 vol.30, nr.1/2010, pag.5-13;
[2]. Căsăndroiu T., David L. (1994) – Equipments for [2]. Căsăndroiu T., David L. (1994) – Utilaje pentru
primary processing and preservation of agricultural prelucrarea primară şi păstrarea produselor agricole.
products, Guidelines for laboratory work, University Îndrumar pentru lucrări de laborator, Universitatea
„POLITEHNICA” of Bucharest; Politehnica Bucureşti;
[3]. Găgeanu P., Păun A., Bunduchi G. (2002) - [3].Găgeanu P., Păun A., Bunduchi G. (2002) - Studiu
Documentary study on seed grain sorting using the documentar privind sortarea seminŃelor de cereale
method of separation by aerodynamic properties of seeds, folosind metoda de separare după proprietăŃile
research contr. no.527/12.06.2002, INMA Bucharest; aerodinamice ale seminŃelor, contr. de cercetare
[4]. Mihai L. (2001) - Techologies and equipment în milling nr.527/12.06.2002, INMA Bucureşti;
industry, Millenium Publishing House, Piatra-Neamt, [4]. Mihai L. (2001) - Tehnologii şi utilaje în industria
Romania. morăritului, Editura Millenium, Piatra–NeamŃ, România.
[5]. MoşneguŃu E., Nedeff V., ş.a. (2008) – Influence of [5] MoşneguŃu E., Nedeff V., ş.a. (2008) – InfluenŃa stării
seed surface state upon the floating speed- INMATEH - suprafeŃei seminŃelor asupra vitezei de plutire,INMATEH -
Agricultural Engineering, vol. 26, no. 3/2008, ISSN 1583 – Inginerie Agricolǎ, vol.26, nr. 3/2008, ISSN 1583 – 1019,
1019, pg.167-175 pg.167-175;
[6]. Sultanbawa F.M., Owens W.G., Pandiela S.S. (2001 – [6] Sultanbawa F.M., Owens W.G., Pandiela S.S. (2001) -
A new approach to the prediction of particle separation by O nouă abordare a predicŃiei de separare a particulelor
sieving in flour milling, Transactions of IchemE, 79 prin cernere, în morărit, TranzacŃii de IchemE, 79 (Part C),
(part.C), pg.201-218 pg. 201-218;
[7]. Voicu Gh. (1996) - Research on movement of [7] Voicu Gh. (1996) – Cercetări privind mişcarea
materials on sieves under the influence of air flow on materialelor pe site sub influenŃa curentului de aer la
cleaning systems of grain harvesting combines, PhD sistemele de curăŃire ale combinelor de recoltat cereale,
Thesis, Polytechnic University of Bucharest Teză de doctorat, Universitatea Politehnica Bucureşti;
[8]. Wu S., Fanf R., Opoku A. (1999) – Influence of [8] Wu S., Fang R., Opoku A. (1999) – InfluenŃa
physical properties and operating conditions on particle proprietǎŃilor fizice şi a condiŃiilor de operare asupra
segregation on gravity table. Applied Engineering in separǎrii particulelor pe masa gravitaŃionalǎ. Inginerie
Agriculture, 15(5), pg.495-499. Aplicatǎ In Agriculturǎ, 15(5), pg.495-499.
594
QUADRATIC REGRESSION - BASED ORTHOGONAL DESIGN AND NUMERICAL

SIMULATION OF A NEW-TYPE AGRICULTURAL WELL PUMP
/
一种新型农用井泵的二次回归正交设计与数值模拟
一种新型农用井泵的二次回归正交设计与数值模拟
1) 1) 2)
Ph.D. Stud. Wang Hongliang , Prof. Ph.D. Shi Weidong , Ph.D. Stud. Wang Chuan
1)
Research Center of Fluid Machinery Engineering and Technology, Zhenjiang / China; 2) Nangyang Technological University, 50
Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore / Singapore
Tel: +8615961196329; E-mail: wnghongliang@163.com
Abstract:Currently,the Greenhouse Effect has caused

great influence on the development of industry and 摘要：目前，温室效应已经对工业、农业造成了很深的影
摘要：
agriculture. Considering the research development request
响。鉴于新型井泵的研究发展需要，通过运用现代数值
of new-type agricultural deep well pump, the test research
was taken to increase the efficiency of well pump using CFD技术和二次回归正交试验方法及叶轮水力设计来增加
hydraulic design of impeller, the modern numerical CFD
technology and the orthogonal test method based on 新型农用井泵的效率。试验选取叶轮出口安放角和出口宽
quadratic regression. The experiment was carried out with
two geometric factors including outlet angle and outlet width. 度两个几何因素，按二次回归正交试验方案，设计了10副
Then ten impellers were designed as per the orthogonal
testing schemes based on quadratic regression. The full flow 叶轮。通过计算流体动力学技术对包含叶轮、导叶在内的
field of the two-stage agricultural well pump including
两级新型农用井泵的全流场进行了设计工况下的三维流场
impellers and guide vanes under the design condition was
simulated by CFD, finally obtaining the rated efficiency of 数值模拟，得到了10组设计方案额定点的效率值。通过二
each scheme. The influence mechanism of outlet angle and
outlet width on efficiency was investigated through the 次回归正交试验法研究了叶轮出口安放角、出口宽度对效
orthogonal testing method. According to the calculation
results, constrained quadratic regression equation of the 率的影响规律，根据计算结果对新型农用井泵效率提出了
efficiency was put forward. The result showed that it would
be instructive to increase the hydraulic efficiency of the new- 二次回归约束方程。结果表明，采用叶轮极大直径设计法
type deep well centrifugal pump for agriculture engineering
by using the impeller maximum - diameter approach. 对提高新型深井离心泵的水力效率具有一定的参考价值。
Keywords: Agricultural well pump; Hydraulic design; 关键词：农用井泵；水力设计；二次回归；正交试验；计

关键词
Quadratic regression; Orthogonal experiment; CFD 算流体动力学
INTRODUCTION 引言
Due to the strict working conditions, the diameter of the
submersible pump for agricultural well is limited by the well 泵一般在机井内工作，因外径受井径的限制，运用传统
diameter when it works in the motor-pumped well, and the
single-stage head of the pump can’t be efficiently increased 的设计方法，单级扬程不能有效的提高[6]。文献[4,8]第一
due to the limited space using the traditional design
methods, especially regarding the performance of centrifugal 次提出了一种深井离心泵叶轮极大直径设计法。采用叶轮
pump[6]. Therefore, the maximum diameter design method
of impeller was proposed for the first time [4, 8], this method 极大直径设计法，对某典型的 100QJ8 型深井离心泵进行
was successfully applied to the 100SJ8 centrifugal pump for
deep well. The theoretical analysis, numerical simulation as 水力设计, 数值模拟和试验研究结果表明，该设计方法对
well as the experimental investigation showed that the
single-stage head of the centrifugal pump for deep well had 提高深井离心泵单级扬程取得了明显的效果，同时其效率
been improved dramatically and the efficiency was also
higher than before. This method is highly superior to the 较原有设计又不降低。这种方法相比较传统设计方法尤其
traditional design method in the hydraulic design of the
agricultural well pump. 适用于农用井泵。
According to the requirements of orthogonal test
文中采用叶轮极大直径设计法，对某典型的 150QJ20 型
based on quadratic regression, 10 impellers of the
150QJ20 new-type agricultural well submersible pump 农用井泵进行水力设计，并进行二次回归正交试验，设计
were optimized using the maximum diameter method.
After conducting two-stage full flow field CFD simulation 出 10 副叶轮。通过 CFD 对 10 组叶轮配合扭曲反导叶的
using 10 groups of impeller with twisted return guide vane
of the new-type agricultural deep well pump, and 方案分别对两级全流场进行数值模拟，分析模拟结果，以
comparing the test results with the simulation results, the
influence of two main geometric parameters including 研究叶轮的两个主要几何参数即出口宽度、出口安放角对
outlet width and outlet angle on the efficiency of the pump
was found. The efficiency constrained quadratic regression 深井离心泵效率的影响规律，从而得到该类型农用井泵效
equation of this type well pump was also obtained [9].
率的回归约束方程 [9]。
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MATERIALS AND METHODS 材料与方法

Hydraulic Design
3
水力设计
Qd - Flow rate (m /s);
Qd - 额定流量（m /s）；
3
H - Head (m);
H - 扬程（m）；
n - Rotation speed (r/min) ; n - 转速（r/min）；
3
Q - Flow (m /s); Q - 流量（m /s）；
3
3.65n Q 3.65.r / min m3 / s
ns - Specific speed= H 3/4 = m3/4 3.65n Q 3.65.r / min m3 / s
; ns - 比转速= =
H 3/4 m3/4 ；
Pi - Total pressure at inlet (Pa);
Pi - 进口总压（Pa）；
P0 - Total pressure at outlet (Pa)
P0 - 出口总压（Pa）；
M - Moment of force ( N ⋅ m );
M - 力矩（ N ⋅ m ）；
η - Efficiency (%);
η - 效率（%）；
β2 - Vane outlet angle (°); β 2 - 出口安放角（°）；
b2 - Outlet width(mm);
b2 - 出口宽度（mm）；
xj - Natural variables(Dimensionless);
xj - 自然变量（Dimensionless）；
zj - Canonical variable (Dimensionless); zj - 规范变量（Dimensionless）；
r - Asterisks arm (Dimensionless); r - 星号臂长度（Dimensionless）；
m - 因素数.
m – Factor.
设计参数
The design parameters
The basic design parameters of the 150QJ20 agricultural 150QJ20 型深井离心泵的基本设计参数为额定流量 20
3
well submersible pump is that, Qd=20m /h, single-stage 3
m /h，单级扬程 11 m，转速 2850 r/min。经计算，比转速
head H=11m, speed n=2850r/min, ns=128. 10 impellers
were optimized according to orthogonal experiment. ns=128，10 组叶轮通过正交试验要求来设计。
The maximum diameter design method of impeller 极大扬程设计法

According to the relevant national standard, the
allowable outer diameter and inner diameter of the 依据国家相关标准，150QJ 型农用井泵的外径及内径
150QJ-type agricultural well pump are 143mm and
要求分别为 143mm 和 121mm。叶轮的前盖板设计为
121mm respectively. Supposing the diameter of the
impeller front shroud to be 119mm, the impeller diameter 119mm，叶轮的直径达到最大，如图 1 所示。一旦叶轮的
could achieve maximum, which was shown in Fig.1.
Once the diameter of impeller's front cover was 前盖板尺寸确定，叶轮的其他尺寸也就确定了。表格 1 中
determined, then other parameters of the impeller can be
determined. Seeing Tab.1 for the specific information, 表示了各个设计参数值 [5]。
other parameters of this design could be found in [5].
（1）确定轴径和轮毂直径
(1) The diameter of the shaft and wheel hub
Matching power with P=11kW, minimum shaft 配套功率 P = 11 kW 计算，最小轴径为：
diameter was calculated using the following formula:
Mn
Mn dmin = = 16 mm
0.2 [τ ]
3
dmin = 3 = 16 mm
0.2 [τ ]
Ф16mm stainless steel shaft was selected, the wheel 选用Ф16mm 的不锈钢轴，则轮毂直径 Dh=22mm
hub diameter was selected as follow: （2）叶轮进口直径
Dh = 22 mm Q
(2) Impeller inlet diameter D j ,k = 3.75 , D0 = 1000 × k × 3 3600 × n = 46.84 mm
Q
D j ,k = 3.75 , D0 = 1000 × k × 3 3600 × n = 46.84 mm D j = D0 2 + Dh 2 = 47.82 mm
D j = D0 2 + Dh 2 = 47.82 mm
取 D j = 48 mm
D j = 48 mm was determined
(3) Impeller outlet width （3）叶轮出口宽度
According to the structure and experience, take 根据结构和经验，取 b2=（9～13 ）mm
b2=(9～13) mm. （4）叶轮出口安放角 β 2
(4) Vane outlet angle
According to the structure and engineering 根据经验初选，由基本方程和全扬程公式验算，取
596
experience, take β2=(10°～25°).

