508

....... --~ .. .................

~
.
-- •
CALIFORNIA BEARING RAT!O
~
,~
~

• - ".-, - •

2..~ •
"""-', J;.ru....1 ~'-

American Society fo:' Testing and ~·taterials (1913), Test Designation 01883, 'Standard Method of Test (or
Bearing Ratio..,f Laboratory Compacted Soil~·. ASTM. Philadelphia.
BS 892: 1%7. 'Glo!.Sa.ry of highway engine:ring terms', British Standards Imtitution, London.
Chapter 12
Black, W. P. M. (1961). 'Calculation of laboratory and in-situ values of California bearing ratio from bearing
capacity d3te~. Geotr!'Chl1ique. Vol. 11. No.1, pp !4-21.
Black, W. P. M. (1962). 'A method of estimating the California bearing ratio of cohesi '~e soils from plasticity
data', Geofecnniquf'. Vol. 12, No.4 .
Croney, D, (1977). The Design and Performance of Rood Puvements. HMSO, London.
Direct shear tests
Daniel. M. N. (1%1). 'An invesligntior. of lhe effects of ~oaking and compacting ploccdmc on the results of
California bearing ratio tests on two tropical soils and stabilised ~oHs'. Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, Re~earch Note No. RN/ 4088/MKD, r-;o~'ember 1961.
Daniel. M. N. (I 980}. Private communication to author. 12.1 INTRODUCTION
Davis. E. H. 0949). 'The C!l.lifornia Bearing Ralio method for the design of flexible reads and runways'.
Georechniqul!. Vol. 1. NO.4 ., pp 249-263.
Porter, O. J. ·(1938). 'The pccparation of subgrades'. Pro<:. Highw. Rl!s. Bd., Wuhington IS (2), 12.1.1 Scope
pp 324-331.
Porter, O. J. (1949). 'Development ofeER flexible pavement design for airfields. Development of the original
method for highway c!esign'. Proc. ASCEr 75, DP 11-17. This chapter deals "".-ith the measurement of the shear strength of soils in the laboratory by
Stanto!! , T. E. (1944). 'Suggested method of test for the California bearing ratio procedures for testing soils'. two direct methods, both of which involve lhe sliding of one portion of soil on another. The
ASTM , Philadelphia. first is the shearbox test, in which the relative movement of two halves of a square block of
Tramport & Road Research LaboratCIry (1952). Soil Mechanics jor Road Engineers. Ch""pters 19 and 20.
HMSO, London. soil takes place along a horizontal su rface. The second is the vane test, in which a relative
Transport & Road Research Laboratory (1958). Labor·atory Report LR 192. Design Recommendations jor rotational movement takes place between a cylindrical volume of soil and the surrounding
Ullr~jnJorced Concrete Pav~ments. TRRL, Cro ....'!horne. Berks. material. (The measuremem of shear strength by means of compression tests is covered in
Transport & Road Re:o.earch Labo~alory (19"10). Road Note 29, A Guide to lh~ StruCTural Design oj Pavements Chapter 13).
jor New Road::. HMSO, London.
Transport & Road Research Laboralory (l977). Road Note 31. A Guide to the Slnlcturo( Design 0/ Bitumen- Some theoretical background knowledge is necessary for a proper understanding of the
Surjaced Roads in Tropical ana Sub-tropical Countries. HMSO, Lor.don. test principles. Basic concepts such as force, stress, strain, are explained at the outset in
:.;·-Jer : ...... :.:.::!-:, ~~: ~:~pe: :.:.::;: ~ ~ .. :' . ;,..;:..: ~..;;;-;•.:;. i!"".~ ~!"".: (;; ;-:.. :: ~:;!.::..! :~.::.: :;t;-e:".~:~. ::-. ::;~:.
as exemplified by the shear box test, is presented, leading to the Coulomb equation relating
shear strength to normal stress. Shear strength properties of dense and loose sands l and of
saturated clays, are described.
The principle of effective stress , whi.ch will be covered in Volume 3, is referred to only in
order to introduce drained shearbox tests, including the measurement of residual dra ined
shea.r strength which is relevant to overconsolid ated clays. The basic similarity (",j e ff~\.:t:ve
strength properties in all soils, cohesive and granular, is demonstrated.

Il.l.l Purpose

Every building ('r s'.ructure which is fot:nded in or on the earth imposes loads on ::he soil
which supports the foundations . The stresses set up in the soil cause deformations of the
soil, which can occur in three ways.
(1) By the elastic deformation of the soil particles.
(2) 'B y the change in volmTle of the soil resulting from the expt:.lsion of tluid (water and l or
gas) from the voids bc~ween the solid particles.
(3) By thc slippage of soil particles, onc on another, which may lead to the slidii.1g of one
body of soil relative to the surrounding mas~.
The first of these is negligible for most soils at the usual levels of stress which occur in
pnctice. The second is known as consolidation, and is dealt with in Chapter 14. The third is
the process known (lS shear failure and occurs when shcar stresses set up in the soil mass
exceed the lll? ximum shear resist.ance which the soil can offer, i.e. its shear strength.
The third co ndiTion must be guarded against in <y r!er to prevent disastrous failure. The
usual safeguard is to carry out a stability analysis, for which the shear strength of th: soil
for the relevant conditions must be known. The analysis should ensure lhat the shear
stresses in the soil are everywhere less than its shear strength by a suitable margin, which
has to be both adequately safe and economically feasible .
...
 , -.
12.1.3 ' ~hf& . ~ tr e n i,.fh of Soil
liRE EAR ,\ !)LI(. '-,
- -
__ . .
d 'sp:;.:@menl
,
The term sh\.~a r stH'.ngth , ~ .. <I~Jpli ed to :.oi.1s. ~s no t a fundamemal :Jrcperty of a soil in the
iN ~N
r ' ........ r Anc: on
same way as, for instance, the compressive strengt h is a property of concrete. On the - £ .~ ~
=tl-" ~=:1fr
"- - "_.

:~ ~-~----.
F

,
'- - "-
contrary, shear strength is related to the conditions prevailing in situ and can vary with
Jry/-~ ~-
- ~ ---:>.---:>.---'>.
time. The value measured in the laboratory is likewise dependent upon the conditions
imposed during the test and in some instances upon the duration of the test.
The aspects of shear strength dealt with in this chapter can be divided into four
categories. soil spec imen / ~urface-
slid ing
of
QP:S
. F

force
--::

(1) The shear resistance of free-draining non-cohesive soils (Le. sands and gravels), which
is virtually independent of time.
(2) The drained shear strength of cohesive soils, which depends upon the rate of
displacement being slow enough to permit full drainage to take place during shear.
(3) The long-term or residual drained shear strength of soils such as overconsolidated
clays, for which a slow rate of displacement and a large displacement movement are
required.
(4) The shear strength of very soft cohesive soils under undrained conditions, i.e. in which
shearing is applied relatively quickly.
This chapter describes the use of the shearbox apparatus for the measurement of items
(I). (2) and (3). and the use of the laboratory vane apparatus for item (4). The triaxial
apparatus, described in Chapter 13 , is more satisfactory for other types of total stress shear
strength measurements, and for most types of effective stress test. The latter, which involve
" the measurement of pore water pressures, will be covered in Volume 3.
12,1.4 Principle of Shearbox Test
( The shear box test is the simplest, the oldest and the most straightforward procedure for
measuring the 'immediate' or short-term shear strength of soils in terms of total stresses. 1tl
is also the easiest to understand, but it has a number of shortcomings which are discussed in
Section 12.4,5,
In principle the shearbox test is an 'angle of friction' test, in which one portion of soil is
made to slide along another by the action of a steadily increasing horizontal shearing force,
while a constant load is applied normal to the plane of relative movement. These conditions
are achieved by placing the soil in a rigid metal box, square in plan, consisting of two
halves, The lower half of the box can slide relative to the upper half when pushed (or
pulled) by a motorised drive unit, while a yoke supporting a load hanger provides the
normal pressure. The principle is shown in Fig. 12.1.
During the shearing process the relative displacement of the two portions of the specimen
and the applied shearing force are both measured so that a load / displacement curve can be
drawn. The vertical movement of the top surface of the specimen, which indicates changes
of volume, is also measured and enables changes in density and voids ratio during shear to
be evaluated. The shearbox test described in Section 12.5 is the standard 'quick' test carried
out in a 60 mm square shearbox, which has been for many years the commonest size used in
Britain and the USA. The same 'principles apply to a 100 mm square shearbox which has
been introduced more recently. A large shearbox, for a specimen about 300 mm (12 in)
square, is described in Section 12.6.
In order to carry out a slow 'drained' shear test, provision is made for the specimen to be
consolidated before shearing and for further drainage to take place during shear at a
suitably slow rate of displacement, so that the consolidated-drained shear strength
parameters can be determined. The use of reversing attachments enables a specimen to be
re-sheared a nurnb~~r of times in orde r to det ermine the drained residual shear stren gth.
Tht'st' aspc:ts are co\·ered h Section 12 .7.
Ilength; breod.1h-
. ; l
., "sur~acl? 01
she-o r
Ca) Cb)
Fig. 12.1 Principle of slleorbox test; (a) Slart of rest, (b) during relali\'e
displacement
12.1.5 Ring Shear Apparatus
The ring shear apparatus was developed to overcome certain disadvantages of the
conventional shearbox in the measurement of residual shear strength. The apparatus
accommodates a ring-shaped specimen, as shown in Fig. 12.2. An unlimited rotational
shear displacement can be applied to the specimen continuously without having to stop and
reverse the shearing movement, while the area of contact on the shear plane remains
constant.
An early ring shear apparatus for testing soils was designed by A. Casagrande and
reported by Hvorslev (1939). More recent developments have been described by Bisho p et al
(1971) and by Bromhead (1979) whose simplified apparatus uses a thin sample of
remoulded soi l.
The ring Iiohei31 princi ple is not yet established (t!i ~ttlndafd ~omm ercjal practice, and this
type of test is not covered in this volume.
12.1.6 Principle of Vane Test
In the vane test a four -blade cruciform vane is pushed into the soil and then rotated. The
torque required to cause rotation of the cylinder of soil enclosing the vane is measured,
which enables the undrained shear strength of the clay to be calculated, The principle is
shown in Fig, 12,3, A repeat test immediately after remoulding the soil by rapid rotation of
the vane provides a measure of the remoulded strength, and hence the sensitivity. Details
are given in Section 12.8. Reference is also made to the BS field vane from which the
laboratory apparatus was derived.
The use of a small pocket shear vane tester is briefly described in Section 12.8.5 .
12.1.7 Historical Outline
SHEAR BOX APPARATUS
The earliest known attempt to measure the shear strength of a soil was made by the French
engineer Alexandre Collin in 1846. He used a split box. 350 mm long, in which a sample of
clay 40 x 40 mm section was subjected to double shear under a load applied by hanging
weights (Fig. 12.4). The earliest measurements in Britain were made by Bell (1915), who
constructed a device which was to be the prototype for subsequent developments o f the
shearbox. Bell was the first to carr y out and publish results of a really practical series of
shear tests on variou s types of soil. (Skempton 1958).
In 193-l a sim ple shear box with a single plane of shea r was des ign ed at the Building
Research Slation (Cooling and Smith , 1935). In this apjJaratus the load was appli ed in
512 DIRECT SHEAR TESTS 12.1 INTRODUCTION 513

.~I i--------350mm -1 !:~IJ.'lh: C'~.:tni .... ;no

.......
_-._:-, :::.''"":.( ':'1
i, ,
-?"r -- ~ ' -

!~=! Hmm
1----- -- --

I- --- ~ - - -- ----- - t- som

pl. I
'- U
I~' r--- 40mm
sharp
edges
'-

weight s added to hangerc _

annular pl ane of suspended from c~otral
relotive rotary section (a)

\ . .". IMI \
motion

Fig. 12.2 Principle of ring shear lest (after Bishop et al. 1971)

double sf1ear
(b)

~
~ ~~~~,~~,g
Fig. 12.4 Shearbox apparatus devised by CoJJin (1846): (a) general arrangement.
(b) forces on sheared portion of sample
--r-I 1I I

I' H
i I _...:=:.::'
I 'I'

surfcce
normal load
split

--r-area
H

----
=T1 DH

~xh~t ,:;;':'tl_-_.--1! Ae . - .. ~ .

Iv L _ --
. -~--

~D---..,
~~
-----
-----
: ' - - D- -""; \l
(a) (b)

Fig. J 2.3 Principle of vane shear test: (a) vane blades, (b) cylinder of soil rotated
by vane

increments (the 'stress control' principle) by progressively adding weights to a pan (Fig.
12.5). This required considerable care and judgement on the part of the operator in order to
ascertain tbe load at which failure occurred.
A shear box in its modern form was designed by A. Casagrande at Harvard (USA) in
1932, but details were not published. In 1936 Gilboy, at MIT, developed a constant rate of
displacement machine (the 'strain control' principle), using a fixed speed dri\le motor.
wh ich overcame the disadvantages of the BRS design . A further development using this
principle was described by Golder (I 942). Improvements to details of design were
introduced by Bishop at Imperial College in 1946,
Most (..-,;Tlmercial shearbox machines are sti ll based on the displacement control principle
(see Fig. 12.6) and today provide a ''''ide range of displacement speeds, from a few
millimetres per minute to about 10,000 times slower. Electronic control using thyristors
provides stepless!y variable speed control throughout a similar range .
Fig. 12.5 Principle of early type of controlled-Slress shearbox
The stress-control method has certain advantages in some long-term tests in which
increments of stress must be appJied very slowly , and in tests for the study of the effect of
' creep' under constant shear stress. However . fo r routine testing applications the
displacement~control method is the one now normally used.
The first shearbox tests to measure the shear strength parameters in !erms of effective
stress on a natural slip surface in a clay landslide were probably those carried out in 1963 in
connection with the Walton's Wood landslide (Early and SkemplOn, ]972) . They included
the earliest known multi-reversal shearbox tests for the measurement of the r.:~i(.iual
st rength of clays . From 1963 to 1966 the author was carrying out similar tests on Ic.ctonk
shear zones in heavily overconsolidated Siwalik clays of the Mangia Darn Project in West
Pakistan (Binnie et ai, 1967),
 D1Rh_1 ~nEA!, IC ~J'S
:2.: ~ _ ,:.JIT ;
514
norma l loed con ditions, i.e. immedia!rly after the applicati(;J1 of Stress and he f0n~ drainage of water can
take place.
:!O~ ~
Ap'rA~NT COHESION (eu ) Tr.: :: ~~:!r st:c!l£!h ~! a soil when subjc~~ed. t~ ':':;0
~ .
normal st ress or confining pressure.

I load
"1 $! '0;0';01= ]1 U-;~~~~;~~ 'com
ANGLE OF SHEAR RESISTANCE ('i» The component of shear strength of a soil
which is due to friction between the particles.
DILA TANey Expansion of a soil when subjected to shear stress.
i "I~j; I
FREE DRAINING SOIL A soil in which water can move easily throug h the void spaces
( + so that no excess pore pressure or suction develops as a result of the application of stress or
I, machine bed
deformation.
1 CRITICAL VOIDS RATIO The voids ratio at which a granular soil neither contracts
stra ight Iln e
nor dilates when subjected to shear.
I
1
ball-bearing
pl ate

Fig. 12.6 Arrangement oj conventional 60 mm shearbox appararus wilh

displacemenI control
VANE APPARATUS
The laboratory vane apparatus was originally designed by the Road Research Laboratory in
Britain about 1954. It was based on the use of the existing field vane apparatus, such as that
!.
described by Skempton (1948). One of the early uses of the laboratory vane was in the
investigation of the relationship between undrained shear strength and moisture content in
cohesive soils.
The main application of the laboratory vane now is for the measurement of the shear
strength of clays and peats which are too soft for the preparation of satisfactory test
Spc:dui\:rts. Th;: ~pp:1~atus is available either hand 0pera tt"d or mowr driven.
12.2 DEfiNITIONS
FORCE That influence which causes a change of state of motion of a body
(Force) = (mass) X (acceleration)
II.1 ! NORMAL FORCE or DIRECT FORCE A force which acts normal (perpendicular) to
a plane of section .
SHEAR FORCE A force which acts tangential to a plane of section.
STRESS Intensity of force, i.e. force per unit area.
PEAK STRENGTH (See shear strength).
RESIDUAL STRENGTH The shea r resistance which a soil can maintain when
subjected to large shear displacement after the peak strength has been mobilised.
FAILURE The point at which continued shear deformation under a constant or
decreasing shear stress begins.
COULOMB'S LAW The relationship between the shear stress Tf and the normal stress
on on a plane of failure, expressed by the empirical equation
Tr = Cu + an tan I.p
COUPLE A combination of two numerically equal but directionally opposite parallel
forces which can be balanced only by an equal and opposite couple.
TORSION The twisting moment due to the action of equal and opposite couples.
TORQUE The moment of a couple producing torsion, expressed as (force) x (distance
:1p:1rt of the two components) .
VANE SHEAR STRENGTH The shear strength of a soil as determined by applying a
torque in the vane shear test.
12.3 THEORY
12.3.1 Force
The usual definition of 'force' describes it as an influence which changes the state of
motion of a body, i.e. which results in an acceleration. Unit force produces unit
acceleration in a unit mass, hence 1 newton (N) is equal to one kilogram metre per second

I STRAIN (linear) Change in length per unit length due to a stress, measured in the
direction of the stress.
SHEAR STRESS Shelf force per unit area.
SHEAR STRAIN Angular distortion, measured in radians, due to the action of shear
stresses.
DISPLACEMENT Horizontal movement of one. portion of a specimen relative to the
other along the surface of sliding and in the direction of the applied force, in a direct shear
per second, or
IN = lkgm/s'
However, in problems of statics, and especially in so ils, it is more relevant to think of force
as an influence which causes or tends to cause deformation when applied to a body. The
deformation may be quite obvious, as when an elastic band is stretched by pulling, or
undetectable except by using se nsitive instruments, suc h as the compression of the legs of a

I test. chair when one sits on it.

I:
SHEAR RESISTANCE (of a soil) The resistance offered (by a soil) to deformalion Force is a vector quantity, Ihat is, it acts in a certain direction as weB as having a certain
when it is subjected to a shear st ress. ( magnitude. A force can be represented on paper by a straight line, the orientation of which
SHEA R STRENGTH The maxim um shear resista nce whi dh a soi l can offer under represents its line of action (with an arrow to indicate the direction) and the length of which
defined ~ond:,ions of crfecti\'c pressure and drainage. (Often used synonym ously with peak represents its magnitude, drawn to a certain scale. This graphical representatio n enables a
strength). force to be resolved into two components by using Ihe principle of the parallelogram uf
forces, (described in text· books on mechanics or physics, e.g. Ab bott (1969), Chapter 3).
l'~DRA I~E D SHEAR STRE ~GTH The &hear ::.trenglh of a soil undl'r undrained
rr
-- .
5 , f\ DIRECT SHEA R TESTS 12.3 THEORY
-
517

il
~ ..
,~
A for(.'~ C<in be resolved into two components at right angles to each other, as illust rated
in Fig. 12.7. The ~~:c: F is resolve.:! ::-.:.;:: two fo rces P and S ading n0ifJiai iO and ai0u,15 i.in:
,-----
surface represented by AB. The resolved components P and S are given by the equations
P_Fsin6
(12.1 ) pt F S=Fcos8
P = FsinS
S = FcosS (12.2)

The component P is the 'normal' component of the force F (Le. it acts normal to the •s
surface) and the component S is the tangential or 'shear' component. A B

ill'
\
I I:
' 12.3.2 Stress
Fig. 12.7 Resolution of a jorce. into two perpendicular components

I: When an external force is applied to a body it sets up an internal force which provides an
equal and opposite reaction. The intensity of this force . assumed to be distributed
uniformly over the area of cross·section at right angles to the direction of the force, is
I I, known as the 'stress '. Stress is the internal for.ce per unit area. The units are the same as
In the above examples, it is evident that the brick pillar (if the bricks are not cemented
together) cannot sustain a tensile stress; and the wire cannot sustain a compressive stress .
But a steel bar for instance can, within limits, sustain either compressive or tensile stresses.
Soils possess little or no resistance to tension and are usually analysed in terms of

rI~ used for pressu re, but 'pressure' is the term usually applied to Ouids.
The stress unit most ofte n used for soils is the kilonewton per square metre (kN/m2), also
known as kilopascal (kPa). In laboratory work forces are often measured in newtons (N)
and areas in square miJiimetres (mm2), and the following conversions are worth
remembering
compression and shear stresses . It is convenient therefore to adopt the convention that
compressive stresses are positive and. tensile stresses negative. This is the opposite
convention to that used in structural analysis, but it is of no significance provided that the
chosen convention is used consistently. The sign convention applied to soils is summarised
in Table 12.1.
I N/ mm' = I MN/m' = 1000 kN/ m'
It
,I = I MPa = 1000 kPa Table ]2,1.

Physical quantity
SIGN CONVENTION USED FOR SOILS

Positive sense Negalive sense

1 There are twO types of stress

(I) Normal or direct stress:
(+) (-)

~ :, (a) compressive Force Compression Tension

(b) tensile Stress Compression Tensile
(2) Shear SIress
~, Displacement Compression
0'
Extension
Of
NORMAL (DIRECT) STRESS

I, Compressive stresses and tensile stresses act in a direction normal to the plane of cross·
section being considered, They are referred to as normal stresses or direct stresses and may Strain
contraction

Compressive
(shortening)
expansion

Tensile
(lengthening,
be positive or negative according to the sign convention used. stretching)
A comp ressive stress is set up in a body when it is subjected to compressive forces and
It resists the tendency oflhe forces to shorten its length. For instance, the column of bricks in Volume change ""',""" Increase

i Fig. 12.8 (a) is compcessed by the downward force P applied at the top.
If the area of cross~section of the column is denoted by A I' the stress resisung
(consolidation) (swelling)

~'
Pressure change Increase Decrease
compression on any horizontal section XX (ignoring the weight of the bricks) is equal to
PI AI' The symbol 0 is used for direct stress . so Voids ratio change Decrease Increase
j a = PIA, (12.3)

I1 A tensile stress is set up when a body is subjected to tensile forces and resists the tendency of
the forces to pull it apart and increase its length, i.e. to stretch it. For instance, the wire in
Fig. 12.8 (b) is being pulled downwards by the weight force Wof the mass it is supporting.
If the area of cross· section of the wire is denoted by A21 the stress resist ing extension or
pulling apart on a horizontal section, such as YY, is equal to WI A 2•
The 'tress is acting: in the oppo~ite sense to that in Fig. 12,8 (a), i.e, it is 'pulling' instead
of 'pml\ing'. It mu st t:-:ere fore be given the opposite s:gn and is writlcn
0= - 11'; .-1:
SHEAR STRESS
Sheaf stresses act parallel to the plane being considered, and afe set up when applied forces
tend to cause successive layers to slide over each other. A shear stress in a body resists an
angular change of shape, just as a normal stress resists a tendency either to compress or 10
elongate. The effect of shear can be seen for instance if a block of rubber placed on the
table is pushed sideways (Fig. 12.9 (a» . The rubber deforms and in doing so mobilises
resistance to further shea r deformation. On the other hand a pack of playing cards (Fig.
12.9 (b) offers little re~i!-Ianct" to shear and i1Ju str3tes the rela live s!;Jing effect throughout
irs thid.ness \vhich is characteri stic of shearing action.
5." hE C ARl il- 'j 19

'?"f'/:""
, ore :l '" ;l.)
c.c ',;> ~ ~ ~"''' I;' t;:; ~ .: 1!'

_A, I
/

'~
F

r---~---f.
1
z
~A'I:\ ~~~,-
Y-fH- Y
x z

I~
F Z-
F •· -- T F z
/
tens il e stre~

xM" " tension - W

" "".!
" sheor stress = T' ""!....
(0)
0,

Fig, 12.10 Shear stress; (a) shear stress in a block, (b) representation afshear
(oj

compressive ~tress SIress on a surface

a=!
0,

1
(0) (0)
Fig. 12.8 Direcr stresses: (a) compressive stress in a column, (b) tensile SIress in a
wire
Qr~~ Qf'"~Q:::Q

A=-
•

Fig. /2.9
':-; i -{

I
I
I
I

(0)
1/

I
I
I
I

<oJ
JIluslrQrions of shear: (a) shear force dislOrting rubber block, (b)
p

strain ('" ~ ,
Dd,
~"
L ,_~

shearing action on pack of playing cards

.
strom' =- "
L
If the block in Fig. 12.10 (a) has a horizontal area of cross-section equal to A3 and is (0) (oj
pushed by a horizontal force F. the shear stress resisting sliding on a horizontal surface ZZ
Fig. 12.11 Longitudinal strain: (a) compression of clay cylinder, (b) extension of
is equal to FI A 3 • The symt'tol T is used for shear stress. so wire
T = PIA, (12.4)
PI A (positive). and this causes the specimen to decrease in length by oL. The strain is
The equal and opposite shear stresses acting on either face of a horizontal section arc therefore equal to 6LI L, and is positive. Linear strain is denoted by the symbol E, and is a
usually represented by single-barb arrows as shown in Fig. 12.10 (b». dimensionless number , Therefore.

12.3.3 Slrain , 6L 6L
- or - X lOOQlo (12.5)
L L
The deformati on produced in a body due to the application of a force is called ·strain'.
Strain is related to stress and in a perfectly elastic material strain is directly proportional to Similarly the strain in the wire subjected to tension in Fig. 12,11 (b) is negative, and is
stress. Direct stresses produce linear strains and shear stresses produce shear strains. written
In a body subj ected to a longitudinal force which induces a direct stress in the
longitudinal direction, the length measured in that direction will change. The ratio of the 6/ 6/
change in length to the originallength is defined as the strain and is often multiplied by 100 t - -or
I
I x 100%
to express it as a percentage.
[n Fig. 12.11 (a) the cylindrical soil specimen of original length L and diameter D is
Shear strain is the angular deformation resulting from the application of shear forces . In
subjected ! () the app!icatic!1 of a compressh'e forcr P. The area of cross-seclion of the
Fig. 12.121he reCiangular rubbe, block ABeD has been dislorled into Ihe shape AB'C' D by
. .:c;. ~q'.!a l 10 nD'
.spr;"c;:m;p - E.:i d'IS (I C:1C'!e d b V A . Th e co mpresSl\'e
. s~ rc ss .IS therefore eq ual 10 the shear fo rces F. ~ o that the face AS has been rotated through an angle 6. The shear
.j .
::..!ti DIRL"- 1 :::- HEAK 11:.)T5 1 Z.3 I tu:.vRY 52 f -
,
F 5 8' c
h
c'
I ! ! ! I I I -[717 /II~ 7~~

I Eo
probable sneared
; 2.one

f-f0
I
(0)

Fig. 12.13
(b)

Strains due to shear: (a) marked specimen before shearing, (b)

(0)

I , I specimen in simple shear, (c) strains in shearbox (est

F
A D

shear st r a in'i=6(rodions)= ~

Fig. 12.12 Shear strain

strain or angular strain (usually denoted by y) is equal to the angle measured in radians and
It __J~ ~N
~ :=--jF
TN
I
= ~.
I
is a dimensionless number. For small displacements, y If the strains are uniform I I
h I I
throughout the block, vertical lines marked on it initially, as in Fig. 12.13 (a), remain
(e) (b)
parallel and straight, but become inclined as in Fig. 12.13 (b). This type of deformation is
produced by 'simple shear'. However, this condition is very difficult to reproduce in a
F Fmax
laboratory test on soils, although it has been done, for instance, at Cambridge University
ang l e 01
(Roscoe, 1953). fr iction
In the standard direct shear test in the shearbox, one portion of soil is constrained to slide
on another, as in Fig. 12.10 (b), and the resulting strains are more like those shown in Fig.
N
• ~¢

12.13 (c). The soil subjected to shear is probably contained within the zone indicated by the
dotted lines and the soil near the front and back edges of the box tends to reach failure
before that near the middle. Thus the actual strain pattern due to shear is complex.
However, in routine shear box tests the measurement of strain is simplified by merely taking
account of the linear displacement of one half of the box relative to the other.
12.3.4 Friction
Consider a block of weight W (force units) resting on a level table-top which is not perfectly
smooth (Fig. 12.14 (a)). The force of reaction N from the table on the block acts vertically
upwards and is equal to W. If the block is pushed by a small horizontal force P
(Fig. 12.14 (b)), less than that required to move it, an equal and opposite force Fwill act on
the block at the surface of contact, opposing the tendency to move. This force is due to
friction between the block and the table-top. The resultant reaction R on the block from the
table is obtained by combining the force vectors Nand F as shown in Fig. 12.14 (c). The
resultant R is inclined at an angle eto the normal through the surface of contact.
As the force P is gradually increased, the frictional force F increases until it reaches its
limiting value F max' when the block just begins to move. Since the normal force N remains
constant, the angle e gradually increases as F increases until it reaches a maximum value q>
when F reaches its maximum value Fmax. The ratio FmaxfN is known as the coefficient of
friction between the block and the table, and is denoted by 11. The angle <p, which is the
maximum obliquity of the reaction R, is known as the angle of friction. From Fig. 12.14 (d)
it can be seen that
Fmax = 11
tan ~ N
Jf a number of measurements of Fmax are made for various weights of block (i.e. for
\arious \ a! uc" of l\), a g ~a~ h C~:l be d rawn relati ng Fmrn. to N as show n in fig. 12 .15 . The
N
R mcx
(d)
(0)
Fig. 12.14 Friction and angle of friction
points obtained will be on a straigh t line through the origin rising at an angle q> to the
horizontal axis. This enables the angle of friction q> to be obtained experimentally.
12.3.5 Shear in Soils
If one mass of soil can be made to slide on another of the same kind while a load is applied
normal to the sliding surface, a test similar to that described above can be carried out to
determine the frictional characteristics of the soil. This is the basis of the shear box test
which is used for measuring the angIe of internal friction or more correctly the 'angle of
shear resistance' of the soil. In this sense the test is applicable only to granular soils and was
originally intended for sands.
The principle of the shearbox is shown in Fig. 12.1 (a). A normal load N applied to the
soil produces a vertical stress an' where an = NIL 2, and L is the length of side of the square
box. A steadily increasing displacement, which causes an increasing shearing force F, is
applied to one half of the sample in a horizontal direction, while the other half is restrained
by the load-measuring de";ce. The shear stress induced on the pre-determined plane of slip
is equal to F/L'. Unlike the block on the table, a horizontal displacement (Fig. 12.1 (b)) of
(12.6) the soil in the bottom half of the box relative to that in the top half takes place gradually
while the force Fis increasing, as shown by OA in the load/displacement graph, Fig. 12.16.
Eventually the point B is reached, at which the maximum shear stress {Tf} which can be
sustained on th e surface of sliding is offered by the soil. This shear stress is the shear
strength of tDe soil under the particular normal stress an and the po int B is known as the
522 DIRECT S HEAR TESTS Ie.] THEOR Y 523

rm ..t ~ t
Ttl+ - --------~

N,
an ""' tr

TT2 .......... - - - -

an- ~
!otlear C'

. N
stress
T

~
I /
/ /2

/' an = ~
Fig. 12.15 Measurement of angle of friction

T, - --- :;:c
• oc::::

stlear
stress d ispl ace m en t x.
T c
Fig. 12.17 Shear stress/displacement curves jor specimens tested under 3
different normal pressures
normal stress
A
an= it
sheor
str~s
she a r s t ress at failure at
or: F..... '" fai lure
t=7
1', 1f = c .. on ton fi
tl
I
I
x, a isplacem ent )(
I
Fig. 12.16 Relationship between shear stress and displacement in shearbox fest I
I
'peak' of the shear st ress/displacement curve. After the peak the shear resistance falls off,
~& normal str~s an
as indicated by BC, and failure of the soil in shear has occurred.
Several tests. usually three, can be carried out on specimens of the same soil und er Fig, 12.18 }.laximum shear stress related to normal stress from shearbox tests
different normal loads (denoteq here by N" N" N,) giving three different values of the (Coulomb envelope)
normal stress an ' From each stress / displacement curve (Fig. 12.17) the maximum shear
stress Tr can be read off, and plotted again st the co rrespo nding value o f On, as in Fig. 12 . 18.
This graph generally approximates to a straight line, its inclination to the hori z.ontal axis for soils, shown graphically in Fig . 12,18, can be represented by the equati on
being equal to the angle o f shearing resistance of the soil , <p, and its intercept on the vertical
(shear stress) axis being the apparent cohesion. denoted by CU' Tf = Cu + an tan "p (12.7)

12.3.6 Coulomb's law
T ~e ge!1ei~1 rd~Hiomhip
(Te rzaghi and Peck, 1967). This relationship was firs t stated by Coulomb in 1773 and is
known as Coulomb ' s law. In soils. for most practical purposes, rhis linear relationship
t. i.llds good and it represt:nts the most widely accepted criterion of failure. The graph which
be tween maxi:P.\: :a ~h€'aring resistance, Tit and norma l !::tres.<: , Or. ,
it represents IS known as the 'railure em'elope'.
524 DlRECTSHEAR TESTS
Coulomb's equation as stated above is .lpplicable only to total stres ses. '.Vhen
considering effective stresses this equation has to be modified to take account of pore water
pressures, but this lies beyond the scope of this volume.
From Coulomb's equation it can be seen that the shearing resistance of soils in simple
terms is generally made up of two components.
(I) Friction (denoted by tan ~), which is due to the interlocking of particles and the friction
between them when subjected to normal stress.
(2) Cohesion (denoted by cu ), which is due to internal forces holding soil particles together
in a solid mass.
The friction component increases with increasing normal stress but the cohesion
component remains constant. If there is no normal stress the friction disappears.
Soils may be divided into three categories on the basis of their total strength properties.
(1) Frictional, or cohesionless (granular) soils, such as dry sands or completely submerged
free-draining sands. These soils possess no cohesion (cu = 0), but derive their shear strength
entirely from intergranular friction (the tan <p component). The failure envelope passes
through the origin. Factors governing the shear strength of sands are discussed in Section
12.3.7.
(2) Cohesive soils, such as virtually saturated clays. They exhibit cohesion, but if no change
in water content occurs during the test they appear to possess no friction (<p = 0). The
failure envelope is virtually horizontal (Section 12.3.8 and Chapter 13).
(3) Intermediate soil types, which possess both cohesion and friction (c, <p soils), (Chapter
13).
In terms of effective stresses the use of drained tests shows that there is little difference in
principle between soils of the above three categories, as explained in Section 12.3.9.
12.3.7 Shear Strength of Dry and Saturated Sand
The shear strength of dry sand depends upon several factors, such as the mineralogical
composition of the grains; their size, shape, surface texture and grading; the soil structure,
i.e. packing of the grains; and the moisture content. For a particular sand in the dry state
the only variable is the state of packing, which has an important influence on shear
strength, as discussed below. The state of packing can be expressed in terms of relative
density (either descriptively or numerically) or voids ratio, or porosity, or dry density.
These terms were explained in Volume 1, Sections 3.3.2,3.3.5, and Table 3.4.
Experience has shown that shear strength results obtained on saturated sand are very
similar to those for dry sand, provided that the sand remains saturated and that drainage
takes place freely during shear. Sections (1), (2) and (3) below relate equally to dry sand, or
to fully saturated free draining sand.
(I) DENSE SAND
The state of packing of the grains in a dense sand (low voids ratio) is represented diagram·
matically in Fig. 12.19 (a). If 'the sand is sheared along a plane such as XX, and if it is
assumed that distortion and crushing of individual grains does not occur, grains lying just
above the surface XX will be forced to ride up and over those lying just below \vhen relative
movement occurs. This causes an expansion which can be measured by observing the
up'.'.'ard movement of the top surface of the sand. The resulting increase in volume is known
as dilatancy and in free-draining submerged sands results in additional water entering the
soil structure.
The resulting shear st re ss/displacemen t curve is of the form marked ( 0) in Fig. 12.20 (a),
a r d th e corrcs.r ,.-mdi ng \ obrn c ch.,\i1t;e r da ~ iomhi p with d i~ p !3('e ; lleD t \., m:.1, k ~~ d (D-! in F:g.
1':. 20 (~ ) . T ~,..: sma ll ill! li:'d ...·oTltra,: tion is dut:: to ~ \):TIt" brJdir: £ c!O\Q1 cd g' 3i ns '"h en
12. 3 THEORY 525
, , ,
t t ~ t
" "
x~~x 7~~~.:-
(0) (b)
dense sand
loose sand
Fig. 12.19 Effect of shear on grain structure in sands
shearing begins. The shear stress curve rises quite sharply to a peak and then falls off to a
somewhat lower value. The excess of the peak over the final value, denoted by E, represents
the extra work which has to be put in to produce the vertical movement due to dilatancy.
After shearing, the grains adjacent to the shear surface are in a less dense state of packing
than they were initially.
(2) LOOSE SAND
A loose state of packing of grains is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 12.19 (b). Shearing
along a plane such as YY will result in a collapse of the relatively open structure as grains
move downwards into void spaces. This causes a volume decrease (contraction), which can
be measured as a downward movement of the top surface, and in free-draining submerged
sands results in \. . ater being expelled from the soil structure.
The resulting shear stress/displacement curve, marked (l) in Fig. 12.20 (a), is less steep
than curve (D) and does not have a pronounced peak. The correspo:i.ding volume change
relationship with displacement is shown as curve (L) in Fig. 12.20 (b). After shearing, the
grains adjacent to the shear surface are in a denser state of packing than they were initially.
(3) COMPARISON OF LOOSE AND DENSE SANDS
Volume changes during shear for both states of packing are represented in Fig. 12.10 (c) in
terms of voids ratio . Initial voids ratios are denoted by eD (dense) and eL (loose). At the end
of the shearing displacement the voids ratio in each case approaches a common value een
known as the critical voids ratio.
Any voids ratio e can be related to the limiting voids ratios (emax and emin) in terms of the
relative density (RD), which is defined by the following equation (Volume I, Section 3.3.5)
e max - e
RD
e max - emin
If three tests are carried out under three different normal stresses for each state of
packing, the shear strength/normal stress relationships can be plotted as shown in Fig.
12.21 (a). The angle of shear resistance (<1'0) for the dense state is greater than that (rpd for
the lnose state. By performing additional tests at intermediate void ratios or relative
densities, a relationship between <p and relative density can be obtained as in Fig, 12.21 (b).
The corresponding changes of voids ratio up to the point of failure (Le. maximum shear
stress) can also be plotted against relative density (Fig. 12.21 (e)). The intersection of this
Curve with the horizontal axis gives the relative density corresponding to the critical voids
ratio, because this is the density at which no change in voids ratio Occurs due to shear.
(4) LlGHTL Y CE \lE:-ITE D SAt' DS
Dr y or fully sat urated ('oh e:,-!:)r.ks .~ san d, give a L (T O cohesion int~rcept, but if there is a
be;w . .'c-' \ th .: ff~! : n J. i·~~l ! ;!c cj"~ \"':~vrc ~imila r lO Fig. 12.22 may be
c C';l{,!1!i l!,£ ag(, 111
526 DIRECT SHEAR TESTS 12.3 THEORY )27

/0
~ l'I eQr
~tress
' peOI('
T-E
o :!Ih l" o r
strl"S~
t a ense
/
L
T
T
.L
L loose

D"'d l" ns l" sand

l "" 10 osl" sa n d

c=o
norrnel stre ss an
(a) hori zon ta l di splacem e nt
(a)

In crea s e
o
dilation
ch o nO;l" o
durl no;
shear

(0) decrease
L
/>
40°

,,0
ch ange
;0
voi d s
rotio Ilo ose /' / /
-- ..-"-
d e ns e I
o / ../ ~
L at cr i tical
<L /' voids rat io
L 1
30"1 loose dens!': i
cont r a c. t ion
voi ds
<" I" 't"al va,d, ,at'o o 100"/0 o re lat ive dl" nsi ty 100 %
ratio relativ e density
(ol (0)
<0 0
Fig. 12.21 Effect of iniliull-·oids Ta;io on :;hc:Jr .~:::;fst:1l1ce of a sa.'itf: (a) Coulomb
(c) envelopes /or 'dense ' and 'loose ' stales, (b) value of ~ related 10 relative density, (c)
Fig. J2.20 Shear charaClerisrics of dense and Jo ose sands: (a) shear stress, (b) voids ralio change during shear related to initial relalive density
volume change, (c) vOids rario change; all plolled against displacement

obtained. The first part AB of the envelope represents the cohesive effect of the cementing Shea r
str e ss
agent (apparent cohesion denoted by co), Above the point B the stress level is sufficient to T
cause breakdown of the cementing agent and the steep portion BC represents the behaviour
as a normal granular (cohesionless) material. Re-shearing this type of sand reduces Cc to ~

zero. T:cCC+a-ton f>c

A similar effect, but with only a small cohesion intercept , is observed in moi st or damp
sands, but this is due to surface tension of the water between grains. The value of Cc is not
reduced by re- shearing if conditions remain un altered. I T =O"tan f;

12.3.8 Shear Strength of Clays

T
TEST CONDITIONS ll/V normal stress O'n
The shear strength of cla ys depend s not only on the soil type and com posi tio n, in the sense
described in Section 12.3.7 fo r sa nds, but al so on factors related to th e miner alogy, grain Fig. 12.22 Coulomb envelope for lightly cemented sand
size and shape, adsorbed water. and water chemistry of the clay minerals present. Shear
strength also depend s to a great extent upon the initial mois tu re con tem of the clay, and the (3 ) the rate of shear displacement in relation to the permeability of the soil - whethe r
rate at wh ich the so il structure can expel or take in water dur ing a test. 'quick' (allowing no drainage), or 'slow ' (allowing fu ll drainage , i. e. the dissipat ion of any
In a shea r tes t on a particula r type of clay the three factors wh ich are of the greatest excess pore water pressure set up during shear).
significan.;c here a re
The und rained shear strength of saturated plastic cla ys is usu ally determined from
(1 ) the waler conlent (e.\~'resse d in terms of li quidity index); compres sion tests. described in Ch ~: ptcr 13, Ihe sheaibo x lest being. less satisfactory fo r
(2) the degl<~c of saturation - whether rully saturated 0r partially S 3Iur~t('d; lhese s(l ils. However their shear strenglh c:::.n be mea sured directly b~ th e \'ane appa ratus ,
p--
528 DIRECT SHEAR TESTS 12.3 THEORY 529

I. and shear sfrength, in terms of total stresses derived from quick tests, is discussed helow
' I f ' U I ~d.ai~,=,'2) ~ ,~s ~: ::;.; ::::::: ...::;;, ... ..: ;il ~~Ci;':"';~ ::.j.':". -
/'" ..,~;::~ : ....~l ,~~1 ail o·~'.;, ..... v.i.;)vij.:l..?:ed
envelope as indicated in Fig. 12.23 (b).
:~::: ~d;;:~"··.:..~ ' .. C!"; :-'le:. ;...:. ~ ),.; '.~:,\ d ,.. ;;111.(11;1' (L:rv t-j

I QUICK (UNDRAINED) TESTS ON SATURATED CLAY INTERMEDIATE SOIL TYPES

Because of the low permeabi lity of clay, virtually no drainage takes place from a clay
during the short period (usually up to a maximum of 20 min) of a quick shear test.
if total stres~,es only are measured, with no a(:count being taken of pore WaLer preSS1.1reS,
the undrained shear strength of saturated clay is independent of the applied normal stress.
A series of quick shear tests under different normal pressures gives a failure envelope
similar 1.0 Fig. 12.23 (a) in which the line is virtually horizomal (i.e . tp is practically zero),
and the intercept on the shear stress axis is equal to the undrained shear strength, or
I~ apparent cohesion, denoted by CU' Under these conditions the clay derives its shear
jl'
Pol strength entirely from the cohesion component, which can be obtained from a single
t measurement, such as that made in a vane shear !est.
5h~Qr
Soils which are intermediate between sands and clays, such as sandy day or silt, generally
have some cohesion as well as internal friction, although the value of tp obtained from quick
undrained tests is Ies3 than that for sands. The type of failure envelope is sho ..vn in Fig.
12.23 (e).
The shear strength of these types of soil, and of partiall~1 saturated clays, are discussed in
Chapter 13.
12.3.9 Slow (Drained) Tests on Clays and Silts
PRINCIPLE
Tests arc usually carried out on a set of specimens each at <;: different plessun:o The soil is
first allowed to consolidate under the selected normal pressure, Jntil consolidation is

~
stress
~
completed and there is virtually no excess of pore pressure remaining (see Chapter 14) .
."'0 Shear displacement is then applied slO\"ly enough to allow the dissipation of any further

r pore water pressure (v.ohether positive or negative) ""'hich may develop due 10 shear, the rate
of displacement being determined from the consolidation stage. Under thes·e conditions the

I c,

1+
\;;;.;
,,~, "''''' <0,'''':>:. U
_
effective stresses arc equal to the applied stresses. For a normally-consolidated clay the
shear strength envelope from a set of tests is usually of the form shown in Fig. 12.24 (a).

Wi"
+
/

I
------
shear
stress
r ~/

I /
I ~:: _____ .
~ --.-fL I"

~ Cu I Cd""O
_..
1 .----------------. (a) '~ e~fecti,/e n0rrnol

(0)
normal stress r:r
sheor' tI
stress
r .
,//
sh~ar • /---::'/
I. ~
I
,;. st~ess
~/
[ ~

r~
.-",,/ "

~
,,/
./
'V_.
. / '___
\¢d
L .- / ' . /
___ __
t~
-r- I--' / /
i
i
f
(0) .- - -., -
'-~,TJl
- -",-::-
"t: ~ '"

Fig. 12.23 Representative Coulomb envelopes from qlllck s/:ear res!!::

saruraled clay. (0) ol'erconsolidated eta.v, (e) .mnd) clay or silt
J'- -

((I)
Cdl

(b)
I /'
.L-<i>'--
, ~:fec', i ve norma! st-ess JI

Fig. 12.2·t Representative Coulomb en'oe/opes frolll slow fdrait:ed) shear I(·S:~': fa)
---
nomwlly cOllsolidalt'd clay, (b) ol'(>rcollsolfdal(!d day
 DIRETS HEAR T ESTS 123 THEORY 531
S:'J

~ The em el(~pe is app rox imatelY linear and passes through the origin as docs that of a dry or
salU rared !lann. The incl:ration of [ht;' er:.\'elope is the ar,gle of she3 f resistance in Il ,e
drained conoltion, designated <Pd' For an overconsolidated clay the envelope gives a
- _. ---j""t -
,
rc-
'00 ~~

,., cohesion intercept denoted by Cd and may be slightly curved, as shown in Fig. 12.24 (b). I drainage surface
J

*
This type of test is referred to as a consolidated·drained (CD) shearbox test. The drained
shear. strength parameters Cd. <j)d referred to above differ only slight ly from the effective
shear strength parameters c', cp' obtained from undrained tests in which pore water
I
I -fB+HBIT
drainage SUrface
t pressures are measured (to be described in Volume 3) and for many purposes the two sets of I
! parameters can be considered to be equal. Henceforth in this volume the symbols c', (fl' are
used. E
E
I
j
t
~

RATE OF DISPLACEMENT c
•E I
•
~
The rate of displacement at which the specimen should be sheared in a drained test depends
upon the drainage characteristics, i.e. the permeability of the soil and the thickness of the
•• t\oo= (~r
sample. Since permeability is related to coefficient of consolidation (Chapter 14), the
f consolidati on stage of the test can provide the data for estimating a suitable time to failure.
l,=12'7Xt100 minutes

c v = 0,' x H2 m2/ yeor

An empirical derivation is used, the principle of which is outlined below . (The theoretical 1100
background will be presented in Volume 3).
Fig. 12.25 Derivation of lime to failure from consolidation curve. Example
From the consolidation of the specimen under the applied normal pressure a curve of
calculation:
settlement against square-root-time (minutes) is obtained, of the form indicated in Fig.
12.25. A tangent is drawn to the early straight line portion of the curve, in the same way as If V1100 = 5.8, t100 = (5.8)' .= 33.6 min 0(
described in Section 14.3.7, method 2. This line is extended to intersect the horizontal line . . If = 12.7 x 33.6 = 427 mm A..
I representing 100010 consolidation, which often corresponds to the 24 hour reading. The
point of intersection gives the value Of...[lloo (Fig. 12.25), which when mUltiplied by itself
gives the time intercept f,oo (min) as defined by Bishop and Henkel (1962). The time
IfH= 2lmm
VC =
0.103 x (21),
33.6 =.
1 35 ' I
m year

! required to failure; ~f, is related to tw::. t>y !he empirical equation

! tf = 12.7 x t lOo min (12.8) .;t:;o ..j"tim e, mir:utes

,
I• (Gibson and Henkel, 1954).
The coefficient of consolidation, cv , can be calculated from the equation

0.103H'
early portion
not straight

! Cv =
f,oo
m 2/year (12.9)

t where H is the specimen thickness (mm) and /100 is in minutes. For a standard specimen of
I height H = 20 mm, Equat ion (12.9) becomes
E
E
earliest point at wh ich
consolidation is
substantial ly comp lete

! Cv
41
-
1'00
rn 2/year

A difficu lty arises wilh this method if the consolidation curve does not resem ble the
(12.10) c

EI
• A
~

•• make AB= tAC

j
B
-- *
theoretical cur ve, in that {he initial portion up to about 50070 consolidation is not linear.
This may be due to the effect of bedding of the grid plate, or to the presence of air in the Fig. 12.26 Derivation of time lojaifurefrom 'non-standard' consolidation curve
voids of the soil (Le. partial saturation).
A method which gives a reasonable estimate of Vt 100 , from which C v and the time to 12.3.10 Residual Shear Strength
failure may be derived , is illustrated in Fig. 12.26 and is as follows. (Binnie and Partners,
1968). It requires a number of settlement readings to be taken in the later stages of MEANING OF RESIDUAL STRENGTH
consolidation.
Find the ro:nt C which is !~le earliest at which c0lisolictation is subst antially compk:e, i.e. The effect of shearing a dense sand b described in Section 12.3 .7, and the form of the shear
beyond which the curve virtually flattens out. Make AB = 'ilAC, and read off the value of strt"ngth dis;J!i1ct'mt'~' CUf'e is in di . . atcd in Fig. 12.20 (3) by ('urve D. If shearing is
"/t l.JJ at thr: point B, Values of ( I,'" t) and c) are then calculated as dcs.<:tibt'j flbo'·e . crmlinued after the peak pf)i nt to the maximum di splace ment 01 the shear box, a curve of
 '-
~
~ :::2 DiRECT SHEAR TEST' i:' .~ TI-n:OR Y 5JJ

t:\'~e ,,110,HI 4
l the
~eAk
in f!g. 12. 27 (a) is orwinC'd. The shear st rength decreases rapidly from the
value :n f:;-,;;. . but c\!;"I',iua::y rearh.::.:; ? ~~e:"'!_~y ~ !a:c {u l :ima~:} \ ':" :':c "..... hie:l b
!'~ .. ::- ~:~t·;:'::'

peo< ,(;eo9'"
ma intained as th e di splacement increases. In this condition there is no expansion or

t".L, """""
contraction due to shear. and the voids ratio remai ns constant at the critical value.
It was show n by Skempton (1964) in the fourth Rankine Lecture that overconsolidated
clays behave in a similar manner to dense sands when subjected to large shearing displace-
men ts under fully drained conditions (Section 12.3 .9). This requires shear strengths to be
measured in terms of effective str ess, not total stress . The shear strength which the clay
ultimately reaches is kn own as the 'residual strength', which is often appreciably lower than T--i I
the maximum or ' peak strength '. I I I
PEAK AND RESIDUAL ENVELOPES
I I I
I I I
From a set of resid ual st rength tests on three or more identical specimens, Mohr-Coulomb I I I
envelo pes ca n be drawn for both the peak and the resi dual strength conditions, as shown
I I
displa cement
in Fig. 12.27 (b). P eak shear strength is represented by the equation

run I run 2 run3 -I run4

Tf = C' + o' tan tp' (12.11)
•
Ifi rst r eve rsal tsecond reversa l tthird reversal
and resid ual shear strength by the equation
Fig. 12.28 Shear stress/displacement cun'es from multi· reversal drained
shearbox lest
Tr = C,' + o'tan <l>r' (12.12)

In these equations the dashes indicate effective strength values as determined fr om drained The multi-reversal procedure does have certain shortcomings. There is often a small
tests (see Seclion 12.3.9). 'peak ' on fe -shearing after reversal. e~flecially on the second run. Some loss of mate:-i:!.!, ::1
Th e valil'" ,',; t:,' i~ Llften ref)' small, and the residual strength envelope can be assumed to the r0f m of siurry, may occu r from the shear surface. If the test is terminated too soon by
pass through the o rigin and be represented by the equation not applying a sufficient number of reversals the residual strength will not be reached.
These difficulties may be overcome by using the ring shear apparatus (referred to in Section
12.1.5) in which di splacement is applied continuously in one direction, but this apparatus is
Tr = 0 ' tan <Pr' (12.13) not in general commercial use. For many purposes the reversal shearbox procedure
described in Section 12.7 .3 enables reasonably representative resu lts to be obtained with the
REVERSAL SHEAR BOX TESTS use of stand ard equipment.
~
The effect o f a large displacement can be obtained in the ordinary shearbox apparatus by
EFFECT OF STRESS HISTORY
returning the split box to its starting position after completing the extent of its travel and
shear ing again . This process can be repeated a number of ti mes until a steady (residual) The influence of overconsolidation on the shear st rength/ displacement relat ionship is
value of shear strength is observe.d. The form of a set o f shear stress/di splacem ent curves illustrated in Fig. 12.29 (a), which represents direct shear tests extended to large
after four traverses is shown in Fig. 12.28. displacements for a normally consolidated clay (NC) and for an identical clay which has
been overconsolidated (OC). The preco nsolidation effective stress for the OC clay is
appreciably higher than the applied normal stress. which is the same for both tests.
sMea r r
There is little difference between the peak and residual strengths of th e NC clay, although
stress_ r _ _ - - .__ peak streng t h
T this difference tend s to be greater for clays of higher plasticity index. The OC clay shows a
much hig her peak streng th at a smaller displacement, compared with the NC clay, followed

f t··'
by a marked decrease in st rength to a residual value which is the same as that o f the NC
.f, ' ~_ clay .
._,~ idUO I $tren~ ~,.._
iO~ Changes in volume and in voids ratio during shear are indicated in Figs. 12.29 (c) and (d).
r:;"" Coulomb envelopes for the NC and OC peak strengths are shown by the full lines in Fig.
"-
, I~
,,- 12.29 (b) and the residual strength enve lope is shown by the broken line. This en velope is
usually found to be slightl y curved, implying that ~r' is dependent on stress level.
d is placement elfective normal stress a~
(,) A drained shear test on a fully rcmoulded spcc:men 0f the same clay would give a shear
(0)
stress/d:s pl a~cmc nl rel ation ship as indi cated by the dash ed curve in Fig . 12.29 (a).
F :g. 12.27 (a) peak and r('!.. dl<i1i shear strength, (/1; Coulomb envelopes j(lr p~'u k requiri:lg a large dispia..::emcnt 10 reach the residual strength wi;hoU l fir st giving a peak
o'.J I"esid"a! (.ndirior.s (after SAi!mplOn, 19(4) value.
5)·. D!RECT SHEAR TE STS !n TH EO RY 535

12.3.11 Rotational Shear (Vane Test)

<t ,
7"r'--:-
T'"GcpeCk__
,
TORQUE AND TORSION' OC

Two equal and opposite forces, acting in the same plane at a distance from each other as
shown in Fig. 12.30 (a), produce what is termed a 'couple', The magnitude of each force is
denoted by F. the dist ance apan of thei r Jines of action is d. and the moment of the couple
is equal to (F x d). If Fis measured in newtons. din millimetres. the moment of the couple //
,/
---
Zremovld ed
------- r-r:.' .,./ C
, ~c
/j
-;:;::s....fr
/'

is expressed in newton miltimetres (abbreviated Nmm).

Two equ al and opposite forces forming a couple appli ed to one end of a rod are shown in
Fig. 12.30 (b). The effect of this couple is similar to turning on a water tap. The moment of
I

t.
,0)
d isp l acement
-,
~

(b)
g.

the forces about the axis of the rod is known as the 'torque'. T, and is equal to
d il at ion
(F x !!....) x 2 = F x d, i.e. the moment of the couple. If the other end of the rod is resisted OC __- - -
2
by an equal and opposite couple or torque, as in Fig. 12.30 (c), the rod is said to be
subjected to 'torsion' under the twisting effect of the two opposing couples. d isplacement
OC.overconio li dated
A torque may be resisted by a uniformly distributed shear stress, s, per unit area acting NC NC anormQ ll y con sol i dated
around the curved surface of a cylinder attached to a rod, as shown in Fig. 12 .31. The total
(0)
circumferential force is equal to s x ndh newtons, and its moment about the axis of the rod
provides the resisting torque T" where
d voids i ............ NC
T, = s x ndh X -
rat iol ----
2
'" dl sp l ocement

nd'hs N OC

.
- ,- mm (12.14) (d)

VANE SHEAR TEST
The above principle is used in the vane shear test for determining the shear strength of soft
clay by measuring the torque applied to cause failure . The apparatus consists of a
cru ciform va ne of diameter D mm and height H mm, attached to the lower end of a rod of
Fig. 12.29 Influence of overconsolidation and rem oulding on peak and residual
shear strengths in a cloy (af1er Skempton, 1964):(0) shear stress/ displacement, (b)
Coulomb en velopes, (c) volume change during shear, (d) voids ralio change
during shear

~
F
small diameter, as show n in Fig. 12.3 (a). The vane rotates a cylinder of soil in the manner
t ~ T:0
~,"bj""d
shown in Fig. 12.3 (b) when torsion is applied to the rod via a calibrated spring device (the
torsion head) at its upper end , which enables the applied torque to be measured. d
So long as the app lied torque is smaller than that required to shear the soil, it is resisted j
by an equal and opposite torque provided by the shear resistance of the soil acting on the F
• F t o torsion
surface of the cylinder of potential rotatio n. When the torque applied to the vane is
h-.oment 01 couple torqve
ir.creased to a value which is just sufficient to cause the cylinder of soil to rotate, it is
(~
=F xd "= Fxd
assumed that the maxim um shea r resistance, i.e. the shear strength of the soil, is rea ched
simultaneously on all sliding surfaces.
The tot.al resisting torque, T" is made up of two components, T) and T z, where (0) (b) (,)
T) = torque provided by shear resistance on the cylindrical surface and T2 = torque Fig. !DO Rotational shear: (a) a couple, (b) torque, (c) torsion
provided by shear resistance on ~ac h of the two circular end areas. Therefore,

T, = T) + 2T2 (12.15) The stresses acting on each of the circular end surfaces of the cylinder are indicated in
Fig. 12 .32 (a). Stresses are assumed to be uniformly distributed, therefore the total resisti ng
Applying Equation (12. 14) to the cylinder shown in Fig. 12.3 (b). the value of the torque shear force acting on each end is equal to n.IYs/ 4 newtOns. (The diameter of the rod can be
Tl is giYen by neglected). The length of the lever arm is not immediately obvious. The resisting torque is
usually derived by the application of calculus, but the following meth od is easier to
nlfH s Nmm understand.
Tl = (12.1 6) The circular end can be divided into a large number o f small sectOrs, each approxi mating
2
to an isosceles triangle of height r, where r = D12. One such sector is shown in Fig.
• This t'xplanation continues the nOles on Force in Section 12.3. 1. 12.32 (b). If the st.ress acts uniformly over the sector, the line of action of the resultant force
).~6 DIRE, 'f Sh b lR rESTS 1"'23 T li!: ( ) ,..y 537

nlY
., (H + D \IS 1'01111
~-
. ~~
\ 6 J. I

If the shear strength, c, of the clay is to be measured in kN / m:, then s c/ IOOO'.

sh ear s t r ess Therefore.
= s pe r un it area
( N/mm 2 )
h T =n D' ( H + D)C (12.18)
, 1000 2 6

-
~-'-
I The torque T applied to the shaft of the vane is proportional to the angular rotation 8
(degrees) of the torsion spring, i.e.

L dr I to,. ,. = (,ndh),' T= KB
= "(I''''
, 2

where K is the spring constant measured in Nmm per degree, a nd is stated by the
Fig. 12.31 Shear stress on sur/ace of cylinder resisting rotalion manufacturer. At failure, T = Tn and e = 8f •

T, = K Bf = IOOO
nD'(H D) c
2+"6 (12.19)
,
~
-..
-::: --"~area (/-,:~
I"Y)\\\\ =":' ,,
Therefore, c can be determined from the measurements made in the vane test by re-
arranging Equation (12.19):
I \\\ ''::'~ I \
, I lOOO K Bf
I .:::::::I! " I
c
,I H D \
kN/ ml (12.20)

2-" 6" )
I.---D -~
~/I .D' \

(0) (b) The dimensions of a typical laboratory vane are:

Fig. 12.32 (a) stresses on end surface oj cylinder, (b) one small secror oj end
D =~~ in=12.7mmandH= V2i n=12.7mm
surface
H D
:.- + - = 6.350 + 2.Il7mm = 8.467m m
will be through the cent re of gravity of the tri angle, i.e. at a distance of i' from the apex.
2 6
From Equ ation (12.18)
Putting all triangular sector s together, the total resultant force will act at a distance ; ,
n X (12.7)'
x 8.467c
(i .e. -+ D) from the centre of the circle. The torque T2 is therefore given by the equation
T, =
1000

= 4.29c
T, (ru: S
) x - D
I
3 and from Equation (12.19)

nD's KB f
(12.17) c (12.21)
12 4.29

F rom Equations (12 . 15), (12.16) and (12. 17) the to tal resisting torque is equal to in which the units are: c in kN / m2, Sf in degrees and K in Nmm / degree,
T, = T, + 2T2
Equati on (12.21) holds good only for a \'ane of the stated dimensions , A different
relation ship mml be worked OUI , uo;;i:1g Equ3[i on (1 2.20), for other siz.es of vane.
nJJHs
, 2 ("[)'~ \
12 J • The .<,yr,l!:.:J1 c is I1'C': here to r {' ir;e~;:nt ~he~'1 -.tn'r.~ t:..:\ :l.t::J,~Hn....:! dirt~'lly b) l~e \ :m.: ~::s t.
S~3 I)JRECT SHE\~ T,STS !2...1 APPl.Jr:\fl O:"::S 539
The raie of rotat: on o f th e \'ane is not critici! 1 p:-o\'ided that it i~ neil her e"cc ~.!ii \ely fas t
nor extrelTtt"ly ~: ,-, .,:v . A nHe of 6-i 2 ~ "min is !'pccificd for lhc fit.>1.J It;sl in the Rrirish
Siandard (BS 1377: 1975, Test 18), and IO o/min is the rate for which the laboratory

~
apparatus is generally designed. If the vane is rotated too fas t, viscous effects may lead to a
resul t which is too high. If the testing time is unnecessarily prolonged, partial drainage may
take place during shea r in some soils.
'-- ~

(0)
12.4 APPLICA TlONS (b)

12.4.1 Applications of Shear Strength Parameters

There are a number of criteria fo r failure in so ils, of which the most widely accepted is that
based on Coulomb's law (Equation (12.7), Section 12.3.6). Many stability problems in soils
are concerned with a limiting condition in which the mechanism of failure involves the
sliding of a body of soil relative to the main soil mass. The surface of slip along which
relative movement is ass umed to take place may be plane or curved and it is assumed that
the soil along the whole of the slip surface is at a state of failure, i.e. its maximum shear
strength has been mobilised. In practice it is necessary to ensure that this condition will «J
never occu r . For this reason, and to limit deform ations to within tolerable limits, a suitable
facto r of safety is applied so that the shear stress in the soil is nowhere greater than a certain
proportion of its maximum shear strength. ~ (d)
In cases where it can be assumed that the water content of the soil does not change under
load, an analysis in terms of total stresses, based on immediate un drained shear strengths,

/~
can be applied. Examples are indi cated in simple terms below (Terzaghi and Peck (l967),
Art. 26-32). - - - - /~--cr-

0) Bearing capacity of footings and foundations for structures on saturated homogeneou s

clays, immediately after construction. The soi l beneath a foundation, if loaded to failure, is
assumed to fai l by shear in the manner indicated in Fig. 12.33 (a).
(2) Earth pressure on a retaining wall , for the conditions prevailing immediately after
construction (Fig. 12.33 (b)).
(3) Earth pressure against bracing in temporary excavations (Fig. 12.33 (c».
(4) Safeguard against heave of the bottom of temporary oven excavations in clay (Fig .
12.33 (d»).
(5) Stability of the side slopes of cuttings immediately after excavation (Fig. 12.33 (e)).
(6) Short· term stability of embankments and earth dams during construction (Fig. 12.33
(I)).
In short·term stability problems such as these, the value of the ungrained shear strength
or apparent cohesion, CUI is applicable. The angle o f shear resistance q>, is requi red to obtain
either earth pressure coefficients or bearing capac ity coefficients , for use in the calcula-
tions. These coefficients are given in text-book s on foundation engineering (e.g. Terzaghi
and Peck, (1967), Art. 29).
For the analysis of long-term stability of retaining walls, embankments, and earth dams
the drained shear strength parameters c' , <fI ' are required . The long-term stability of slopes
and cuttings in overc onsoli dated clays is based on the residual shear strength parameters c:,
~,. , (Skempton, 1964; Skempton an" T a Rochelle, 1965; Symons, 1968).
12.4.2 Use of Standard Shearbox
The shearbox apparatus was developed originally fo r the determinatio n of the angle of
sh{'ar r (' ~ !~t3!1:f:.". <,'1, c,f I e:or,:pacred sands. II pro\"icles the mOl"{ direct mea ns of relat ing- q> to
th e; 'l)h.!~ ra !io, !:., ..H.J d ctt,> , ~rmining Ih~ cri:ic •.d ',o:::!s lalio (.-:':- L'rilk'at dtns.!l) ) (..If dr}
,,\-~
~
(e)
Fig. 12.33 Simplified examples ojmechanismsofJailure in soils: (a)foundarion,
(b) retaining wall, fe) bracing in excavation, (d) deep excavation, fe) Culling, (f)
embankment or earth dam
sands or of saturated sands which do not contain fine material in sufficient quantity to
impair the drainage characteristics.
The shearbox can be used to determine the immediate undrained shear strength of
cohesive soils, but for these material s the triaxial test is usua lly more satisfactory.
One of the main applications of shearbox testing in recent years has been the measure-
ment of the residual shear strength of overconsoJidated clays as an extension to the
procedure for measuring peak drained strength.
12.4.3 Use of Large Shearbox
The usual siz.e of a large shearbox is 12 in (305 mm) square, requiring a specimen about
150 mm thick, and is sutable for soi ls containing particles up to 37.5 mm. Triaxial testing of
these materials is impracticable unless exceptionally large equipment is available.
The shear stren gth of gravell y soils is rarely a critical factor fo r foundations, bu t it is
significant in the design of embankments or earth dams which incorporate gravel fill
trateriai. Shear strengt h can also be \ls~d as a r,lt'ans of classifying. road construction
materiais and g!anciar sub-oases ~Pij.;e, J~}:'3; Pike. Aeon and Leec h , lY77).
5.:1-(1 DiRECT SHEAR TEST S 12.4 APPUCATIONS 541