β2=（10°～25°）.
Blade number z, wrap angle and hydraulic fillet radius
of front and back cover plate was selected based on
叶片数 Z、包角及盖板水力圆角半径根据经验及作图选择。
experience and graphing.
Fig. 1 - Cross-section of impeller
Table 1
Main structural parameters of the impeller
Structural parameters of impeller Parameter selection
Blade number Z 6
Inlet vane angle β1（º） 39
Wrap angle φ （º） 125
Impeller front covering plate D2max（mm） 119
Impeller front covering plate D2min（mm） 108
Impeller inlet diameter Dj（mm） 48
Wheel hub diameter dh（mm） 22
Hydraulic fillet radius of front cover plate R1（mm） 5
Hydraulic fillet radius of back cover plate R2（mm） 18
Shaft diameter d（mm） 16
In order to reduce the production costs of the well 为降低深井离心泵的生产成本，设计了一种新型反导

pump, a new type of twisted return guide vane was
selected to replace the common guide blades. Compared 叶导流壳代替常用的空间导叶式导流壳。与传统的空间导
with the old space guide vane, the axial length of twisted 叶的比较，它的轴向长度最短，且制造较容易。空间导叶
return guide vane is shorter, and it is easier to be
manufactured. The conventional return guide vane is 容易其轴向长度的扭曲反导叶是短越来，而且很容易容易
pure cylindrical blades, its hydraulic loss is larger than 制作比旧的空间导叶。传统的反导叶是纯圆柱形叶片，其
common guide blades. The main innovations are as follows:
(1)The inlet of guide vane within φ100mm and 水力损失大于普通的导向叶片。主要创新点如下：
φ121mm was twisted, its blades angle was selected （1）导叶在 φ100mm 和 φ121mm 的入口处叶片是扭
basing on flow directions. This is the main differences
between new twisted return guide vane and conventional 曲的，叶片的安放角根据流动方向选择。这是新的扭曲反
return guide vane, which is also the main measure to 导叶与常规反导叶之间的主要差异。也是减少水力损失的
reduce the hydraulic loss.
(2)The outlet diameter of the guide vane is φ48mm as 主要措施；
shown in Fig.2. （2）导叶出口直径是 φ48mm 如图 2 所示；
(3)The middle part of guide vane’s convex surface,
which 2D cylindrical surface. The concave surface 3D （3）导叶的中间部分均为二维圆柱面。进口一段叶片
surface and connected with vane inlet and outlet
是三维曲面。
smoothly.
Fig. 2 - Cross-section of guide vane
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Orthogonal testing method based on Quadratic regression 二次回归正交试验

Using the point of mathematical statistics and
principle of orthogonality, orthogonal testing method 二次回归正交试验设计是一种处理多因素试验的科学方
based on quadratic regression is a scientific method
which is used to examine a number of factors 法, 它采用数理统计学观点, 应用正交性原理, 对多个因素
simultaneously when these factors are under changing,
For various factors in the changing circumstances; we 同时进行考查, 在各个因素都处于变动的情况下, 用一套规
use a normalized orthogonal table to arrange the test 格化的正交表来合理地安排试验。二次回归正交试验采用
rationally. Orthogonal testing method based on quadratic
regression uses combination design, which has the 组合设计, 具有试验次数少, 精确度高, 试验结果处理简
feature of less times of experiment, higher precision,
simpler testing results treatment; meanwhile it could be 便，并可进行优化分析的特点 [9]。
optimized and analyzed [9].
影响效率与扬程的因素为 Z、β2、D2、b2、u2 等。在专
The factors which affect the efficiency and head are
Z, β2, D2, b2, u2 and so on. Based on professional 业知识和设计的特殊需要的基础上，选取影响深井离心泵
knowledge and special design requirements of the new-
type agricultural well, the following geometric parameters 效率、扬程最重要的因素为叶轮出口安放角 β2，出口宽度
were taken into consideration: β2 (vane outlet angle), b2
(outlet width). b 2。
This study applied the orthogonal testing method 本研究应用二次回归正交试验分析这两个因素 β2
based on quadratic regression to analyze the relationship
（10°～25°），b2 （9～13 mm）和效率、扬程之间的关
among these factors such as β2 (10°～25°), b 2 (9mm～13
mm) with the head and efficiency. 系。
As the factor (m=2), if the frequency of zero level 由于因素数 m =2，如果取零水平试验次数 m0=2，根
testing m0=2, according to the formula of asterisk arm
据星号臂长 r 的计算公式[3]，得到 r =1.078。
length r [3] ( r =1.078).
According to the factor x1r , for which the upper limit is 根据两个因素（ x1 ）的上限 x1r 为 25°，下限 x2r 为
25°, the lower limit is 10 degrees, so the zero lev el 10°，所以零水平为 x10 =17.50，变化间距 ∆1 =6.96，上水
( x10 =17.50), change interval ( ∆1 =6.96), upper level
平 x12 =24.46，下水平 x22 =10.54。同理，可以计算出因
( x12 =24.46), lower level ( x22 =10.54). The code of exit
width b2 ( x2 ) can be calculated similarly, shown in Table 2. 素出口宽度 b2（ x2 ）的编码，见表 2。
Considering the factor number ( m = 2 ), using orthogonal
由于因素数 m = 2 ，选用正交表 L4（23）进行变换，
table L4 (23) for transforming, two level test number
( mc = 2 = 4 ), test scheme is shown in Tab.3. Other 二水平试验次数 mc = 2 = 4 ，试验方案见表 3。其他几何
2 2
geometric factors were set according to the calculated

values. 10 groups of hydraulic model were obtained. 因素按之前计算所得值设计，得到 10 组水力模型。
Table 2
Factors and levels
Natural variables (xj)
Canonical variable (zj)
x1 x2
Asterisks arm (r) 25.00 13.00
Upper level (1) 24.46 12.86
Zero level (1) 17.50 11.00
Lower level (-1) 10.54 9.15
Under asterisks arm (-r) 10.00 9.00
Changes in pitch (△j) 6.96 1.86
Table 3
Experiment program
Test number z1 z2 Vane outlet angle β2 /（º） Outlet width b2 / mm
1 1 1 12.86 24.46
2 1 -1 12.86 10.54
3 -1 1 9.15 24.46
4 -1 -1 9.15 10.54
5 1.078 0 13.00 17.50
598
6 -1.078 0 9.00 17.50

7 0 1.078 11.00 25.00
8 0 -1.078 11.00 10.00
9 0 0 11.00 17.50
10 0 0 11.00 17.50
Numerical simulations 数值计算

Governing equations
The over-current components of agricultural well 控制方程组
pump consist of the inlet, several stages impeller and 深井离心泵的过流部件由进水节、若干级叶轮和导叶
guide vane. The relative reference system fixed to the
rotor with speed 2850r/min was adopted. The whole flow 体组成。采用固系于旋转叶轮上的相对参考系，转速为 2
field was assumed to be 3-D incompressible steady 850 r/min。设整个流道内部流场为三维不可压稳态粘性湍
viscous turbulent flow field. The calculation model was
created based on the real machine; the whole flow 流场。整个计算模型建立在真实的流场中，整个流场如图
domain of two stages consists of 5 components: inlet
4，其包括 5 个部分：进口、密封环、叶轮、涡轮、出
section, seal ring, impeller, guide vane, and outlet
section, as shown in Fig.4. The outlet section extended to 口，出口长度是进口长度的 2 倍以便于流体能够在出口处
2 times the impeller diameter length, so that the flow
could be fully developed at the outlet. After modeled in 完全扩散。经过 Pro/E 建模后，整个模型导入 Gambit 中
Pro/E, the assembly model was imported to Gambit for 进行后续的运算。
further processing.
Fig.4 - Sketch of flow domain Fig.5 - Mesh mode
The properties of working media 工作介质属性

The medium is water at room temperature and
3
pressure with fixed density (ρ=998.2 kg/m ) and dynamic 在常温常压下介质为清水，密度为 998.2 kg/m3，动力
viscosity (µ = 0.001003 kg / m.s). 粘度为 0.001 003 kg /m.s）。
Meshing of calculation region and the selection of
计算区域网格划分及计算模型选取
calculation model
After modeled by Pro/E, the import section, impeller 在 Pro/E 中分别对进口段、叶轮、导叶筒体建模，导
and guide vane were imported to the Gambit for further
processing. The two stages full-flow field was meshed 入 Gambit 中作进一步处理。完成两级全流场的计算区域
with structured and unstructured grids, shown in Fig.5. 构建后，进行网格划分，采用结构化网格和非结构化网格
After comparing the five groups model grids between(1～
2.5)million, the results showed that the efficiency 相结合的方法，如图 5 所示。比较 100 万到 250 万网格数
fluctuates within 0.5% when the grid number surpass 之间的 5 组模型，发现在网格总量达到 175 万后，效率波
1.75 million. Considering the performance of the
computer, grid number of 1.75 million was selected. 动稳定在 0.5%以内，考虑计算机性能，选取 175 万网格数。
The two stages flow channel of agricultural deep well 以深井离心泵的两级泵壳内流道为计算区域，采用全
pumps was taken as the computing area. At the same
time, the whole calculation area was divided into two 流道方式，同时将整个计算区域分为泵的进口段与叶轮室
parts. The first is the import section of the pump and the 的旋转部分和包括反导叶区的静止部分，两个子区域之间
rotating part of the impeller chamber. The second is the
distorted-reversed guide vane static area. The 联接的平面作为分界面。对于旋转部分和静止部分之间的
connection surface between the two sub-regions is the 耦合，通过计算比较，采用多参考坐标系模型的定常计算
interface. The coupling between the rotator and stator
结果进行泵的数值模拟。
was simulated using Multiple Reference Frame (MRF).
Boundary condition 边界条件

Supposing that the impeller inlet is irrotational flow [5], 设叶轮进口为无旋流动[5]，进口面中心处为压力参考
599
inlet surface center as the pressure reference point [1, 2, 点 [1,2,3,7,10,11]，其相对压力为零；出口流动设为充分

3, 7, 10, 11], and the relative pressure is zero. The 发展状态，即出流（outflow）形式[4]；固壁面无滑移，即
boundary condition of outlet is set to be outflow [4]. Solid-
壁面上各向速度均为零，对近壁面的湍流流动按标准壁面
wall is supposed to be no slip. The turbulent flow of near-
wall was handled by standard wall function [7]. 函数法处理[7]。
Numerical algorithm and solution control parameters 数值算法及求解控制参数

The SIMPLEC algorithm and discrete difference
equation of second-order upwind were applied. The 应用 SIMPLEC 算法，采用二阶迎风格式离散差分方
factor coefficients of sub-relaxation for algebraic 程。代数方程迭代计算采取亚松弛，各项系数分别为压力
equations are as follows, pressure coefficient of Asian
Relaxation is 0.3, momentum sub-relaxation factor 0.7, 亚松弛系数 0.3，动量亚松弛系数 0.7，湍动能亚松弛系数
turbulent kinetic energy sub-relaxation factor 0.8,
0.8，湍动能耗散率 0.8 。设定收敛精度为 10 。
-5
turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate 0.8. The
-5
convergence precision is set to be 10 .
RESULTS ANALYSIS 结果分析

Orthogonal combination design based on binary 二元二次回归正交组合设计
quadratic regression
Using numerical simulation of 10 sets of programs at 运用数值模拟得到 10 组方案在额定工况下深井离心泵
rated conditions the efficiency value of deep well
centrifugal pump, the table and results of orthogonal 的效率值，二元二次回归正交组合设计表及试验结果见表
combination design based on dual quadratic regression 2
4。根据二元二次回归正交组合设计的要求，将二次项 z1
were shown in Tab.4. According to the requirements of
和 z2 分别进行中心化，得到 z1 ' 和 z2 ' ，二次项中心化结
2
orthogonal combination design based on dual quadratic
regression, centralization of the quadratic term of
z1 2,z2 2,z1 ',z2 ' is shown in Tab .5. 果见表 5。
Table 4
Design and test result of binary quadratic regression combination
Test number Z1 z2 z1z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 y
1 1 1 1 1 1 0.368 0.368 64.46

2 1 -1 -1 1 1 0.368 0.368 66.74
3 -1 1 -1 1 1 0.368 0.368 66.54
4 -1 -1 1 1 1 0.368 0.368 67.44
5 1.078 0 0 1.162 0 0.530 -0.632 63.31
6 -1.078 0 0 1.162 0 0.530 -0.632 67.34
7 0 1.078 0 0 1.612 -0.632 0.531 65.29
8 0 -1.078 0 0 1.612 -0.632 0.531 67.25
9 0 0 0 0 0 -0.632 -0.632 66.46
10 0 0 0 0 0 -0.632 -0.632 66.46
Table 5
Binary quadratic regression combination design calculations (Part A)
i z1 z2 z1z2 z1′ z2′ y y2 z1y z2y
1 1 1 1 0.368 0.368 64.46 4 155.092 64.46 64.46
2 1 -1 -1 0.368 0.368 66.74 4 454.228 66.74 -66.74

3 -1 1 -1 0.368 0.368 66.54 4 427.572 -66.54 66.54
4 -1 -1 1 0.368 0.368 67.44 4 548.154 -67.44 -67.44
5 1.078 0 0 0.530 -0.63 63.31 4 008.156 68.25 0
6 -1.078 0 0 0.530 -0.632 67.34 4 534.676 -72.60 0
7 0 1.078 0 -0.632 0.530 65.29 4 262.784 0 70.38
8 0 -1.078 0 -0.632 0.530 67.25 4 522.563 0 -72.50
9 0 0 0 -0.632 -0.632 66.46 4 416.932 0 0
10 0 0 0 -0.632 -0.632 66.46 4 416.932 0 0
∑ 661.29 43 747.09 -7.12 -5.29
600
Binary quadratic regression combination design calculations (Part B)

i (z1z2)y z1′y z2′y (z1z2)2 z1′2 z2′2 z12 z22
1 64.46 23.721 23.721 1 0.135 0.135 1 1
2 -66.74 24.560 24.560 1 0.135 0.135 1 1
3 -66.54 24.486 24.486 1 0.135 0.135 1 1
4 67.44 24.817 24.817 1 0.135 0.135 1 1
5 0 33.554 -40.011 0 0.281 0.399 1.162 0
6 0 35.690 -42.558 0 0.281 0.399 1.162 0
7 0 -41.263 34.603 0 0.399 0.281 0 1.162
8 0 -42.502 35.642 0 0.399 0.281 0 1.162
9 0 -42.003 -42.002 0 0.399 0.399 0 0
10 0 -42.003 -42.002 0 0.399 0.399 0 0
∑ -1.38 -0.939 1.256 4 2.701 2.701 6.324 6.324
Notes: Owing to the limited space, Table 5 was divided into Part A and Part B.
According to Tab.4, each regression coefficient is

根据表 4 可知，各个回归系数分别为：
listed below:
1 n
a=
1 n
∑ y i = 66.129
a= ∑ y i = 66.129
n i =1
n i =1 n
n
b1 = ∑ y i z1i = − 1.12653
b1 = ∑ y i z1i = − 1.12653 n
i =1
n
∑ z12i
i =1
∑z
i =1
2
1i
i =1
n
n
b2 = ∑ y i z2 i = −0.83693
b2 = ∑ y i z2 i = −0.83693 n
i =1
n
∑z 2
2i
i =1
∑z
i =1
2
2i
i =1 n
n
b12 = ∑ y i ( z1z2 )i = 0.345
b12 = ∑ y i ( z1z2 )i = 0.345 n
i =1
n
∑ (z z ) 2
1 2 i
i =1
∑ (z z )
i =1
2
1 2 i
i =1 n
n
b22 = ∑ y i ( z '2 i )i = −0.465
b22 = ∑ y i ( z '2 i )i = −0.465 n
i =1
n
∑ (z , 2
2i )
i =1
∑ (z2, i )2
i =1
i =1
Therefore, the regression relationship (regression 因此，规范变量与试验指标 y 之间的回归关系式（回

equation) between the standardized variables and test
归方程）为：
index is shown as follow:
y = 66.129 − 1.12653z1 − 0.83693z2 − 0.345z1z2 y = 66.129 − 1.12653z1 − 0.83693z2 − 0.345z1z2
−0.34799z1 '+ 0.46505395z2 ' −0.34799z1 '+ 0.46505395z2 '
Variance analysis of orthogonal test based on quadratic 二次回归正交试验的方差分析

regression
From Tab. 4, we know: 由表 4 可知：
n
∑y
n
= 43747.09
∑y
2
i
2
i = 43747.09
i =1 i =1
So the total variation can be expressed as:

所以有总变差为：
2
1 n
 n n
1 n 
2
SST = ∑ y i 2 −  ∑ y i  = 16.6395 SST = ∑ y i 2 −  ∑ y i  = 16.6395
i =1 n  i =1  i =1 n  i =1 
The variation of quadratic regression can be
expressed respectively as follow: 二次型的回归变差分别为：
n n
SS1 = b 1
2
∑z
i =1
1i
2
= 8.025755 SS1 = b12 ∑ z1i 2 = 8.025755
i =1
n n
SS2 = b22 ∑ z2 i 2 = 4.4297651 SS2 = b22 ∑ z2i 2 = 4.4297651
i =1 i =1
n
SS12 = b12 2 ∑ ( z1z2 )2 = 0.4761
i =1
601
n n
SS11 = b112 ∑ z '1i 2 = 0.327101 SS12 = b12 2 ∑ ( z1z2 )2 = 0.4761
i =1 i =1
n n
SS22 = b22 2 ∑ z '2 i 2 = 0.584207 SS11 = b112 ∑ z '1i 2 = 0.327101
i =1 i =1
Total regression variance could be expressed as n
follow: SS22 = b22 2 ∑ z '2 i 2 = 0.584207

i =1
SSR = SS1 + SS2 + SS12 + SS11 + S22 = 13.84292
Experimental error could be expressed as follow: 总回归变差为：
SSe = SST − SSR = 16.63949 − 13.84292 = 2.796569 SSR = SS1 + SS2 + SS12 + SS11 + S22 = 13.84292
Variance analysis is shown in Tab.6, the results show 实验误差为：

that, two partial regression coefficient reached significant SSe = SST − SSR = 16.63949 − 13.84292 = 2.796569
level, in which
F0.1 (1,4 ) = 4.54 方差分析见表 6，结果表明，两个偏回归系数达到了显
著水平，其中：
F0.1 (1,4 ) = 4.54 。
Table 6
Variance analysis
Difference Deviation quadratic Estimate of Statistical quantity Conspicuousnes

Free degree (df)
stems sum (SS) variance (MS) F s
z1 8.025 1 8.026 11.479 **

z2 4.429 1 4.429 6.336 **
z1z2 0.476 1 0.476 0.681
z1 ' 0.327 1 0.327 0.467
z2 ' 0.584 1 0.584 0.835

Recurrence 13.842 5 2.768 3.959
Residual 2.796 4 0.699
Sum 16.639 9 1.848
Quadratic regression equation of the efficiency 效率的二次回归约束方程

From the centralization formula of quadratic term, we know:
由二次项中心化公式，我们可得:
1 n
z1 ' = z12 − ∑ z12i = z12 − 0.6324 1 n 2
n i =1 z1 ' = z12 − ∑ z1i = z12 − 0.6324
n i =1
1 n
z2 ' = z22 − ∑ z22i = z22 − 0.6324 1 n
n i =1 z2 ' = z22 − ∑ z22i = z22 − 0.6324
These formulas were substituted into the following n i =1
代入回归方程，则有：
equation, then we obtain:
y = 66.129 − 1.12653z1 − 0.83693z2 − 0.345z1z2 −
y = 66.129 − 1.12653z1 − 0.83693z2 − 0.345z1z2 −
0.34799( z12 − 6.324 / 10) + 0.46505395( z2 − 6.324 / 10)
0.34799( z12 − 6.324 / 10) + 0.46505395( z2 − 6.324 / 10)
又根据编码公式：
According to the coding formula:
x − 11 , x − 17.5 x1 − 11 , x − 17.5
z1 = 1 z2 = 2 z1 = z2 = 2
3.71 13.91 3.71 13.91
The quadratic regression-based constrained equation 代入上式，整理后可得新型深井离心泵效率的二次回
of the efficiency of the new-type deep well centrifugal pump
归约束方程（回归公式）为：
for agricultural engineering could be expressed as follow:
y = 66.835 + 0.373 x1 − 0.0699 x2 − 0.0068 x1x2 − y = 66.835 + 0.373 x1 − 0.0699 x2 − 0.0068 x1x2 −
0.025 x12 + 0.0024 x22 0.025 x12 + 0.0024 x22

So η can also be expressed as follow: 故， η 也可表示为：
η = 66.835+0.373β2-0.0699b2-0.0068β2b2-0.025β22+ η = 66.835+0.373β2-0.0699b2-0.0068β2b2-0.025β2 +
2
2 2
0.0024b2 . 0.0024b2
602
CONCLUSIONS 结论
Based on the orthogonal testing method of quadratic
regression and numerical calculation, the hydraulic 在二次回归正交试验设计、数值计算的基础上，采用数
model of the new-type deep well centrifugal pump was 值计算和样机试验验证相结合的方法，对新型深井离心泵
conducted using the numerical simulation of two-stage
full flow field. The influence mechanism of impeller outlet 的水力模型进行两级全流场数值模拟，得到叶轮出口安放
angle, outlet width on the pump for agriculture was
角、出口宽度对深井离心泵性能的影响规律，结论如下：
obtained, the conclusions are shown as follows:
(1) The single-stage head of the deep well centrifugal （1）采用极大直径设计法设计的深井离心泵单级扬程
pump which was designed using the maximum-diameter
method is improved greatly and the efficiency is also 高，效率也不降低，采用数值模拟与二次回归正交试验相
higher than before. And combining the numerical
simulation and orthogonal test based on binary 结合，能够指导深井离心泵的设计，找到符合设计要求的
regression could optimize the design of the centrifugal
pump while complying with the design requirements. 优选方案；
(2) Using the two levels of the whole flow field for
numerical simulation on the multistage deep well （2）针对多级深井离心泵，采用两级全流场作数值模
centrifugal pump for agriculture could optimize the design
more accurately. 拟能够较为准确的指导设计；
(3) Through the 10 groups of design schemes
obtained from orthogonal testing method based on
（3）通过二次回归正交试验设计出10组设计方案，得
quadratic regression, we find the influence mechanism of
two main geometric parameters of impeller with outlet
width and outlet angle on the efficiency of the pump, 出了叶轮两个主要设计参数出口安放角和出口宽度对深井
meanwhile the optimal regression equation of this type
well pump was also obtained, which can provide 离心泵效率的影响规律，并优选出回归方程，从而为实现
references for the optimization target design of new-type
deep well pump for agricultural engineering. 对新型深井离心泵的优化设计目标提供了设计依据。
AKNOWLEGEMENT 致谢
This research was supported by the National
本文受到国家科技人员服务企业项目
Scientific and Technological Personnel Service
Enterprise Actions of China (Grant No.2009GJC30002), （ 2009GJC30002 ）和江苏省自然基金项目
the Natural Science Foundation Project of Jiangsu
（BK2011505）资金资助。
Province (No.BK2011505).
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604
EXPERIMENTAL STRUCTURE FOR INVESTIGATION OF INFLUENCING FACTORS IN PLANT

BIOTECHNOLOGY
/
STRUCTURĂ EXPERIMENTALĂ PENTRU INVESTIGAREA INFLUENłEI UNOR FACTORI IN
BIOTEHNOLOGIA VEGETALĂ
1) 2)
Ph.D.Stud. Eng. Velcea N.M, PhD. Eng. Ganea I.
1) 2)
University of Agricultural Scinces and Veterinary Medecine-Bucharest/ Romania, INMA Bucharest / Romania
Tel: +40723205048; E-mail: marian.nicolae.velcea@gmail.com
Abstract: Changing environmental factors in a brisk Rezumat: Modificarea factorilor de mediu intr-un ritm alert
current is specific historical period and cause pressure este specifica perioadei istorice actuale si determina o
on living beings. Their response by health or stress presiune asupra fiinŃelor vii. Răspunsul acestora prin starea
levels induced by these environmental changes can de sănătate sau nivelul de stres indus de aceste modificări
be predicted by investigating the influence of single ale mediului, pot fi anticipate prin investigarea influentei
factor or group. Using in vitro cultures as subjects for factorilor singulari sau grupaŃi. Utilizarea culturilor in vitro ca
testing is a proven method due to good sensitivity, subiecŃi pentru teste este o metoda consacrata datorita bunei
highly reactive and quick response. It presents sensibilităŃii, înaltei reactivităŃi si răspunsului rapid. Se
experimental structure able to highlight cultures in prezinta o structura experimentala capabila sa evidenŃieze
vitro behaviour of the electromagnetic field variations comportamentul culturilor in vitro la variaŃii ale câmpului
for variable frequency and intensity of the magnetic electromagnetic continuu sau alternativ având frecvente si
field selectable periods optional day-night cycles, and intensităŃi variabile ale câmpului magnetic selectabile, la
the colours of the solar spectrum with different perioade zi-noapte in cicluri opŃionale, precum si la culori ale
intensities. spectrului solar cu intensităŃi diferite.
Keywords: in vitro culture, electromagnetic field, day- Cuvinte cheie: culturi in vitro, câmp electromagnetic, ciclu
night cycle, the experimental structure zi-noapte, structura experimentala
Cultures in vitro scientific theory was proposed by Teoria stiintifica a culturilor in vitro a fost propusa de
Schleiden and Schwan in 1838 she realize the property of Schleiden si Schwan in 1838. Ea valorifica proprietatea de
"totipotent" cells vegetable, allowing regeneration of whole „totipotenta” a celulelor vegetetale, care permite
plants or parts thereof. The first in vitro cultures were regenerarea intregii plante sau a unor parti ale acesteia.
obtained by Haberlandt (1902), followed by Nobécourt, Primele culturi in vitro au fost obtinute de Haberlandt
Gautheret and White (1939). (1902), urmat de Nobecourt, Gautheret si White (1939).
The influence of day light periods, light spectral InfluenŃa perioade de lumină pe zi, compoziŃia spectrală
composition, respectively frequencies and intensity of lumină, respectiv frecvenŃa şi o intensitate a câmpului
magnetic field over the evolution of in vitro culture is magnetic asupra evoluŃiei culturii in vitro este posibilă cu
possible using a metallic container equipped with a ajutorul unui recipient metalic echipat cu un sistem de
programmable lighting system and an electromagnetic iluminare programabil şi un generator electromagnetic cu
generator with Helmholtz coils (Fig. 1). Practical, the bobine Helmholtz. (Fig.1). Practic, sistemul experimental
experimental system could be defined as a mechatronic ar putea fi definit ca un sistem mecatronic şi conceptul de
system and will concept and design in consequence [4]. voinŃă şi de design în consecinŃă [4]. Sistemul
The experimental system will be used in growth chamber experimental va fi utilizat în camera de creştere şi
and the experiments developed there will be always experimente dezvoltate vor exista mereu trimiteri pentru
references for that will be developed into experimental care vor fi dezvoltate în sistemul experimental. CondiŃiile
system. The general conditions for experimental system generale pentru structura şi funcŃiile sistemului
structure and functions were imposed by the "plant experimental au fost impuse de "biotehnologia vegetala"
biotechnology" techniques and methods requests: prin cerinŃele tehnice si metodele impuse:
- Day light periods: 16 hours light and 8 hours of - perioade de lumină: 16 ore de lumină si perioade de
darkness; întuneric de 8 ore;
- Light source: equivalent day light; - sursa de lumina: lumina zilei echivalent;
- Ambient temperature: minim 20°C, maximum 24°C; - temperatura ambianta: minim 20 ° C, maxima de 24°C;
- Relative humidity of 65%; - umiditate relativă de 65%;
- Test tubes dimension: 20mm diameter, 100mm high; - eprubete cu dimensiuni: dia-20mm, 100mm înălŃime;
MATERIAL AND METHODE MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