Or her materials beside_~ grave1~ containing panid~s up to 37.5 mm or even oc('a.~io!12.! (3) Preparation of rccompacted test specimens is not difficult.
SU mm panicles can also be tested in a large shear box where triaxial testing would be (4) The principle can be extended to gravelly soils and other materials containing large
impracticable. These materials include shale, industrial slag, brick rubble, colliery spoil. particles, which would be more expensive to test by other means.
Provided that the material is free draining, the quick testing procedure may be used to (5) Friction between rocks and the angle of friction between soils and many other
determine the angle of shear resistance; otherwise slow (drained) tests are necessary. engineering materials can be measured.
This apparatus can also be used for testing large block samples of undisturbed soiL It has (6) The apparatus can be used for drained tests and for the measurement of residual shear
been used by the author for measuring the shear strength along surfaces of discontinuity, strength by the multi-reversal process.
such as fissures or shear zones, in large samples of overconsolidated clay; and the shear
strength of clay laminations present in some sandstones. 12.4.6 Typical Values of Angle of Shear Resistance
12.4.4 Applications to Miscellaneous Materials Values of rp for grains of pure quartz, over the range of possible states of packing depending
upon particle shape and grading, are given in Table 12.2. Typical ranges of values of q> for
In addition to its application to soils, the shearbox apparatus can be used for the measure- dry non-cohesive soils are indicated in Table 12.3.
ment of the frictional resistance of other engineering materials. Some examples are as The presence of certain mineral particles such as mica can decrease the ql value of sands
follows. and silts. Gravels consisting of relatively soft particles which are susceptible to crushing
Friction between soil and rock. give a lower value than those with hard particles.
Friction on a joint surface in rock.
Friction between soil and manufactured materials such as concrete, fabric matting,
Table 12.2. VALUES OF <p FOR QUARTZ GRAINS
reinforcing materials used in reinforced earth construction, components of ground
anchor systems. Particle shape and grading Degrees
Looses! Densest
Bond strength of adhesives and cementing agents.
Friction between materials and components used in laboratory testing, e.g. latex rubber Rounded, uniform 28 J5
and silicone grease on stainless steel.
Angular, well-graded 34 46
1n most of the above applications the property measured is the angle of friction, or
coefficient of friction. The strength of a bonding or cementing agent would show up as an (from T (flaShi lind Pe,;k. 1967)
ap~arer!t cchesion.
Table 12.3. TYPICAL VALUES OF <P FOR DRY NONCOHESIVE SOILS
12.4.S Limitations and Advantages of the Shearbox Test
Type oj soil and grading Degrees
The main limitations and disadvantages of the shearbox test are summarised below. Loose Dens,
Rounded Angular Rounded Angular
LIMITATIONS Sand-
uniform fine to medium 30 35 37 43
(1) The soil specimen is constrained to fail along a predetermined plane of shear.
well graded 34 39 40 45
(2) The distribution of stresses on this surface is not uniform.
(3) The actual stress pattern is complex and the directions of the planes of principal stresses Sand and gravel 36 42 40 48
rotate as the shear strain is increased.
Gravel 35 40 45 50
(4) No control can be exercised over drainage, except by varying the rate of shear
displacement. Silt 28-32 30-35
(5) Pore water pressures cannot be measured. {f'om Lamb<- and Whitman. 1979)
(6) The deformation which can be applied to the soil is limited by the maximum length of
travel of the apparatus.
12.4.7 Application of Vane Test
(7) The area of contact between the soi l in the two halves of the ~hearbox decreases as the
test proceeds. A correc tion to allow for this was proposed by Petley (1966). but its effect is
The laboratory vane enables the low shear strengths of very soft soils (i.e. less than
small. II affects the shear stress and normal stress in equal proportions, and the effect on
20 kN/m2) to be measured, which would be very difficult to do by other means.
the Coulomb envelope is usually negligible. so it is generally ignored.
It may sometimes be important to know the value of a low shear strength to a reasonable
ADVANTAGES
degree of accuracy. For instarce, if an embankment is to be built on a stratum of very soft
soil. the shear strength would indicate the maximum safe bearing pressure which it could
Notwithstanding the above limitations, the sMearbox apparatus has certain merits [(If sustain initially. and hen ce the thickness of embankment which could be placed as the first
rCHtine ~hear slf('nph t<2stin!;, as sU:11111uistd below. !iage. Subsequent consolidation wou ld im:rense the shear strength and construction could
(1) T~·.~ iC ,j l~ r: [3\:', l-~) '1uid..: i.wd ~'imf.J,; tc' carry vtit. r-rocc\:'J in I,(i:lges bascJ e n the ~hear ::tr eJl£lh :ri~erion.
i2) Ii·.c ba:i(' rrin\.iple is c:.:.si:y l;f,dcr~wod. T he ~ht~!f strengt h of so ft strata near the 5ucfat,:; m3Y be required for the estimation of
.... "
_ ) IRE . _ ~.-_ E.\ R . _ .. .3
'negati\e skin fri,'lio n ' due to adhesion on piles taken down to a. fir mL r stratum below
(Lambe and Whitman). Remoulded strength may be significant in areas of soft deposits
which have been ex,h::nsi\·ciy Ji:,i.urbed, ~uch as durillg til t: dri ving of piie::,.
The vane shear test can be used to provide a relationship between shear st rength and
moisture content of clays extended to moistu re contents greater than those at which it is
practicable to prepare conventional test specimens. It has been used to investigate the
relation ship of shear strength to soil moi sture suction (Lewis and Ro ss, 1955). The
laboratory vane, suitably adapted if necessary , can also provide data on the shear strength
of some grouting materials, and on the gelling or setting time required to obtai n a required
st rength.
12.5 'STANDARD' SHEARBOX TEST
12.5.1 General
This test is no t covered by the current (1975) British Standard, but the consolidated -drained
test is given in US standards under ASTM 3080. The apparatus described is typical of that
which is commercially availab le in Britai n for routine testing, and the procedures given
follow accepted British practice . The mo st common type of apparatus accommodates a 60
mm square specimen, and is referred to here as the 'standard' apparatus which is described
in detail. Some shearbox machines can also provide for other sizes up to 100 mm square.
Use of a much larger apparatus, for specimens 12 in (305 mm) square or larger, is outlined
in Section 12.6.
The procedures described in this section as the 'standard' test relate to the determination
of the value of"P for free·d rai ning sands. This is a 'quick' test, which could also be used to
measure the shear streng:h of clay soi ls of low pel111cability, in terms of total stresses. For
this reason the preparation of undist urbed cohesive specimens is given in Chapter 9.
However, the triaxial test is generally more satisfactory for cohesive soils.
The normal pressures appli ed to specimens in a set of tests should generall y 'bracket' the
maximum stress likely to occur in the ground. Normal pressures of about 50070, 100070 and
150- 200 0;70 of this value are often appropriate, but these are suggested only as a general
guide and the pressures 'used should be decided by the t:ngineer. There is no 'standard ' set
of pressures.
Consolidated-drained and residual strength shearbox tests are described in Section l2 .7.
12.5.2 Apparatus
The shearbox machine comp ri ses a dr ive unit, shearbox carriage, load hanger and other
items detailed below which may be supported on a bench or mounted in a steel-framed
stand. Several machines are shown in Fig. 12 .34.
When fully loaded with hanger weights the whole apparatus could weigh up to 200 kg, so
a substantial floor mounting is necessary. The machine should be bolted down,
The component parts of the shearbox apparatus and ancilliary items required for the test
are listed below,
(l) Shear box carriage, watertight, running on ball or roller bearings.
(2) Shearbox assembly, com prisi ng
(a) Shear box body, in two halves (Fig. 12.35), the upper half fitted with a "swan-neck"
yoke, the whole box being ri gid enough to resist di stortion under load, The point of
appJicatk1" of the shear force on the yo ke should be in li ne with the plane of separation
of the t\\O !1a h~:. of the box.
Tb! t'>/I'O h,~ I\'es can he temp,,:'.::r;l)' iixed wft.':kr by means of 1\'0 ('bmr·i ~:; ~..:rc.·'~
__ .5 .~ .• ..-...; ARL ARH' .sT 543
Fig. 12.34 Shearbox machine! in use (12 in shearbox injoreground)
(marked (C) in Fig. 12 .35) using the holes marked C, th readed in the lower half. Two lift-
ing screws (L) enable the upper half of the box to be lifted sligh tl y (Section 12.5 .6, stage
(8» using the threaded holes at the opposite corners of the upper half, marked L.
(b) Lower pressure plate (base plate), retained by small lugs in the lower half of the box
which fit into four recesses.
(c) Upper pressure plate (load pad), with spherical seating and ball bearing.
(d) Upper and lower porous plates.
(e) Upper and lower grid plates, plain or perforated. The grid plates enable the shearing
forces to be transmitted uniformly along the length of the sample.
The above components are shown in Fig. 12.36 and identified in Fig. 12.37 . A cross-
section of the assembled box is shown in Fig. 12.6.
(3) Loading yoke and weight hanger, for applying the normal pressure to the specimen.
(4) Lever-arm loading system, for extending th e range of normal pressures. Beam ratios of
5: 1 o r 10: 1 are usual. The procedure for verifying the effect of the lever-arm is described in
Section 12.5.6, stage 7 (b). A recently developed machine incorporates a counterbalanced
lever-arm .
(5) Slotted weights for the load hanger or lever system. A suitable set comprises
9 no . x 10 kg
I no. x 5 kg
2 no. x 2 kg
I no. x I kg
totalling 100 kg altogether.
(6) Load ring for measuring the horizontal shear force, with calibration cert ificate. A ring
suitable fOr most purposes is of 2 kN capacity, buflrnng of 4.5 kN or perhaps up to 10 kN
capaci ty may be required for measuring very high shear st rengths.
(7) Electric motor and multi-speed drive unit, typically providing 24 speeds ranging from 5
mm / min to about 0,()()()3 mm / min; or infinitely variable speed control. The full displace-
me nt of 10 mm can be obtained in a period ranging: from 2 min to abou t 3 weeks. The quick
test is usually carried out in about 10- 20 min, which requi res a nominal rate of
d isp lac~ment ofabou! 1 mm / min.
 ::JilU iEAi rs , 2.5 .... , .DAR __ V" • • r _-\R ~ ~ __ .~ EST
545
I: ' '.If'.:; .~ ,\.. '. :,::' e- d t')

--
. ;A '~,e _ I ·~ • C: :!CI' )

,(-y
,
-
.. ...,..f.

I
L swon.neCk yoke I!I ~ <>
Q Q
,
C L

(0)

clemping screw (C)

"::~:~)
~ ; tl ;Og "COW (L)

,-
hel es 'C ~ Fig. 12.36 Component parts of 60 mm shearbox
\ ~
"-
-\. .~
,- ~ ,--
, ~ ~~_
~ ."". "".
uppe r ha l f
--{1fll'
...,!
\
11~c
•
r,, ..-
loadln" pad

I :··.~~ "al! - .af'T1 -: " H l - eO::ed "- ~ ) --~-

jJ l
t t'l readed --' ' no hol e pOint' of dpP lication _ ...""......"'.".
. _~_ J)*rforetad or solid ,,'Id plate
, 01 s hear torce
clea ro nce ho le tor

C =o l'1ol es lo r cl a mping
clamping screw .....< ~:: :6 -~- test Ipaclmen

~crews

l:l1oles for I,lt ing screws (0) ~~ _~_ perlorltld or ~Ijd ",id pllte

Fig , 12.35 Details of 60 mm shearbox: (a) plan view, (b) section through box ~ c? -~- co,ou, plate

A speed chart gives the rate of displacement for every combinatio n of gear settings. The v~ -~- re t 'i n in" plate
L"L 0 -
motor is reversible.
un
~7
!'~
Loading jack or worm reduction unit, which pushes the shearbox carriage forwards. It
/'/,-
;
may be connected to the drive unit by a sprocket and chain, or by enclosed gears. The drive
J---n "'1
~ ,/ DI
unit can be disengaged to enable rapid manual adjustment ofrhejack to be made by means o f / , I
a hand wheel.
(9) Tailstock unit, fixed to bed of machine, to which the load ring is attached and which
provides linear adjustment. The stem of the load ring which bears against the yoke of the
split box is supported in a baU.be,a ring sleeve .
t= --~.. ~-'~•
r - G <"'" boo

(10) ~1j£r.2.~eter dial gauge, 12 mm travel reading to 0.002 mm, for measuring vertical
movement oTtlfe top olUie specimen, together with su pporting post and mounting bracket. Fig. 12.37 Assembly of 60 mm shearbox
The gauge should preferably read anti ~ dockwise, i.c. reading increasing as the stem
moves downwards.
If the g.!!!ge_rn.e.asur~~ .ibe, displ_aceme.nt of the carriage .Qnly, th~5jion of [he load
OJ) l\1icrom~.J1L<l!.J'auge. 25 mm tra vel reading to 0.01 mm fo r measuring ho rizontal
ri!!.8~rrU.l§~!l.Cili-b!(~f.ted to,..Ebtain the re)?tive movement of the two halves of the
d i~ placem ef!i. Th is should be mounted so as (0 measure lhe refa ti\'e movemen t of the {wo ....specimen. -
h s. lvc'i o f the oox, such as by fi~jng it to {he fron( end o f the carriage!'O that the stern bears
again ~ l a h r:h·';.:i fi~e. ; 10 rh<,: ~\\a :l·ne~' k yoLe (see Fig. J 2.3 8) .
(12) Specimen cutter, 60 mm square and 20 mm or 25 mm deep, with polished internal
surfaces and e~t e rnally chamfered clltting edges.
546 DIRECT SH EAR TESTS 11.5 'STASDARD' SHE ARBOX TEST 547

o l~dial gouge

~ push fit in hole

'-T /:. :: ~
'r
, I brass suppor t lor
I, d ial go ug e
I,

'"
, ,e c d;09 00 too plot.

~ ~~. ~
I ~ after pl acin g specimen
--"""'; ,"od ;0 9 00 top of 900ge
block
Fig. 12.38 Mounting oj dial gauge to measure relafivedisplacement oJtwo halves
oj shearbox ~ ! I~ m eta l ga~g e block
L-. ~ 25mm t h ick

d i fference 'y' between reading s enables

(13) Wood pusher for removing specimen from cutter.
specimen thickne ss to be ca lculated
(14) Jig for holding specimen cutter in place while extruding a sample into it from a 100
mm diam eter sampling tube. Fig. 12.39 Specimen thickness comparator fo r 60 mm shearbox (Jrom design by
Imperial College, London)
(I5) Cutting tools and straigh t edge for preparing specimen.
(16) Flat glass plate, such as is used for the liquid limit test (Vol ume 1, Section 2.6.4).
plate
(17) Watch glass or metal [ray,large enough to hold the specimen cutter.
(18) Tamping rod with square end about 15 mm across, fo r tamping wil into the shear box.
Alternatively, the Dietert compaction machine or the Harvard compaction apparatus could
be used if availa ble (see Volume 1, Sections 6.6.2 and 6.6.4).
(19) Stop clock or timer.
(20) Balance and measuring instruments (steel rule, vernier calipers, depth gauge) for
weighing and measuring the test specimen and specim en cutter.
(21) Dial gauge, reading to 0.01 mm, and supporting stan d, for accurate measurement of
the thickness of specimens formed directly in the box. A small stand made at Imperial
College specially to fit the 60 mm square shearbox is shown in Fig. 12.39, and is used in
(0)
c0mparison with a metal block of exactly 25 mm thickness.
(22) Apparatus fo r determining moi sture content (Volume 1, Section 2.5.2). l e ng th=L