Experiments highlight the effect of physical factors on in Experimentele de evidenŃiere a efectului unor factori
vitro cultures were performed on cultures prepared fizici asupra culturilor in vitro de au fost desfăşurate pe
according to the protocol established [8, 9]. culturi pregătite conform protocolului consacrat [8, 9].
Thus, the plant material was collected from adult Astfel, materialul vegetal a fost recoltat de la arbori
trees of apple grown in intensive, by taking annual adulŃi de mar cultivaŃi in sistem intensiv, prin prelevarea de
branches in period without condensation or frost. ramuri anuale, in perioade lipsite de condens sau de
Branches were placed in room micro propagation îngheŃ. Ramurile au fost puse in camera laboratorului de
laboratory for forcing growth. [8, 9]. The camera micropropagare pentru forŃarea creşterii [8, 9]. Camera
provides optimal hub-bud development of vegetation at asigura condiŃii optime de dezvoltare a mugurilor de
a temperature between 20 and 22 degrees Celsius and vegetaŃie la o temperatura cuprinsa intre 20 si 22 grade
605
a relative humidity of about 65%. Buds were excised Celsius si o umiditate relativa de aproximativ 65%. Mugurii
after a period of 14 days was fragmented and then au fost excizaŃi după o perioada de 14 zile, au fost
immersed in fungicide 10% for 5 minutes. There was a fragmentaŃi si apoi imersaŃi in fungicid 10% timp de 5
disinfection solution of 5% sodium hypochlorite, followed minute. A urmat o dezinfecŃie cu soluŃie de hipoclorit de
by washing with sterile distilled water [9]. For culture sodiu 5%, apoi o spălare cu apa distilata sterila [9]. Pentru
initiation medium was used Quoirin & Lepoivre QL (-) iniŃierea culturilor a fost utilizat un mediu Quoirin &
with 25 g / l sucrose and 7 g / l agar at pH 5.2 [5, 6, 7, Lepoivre QL (-) cu 25 g / l de zaharoză şi 7 g / l agar la pH
10, 11, 12]. Following inoculation of explants, a first 5,2 [5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12]. După inocularea explantelor, un
group was exposed to a growth chamber for 16 hours prim lot a fost expus într-o cameră de creştere cu perioade
per day for periods of light and 8 hours dark at 20 ° C zilnice de 16 ore de lumină şi 8 ore de întuneric la 20 ° C
and a relative humidity of 65%. The light source is a şi o umiditate relativă de 65%. Sursa de lumină a camerei
light camera equivalent sunlight, performed using neon este o lumină echivalenta luminii solare, realizata cu
lamps and incandescent lamps. Phase multiplication ajutorul lămpilor de neon şi lămpilor incandescente. Faza
was carried out on a multiplication medium Quoirin & de multiplicare a fost realizată pe un mediu de multiplicare
Lepoivre QL (+) species of fruit trees, and subcultured 3 Quoirin & Lepoivre QL (+) pentru speciile de arbori fructiferi,
times in the same environment. Influence the duration of şi au fost subcultivate de 3 ori în acelaşi mediu. Influenta
illumination and darkness, and the light colour are duratei iluminării si duratei întunericului, precum si culoarea
variable factors for frequencies and intensities of luminii sunt factori variabili pentru frecvente si intensităŃi ale
electromagnetic field identified as imposed values. câmpului electromagnetic identificate ca valori impuse.
The requests regarding ambient temperature and Cererea privind temperatura ambiant ă şi umiditatea
humidity could be accomplish by assuring correct se poate realiza prin ventilaŃie corect ă, pentru a
ventilation in order to keep these conditions in the same menŃine aceste condiŃii în aceleaşi valori ca
values as the reference experiments realized in laboratory experimentele de referin Ńă realizate în laborator
(The growth chamber). (cameră de creştere).
The light condition (day light period, colour, respectively CondiŃia de lumină (perioada de zi lumina, culoare,
spectral density) will be accomplished by controlling a intensitate respectiv spectrală) se va realiza prin controlul
dedicated designed light source (Fig. 1). unei surse de lumină dedicate (Fig. 1).
In idea to assure the same conditions for all of in vitro In ideea de a asigura aceleaşi condiŃii pentru toate culturile
culture located in test tubes, will be necessary to assure a in vitro situate în eprubete, va fi necesar să se asigure o
controlled rotation movement for test tubes support (Fig. 1). mişcare de rotaŃie controlată pentru stativul lor (Fig.1).
In order to investigate the electromagnetic field Pentru a analiza influenŃa câmpului electromagnetic
influence over the plant biotechnology processes was asupra proceselor biotehnologice vegetale s-a fost
considered Helmholtz coils as solution to realize the considerat ca bobine Helmholtz ca o soluŃie pentru a
minilab continuous or alternative magnetic field generator realiza structura experimental a generatorul de câmp
magnetic continuu sau alternativ controlat printr-o valoare
controlled by means of continuous or alternative current
de curent continuu sau alternativ (Fig. 1). Câmpul
value (Fig. 1). The total magnetic field is the sum of the
magnetic total este suma dintre câmpurile magnetice de la
magnetic fields from each of the coils [16]. For geometry fiecare dintre bobine [16]. Valoarea câmpului magnetic
of two parallel coils interconnected in order to assure the pentru geometria a două bobine paralele interconectate,
same sense for current (Fig. 2), according to [16], the cărora li se asigura acelaşi sens pentru curent (Fig. 2), în
magnetic field is: conformitate cu [16], este:
Fig. 1 - The basic concept of experimental structure for Fig. 2 - The structure and magnetic field distributionfor
investigation of influencing factors in plant biotechnology two parallel coils having the same sense for current [16]
(1)
Where: B = Magnetic field intensity; Unde: B = intensitatea câmpului magnetic;

R = Coils average turns radius; R = raza medie a bobonei;
d = Distance between coils center; d = distanţa dintre centrele bobinelor;
N = Coils turns number; N = numarul de spire al bobinei;
I = Current; I = curent;
µ0 = Magnetic permeability of free space; µ0 = permeabilitate magnetică in vid;
x = Point on central axis between the coils. x = Punct pe axa centrală între bobinele.
606
The Helmholtz coils are characterized by the equality Bobinele Helmholtz se caracterizează prin egalitatea
of the distance d between them and coils radius R, d = R. distanţei d dintre ele cu raza bobinei R, d = R. In centrul
In the center of space between Helmholtz coils x = 0, and spaţiului dintre bobineleHelmholtz x = 0, iar pentru acest
for this point the magnetic field intensity [16] becomes: punct intensitatea câmpului magnetic [16] devine:
(2)
Based on the experimental structure developed Pe baza conceptului structurii experimentale dezvoltate
concept was proposed a structure with capability to use a fost propusă o structură cu capacitatea de a utiliza orice
any ferous case with 40mm minimum dimension bigger carcasa metalica feroasa cu dimensiunea minimă cu
compare to Helmholtz coils diameter (Fig. 3). 40mm mai mare ca diametrul bobinei Helmholtz (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 - The proposed experimental structurefor investigation of influencing factors in plant biotechnology
RESULTS REZULTATE
The model’s geometry and simulation was performed in Geometria modelului si simularea au fost realizate în
Ansys Maxwell software environment. The inductors mediul software ANSYS Maxwell. Diametrul inductorilor
diameter is 200mm and the distance between them is este de 200 mm, iar distanta dintre aceştia este egala cu
equal with coils radius, R = 100 mm. The resulting raza bobinei, R = 100 mm. Geometria rezultată este
geometry is presented in Fig. 4. The adaptive mesh which prezentată în Fig. 4. ReŃeaua de elemente finite rezultata
resulted from the simulation presented in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 din simulare este prezentată în Fig. 5 şi Fig. 6 si reprezintă
shows the distribution of the induction (B) field and vector distribuŃia intensităŃii inducŃiei câmpului magnetic (B) si
orientation. orientarea vectorului.
To properly model the inductance of the inductor, an Pentru a modela corect inductanŃa de inductor, o cale
appropriate current return path is included in the de întoarcere a curentului corespunzătoare este inclusă în
simulation. Proper calculation of inductor Q is critically simulare. Calcul corect al inductorului Q este dependent în
dependent on the accurate calculation of dielectric and mod critic de calcularea exactă a pierderilor dielectrice şi
conduction loss. The Maxwell software allows the explicit conductive. Software-ul Maxwell permite calcularea
calculation of the current distribution inside a conductor explicită a distribuŃiei de curent într-un conductor care să
enabling an accurate calculation of volumetric conductor permită un calcul precis al pierderilor conductive
losses. volumetrice.
The simulation has been focused on the B field Simularea a fost axata pe evaluarea câmpului B pentru
evaluation for the Helmholtz coils at the 10 Hz frequency bobinele Helmholtz la frecventa de 10 Hz [1, 2, 3, 14, 15].
[1, 2, 3, 14, 15]. Thus the geometry design of the proposed Astfel, proiectarea geometriei structurii experimentale
minilab structure has been simplified into two identical coils propuse a fost simplificată în două bobine identice
electrically connected. The diameter of the coil is 200mm conectate electric. Diametrul bobinei este 200mm si
and the distance from one another is set to 100 mm as distanta una de alta este setata la 100 mm, aşa cum se
presented in Fig. 3. The material properties of the coils prezinta în Fig.3. ProprietăŃile materiale ale bobinelor au
have been chosen as copper. The ensemble was fost alese ca fiind cele pentru cupru. Ansamblul a fost
surrender by a region of iron at a distance of 400mm in izolat cu o protecŃie de fier la o distanŃă de 400mm în orice
every each way. For the excitation was considered the direcŃie. Pentru excitaŃia a fost considerat produsul
product turns number and current: NI = 1 x 1A. numărului de spire al si curent: NI = 1 x 1A.
The results show the field strength to be around B = 3 Rezultatele arată ca intensitatea câmpului este în jur de
µT, under the values imposed, B = 3mT. B = 3 µT, sub valorile impuse, B = 3mT.
Fig. 4 - Helmholtz coils geometry used in simulation of induction field strength and induction vector
607
Fig. 5 - Resulting mesh of the Helmholtz coils Fig. 6 - Resulting induction field strength and vector orientation
Results of Magnetic Field Experiments Rezultatele experimentelor câmp magnetic

Based on the simulation result, the experimental Pe baza rezultatului simularii, solutia experimentală
solution for the magnetic field generator was realized by pentru generatorul de câmp magnetic a fost realizata prin
keeping the Helmholtz coils geometry but for a turns menŃinerea geometriei bobinelor Helmholtz dar pentru un
number (limited by the coils support construction) N = număr de spire (limitat constructiv de carcasa bobinei) N =
700 (Fig. 7a). Regarding magnetic field investigations, 700 (Fig. 7a). În ceea ce priveşte investigaŃiile de câmp
the measurements were done in two stages, first were magnetic, măsurătorile au fost efectuate în două etape,
investigated the magnetic field intensity function of radius mai întâi s-au investigat funcŃia intensitate a câmpului
on three levels (Fig. 4) for continuous current I = 1A magnetic cu raza pe trei niveluri (Fig. 4) pentru curent
(Table 1). In the second stage the magnetic field continuu I = 1A (Tabelul 1). In a doua etapă, intensitatea
intensity, also function of radius on three levels were câmpului magnetic a fost măsurata ca functie de raza, pe
measured for an alternative current I = 195mA, 10Hz trei nivele, pentru curent alternativ I = 195mA, frecventa
frequency (Table 2). 10Hz (Tabelul 2).
Fig. 7 - The minilab experimental magnetic field generator
Table 1
The magnetic field intensity function of radius for 1A, DC current
Table 2
The magnetic field intensity function of radius for 195mA, 10Hz, AC currenT
Areas of plant biotechnology applications are industrial Domenii de aplicatii in biotehnologia vegetala sunt:
plant breeding, genetics, plant breeding, genetic multiplicare industriala a plantelor, inginerie genetica,
engineering, genetic resource conservation. Plant conservarea resurselor genetice. Biotehnologia vegetala
608
biotechnology allows better utilization of genetic resources permite o mai bună utilizare a resurselor genetice prin
by increasing the productivity of agricultural ecosystems creşterea productivităŃii ecosistemelor agricole si prin
and capitalization now unfavourable crop areas (desert, valorificarea zonelor de cultură nefavorabile in prezent
salted, acid, etc.). (desert, sărăturoase, acide, etc.)
The work presented in the paper represents the Lucrarea prezentată reprezintă studiile preliminare si
preliminary studies and experimental investigations investigaŃii experimentale privind o structura experimentala
regarding an experimental structure developed for dezvoltata pentru investigarea unor efecte ale câmpului
investigations of effects of electromagnetic field having electromagnetic cu caracteristici diferite asupra unor culturi
different characteristics over in vitro vegetal cultures. vegetale in vitro.
Based on the Helmholtz coils simulation for a geometry Pe baza simulării bobinelor Helmholtz cu o geometrie cu R
with R=100mm and product NI = 1A having as result the = 100 mm si produsul NI = 1A având ca rezultat o valoare
induction value B = 3µT, was designed the experimental vectorului câmp de inducŃie B = 3µT, a fost proiectata
structure for magnetic field generator. structura experimentala pentru generatorul de câmp magnetic.
The experimental structure for magnetic field generator Structura experimentala pentru generatorul de câmp
was realized with Helmholtz coils with a geometry with magnetic realizata cu bobine Helmholtz cu o geometrie cu
R=100mm and turns numbers N = 700, and was R = 100 mm si număr de spire N = 700, a fost investigata
investigated in continuous and variable current. în curent continuu si curent variabil.
The average values for magnetic field intensity function Valoarea medie a intensităŃii câmpului magnetic pentru
of radius for 1A, DC current was B = 4.1mT and the 1A curent continuu in funcŃie de raza a fost B = 4,1 mT iar
average values for magnetic field intensity function of valoarea medie a intensităŃii câmpului magnetic funcŃie de
radius for 0.195mA, 10Hz frequency was B = 0.54mT. raza pentru 0,195mA la frecventa 10Hz fost B = 0.54mT.
The results of experimental structure for magnetic field Rezultatele măsurătorilor structurii experimentale pentru
generator realized with Helmholtz coils with a geometry generator de câmp magnetic realizat cu bobine Helmholtz
with R=100mm and turns numbers N = 700 measurements cu o geometrie cu R = 100 mm si număr de spire N = 700
demonstrate his functionality, assuring the values demonstrează funcŃionalitatea acestuia, asigurând valorile
requested for magnetic field intensity. solicitate pentru intensitatea câmpului magnetic.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT MULłUMIRI
This paper was published under the frame of European Acest document a fost publicat în cadrul Fondul Social
Social Found, Human Resources Development European, Programul OperaŃional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Operational Program 2007-2013, project no. Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, proiect nr. POSDRU / 159 /
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765. Also, partially, this work has 1.5 / S / 132765. De asemenea, parŃial, acest lucru a fost
been performed in the frame of the “Partnerships in priority realizat în cadrul proiectului "Parteneriate în domenii
areas” (PN II) Romanian Research program, developed prioritare" (PN II), program de cercetare românesc,
and supported by MEN-UEFISCDI, SIOPTEF project, PN- dezvoltat si susŃinut de către MEN-UEFISCDI, proiect
II-PT-PCCA-2011-3.2-899, no. 121/2012 and BLCPL PN- SIOPTEF, PN-II-PT-PCCA-2011 - 3.2 -899, nr. 121/2012 si
II-PT-PCCA-2013-4-1546, no. 58/2014 projects. BLCPL PN-II-PT-PCCA-2013-4-1546, nr. 58/2014.
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610
THE CONCEPT OF “ENVIRONMENT’’ INTO THE EVALUATION OF AN ECOLOGICAL