(23) Engraving tool (Chapter 9, Fig. 9.14) fitted with a suitab le tamping foot. This device 1
~~~'
has been found to be effective as a small vibrator for compacting sand to a high density in mean thickness of p late
t2:p tnzr
the shearbox.

12.S.3 Preparation of Apparatus

-lUI--J~
no. o/r i bs-n
q q
«)
The following notes indicate the general principles to be observed. Detailed in structions
provided by the manufacturer of the equipment should be followed. Fig. 12.40 Grid prates in shearbox: (a) sofid grid plates, (b) perforated plates with
porous plates, (c) details oj grid plale
Ensure that the shearbox is cl ean and dry, especi ally the surfaces of the two hah'es which
adjoin. Apply a thin fil m of siiicone grease to the inside surfaces of the box and to the
mating surfaces . Assemble the two ha\yes, and tighten the clamping ~crews, Verify the mean thickness of the grid plates, '>
is al~o required. This can be determined by calculation
iOierna l m t:a ~ure01:.?nI". u~ing vernier ca lipers . T he leng:h of the sides is de notej by L (mm ), based o n mea:;uremcnu. o f the ribs (Fig. 12 .40 (e)) o r by determ inin g [he volume of the plate
and the o\'erall dt'prh t y B (mmL by weighinv, l(ln(Y~d t-y \\f'it:.hi~g in \\;:ie r 5u<:r--.:nJcJ on a fi Jie wire. The difference
Me a~ure th e !h l;l: n(.;,~ of lb_::! oa~e p lJ.:c, I, (Fig. 12.4(1 (a) ). to I n o;;':":..1fJ.I.: Y ofu.1 mm . The bet\\eell t he Iv-.-O \\ elgil;ngs, in gr<ln1S, gi\'es {he \\)lum e of Ih..: pl mc in em ) (Principle of
 ,
t
;
- I
5~8 DiRECT ~HE·\ ;\. T£:.~T " 1:.5 ·~L-\>,D . \"(J ' '\!lC",fi:V,\ ":"'i- ST 549

Archimedes - Volume 1. Sections 3.3.3 and 3.5.5). Ii the length of side of the square plale ____ ....__stroigrrt eoc; e
is deButed oy L mm anu d,c volume by Vern ", then th~ Hh::4il ihid~nes:; :2 is given bi the
equation n- . f .. IE@ _aept n cs requ ired
_V-,-,X-,-,I.::c
OOO:.: mm _. .1 / 1
I,
L'
The weighing procedure is valid only for the plain grid plates, not for the perforated plates.
Measure the thickness of the porous plates with vernier ca lipers or a micrometer.
See that the inside of the carriage is clean and that it runs freely on its bearings, which Fig. 12.41 Levelling templare for preparing sand specimen
should be centrally positioned under the box.
Wind back the handwheel on the tailstock, far enough to enable the load ring to be fitted in surface leveL Measure the distan ce from the top of the box to the back of the grid plate at
place, and to allow sufficient clearance for the shearbox and swa n-neck yoke. Ensure that the the mid-point of each side or at the four corners. A depth gauge or a dial gauge comparator
load ring is securely fixed to the tailstock assembly, and that the loading stern can move freely of the type shown in Fig. 12.39 is desirable to ob tain accurate measurements. Th e average
in its sleeve. Check that the dial gauge is secure ly fixed to the bracket on the load ring and that measurement gives the distance x (Fig. 12.40 (a»).
the stem is in contact with the anvil at the loading end. The height of the specimen H can then be determined from the equation
Place the baseplate, grooves uppermost, in the shearbox. Lift the shearbox with the lugs
provided (Fig. 12.35), and lower it into position in the carriage. The lower half of the box H = B - (I, + 21, + x) mm
should fit firmly against the spacer block at the driving end of the carriage. If reversing
facilities are fitted to the machine, it may not be necessary to couple these for a quick test in The volume of the specimen in the box, V, is equal to L" x HI 1000 cm 3 and the density is
one direction. equal to -m Mg / m3 or -
l(X)Qm
- - Mg/m. 3
Adjust the tail stock and drive unit to the correct starting position, using the handwheels, V L 'H -
so [hat the carriage will have at least 10 mm movement in the forward direction. The
shearbox is then ready to receive the specimen. Alternative~y, if it is more convenient to (2) DRY SAND - DENSE
place the sample in the box on the bench, turn the drive unit backwards sligh tly by hand so
Dry sand can be placed in the shearbox at a reasonably high density by slow pouring at high
that there is enough clearance to take out the shearbox and to replace it after inserting the
velocity, i.e. from a relatively high drop (Kolbuszewski, 1948). A drop of about 450 mm is
sample.
p:obably en ough, for practical rt?as()PS. If the ~~ ~d can t-~ ~'Jbj "cted to \'ibratk~ :. !-::;her
Check that the gears of the motor unit are set to the required rate of displaccmenl and
that the chain-drive sprockets are tight on their shafts. The chain should not be slack, density should be obtainable. An electric engra .... ing tool (item (23) o f Section 12.5.2) may
neither should it be over-tight. Ensure that the reversing switch is in the correct position for be used for vibration. Compaction using the Dietert apparatus and a square foot that is
forward movement if the gearbox is of the type in which alternate positions change the fractionally smaller than the dimensions of the shear box may be suitable, but over-
compaction might begin to loosen the sand. Compaction of dry san d with a small hand
direction of travel.
tamper will have little effect.
When pouring, place the shear box on a tray so that all the surplus poured sa nd can be
12.5.4 Preparation of Test Specimens retained for weighing.
The procedure depends upon the type of soi l, and the condition in which it is to be tested. (3) DRY SAND - LOOSE
The maximum size of particles present in significant quantity should not exceed 2 mm in a A low density may be obtained by pouring the sand very rapidly into the shearbox from a
60 x 60 mm shearbox or 3.35 mm in a 100 x 100 mm shearbox.
small height. Use a tray to retain the surplus poured sand. When levelling the top surface,
the excess sand should be carefully scooped off, avoiding a scraping action as far as
(I) DRY SAND - GENERAL
possible. The top grid plate should be placed very carefully and bedded down with
Sand is usually tested at a specified porosity or voids ratio, from which the dry density can minimum pressure. Jolting and bumping of the shearbox when placing in the machine
be obtained. A test specimen is prepared by placing or compacting the material directly into should be avoided because loose sa nd is very sensitive to sudden shock.
the shearbox. Because of the large mass of the shear box itself, the mass of sand used (m
grams) is best obtained by weighing out a known mass, weighing the amount left over after (41 DRY SAND - MEDIUM DENSITY
compaction, and calculating m by difference. For an intermediate density, the sand can be placed in the shearbox in three layers, each
The lower (solid) grid plate is placed on top of the baseplate in the shearbox, grid layer subjected to a controlled amoun t of tamping, either with a hand tamper or using the
uppermost and with the ribs at right angles to the direction of shea r. Dietert machine. The exact amount of compaction necessa ry can only be determined by
Details of the procedures used for placing the sand are given separatel y below for dense trial. The-mid-height of the middle la yer should be about level with the plane of shear.
and loo"e states. After placing, carefully level off the top su rface of the sand to within
about 5 mm of the top of the box without disturbing the whole specimen. A levetling (5) SATURATED S.\~D
t.emplate as show n in fi£. 12.41 facilitates Ihi s operation. Retain any unmed sand for The sheal box is placed in the carriage, which ;s then putly filled wit h w3tcr. Saturated sand
weigh :ng, as refe! red to aho vc. is poured in[(l the bo" and t ti~l rcd or g~nr!y \'i br<·t~ed. Jerending upon the densit y
Place the top plain grid 0:1 the surface o f the sand, wi lh the ribs perrend icular to the line required. It is impracticable to obtain a low relati\'e demit} by this method , but medium 10
of shear (F ig. 12.6). Press it down cH' n!y so tha t the ribs bed into the sand with the top high de nsit ies can be achk\·C'd .
5~ '.1 DIRECT S HE~R H. ;TS 12.5 'STAI'DARD ' SHEARBO·' TEST 551

This :--r..e!hod i<; nN '\uitC'lble if fin~ m?terial (silt or clay) is pre~ent in aflpreciahle (II) Remove load. (16) Repeat stages (2) - (15) u s in~ alleast two
quantities because of segregation. An alternative procedure is to place the mixed soil in a (12) Drain box. other specimens.
damp state and compact it as necessary, then pour water carefully into the carriage so that (13) Remove shear box. (17) Calculate.
it percolates slowly upwards through the specimen.
Drainage will take place rapidly from a 'clea n' sand. To faci litate drainage the
perforated grid pla tes are used instead of the solid plates, together with a porous plate
(14) Remove specime n.
(15) Measure moi st ure content.
(18) Analyse data .
(19) Report results.
l
(Section 12.5 .7)

behind each grid plate (Fig. 12.40 (b)). The additional thickness I) has to be taken into
account when calculating the specimen height H, i.e. 12.5.6 Tesl Procedure
(1) Preparation of apparatus
H = B - ' (II + 2t2 + (3 + x') mm,
See Section 12.5.3.
assuming that the measurement x ' is made before placing the upper porous plate.
(2) Preparation oj lest specimen
(6) COHESIVE SOILS - UNDISTURBED See Section 12.5.4, whichever of sub-sections (1) - (7) is relevant to the type of soi l and the
required condition.
Undisturbed specimens of cohesive soil are prepared by using the square specimen cutter, as
described in Section 9.2. 2 (from a U-l00 tube sample) or Section 9.3. 1 (from a block (3) Assembly of apparatus
sample). The specimen is transferred to the shear box by using a wood pusher or by pressing
down on the top grid plate with the thumbs as shown in Fig. 12.42. Place the shear box in position in the carriage if it has been removed, taking care not to jolt
the box if it contains loose sand. Check that the top grid plate is correctly in position and
(7) COHESIVE SOIL - RECOMPACTED OR REMOULDED that there is a small clearance all around its edge. lfperforated plates are used, place the top
porous plate on top of the grid plate. Place the load pad on top, again ensuring that there is
A specimen may be recompacted or remoulded directly into the shear box at the appropriate a small all-round clearance.
moisture content, as described in Section 9.5 .2. If enough material is available, it is better Adju st the worm drive unit and the tailstock by hand, if necessary, so that contact is just
to first compact the soil into a mould and then use the square specimen cutter as for an made at all five contact points ind icated in Fig. 12.43 . A slight rotation of the handwheel on
undisturbed sample (Section 9 .5.4), the worm drive unit should produce a small deflection of the load rin.e. En sure that the
worm drive is positioned so that it can give at least 12. mm of forward movement.
12.5.5 Procedural Stages Adjust the load ring to the zero load position and set the dial gauge to zero or to a
convenient zero reading.
(1) Prepare and check apparatus. Cohesive soil- recompacted or remouJded (7) Mount the horizontal displacement dial gauge on its bracket with the stem bearing on
(2) Prepare lest specimen; procedure (3) Assemble apparatus. the moving bracket, ensuring that the gauge has sufficient travel available in the right
depends on soil type, as explained (4) Fit load hanger. direction . Set the gauge to zero or to a convenient initial reading.
in Section 12.5.4. (5) Set vertical dial gauge.
Dry sand - general (I) (6) Add water (if appropriate). (4) Fitting load hanger
Dry sand - dense (2) Place the ball·bearing (if one is used) in the spherical seating on the load pad. Lift the load
(7) Apply normal stress.
Dry sand -loose (3) hanger and place it gently so that the recess under the yoke registers with the ball· bearing
Dry sand - medium density (4) (8) Lift top half of box.
Saturated sand (5) (9) Final checks.
o , d
Cohesive soils - undisturbed (6) (10) Shear.

'): 4-"""'":"~t4 ___ topgl'""id plate

J
ll
orm \ sl"leol'"" box loa d l'"" in l1
dl'"" lve hcndwneel
tail stock.
uni t
spl'""oc l<et chain dl'""lve f rom handwtl ee l
motol'""i !>ed g ec rbox
bottom gl'""id pl ate
a nd oo!>e p lat. e in Fig. 12.4 3 Pain.s of cOl/tacl to check before starling shearbox lesl: (0) ""orm
pc!> i ~ i on dril'e {o (arriage. (b) pusher block to lo .....er half of box, (C) s wan-neck I'oke to load
f~ 'j
ring stem , (d) load ring 10 rci!:, ul{ J:. fe) s((:m of dial gOll ge 10 load (J;Ji-and nOll'
FIg. 1~.4~ P!/!>hiflJ! CO/;(,5.\(, spci..·;mt''1 elll vf ('Uti'" infO .~he.1 rbux ('spec'jall) ffJ ren;Ol'e clampmg S("rel\$
 ,
.~

,..-
~ 5::' U; l~LCI SHi-, \R fEs r:;: J~ .': ·S T:'.:". i.) ..loRD ' SHL .... RI30.\; rE~ T 553

~;- !i::mi::'i:,jlt:' ;I,.'a: bea iing s. ur L·t·. e. :.. ,n'~ ! l :-;0fm a l str !s~ ',l'! U br in du ced in the siJCI:i mCl, u\J ~ br o ss OI SC
to the \\ eigh t o rl he hanger , but the resu lt ing scrt Jem ent i!) not usually measured because the 40 mm d i o _ _ _ _ s e a t i ng l or d i a l g ou ge

vcrtical·mo\'ement dial gauge cannot normally be fitted until the hanger is in place. The
ottoened to
p o st i:; -= Il.. c l ea r a nce fo r i nsert in g
specimen height after the addition of the hanger is usually taken as the datum from which
r---, TC · l oadi n g y ok e
subsequent vertical movements are measured.
This limitation can be overcome if the simple attachment shown in Fig . 12.44, devised at
Imperial C ollege, is fitted to the load pad . The dial gauge can then be mounted and set to
pe "
attached
lo ad p o d
to --11', ,, +----+-
:
I
I
I ~I
l.--- . lo ad ing y o ke in posit ion
L Ly --
T
r::n-n=
j
an initial zero reading before placing the load hanger in posi ti o n. and the settlement due to ,1'""\,...J 1
the weight of the hanger can be meas~red. ,-, :::r-+-+I , l top lood pOd
,
(5) Selling vertical dial gauge , i
I I
l ....:)
L.-d
Mount the vertical moyement dial gauge on its support and swing it into position so that the
stem rests on the stud or knurled screw at the cemre of the hanger yoke or on the load pad Fig. 12.44 Dial gauge sealing arrangement fo load pod (frorn design by
attachment. Adjust the height of the gauge so that it gives a convenient zero reading (say Imperial College, London)
1000 divi sions) in the middle range of its travel. It can then indicate either downward
(positive) or upward (negative) movements. and for a 100 mm square shearbox

(6) Adding waler

W, = (1.02 a , - W,) kg

Unless a Yery permeable soil is being tested dry or at a part icular mo isture content, the Place the weights gently on the hanger, starting with the heaviest at the bolt o m , and the
specimen should normally be covered wilh distilled or de-ioni sed water at roo m smallest on top. Start the timer as soon as the fir st weight has been applied. O bserve the
temperature. The water should be poured steadily into the space between the carriage and vertical movement dial gauge and take readings initially at 15 s intervals from the stan.
the shearbox, so that water can penetrate upwards through the specimen, thereby Settlement of a sand specimen will stop after a very short time, but a clay will continue
displacing much of any air present in the voids. Any vertical movement resulting from settling for a very much longer period.
inundati o n sho uld be re<:ordcd. (b) Lever arm loadjll!; H the Ih.'l rmal :-.trcss to be applied is gre3te~ :h:!!1 ':~!1 :::: achieved
with the hanger weights alone, use of the lever arm is necessary.
(7) Application a/normal stress The following symbols are used in calculating the required weights, all masses being in
kil ograms (see Fig. 12.45).
Calculate the amount of weight required o n th e hang er to give the desired normal stress o n
the specimen. Wh = mass of loading yoke combined with it s hanger
WI = mass placed on yoke hanger
(a) Loading yoke only For normal stresses within the capacity of the loading yoke
W2 = mass placed on beam hanger
weights, the calculation is as follows. Wj = mass of beam hanger suspended from lever arm beam
If the mass of the loading yoke with weight hanger is denoted by Wh kg, and the weights Wb = mass of lever-arm beam
it supports by WI kg, the total mass supported by the specimen is (Wh + WI) kg = W kg. W = total load (kg) applied to specimen
This is equal to a force o f 9.81 ~v newtons . The pressure or stress on the specimen is a = distance from fixed fulcrum to pivot point of beam
therefore equal to 9.~~ W N/mm2, where L is the length of the side of the square shearbox b = distance from fulcrum to centre of gravity of beam
c = distance from fulcrum to hanger suspended from beam
in mm. Therefore Taking moments about the fulcrum F. the moment of the total load W is eq ual to the
su m of the mo ments of the separate components, i.e.
9.81 W .
On =- - X 1000 kN / m- IVa=(W,+ W,) a + W. b+(fJ'; + W,)c
L'
° L~
b c
or W= - '-kg W= W, + W, + W. -a ./- (IV,. + W,)
. -a
98 10

The force' appl ied to the speci m en is equal to 9. 8 1 W newtons .

a nd I~ ' = an L' W, kg ( J 2 .2:!) The rati o bl a requi res that the position of th~ centre of gravity be o btained. This can be
I 9810
done accura tely enough by fi nding the point at \,·hic h the De3.m just balances, for instance
o n the edg(' of a spatu la blade damped in a vice or held fi rmly o n the be nch. The ratio cia is
h 'lr ti; ;: <" l1d ~·rd 60 rijl:! !o q\·~it.! sne3rr.ox, [quati0n (J 2.22) hc.:omcs th:: n\.'milJ ~1 bt:~ m magnification rat io ('..!suai :y 5 t.':· Hl). !J UI '.::l !(wld (.~ \..:ri fi~d. Th ·~·" e ratios
ar. J !:-~ ': f'l.,!.tnt ma.."co:; of ~ (' ~.~' . I~t. ..,! : t:.:.n d b..' 1)'j h ~;- : .. ~ <"; ;,y, IJ (0 (' !, ..~·ded and rii!> pl ayed ,
W! = (0.3 67 0 1 - - H'h' kg t0geihr; r Wi"!l the p:e~~l.>re s rroduced 0 :1 t nt> " i' ~~·irr.o;?n by the aV<.J.i~.,:' e range o f weigh ts
 1"71
DJR .: HEl 'TS 1_. ) ' STr"-. '1J."-..iZD' ::: ,·lc· ... r<.:BO:.., , ........ r

~,!..}:2: ~::'!.:~:_~.£i.t i -!; ~

..,3 5
-
j'" r-:,:,~ <; o ! 10od i" lJ yok "': ('lnd hc'lnger W,:\ = 4·54 kg (!--e ... Fig . '2 '45 )
IT'ass 0 1 beam. W b = 2·24 kg
moss of beam hange r .. ... ....... .... Wj = 1 ·02 kg
lo adIng b
yoke
l ength a = 2inc:hes (50·8 mm)
a
= 2·4
f ix ed e.g.of beam b = 4'8inches (122 mm) ,
fUlcrumr=t9==F It/" c: =10·0 inch es (254mm) -;- = 5· 0 (beam ra t i O)
r I I 7

,"" , beam Normal pr e ssures on 60 x 60 mm sp eci m e n

," , load in g yo ke only: ern = 4·54 +W, x 9·81 x 1000 kN/ m 2
60x60

L, = 11 2'37 + 2-725W1 I....... kN / m 2

beam yoke with beam end hanger: C'n= [(4.54 +Wl)+(2.2 4 . 2. ~ +
hanger 1 g."
( , · 02+W2 ) X 5J XJ.'6
2
)40·92+13· 6 2W2+2 ·72W, 1 kN /m

lilW, LO A DING YOKE BEA M AND HAN GER

+W.
+Wj 300
00
1
'N/m' I
Ion 60x60mm
a8
/
4
.j
,1500
,,; kN/m'
on 60x60mm
J -
LJ
10 0

V
~oJ~
250 I V 1250 '

, / /
i, l
V ,
t V
b- c
k------- , 200 !. ' 1000 !

~
' 14':/1 w' I I
Fig. 12.45 Derails of lever arm/or applying high normal pressures
specimen
fO shearbox
150 I 1/ I 750 [7 I I '
both with the yoke hanger and the lever afm hanger. A set of data relating to a particular ' ~
100y i 500 V. "
machine is given in Fig. 12.46. If a counter-balanced beam is fitted, only the weights need
I 50 ' f-250 I an J
lZ
1
to be taken into account and the calculation of normal stress is simplified. If pound weights
are used on the hangers, multiply their value in pounds by 0.4536 to obtain kilograms.
Fix the beam carefully .into position, adjust it to be level, fit the weight hanger, then start
I- 12'4 1 1
41~
b--+-T
the timer. Carefully add the weights to the hanger. bearing in mind that the effect on the
o 0
o 20 40 W W 1000 ~ ~ 60 80 100
specimen of each weight and of any sudden shock is magnified 5 or 10 times (depending on loed on yoke hongerW, kg load on beam ha nger W2 kg
(additional lo ad on yoke W, kg)
the lever ratio). The downward movement of the hanger will be in the same ratio to the
vertical movement of the specimen, so some adjustment may be necessary to maintain the Fig. 12.46 Typical da/afor calculating normal pressure on 60 x 60 mm shearbox
beam near to the horizont al. specimen
Weights may also be added to the loading yoke hanger, if necessary, to provide a finer
adjustment of normal stress than would be possible using the lever~arm alone . Table 12.4. LOAD ON SPECIMEI" (UI) RELATED TO NORMAL STRESS (on)
The relation between Wand an for four sizes of shear box are summarised in Table 12.4.
DimeMions onlor given W (kg) W jorcn=]oo kN/m2
ojshearbox
(8) Lifting top half of box (mm) (kN/m~) (kg)

REMOVE THE CLAMPING SCREWS which lock the two halves of the shear box together ({) >: ({l 2.725 W 36.7
(Fig . 12.35). ]f this is overlooked, the test will be merely aq un success ful attempt to shear
them. If th e lOpS of the screws are paimed bright red it will provide a visual remi nder. 100 x 100 0.98 \ W J02
Insert these screws, or serarale sc rews if provided, into the other two holes (marked Lin ~OO x }((J 0.109 JV 911
Fig. 12.35) <:nd scr ew !h~m down unt il contact with the lower ha lf of the box c ~! n jUe! be
felt. ROl3.~e them bOlh 1('£!,-,ther a f\.~nher half-turn , so as !oJ separate the 1\\,(1 hah es of Ih:.: ~(i~ y 3a~ 0.105 Ii' 9"
5~f1
b~''\ b: ,d- ·,-,L ~ 0 .S n"Il,. T )--,t,!
\\I~(tl(: uf the hnri7c::ai sheal fO f..:"C ( an n(\ \. be trJ.n~;n iu('d
" e! r" ... t i:-I~ <;cr;;: ~\ ~ a /lJ !"('moVe them ,
li lt o uSh ! ;H.' ;PCC;;TiC G i; :('\ f .
Lifting the upper half of the box by a half·turn o f the screws is a nomina l amount, but if
san d is being res-ted the amoun t of lift should ideally be slightly more than the diameter of
the largest particle, This is to pre\,ent crushing of grains between the two hal ves of the box
which could cause additional friction, For example, if the material contains medium sand
up to 600 /lrn, a lift of say 0.8 mOl would be appropriate. If the pitch of the screw thread is
0,8 mm, this would require one whole turn, The amount of lift must be kept to within a
reasonable limit, say 2 mm at the most.
(9) Final checks
Before proceeding to the shearing stage, the following items should be checked,
Contact made at all contact points (Fig, 12.43).
Clamping screws and lifting screws removed.
Dial gauges set correctly.
Load pad not tilted or jamming.
Machine speed and reversing switch correctly set.
All dial gauge readings recorded in the initial or 'zero' positions,
Timer wound up, set at zero.
(10) Shearing
Switch on the motor and simultaneously start the timer. At regular intervals of the displace·
ment dial reading, record the readings of the load dial, the vertical movemen t dial and the
time. A suitable interval for taking readings initially is every 10 divi sions (0.1 mm) of the
di splacement dial gauge, but if the load dial reading increases rapidly, additional readings
may be desirab le, It 15 :~pc::-tant :lot to miss the 'peak' load reading and if the load
increases rapidly it may be advantageous to take all readings at regular intervals of the load
dial reading. If the load is seen to change slowly, the number of recorded readings may be
reduced to one every 20 or 50 divisions of the displacement gauge,
She:::.rir.g shou ld be continued until the maximum stress or ' peak' point has been clearly
defined, that is until at least four consecutive readings indicate a decrease in load. If a peak
is not observed, shearing should continue until the full length of travel of the box has been
reached . A steady rapid increase in load dial reading will indicate that the permitted travel
has been exceeded, unless a travel limit switch is fitted.
If possible, plot a rough graph of load dial reading against displacement as the test
proceeds,
DIRECT SHEAR TE STS 1.2.5 'ST ,, ;'>i))..-\ RD' ~HE "'~bOX TL~T S~7 -
lk . :g~ :- yuk-.: and p!aC t it i:·, iI:. re,:ing rh)~iti{ll'. Take l,ft the iO:ld paj cl;J d upj)er porous
pk',t~: ifu<;:~d,
Lift am the shea rbo \:, using the li ft ing lugs, and place on the bench. Clean out the
carriage.
(14) Removal a/specimen
(a) Sandy (non·cohesive) soil Remove the top grid plate and tip the specimen into a small
metal tray which has previously been weighed, Brush out the in si de of the box, and the grid
plate, so that all the material is transferred to the tray without loss. If the sand was tested
dry. weigh the tray and soil.
I f the sand was not tested in the dry state, dry the soil in the oven overnight, allow to cool
in a desiccator and weigh. The moi st ure content is not usually important for a granular soi l
but the mass of so il pro\,ides a check on t he mass initially used and therefore on the density
and voids ratio,
The whole specimen may then be used for specific gravit y and particle size tests.
(b) Cohesive soil The moisture content and the form of the sheared surface are usually
significant. Pull the upper half of the shear box upwards from around the specimen, at the
same time pressing down on the grid plate with the thumb s (Fig. 12.47 (a». Invert the lower
half of the box over a small tray and push the specimen out of the box into the tray by
pressing on the base plate (Fig. 12.47 (b)). Any soil adhering to the box should be removed
and added to the specimen,
Weigh the tray complete with specimen and two gr id plates, or else slide off the grid
plates and add any adhering soil to the specimen before weighing (m 2 ).
To examine the surface of shearing, separate the two halves of the box before pushing the
specimen Gu: h:. :;lidi;.g rhem h0iiwn,ally in :hc same r,:-:o:'.:\,e dilcCi il'ji a .~ in (h e shear te"t.
The two sheared faces can then be sketched or photographed, If the moisture content is to

(I I) Removal of load (a)

At the end of the shear test switch off the motor, wait until it has completely stopped, and
switch o n in the reverse directi on until the drive uni t has returned to its starting position.
Unless the reversing coupler has been engaged (and this is not usually done for a quick test)
the specimen will remain in its sheared position,

(12) Draining rhe box

If water was added to the carriage , remove it by syphoning into a beaker or by sucking it
into an empty plastic wash·bottle, Allow to stand for about half an hour so that th e porous
,.J, .. ~
plates can drain. Record any further movement of the dial gauge.
~ ,.e./
(13) Remo. al oJ!hear!lox
"l
T;t k~ the w::~'l:;S o~f ~l,!.: k~~d r.ar:rer a nd if tht> lever arm r,anger was used remo\(' th .' r,g. I:, ·r; .",-'n,-:' I- m: c· ,; ~' i\ f $'/l.,cj"' cn /n,;'l silt'a, ko \.: fe) p,,/fing ~way upper
!"'.;.rl.e-r ... ,-o;• .! '.1 ..... ,- -3-.. .r.;. ::,t,! H;-;;"::';': nJ ....ly(' r-::..;'Il. (;:,.1 ~;~ug,: ir,!o a s;)f~' ;::'ll,i: ivn, L ;'[ ,'!f lilt: 1£.1,: ,j ,'..-X, Itll pl/'I::'; {Ii' , r~' It I-Il't J..,;,:.~ (,J j,:·x
 r~.5 '5 1 A~[J ."\R[)· SHEARBv."\ -J i.ST 559
558 Dlf;'[CT :;;HE.-\R TESTS
Shear stress If tht J0:.':.d ring l'alibratio;l, in n1.'wtom p~r Jh ision (;-"';/d~ \·) is dellait'd by C'h
be measured, do not leave these surfaces exposed too long especially in the vicinity of
the shear strength T corresponding to <'I In<'ld di<'ll fI?<'Ioing R di vi.<;ions is givf'n by the equation
photograrhic fioodlamp<;,

(IS) A1easurement of moisture content (cohesive soil) T CRR x 1000 kN/m' (12.24)
Dry the specimen in the oven overnight or long enough to achieve constant mass. Allow to L'
cool in a desiccator and weigh in the tray (m 3). The final moisture content W z is given by the
equation where L is the length of side of the square shearbox (mm).
For a 60 x 60 mm shear box, the shear stress is given by

W2 := m2 - m l X 1000;0
m3 -mT CRR kN/m'
T = 3.6
where mT is the mass of the tray or the mass of tray plus the two grid plates if these
remained with the specimen when weighed wet and dry.
and for a 100 x 100 mm shearbox
A specimen of cohesive soil may then be used for the determination of the Atterberg
limits.
T=
CRR
10 kN/m'
(16) Repeat tests
To obtain a set of three points on the Coulomb envelope, repeat stages (3)- (15) on two If the ring calibration is reasonably constant so that a mean value of CR can be used, it is
additional identical specimens under different normal pressures. A set of three specimens is convenient to first calculate the ring 'stress factor', C r (kN/m2 per division), where
usual, but additional specimens may be tested if required.
The values of the normal pressures should be related to the stress levels in the particular
application and should be selected to provide a reasonable spread of points. There is no CR
C T = - x 1000 (12.25)
'standard' set of pressures. L'
(17) Calculations
For a 60 x 60' 111111 Sheart;0~, C]" = CR /3.6 and for a 100 x 100 mm shearbox,
Density and moisture content The calculation of the initial density of the specimen, p, is C T = CRllO. It is then only necessary to multiply each load ring reading (after subtracting
given under item (I) of Section 12.5.4. the zero reading if there is one) by C r to obtain the shear stress.
The initial moisture content is obtained from trimmings if ta ken from an undisturbed A typical set of shear box test data for one specimen, with the shear stresses calculated, is
specimen. This may be verified from the dry mass at the end of the test, which is the same as shown in Fig. 12.48.
the beginning if no material has been lost.
12.5.7 Analysis of Results
Initial mass of specimen = m
Final dry mass = m3 - mT (stage 15) (18 (a)) Shear slress and volume change
Initial moisture content = f
l
m - (m 3 - mT)
(m, - mT)
l x 1000/0 Plot the calculated values of shear stress (kN/m2) as ordinates against displacement (mm)
along the horizontal axis. On the same horizontal scale, plot the observed vertical
movements during shear. All the curves from a set of three tests can be plotted on the same
If [h e accepted initial moisture content is denoted by woOfo, the initial dry density PD is axes. as in Fig. 12.49.
lOOp From the graphs read off the maximum shear stress for each specimen (the 'peak' value,
equal to Mg/ml.
100 + Wo i.e. shear stress at failure) and the corresponding displacement and vertical movement.
Tabulate the data as shown in Fig. 12.49, together with the normal stress applied to each
If the application of the normal stress causes a settlement of y rom before shearing, the specimen.
consolidated density Pc is given by the equation
(18 (b)) Coulomb envelope
H On a separate graph sheet, plot the shear stress at failure, Tr, against the corresponding
p, --p (12.23)
H-y normal stress, 01"1' for each specimen, as in Fig. 12.50. The horizontal and vertical scales
must be the same for this graph . Draw the line o f be~t fit through the three points. If the
or appro,imeteJy p, = p (I + ~) if y is small compared with H.
soil is granular and non~cohe$ive, the line should pass through the origin (c = 0), which
provides a founh point. This line is the failure envelope or the Coulomb envelope.
Measure the angle of inclination tp of the failure en\clope to the horizontal a~;is to the
•Vorma! stress The c.-:kulaticn of the normal stress is given in stage (7). r,('arest V2 o. Read off the cohesion intercept c (kN /m~) on the vertical axis .
S{,O DiRECT SHEAR TESTS 1~.5 'ST-\~DARD' SHEARBOX TEST 561
.-J 1, ..... or . . . . . . ,< T'- ....... Dc... ","", nc-{
r~:-;-(-o;;ti~·, />1aA-:".e -TiT1i.__ -~~~~-.~.--..-. -..-.~.-~S~~)'! N~JQ78~~1
/2g
,,---
- - - - - - - -- -_.. !
Operator...... j). __P·..R.· Dcte ... . ~.f _:. ~. : . 80 .. 120
Type of test ... . q.~~~,~ Nomina l size ... ~.Q _?<. _6.0 mm
110 c
50i ! desc r i pt ion .~ ~·9. ~. ~ ..1.?!:?'~(I. . lir:.~, r.C? ('!.e.:fi.o,ff) .. s,'!(l.d,. {Ci:-:tJ. ..
STRESS- DI S?lACEMENT
Type of specimen. ... U'1D15TIdFWEO! REt IOULDEI.7- COMPACTED
100
5 peci men pre po ro t i on .. ..(q.f7}.p.C(.f.r.e.~. .t1X. t::9.c!.c(/I"}9, /I?}. !.qY.~.D;-. __
INIT I AL Length L .. ... .;& ,0.... mm Area A .. 3.~.!~ ... mm 2 Speci fic 90
E RE MN
E T d .."
8 reatho 6 0 ,2 V I V / 4£ G 3 grovity
MASU . . .. .. .... _.... mm oumeo ·· ...... : .. · .... cm "['S " RES
H e igh t HO ' . :~~U, . ~ .. mm Bulk dens ity pJ:.f:'J. Mg/m3 '~SS(U~ ED 80

M ass 24-~'Z
m . .......... ... .. 9 D ry d "l ·Y PD ...
ens /,(,9
...... M g / m 3 GS
2 · 6£
70
Moisture w 9... % voids ratio eo ... 9. :? .~ .6 .. N
B
E
SHEARING AFTER CONSOLI DATION
Z ~
60

Machine No. . _;.. L oad ring No .. .t< . 2.~?:. SettlementP'O(~_mm Height Hl.~:!mm SPECIMEN B 1 c
Mean calibration CR .. .Q. : .~. -?~.... N/ d ill
Stress foetor Cr .. 9.: .~ .~.S .. ~N/m2perd i ll·l
Dry density POl " '!':'?!" Mg/m
Voids ratio e, .
3

O. : §:;~.. ... I
-
~

•
VI 40
50
noemal
stress a n '.,/,.;13& ISO Vr L6
I )'

'i5']fs1f~N#1 32170 1/28

I

Rate of displacement . .... ..1.. . .mm/min Norma l stress O"n ... . ~6: . kN/m 2 a ~.~~ e A-_A d!spl_ mm l 2 ' O 2 5:2·2
~ 30
Date IT ime HorizontallLoad
displocel'Tleflt d i al
reading
Hor izontal Shear
load stress
T
2
Vertical movemen t
d ia l exponsion-I Remarks
reading settlement +
- 20
~
,d
ry
j

,
i
I
•
mm'- ' /6i-6~/4
,

I I'
'

mm I divs. N kN /m ~m rn m 3
'- ;.1 cE>i1sityM<;tm 170/70 (-71
10 £ ] voids ·i· ~
24/~ "'27 o o o o 5(;00 o ~L...a: : o 10 56t56 1055
0 ·25 3/ · 5 2~ '5 8 2 5000 o
I I I J
0 ·5 0 58 0 54 ' 3 15 .0 49% of O· 004- 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
j7. ,; -10 ·0/ 3
hor 'zon tal clSDIOCE'ment r7'1m
0 · 75 68·0 .,3 ·6 4.9ll7 E -·6
00 57'5 ., 3 25 3 50 1 6 -0 ' 0/6
E - ·5 t
a, V ," A VERTIC';L MO'v"EMENT
/·25 1i2 '0 5 ~9 0 £053 -0 '0 53 ~ - -4
8
/·50 30 8 50/j4- -0'004
t -· 3

/ . 75
'" '"
03 3/· 4- 5/ 23 - 0'/2 3
E
>
-·2 c
'" I 5,'60 -/· 60
- ·1
.~ 0 $ceU I
2·00 12 2 /14· 2 :3 1' G mOX.T

2 3 , 5 6 8
~ :;j'{"e,
2·50 121 · £ /f 3 . 7 3' 5 5235 -0·235
30 . 0; 53 1 2 -0.3/2
3·00
'"
,,.
"0

3·50 '0' 29 . £ 5377 -0· 377

Fig. 12.49 Typical graphical resulfs Jrom a set oj shearbox tests on dry sand
4 ·00 00 '0 3 28 · £ 5424 -0· 4 2.4 (readings/or Spf?cimen A are shown in Fig. 12.48 )
ge'3 £> ~ ~ , -0· 4-55
4 '5 0 ' 05 2.7· 2. I

I 5·00 10 2 ~5·5 Z;"4 5470 -0 ·470 I (19) Report results

From a set of shearbox tests on three or more specimens, the following data are reported.
~::::~
5

L
Angle of shearing resistance, tp, to the nearest Y2 o.
::: :::; :::: ::'.: :::: II
Apparent cohesion, c, to two significant figures .

1- ='
6 ' 50 %'0 BI·7 25,4 55 11J -O·5 / ~
Dimensions of test specimen.
i<:O _1 %.0 t!.· : ... . " 5£;::0 -(I 520 ! testJtof'ped Description of sample>.
Whether specimen was undisturbed or recompacted, and how prepared.
Fig. I :! ...H'; ?:ljJim/ 5e l of shell! box res! dula for Ollf specilllen of dry salJd Initial bulk density , moisture content, dry den~i[y,

I
1
 ..:;
" ;, :... :- \~ .6 . '-h: .'\. r ~«~

? c:fiicult!() ;;anJk,·1 i:t" ~ :;:~;!b,.:o'( i ll.~ l f. fi'l :,,~.;?~~u.:. :1;.:'; ' :·1.• ~ " ili1 ,. ,p·... (ijn·~h r'\'le '.,i l'c
,!

could wei):,h :, !:-OUI 60 kg Jlld i~ nOl \;,,:. s~ h) rnMj b2.r,~~k ,:,iv (~;a ... (.!.
:=". ",.:, J

/ /1
c Items whic!', diff<'.:' r f,om 010S-c I j~(t. J in 5ec!iGrI 1 ~. ~ . 2 ; trl'::~ f.:. H..... ·., . .
-

·2 :
__ '"2"
I--;~~
~ --- / I Load ri ng: 50 kN ca pacity is normally required, but depends upo n the load capacity
I ¢ 0 ,;' and size of the box.
lv t... ' - ~
/ I Dia l gauges: For horizonta l movement: 50 mm travel. reading ro 0.01 mm.
T
~ '-;/ ~,z. eo
/
/ II For vertical movement: 25 mm tfaye! reading to 0.01 mm.
Four such gauges can be mounted, one at each corner of the box , so that
any tilt of the top loading plate can be measured.
Normal load ing system: A lever-arm loading system may be limited 10 400 kN/m 2 ) but
60 •. B. 1 a hydraulic system can provide up to 1 MN/m~.
Motor unit: A powerful mowr is necessary, and travel limit swit ches are desirable safe-