MATERIAL
/
CONCEPTUL DE “MEDIU’’ IN EVALUAREA UNUI MATERIAL ECOLOGIC
1) 1) 1)
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A.M. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S. , Lect. Ph.D. Eng. Haraga G. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D.
1) 2) 1) 3)
Eng. IoniŃă E. , As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Jugănaru E.-C. , As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S.
1
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Department of Engineering Graphics and Industrial Design, Bucharest, Romania
2
University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology, Bucharest, Romania
3
National Research – Development Institute for Machines and Installations Designed to Agriculture and Food Industry, Romania
Tel: 0724.594.846; E-mail: avr_ana@yahoo.com
Abstract: Today, it’s a well known and accepted fact that Rezumat: În prezent, este bine cunoscut şi acceptat faptul
the environment plays a major part for the man’s actual că mediul joacă un rol major în bunăstarea prezentă şi
and future well being. In a world driven by “eco”, where the viitoare a omului. Într-o lume guvernată de „eco”, în care
ecological consciousness is more and more present, the conştiinŃă ecologică îşi pune amprenta tot mai des,
focus of our interest falls onto the concept of interesele noastre trebuie să fie concentrate pe conceptul
“Environment”. The technical innovation has imposed on de „Mediu”. InovaŃia tehnică a impus pe piaŃă dezvoltarea
the market the development of new materials in order to de noi materiale care să le înlocuiască pe cele clasice. În
replace the classic ones. In this paper, our purpose is to această lucrare, scopul nostru este de a crea un demers
create a methodical demarche of mechanical analysis for metodic al analizei mecanice pentru materialele de
the bio-sourced materials based on the evaluation of their provenienŃă biologică, bazat pe evaluarea caracteristicilor
surface features. Our work is inscribing in the field of suprafeŃelor acestora. Munca noastră se înscrie în
taking into account the environmental dimension and has tendinŃa de a lua în considerare dimensiune mediului şi
as objective to identify and to elaborate mechanical are drept obiectiv identificarea şi elaborarea metodelor de
evaluation methods for the bio-sourced materials. More evaluare mecanică pentru materialele din surse bio. Mai
precisely, our work is intended to be a mechanical precis, munca noastră are ca scop abordarea unei
evaluation for the designing of bio-sourced materials by evaluări mecanice ale materialelor din surse bio prin
highlighting the great importance of the roughness in our accentuarea importanŃei stării de suprafaŃă a acestora în
society in our time. societatea actuală.
Key words: Environment, ecological, natural materials, Cuvinte cheie: Mediu, ecologic, material natural, design,
design, innovation, roughness, human factor, eco-friendly. inovare, rugozitate, factor uman, prietenos mediului.
Today, it’s a well known and accepted fact that the În zilele noastre, este bine ştiut faptul că mediul
environment plays a major part for the man’s actual and înconjurător joacă un rol major în bunăstarea prezentă şi
future well being. In a world driven by “eco”, where the viitoare a omului. Într-o lume condusă de „eco”, în care
ecological consciousness is more and more present, the conştiinŃa ecologică este tot mai mult prezentă, interesele
focus of our interest falls onto the concept of noastre trebuie să fie focalizate pe conceptul de „Mediu”.
“Environment”. The technical innovation has imposed on În prezent, evoluŃia tehnică a impus pe piaŃă dezvoltarea
the market the development of new materials in order to de noi materiale care să le înlocuiască pe cele clasice.
replace the classic ones. Totuşi, designerii, forŃaŃi de constrângerile unei
Still, the designers, forced by more and more powerful competiŃii din ce în ce mai puternice trebuie să-şi
competition constraints, must define their priorities definească priorităŃile privind funcŃia, aspectul şi criteriile
regarding the function, appearance and esthetical criteria estetice ale produselor. De fapt, una dintre problemele cu
of the products. In fact, one of the issues that companies care trebuie să se confrunte companiile în ziua de azi este
are to deal with nowadays is the ability to design products abilitatea de a concepe produse care să nu dăuneze
environment friendly using new ecological materials with a mediului, prin folosirea de materiale ecologice noi de cel
quality at least equal to the one of classic synthetic puŃin aceeaşi calitate cu materialele sintetice clasice [4, 5,
materials [4, 5, 6]. Taking into account the human factor, 6]. Luând în consideraŃie factorul uman, cunoaşterea
especially by knowing the consumers’ preferences, has preferinŃelor consumatorilor este o necesitate de bază. De
become a basic necessity. Hence, for the designing aceea, în cazul procesului de design, integrarea factorului
process, human factor integration into the evaluation of a uman în evaluarea unui produs este o prioritate care
product is a priority about to be considered. Facing a trebuie să fie luată în consideraŃie. Fiind confruntate cu o
terrible competition and a saturated offer in terms of foarte mare competitivitate şi o ofertă saturată în materie
products, the companies are forced to work more and de produse, companiile sunt forŃate să muncească tot mai
more over the ecological criteria of the product. In other mult în jurul criteriilor ecologice ale produsului. Cu alte
words, they must work to differentiate their product into cuvinte, ele trebuie să se concentreze pe diferenŃierea
consumer’s eyes. produsului lor în ochii consumatorului.
The consumer’s choice is already at great stake for Alegerea consumatorului este deja în joc pentru
the companies. Therefore, the companies are trying to companii. De aceea, companiile încearcă să integreze în
integrate in their designing process notions like pleasure procesul lor de design noŃiuni ca plăcere sau stimă, pentru
or esteem, for those notions to be perceived as attached acele noŃiuni care trebuie percepute ca fiind ataşate de
to the product. The technical evaluation is associated with produs. Evaluarea tehnică este asociată cu procesul de
the designing process [7] and also enables to elaborate design [7] şi permite să se elaboreze noŃiunea de stimă
the notion of esteem or esthetics of a product in the same sau estetică a produsului, în acelaşi mod în care partea
way that the mechanical side guarantees that the product mecanică garantează că produsul va lucra corespunzător.
611
will work properly. The innovation concept serves to design, Conceptul de inovaŃie serveşte la conceperea, dezvoltarea
develop and manufacture new products. And these new şi fabricarea de noi produse. Şi aceste noi produse vor fi
products will have to be able to combine functionality, capabile să combine funcŃionalitatea, metodele de
sensible fabrication methods, use of natural materials and an fabricaŃie sensibilă, folosirea de material naturale şi o
interface attractive and useful at the same time. interfaŃă atractivă şi utilă în acelaşi timp.
The purpose of this paper is to suggest the Scopul acestei lucrări este de a sugera arhitectura unei
architecture of a mechanical evaluation method suitable metode mecanice de evaluare corespunzătoare pentru
for bio-sourced materials. In this paper, our purpose is materialele din surse biologice. În această lucrare, scopul
to create a methodical demarche of mechanical nostru este de a crea un demers metodic al analizei mecanice
analysis for the bio-sourced materials based on the pentru materialele ecologice de provenienŃă biologică, bazat pe
evaluation of their surface features. Our work is evaluarea stării suprafeŃelor acestora. Munca noastră se
inscribing in the field of taking into account the înscrie în tendinŃa de a lua în considerare conceptul de mediu
environmental dimension and has as objective to şi are drept obiectiv identificarea şi elaborarea metodelor de
identify and to elaborate mechanical evaluation evaluare mecanică pentru materialele din surse bio. Mai precis,
methods for the bio-sourced materials. More precisely, munca noastră are ca scop abordarea unei evaluări mecanice
our work is intended to be a mechanical evaluation ale materialelor din surse biologice prin accentuarea
approach for the designing of bio-sourced materials by importanŃei stării de suprafaŃă a acestora în societatea actuală,
highlighting the great importance of the roughness in evidenŃiind importanŃa deosebită a rugozităŃii în societatea
our society in our time. noastră în timpul nostru.
Basically, a review of the literature allowed us to Practic, trecerea în revistă a literaturii de specialitate
realize that the subjective feeling of the consumer is ne-a permis să ne dăm seama că senzaŃia subiectivă a
determined by the acceptance or rejection of a product. I consumatorului este determinantă în legătură cu acceptarea
pointed out that regardless of consumer perception is one sau respingerea unui produs. Am subliniat că a Ńine cont
of the fundamental objectives of quality control that de percepŃia consumatorului este unul dintre obiectivele
emphasizes on the human factor paradigm in which we fundamentale ale controlului calităŃii care pune accentul pe
follow the research. factorul uman, paradigmă în care ne înscriem cercetarea.