guards agai nst damage. A multi-speed gearbox can pro\'jde a wide range
"'01"" ---- A _.--j of displaceme nt speeds,
The com ponent parts of the la rge shearbox shown in Fig. 12 .5 1 ca n be seen in Fig. 12.52.
Additional item s required fo r tests on granular materials are as follows.
20 (1) Miscella neous tools - shovel) large scoop , straight-edge,
(2) Rim e box, suitable for medium to coarse gravels.
'L, j§
(3) Electric vibrating hammer, with a square tamping foot. For the size of specimen to be
20 '0 GO 80 10.) 128 it.O ;60 compacted, a hammer of at lea st twice the power of that specified for the BS vibrat ing
normal stress 0-
o k'4rr? hammer com paction lest (Vol ume 1, Section 6.5.4) is desirable, preferably mounted in a rig
with a hydraulic ram. A unit used by P ike (19;3) at the TRRL had the follo\\·ing
Fig. 12.50 Coulomb em'elope Jar set of shearbox rests Oll dry salld shown in
Fig . 12.49 characterist ic s.
P ower consumption of hammer, 1.5 kW,
Operating frequency . aboul 14 H z.
Bulk density a nd dry density at start of shear . Force applied through hydra~!lic ram, a~out 4.5 kN.
v 0in.s r:-'~;'J~ a:1d relative de:;.!::~i e~ (s2.!1ds on!y). Tampillg foot, 300 mm ::.~vaft::.
Whelhei \\ 2..['.:'f was added for test.
With a smalle r hand-held vibratin g hamm er, a ~ma ller tamping foot (e.g. 100 mm square)
Rate of ji~!,l a ~'emtnt.
would be more suitabl e.
Tab '..!la;;j da!a ~umrr:.ar i sin g each test (Fig. 12.49).
She2r stress/displacement and \·enical movement/ displacement curves (Fig. 12.49).
12.6,3 Prepa ration Qf Samples - Coarse Grained Mate ri als
Failure em·elope (Fig. 12.50).
T he test is described as a ' quick shearbox test'.
T he specimen to be tested is taken from a kno\\·n mass of material, and th e IOtal residue is
weighed afterwards so that the mass of ~pecimen ca:1 be obtained by difference. The le'l
12.6 LARGE SHEARBOX TEST

12.6.1 General

f he large shear box referred to heie is a typ ica l commercial ma('hine designed for testing
specimens up to 12 in (305 mm) square, although large r machines ha\'e been built. T he
apparatus was originally designed for testin g free-draining materials contain ing panicles up
[0 coarse gravel size (l lh in, i.e. 37,5 mm) , and th is is Ihe main application which is
described ( Bi<;~"lOjJ , 19.t8) . Refere nce is also made to the tesling of i.mJi~lurbe d sam ples su..:h
as \'ery stiff ..:lays or soft ro:ks .
An eady ~!1~arbox of th is size uses a !n cr arm and ha:lging \\ ('igh t~ f0r applying the
11(l rm a! r !'~."\::· t.', and is ::.ho\\ n on the left in fig. 1~.34. :\ more r('ce:-nt d~sj~ n, )hown in Fig..
J 2 .~1, irl _-cq~on·:I~s a h~draulk loadi ng sys tem.

11.6 . 2 .\t'~,; !"~'lJ~

T~t' ;--,r~~ ::',;;' \ 'rK" '~;~i l ";' :':Oll<,: '{ !' (·~~'.:r.i;.c i l: l) 1 ..·('m;~I"-;~~·'.i<'; : q;:ii"r [0 !liU~ t' () [ f!:,' n.~" 1:.51 I ,!r1!.l' .tJ:c ,/r,;'..,.x n"J~'h;lie 1,·;1/; hyd· ..·.di= !r',ld:"g (e r ....1('5y H'imjlt")'
" .. , ... . \'11 : ~ :1,, :.. :,.·.. '.1.1 :'<\ . l;~' ~
, ; ' 'r ' .1 •• ' ,~,~ ,
/..,I''''T'I(' ·I(.· 1'1.: '

-
~ ';-1 DlRECT SHEAR TE'" S
~:'\.\'1jlll:~
\"\ \ ~~I ' /
Fig. 12.52 Component parts of farge shearbox (courtesy Wimpey Laboratories Ltd.)
specimen should contain a representative proportion of the largest particles , which should
be placed individually by hand if necessary to obtain uniform distribution.
The material is compacted into the shearbox already in place in the machine, if possible ,
t() (\\' (lirl [he difficult!es (If :'"Jbsequent handEr.g. Cc:np3ction should normally be done in
three layers, with the plane of shear near the mid-height of the middle layer. Normally the
criterion will be to achieve a desired dry density, rather than 10 apply a specified
compactive effort . The difficulty of achieving even the BS ' ordinary' compactiye effort by
hand ramming is illustrated by the following calculation.
Volum e of 12 in shearbox with specimen 6 in (152.4 mm) thick
= 304.8 x 304.8 x 152.4 em' = 14158 ern'
1000
Volume of BS compaction mould = 1000 em 3
Ratio of volumes = 14.16
= ratio of masses at equal densities
:. Number of blows per layer (equh·alent to 27 in the compaction mOUld) :::: 27 x J 4.16
= 382 in theshearbox.
Clearly the use of a vibrating hammer is preferable to a tiring and time·consumi ng hand
compaction procedure. However,; for dry materials, compaction using a hand tamping rod
may be adequate.
If a hand·held vibrator is used, with a tamping foot smaller than the surface area of the
sh ear box, the materia1 around the edge of the box should be compacted first, working
systematically over the inner area afterwards. Several passes of the vibrator may be
necess.ary and the totul time shoul d be based on experience or trial co rnpaclion. At least 2-
min/layer may b..: needed ro equate with BS 'ordinary' compaction.
1f the specimen contains a h ig h proportion of coarse maleridl, and is short of fines, a
!,':yer of rJ:(:dium ~, and a few mill!mclres thick may be spread over lht' fOP ~urfa('c TO make it
ea~jer to b..:d d'.::m n th e l Or gi;O plat!;.' unifl)f;)ll y.
J,:.6 lARCE SHE:\RBuX TE:'.T 565
12 .6.4 Prl'paration (If Block Samples
The preparation of biock samples of cohe si\'e materials for the large <;h earbox is desc ribed
in Section 9.3.4.
Block samples which are smaller than the shear box can be placed in the middle of the box
and the surrounding space filled with a rapid setting filler material such as stiff Polyfilla .
The sample should first be protected by several coats of paraffin wax, brushed on, to
prevent absorption of water from the filler. T he filler should be placed in two layers , the
first exactly up to the level of the plane of shear. This should be levelled off smooth,
allowed to set and then covered with two layers of polythene sheet cut to fit around the
sample. The polythene sheets are separated by a layer of sili cone grease, to eliminate any
shear resistance due to the presence of the filler material. The second layer of filler is placed
on top of the polythene, taking care not to trap any air, and brought up to about 5 mm
below the trimmed top surface of the sample. This will ensure that the top grid plate rests
only on the specimen, not on the filler , and that the whole of the normal load is transmitted
through the soil. The arrangement is indicated in Fig. 12.53.
The area of specimen on which the normal and shear stresses are assumed to act can be
determined after the test when the two halves of the specimen are separated. The outline of
the specimen can be marked on a sheet of tracing paper laid on the sheared surface. The
area of the outline can be calculated by dividing the figure into rectangles and triangles; or
by laying on a sheet of graph paper and counting squares; or by using a planimeter.
12.6.5 Test Procedure
The procedure for carrying out the test and for calculating, plotting and reporting results, is
similar in p~ ~ncipJ e to that descrihed in Sections 12.5.5 to 12.5.7. Detai led procedures will
depend upon the type of equipment used.
It should be indicated on the test data sheets that the large shear box apparatus was used
and the sile of 's pecimen and method of preparation should be stated.
12. 7 DRAINED STRENGTH AND R ESIDUAL STRENGTH SHEARBOX TESTS
12.7.1 Outline
Measurement of the drained shear strength of clays is based on the principles of effective
stress , which will be covered in Vo lume 3. The procedure outlined below, using the
shearbox equipment already described, is included here in order to complete the account of
the use of this apparatus in routine testing of soils. Measurement of pore water pressure is
t
•
Fig. 12 .:-3
SAMPLE
~~ 'HI., ('b' Ioyee)
!'?-:':='-c-:':-...:=-===,'~
ir r~';':'-!,7r blo,,:k s(lI.';pfe .S(f lip;'n /(.rge Sh2(;+OX
 \

)66 DlktC"1 SHEAR TESTS 12 -: DR.AL"ED STRfI"GTH AND RESIDL'AL STRENG Hi SHL\RBOX TESTS 567

i~('· t ntC6',.i[Y in t his t)!i:': of test, neither i~ jt practicable in the oldinary shearb o'( . (..:crr l og e) ( ' O:H~ rlflg
Significant changes in p0re walcr pre~'i:nre eluring shear an~ prevPDted by allowing drai!1age C=.;ve 7pi nd ie) I (sh~or =~;-,)
from the specimen, and by applymg a sufficientiy slow rate at displacement. This can be
assessed by using the empirical method described in Section 12.3.9, which is based on the
requirement that at least 95070 dissipation of excess pore pressure should take place.
The residual shear strength of clays is measured by extending the drained test well beyond
the point at which the maximum (peak) strengt h occurs. Displacement is continued to the (drive
limit of travel of the shearbox which is then returned to the starting position so that the unit)
specimen can be re-sheared. This process is repeated a number of times until a constant
. value of shear resistance (the residual strength) is reached.
A large shearbox can be used for drained and residual strength tests if the nature and size
of the sample make it necessary. The principle is the same as for the standard shearbox test,
but consolidation and shearing times are likely to be very much longer because of the steel plete t ie-rods peeker engle brocl<ets
\
steel plcte
greater thickness of soi l which must be drained. bee ring egeinst bolt ed to with ho le lor
rear projection swan neck load-ring
01 drive spindle sp in dle
12.7.2 Apparatus
~r-g'~t~,-a-p-,-----------------"''-------v-----­
swcn-neck
The apparatus is the same as that referred to in Section 12.5.2, except that for the residual c lomp
test the shear box must be fitted with a means of reversing back to the starting point while Fig. J 2.55 Reversing attachments/or older shearbox machines fA ufhor's design)
the normal load remains on the specimen after the full travel has been reached. Marsh
(1972) described a spring-return device, but the drive motor running in reverse is generally
a desirable safeguard against damage due to over-running. A dial gauge mounted to
used to provide th e return travel. This requires the inclusion in the apparatus of t\\lO
measure direclly the relative displacement of the two halves of the box (Fig. 12.38) is
linkages to transmit tension, a rigid packer between the outer box and the lower half of the
necessary in order to monitor the actual rate of relative displacement.
split box, and a load ring which can sustain tension (Fig. 12.54). It is not essential to
The essential features of the apparatus are shown in Fig . 12 .54.
measure the shear- force applied to the specimen during the reverse t ravel, although some
machines are fitted with a load ring which can measure in both compression and tension.
12 .7.3 Te~! Procedu!"c
Older shearbcx machine~ ,.·.. hi..::h were :1ot fined with reversing links can be provided with
tie-rods and straps, and a clamp, in the manner indicated in Fig. 12.55. A packer in front of
The procedure described below is for the measurement of the peak and residual drained
the lower half of the split box is also required.
strengths of a soil such as a stiff over-consolidated clay. In an ordinary drained test in
A gearbox providing a wide range of displacement speeds is necessary. Built-in micro-
which the peak strength only is required, shearing may be terminated as soon as the
switches which automatically stop the motor at the limits of forward and reverse travel are
maximum shear resistance has been established, or when the limit of travel of the shear box
has been reached on the first run.
The first part of the test is very similar to that described in Section 12.5.6 for the standard
shearbox test, but it is important to obtain a complete set of readings from the consolida-
tion stage.

PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN
The procedure referred to in Section 12.5.4, item (6), is appropriate for overconsolidated
clays. A sharp blade should be used, taking care not to shatter the specimen . If hard
fragments of gravel size are present these may cause difficulties in specimen trimming. The
presence of one or more coarse particles within the zone of shear could invalidate the
results, especially in a small specimen.
Specimens of peat should initially be of greater thickness tha n is normally used, ro allow
for the likelihood of very large settlement.s taking place when consolidated. II may be
necessary to add further material to the top of the specimen after partial consolidation in
order to ensure that the surface of shear remains well \.... ithin the boundaries of the
consolidated specimen.

Fig. 12.54 Additional jlflings fa shearbox apparatus for residua! strength rests:
a--Utlk iN/ween dn\'e-rod and outer box, b-Pad:er be{:,eer. OUit;f hox Gl/d !oller
h""!{::.fsllt"!1rbo.':. c-V"I: between swan- llcek and loud ring srem, d-L ood ring G'1d
anchorage must sustain [emiutl
SETTI:-;G t;p
T~e app3.raiUS i~ prepared , and the ~pc.::imen ~ et up, as je~crlb('d in stages (1) :0 (6) of
S,(',;:tioJl 12.~.6. War-:r is added to the outer coni3 iner immccliatcly before applying wej~hts
to the hanger.
~ til>. DIRt:\... I :)l-IEAK I l:.')TS l_ . 1 f),.;;..· ... I.·,t D S J "l~."\ iT. I :~."L.> KE':-:~-,-, . -;~ ST ; ~. "... r, H. ~l. c;,", ,~ . :KY{ ';-I_. J''';; 569
~
( C"·"·;.::-(lj "').\';;('>..
F /.;~
Stail i.:J( timer 2.! rh::- ;:J.me ~ir::e a, t}l,; ',0i"iTl2.1 load- is applied to the sp~'(i!Tl<-n, <'t~. dt:scribed
in Section 12.5 .6 , stage (7). Record the readings of th e vertical movement dial gauge in the
, h--: ~~~:~"~ ~.:-~Y~~:: ~:' . c"
-7
E
'/ '
same way as for an oedomcter consolidation tcst (Section 14.5.5, stag e (14)). The time c / I
intervals convenient for square-rooHime plotting (1/4, I, 21;4. 4. . min, Table 14.11) may "E / I
be used. •v / i
o / 1
Plot settlement readings against square-root- time (minutes), allowing consolidation to colC.l lat e d to te ::>1
continue until settlement is virtually completed. This may take 24 hours. ~ dlsplacerrent --R I
" '''-..,,''-.. // I
ESTlMATlO~ OF RATE OF DlSPLACEMENT
, / "/ ' " actual speed I I
Determine the value of 1 100 by the method described in Section 12.3.9, and illustrated in Fig. '"// i ncreases cs rate of

12.25. If [he linear portion of the settlement curve is not e\'ident, use the alternative
?'" lead ring d e f l ect ion I
Q
gets tess I
procedure indicated in Fig. 12.26, also described in Section 12.3.9.
Calculate the minimum time to failure, fj , from the relationship tj::= 12.7t](.(). ,
speed reduced i
As an example, ih/fJOO is found from the graph to be 5.8, then ! I
/
= 5.8 2 / calculated t ime i
( 100 ::= 33.6 min
!4 ____ / . to fa ilu re tf I
~,I
....-p:..---speec Increcsed

and If ~ 12,7 x 33,6 ~ 427 min, i.e, about 7 h,

Locser"ed rote o f disp lccement t i me minut E'S
0,103 x 21' 'I
1f H ~ 21 mm, c, ~ 33,6 ~ U5 m year
Fig. 12.56 Graphical moniraring oj rare oj displacement
Estimate the displacement at which the peak strength is likely to be mobilised. This is
usually based on experience, and a general guide is given in Table 12.5. If in doubt use a low 1.2.56. If the observed points fall below the line OA, the rate of displacement is less than the
Gi:culmcd \'alue: i!' 3.1::ove ~h? 1)n2.. the rate of dis;Jlace:n .:.;-,j is too fast ::.nd should be
Table 12.5. TYPICAL DISPLACEMENTS fOR PEAK SHE.AR STRENGTH IN 60 mm SHEAR BOX reduced. Soon after the start of the test, when the load ring is deforming as the shear force
Tvpe of soil Shear box displa~'emel/t builds up, the actual rate of relative displacement may be less than the machine speed (curve
for peak slrengrh OP). It is then permissible to increase the machine speed, provided that the rate of strain
(mm) continues to be monitored. ""'"hen the plot of observed points reaches the line OA (point Q)
Loose sand 5ta8 the speed should be reduced, giving the curve QRS. The aim should be to maintain an
average rate of displacement no greater than the calculated value represented by the line
Dense sand 2 to 5 OA,
After passing the peak condition the shear resistance falls off rapidly, as indicated in Fig.
Plastic clay 8 (l )"picallimil of tra\'el)
12.28. As the residual condition is approached , and the vertical movement dial gauge
Stiff day 2105 indicates little or no further change in volume, the speed could be increased to double that
calculated for achie\'ing peak strength.
Hard clay I to 2

REVERSING
estimate which will err on the safe side. For this example it is assumed that the peak \\"hen the limit of travel of the shear box is reached, S!(lp the motor and ensure that the links
strength will be reached at a displacement of 3 mm. Therefore, the rate of displacement for re\'ersal are securely connected. Return the shear box to its starting position by running
should not be greater than 3/ 427 ::= 0.00703 mm /mi n, and this -is represented by the line th e motor in the re\erse direction. The gear setting may be adjusted to com::!I;;:e th-:
OA in Fig. 12.56. If th e nearest machine speed on the lower side is 0.0070 mm/min this reversing operarion O\'er a period equal to the calculated time to reach peak streng th (tj)'
would be a su itable speed at which to run the test. If a load ring whi ch is calibrated for tension as well as compression is used, load readings
may be taken at inten'als during the rcyersing stage, but this is not essential. When the
SHEARlNG - FlRST STAGE sh earbox has re.::tched its starting posit ion, the \'er tical mo\'ement dial reading is recorded.
The specimen is sheared in the same way as described in Section 12.5.6, using the rate of
di~pJacem '..'n t obtained as abo\e. As th~ tc::;t proceeds the load ring reading (which is
RE-SHEARl~G
:Oi~'PI"()\~!~,,:c! y proportional to .';h('ar ')!re::s) s ~ould be ploned 2gainst .('umulmi\c hori.wnt~.!l
di-i '!':::C' ;~,'f' : . i;: ! ~~(' n:~: . n(1'" ~ho\\ ' n in Fi;;. 12 .2R. In ad ,:;,],!",. th.c ..h:ttl:>.l r,lle of di~:);:1\"c - The s('ccd ,hl'_";fi'H~ ; ~::\ ' ( r<;e ;<.; c:~ rri::,d 0:..:1 in Ih-: srrne \\".v <":.; the fi rst. D.ispla..:ement is
:~j,',: ~ I ,_ j ;.'~ i-·!.~i I: . . :; ( ~.., ; \'d .:ii.· r.· 1, .. ( "1"", I,. ~ .... ~•. , i' , t [il,;t ;.;. '-1 ,'1 ." i"I ::1 c:~ , : ;, .._:: l ,! ... l ~ : ' l ' ~' . -. , ' ' . 1(.' ~t" .... '; .l ; ,;:. : . :;. ,; ~ ! "n : :L " ;-,>i r: ,H \\ hic h i h(, rir~l rUIl
 - :
...
•
D .
r

D1RlCT~Ht.\t:. fLSrS 1:::.1 Dk.A I:--.:I:D ~ fRE;o..:G T H A!\l) hESID UAL ~TRc.~GTH :51 {EAkJO:X TE:, f~ :; i 1

'::!Idt.·';' .\<: <"i-)'~I\"n

i t ) Fif". 12.28. T~c cak'ul<ttcd. fiiiC 0fubp!<1I:t:IJIt.::1ll is used up to the poin t of

maximum s.hear -5-trength and from there to the end of travel the speed rna:: be doubled.

SCBS EQUEN T SHE ARIN G STAGES

Further reversals and re -shea ri ng are applied as described above, until a constant resid ual IRESIDUAL SHEAR BOX TEST] E STRENGTH ENVELOPES c
\'alue of shear resistance has been achieved, as shown by the plot of load dial reading location . .It/roo ...... "§' 400 _'_ _ J -~.-t-. ___ .
against cumulati\'e displacement (Fig. 12.28).
Sample no ... 8/2.4
50,1 type .Dock ·_9re x. sflf.
'. -' ..c. .
0, - - . - - - -
_
B
__QeO'll-

CO~IPLETION OF TEST ... .-6sfiqr ed . Sifty .Cf..,~.Y . ~ , \O\.\c\.--

After the fin al shearing run the specimen is removed , split along the shear plane and
Date . .,?,5://·r:fO();:)erator . CJJH iii 200 - A-- -(~~'';-<C''-'-"-1-25-kN-'I:-m''2
sketched and described as for the standard test, stages ( 11 )- (13) and (14 (b)) of Section o( - - ~~s ._ .. ~ x~:~
i2.l.<
__ ' 1/>' ::: 240
12,5.6. The moisture content is determined (stage (IS)). Whenever possible the plane of
c; = 35 kN/m 2
shear on both halves of the specimen should be photographed.
The pea k strength and ultimar.e or residual st rength are derived from the load / displace- E
0:= 17 G

E 200 .oc 2 600

ment curves as indicated in Fig. 12.28 . If th ree identical specimens are tested , the Coul omb normal stre-ss kN/m
envelopes representing peak and residual failure conditions can be drawn , from which the c 100 k'r~/m2
shear strength parameters, c', (£I ' an d c,', CPr', can be obtained. An examp le o f a set of three •E
tests is sho wn in Fig. 12.57. •:;:; 1-5 -=-- ------ ----. -- --J
;; - - - - - - -_ _ _ _ 300 kN/m'

MULTI STAGE TEST

A multistage test in which a single specimen is sheared successively under two or more
~

20I
o 5 10
"---- 15 20 25 30 35
I
700 kl\/m 2
'
40
"'t im~ """'~ I I ~€'S
d ;fferent normal pressures arpear<; to be f'r'0!'oJ7:!!cally at!rac~i ... e. H owe\·er. this procedure
is open to the objection tha t each additional co nsolidation stage displaces the previously a
Q.> .... E . VERTICAl rOVEMEJ";T !)ljRIr~G S~EAR
>C ...... . A
formed shear sur face downwards and out of alignment with the plane of shear of rhe
appUatm, so that a new shear surface has to be dev~loped.
~~EO' 5 ~n Be ~~U'- .--B"-
~; ~ : c ___
U til 1·0

12.7 .4 Cu t-Plane !liethod SHoAR STRESS I DISPLACEME"

,
The number of shear box travels requ.ired to bring a clay to its residual condition may be
reduced by s!icing the specimen in two along the plane of shear, a procedu~e so metimes 4001 / ::-f_
referred to as the 'cut-plane method'. If the specimen is sliced before setting up initially,

N~z 30C11
l I =--= A-CP---.
allowance mus t be made for consolidation under the normal load to ensure that the cut will
bt 31 :he lc\{:l of the plane of shear of the apparatus for the shear ing stage. This difficulty .CD .-i-
uT- 7
CD
A
can be o\"(!rcome if the specimen is consolidated fir st. then removed for slicing and carefully ..)C I_·~ •.. _ _ ._ +--/-

repla ced before re-applying to normal load. If the intact peak strength is to be determined B
~
the specimen can be removed after the first travel of the shearbox and sli ced along the .....- - - - -- -
resulting shear plane.
t
;,;
200 .~.,......
B
An alternative procedure which obviates remo\'al of (he specimen is to apply up to six - .I 8
co J0~"~ ";'11<--)-- - - t
J
I _
I _L... - :• , •
rapid back and forth travels of the shearbox after completing the first run. A disadyant age -- - - -

is the almost ineyitable loss of fine material from the shear surface, and it is the iine
fraction which has an important influence on residual strength.
¢I

~ 10
~
1--:' 1---:' -'--
• .. , - •• - -
J

.'
1
- - - ' -C-
_ ...!...
, -;' -
, : '
__ _
C
t
.

The measurement of shear strengt h along a fissure or other surface of discontinuity in a II I I ~ ,

soi l o r rock can be regarde.d as a tes t on a naturally occurring 'cut plane' . A peak strength Do 5 10 15 2C 25 30
appreciably higher than the residual value is not usually to be expected if the surface is cumu:a~:'~'" d·splo':.""E'rnE'nt
correctly aJignetj in (he shearbox. Careful allowance must be made for settlement due to
F ig. 12.57 CrJphicaf resu {fsfrom !ypic.,l sct of rt'"ichu, .7i!ear/)f).\· i(!~ ;'S I
conO::01idct!i01l ;1.nd beddilll! in:o grid platc5- wh rn <:et!ir'~ ur.
I '· .~ .yi ' .'; ,:' , ':f"I· 1 ,::<':;'·' ,,1 ' .', " .. " ~ : i ~rit·.:! ,.I< ,,!\" !I .t' ;.::.~;. "
.' .Y , 1 , ". " :;~ at \1: ....,..u<; . \\ l.;t P~h<.'(jJt. TIle P~0C ~(~U ; ~ i ~ ~11 <,.J f':;; :! ~.:
[Q l)\ ;~:, ,,(,1' ( It) i J '. :l~,(~'~ l H\ 11<:1.. ;1 :1 and (rilr:n (i 9'"1.;).
. - "- ~

12.X
- , ~ g

\ \ \E SHEAR TE,oT
- - ,
- g 4 l)!~SH£\ R J CST.') 28 ; X"l SHEnST 573

12.0.1 Gcnerai "'-

'iJ'
The British Standard gives details of a vane shear test for use in the field (BS 1377: 1975.
Test 18), The laboratory vane test described below is simila r in principle but is on a smaller
scale, being designed for testing samples in the laboratory. The vanes on the field
equipment may be up to 150 mm long and 75 mm wide, but the standard laboratory
apparatus has a vane measuring 12.7 by 12.7 mm.
Experience has shown {hat the results of the laboratory vane test are compatible with the
results of unconfined compression tests. The vane apparatus is particularly suitable for
soils such as soft, sensitive clays having shear strengths of 20 kN/m~ or less, from \.... hich it
would be extremely difficult to prepare undisturbed specimens for other types of test. Soft
samples can be tested in the sampling tube with the minimum of disturbance and this is the
application which is described. However, the test can also be carried Out on soft remouJded
soils, for instance in a compaction mould.
Another type of apparatus using the same principle is the Pocket Shearmeter, a small
hand-held device described in Section 12.8.5.
~
12.8.2 Apparatus . j~
;~,-
(1) The laboratory vane apparatus is self-contained and consists essentially of the
following components (see Fig. 12.58). It may be fitted with a drive motor, but the
following description is for hand operation.
(a) Frame and stand.
I
"

(b) Vane mounting assembly.

Ii.. (e) Handle for raising and lowering the vane assembly by means of lile square-thread Fig. 12.58 LahoralolY ;;(U/ .. (~/'JlI/f('!!lS
1 lead screw .
(d) Vane, with four blades, 12.7 rnm wide and 12.7 mm long.
(e) Handle for rotating vane head.
(f) Graduated scales, marked in degrees, one on the fixed vane head, tbe other rotating
with the vane (see Fig. 12.59). knob on
(g) Rotation pointer. vertical
shaft h
(h) Vertical shaft attached to knob fitted with pointer carrier on friction sleeve • •
U) Set of springs (usually four) of different stiffnesses, to allow for a range of soil pointer g
strengths. _ ..
(k) Calibration chart for the springs (Fig. 12.60). rotating
The dimensions of the frame and base are large enough to accommodate a standard scale n
compaction mould or a CBR mould containing the test specimen. For testing a sample in a •
long container, such as a U-lOO tube or a piston tube, the frame can be swivelled through
0
180 so that the \'ane can hang over the edge of the bench, where the sampling tube can be •
clamped in a suitable position. Counterbalance weights must be added to the baseplate. fixed
scole f
(2) A means of supporting and clamping a 100 mm diameter sampling tube close to the pointer inn er 26°
edge ofrhe bench. corrier m 43'
outer 17°
(3) Drying oven and other equipment for the determination of moisture content. BEFORE TEST END OF TEST
(4) Small tools such as spatulas, trimming knives, steel rule. zero setting deilect ion of spring = 26°= 6,
(5) Stop-clock or timer. • rotation of vane = '.7°
rotation o f spring mounting = 43°
The principle of operatio n or the appararus is as foll0ws. If the vane is pre\'t'ntt:d rrom torque = Ke 1 N IT.m
rotaling as the handle (e) is turned, -the inner graduated scale (n) (Fig . 12.59) rotates (0 ) (0)
through the same angle as rhe upper end of the spring but the vertical shaft (h) and pointer
(g) remain stationary. The pointer therefore reads zero on the ouier scale (D, and indicates Fig. 12 .59 Angular scale on laboralory vane apparatus: (a) details, (b) e.\.'ample
the torsional rotation, or 'twist' , of the spring on the inner scale (n), from which the torque illustrafing readings after a test
,--
. .- DIRECT SHEAR TESTS 1: .8 \ A"E SHEAR TLSl 575

LA5~TORY V~ E Serlol no. JJO/ - 0.';' 12.8.4 Test Procedure

~ ing rumt:.e-r 2 3 4 (I) Preparation 0/ sample
ME'<ln t orsi onal constant
3-78P'/412'231 i4f The following procedure relates to a te st on an undi sturbed sampir! contained in a U- J 00
N mm per degree
350 sampling tube, but the same principle applies to other types of sample. The sample should
.'
to r~ue
I spnng no.I not be jacked even part way Qut of the lube if it can be avoided, and it should not be jolted
300 -¥-/ I /i nor tilted once the end seal has been removed.
N mm ; 4 Clamp the sample tube securely with its axis \ertical and v. ith the end 1O be tested
uppermost. Rem ove the end cap, wax seal and any packing material. Trim the sample
250
inside the tube so that its upper end is flat and perpendicular 10 the tube axis. Measure the
distance from the end of the tube {Q the sample.
200

150
:::r,
h (2) Clamping lube in position
Carefully move the sample tube, keepi ng its axis vertical, to the position already prepared
for it for the test. Clamp the tube adjacent to the edge of the ben.:h. with the horizon that is
100 <.alibration lin e to be tested a little above bench level. so that the va ne can reach 10 the centra l axis of the
der ivi ng K tube (see Fig. 12 .61).
If its weight is supported by a stool, the rube can be held against the bench by tightly
wrapping a length of cord or wire two or three times round it, and securing each end 10 a
G-clamp clamped on the edge of the bench at either side (Fig. 12.61). A piece of foam
w ~ W W ~ lW ~ R m ~ rubber o r plastic material interposed between the bench and the lUbe \\..'ill help to keep it
ong l@ of rotat ion degrees steady. Alternatively. the apparatus may incorporate a clamp for a U-lOO tu be in the ba se-
plate.
Fig. 12.60 Calibrafion curves for torsion springs of laboratory vane apparatus
(3) Selection o/torsion spring
applied to the spring can be: cdculated. The pointer remains in this position when the The torsion spring to be used should be selected after examining the sample and assess ing
torque is reduced . If the vane is not fully restrained, the reading indicated by (g) on the its range of probable shear strength. A general guide, based on the descriptive terms given
outer scale (t) gives the angle of rotation of the vane, while the reading on the inner scale (n) in Vol ume I, Table 7.1, is given in Table 12.6.
enables the torque to be calculated as before . The rotation of scale (n) relative to scale (f) is Record the number of the spring used.
equal to the sum of these rotations, and merely indicates the total rotation of the drive unit.
Therefore at the end of a test: Table 12.6. TORSION SPR!;'\IGS FOR LABOR.-\TQRY YA.''E
Pointer reading on inner scale gives torque; Genera' descriprhe ferm Suggested spring Al(Ll:i1ll1l1ll shear stress
Pointer reading on outer scale equals vane rotation. for strength So. ( k;-'!'· m~)
r'
12.8.3 Procedural Slages Very soft 4 (\\"eakesl) 20

Soft J 40
(1) Prepare sample in tube.
(2) Clamp lube in position. SOfl to firm 2 60
(3) Select spring. Finn I (stiffest) 90
(4) Prepare apparatus.
(5) Adjust scales. (4) Preparation oj apparatus
(6) Insert vane.
The apparatus is assembled and t he t o rsion sp rin g fi tted in accord a nce with the
(i) Measure shear strength.
manufacturer's in structions. The torsion sp ring mu st be fitted the righ t way ro und.
(8) Remould. Fit the shaft of the vane into its socket, and tiglHen the fi xing scr ew. To check that the
(9) Measure remoulded strength. spring and Yane are correctly fitted, hold the vane be1\\ecn thum b and fin ger to prc\·ent
(I O) Remo\'e vane. rotat ion and turn the tor sion drive ha ndle a littl e way wit h the other hand. The t endency of
llJ) Repea t st 3f:C!l (5) - (10) (fo ur more t imes at different position s). the ,·ane to rotate sh ould be k it.
Sla cken the ntlt on the b ~5':! of i )}C r illa r un il. 5\\ i\C! :he tmit thro ug h 180= 50 that the
(l:n \1 easu re T.0 i q~rt' content an d dem it y.
b ;~ ... c ~ nd [onion h ei.! d are 0 n OJ' r 0~:t~ ,.,;:.~~~ ( I f t h:.' i·,iI]:.- '. :Hld r": -I:t-:hten the fixing nu t.
0.') (.'.,: , " 10:". j( ., . Il huid (,f 1' /,(, I i!!c.'r~' :,, ;,:/~, ,-'.'tr .. '_.Ii .'(' h·:il~i'· ; . . t' i.'f".' .'·'cicd 10 the baseplate
(: •. ; R . ;~· ,; ~ ~'J't~. If ..,1. 1: Ii l !.
 57f. DIRECT SHEAR TESTS !:.S' \'.\;...:[ SHEAR TFST 5-:-

~ r~;,jsl<i.j'I..C
cof the: ;::oiJ is Tn0b;]is€d . .Ai ihi .. poir ' ! 1:-tjll1re occur~ anJ t::e t:)lqU~ L!~cr:~ :~~ . ~:..:.!
..." the pointer remains in the position indicating the ma.\imum 2nguiar deflecTIon of Ih e
spring, from which the vane torque at failure can be calculated. Stop turning the handle,
stop the clock and record the angular scale readings to the nearest lh o. Record the time
taken (0 reach failure.
If the spring deflection reaches 100°, discontinue the rest and repeat wilh a stiffer spring.

(8) Remoulding
Rotate the \'ane rapidly through two complete revolutions, so as (Q remould the soil in the
sheared zone.

(9) /'vIeasurement ofremoulded strength

Record the readings on the angular scales immediately after remoulding . Without further
delay, rotate the vane as in stage (7) until failure is observed again and record the scale
readings for the 'remoulded' test.

(10) Removing the vane

Raise the vane steadily by turning the handle (c). As the vane emerges from the sample,
press gently around it to prevent excessive disturbance due to tearing of the surface. \Vipe
Fig. 12.61 Laboratory vane test in U-/OOsample tube the blades carefully to remove adhering soil. To avoid the possibility of damage to the \'ane
and shaft, wind the assembly up until it is well clear of the top of the sample tube.
Move the apparatus away from the edge of the bench by about 30 mm, so that the vane is
Raise the vane assembly by rotating the handle (c) (Fig . 12.58) so that the vane clears the e ir el..'tly over the position marked 2 in Fj~. 12.62. This location allow<; rea . . nn;>hlp rI,?::Ir~",! c"s
" tep of :he tJ- !OO tube. !\lu\'e the apparatus inlu position so that the vane is directly over the oetween positions 1 and 2, and between position 2 and the wall of the tube.
central axis of the tube (position 1, Fig. 12.62).
I'
It (II) Repeal rests
(5) Adjustment oj angular scales
Repeat stages (5)-(10) at position 2 (Fig. 12.62) and again at positions 3, 4 and 5, Be:\"e-=~
Move the pointer (g) on the dial (Fig. 12.59) so that it is in contact with the carrier (m) on each new location 2, 3, 4 and 5, either the sample tube may be iotated 90C. or the vane
I! top of the vane shaft. Hold the knob (h) and rotate the carrier until the pointer is brought to apparatus can be moved.
11 the zero position on the inner scale (n). Rotate the handle to bring the pointer to zero on the On completion of the set of five tests, clean the vane and remo\'e it with its shaft from the
I! outer scale (t). mo.unting . Take out the spring. Replace aH components in their places 'in the box pro\'id ed.

I! (6) Inserting vane

Check that the vane is directly above the centre of the sample. Wind down the vane

I,,
U-100tl.'~e
assembly by turning handle (c) (Fig. 12.58) until the vane just touches the end surface of the
sample. Measure and record the level of the top of the vane mounting with reference to a
fixed point suc h as the underside of the crosshead. The exact depth to which the lower end

r
of the vane penetrates the sample can then be measured. Alternatively, if the pitch of the I
3Cmm
lead screw is known the vane penetration can be determined by counting the number of
I revolutions of the handle (c). rTh fi'\ 3

I' 3o~m
Wind down the vune steadily until the required penetration has been achieved. Usually
the top of the vane should not be less than four blade lengths below the su rface, giving a 0'C7 /
minimum cover of about 50 mm for the standard \'ane.
I , -e17r---L /( t
(7) A1eJs!irt~men t oj shear strength
Record the ;:ljt~nJ reading~ of the poime:- on both angular sca les to the nearest half-degrt'e.
Rotate the h:.if'l:.dle Ie' (Fig. 1:.58) (J0ckwi~e at a steady rate of abo:Jt 1 lurn /s . to appJy
! " .:,'':~- i. ::.';. \;,:.~ . ..\;: :.- ~ '.; :.J( ! .!":l C ',;<:;1 the cI",::l.:. \\ !l:l(' tht: :\\.)i! j., ro.: "j ;,:-,; tbe ~ri'!;cJ
-------
'- - 3:.-·- -',
.. /

tvl",-!U':, .,'1(, P")::l!d rc.:;diLg 01\ lhe ir,l1tr si.:alr: increases ~t(!adily until the ma.\imuI11 5hcar Fig. 1~,(,2. Vane tCSl/(IC(JtiofiS If1 C)-JOO rz .. ')_'
c.-", PIRECT ; HL,R 1ES·1S 12. 8 VA;\F SHEAR TE::.-:" 57y
( 12) /I,'leosuremelll of moiSfllre COI1 !ent an d density
The soil sample may now be extruded for examination and ind ex te~lJllg. As it IS e.\truaea 1. ;,., --,.,.
(tested end foremost) mea sure from the end surface so as to a'>cenain the locat ion of the