Consumer’s reactions on the market about the ReacŃiile consumatorilor pe piaŃă cu privire la calitatea
quality of a product are determined primarily by its sensory unui produs sunt determinate în primul rând de
characteristics. Consumer requirements related to the caracteristicile senzoriale ale acestuia. CerinŃele consumatorilor
product quality can be determined by market research. legate de calitatea produsului pot fi stabilite prin studii de
Knowing these requirements can make product piaŃă. Cunoscând aceste cerinŃe se pot aduce îmbunătăŃiri
improvements or new products can be designed to produsului sau se pot proiecta produse noi care să
increase consumer satisfaction. sporească gradul de satisfacŃie a consumatorului.
Quality control is an essential function in which each Controlul calităŃii este o funcŃie esenŃială în care fiecare
company has to ensure customer satisfaction. To achieve societate trebuie să asigure satisfacŃia clientului. Pentru a
this, various controls are in place to ensure product quality realiza acest lucru, diferite controale sunt în vigoare pentru a
in various stages of manufacture. In most cases, these asigura calitatea produsului în diferite etape de fabricaŃie. În
controls are made from dimensional measurements cele mai multe cazuri, aceste controale sunt realizate începând
carried out on the product (size, surface condition, weight, cu măsurători dimensionale efectuate pe produs (dimensiuni,
etc.) and, more rarely, by sensory measurements (visual, stare suprafaŃă, greutate etc.) Şi, mai rar, prin măsurătorile
olfactory etc.). senzoriale (vizual, olfactiv etc).
Subjective quality so far relegated to second place Calitate subiectivă, până în prezent retrogradată pe
behind the criterion "Deploying" now occupies a central locul al doilea în spatele criteriu „Utilizarea de produse”,
role for the customer. The customer no longer pursues ocupă în prezent un rol central pentru client. Clientul nu
product functionality. The client wants the subjective mai urmăreşte funcŃionalitatea produsului. Clientul îşi doreşte o
quality of the product [8, 10]. For this quality, it is calitate subiectivă a produsului [8, 10]. Pentru această calitate,
necessary to carry out specific checks. este necesar să se efectueze controale specifice.
In the field of marketing, many studies have been În domeniul de marketing, multe studii au fost
conducted on the quality perception. Thus, it can be efectuate pe tema PercepŃia calităŃii. Astfel, ea poate fi
defined as the perceived quality manifests itself as an definită astfel: calitatea percepută se manifestă ca o idee
idea in relation to the sensations and views collected [8]. în raport cu senzatiile şi opiniile percepute [8]. În [8],
In [8], perceived quality is defined as the emotional state calitatea percepută este definită ca fiind ca o stare
of an affective and cognitive evaluation process that emoŃională a unui proces de evaluare afectiv şi cognitiv
takes place during a specific operation. Classic, quality care are loc în cursul unei operaŃiuni specifice. Clasic,
tends to match customer expectations [8]. The company calitatea tinde sa corespunda aşteptărilor clientului [8].
must be able to anticipate this need and even Compania trebuie să fie capabil să anticipeze această
supplementing it [5, 7]. nevoie şi chiar să o completeze [5, 7].
In addition, eco-design efforts aimed at a radical În plus, demersurile de eco-design vizează o
improvement of the environment and focuses on the îmbunătăŃire radicală a mediului şi se concentrează pe
service that must provide the consumer product in terms serviciul pe care produsul trebuie să i-l ofere
of improving the quality, equity and environmental consumatorului în condiŃiile ameliorării calităŃii, echităŃii şi
harmony within the company. It involves stakes and armoniei de mediu din cadrul companiei. Este vorba de
permanent challenges forcing companies to modernize. mize şi provocări permanente care determină companiile
Today, the modernization of companies which must be să se modernizeze. Astăzi, modernizarea companiilor care
more competitive is on track to replace synthetic materials trebuie să fie tot mai competitive se îndreaptă în direcŃia
with new materials from bio sources. Therefore, our înlocuirii materialelor sintetice cu noi materiale din surse
research should allow a better integration of surface bio. Prin urmare, cercetările noastre ar trebui să permită o
612
characteristics in an approach to eco-design of products. mai bună integrare a caracteristicilor de suprafaŃă într-un
In order to succeed it is necessary for the characterization demers de eco-design al produselor. Pentru a reuşi este
of the sensation to the consumer in order to form, by nevoie de o caracterizare a senzaŃiei consumatorului în
means of a set of measurement profile of a bio-renewable scopul de a alcătui, cu ajutorul unui ansamblu de
material. măsurători, profilul unui material din surse bio.
In the present research, we decided to treat these În cercetarea de faŃă, ne-am propus să tratăm aceste
problems for the particular case of bio-based materials probleme pentru cazul particular al materialelor din surse
from sources of flax fibers and materials based on glass bio pe bază de fibre de in şi al materialelor pe bază de
fiber (considered as synthetic as opposed to the plant), fibre de sticlă (considerate ca sintetice, spre deosebire de
Figure 1. Because of the privacy reasons, further details cele vegetale), figura 1. Din motive de confidentialitate,
cannot be provided. detaliile suplimentare nu se pot oferi.
Fig. 1 – Materials research
As shown in the literature [1, 2, 3, 9], the eco-design, Aşa cum se arată în literatura [1, 2, 3, 9], în eco-
materials must face various constraints, such as design, materialele trebuie să facă faŃă diferitelor
environmental constraints related to the impact of these constrângeri precum: constrângeri de mediu, legate de
materials on the environment, traditional constraints such impactul acestor materiale asupra mediului, constrângeri
as technical, but also constraints status, household, tradiŃionale, precum cele tehnice, dar şi constrângeri de
economic or manufacturing. statut, de uz, economice sau chiar de fabricaŃie.
With the objective of making a surface instrument Având ca obiectiv efectuarea unei caracterizări de
characterization of products from renewable organic suprafaŃă instrumentală a produselor din materiale provenite
materials and the knowledge that, for products, these din surse bio şi cunoscând faptul că, pentru produse, aceste
materials are becoming increasingly popular, so we will materiale sunt din ce în ce mai des căutate, ne vom
focus on products based on from renewable bio materials concentra deci pe produsele pe bază de materiale provenite
that the flax fiber have in composition. For this we propose din surse bio care au componenŃă fibra de in. Pentru aceasta
that, in addition to our approach, we focus on the study of propunem ca, în completarea demersului, să ne focalizăm pe
surface conditions in the measurement of instrument studiul stării suprafetei în măsurătoarea instrumentală
(roughness) as product-based materials from bio sources (rugozitatea) atât a unui produs pe bază de materiale din
and one on synthetic materials. surse bio, cât şi a unuia pe bază de materiale sintetice.
RESULTS REZULTATE
These experiments allowed us to give solid elemental Aceste experimente ne-au permis să dăm solide
responses to our problems. On the one hand, instrumental elemente de răspuns la problematica noastră. Pe de-o parte,
analysis showed that roughness seems to be a relevant a reieşit că analiza instrumentală a rugozităŃii pare să fie un
and effective approach for the study of similarities and demers pertinent şi eficient pentru studiul asemănărilor şi
differences between different types of materials. deosebirilor dintre diferitele tipuri de materiale.
On the other hand, our research work demonstrates Pe de altă parte, lucrările noastre de cercetare demonstrează
that bio sources materials seem to be able to replace că materialele din surse bio par să poată înlocui materialele
synthetic materials in finished surfaces. Basically, our sintetice în cazul suprafeŃelor finisate. Practic, experimentele
experiments show that roughness profile is similar to noastre demonstrează că profilul rugozităŃii este asemănător
surface finishes. The organic renewable materials seem to pentru suprafeŃele finisate. Astfel, materialele din surse bio par
have a bright future in the field of product innovation, să aibă un viitor frumos în domeniul inovaŃiei de produs,
perceived quality equivalent to that of synthetic materials calitatea percepută fiind echivalentă cu cea a materialelor
studied so adjusted consumer habits. In fact, the choice of sintetice studiate, deci adaptate obiceiurilor consumatorului.
materials involves many constraints, all related to different De fapt, alegerea materialului implică numeroase constrângeri,
professions. These constraints are defended by those who toate legate de profesii diferite. Aceste constrângeri sunt
work in creating products that have sometimes divergent apărate de cei care activează în crearea de produse şi care au
objectives and interests. obiective şi interese uneori divergente.
For our experiments, we chose 3D Profileograph Pentru experimentele noastre, am ales profilometrul
entering into contact with an inductive sensor, which 3D intrand în contact cu un senzor inductiv, care ne-a permis
allowed us to measure the roughness, denoted Ra, which măsurarea rugozităŃii, notată Ra, care este media aritmetică
is the arithmetic average roughness profile. To obtain more a profilului de rugozitate. Pentru a obŃine rezultate cât mai
reliable information, measurements have been three in probante, măsurătorile efectuate au fost în număr de trei
number for each item selected in our research. pentru fiecare material ales în cercetarea noastră.
Measurements are displayed directly from Altisurf 500 Măsurătorile sunt afişate direct de la Altisurf 500 şi tratate cu
treated ALTIMAP program. Figures 2 and 3 show the programul ALTIMAP. Figurile 2 şi 3 prezintă rezultatele
results of instrumental measurements obtained organic obŃinute în urma măsurătorilor instrumentale obŃinute pentru
source materials and synthetic materials. materialele din sursă bio şi pentru materialele sintetice.
613
Fig. 2 – Roughness results – bio-sourced materials
614
Fig. 3 – Roughness results – synthetic materials
This issue has raised the need to characterize Această problematică a ridicat nevoia operaŃională de
operational instrument products made from bio renewable a caracteriza instrumental produsele fabricate din
materials, and then comparing them with products made materiale provenite din surse bio, iar apoi compararea
from conventional materials. The results presented in acestora cu produse fabricate din materiale clasice.
graphs obtained show clearly the tie of materials obtained Rezultatele prezentate în graficele obtinuŃe arată clar
from bio source in relation to materials obtained from departajarea materialelor din sursă bio în raport cu
synthetic source. The problem studied is limited to the materialele din sursă sintetică. Problematica studiată se
conclusion that the material can easily replace synthetic rezumă la concluzia că materialele pot înlocui foarte uşor
materials in terms of roughness. The results demonstrate materialele sintetice din punct de vedere al rugozităŃii.
that organic source materials have lower roughness Rezultatele demonstrează că materialele din sursă bio au
compared to the synthetic source. o rugozitate mai scăzută faŃă de cele din sursă sintetică.
In this article, we proposed making an instrumental În acest articol, s-a propus efectuarea unei
characterization of materials from bio sources to identify caracterizări instrumentale a materialelor provenite din
the degree of roughness, instrumental measurements surse bio pentru a identifica gradul de rugozitate,
were obtained using a profilometer. măsurătorile instrumentale fiind obŃinute cu ajutorul unui
profilometru.
Our final contribution, based on experience with the
ContribuŃia noastră finală, bazată pe experienŃa
following set of experiments presented introduces such a
rezultată în urma ansamblului de experimente prezentat,
first original aspect of our research, plus the development
introduce astfel un prim aspect original al cercetării
of a characterization tool. Finally, the products from
noastre, plus dezvoltarea unei caracterizări instrumentale.
present research, materials from bio source (based on
În cele din urmă, produsele din cercetarea de faŃă,
fiber) to conventional materials (glass fiber based), have
materialele din surse bio (pe bază de fibre de in) şi
the potential to be an interesting product space,
materialele clasice (pe bază de fibre de sticlă), au
contributing to encourage the replacement of synthetic
potenŃialul de a fi un spaŃiu-produs interesant, contribuind
materials with natural ones in a cross design approach.
la încurajarea înlocuirii materialelor sintetice cu cele
The first original aspect of our research is the proposal for
naturale într-un demers de eco proiectare. Primul aspect
this approach sensory evaluation of bio renewable
original al cercetării noastre este propunerea aplicării
material.
acestei abordări evaluării senzoriale a unui material din
Despite the limitations of our study, we were able to
surse bio. În pofida limitelor studiului nostru, am reuşit să
accurately characterize material from bio sources
caracterizăm precis materialul din surse bio în comparaŃie
compared to synthetic material, highlighting similarities
cu un material sintetic, subliniind asemănările şi
and differences. To highlight the similarities and
deosebirile. Pentru a pune în evidenŃă asemănările şi
differences between bio renewable materials and synthetic
deosebirile dintre materialele din surse bio şi materialele
materials, we propose evaluating them in terms of
sintetice, propunem evaluarea acestora din punct de
roughness.
vedere al rugozităŃii.
The issue of further research would be to study how
Problematica unei cercetări ulterioare ar putea fi să se
615
to help designers to provide as much room as possible studieze cum pot fi ajutaŃi designerii să ofere cât mai mult
environmental constraints and sensory in creating their loc posibil constrângerilor de mediu şi senzoriale în
products. crearea produselor lor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS MULłUMIRI
The first author wishes to the Operational Sectoral Primul autor doreşte să mulŃumească Programului
Program for Human Resources Development 2007-2013 OperaŃional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor
of the Romanian Department of Labour, Family and Social Umane 2007-2013 al Departamentului Românesc al
Assistance through Financial Agreement Muncii, Familiei şi ProtecŃiei Sociale prin acordul financiar
POSDRU/107/1.5/S/76813. POSDRU/107/1.5/S/76813.
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CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE MACHANIZED PLANTING OF ENERGETIC WILLOW

/
CONSIDERAłII PRIVIND PLANTAREA MECANIZATĂ A SALCIEI ENERGETICE
1) 2) 1)
As. Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Toderaşc P. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Petcu A.S. , Assoc. Prof. Ph.D. Eng. IoniŃă S. ,
1) 2) 2)
As. Ph.D. Eng. Avramescu A-M , PhD. Eng. Marin E. , Ph.D. Stud. Eng. Ciobanu V.
1)
Politehnica University of Bucharest / Romania 2) INMA Bucharest / Romania 2);
Tel: 0748537194; E-mail: petruta.toderasc@yahoo.com
Abstract: Energetic willow is an alternative source of Rezumat: Salcia energetică reprezintă o sursă alternativă
energy. Researchers have sought to create varieties de energie. Cercetătorii au urmărit crearea unor soiuri cu o
with a high-energy value, fast growing, to be resistant valoare energetică ridicată, cu dezvoltare rapidă, care să
to different environmental conditions and to be a source fie rezistentă la diferite condiŃii de mediu şi care să
of cheap biomass. To establish an energetic willow crop reprezinte o sursă de biomasă ieftină. Pentru înfiinŃarea
it is necessary a special planting equipment. To this culturilor de salcie energetică sunt necesare echipamente
end, research has been conducted nationally and tehnice speciale de plantare. În acest scop, au fost
internationally. The paper presents the main efectuate cercetări la nivel naŃional şi international. În
achievements of the largest manufacturers of lucrare se prezintă principalele realizări ale celor mai mari
equipment for energy willow planted as cuttings or producători de echipamente de plantat salcie energetică
sade. sub formă de butaşi sau sădele.
Keywords: planting, energetic willow, cuttings, sade Cuvinte cheie: plantare, salcie energetică, butaşi, sădele
Energetic willow is an important source of biomass and Salcia energetică reprezintă o sursă importantă de
has many advantages that have led to its designation as biomasă şi are numeroase avantaje care au condus la
an energy plant. denumirea ei ca plantă energetică.
The main advantages of energy willow are: Principalele avantajele ale salciei energetice sunt:
- Energetic crops willow can "revive" derelict lands - culturile de salcie energetică pot “readuce la viaŃă” terenurile
(infertile or with very low productivity) with aflate în paragină (nefertile sau foarte slab productive)
technological features permissive (clayey soils, on având caracteristici tehnologice permisive (pe soluri
slopes, in wetlands, etc.); argiloase, pe terenuri în pantă, în zone mlăştinoase etc.);
- Has a high calorific value of about 4,900 kcal / kg, - are o putere calorică ridicată, de circa 4900 kcal/ kg, mai ridicată
higher than oak, as I track the data in Table 1. decât a stejarului, aşa cum se pot urmări datele din tabelul 1.
Table 1
Calorific value of wood of different species [6]
Specie Calorific power [kcal/kg]
Stejar 3460
Molid 3700
Fag 3600
Carpen 3190
Salcâm 3600
Plop 3220
- Cultures have a long service life (25 to 30 years); - culturile au o durată îndelungată de viaŃă (25- 30 de ani);
- Low cost of cultivation and maintenance of the crop; - costuri reduse de cultivare şi întreŃinere a culturii;
- Having regard to the trend of the ascending fossil fuel - având în vedere tendinŃa de urcare a preŃurilor combustibililor
prices, the demand for biomass will increase; fosili, cererea de biomasă va fi în creştere;
- Has a high strength and fast-growing (summer, Salix - prezintă o rezistenŃă ridicată şi ritm rapid de creştere
viminalis increased to 3 cm / day); (vara, Salix viminalis creşte şi 3 cm/zi);
- Production can reach up to 60 t / ha under favorable - producŃia poate ajunge până la 60 t/ha în condiŃii
conditions (intensive irrigation), the average being 30 favorabile (irigare intensivă), producŃia medie fiind de
to 40 t/ha; 30- 40 t/ha;
- Emissions from burning are almost zero; - emisiile rezultate din arderea lor sunt aproape zero;
- Can be cultivated (even recommended) or permanent - se poate cultiva (chiar este recomandat) pe terenuri
or periodic wetlands; mlăştinoase permanent sau periodic;
- Has a capacity of 15-20 liters/day/sqm of water - are o capacitate de evapotranspiraŃie de 15-20 l
evapotranspiration; apă/zi/mp;
- Has a annual reception capacity of 20-30 t / ha of - are capacitate de preluare anual a 20-30 t/ha de nămol
sludge from wastewater treatment; provenit din epurarea apelor reziduale;
- May be a safe alternative energetic source (heating) - poate fi o variantă sigură de surse energetică (încălzire)
for settlements, being used as biomass (mince), pentru localităŃi, fiind utilizată ca biomasă (tocătura),
briquettes or pellets. [7] brichete sau peleŃi. [7]
Salix Viminalis Energo - is highly resistant to different Salcia Salix Viminalis Energo – este foarte rezistentă
weather conditions, therefore in Romania are favorable la diferite condiŃii climatice, în concluzie pe teritoriul
conditions for growing energy willow (in river beds, României există condiŃii propice pentru cultivarea salciei
floodplains unused) - fig. 1. energetice (în albii ale râurilor, zone inundabile neutilizate) - fig. 1.
617
Fig. 1 - Total Energetic willow plantations by KWG

(350 plantations, 439 acres, from 2007 to 2012) [3]
Energetic willow is multiplied vegetative way. The Salcia energetică se înmulŃeşte pe cale vegetativă.
planting material is the cuttings or cuttings Sade from Materialul săditor este reprezentat de butaşi sau sădele
which is cut to the required size, which must come from din care se taie butaşi la dimensiunea necesară, care
approved nurseries firms holding a license for trebuie să provină din pepinierele autorizate ale firmelor
manufacturing and marketing. Cuttings are pieces of care deŃin o licenŃă pentru producere şi comercializare.
shoot, root or leaf, detached. For one hectare are Butaşii sunt porŃiuni de lăstar, de rădăcină sau de frunză,
necessary about 14,000 cuttings, with a minimum detaşată. Pentru un hectar sunt necesari 14.000 de butaşi,
thickness of 9 mm [3]. cu o grosime minimă de 9 mm [3].
a) b)
Fig. 2 - Energetic Willow: a) sade; b) cuttings [10], [11]

Planting energy willow is made in the form of double Plantarea salciei energetice se realizează sub forma
rows disposed at 0.75 m from each other, the distance unor rânduri duble dispuse la 0,75 m unul de altul, distanŃa
between the two double rows is 1.5 m and the depth of dintre două rânduri duble este de 1,5 m iar adâncimea
planting hole is 25 mm. [4] gropii de plantare este de 25 mm [4].
The equipment for planting cuttings (fig. 3) Echipamentul de plantat butaşi (fig. 3) se compune în
generally consists of a metal frame that fits one or general dintr-un cadru metalic pe care se fixează una sau
more sections, each consisting of a plow, compaction mai multe secŃii, fiecare secŃie fiind formată din brăzdar,
wheels, knife, seat and boxes with cuttings. The roŃi de tasare, cuŃitul, scaunul operatorului şi lădiŃele cu
linkage is connected to the three points of the tractor butaşi. Cadrul se cuplează la mecanismul de suspendare
hydraulics. hidraulic în trei puncte al tractorului.
Fig. 3 - Diagram of the planting equipment [6]
618
While moving, the plow opens the gutter and the În timpul deplasării, brăzdarul deschide rigola în care
operator inserts the cuttings from the boxes. Soil operatorul introduce butaşul din lădiŃe. Organele de
compaction bodies cover the cuttings with soil. acoperire şi tasare acoperă butaşii cu sol.
Planting equipment fall into two categories: Echipamentele de plantat se împart în două categorii:
- For cuttings, these include: manual, semiautomatic or - pentru butaşi, aceste pot fi: manuale, semiautomate sau
automatic; automate;
- For sades. - pentru sădele.
a) b) c)
Fig. 4 -Types of plows of energetic willow planting equipment: a) plow anchor
b) cultural plow, c) disc plow type [12], [13], [14]
Equipment for planting cuttings must perform the Echipamentele destinate plantării butaşilor trebuie să
following: execute următoarele operaŃii:
- Ensure open drain, of the pit or nests by the - să asigure deschiderea rigolei, a gropii sau a
plow; cuiburilor de către brăzdar;
- To distribute the material evenly planted at - să distribuie uniform materialul de plantat la
adjusted depth and distance; adâncimea şi distanŃa reglată;
- To provide ground cover of plants and soil - să asigure acoperirea cu sol a plantelor şi tasarea
compaction near the cuttings; solului lângă butaşi;
- Does not cause injurys to the planting material. - să nu producă vătămarea materialului de plantat.
The active body of the energy willow planting equipment Organul activ al echipamentului de plantat salcie
is the plow and its proper choice is very important. Plows, energetică este brăzdarul iar alegerea corespunzătoare a
as their shape, have a body used for loosening the soil acestuia este foarte importantă. Brăzdarele, după forma lor,
which is a feather type. But the plows action on soil prezintă un organ de afânare de tip pană. Însă acŃiunea
formation process gutters, depending on type and their brăzdarelor asupra solului în procesul de formare a rigolelor,
construction, is different. în dependenŃă de tipul şi construcŃia lor, este diferită.
Anchor plows differ from others by its simplicity of Brăzdarele ancoră se diferenŃiază de celelalte prin
construction and low weight. They penetrate better into the simplitatea construcŃiei şi masa mică. Acestea pătrund
ground and have a tensile strength two times lower than bine în sol şi au o rezistenŃă la tracŃiune de două ori mai
that of the disc type. The strength of a plow is mică faŃă de cele cu discuri. RezistenŃa unui brăzdar este
approximately equal to the weight, but the change in aproximativ egală cu greutatea lui, însă la variaŃia
resistance of the ground changes their working depth, rezistenŃei solului îşi modifică adâncimea de lucru, ceea ce
which is a disadvantage of these. constituie un dezavantaj al acestora.
Cultural plows operate normally on well prepared lands, Brăzdarele culturale funcŃionează normal pe terenuri bine
currently being used in most universal planters. Due to the pregătite, fiind în prezent folosite la majoritatea maşinilor
obtuse angle of attack in the ground from cultural plows, de plantat universale. Datorită unghiul obtuz de pătrundere
the soil tends to be removed from the surface of the field. în sol a brăzdarelor culturale solul tinde să fie scos la
If a soil with increased channel density does not close due suprafaŃa câmpului. În cazul unui sol cu densitatea sporită
to soil dispersion and closing those additional elements rigola nu se închide datorită risipirii solului iar pentru
are required [1]. închiderea ei sunt necesare elemente suplimentare [1].
Disc plows perform satisfactorily in soils with high Brăzdarele cu discuri funcŃionează satisfăcător în soluri cu umiditate
humidity, insufficient shredded and plant debris, where ridicată, insuficient mărunŃite şi cu resturi vegetale, condiŃii în care
the other plows does not provide with good results. celelalte brăzdare nu dau rezultate bune. Cu toate acestea brăzdarele
However the disc plows planting is less satisfactory cu discuri efectuează plantarea mai nesatisfăcător decât cele
than the open channel slip method. One of the basic ce deschid rigola prin metoda de patinare. Unul din neajunsurile
shortcomings of the disc plow is significant mass, de bază ale brăzdarelor cu discuri este masa lor semnificativă,
building complexity and high cost of manufacturing [1]. complexitatea construcŃiei şi costul ridicat de fabricare [1].
Discussions about the advantages and disadvantages DiscuŃiile despre avantajele şi dezavantajele brăzdarelor
of the planting plows in the process of planting, focuses for în procesul de plantare, se axează în favoarea celor
the anchor type. The construction of the anchor type plow ancoră. ConstrucŃia brăzdarelor ancoră este mult mai
is much simpler than the other, and their cost is lower. simplă, faŃă de celelalte, iar costul lor este mai mic.
RESULTS REZULTATE
National and international research has led to two Cercetările la nivel naŃional şi internaŃional au condus la
types of technical equipment, one which cuts and plants realizarea a două tipuri de echipamente tehnice, unul care
willow cuttings in a single operation and the second secŃionează şi plantează butaşi de salcie într-o singură
equipment just performs the planting operation of the operaŃie şi al doilea care realizează doar operaŃia de
cuttings. plantare a butaşilor.
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Cuttings planting equipment have different Echipamentele de plantat butaşi au diferite mecanisme
mechanisms for planting: de plantare:
• with rigid disc blades; • cu disc rigid cu lamele;
• with rigid disc clamp; • cu disc rigid cu cleme;
• with clamp chain; • cu lant cu cleme;
• with elastic disc; • cu discuri elastice;
• with track. • cu senila.
The planting machine made by the Italian company Maşina de plantat realizată de firma italiană Fedele se
Fedele shall be submitted in in several versions, the model prezintă în mai multe variante, modelul PLANT (fig.5.) cu
PLANT (Figure 5.) with sections in line on a row or with secŃii în linie pe un rând sau cu secŃii dispuse intercalat pe
sections arranged in two rows interlaced. două rânduri.
Fig. 5 - Maşina de plantat Fedele, model Plant [5]
Planting machine Fedele model PLANT has Maşina de plantat Fedele model Plant are secŃiile de
planting in sections provided with the distribution clamp plantare prevăzute cu distribuitoare tip cleşte prinse pe
mounted on the chain, leading to improved operating lanŃ, ceea ce conduce la îmbunătăŃirea timpului de
time. The gripper of the seedlings is fitted with rubber operare. Cleştele de prindere al materialului săditor este
to avoid injury; also the clamping jaw opening and prevăzut cu cauciuc în scopul evitării vătămării materialului
closing are controlled automatically by a special săditor, iar închiderea şi deschiderea cleştelui de prindere
device. sunt comandate automat de un dispozitiv special.
Other planting clamp mechanism was made by the Alte echipamente cu mecanism de plantare tip cleşte
companies Spoggia (model Itala) and Ferrari (Model au fost realizate de firmele Spoggia (model Itala) şi Ferrari
FPP). (model FPP).
INMA Bucharest has achieved a technical equipment, INMA Bucureşti a realizat echipamentul tehnic, model
the EIS model, type worn during transport and during work is EIS, de tip purtat în transport şi în timpul lucrului şi este
designed to operate aggregate with agricultural tractors and destinat să lucreze în agregat cu tractoare agricole sau
forestry tractors with power ranging between 80 and 150 HP. forestiere pe roŃi cu puteri cuprinse între 80 şi 150 CP.
Fig. 6 - Technical equipment for planting energetic willow EIS [2]
Energy willow sade planting machine are semiautomatic, Maşinile de plantat sade de salcie energetică sunt
the same principle of operation as cuttings planting semiautomate, au acelaşi principiu de funcŃionare ca şi
machine but additionally a cutting mechanism that cuts off maşinile de plantat butaşi dar au în plus un mecanism de
willow sade well-defined dimensions but they may vary. tăiere ce secŃionează sadele de salcie la dimensiuni bine
Cuttings resulting the cutting are taken over with a stabilite dar care pot varia. Butaşii rezultaŃi în urma tăierii
hydraulic system and are placed in open plow grating sunt preluaŃi de un sistem hidraulic, sunt introduşi în rigola
channel and then covered with earth. Sade length can deschisă de brăzdar şi apoi acoperiŃi cu pământ.
620
reach up to 3 meters. Lungimea sadelor poate ajunge pană la 3 metri.