zone in which the vane tests were done . From this zone take specimens for moisture cOntent .~,
determination, preferably on e from each \·ane test position.
If, in addition, the density is required, it is better not to rely on meas urements made after
ex tru sion , but to measu re and \,,!eigh the sam ple in the tube before extruding for moi stur e
conten t measurements, as described in Volume I, Section 3.5. 3. (The tested end of the
\- ,.,<"
e
sample has already been trimmed and mea su red; thi s sh ould now be d one at the other end). ;B. -of..... t
J~
Ej
/ -
After completing these measurements, the sample may be extruded fo r moistu re content
an d ind ex tests. I
....
;; .!!IJ-:fc~:
--I ~ "";-. ~

(13) Calculalions
The angul ar deflection reading indicated by the poin ter (g) o n the inn er scale (n) after ea ch
shea r test gi ves the relat ive angular deflection (8 degrees) of the ends of the spring at
failure. The shea r st ren gth of c of the soil is calculated fro m equation (12.21), i.e,
c = K8 f /4.29 kN/mz for the standard vane , where K is the tor sional constant of the spring
used in Nmm per degree of rotation . The value of K is obtained fr om the supplier's
calibration data and is equal to the slope of the torque/angular displ acement graphs in Fig.
12.60. from these graphs th e torque (K8 f ) can be read off direct.
Calculate the average value of all five undi sturbed shear strengths (c u ) and of all five
remoulded shear strengths (cr ) . If one result differs appreciably from the others of the set
(e.g. by more than 20070) it should be discarded. Also calculate the average angular strain at
fa ilure fo r ea(h type of test.
C::l.lct.:.!ate the semili vilY S, of The soil. where Sr = CIJ/cr·
Calculate the a v~rag e moisture content from the se\"eral locations at which measurements
were made and calculate the overall density if measured .
(14) Reporl resulls
Report the average undi sturbed and remoulded shear stre ngths, in kN / ml , to two
significant figures . Include the hi ghest and lowest measured values,
Report the co rresponding angular strains at failure to the nearest degree and the average
time to reach failure,
Al so repon the sensiti vi ty of the soil to two significant figures and the moi sture content
and bulk densi ty if measured, Results of index tests (e.g . liquid limit, plastic limit) should
be included if measu red,
Report that the laboratory vane test was used, stat ing the size of vane. Indicate the
horizon withi n the sample tube at which the tests were carried out, so that the result can be
related to the depth below ground surface.
}2,8.5 Pocket Shearmeter
The pocket sh earmc ter, or pocket 'vane, shown in Fi g, 12,63 operates on a similar principle
to the laborawry vane appa rat us , but is ap plied to the surface and rotates a relatively thin
disc of soi l. It can be used on si te, for instance on th e sides of pits, trenches and embank-
ments; and in th e laboratory on the ends of tube samples o r on th e fa ces of block samples.
The instrumen t shou ld be regarded as an aid to the vi sual classificat ion of soi l in the zone
inspected, and not as a subst itute for other methods of measuring shear strength for de::.ign
purposes.
Tilt "hea r s lr~nglh ('If the zone of !-oi l le5ted i5 measured by pushi ng the vanes into the !'oiJ
... : J :~-.,;;;~, .".:.. ' .. ,,~ ~_:"';i;;" ~·<,,<nLHil :-eaciin,[::) a'·~~ I..\(' ..1 (lJ: Ihc di,~J. T ~li~ j" ( ;,!P~ ra!e ·j:1..1
r~ .· 0 "':tr:::d; :- 1:1 ... h:"~j r ."1; ~;1 ~ li~ t.:.rll!".
~7 · I
"'----') ~
Fig. 12.63 Pocker shearmerer
The standard vane can be used for measuring shear strengths up to 100 kN/m 2 • In
addition, a larger vane can be fitted, which gives greater sensitivity when measu ring sh ear
st rengths below 20 kN /m~, and a smaller vane is available for extending th e ra nge up to 250
kN /m' .
The manufacturer's detailed instructions shoul d be followe d when using th is instrument.
REFERJo!'1CcS
Abbott, A . F. (1969). Ordinary Le\·el Physics, 2nd Edition, Chapler]. Heinemann, London.
American Sociel)' for Testing and ~1atcria!s (1979). Test Designation D 3080. 'Standard method for direct shear
test o f soil~ under consolidatt'd drained conditions'. ASTM, P hiladelphia, USA.
Bell, A. L. (1915). ' The latera! pressure and resistance of day, and the supporting po\\tr of day foundatiom'.
Proc. Ins!. Civ. Eng., 199,233·272.
Binnie, G. M., et al (1967). t-Iangla. Proc. InSf. Civ. £ITg., \'01. 38, Paper No. 1063, Part I. 'Engineering of
Mangla' . November 1967.
Binnie & Partners (1968). Pri\'ate communication to aurhor.
Bishop, A. W. (1948). ' A large shearbo.\( for testing sands and gravels·. Proc. 2nd. 1111. Cun.r. Soil Mech. and
Found. Eng .• Rouerdam, \'o!. I.
Bishop, A. W. and Henkel, D. J. (1962,. The Mea5uremenf of Soil Properties in the Triaxial Test. (2nd Edn .).
Ed ..... ard Arnold, London.
Bishop, A . W. (1971). 'The inn uence of pr ogressive failure on the choice of the mcthod of ~tabih!y analysis'.
Geol!'chnique, Vol. 21, No.2 fTedmk"al NOle).
II' Bishop, A. W., Green, G. E., Garga. V. K., Andresen, A. an d Brown, J. D. (1971). 'A ne .... ring she:ir ar-paratus
VI and its application w the measurement of residual strength'. Geofechnique, Vol. 21, No.4.
Bromhead, E. N. (1979). '.'\ simple ring shear apparatus'. Ground Engineering, Vol. I:, N(I. 5.
Coilin, A. (1846) . (TramlatC'd by \\ .. R. Schriever J956). LOl/d,/ides in Cla)'s. Unirer,ilY of Toronto PreH.
Cooling, L. F. and Smith, D. B. (1935). 'The shearing resistance of wi!~ '. Proc. lSI Int. Conf. Soil.\fl?dl. (lnd
FOllnd. Eng. 1936, Vol. I,
Early, K. R. and Skempwn, .-\. W. (1972,. 'In\esligalions o f the landslides at Wahon·s Wood, SI;:,ffurd;hire·.
Q.J. a/Eng. Geol., Vol. 5, !'o. I, rp 19--l1. The Geological Society of London.
Gibson, R. E. and Henkel, D . J. (1954). 'Innuence of duration of te~t~ on "drained·' strcng!h ·. Geolechnique,
Vol. 4, :-':0 . I.
Gilboy , G. (19]6). ' lmpro\·ed soiilesting mr.'thods'. Engineering S('\\'5 Record, 21 51 !-.1ay 1936.
Golder, H. Q . ( 19~2). 'An arparalu~ for mea$urin!! the shear wenglh of soils'. Enrinc-ering. 26!h June 1942.
H;'o r~le\· . f-.1. J. (lq39). 'Toni\ln shear 1C'.1~ and their rbce in fhe dCicrmination of the sh:"aring rC\i~t'Hh.X' of
5Oils·. Proc. Am, Soc. Testing ,\fal." 99 . pp 999·IO:.!1.
t\01t;. u\ZC' .... (kL .I . (19-:81. ':\n t'\perim~ntal STudy (If The mnv imum a nd mir.imum f C'lHhities of <a!ld ~· . Pf(lc. 2nd
/.-.r. ("-,'J .<".j, '.f,. h. 1''':;/ r ·.!I '. , L-'I~ , R \·l er.~:, :r., \',,1. 1.
!. " ,·I.\:. 1 \\ " .• \\ ~.'; !", ;:, . R. , tJ I·f'_ Sill/',j, 1H.;'i/C>. 5.1. I (. ' !'-':1. "\i k'\. :\," ' ·ork.
 -
" ,t IJlRtCTSi![·\R r Esrs

Lel\i" W. A. and Rr:,~, :-". 1 . \J~SSJ. "-\), i:!I""llfJ.tiO[l u( ,Le ~ <':I,Hi,'r"hlp 8~"""'1' tllo.: ,,111.. ,;[ ~·.I.'~ •• lh oj
r"
r... rl",u;';~"; ".:,. ;,{ 'V,: ..... ..: ;~,.: ~v,; ;I,(.;:: .. ~:.: :::;;,,'. , ',,:'·,t>ii c......, " .'w;!rrt. ~':Oh' Sn. R~ 2;;:0 ','.. ":"L~;\;R
RoaJ 1{':~"";l r ~I; L2bNalo;~. Ch~;qhor;l e. B(!rks .
~1ahh ...\. D. (19-::1. . ilclcrmini.lioll or rC$idua! ~hcar strength of cla~ by a modified ~!H::art-\.}'I; method'. TRRL Chapter 13
Rero:'\ LH ~l~. Tr;ill~ron and R"ad RC\I.'i\r(;h Laboratory , CrOll!horne. Bed,s.
Pelley. D, J. il9(-.!,j. "The ,hear SHcng! h of soils <II large ~trai ns· . Unpllbli~h!:d PhD lhe~is, l; ni\'er~ilY of London.
Pike, D, C. (l'r31. 'Shearl'lo\ leqs on grado:d aggregates', TRRL Repon LR 584, Tran~pon and Road Research
Laborat ory, Cro\\thornc, 8 .. ;I.. s.
P ike, O. C ..'\'::0::, S. ~1. and Leech, R. ~1. fJ977), 'Sub·ba~e stabili!~: A shear box le~t compared v.itn olher Quick compression tests
prcdi cti~)n me-tfwd'·. Tramp0f! and Road Rc~earch Laboratory, Repon No. LR 7115.
Re~,,;oc, r.. . H . tl9 ~h 'An apraralus for Ih~ application of simple she(lr to soil ~amp)e~'. Proc, 3rd 1m. Conj.
Soi/Mel'h. I: 1%-191.
5":011, C. R . (19';":). All /nlrndllcrinn 10 Soil .\fedwnics . .t\ppJied Science Pu bli\he~s,
SkemplOn, A. \\. {19.lS). '''ane le~tS in Ihe allU\ial plain of the Ri\er Forth near Gr3ngemouth·. Geofechnique, 13.1 INTRODUCTION
\'01. I,i'o. I.
SkemplOn, A. W. (I9~8J. 'Arthur Langtry Bell (1874· 1956) and his contribution 10 soil mechanics'. Geo/(!cilnique,
13.1.1 Scope
Vol. 8, ~o . .l
Skemplon. A. \\'. (l9M/. 'Lollg Ie-rm stability of clay slopes'. Fourth Rankine Lecture. Georeci1nique, \'01. 14.
1"0.2. The measurement o f th e shear strength para meters of soi ls in terms of total st resses, by
Skempton. ,A. W. and La Ru,-hdle. p, (1965). 'The Bradwell slip:,.\ short te rm failure in London Clay'. Geo- means of axial compression tes ts on cy lindrica l specimens, is the subject o f this chapter.
fechnique, \'01. 15. So, 3, The tests described here are restricted to relatively simple 'quick' tests, in which no change
Symons, L F . (!9(.S), 'The applkation of residual ~hea r ~trength 10 the d e ~ign of cuttings in (ncrcon$olidaled
fissured cla~~ · . Report :\"0. LR 227, Tran<pon and Road Re$earch Laboratory, Crow\horne, Berks ,
in th e moisture content of the specimen is permitted during shear.
Terzag:ni, ;..:. and Ped.:, R. B. 1I9(7). Soil,\f('('honics In Engineering Pro,'!ice, \\,iley. Sew York. The section on theory (Section 13.3) follows on from Chapter 12, Section 12.3. It deals
TO\\lhCnd. F. C. and Gilbert. P. A. (!973), 'Tests to measure residual strengths of some day shales'. wit h the concept o f principal stresses and the Mohr circle o f stress for the graphical
GeOiechlliqlle. \'01. 23. So. 2 (Te:hnkal NOl~J. represe nta tion of direct and shear stresses on an y plane within a specimen subjected to axial
compression and a lateral confini ng pressure. This leads to the Mohr-Coulomb analysi!: of
test data for deriving the shear strength parameters Cu and (f) from triaxial tests.
Some gen eral items of equipment required for triaxial tests are described in Chapter 8,
tOgether with notes on thei r use and calibrat ion. Items required specificall y for uniaxi al and
triaxial compres:,io ll les;'~ are ':0\ ered in this chapter,

13.1.2 Types of Test

Compression tests described in this chapter are divided into two categories
0) Unconfined, or uniaxial, co mpress ion tests.
(2) Triaxial compress ion tests.
The fi rst is reall y a special case of (he second, and requires simp ler apparatus.

UNCONFINED CO MPRESSION TESTS

The lests described here are as follows.
(1) Standard laboratory test using a load frame, eit her hand operated or machine driven,
which can accommodate a wide range of specimen sizes. (Section 13,5.1).
(2) Test with the traditional portable autographic apparatu s, which can be used either in
the laboratory o r in the field, an d is normally used for 38 mm diamete r specimens. (Secti on
13.5 .2).
0) Measurement of the remoulded st rength of clays, fo r the determinatio n of their
sensiti \·ity. (Secti o n 13, 5.3).
(4) Tests on soft roc ks and very stiff or hard soils, using a special purpose-built appara tu s
(in outline only). (Section 13 .5.4).

TRI AXIA L CO\IPRESSIO:-i TESTS

Tria,ja i tests which are de~crib(' d in Section 13 ,6.3. r('late to the use of 38 mm diameter
~pedmel1S (the :..tandard size med in B:-itain), but the same principles apply to other

381
 <:.!l' , ~ " ... O .\ l! ' . ... _·... O\, ·J ,_-"., , .". 1 I~ ,h"",·. ) L·(1 ,,-,.' 583

:-l :::: >, ~; ." " ".~ 'J. l .. - li., \il,~':;, .. :·l 1,-1 a: d .: .~ ;:-: ~E .\ : l~t~;·:" . 6nJ ;t"i(' Lj :-<.)p('~n 35
! e . '
1-' -
a,)j 70 !Em di,tml~ ,CI ').
rile olill!r common Hf jt i ~jl ~jLC fur \\lli;':[1 pluCI.::dlut!s ale- gi'C"IJ ,S-:CtiOIl 1.3.S . .tj is 100 lilm
j 1:::..1:::
... •
(4 in) diam1!l er . for 5pecim~ns taken direct from stand ard l '- lOO s3 mpJing tubes. Reference ~
is also made to triaxial tests on :.pccimens 150 mm diameter and large r.
---> ~ "-
J--oreo A -> <--
Other procedures described in th is Chapler are as fonows: nD'
=-- v~-·--~
Multistage triaxial tests (Section 13.6.5). <
-~
<--
T riaxial tests using 'free ends' (Section 13.6. 6), I --> <- con 1 :ni ng
L pre!.sure
Tri axial tests unde r high confining pressures (Sectio n 13.6.7). -~ <-
P reparation or" s ~ecialJy orie ntated lest specimens (Section 13.6.8). -;. +-
P reparation o f rccompacted specimens fo r Ir:axialtest , including dry a nd saturated sand L"""'2D -;. <-
specimens (Section 13.6.9). --> <--
• .t.
~....
13.1.3 Prin ~ iple of T est j": r ' 'j' i

GENERAL
A cylindrical specimen of soi l is subjected to a steadily increasing axia l load until failure
occurs. In the un con fined test the axial load is the on ly force o r stre ss which is applied (Fig.
13.1) . In the triaxia l test the spec imen is first su bjected to an all -round confining pressure,
which is then maintained (on sta n! as the axi a l load is increased (Fig. 13.2). In either case
the fate of loading is such that failure occurs within a relatively shan time , usually between
5 and IS min.
DRA I)lAGE
:\0 drain3ge of pore wate r from the specimen jl< permiued either during the applicat ion of
ccnl::-.. f,g j)ie!:>su:'":! o r during 3:--ial iOCiding.. T he'!>!::' tc"{'" arc rh.;:-efO!c re ferred to as
l'Jndra ined' tests and no change in moisture content ta kes pl ace. Because the test duration
is short . and to di st ingui~ h them from slower teSts in which pore water pressures are
measured (to be described in Volume 3) , they are ofte n re fe rred to as 'quick· und rained'
(QUj testS.
SPECIME:< PROPORTlO~S
Te st specim ens are normally of a height : diameter ratio o f 2: I, in British practice, wh il e a
ratio of up to 3: 1 is permissible in ASTM Standa rds. If the ratio is much less than 2: 1,
results can be influenced by end res tra ints unless 'free end s' (Section 13.6.6) are used . lfthe
ratio is greater th a n 3: I, instability leading to buc kling ca n occur and the specimen does
not fail in true compressio n.
RATE OF TESTI!'<G
A constant rate of co mpress ion (strain control) is applied, usually at about 2 070 of the
specimel} length pe r miryllt .e: Str('<:;s (..'ontrol is not usually appropria te for these tests. Rates
mstrain from abou t O. J- lO C';"o/ min make little d iffere nce to the resu lt s, but 2 lra/ min is a
convenient rate and is widely recognised as standard practice. For most soi ls thi s rate
C'nab les the test to be completcd \\ithin th e peri od o f 5- 10 min indicated in the Bri ti !.h
Standard,
FAI LLRE CR ITERI.·'
FJilu :-e n\l~:l1:tl):" impli~', d~e ":();h"~i:;0n in \\ hi..:-h the I.:pedm en ca n ~ll:'tain no further
incrt ;~~c :~: .~: ; '. ':'::S:'~L:1! \' _,:,'\1 it ,:i·~·~.;~ i!~ !11~n~J~ si5tJ.r.~· e h'" dt'fmmatkm in
t:?rm<. t" ',.1: ,-," ,.,' __ ~; ' " ll' t,'.;' n ·,,·.,~'-.' f(lf Ih~ bulging N
'b;lrr.:~;iJjg.' o f t!~~·
t t
Fig . 13.1 Principle oj uniaxial (unconfined) Fig. 13.2 Principle of lriQx:ial compression lest
compression reSl
specimen as it is compressed and for the effect of the rubber membrane used in a triaxial
test.
In yery plastic soils in which the axial st ress does not readily reach a maximum value,
failure is deemed to have occurred when a certain axial strain (typically 20 1170 ) has been
reached.--"~·
TYPES OF FAI L U RE
Three main types of failure are recogni sed,
(J) Plastic failure, in which the specimen bulges laterally into a 'barrel-shape' without
splitting, as in Fig. 13.3 (a).
(2) Brittle failure, in which the specimen shears alon g one or more well -defined surfaces. as
in Fig_ 13.3 (b).
(3) Failure in a manner intermediate between (1) and (2), as in Fig. 13.3 (c).
The mode of failure is a si gnificant feature in the descript io n of the soil properties,
USE OF TEST DA TA
In an unconfined compression test the axial load at failure and the corresponding axial
strain are frequently the only numerical data which arc recorded. If readings arc taken
during the test or if an autographic apparatus is used, a load -strain curve can be obtained.
It is usual to plot load-strain or stress·strain curves from triaxial compression tests . Two
or mo re tests on identical specimens, usi ng different confining pressures, enable t he Mohr
st rength envelope to be plotted. from which t he undrained shear strength parameters, cu. C+l,
can be derived. Wherever po ssible three specimens are commonly used in this way as a set.
13.1-4 Purpose
Some o f the purposes fo r which the shea r strength param eters of soi ls are req uired are
referred to in Sectio n 12.1 .2. Comp ressio n tests. and particularly triaxial tests, are more
versatile 3i1d in many ways more reliable pro~' edu r es fo r mea suring these parameters than
direct sh ear te~r.s. and can be med with m("ll;[ lypes of soi l. Triaxial tests can also represent
r. :ore- rf." ali~:k::..n y the ::trl ~~ l'olidition<; rr(.'\ :!il ing in : j,,= f.~ ,' unJ.
;'>-,1 I,) 'it i( C()\lf'l':'l~:<':;Jf) '\'
f-
I
'. C~-~J
II
I All may be fitted with multi sp eed drive units, so me Wilh sle piessly variable dri ve. Tri axial
I
i cells with perspex walls are available for specime n sizes from 35 to 150 mm diameter. Steel
l c) (= )
l' )
Fig, 1.3.3 Modes of failure in compression resr specill1ens: (a) plasTic failure
(barrelling), (b) brill/e failure (shear plane), (C) inrermediare type
13 .1,S Historical Denlopmenl
UNCONFINED CO\·IPR ESS ION TEST
The earliest cylindrical compressio n test apparatus fo r soi ls in Britain was probably that
constructed by C. J . Jenkin at the Building Research Station in 1932. It was based on a
suggestion by Jurgen sen in the USA, and was described by Cooling and Smith (1936). The
specimen size was ~ in diameter and I ~-2 in long.
In 1940 Coo ling and Golder at the BRS designed a port able apparatus with a choice of
springs of various strengths, and incorporating autographic recording, for 1 V~ in diameter
specime ns. (Cooli ng and Golder 1940: Soil Mechan ics for Road Engineers (1952)). The
appararus in use today, described in Section 13 .5.2. is almost exact ly the same in principle.
It "'as designed for carrying out quick tests on virt -..:a!ly saturated st' i: ~ , for \~ hich ~ ~ 0 ,
and was intended for testing specimens on site immediately after sampling. The apparatus
also became usefu l in the laboratory where it could be used in place o f a load fr ame for
these test s.
In its early fo rm this machin.e was fitted with shall ow cone seatings and the specimen
ends were recessed with a matching conical profile. It ,,'as believed that coned ends reduced
the tende ncy of a plastic soil specimen to become barrel-shaped when compressed, but they
also tended to cause splitting of more brittle specimens. Flat en d pla tens are now standard
and are consistent with triaxial test p rocedure.
In the laboratory it has alv,;a ys been possible to carry out an unconfined compression test
in a n unpressur ised triaxial cell , but in recent years simpl e apparatus has become available
which enables the test to be carried Ollt without the use of a cell, on virtu ally any lo ad
fram e, using a wide range of specim en sizes.
TRIAXIAL APPARATUS
A triaxial compression machine was designed in Britain by C. J. Jenkin and D. B, Smith by
193 4. Axial load was applied by a spring and lateral pressu re was developed in a brass
cylinder . Specimens were I in diameter.
In 1940 an apparatu s was constructed a t the Buildin g Resea rch St atio n for testi ng 1.5 and
2.8 in diameter specimens. It made use of a lever-arm wcighbridge [or applying the axial
load, simi la r to the prin(:iple which had been de\'eloped in the USA. and was therefore a
st ress-controlled machine. The confining pressure cell was a transparen t cylinder, to enable
failure of the specimen to be obse rved.
In 1943 lhi~ device \\ as replarcd by a hand-operated mach ine " 'ith a worm drin: . usir.g
the same basic princip le a~ thai med in strain-cl)nt rolled machines today. These early
machines were used almos t entirely for quick·undrained tests , bu t from abo ut 1948
rnultj~peed dr j, e Ul]jl'. \\ l'; e fill eo to e:Hlble te~l' c f J('ITlgcr d:1I aticll to be C''-trril.:d out , B igg~'r
TF ~l~ 1.1 ,1 l.'ll~n!)L,CrJ():'\ 5/0.;-
machines and celi!' w~re dt?\'ek\r_J I~) ac,oOTlmod ::: (e L.!".;;~ r di~~mC lc') ~P('I..'!!'\1ens, and thl'
dt', igll ,-,f ,-ell .. ()f a ll sizes ·,.,'as improved to provide po"i!~v ~ ~'?;:!!~ a'1d !o ;naJe for ea!>~er
han dli ng .
Typical load frames available IOday ar e of 10 kN, 50 kN, 100 kN an d 500 kN capacity ,
cells for higher confining pressures, an d for specimens up to 250 mm diameter and 500 mOl
high, can be obtained. Much larger cells, fo r samples up to 1 m diameter, have been
specially constructed where the need has arisen, for instance for testing rock·fill materi al;
For a dam. (Marschi, Chan and Seed, 1972) .
13. 2 DEFll'(ITl ONS
UNCONF INED COMPRESSION , UNIAX IAL COMP RESSION Longi tudin al or
axial compression of a specimen which is not subjected to a lateral or confining pressure.
UNCONFINED COMPRESS IVE STRENGTH (qu) The compressive strengt h al
failure of a specimen subjected to unconfined compression.!or a saturated clay (qI = 9) it
lS":'9ual!O twice the cohes~on.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESS ION Axial compression of a specimen which is subjected to a
constant all-round lateral press ure.
QU ICK-UNDRA INED T RIAX IAL COMP RESS ION A triaxial compression test in
which no change in wat er content of the specimen is allowed. The test is usuall y completed
withi n 10- 20 min.
PRINC IPA L PLANES The three mutually perpendicular planes in a body subjected to
stress on which the shear stresses are zero.
PR INC IPA L STRESSES The normal stresses which act on the principal planes.
MAJOR PR INCIPAL STRESS ( a, ) The largest of the three principal stresses.
M INO R PRINC IPA L STRESS (a ,) The smallest of the three principal stresses.
INTERMED IATE PR INCIPA L ST RESS (a,) The principal stress which is inter-
mediate between 01 and 03'
DE VIA TO R STRESS (0 1-03) The difference between th e major and minor principal
stresses; in a triaxial compression test the stress due to the axial load whi ch is applied in
excess of the all-round confining press ure .
MOH R CIR CLE The graphical representation of the state of st ress on any plan e, in
terms of normal stress and shear stress.
MOHR FA ILURE ENVELOPE The line or curve which is ta ngential to Mohr circles
representing the state of stress at failure of severa l specimens of soi l tested under different
?Dnfining pressures.
FA ILURE PLANE The plane on which the maxim um stren gt h of the soi l has been
mobilised when failure occurs. Theoretically it is inclined at an angle of (45 0 + 1P12) 10 the
.!!2!.~~?lllal in a typical triaxial test specimen.
SHEAR PLANE OR SURFACE The plane or surFace on whi ch sli p of one porti on of a
test specimen relative to another occurs. It mayor may not be inclined at the sam e angle as
the failure plane.
NOR~1AL STRESS AT FAILURE (Of) Th e normal stress aCling on the failure plane at
failure.
SHEAR STRESS AT FAILURE (Tf) The shear stress acting on the failur e plane a t
·f'lilure.
5~ {- QU( K C() \I.'R £~)!() :-" r ESJ S D.J -!:lUJK) ,87

~IOHR·COLLO'\1B FAI LLRE CR ITER ION The shear streng.th of a soil 01'lained
from i..iaxial cOilip,es.Jion tests expressed by the equation. Tf = C + Or tan ([I.
APPARENT COHESION (cv ) The she ar strength of a soil when subjected to zero
confining pressure .
ANGLE OF SHEAR RESISTANCE ('1') Th e component of shear Stre ng th of a soil
;Vhich is due to friction between the particles.
SENSITIVITY The ratio of the uniaxial compressive strength of an undisturbed clay
specime n to that of the sam e specimen after remoul ding at the same moi sture content.
13.3 THEORY
13.3.1 Principal Stresses
The concepts o f force, normal stress and shear stress were di scussed in Sections 12.3.1 and
12.3.2, with regard to shear along a predetermined plane. In a cylindrical compression test,
failure also occurs due to shear but there is no co nstraint to induce failure along a particular
sur face. It is therefore necessary to consider the relationship between shear stress (r) and
normal stress (0) acting o n any plane within the compression test specimen.
In a compression test a soil specimen is su bjected to compressive fo rces acting in three
directions at right angles to each other. one in the longitudinal direction, the other two
laterall y. (In the special case of uniaxial o r uncon lined com pressio n the lateral stresses are
zero). The three perpendicular planes on which these stresses act are known as the principal
planes, and the stresses are know n as principa l stresses. The shear stresses o n the principal
planes are eq ual to zero. On planes inclined at angles other than 90° to the principal planes
I.he ~ht'ar stre:.5 t'5 arc not zero, and normai stresses are differen t from the princ:ipal stn:s~c~
but do not exceed the largest of them.
~ l ~'. :lY ~Di;prubk:m, are consiLiereci iII t \\ 0 dimensi011s anJ only thl: major an d minor
p!"ifl,=!pa l streS5(,S (01 and o~ ) ::I,re use-d, the influence of 0: being neglected. In the s:peci~ l t::ase
of axial symmetry, such as cylindri cal co mpression, 02 and 03 are equal.
13.3.2 UniaAial Compression
A cylindrical specim en of soil subjected to an axial compressive force P, and no other
forces, is shown in Fig. 13.5 (a). If the area of cross -section of the specimen is denoted by
A, on any horizontal plane XX (Fig. 13.5 (b)) the normal stress is equal to PIA and the
shear st ress T is zero because there are no forces tending [0 produce a sliding movement. In
this simple case the normal stress on XX is the major principle stress and can be den o ted by
0 1' On a vertical section YY (Fig. 13.5 (c), the normal st ress (which would be the minor
pri nciple stress) is zero because there are no horizontal forces; and th e shear stress is zero
because t he uniforml y distributed vertical stress 01 indu ces no tendency for one part of the
cylinder lO move vertically with respect to a nother.
T hese cond itio ns will be used to in vestigate the stress prevailing on a plane surface such
as ZZ (Fig. 13.5 (a» which is inclined at any angle Ct" to the horizontal. The small wedge-
shaped element ABC of the specimen, bounded by verti ca l and ho rizontal planes and a
plane parallel to ZZ, is shown enlarged in Fig. 13.6 (a). The inclined face Be is of unit
length and the thickness of the wedge in the plane perpendicul ar to the paper is also of unit
length.
The stresses on the three faces represented by the triangle ABC are as follows:
Normal stress Shear stress
AS 01 o
AC 0 o
BC (to be determined) 0 T

In descending order of magnitude the principal st resses are referred to as follows:

M ajo r principal stress (01 ) In this t ....'o-dimensional analysis, stresses normal to the triangle ABC are not consid ered.
Intermediate principal stress (02) The forces acting on the three faces of the wedge are obtained by multiplying the st ress by
Minor principal stress (03) the area of each. Since the wedge thi ckness is unity, the areas on which the stresses act are
The principal stresses acting on the fa ces of a typical elemental cube are shown in Fig. 13.4, numerically equal to the lengths of the sides.
the faces o n which they act being principal planes .
In many instances the major principal stress acts in th e vertica l direction, an d the
t
rn
intermediat e and mino r principal stresses act horizontally at right angles to each other. P y
2 Iy
major
I
C"1 pr ine i ~a I 0"".' j I / 0,
r -
, stress
-f.-.!.."-,, -- x
II ' i ! ! III 1
. k

~ I~~
-,-<", I
/ ,. '~~Jl 'rf9 XI Litl>'-"1 T""O x i ~~ ~
C I, .
. f'
I,
;
l 'c II c , 'I<
I
,, , . I
1 i y
L / " 2'
,'L
Ia
II
W
..----'- : I :1<
!k
i~: e"-n e diote k " ~.. . . rr ,nor i«
(;l,'S I
p~:-, c ' ;:.a l --0- 2 ' " // 0"3" ~;~~~;~Oi ~ I I,
~ :re~;.
", t
V
A > (0) ,l,' Ie)

Fig. U.S Stresses on cylindrical specimen subjected to uniaxial compression: (a)

extern,,{ forces and planes of section, (b) s/resses on sec/ion XX: normal stress
Fi'l.. 1~.4 Prilicipal stlcsses a'1d principal p;'''lIe~ 0 , =- PI A. shear stress T ;:: 0, (e) stresses 011 section YYore :.ero
 QI Ie!>.: CO\"iPRESSIO~ TE STS 1? 3 THE ORY 589

~ :::: -- YI:>;,'iC'I rs. f0fm <:! tri2 :--:g.1e. a, ~b() \\'n by the tri ang le ('If fNces U-PQ in FJg:"' 13.6 (c). ~rhis
lllU q

A~~. I
a h:::H: f.'n...li!l' bl!\h't';~ "' , T. 0 : and Q ,\·hi.: h r ~ \ :l b-.: dt'r ivt'd ,-,:ahematicaHy. An
p!,.)\i de ~

,[:ZS
cr, '
iV, CO,"
~I
alternati ye a na jy ~i~ is ba5 ctl on the ge01l1 elry of Fig. 13.6 (C), as fo l!o\\.~ .
'I I

I
,ie,a : l
;1"
':' ~".. .
$,{
:;,.\-7 ,S

" ... " T

The !ine !hrough P ::,erpt;ndir1!iar to OP j ~ l.irc.wn!O intersect Of) produced at R. It ':3n be
seen that
OR = OP
0) cos a
a ~ 0,
....,<'"
S
() COS a cos a

(0) -".(
"" 0/'" c (0)
which is constanl for any yalue of a. Since the angle OPR is a right angle and because the
angle in a semicircle is a right angle, the point P must always lie on the circle of diameter

~aA~
OR for any yalue of the angle a. The circle is shown in fig. 13.7, where the force diagram
/ OPQ is replaced by its 'reOection'. The line OR is drawn horizontally as a graphical axis
/ representing normal stresses; and vertical distances such as QP represent shear stresses.

'-<"~'
s ince QP = 0", cos ct I 0 The significance of the graphical representation of stresses in the form of a circle will be
o~e 'J n g le OC:P=9 0 ~.
I ~ Y, discussed in Section 13.3.4.
~
t h en QR=C"1
for ony va lu e Of 0: \ T ' ''....,

\ 13.3.3 Triaxial Compression

\
\ "" ' A cylindrical specimen subjected to an axial major principal stress 0 1 and a radial minor
p
" -- '-7" principal stress 03' is shown in Fig. 13. 8 (a)) . The stresses on the three sides of a wedge-

Fig. 13.6
(c) ....... ,
---- --_/
Stresses and forces on small element of uniaxial/est specirnen: (a) srresses
,/ shaped element ABC bounded by horizontal and vertical planes and a plane inclined at any
angle a to the horizontal are shown in Fig. 13.8 (b), and are summarised as follows. As in
Section 13.3.2, the following analysis is two dimensional.
on wedge elemenr, (b) forces on element, fc) triangle of forces Normal stress Shear stress
AS oJ o
shear AC 0, o
Be (to be determined)

"'''k1'~
0 T

The forces acting on the three faces of the wedge are as follows (Fig. 13.8 (c):
On AB: normal force = 01 cos a
tangential force = 0
On AC: normal force = 0 3 sin a
tangential force = 0
On BC: normal force = °
tangential force = T
c os 0:

AI7B
~,

I
c--- - - - -o:, 11 d jdj!l ~_ ~
, -! t * 1" t ~,
iS
CP ",C"·. cc~::t
l.,
°"""1 j,
L.
/C
'V};')'" '/
O':' =C-J
~i on p: ane incli ned ct 0: ~o hcri: oni a \

J:{~."' ,-,
QP = -r

Fig. 13.7 Mohr diagram for uniaxial compression d I 0"3

51; II cr . . ,z,.
,0;

~I /~---
On AB: normal force = 0 1 X (cos ,a) = 01 cos a
V . /0
tangential force = 0 x (cos a) = 0
On AC: normal force = 0 x (sin 0) = 0
!angemial force = 0 x (cos a) = 0
~i , nJ-
. f';T7'I
" ,
·j ' j J'
C ·........ I:
/ c

On Be: normal force = x 1 ° = ° (0) (0) ( 0)

tangential force = T X 1 = T Fig. 13 .8 Stresses on cylindrical specimen subjecred to triaxial compression:
These forc es are shown in Fig. 13. 6 (b). ( a j eXfl!fl1(J/ srrC5.-'ies
and p lane of section, (bJ stresses on wedge elemen!, ( c) forces on
Since the \vedge ABC is in equilibrium the three forces acting upon it, if plotted as element
 TII.._·~-, .,_
91
590 QL II.. r.. CO\.1t-·Kt.~:)ION t t.'::I L 5 I." .• '

~~
There are now four ro~~es.
pc!ygC'!1 when plotted as Vt!'ClorS. The
and because ~ht" I?d~' e
ff'lr("f'
i~ in eqt:ilibr il1Tn they must form a cJo~("d
diagqm i, shov.'n In Fig. 11 .9, from which the
" ,
.r t' ;'
Cv
• '"' , :
.Y 3~·

.. j" ~::-, ~ .. ~.;.1

relationship between 0, T , 0 1, 0] and can be dennd ma thematically, but the following p .:;t = 1"
geometrical analysis is probably easier to underMand. Ii .
O'"lsma ' "~
o · - v ~ QO = r::r
Draw a li ne from P perpendicular to SP to intersect OSQ produced at R. It can be seen
,< i I ............. , 0,
that I
/ '. .. ~'
os OV
sm 0'
03 sin 0-
-. - = -.-=
SIn a
0)
~~J~ "5 .,
' (~
" 0:.»
VS = cos a ,
Q

)7
0)
'-
'",
PS = PV - VS , T "- , ,
01 COS a - 0] COS a = (0) - all COS a " ,
- -- ;"
SR =
PS
cos a
(01 - 0)

COS a
COS a
'"'. /'
/
/

SR = (0, - 0,) Fig. 13.9 Polygon of forces for triaxial compression

which is constant for any value of a. Since the angle SPR is a right angle, the point P must
lie on the circle of the diameter SR = (0 1 - oJ) for any value of a. The circle is shown in
shear
stress
j
t 00 =
c;.p = rcn p l on e inclined ot
(t"....
T CIt to horizontal
Fig. 13.10, in which the force diagram is replaced by its 'reflection' and normal stresses and I. ' ,I
shear stresses are plotted horizontally and vertically, respectively, as in Fig. 13.7. However, ~2~ _ ____ _ _ _ ~
°
~
this circle does not pass through lh~ origin 0, but intersects the horizontal axis at = 0 1
and a = 01' The centre of the circle is denoted by C, and is at a distance of ( 01 + 03)/ 2 ! i
from O .

13.3.4 Mohr Circle of SlresS

The graphical construction for defining the locu s of the poin t P by means of the circles R
norma l
referred to in Sections 13.3 .2 and 13.3.3 (Figs. 13.7 and 13.10) is of great sign ificance in soil
mechanics. These circles are known as the Moh r circles of stress, after Otto Mohr (1871),
Of stress
a
the mathematician who introduced this method of analysis. It is described in greater detail

~
in text books on strength of materials, e.g. Case and Chilver (1971); Whitlow (1973). Since
we are normally concerned only with positive stresses, only the upper half of the circles a re
-~,v
___ 0.,+;3
I I
(0\-0"3) ,~ 'j..
drawn. The Mohr circle for unconfined compression is a special case of triaxial
compression in which oJ = O. _ _ --=-'__ 0, ' I!
I
I
,!
In the Mohr circle shown in Fig. 13 . 10, [he following poi nts should be nmed.
(l) The horizont al axis represents normal (principal) stresses , and the vertical axis Fig. 13.10 Mohr diagram/or triaxial compression
represents shear stresses, all drawn to the same scale .
(2) The ends of the diameter of the circle are defined by the values of 03 and oJ> measured (5) The ma.ximum shear stress is represented by the point T (the topmost point of the circle)
from the orig in. and is equal to the radius, i.e. (oJ - oJI2.
(3) The point P , whose coordinates are the normal and shear stresses on a plane incl ined at (6) A plane on which the maximum shear stress occurs is inclined a t 90° / 2 or 45° to the
an angle 0 to the horizontal, is determined by drawing a line from S inclined at 0 to the
hor izontal.
horizontal. Alternatively P can be found by drawing a radius from the cen tre C at an angle
(i) The centre of the circle C is at a distance DC = (0 1 + oJ/ 2 from the origin.
2a to the horizontal axis. On the plane inclined at a, the normal stress is equal to OQ and
t!:~ shear str('ss i~ equal to PQ.
The l'vfoh. circle in Fi g. 13 .1 1 sho ws points represent ing streSses 0 and T on several
inclined plane!> (in ..: luJing th()~c at OC and 90° to the horizon tal) \\ilhin a cy lindrical test
(4.\ The dia ~ n('ler of the circle is equal 10 (0 , - oJ . the princ ipal ~t rc~s difft'rence whk-h is
also known as the 'd('\iator stress' (see Section 13 .3.5). spe(imen.
 QI.·I/T ' · I..J.\;P') t: ';..· ~ ' (}:-.I 1" e ', n- 593
.J lY

r
~-
'. -(,,; ' ~''-"'(

s '. -, ," L _J L _ '--' L_ C', e rea A=":":::"

"IT " ;. C'"J I" ' 0",

' ~T 'D'" + D
I
'53~o

" =.0":· "·-

U' , Ult:" ex = ,,0

I
= 0,

Y
0", L -- -

I norma l
stress '-r---r,,"'!~
, '
( 1)
I (2)t '
(3)
" o
~ ' 11 ~ oxia l
o

Fig. 13.11
C

Representation of stresses on various planes in triaxial test specimen as -

t
- D- "'-
51ress 0", +
.. ~::: (a j-crJ)= dev iator 5tr e s5
e
A
0",

points on Mohr circfe of stress

(0) (0)

13.3.5 Deviator Stress Fig. 13 . 12 Explanation oj deviator stress: (a) cylindrical specimen subjected to
triaxial compression, (b) applied loading separated into two components
Vv'hen a cylindrical soil specimen of length L and diameter D (Fig. 13.12 (a» is su bjected to
a triaxial compression test, it is loaded in twO stages as shown in Fig. 13.12 (b». deviator stress) can be drawn. It is found in practice that a failure envelope tangential to
these circles is approximately a straight line over a wide range of stresses. The equation to
(1) An all-round pressure (the cell pressure) denoted by 03 is applied. This acts equally in
the envelope can therefore be expressed in the same form as Coulomb's law (Section
all directions, so the axial stress and radial stresses are all equal to 03 and no shear stress
12.3.6):
is induced in the specimen.
(2) An axial load P is applied from outside the cell and is progressively increased. The Tf ::: Cu + aran<.p (13.3)
additional stress caused by P is in the axial direction only and is equal to PIA,
(3) The total axial stress, denoted by 01' is therefore equal to (0 3 + PIA), i.e. °
where Tf and are total st resses. The form of the failure envelope is shown in Fig. 13.13 and
is known as the Mohr diaf;fam , representing graphically the ~1ohr·Cot.llomb failure
p criterion.
0, OJ + (13.1 ) ~n physical terms, if a !vlohr circle for a particular state of stress in a soil lies entirely
A
below the Mohr envelope, the soil is in a stable condition. If the Mohr circle touches the
envelope, the maximum strength of the soil has been reached (i.e. failure has occurred) on
This equati on may be re·wrinen as
some plane through the specimen. If the angle of this plane to the horizontal is denoted' by
p 0". the line joining the centre of the circle to the tangent point is inclined at an angle 20" to the
(0 , - oJ) = A (13.2) axis (Fig. 13.13 (a), middle circle). From the geometry of the right-angled triangle,

20" = <.p + 90°

The principal stress difference (0 1 - 03) ' which is the axial stress in excess of the aU·round
pressure 03' is known as the 'deviator stress' and is the stress which is applied to Lhe
specimen from outside the cell. - -
In a test the cell pressure 01 is maintained constant at a given value , while the deviator
stress is gradually increased. The deviator stress PI A can be calculated at any stage from
measurements of load and strain, as described in Section 13.6,3 , Deviator stress is plotted
against strain and the strength of the soil is usually taken to be thestress at failure, that is
the maximum or 'peak' deviator stress on the stress ·strain plot. The major principals tress
at failure is calculated from (he peak deviator stress by using Equati o n (13.1), enabling the
Mohr circle of stress representing failure under a particular co nfining pressu re 03 to be
drawn.
13.3.6 Mohr-Coulomb Faifure Criterion
From a series of compression tests on identical specimens of a soil carried our at different
confin i:1g jlrts.s ures a set of \L.,)hr drc1es rcpre.senring failure (as defined hy the m3.\;mum
0" = 45° + <.p/2 (13.4)
This plane is shown as the theoret ica l failure plane in Fig. 13,13 (b). It may not necessarily
be inclined at the same angle as a failure plane observed after a tcst, "especially in clays, '
because it depends upon the effective stress conditions . However the difference is usually
within a few degrees for cohesionless soils.
A Mohr circle which intersects the Mohr envelope and rises above it has no physical
meaning because once the envelope is reached , failure occurs and the soil can offer no
further sh ear resistance.
The Mohr circles shown in Fig. 13. 13 relate to the general case of a cu. qJ material. For a
cohesionless material (ell = 0), a set of Mohr circles as shown in Fig, 13,14 is obtained. Over
the range of pressures normally used in soil testing (up to 1000 kN/m2) the Mohr envelope
is a close enough approximation to a straight line for most purposes, although a slight
curvature due to a small increase in (f) at low stresses may be discernible near the origin.
For a cohesiv.:' saturated soil ($ ::: 0) a set of ~10hr circles representing total stress would
be as shown in r ig. n. J 5. The deviator stress. at f:.tiJur.: is not in;'1uenc ed by changes in
 , . C. ,,··l \.,. .;;,\ ".,. >1 ·; '~ !O ; .... ,., rs ! ~'; . 3

..
UK.)"

~~;r.r f>"\o €- : oc e ~ ~..------"'"

~

-'0<-
t''', ~cretic.:.! .. ~--.. - >0°/'/
. .//
'/
-7'
./
~.

II ¢K-/
,'I'-=.L--
f:::· I\Jr e
pic r,e
0""3~

-~
_ a-E--

~
--
1"6(':'/
./ ,-
·r

'

-'-1 . '1 ------- '¢\ iA

(
~3 0", C
11 , .....L..- ~ -~.----- ....- . -T-.. - - - - -. •
~

2a=90° ...l.. ¢
Fig. 13.14 Mohr circles for cohesion less soil (c =- 0)
Q(~450+f
(0) (b)
Ti
Fig. 13.13 Mohr·Coulamb failure crilerion; (a) Mohr envelope, (b) (hearerical
circ le fr cm un icx i a l test (03 = 0)
failure plane I
¢~o T=C

confining pressure in the undrained state, so all the Mohr circles are virtually the same size A
and the envelope is a horizontal line, The circle through the origin represents the
unconfined compression test (03 = 0) and the unconfined compressive strength q/,j is
represented by the diameter of the circle. Since q> = 0, the shear strength intercept, c/./I is
qc -~ , ~

equal to the radius of the circle, i.e. to half of the unconfined compressive strength or Cu =:0"2 au

Fig. 13.15 Alohr circles for saturated clay (liJ = 0)

ell = Y2 qu (13.5)

A
LoAo
.
.....· 0
It is important not to confuse cohesion, CUI with compressive strength. Qu'
Lo - x -x
Lo
13.3.7 Area Correction

When a cylindrical soil specimen is compressed under an axial load, its length decreases and x
But - is the strain, E
the ratio of the change in length (x) to the original length (Lo) at any stage is the strain, E Lo t " ;), A .l",
{~

(see Section 12.3.3). In an undrained test no water is allowed to leave the specimen, and if
the soil is fully saturated and it is assumed that both water and the soil grains are Ao . __\ .... .-( ..:.. .; l (J3.6)
incompressible, the volume of the specimen remains unaltered. Therefore the volume lost A
1- E
in the length must appear as an increase in diameter. This is the reason for the 'barrelling'
eacet obser . . ed in practice, so·called because the specimen often assumes the outline of a
The axial stress induced in the specimen by the load P (the de\·iator stress) is equal to
traditional wood barrel.
The increase in diameter gives an increase in the area of cross·section, and therefore a PIA. Le.
vertical stress Jess than that calculated by using the original diameter. A correction, known
as the area correction, has to be applied to the me.asured deviator stress, as described belO\v. P P(l-t)
(0, - 0l) ~ - ~ -'--'-'-----'-'-
Under a compressive force P a specimen is deformed from its original cross·section, A Ao
indicated by the rectangle abed in Fig. 13.16, to a form such as that shown by the heavy
outline. It is assumed in this analysis that this deformation is equivalent to the idealised or if E is expressed as a percentage,
outline efgh, of uniform diameter but of the same volume as the barrel shape (which is the
same as the initial volume). The area of cross·section of efgh is denoted by A, and the initial
area by .4 0 , whereA o = nIY14. ( 01
_
0,
) _ P
--
(lOO-,"!O) (J 3.7)
Since the volumes of the two cylinders are equal, Ao 100

Thus the deviator st ftSS calculated on the bJsis of t~l e original alea ("If cfoss·section at any
AoLo = AL ~ A IL, - x)
stage has to be reduced by a fa ctor (100 - 1;°·(:)/1(Y) 10 allow for the effect of barrelling,
 ">I?_ -'~co '551C )TS 13 .3 ORY
-
1 -~ .
I ,
I t-~ I :;¥-- n \ ", c, \I ne
:0_.
_ __ . '-._ load
at
.equ,valent"
illLL - -__
'--C.~ peak
_~.::..:::..--:-:..- " __
_ _
~ d ,81
ie .t _..
e ," ';,,~_~..:-"';
re d· -

,---"","""<- _ ,MaXlmcm i
- ._-:j
~J:t,T ~
,:..-:--'--=-_-=':-.~d!Viator st;"sst-1
...
::Jr- .....
OM'. '

IE /'<~ "' ,~ _. _.--1____ __'_'_" "-_.... ".. ./.

,ri tio l area IlC =: -~-

_. r---:-I
0g~ .--~
~~./.~ u - .,..... i
I •• / I' c

----.r- -
La

L
I ~ _ _ ~_ _ _
.-: .../?"-:-:;.X::/-:-:X;
II-.; /~::::c-~s.~;..i2:.t
-"
I\ - - - a c t uol deformed :)uti lne
~

1~,;j ec i1 sed deformej cu!line

-. _ _. ±_';' .~'~_
-t-
-.----2C-
,'" __ " ' __ , "",,_. -<:. ' _-::r---~
. , ___ -' -
~_..:....._
",
,, outlinerT
'" - "--/

_______. set - squcrr----

~ - - --
• "--'
I
-.. •

';j[-~~l--~-:--~ ~ :3
\, I r a~ea = A -.L...- ' " - ... , -. l"'- I
__ - ___ I
I
. ,
t ~ ;J
~
i/J h stra i n =- = E
Co
d
-----
-
- --'~-, -
'/ I ---- -- - --
" "' -
Fig. 13.16 Barrelling de/ormation o/compression test specimen
. ----- - '-" ""

/. '--1'- ~
':
,~=,,~ ~
This correction can be applied to every read ing taken during a test, but a more convenient
method is to use a correction grid for drawing the load-strain curve.
A suitable grid is shown in Fig. 13.17 (a). It is designed for plotting load dial readings LJ ! :1
vertically against percentage strain horizontally, and can be used in thi s way for specimens
t--T--',----,--L~I ...... It.... j ~~1
,0", . ..-,11 .. <,
of any diameter and height / diameter ra tio. The way the resulting graphical plot is used is
described in Sections 13 .5.1 and 13.6.3. The grid is constructed by making the abscissae '.':'l ...... , .•• 1 ... ~, I .. --.J 1 .... -..2 ! .~.,,; I ...,.'
converge at the point of 100070 strain on the strain axis, as indicated in Fig. 13.17 (b). ,_'I) 17 9 1'1 4 ·204 , 1204+ 0..).204
I '- -7'3',1 1
ft ·
13 .3.8 Membrane Correction

The restraining effect of the ru bber membrane enclosing a triaxial specimen makes a small (a )
3-5' /.
I , • .
STlIIIIN .. " " " .. " " " " " ~

contribution to the resi st ance offered against compression. A correction has to be

subtracted from the mea sured stress at fai lure to allow for this. The correction depend s ... .....- E'J(tE'nt of pr intE'd gr id
upon the manner in which the specimen deforms under axial load, which for t.his purpose is ,
assumed to be either plastically or as a brittle material.
::::::::::: ob liquE' tinE'S convE'rgE' at 100 Ofo

--- -----
~
~
:=::::::: ::::c-.....
PLASTIC DEFORMATION :::::::::: ~~
For a barrelling type of fa il ure which occurs in a plastic soil , the magnitud e of the
membrane correction (denoted here by eM kN /m 2) depends upon the axial strain in the
specimen ( £070 ), the compressi on modulu s of the membrane material (t\"lN /m m wid th ) and
- - :::::::.:
-
~
::::::::3
-....co
~~
~
---.;:;: ~ .. ~

the initial diameter of the specimen (D mm). Hen kel and Gilbert (1952) showed that the o 5 10 15 20·/. I/) 60 8~ 100 %
membrane correction is equal to 4M£ ~ - to ), or in terms of the units defined above
( b)
stra in scalE'

O.4M, (100 - ,) kN / m'
ef"f =
D BRITTLE FAILURE
The comp ression modulus o f the membrane material, M , is assumed to be equal to its
~
extensio n modulus, which can be determined by the method given in Section 13 .7 .4.
r--.kmbrane correction curves plotted against st rain for 38 mrn and 100 mm diameter
specimens, fitted wilh a single membrane o f the thickness indicated, are shown in
F ig. 13 . J R (;;). If J110re Ih :m one membrane is used or a thicke r or thinner membrane is
fiHt'd, lr\:., I.:orre':i.ion s-houlj be adjusted in propo rt io n to the ac!U al thkkness o f ru bb er.
Fig. 13. 17 Area correction graph sheer: (a) method of use, (b) construction 0/ grid
(13.8)
In a brittle soil a plane of slip often develops before failure is reached and the membrane
distorts in a manner comple~ely different from that referred to above. This requires the
applicat ion of a different type of correction, whi ch is related to the strain at which the slip
plane first develops . .A. typi cal set of curves relating the sli p-pl ane correction [Q strain based
on data obtained from Imperial College is shown in Fig. 13.18 (b ). The correction is read
off the cur\'e which leJ.\"es the 'barrelling' correction cun·e at th e strain at wh ich the slip
plane is fint obser\'ed, if nece"isar y interpolated br!\\ee n twO cur\"(~s. For instance the point
~~ C'''' JI ,.... t "(\ \ W t--l""• .:.s:n -, 1 t. :' rs 13.3 TH EO RY 509
s ,- '----::. -_._.._- --- U~ nally hecome . . c;o ;;cr thJil it \\'as wh en undisturbed .JlH.: i0 1"'1~~~J. di'\~ :-: of it:; ~ lr ·.lcture. An
- ,~
, . r .... ':., ._,.. t:' ::.",0
b I th ickn e~s i lInc0nfif\~d romprc~~i\'e qrt'oglh le':. t on a lemoHldf- ,~ "jK ":::l1(il .... ..1 g; .. c a ~0mprc ~"i\" c

A/: j
it:;orr,~ t ('~
" 7' mn: 1":"",' strength Q, which is lower than the compressi\'e st re ngth Qu of the undisturbed cJay. Tne
~ ~ "
1
38 0· 3
50 0· 4 ratio of the undist urbed to the remoulded strength is kn own as the 'sensit iv ity' of the clay,

.~
and is den oted by S, (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967, Art. 8):
B
,.
100 0·5
0· 2
c
~
E
-
•
C 100 0· 3 ,-
S - q,
q,
(13 .9)
0,
~-t 4 r--------+--------~~~/~~ 7 .B~/'
~--~
,
c.
>z ~ This ratio can be quite large for some clays (see Section J 3.4.3).
~, 3
E c
3 13.4 APPLICATIONS
c
21 ),/ :;;>'<
.~ 13.4.1 General Applications of Undrained Shear Strength
v
•t
o The relevance of the shear st rength of so ils to geotechnical analysis was outlined in Section
v o~~
' __~-L~~-L~LJ~~LJ-L~. 12.4. 1. For some applications, where the undrained or shorHerm shear strength of the soil
o 5 10 15 20 is relevant, the undrained shear strength parameters c and <p , obtained from the tests
c1I:iai stro in % described in this chapter, are sufficient for a stability analysis·. Some examples were listed
(0) cor~ectjo n fo r ~orre llin g
in Section 12.4.1.
601 :;:> A The most usual application of resu lts o f these tests is to foundation analysis, on the lines
o p o r -ect 1on curve for 38mm c lometer spec ime n
0,
~ 50
with a 3mm membrane j
-----+-------+--------- V~~
J discussed in Section 13.4.2.
rI Analysis of long-term stability, and analysis of cases where drainage and pore water
t I p~essures are significant, req ui re the use of effective stress parameters which will be dealt

~ <of- ! 17~'-;: -:::>; ;;-1 t:ith in Volume 3.

h, I
"z ~O
;c' ctf~~
i ':? ,
13.4.2 Application to foundations
E"
£ For foundatio ns placed on clay soi l, th e condition immediately after completion of
c construction is nearly always the most critical. This is because the full load is then applied
.e to the soil, but the soil has not had time to gai n additional strength by consolidation. For
this condition t he undrained shear strength, as determined by unconfined or triaxial

10
j I J
20
compression tests, is relevant.
For many small projects on which expenditure on an ex tensive testing programme is not
justi fied , the bearing capacity of virtually sat urated intact clay soils can be evaluated
8-2% quickl y and easily from unconfined com pression tests. However, this can be done only if
O1l: i a! st rain %
the ground conditions have been investigated and classified to a sufficient depth, and if
(0) \:o~ ~~c t i or. lor si"lg ie - p ' c~e Sl ip
settlem ent criteria are satisfied. In fissured clays, unc onfined tests can be misleading and
Fig. 13.18 Rubber membrane corrections to be deducted from measured triaxial tests on large diameter specimens are needed.
compressive srrengrhjor (a) plastic failure. (b) brittle failure On larger projects, and for soils other than those for which tp can be taken as zero, quick
undrained triaxial tests are required for the estimati9n of bearing capacity. The parameters
c and <P enable the 'bearing capacity coefficients' (Terzaghi and Peck (1967), Article 29) to
X gi\'es a membrane correction of 21 kN / m" for failur e at 8.2070 strai n of a specimen in
be derived, from which allowable bearing capacities fo r \'arious types of foundations can be
which the slip plane or iginated at a strain o f 3.5 070.
calculated.
For soil s of high strength , such as stiff clays, th e effect of the membrane restraint is
imignificant and is usually neglected. The same applies to large diamete r specimens (100
13.4.3 Application to Sensitive Cla)'s
mm diameter and upwa rds) except for low strength soils. For soft and \'ery so ft clays the
me.mbrane effect ca n for m an appreciable proportion of the measured strength and
One of the classification criteria o f soft clays is the sensiti"it)' :0 remoulding (Section
omis.sio n of the ('orrccticn could lead 10 erro rs on the unsafe side.
13.3,9). This applies especiall y to soft alluvial and marine clays and giyes an indication of
1:'.3.9 Stn.lij itidty the redu ction in shear strengt h, which can be very large, which may occur if the clay is
• The symbol cis used in the remainder of this chapler 10 , epre~ent Ihe apparent co~.~si on Cu derived from a quick -
\';~len <1 d ;::, i~ :: l·)L!!:::': :1y ~:i1~:;ji:J g a!1 d working with e- ul ch~n g e il~ moi~ture COr:.~C:il, it u:-,draind te ~t.
6("1 OLiCK CQ)IPRESSIQ'O TESTS 1?4 APPIICATlO~S 601

subjected to di<;turb~n'.:e ..A_ ::,ractio:<!! ~xaITIple is the remoulding effect of driving piles or unreali~tically high streligths . Jild tests on 100 mill di~'.lIleter sam ph>" may gi\'e strengths
sheet piling through a soft clay layer to reach a firmer stratum. iligl'kl i.~,.:i.;-; .hosc ~c:s:.::-cd by in situ plate rests :>1 bcreholes. ! ~ 0t-!2in rea!i :: ~ic result s,
Many clays, including most found in Britain, are relatively insen si tive to remoulding and test specimens must be large enough to enable rhe structure of the soil, particularly fissures
their ratio of undi sturbed to remoulded strength, i.e. the sensitivity, Sf' is normally less and other discontinuities, to be adequately represented (Skempton and La Rochelle, 1965).
than 4. 'Sensitive' clays are those having sensitivities between 4 and 8; clays with a
sensitivity exceeding 8 are referred 10 as 'quick' or 'extra-sensitive' clays. Some highly 13.4.5 T)'picaJ Values of Shear Streng th
sensit ive quick clays can have sensitivities up to 500; these are often clays which were
originally laid down as marin e deposits and from which the salt in the pore spaces has been Values of the shear strength of non-cohesive soils, in terms of the angle of shearing
removed by leaching with non-saline ground water. These clays require extreme ca:-e in resistance, were given in Table J 2.3 (Chapt er 12).
sampling and handling to avoid disturbance. Typical quick undrained shea r strengths of clays found in Britain, for which qJ = 0,
The remoulded sh ear strength of many clays can be related to the liquidity index, LI classified according to their description of consistency, are given in Table 13.1. In a
(Volume I, Section 2.3.3), i.e. the value of the moisture content with respect to the liquid particu lar clay stratum below the upper horizon which is subjected to seasonal welting and
and plastic limit s. (Skempton and Bishop, 1954). For a clay at the liquid limit (Ll = I) the drying , the undrained shear strength (taken as half the unconfined compressive strength )
shear strength is about 1.7 kN / m 2 , and at the plastic limit (Ll = 0) it is about 100 to 150 often increases uniformly with depth.
limes greater (170- 250 kN/m'). (Wood and Wroth, 1976 and 1978). Cohesive soils containing silt , sand or gravel exhibit a frictional component as well as a
cohesion. A very stiff boulde r clay for instance might have a cohesion o f about 200 kN/m2,
13.4.4 Ad\'antages and Limitations of Compression Tests and a t:p value of 20° . The value of <P in mixed material s depe nd s upon the proportion of
granular material which is present, and on its grading.
\Vhile the direct shear procedures using the shearbox, described in Chapter 12, provide a With partially sa turated soils the envelope to Mohr circles of failure is curved and so
relatively simple means of measuring undrained shear strength, they have a number of unique \'alues of c and <P cannot be defined. Values can be derived only o ver a specifie,d
limitations, which were outli ned in Section J 2.4.5. On the other hand compression tests are range of st resses.
suitab le for most soils from which it is possible to prepare undisturbed specimens.
Recompacted soils of all types, and remou lded clays, can also be tested. Specimens of
Table 13. 1. SHEAR STRENGTH OF CLA YS
cohesion less soils such as sands can be difficult to prepare and these are perhaps more
conveniently tested in the shear box apparatus. Soils containing gravel-size particles require
Consislellc), descriplion Undrained shear sirengih
large diarr:.el~r specimens. 100 or 150 mm diameter, and the same a~p!ies to soil s such as ( k~ .- m!)
stiff fissured clays which contain discontinuities or other surfaces of potential weakness;
and to non-homogeneous soils. Very soft <20
Soft 20 - 40
Some of the advantages of compression tests on cylindrical specimens over direct shear
Soft 10 firm 40-50
rests, and a limitation which should be borne in mind, are summarised below. Finn 50-75
Firm lO stiff 75 - 100
ADVANTAGES Stiff 100-150
Vcry sliff or hard >150
(I) The specimen is n01 constrained to induce failure on a pre-determined surface, but
failure can occur on any surface.
(2) Consequently, a compression test may revea l a surface of weakness relating to some
natural feature of the soil structure. J3.S UNCO~fINE D COMPRESSION TESTS
(3) Specimens can be orientated if necessary to encourage failure to occur along a
particular feature, but without imposing re st raint. 13.5.1 Standard Laborator~' L' nconfined Tes t
(4) The stresses which are applied in a triaxial compression test are a closer approximation
to those which oCCur in-situ than are the conditions imposed in a direct shear test. At present there is no Bri tish Standard for this version of the test and the following is based
o n ASTM Designat ion 02166, Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil. using
(5) The applied st resses are principal stresses and close control is possible over stresses and
equipment available in Brilain.
rates of deformation.
(6) Drainage co nditions during ' test can be controlled and a variety of test conditions is APPARATUS
possible. In the quick-undrained test described here, the specimen is completely enclosed
and sealed so that drainage is positiyeiy prevented for all types of soi l. (I) Mechanical load f rame, either hand operated or machine driven, capable of providing
(7) Results from triaxial tests o n good quality samples of intact clays have been found to platen speeds in the range 0.5 - 4 mm/min. A machine of 10 kN capacity is suitabl e, but a
show good correlation with \'alues of shear strength found in the field (this is not true for larger machine may be med if it has the required range of speeds and can accommodate the
test specimen.
fissured days - see below).
(2) Load measuring ring: ~ kN capacity is usually sufficient, reading 10 ahout I N.
L :\t! T.·\T !()'\J (3) PkHen with qrain di;:.l ~Jug(' mounting designed ror unconfined ..::ompression testing.
Irlhighly ns~url?.j c!.:tys ~e.r;. Lond(l n clay) the ~ile of sp~cjme!l te~leJ c;;.n ha\c :1 :1 1 ht' a~ ...:~bly ~ h0\\ · n ':ll ~ , i q~ l,f:
important effect on the iIl(,J ~ llred strength. Tests on sm.dl (38 mm) diJJncter spe,;ijnt:ns gi\'t~ Lowe r p laten. fitting. ull;O load fram(, rlal(;~.
f,('2 QUICl; C()\lPRLS,)IOl' TESTS 1.3.5 L~'cr):--:Fl"ED CO\lPR[SSJO:-'; TFSTS 603
Po ~t anJ. b~'hkd for J~JI gauge. (10) Remove specimen.
~I ;;;,!: ;Jbten, fining on;:o load ;-;r,g :;p;gc ~.
(II) Remould and re-test (tl required).
Specimens up to 76 mm diameter can be accommodaled. Alternatively a standard triaxial
(12) f-.1easure moisture content.
c('11 of the appropriate ~ize can be used, without cell nuid.
(13) PIOI graphs.
(4) Dial gauge, 25 mm Ira\'el reading to 0.01 mm.
(5) Lever assembly for fitting to dial gauge.
(14) Calculale.
(15) Repon resulls.
(6) Apparalus for extruding and trimming undisturbed soi l specime ns (Section 9.1.2).
(7) Vernier calipers, 150 mm. TEST PROCEDURE
(8) Steel rule , ny-square.
(9) Balance, reading 10 0.1 g. (I) Preparation a/apparatus
(10) Drying oven and OIher standard moisture content apparalUs. Ensure that the load frame stands firmly on a solid level bench top or support.
(II) Clinometer or protractor. Attach the load ring to the cross-head of the frame and fit any necessary extension pieces.
(12) Slopciock. and the upper platen, securely to the IO\I,.·er end of the ring . Check that the load dial gauge is
The apparatus set up for hand operation in a 10 kN load frame is shown in Fig. 13.19. sec urely held and that the end of the stem makes coni act with the adjustable stop on the ring.
Locate the lower platen centrally on the machine platen and set the dial gauge post
PROCEDURAL STAGES vertically upright.
Adjust the level of the lower platen to allow enough clearance to insert the test specimen.
(1) Prepare apparatus. If a motorised unit is used, select the gear position which will give a platen speed of
(2) Prepare specimen. between 1 and 20/0 of the specimen length per minute. The time to failure should not exceed
(3) Measure specimen. 10 min. With a height: diameter ratio of 2: 1, the following speeds are usually appropriate.
(4) Set up speci men.
Specimen diameter (mm) Approximate plafen speed (mm / min)
(5) Record zero readings.
38 1.5
(6) Apply compression. 50 2
(7) Ta k~ reaJiJlg~. 75 3
(8) Unload. 100' 4
(9) Skelch mode of failure. If hand drive is used, ascertain by triallhe rate at which the handwheel should be turned
to give the appropriate platen speed.
Soft soils which require large deformations to failure will require somewhat higher rates
of st rain, whereas stiff or brittle materials which fail at small deformations will require
lower rates of strain.

(2) Preparafian of test specimen

The method of preparation depends upon the type of sample available, the most usual
, ,', being as follows.
>f..1
(I) Sample contained in a 38 mm diameter tube (or in a tube of any diameter which is the
same as the test specimen diameter). This procedure is described in Section 9.2.3.
(2) Sample contained in a U-JOO tube or 100 mm diameter piston sampling tube (see
Section 9.2.4).
(3) Block sample and Ihe like (see Section 9.3.2).
,p
t
.J;
(3) Iv!easurement a/speCimen
If the specimen has been prepared in a split mould of known dimension, no further
j measurement should be necessary other than weighing. Otherwise measure the diameter
and height of the specimen to 0.1 mm using vernier calipers . Make two or three measure-
melll S of each dimension, and average [he readin gs, as described in Volume 1. Section
3.5.2. \\'eigh the specimen to the neart:~t 0.1 g. preferubly on a small tray or Ii,oi:.lure tin
"hich ha!' b('cn \\cighed predously .
Fir· 13. J 9 ("'/l'o"..,r.r.ed compression test in 10 k."· /oad frame (hand operared) • rvr a 100 Jl1!J. j:<lmC!<.'J ~ i'I.'.:il"'1Ul a iarf'cr 1.'r r bll.·n, ot ;11:-<1\11 l~.j lUll c!i;,:;lC'.\'r. i' Il.cjllircd.
 13.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TESTS 605
604 QUICK COMPRESSION TESTS
(a) Plastic failure.
The specimen should be handled (arcfully, especially if soft, to avoid ~isturbance. In ' :~~mi ~ ~!;:j'-i:.· ;-::!;;,'
;i,~~,::~:(':-. ::.:!d !::: :!' :;'G-;;':~;":;-:. : ;-,i;-. v:::;..;:;~ ~;..;. ... :; :,:",v ... :":: :... ... "v .•' ~o re"::u\.'e lo~~ oi
(c) Brittle failure.
moisture due to handling, If possible, preparation and measurement should be carried out If a shear surface is evident, measure the angle of inclination of the plane to the
in a humidified atmosphere. horizontal, if possible to the nearest 10 , using a clinometer or protractor. This should be
done as quickly as possible to avoid loss of moist ure.
(4) Selfing up specimen
Place the specimen centrally on the lower platen on the machine, and check that the (10) Removing specimen
c;pecimen axis is vertical. \\'ind up the pla.cn by hand until the specimen just makes contact Carefully remove the specimen from the base platen, keeping it together in one piece. Place
with the top platen; this will be indicated by a fractional movement of the load dial gauge. it on a small weighed tray or moisture container, together with any soil adhering to the
Adjust the strain dial gauge on the piHar to read zero, or a convenient initial reading. uppe r and lower platens.
Ensure that most of the travel of the dial gauge is available for recording compressi\'e
movement. (11) Remoulded lesl
If a triaxial cell is used, set up the speci men on the pedestal and assemble the cell as
described in Sec!ion 13.6.3, stages (7) and (8). A rubber membrane need nO( be used and the If the remoulded strength is to be measured for the determination of sensitivity, refer to
cell is not filled with water. Section 13.5.3 before proceeding with stage (12).

(12) Measurement of moisture content

(5) Recording zero readings
Record the readings of the strain dial, and the load dial , in the starting position under zero
compressive load. It is convenient if both readings are zero, or an exact number of
hundreds.
(6) Compression test
If a motorised unit is med, s\vitch on the motor and start the clock at the same time. The
clock can be used to Yerify that the correct rate of strain is being applied.
~::;. !-.;:;-•.:! .::;:. .... ;-.:.~~.:! ;-,j;:;'~:',;;-,.: ,:; u;..:d . .:.a Q..,.~;~,;,... " , ,,_,;:-eJ .,_. '''.:,~ ~;J~ !l::!nci::~: !h~
correct speed, checking against the clock, while readings are being taken.
(7) Taking readings
Record the readings of the load dial at regular interva ls, such as every 0.2 mm , of the strain
dial readings. If the machine speed is to be checked, record the time from the start al so.
\Vhen the rate of increase of the load dial reading becomes small, fewer readings need to be
taken. If the load dial readings increase rapidly near the start of the test, it may be better to
take readings at regular intervals of load dial readings.
Continue ioading and taking readings until it is certain lhat faiiure has occurred,
according to one of the following criteria.
(l) Three or more consecuti \ e readings of the load dial show a decreasing or a constant
load.
(2) A strain of 200io (15 mm compression of a 38 mm diameter specimen) has been reached.
If the load dial reading is plotted agailJst deformation, or strain percent, as the test
proceeds (see stage (J n), the point of failure can be identified easily.
(8) Unloading
When the spedmen has failed, SlOp the machine, allow the motor to stop completely and
put it into reverse; or wind down by hand until the load is taken off the specimen. Read the
100~d dial gauge as a check on the initial reading unde r zero load. Lower the ma('hine platt!n
far enough to enable the specimen o r triaxial cell to be removed.
(9) Ske!chi';g m('. ..: ...' 0/failure
\1ake a sketch of lhe spe.:imen as il appears arter failure. 10 indicate the manner in which it
has failed and especially to Wilich of the three main types of failure it belongs (Fig. 1:'.3),
Weigh the specimen and container to 0.1 g (m 1 ), plac~ in a standard drying oven overnight,
and weigh dry (m 3 ), as in the standard moisture content test. The container (mass m,)
shou ld be large enough to retain any pieces of the specimen which might drop off.
(13) Plotting graphs
The easiest way of plotting the relationship between load and strain is to use a special area
correction graph sheet as shown in Fig. 13.17, from data recorded on a' test sheet of the type
~!:'.:"1.':-! !!;. ~i~ . !~.~9 (S=,:~b:!!~ t:. ?~ ':'~ ,.. !:_
:::. p:::r(;::-.::'':':, ... t:-:':>1 '::.!:.::.:; :':-c .,!~ -:-.';"'';:;';. ~T;,r.:
latter is designed only for 38 mm diameter specimens about 80 mm long, and a sheet printed
with different values is necessary for other sizes). This method has the added advantage
that a curye equivalent to the corrected form of stress-strai n curve can be plotted while the
test is in progress.
From each observed load dial reading on the vertical a).is, project parallel to the nearest
oblique line to the corresponding value of strain. For example, one reading in Fig. 13.17 (a)
represents a load dial reading of 152 divisions at a strai n of 3.5OJo. Plot all the observed
points in this way and draw a smooth c~rve through them,
To obtain the corrected maximum value of compressive stress, place a ru ler alone the
ve rtical a...:is and hold a set·square against it so that a horizontal line can be drawn ,; just
touch the peak of the cu rve (see Fig. 13 . 17 (a» ). Draw this line across to the vertical axis and
record the equivalent load dial reading (Re)·
Draw a vertical line from the peak of the curve to the horizontal axis, and record :h~
strain corresponding to this poillt.
If the area·correction graph sheet is not used, the compressive stress cOiresponding to
each reading must be calculated, as described in stage (14), and plotted against percentage
strain as an ordinary graph. The maximum value of ihe stress, and the corresponding
~train, are read off and recorded . The peak point may not necessarily <.:oincide with an
observed point, but could be on the curye between two readings.
(14) Calclllations
For tJ:e calculation of St ress and ~(rain \'a!ues, tht: foJlo\~ ing sY:l'!bols are used.
lnitiallenglh of specimen == Lomm
Diameter of specimen =Dmm
Initial area of cross·seclion = A o mm~
where Ao ::: n[f14
 ( co~ ;SIO" IS .3.5 _ . __ H":Fll ___'O\j[ • :O!\1 60.

Amount of compre~"ion at any ~tage = x mrn Maximum comp ress ive stress at failure (the uncon fined comp ressive stren gth, qu) to the
nearest 1 kN / m 2 •
Strain. f; = ~
, x 1000/0
~,
Strain (\Vo) at f<ii!i..h':, to tht near~st O.2:J7u.
Mean calibration of load ring = CR N/division Rate of strain applied.
Load ring reading at strain E = R divisions Description of soil specimen.
Area of cross section at strain E = A mm 2 Type of sample from which prepared.
Load on specimen at strain E = R X CR newtons Method of preparation.
Compressive stress at strain E = 0
13.5.2 Autographic Unconfined Compression Test (BS 1377: 1975, Test 20)
R X CR
where 0 = A x 1000 kN/m 2
APPARATUS
SutA = lOOA o (Section 13.3.7) (1) Portable self-contained hand-operated autographic apparatus in carrying case slrown
100 - ,'10 in Fig. 13.20. The principle of operation is explained below.
o RCR (100 - ,'10) x 1000 kN/m' (13.10) (2) Accessories normally supplied with the apparatus:
lOOA o (a) Specimen end platens, flat and polished, up to 50 mm diameter.
(b) Set of calibrated springs of different stiffnesses (usually 4).
If the ring calibration C R is assumed to be constant, the value of 1000 CR ! Ao need be (c) Printed charts on which the graph is recorded (Fig. 13.27).
calculated once only as the 'stress constant' in terms of kN/m 2 per division, The calculation (d) Transparent mask for use with the charts (Fig. 13.21).
on each compressive stress is then simplified to (3) Hand extruder for 38 mm diameter specimens (Section 9.1.2).
(4) Split former, 38 mm diameter.
IOCR
o = - - (100 - ''1o)R kN/m' (13 . 11) (5) End trimming tool.
Ao (6) Trimming knife, wire saw.
(7) Steel straight edge.
Values of 0 are plotted against eOJO as described in Stage 13.
If the area correction graph is used, this calculation need be done for the peak point value (8) Steel rule, try-square.
only, i.e. at hi!1.!re: (9) Vernier calipers.
(lO) Calibrated specimen extruder dolly.
C .
R
Of == - - x Rc kN/m 2 == qu
1000

Other calculations are as follows.

.. I va I
I mBa umef ·
0 speCImen = V = nD'Lo
4000 cm 3
If the initial mass of specimen = mog,
its bulk density p = mOMg/m3
V
mZ -m3 c
Initial moisture content w m2 - In ] X 1000/0
· lOOp l