Willow sade planting equipments are manufactured by Echipamente de plantat sade de salcie sunt fabricate
Salix Maskiner (STEP) and the company Egedal (Energy de firma Salix Maskiner (model STEP) şi de firma Egedal
Planter). (Energy Planter).
Fig. 7 - Planting machine Salix Maskiner STEP model [8], [9]
The range of the cuttings planting machine is highly Gama maşinilor de plantat butaşi este foarte
developed, the models vary depending on the mechanism dezvoltată, modelele variind în funcŃie de mecanismul de
of planting, planting on the number of sections, the degree plantare, numărul de secŃii de plantare, gradul de
of automation etc .. automatizare, etc.
Planting machine are using different types of planting Ma ş inile de plantat utilizează diferite tipuri de
mechanisms to achieve different distances between the mecanisme de plantare pentru a realiza distanŃe diferite
plants in the row, of which mention: the rigid disk între plante pe rând, dintre care se amintesc:
distribution mechanism, the mechanism with clamps on the mecanismul de distribu Ńie cu disc rigid, mecanismul de
distribution chain, the track-type distribution mechanism, distribu Ńie cu lanŃ cu cleme, mecanismul de distribu Ńie tip
the distribution mechanism with elastic discs; actuation of ş enilă, mecanismul de distribuŃie cu discuri elastice;
planting apparatus is achieved with the help of the acŃionarea aparatelor de plantat se realizează de la
compaction wheels. ro Ńile de tasare.
Building analysis of the cuttings planting machine show Analiza construcŃiei maşinilor de plantat butaşi arată că
that they have evolved by automating the process of acestea au evoluat prin automatizarea procesului de
planting the cuttings in the soil and at the same time plantare al butaşilor în sol şi în acelaşi timp prin optimizarea
optimizing the traditional mechanical planting systems sistemelor mecanice tradiŃionale de plantat corelate cu
related to modern power systems, the main objective is the sisteme de alimentare moderne, obiectivul principal este
improvement of power systems and actual planting perfecŃionarea sistemelor de alimentare şi a sistemelor de
systems. plantat propriu zise.
At the cuttings planting machine, the rigid disk devices La maşinile de plantat butaşi, aparatele cu disc rigid sunt
are mostly used now, due to their structural simplicity and cele mai utilizate în prezent, atât datorită simplităŃii lor
because it ensures the accuracy of the operation. constructive cât şi datorită preciziei ce o asigură în funcŃionare.
Machines with multiple sections have better efficiency Maşinile cu mai multe secŃii au un randament mai bun
because it lowers consumption. deoarece scade consumul.
[1]. Gadibadi M. (2013) - Rationale constructive and [1]. Gadibadi M. (2013) - Argumentarea parametrilor
technological parameters of seeders plow for grain crops, constructivi şi tehnologici ai brăzdarilor semănătorilor
PhD Thesis, Chisinau; pentru culturile cerealiere, Teză de doctorat, Chişinău;
[2]. Găgeanu P., Marin E. and others (2013) - Promoting in [2]. Găgeanu P., Marin E. şi alŃii (2013) - Promovarea în
Romania the cultivation technology for energetic willow România a tehnologiei de cultivare a salciei energetice
(Salix viminalis) as a clean alternative energy sources, (SALIX VIMINALIS) ca sursa alternativă de energie curate,
INMA Bucharest, contr. Number. 35/2012; INMA Bucureşti, contr. Nr. 35/2012;
[3]. *** - Cultivarea salciei energetice, [3]. *** - Cultivarea salciei energetice,
http://www.kwg.ro/ro/documentatii/; http://www.kwg.ro/ro/documentatii/
[4]. *** - Cultivarea salciei, 26 ianuarie 2013, [4]. *** - Cultivarea salciei, 26 ianuarie 2013,
http://despretot. info/2013/01/cultivarea-salciei/; http://despretot. info/2013/01/cultivarea-salciei/
[5]. *** - Fedele, transplanter Plant, [5]. *** - Fedele, transplanter Plant,
http://www.fedelemario.com/plant.html http://www.fedelemario.com/plant.html
[6]. ***- Forest research, Technical development project [6]. ***- Forest research, Technical development project
report – Schort rotation forestry establishment, Octombrie report – Schort rotation forestry establishment, Octombrie
2009, 2009,
http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/TDSRFReportvAJH.pdf, http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/TDSRFReportvAJH.pdf,
/$FILE/TDSRFReportvAJH.pdf; /$FILE/TDSRFReportvAJH.pdf;
[7]. Stoicescu I. (2012) - Energetic willow - a plant of the [7]. Stoicescu I. (2012) - Salcia energetică – o plantă a
future, Greenly, 27 mai 2012, http://greenly.ro/energii- viitorului, Greenly, 27 mai 2012, http://greenly.ro/energii-
alternative/salcia-energetica-o-planta-a-viitorului; alternative/salcia-energetica-o-planta-a-viitorului;
621
[8]. *** - Salix Maskiner, maşina de plantat Step Planter, [8]. *** - Salix Maskiner, maşina de plantat Step Planter,
http://www.salix.se/index.php?section=83; http://www.salix.se/index.php?section=83;
[9]. *** - Salix Maskiner, maşina de plantat Step Planter [9]. *** - Salix Maskiner, maşina de plantat Step Planter
http://biofuel.iggesund.co.uk/preperations-are-essential-2/; http://biofuel.iggesund.co.uk/preperations-are-essential-2/;
[10]. *** - http://www.kwg.ro/ro/wp-content/gallery/page- [10]. *** - http://www.kwg.ro/ro/wp-content/gallery/page-
bottom -gallery/fuz-171_logo.jpg; bottom -gallery/fuz-171_logo.jpg;
[11]. *** - http://img30.olx.ro/images_mercadorro/69580_1_ [11]. *** - http://img30.olx.ro/images_mercadorro/69580_1_
1000x700_salcie-si-plopi-energetici-jimbolia.jpg 1000x700_salcie-si-plopi-energetici-jimbolia.jpg
[12]. *** - [12]. *** -
http://www.agrotechnics.ro/produse/utilaje/semanatori http://www.agrotechnics.ro/produse/utilaje/semanatori
/semanatoare_gaspardo_pinta_plus_versiunea_purtata.htm /semanatoare_gaspardo_pinta_plus_versiunea_purtata.htm
[13]. *** - http://www.mecanicaceahlau.ro/product-detail/ [13]. *** - http://www.mecanicaceahlau.ro/product-detail/
semanatoare-universala-sup-29bp/ semanatoare-universala-sup-29bp/
[14]. http://www.mecanicaceahlau.ro/product-detail/masina [14]. http://www.mecanicaceahlau.ro/product-detail/masina
-de-plantat-miscanthus-etpm4/ -de-plantat-miscanthus-etpm4/
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INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS
Article Types
Three types of manuscripts may be submitted:
1. Regular articles: These should describe new and carefully confirmed findings, and experimental
procedures should be given in sufficient detail for others to verify the work. The length of a full paper
should be the minimum required to describe and interpret the work clearly (max. 8 pages, even number);
2. Short Communications: A Short Communication is suitable for recording the results of complete small
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apparatus. The style of main sections has not necessarily to be in accordance with that of full-length
papers (max. 6 pages, even number);
3. Reviews: Submissions of reviews and perspectives covering topics of current interest are welcome and
encouraged (max. 8 pages, even number).
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NOTE:
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623
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REFERENCES: are made in the text; a reference identified by [1], [2], ... [n] is written in the order that was
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624
References should be listed at the end of the paper in alphabetical order. Certain current papers, preferably
published after 2000, (excepting some specialty books/studies), especially papers issued in
magazines/journals/conferences/ISI quoted symposia or in other international data bases, which are well
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unless the paper proposed to be published is a sequel of the cited paper. Articles in preparation or articles
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the reference list but should only be mentioned in the article text (e.g., A. Danciu, University of Bucharest,
Romania, personal communication). Authors are fully responsible for the accuracy of the references.
Examples:
Journal / Magazine:
[1]. Nicolescu MA (2007) - Relevant characteristics of alternative liquid fuels aimed at diesel engines exploitation in
polycarburation duty. INMATEH - Agricultural Engineering, vol. 27, no. 1/2009, ISSN 1583-1019, pg. 50-55.
[2]. Pirna I, Nicolescu M., Marin M., Voicea I (2009) - Alternative supply of agricultural tractors with raw oils. INMATEH -
Agricultural Engineering, vol. 29, no. 3/2009, ISSN 1583-1019, pg. 89-92.
Conference or Symposium:
[1]. Bungescu S, Stahli W, Biriş S, VlăduŃ V, Imbrea F, Petroman C (2009) - Cosmos programm used for the strength
calculus of the nozzles from the sprayers, Proceedings of the 35 International Symposium on Agricultural Engineering
"Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering", Opatija - CroaŃia, ISSN 1333-2651, pg. 177÷184.
Book:
[1]. VlăduŃ V (2009) - Studiul procesului de treier în aparatul cu flux axial, Editura "Terra Nostra", ISBN 973-1888-26-8,
Iasi - Romania.
Book Chapter:
[1]. VlăduŃ V (2009) - ConsideraŃii şi ipoteze privind modelarea unui proces de treier şi separare. In: Studiul procesului de
treier în aparatul cu flux axial, Editura "Terra Nostra", ISBN 973-1888-26-8, pg. 61-69, Iasi - Romania.
Dissertation / Thesis:
[1]. Constantinescu A (2010) - Optimizarea agregatelor formate din tractoare de putere mare cu maşini agricole pentru
pregătirea terenului în vederea însămânŃării. PhD dissertation, University of Transylvania Braşov, Braşov, Romania.
Units, Abbreviations, Acronyms

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3. REVIEWS
Summaries, reviews and perspectives covering topics of current interest in the field, are encouraged and
accepted for publication. Reviews should be concise (max. 8 pages). All the other conditions are similar with
regular articles.
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Volum Isb-Inmateh 2014

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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM

AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL

AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL

No. SECTION 1 - POWER AND MACHINERY Pg.

INTERACTION PROCESS BETWEEN STRIP-TILLAGE EQUIPMENT, PLANT RESIDUES AND SOIL /

INMA Bucharest / Romania

SECTION 2 - ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

MODELING FOR USE OF WATER IN AGRICULTURE /

PARAMETRI DE BAZĂ CARE INFLUENłEAZĂ PROCESUL DE FERMENTARE A BIOMASEI ÎN VEDEREA

SECTION 3 - FOOD INDUSTRY

DEVELOPMENT OF A IMAGE ANALYSIS TOOLBOX FOR THE SCILAB SOFTWARE /

FROM THE NORTH AREA OF OLTENIA /

SECTION 4 – YOUNG PEOPLE

METODE STATISTICE MODERNE ÎN MANAGEMENTUL CALITĂłII PRODUSELOR

POWER AND MACHINERY

INTERACTION PROCESS BETWEEN STRIP-TILLAGE EQUIPMENT, PLANT RESIDUES AND SOIL

PhD. Stud. Vaitauskien÷ K., Prof. Šarauskis E.

MATERIAL AND METHOD TYRIMŲ METODIKA

independently of each other (Fig. 1). (1 pav.).

Fig. 1 – Experimental strip-tillage equipment

Fig. 2 – Scheme of plant residue cleaning in soil strip

RESULTS REZULTATŲ APTARIMAS

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF FLOW CONCENTRATION FOR PNEUMATIC

MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS AND METHODS

, [Pa] , [Pa] (4)

Experimental setup Montage expérimental

Test procedure and data collection Procédure de test et de collecte de données

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION RÉSULTATS ET DISCUSSION

Mixture conveying Transport du mélange

manner of a "broom". l’engrais à la manière d'un "balai".

Flow concentration and pipe diameter Concentration de transport et diamètre de conduite

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE EFFECT OF TILLAGE OPERATIONS ON SOME PHYSICAL

crops and retention of the vegetable waste on soil (minimum 30 %) [4].

MOIRÉ SUPPORTED STRESS DISTRIBUTION STUDY ON GEARS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS. RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO

DYNAMICS OF OVERSOWING MACHINE MSPD 2,5

Fig. 1 – Constructive scheme of grassland oversowing machine [1, 2]:

MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

a-vertical-transversal view; b-horizontal-transversal view

THE INFLUENCE OF METALLOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE OVER THE ATTRITION OF ACTIVE

MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

Fig. 3 – Equipment for attrition testing

THE EGYPTIAN EXPERIENCE WITH THE PRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT

Abstract: The ambitious plans of the Egyptian Government % ‫ ا‬1‫ـ‬34

MATERIAL AND METHOD MATERIAL ŞI METODĂ

ADI’s microstructure contains carbon-stabilized Microstructura ADI conŃine austenita-stabilizata cu

Fig. 4 - The Truax Rangeland Planter Boot installed on the planter

Carbidic Austempered Iron (CADI) Fonta ductilă carbidica austenitică (CADI)

Experimental work Date experimentale

Fig. 7 - Plough blades

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS REZULTATE ŞI DISCUłII

Fig. 8 - Microstructures of original blades

Wear Resistance RezistenŃa la uzură

KINEMATIC STUDY OF THRESHING PROCESS CONDUCTED BY TANGENTIAL THRESHING

Fig.1 - The main components of tangential threshing system

Fig. 3 – Cylinder bar configuration of cereal harvesting combines C110, C140

MATERIALS AND METHOD MATERIALE SI METODA

Fcf = m b ω c2R c (1)

d1 - tranche of material thickness laminated in d1 - grosimea transei de material laminat in zona

Ff2 = f (Fcf + Gb cosζ 2 - Fl2 ) - Gb sinζ 2 (14)

where: unde Ff2 este forta de frecare care actioneaza asupra

Fft = 3 (Ffp - Ffi ) ; i = 1...n (15)

Fft = 3f (Flp - Fcf ) - n (Fcf - Fls )  (16)

- cylinder bars length: Ls =1.08 m; - - lungimea sinelor batatorului: Ls =1.08 m;

Abstract: The ambitious plans of the Egyptian Government %‫ ا‬1‫ـ‬34