D ry d enstty PD = Mg/m
100 + w

(15) Reporting results

The following data are reported.
e
Specimen dimensions (to 0.1 mm). ,"
!\:foisture content (to O. I 070).
Sulk density and dry density (to 0.01 Mg/m').
Sketch showing mode of failure.
~..., ..
~

- - - --.,-;.:. . ----. ....e

Stress-suain curve (either stress against strain or represented by the area correction grid
ph.."'!) . Fig. 13 .20 Autographic uncvn.fl'led cOllipres~i(;l1leSI appararus

,
 Ql·W~" SO\jnncC""ilON TrC'""s
J.5 L. > ~ .... NFI~~ ..... ..... ,)t\1P"''-''' ..... ON 1 ..... .."..,
609
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST

For UH witn 38""" dlo It 8ClMo1o 'PCCl!TOC'l (110'"• .,.,.) P leOd screw ~ ---- -_ _ Jl t=J ~ .. " _ '- ~" , "n . '"

N tnre
o ,--- --------, 0

I ~ol
up~er f ix ed plO1.e

0 1 I :::I
~ ~
i sl i di 19 slee\"",s
-- ( upper rn ovi n g ;)i::J te

02 r

oJ iil
~ ~ ::
-ou t l ;!, ..; c f jr:Jw'r. ;
p l c1te f i xej te C

~I ' ,~
a: ... : - sp rlf'~

~ -5 e ----~D pe nc i I
v~-}
=
! go
"'e E middle plate
'osl~ ~ _,07 1-~~ F tie -rods
G L -shaped ::Irm
~~ 5 H fix ed p l ote
,0'
SP ECIMEN
pla t ers
'07 M knif

Fig. 13.21 Transparent mask for use with aUlographic compression lest apparatus L odju ;table lower mc v in ; ;:> .c: e
stop K p i vot

(1) Clinometer or protractor. oasep l ate

(12) Balance, reading to 0, I g,

(3) Drying oven and other standard moisture content apparatus. Fig. 13 .22 MainfealUres of autographic unconfined compression lest apparatus

PRINCIPLE OF APPARATUS (1) lfthe specimen does not compress, the pencil moves along a vertical line on the chan by
a distance equal to the extension of the spring. (Loading producing zero strain).
The main features of the apparatus are shown in Fig. 13 .22. The drawing plate (shown in
dotted outline) which holds the paper chart is fixed to the upper moving plate C . T he pivot (2) If the spring does not extend, the pencil moves along the arc of a circle centred at K.
K of the L~shaped arm G which holds the pencil D is mounted on the lower moving plate J. (Compressive strain under constant load).
The lower end of arm G carries a knife~edge M which rests on the adjustable stop L, From the above it can be seen that the load axis is a vertical straight line, and the
providing a fulcrum at a fixed leveL The upper end of the spring is fixed to C and the lower ordinates are parallel straight lines; also that the deformation (strain) axis is a circular arc,
end to the middle plate E, which is attached to J by the tie~rods F. The specimen is held and the abscissae are non~concentric circular arcs all of equal radius.
between the lower platen, supported by the plate J, and the upper platen attached to the The curves on the transparent mask are drawn to make allowance for the area correction
underside of the fixed plate H. The upper fixed plate B carries a threaded bush N which is (Section 13.3.7) and are not necessarily circular or paraliel.
rotated by the handle A and which engages with the lead screw P. The lower end of the
lead-screw is attached to the moving plate C. PROCEDURAL STAGES
Clockwise rotation of the handle A rotates the bush N, thereby raising the lead~scre\V P
because it cannot rotate. This lifts the plate C, say by a distance x (Fig. 13.23). If the spring (1) Prepare apparatus.
extends, due to the resistance offered by the specimen, the plate J rises by a smaller distance (2) Prepare specimen.
y, equal to the amount by which the specimen is compressed. The relative vertical move~ (3) Measure specimen.
ment (x - y) is equal to the extension of the spring, and is equal to the vertical movement (4) Place in apparatus.
of the pencil D relative (Q the chart, denoted by q. The vertical movement of the pencil in (5) Adjust apparatus.
the chart is therefore proportionai to the applied load, if it is assumed that the spring has an
elastic calibration, i.e. force proportional to amount of extension.
(6) Apply compression.
If the lengths of the two limbs of the pencil arm G are denoted by a and b(Fig, 13,24), it (7) Remove specimen and chart.
can be seen from the geometry of the arrangement that the horizontal movement p of the (8) Sketch mode of failure.
pencil D, for a vertical movement y of the lower plate, is determined by the relationship (9) Re~mould and re~test (if required).
p = (a/b)y. That is, the horizontal movement of the pencil is directly proportional to the (10) Measure moisture coment.
amount of compression of the specimen, i.c. to the s:rain .
(11) Deri\'e resulL from ch<irt.
The following limiting cases illustrate the principle of operation.
(12) Report re~ul!s.
 QUICK C ()~H'RESS I () :-; TE STS 13.5 U:\CO~n:\,E D CO\1P RE~S l O ~ TESTS 611
610
, Fit the spring by hooking it into the uppe r and low er sockets, then adjust the heigh! 0f
• -'-
u pward mov e ment 0 1 chort
~h~ lV'':'''':i'
r;',vving ~la{en by IULd.liug the handie, so that there is enough clearance fo r
in serting the specimen.
= x
, = movemen t 01 upper e n d of
sp r in g
Record the specimen details, and the number and calibration of the selected springs, on a
printed chart and attach it, top side uppermost, to the drawing plate with the spring clips.
upwar d mov e men t o f pe n c il a Align the edge of the chart with the edge of the plate.
~ Ii' " = KK ' = Y Fit a sharpened pencil into the holder, and clamp it so that it is j ust clear of the chart.
= movemen t of lo wer e nd of Attach the split mould to t he sample extruder and lightly oil the in side faces.
s pring

, r1) IJ y " - - - 'II (I') l' ·.m o ... e ment of penc il relative
(2) Preparation 0/ specimen
II • til -----=....L ", I to cha rt
=0 , 02= Q The procedure is the same as for stage (2) of Section 13.5 .1 depending upon the type o f
= extension 01 spri ng
specimen.

(3) Measurement a/specimen

,II M II Yi K'
If the specimen has been trimmed in t he split mould, it needs only to be weighed (to 0.1 g),
K
provided that the dimensions of the mould have been verified.
Fig. 13.23 Vertical movement oj pencil relative lO char! For a soft specimen which may be difficult to handle without causing di sturbance, th e
_ _ _ p -----...J, tube measurements can be accepted. Otherwise the specimen can be measured with vernier
calipers in several places, and the mean dimensions used. It is weighed to O. J g.
I Soil that has been trimmed fro m immediately adjacent to the teSt specimen may be used
y- - - ----ftg for the determination of moi sture content.

l
--------- (4) Selting up
/ t\MX Ilnd K CY
Plar.e :h~ spt"cimen cen~.a!!y all tl!t: 1llwe r pla ten. Wi lid lht: handle to raise the ! o ~·,' ~:- p!~!e~
until the specimen just makes contact with the upper (fixed) platen.
ore s imil a r triangl es
~ 0
/
o y , (5) Adjustments
,I orp = ~ . )' Adju st the pencil arm horizontally by turning the knurled screw L (Fig. 13,22) so that the
• pencil is over the venical zero line on the chart. Move the chart vertically so that the pen cil
is also over the curved line representing zero load, i.e. at the origin. Push the pencil forward
so that it bears on the chart with enough pressure to make a clear mark. Make final
adjustments if necessary so that the pencil point is exactly at the origin of the printed graph
axes.

Fig. 13.24 Hori:.onral movement oj pencil relalive to chan (6) Compression o/specimen
Compress the specimen by rotating [he handle steadily at the correct rate, usually one turn
TEST PROCEDURE every 2 s (Fig. 13 .25). According to the as the rate of deformation should be approximately
8 mm / min, giving a test time of about 2 min to achieve 20070 strain.
(1) Preparation 0/ apparatus The test is completed either when the specimen has failed (Fig. 13.26) and a definite peak
Fit the platens to the apparatus by screwing them sec urely into the threaded connectio ns , on the graph plot is shown, as in Fig. 13.27, curve (a); or when a strain of 20070 is reached
Select the spring which is best suited to the shear strength of the soil ro be tested. Thi s ca n (Fig. 13.27 , cur ve (b» whichever occurs fir st .
be estimated from experience, but a general guide, based on the descriptive term s given in
Volume 1, Table7.I , isas follow s. (7) Removal a/specimen and chart
Descriptive terms/or Suggested spring calibration Rotate the handle in the opposite direction so as w wind down the platen until t he load is
shear streng th a/ specimen (N / mm) remo\'ed and there is enough clearance to take the speci men out. Place t he specimen on a
Ver y soft 2 small weighed tray or moislUre container, together \\ ith any soil adhering to the platens.
Soft 4 Remo"e the chart from the drawing plate . Check th at the curve is cl early drawn, and that
Soft to !"ir m 8 the idcmificati 0 n detail s of the specimen, tbe date of lest, and the n'..:m ber of cali bration o f
FIrm It" the spr ing us ed, are wri tten on the chart.
 6 ·,-, Ql' ICK CO!,IPRESS ION TESTS 1 13.5 CNCOl'FIl'ED CO:'lPRESS ION TESTS 613
;1
(N/mm) to obtain the compressive stress (N /mm~) on the specimen at failure. The
unconfined compressive strength qu (kN/m2) is equal to that value multiplied by 1000.
lf a peak value was not obtained , a simi lar calculation is made using t he mask reading
corresponding to a strain of 20070 (curve (b) in Fig. 13.27).
With some machines the chart may be calibrated to give a direct reading of compressive
st rength in N/mm 2 or kN / m 2 on a 38 mm diameter specimen. O lder machines may be
calibrated to give Ib/ft2 , in which case mUltiply by 0.0479 to obtain kN/m 2 • If the specimen
diameter D is not 38 mm, the result should be multiplied by (381 D)'2 to obtain the corrected
strength.
Read off the deflecti on (mm) from the chart corresponding to the peak stress. Divide it
by the specimen length (mm) and multiply by 100, to obtain the strain (070) at failure.
Calculate the bulk density and dry density of the speci men , as in Section 13. 5. 1.

(12) Reporling resulls

The compressive stress at failure (either peak stress, or at 20070 strai n) is reported as the
unconfined compressive strength of the specimen, as follows.
Values up to 50 kN /m2 report to nearest 2 kN /m l .
Values from 50 to 100 kN/m~ report to nearest 5 kN/m 2 •
Values above 100 kN /m2 report to nearest 10 kN /m 2 •
Report the strain at failure to the nearest 1070. Also report:
Mode of failure (plastic, britt le, or imermediate).
Any other visible features .
Fig. 13.25 Unconfined compression test in Fig.13.26 Unconjinedcompression lest Specimen identification details and type of soil.
portable aurographic apparaTus specimen afler failure Moisture content.
Bulk density, dry density.
Use of autographic portable apparatus.
(8) Skelching mode offailure
Make a sketch on the chan or on the back of it. to indicate the mode of failure of the 13,5.3 Remoulded Test and Sensitivity
specimen. If a surface of failure is visible, measure its inclination to the horizontal to the
nearest 10 if possible, using a clinometer or protractor. Record any oth er features which are The remoulded strength of a saturated clay, which is used for calculating sensitivity . is best
visible. determined immediately after measuring the undisturbed strength. The procedure described
~ If the specimen is likely to fall apart after testing, it should be sketched before removing
it from the machine platen.
below is used as stage (11) of Section 13.5.1 or asstage (9) of Section 13.5.2.
(1) Enclose the specimen in a small polythene bag, together with a little more of the soil at
the same moisture coment, and remould it thoroughly by squeezing and kneading it with
(9) Remoulded lesl the fingers for a few minutes.
(2) Take the so il out of the bag and work it into a 38 mm diameter tube or split mould,
If the remoulded strength is to be measured for the determination of sensitivity. refer to
without entrapping any air, as quic kly as possible to avoid moisture loss, using a tamping
Section J 3.5.3 before proceeding with stage (10).
rod.
(3) Trim the ends flush and square.
(10) Measurement a/moisture content
(4) Extrude or remove the specimen from the tube or split mould.
Weigh the specimen on the tray, place in the oven, weigh when dry and cool and calculate (5) Measure and weigh the speci men.
the moisture content, as in the st2.ndard moisture content test.
(6) Place it in the machine and carry out a repeat compression test in the same way as for
the undisturbed specimen (Seelion 13.5. 1. stages (4)- (10); or Section 13.5.2, stages (4)-(8)).
(I]) Derivation.o/ resulr (7) After sketching the mode of failure, measure the moisture contem as described in
P lace the tran sparent mask o\'er the test chart so that the \'ertical axis coincides with the Section 13.5.1, stage (12) or Section 13.5.2 , stage (10).
yertical axis on th e chart and the zero position on the mask coincides with the starting point (8) Calculate the remoulded compressive strength qR. in the same way as described in
(normally the origin) of the test cur\'e (Fig. 13 .28). The mask is applicable only to the S<"iun 13.5 .1, stages (13) and (14) or Section 13.5 .2, stage (II), for the undisturbed
specimen dj~meler for which it is designed (in this in st ance 38 mm). strength quo
Read off the m:mber (In the curved line on the mask corresponding II) the }(lwe<;t point (9) Calculate the sensiti,·iIY. 51, ortheda)' from the equation SI = CJo.I 1qR'
l~,e 'nea\..', on tht' It'S' ~r;1l'h, i nlt'rrn! (1 !:n!; bClWCl? fl the clOrved lines if nece~sa;-~, 3~ ShOWil (10) Report the remoulded streng;h;n the ~ o. me,~ ay as the ur.diqur b~ d strength and report
i;l Fig . J .~ . .2- , .::..: '. ~ (~'.). Re:,,:c1 rd t J; ~' r~,.3if' g all J multir! y it by the ~rrjr.g ca iibr,~ti oll the scmiti\'ity to the firs.l decimal plact'.
 "...-
f l. QCICK CO~IPRE SS [ON TESTS 1.1.5 UNCONF INED COMPRESSION TESTS 615
A l1~ 'Jc !" 'J.eh ; ( Unc 0 nfi nf:~ . CgID prE>5.::':O:---,. T"C':;~. _.
S ;:.p;,", ~, ~..::r- ~t '?'f 38 ,...... .~ $0 fl'tr

0.11: I Z - 3' 7'} Sprill!l Rat!: ,2. N/mm

Sit. fla (e SOli Spem.n We;ght / 69 , ,=. ~ ~ l

'""" No. T - 16 Wfl """" / • .,S- M,j;{ · ", :.It· ,"

SoiIType Sr,,;.!/! Sl:i.i"V ct.A,Y 1·.38 /'I5lm l DryOemity --
Mu """'='" " _ (a!4J xi! - K6 kN .. '7bJ/6x2~52k Ol/m'

. . ..-
MOIStln Content ' Tift Nil. T 27
~jsturt Coot.,,! J4% "' -.~.-

----- --- --- -l:

( 5U?E ~ iV:>:;'5::S ·~ "':.r :8'\ T')J~5 _ 2.~ /rr, ~ - ) '
,
j",

1~

ill i I! I !; II! III i I '"

Ja
I i , : : II -~
!-"I i I ,

LJ11)
I i i , II i·!,
I 'I' I I
.r \ '! i ~ \. I

I--!, i 70-1i ,
~

~ t=-:
~
t- " - - I
~ i •
~I
-
~

n- , 1 I I ,I • .L
:---ll.. I

0'1
.0- ~ ;S
~ . I 50
- I
I ~;J. ~ ~ g
I •
I
," I I .J
" ~
:>
, , I
i' :
., I
Fig. 13.28 Use a/transparent mask on test chart

, .· i .
( b)
, ,
, i
,
I I : , ! 1111' I ,i I:
'5
" I
~. -, ..- - ." -- -
Oeform;nUl rrrn
•••
Fig. 13.27 Typical results from unconfined compression rest in autographic
apparatus, illustrating two types of failure

13.5.4 Unconfined Compression Apparatus for Soft Rocks

A special machine for carrying out unconfinod compression tests on core samples of soft
rocks and very stiff soils up to 100 mm diameter was designed by the author for use on a
large overseas dam project, and .built on site. The conventional autographic apparatus was
totally unsuitable for measuring the high strengths of these materials, and a hand-operated
machi ne which could be used either in th e laboratory or on site was requi red . The machine
proved to serve its purpose well and a second machine was built.
The frame was constructed of steel channel sections and housed a hand-operated worm
drive unit which was a copy of that built into a 30 kN load frame. Provision was made for
fitting load rings up to 30 kN capacity. A conventional dial gauge, mounted on a post fixed
to the 1(' \\ er j'lialen, 'sas uc:e d for mc :;,suri ;}g str ain .
.-\ P ~'::H ('£r 2.p h o f the z. ~j::ar at u$ in use is sho wn in Fig . J3 .29. These machines enabled the Fig. 13.29 Un confined compressiOll test Fig. 13 .30 Unconfined compression test
tr i ax: ~i lo::d fr ::. me; :1 t!'.c r:wi :1iabo:-m o !' y :o bt' dC'Yo: ed!o more so phist i.;ateJ wsts. rr.achine designed by the author/or resting soft machine 0/ J5 kN capacity
A c('. mpac! mal..hine of recent design v. il h a load capacity of 15 kN is shown in Fig. 13.30. rocks
616 QUIC~ CO \ E'Rf S'::;lO:-.: TE~TS 13.6 TR!AXIAL CO"lPRE ~·S JO;_..\ TESTS 617

1.1 .6 THIA\IAL CO\II'f!ESSIO!,( TE,TS :::0 1' i.. ..... i'\iL >. SILl:.')

The diameters ot test specimens which are commonly adopted as standard practice in
13.6.1 General
various countries are listed in Table 13.2. Nominal measurements for height/ diameter
ratiosof2:1 are summarised in Table 13.3.
SCOPE
The principle of the triaxial compression test is outlined in Section 13.1.3. The test referred TYPES OF SOIL
to here as the 'standard' test described in Section 13.6.3 is based on Test 21 of
BS 1377: 1975. A ver), similar test is given in ASTM D2850. The principle applies 10 The 'standard' triaxial test (Section 13.6.3) is intended mainly for use with fine-grained
specimens up to 75 mm diameter. homogenous cohesi\'e soils. The largest size of panicles shou ld not normally exceed 3.35
In Britain it is common practice to teS! a set of three identical 38 mm diameter specimens, mm, although occasional panicles o f fine gra vel size (up to 6.3 mm) is permissi ble if they
taken at one horizon from a 100 mm diameter sample in a U-l00 tube or pistOn sampling do not impair the preparation of good specimens. If larger particles are present, larger
tube, and this is the approach described in Section 13.6.3. Tests on specimens of large diameter specimens should be used. Table 13.4 indicates the sugges ted maximum particle
diameter, i.e. 100 mm and upwards, are described in Section 13.6.4. Variations from the size for the most widely used specimen sizes.
'standard' tests, and methods of preparation of test specimens, are given in subsequent
sections.
Test procedures are based on the use of conventional measuring instruments requiring
manual obser\'ation and recording, although electronic logging and data processing is being Table 13.4. MAXIMUM PARTICLE SIZES FOR TRIAXIAL SPECIMENS
used increasingly in commercial work (see Section 8.2.6).
,\'ominal specimen size SuggesTed maximum
diam eter X lenglh size of parricles
(mm) (mm)
Table 13.2. TRIAXIAL SPECIMEN DIAMETERS
38 X 76 3.35
50 x 100 6.3
Specimen diameter Where used 70 X 140 to
(in) (mm) 100 X 200 20
150 X 300 37.5
35 Europe
1.4 35.56" liSA
1.5 38.1 ' Britain (imperial units) } practically
38 Britain (51) identical
50 Scandinavia (from 54 mm diameter piston samples) Soils which contain fissures or other discontinuities shou ld be tested by using a specimen
2 50.8' Canada of as large a diameter as practicable; for instance a U-l00 tube sample of fissured clay
2.8 71.12- USA (from 3 in. diameter samples)
100 Britain (51)
should be extruded and tested as a 100 mm diameter specimen, 200 mm long. Smaller
4 101.6- Brit ain (imperial units) specimens trimmed from this type of soil are likely to be representative of the intact
150 Britain (51. from 6 in. piston samples) material only (Fig. 13.31). If a small specimen includes fissures it is likely to break up and
6 152.4- Britain (piston samples) be rejected in favour of a 'better' specimen of intact soil. The discontinuities have an
• E'l:ac! mn'ers ;o n or in:iI SIze important influence o n the shear strength of the soil in situ and a test specimen should be
large enough 10 rep resent these features (Skempton and Henkel, 1957).

Tab le 13.3. TYPJCAL MEASUREMENTS OF TRIAXIAL SPEC IMENS

13.6.2 Apparatus for 'Standard' Test
Sp€cimen si:;.e A pproximate masst
Diameler ::liameler x height Area Volume PREPARATION AND MEASUREMENT OF SPECIMENS
(in) (mm) (mm~) (eml)
It ems (1) to (5) listed below are described in Section 9.1.2 and the preparation of test
35 X 70 962.1 67.35 140 g
1.5 38 x 76 1134 86.19 180g
specimens is described in Sections 9.2.3 and 9.2.4.
50 X 100 1963 196.3 410 g (1) Extruder for vertical extrusion of samples fr om U-lOO tubes. hand operated or
70 X 140 3848 S38.S 1130 g rnotorised.
2.8 il.12 X 14.2':· 3973 565.1 1190 g
(2) Adaptor for holding three 38 mm diameter sample lubes.
100 X 200 7854 1571 3.3 kg
4 10 1.6 X 203. 2· 8107 1647 3.5 kg
(3) Sample tubes 38 mm internal diameter and about 230 mm long, wirh sharp cutting
edges and end caps, with or without relieved bore (three required).
,
- - - - - -- ---- - - -.- -'--...:..:.:"---
ISO X 300
1.... ~ . 4 '-'< ~(\.:l,S
'-670
: S~~"
5301
........ 00
1\.1
11 ~
kg
\.. ..:
....:..:..--"-- - (4) Extruder for 38 !lUll dia m~ter tubes .
• I. ......, ,~. '~ "r.' . .. ;), ·\.·e (') St.'Jit moul d for form ing a 38 mm diamcter spe(imea . 76 mm long .
j f .,,,~ <'~ r~ '· (o n' :" r; ~ i \If ~ (~l Trimming knife, wire saw, !:.paw la.
 QI)lCK CO\1PRESSJON TESTS 1.:.6 TRIA X!AL CO~IP..RESSiON TE~TS 619
6 1S
r (J '{) Dial gauge, 25 mOl travel readin g to 0.01 mm, for strain measurement (Sections 8.2.1
r-,_" 1;:::IT'.1iII f - - --10:i1""'rr. cp~IY et.;·r
,, "::f::';: ..J r~,t:~ s-;r,.,. '"
01 f'~surE: d , , :: ~.
a:1d S. J.2~.
(19) Mounting bracket for attaching strain dial gauge to lower end of load ring.
, I
(20) Upper and lower solid specimen end caps, 38 mm diameter, of non-corrodible metal
"
. .I) 38mmd iam ete r sp e c;'Tl en
or plastic. The upper end cap (press ure pad) has a spherical seating for a ball bearing of
(sub!;ton t iOll y inta c t ClO y)
about 12 mOl diameter or is fitted with an integral hemi spherical dome. A lower cap (base

-- ---h.-
-
f iss ures - - - '--- ~ /....

.-~
100 mm d iam eter specim e n
--' - + - - Ccon ta ining fissures)
-,
cap), if needed, fits on th~ cell pedestal.
(21) Latex rubber membranes, 38 mOl diameter and about 150 mm long, 0.25 mm or
0.3 mm thick, in the form of an open tube; three required, one for each specimen (see
Seclion 13 .7.4).
". '\/ (22) Rubber O-ring seali ng rings to fit tightly on the end caps; four required.
2;i (23) Suction membrane stretcher for 38 mm diameter specimens, fined with a sho rt length
of rubber tube and pinch clip.
(24) Small metal tray.
Fig. 13.31 Representation of tube sample offissured cloy (25) Clin ometer or protractor.
(26) Wiping clOlhs, sponge.
(7) Straight edge.
(8) Steel rule, try-square. 13.6.3 'Standard' Triaxial Test Procedure (38 mm diameter specimens)
(9) Vernier calipers.
This test is based on BS 1377:1975, Test 21, and is the procedure normally followed in
(10) Balance reading wO.I g. Britain when testing a set of three identical specimens.
(11) Oven and other standard moisture content apparatus.
PROCEDURAL STAGES
SETTING UP AND TESTING
(1) P:e~ar,~ test apparatus. (13) Unload.
Many of the items listed below are described in Chapter 8, in the sections indicated. Triaxial (2) Prepare sample extrusion apparatus. (14) Dismantle cell.
cells and ancilla ry equipmen l are described in Section 13.7.2 and 13.7 .3, including nQ[es on
(3) Extrude sample. (IS) Remove speci men.
their proper use.
(4) Prepare specimens. (16) Sketch mode of failure.
(12) Load frame , 10 kN capacity or larger, preferably motori sed (Section 8.2.3) . For
38 mm diamete r specimens a platen speed of about 1.5 mm / min is required, in order to (5) Measure specimen. (17) Measu re moi sture content .
indu ce failure within a period of from 5 to 10 min as specified by the BS. (6) Fit membrane and end caps. (1 8) Clean equipment.
The available travel should be capable of compressing the specimen by about 25 mm. (7) Set up in triaxial cell. (19) Repeat stages 4 to 18 on other specimens.
(13) Load measuring device, normally a load ring (Section 8. 2.1). A load ring of 2 kN (8) Assemble cell . (20) Plot graphs.
capacity and a sensitivity of 1 to 1.5 kN per division is suitable for most cohesive soils. A (9) Pressurise cell. (21) Calculate.
ring of higher capacity (e.g. 4.5 kN, reading to 3 N per divi sion) may be needed for oon- (10) Select machine speed. (22) Pial Mohr circles.
cohesive soils when tested under a high confining pressure. (II) Adjust gauges. (23) Report results.
The BS calls for a load measuring device with an accuracy equivalent to Grade B of
(12) Compress specimen.
BS 1610 (Section 8.3.3).
(14) Triaxial cell, capable of sustaining an internal water pressure up to 1000 kN / m 2 , with TEST PROCEDURE
perspex body and fitted with a base, including the specimen pedestal; loading ram, valve
outlet connections and post with adjustable anvil for the strain dial gauge datum (Section (1) Preparation of apparatus
13 .7.2).
Attach the appropriate load ring securely to the cross·head of the load frame. Check that
(J 5) Constant pres~ ure system for maintaining cell pressure up to 1000 kN/ m 2 at a constant the dial gauge is secure and that its foot makes contact with the anvil on the ring . A small
level (0 within IO kN/ m2• Pressures up to about 700 kN / m 2 may be sufficient for man y deflectio n should be indicated when the ring is co mpressed slightly by hand.
tests. Five types of constant pressure system are described in Section 8.2.4, of which the V·/ ind down the machine base or rai se the cross·head if necessary, to provide adequate
secon d (a motorised air system) is referred to in Section 13.6.3. clearance for inserting the triaxial cell. Ensure that the rubber sea l on the base o f the cell
(16) Nylon tubing and appropriate couplings for connecting the pressure syste m to the cell. body is in good con dition and is properly seated (see Section 13.7.2). Wipe the piston with a
(17) Pressur e taugl~ co\'ering the ran ge 0 to 1000 kN / m 2, re.ad in g to at least 20 k~ /:n: Liean dry cluth and see thai it mO\'es freely ill the bush. Place the cell b?.<;.e with fitted 38 mm
{Section 8.2.1) . The gauge sho~dd be calibrated regularly (se"e Se-clion 8.3.4) and the aja;)! or o n the machi ne platcn, and chel: h: ihat thL' p ed e ~ tal is. clean.
c~librati o n d::lta ~h(l uJd be displayed with the gauge. Ii an ai r 'v. aH.T pres.~'Jre SY~iei1l usirJg a bladde r is used, ensure tha t the bladder is jnitia~y
6: 0 Ql' ICK CO~IPR ES ,ION TE~TS 1).6 TRIAXIAL cml PRESS10C; TE S1S 621

alm0<;l detl ated. Ch eck that the air regulator \,ah'e is opt! rati ng correc tly and maintains a ent rap ped air (Fig. 13 .34). Hold the membr ane stretcher steady with one hap- d, with the
C·'n;-.' ar,i p j'::; ~I· r c ' ;' il-::I ""'1 . kw. er ~ I i '! ";H Il H icvc:i witi l (0(' miduk of tho:- kl\-. ~ I "11J :"';'I P. a nd , n]i n if nne o f th e O ~ I ~ng~
to seal the membrane on to the cap. Raise the membrane stretcher and repeat the operation
(2) PrepararioJl oj e:rtrusion apparatus to seal the top cap (Fig. 13.32 (e», then remove the stretcher. Finally fold back the ends of
the membrane neatly over the sealing rings at each end (Fig. 13.35 and Fig. 13.32 (f).
See Sections 9.2.1 and 9.2.4 , stage (1). With soft or friable specimens it is preferable to fit the lower end cap in place on the
triaxial cen pedestal first, before placing the specimen, to minimise the amount of handling.
(3) Extrusi on o/sampie
See Section 9.2.4, stages (2) - (13). (7) Setting up in triaxial cell
Place the specimen on the triaxial cell base with the lower end cap correctly seated o r
(4) Preparation oj test specimens screwed into the cell base (Fig. 13.36). Check that the specimen is aligned vertically. Place
Remove the end caps from one of the 38 mm tubes (referred to as specimen A) and mount it the ball·bearing (if needed) in the recess in the top loading cap . Ensure [hat the surface of
on the hand extruder, fitted with the split mould (Fig. 9.22). Extrude and trim the specimen the cell base and the sealing ring are clean.
as described in Section 9.2.3.

(5) Measurement o/specimen

The dimensions of the specimen are normally as sumed to be the same as the internal
measurements of the split mould, which should have been verified. Weigh the specimen on
a small weighed container or tray to the nearest 0.1 g.

(6) Fitting end caps and membranes

Place the specimen on the lower end cap and the top cap on the upper end of the specimen.
Fit two rubber O~rings over the membrane stretcher and roJlthem to near the middle of its
length (Fig. 13.32 (a». Fit a rubber membrane inside the suction membrane stretcher and
fold back the ends over the outsiDe of the tube (Fig. 13 .33) sc th at the membrane is not
wrink led or twi st ed (Fig. 13.32 (b».
Apply sucti on through the rubber tube attached to the membrane stretcher by sucking
with the mou th, so as to draw the membrane tightl y against the inside wall of the stretcher
tube. Maintain the suction while lowering the device carefully over the specimen (Fig. 13.32
(c)). When the stretcher is positioned centrally over the specimen the suction can be released
so that the membrane clings to the specimen (Fig. 13 .32 (d».
Roll the membrane ends gently on to the end caps, making a smooth fit with no Fig. 13.33 Fiuing rubber membrane 10 Fig. 13.34 Rolling membrane on (0 end caps
membrane streIcher

gD .
~
,rO
~~;~~. ~
i
,
II

i
me mbran e r ubb er
s, - e : C'ler merr::'rane

/:j~
/ / ', ., /

~Z'c;J
speci me n
,II :,,-,~11

(~. ) \,: )
LJ (c \
~
\ ,- )
I
~

(' I
6
"4.:"J~

(, )
~
Fig. 13.35 Folding back m em brane OI W Fig. 13.36 Placing specimen on (r/W,:ial cell
f i g. 13. 32 (a) Iv (n SJag. l. . s offltr/flg rll bber membrane ro {riaxiai Ics15pecimen a·rings pedCjral
 J.!2 QCIC~ COMPRESS 10" TESTS
13.6 TR IAXLA L CO",,!PRESSION TESTS 623
........ ~) L'!.;scmbling cell
Withdraw the cell piston to its maximu m extent. Ensure that the cell seating ring is in
position. Lower the cell body into position over the speci men, taking care not to knock the
specimen either with the cell walls or with the end of the pi ston. Posit ion the cell so that
triaxia l
the index marks (if there are any) on the cell and base are coi ncid en t. Fit the tie-rods into cell
their slots or locate th em into their re spective t hreaded holes in the base, depending on the
design of the cell . Ensure that the tie-rods are vertical, and the clamping nu ts properly
seated, before tigh tening down lightly. Final tight ening should be done systematically, first
d
two opposite pairs moderately tight, then two othe r pairs, and so on, and graduall y increase
the ti ghtness in similar sequence. This 'procedure should ensu re that the e,ell is tightened
main s water supply a water
down evenly and is in true vertical alignment with the axis of the load fr ame . It should not
be necessary to use a tool on wing nuts or knurled nuts which a re designed for hand -
tightening only.
oil" pressure ~
regulator b II~ttbIQdde<
: _ arr
Allow the piston to fall so that it makes contact with the ball-bearing or hemispherical
II~ ~
~

dome on the top cap. A proper fit in the hollow at th e end o f the pi ston confi rm s correct h

alignment. Wind up the base pedestal by hand until the piston has 2 or 3 cm of free
mcvement upwards before bei ng restrained fr om further movement by the load rin g. waste
Connect th e water supply line to the connection on the base of the cell which leads into compressed o i l" main to dra i n
the cell chamber, and tighten the joint.
test va lve reference
(9) Pressurising the cell operation
stage ,
Q b c d f R (regU la to r)
The procedure described below rel ates to the use of a motori sed compressed air system, of
the type described in Section 8.2.4, item (2). The arrangement is shown in Fig. 13.37. The fi ll tr i axial cell 9 0. X X 0. 0. X
principle is the same, although detail ed procedures will differ, if some oth er type of ~urn c l ockwise t o
pressure system is used. pre ssure cell 9 X. X 0. X X 0. Increase pressure
Open the air bleed valve (valve e in Fig. 13.37) un the triaxial cell. Open valve d Oil the r un te st X ~e:::v e c~ !e t,
cell base, and allow water into the cell from the supply line by opening valve a. Slow down " X 0. 0. X 0. ad ju st If necessa ry
turn anti-c l ocKwise
the rate of fi lling as the water level nears the top. and as soon as water emerges from valve e rel eose ce ll pr essure 13 X X 0. 0. X 0. to red UC e press ure
close it and shut off the water supply.
Open the connection fro m the constant pressure line to the cell (val ve c) (or disconnect empty cel l 13 X 0. X 0. 0. X
the water supp ly line and connect the pressure system to the cell if they have to be connected o va lve open X v a lv e c losed
separately). Open valves f and g, and increase the pressure in the cell gradually by turning
the ai r regulator valve R st eadily clockwise, up to the required value as indicated by t he Fig. 13.37 Connections to triaxial cell/rom air/ water pressure system
pressure gauge, making the appropriate calibration correction. The piston will be pushed
upwards by the pressure until it is stopped by the loa d ring . Check after a minute or two indicate the axial force applied to the specimen in excess of that exerted by the confining
that the pressure remains constant, and adjust the regulator jf necessary. Throughout the pressure.
test the connection to the constant pressure system musl remain open, and the pressu re Switch off the motor and continue winding up the base pedestal by hand until the piston
regulator should be adjusted only if the pressure gau ge indicates a change in pressure. just makes contact with the top cap. This will be indicated by a small movement of the load
Operation of the valves of the system referred to above is summarised in the table in ring dial gauge.
Fig. 13 .37. Secure the strain dial gauge so that its stem is vertical. Adjust and secure the foot
(10) Selecting machine speed ""- attached to the post on the cell so that the dial reads zero or a conve nient initial reading,
and the stem has a clear travel of at least 25 mm . The clearance between the load ring with
Select the machine speed for the; test (20;0 per min is equiva lent 10 abo ut 1.5 mm/min for a its attachments and the top of the ce ll, and the projection of the piston, should allow for at
76 mm long specimen ). The gear settings for given speeds are usually tab ulated on the least 25 mm relative downward mo\'emen t of the piston.
machin e. With some machines the direction of movement of the platen is reversed when the A specimen rea dy for a triaxial test in a 10 kN load fram e is shown in Fig. 13.38.
gear setting is changed fro m one po si tion to the next, so check that the reversing switc h is in
the correct position for upward movement. The manufact ure r' s instruct ions should be (I2) Compression lest
followed carefully.
Switch on the motor and record the readings of the load dial gauge at regular int ervals of
-t (i 1) Adjustments the strain dial gauge. Suitable intervals are indicated on the printed form shown in Fig.
Switch on the motor to rai<;e l'he base pedestal. and as the piston is pushed into the cell 13.39, which shows the corre~ponding percentages for a specimen 80 mm long. These
tc wad s '-h e ~ ;:le,;i!1len re-sC't thC' kl.::d ring gauge so that it reads le~o. Thi s will cJimin~lte [he percentages can be considered to be valid for specimen lengths from abou t 70- 85 mm.
The cC'lmp~cssio n f e~ t is continued until fa ilure of the specimen has occurred, that is when

l
effect~ of both cell pressure anJ pis [on friction o n the load dial reading, whi..:11 \' iii thcn
the maximum \ alue of the c0mprcssivc stre ss has been passed or a strain of 200/0 (a
 . ~,'-"-.k .• ' ~

----------------------
624 QU C ~ cm'!PRESSJC' :-J H 'TS
1 17' ~ TRI \ \f \! ro .\-tP RFS-SIO>'; Tf.-:-: ·l' 625

l.Qo&t!on, (kfe.5./:JI ... ,.",,, . . nG~ U/('!!.I.:~"tD !.o,," tjen No . .3.4l,.9.

$u.ph Mo. T-:-J.I./j
,... j~::;Ujq
hrt ~;le
ond~I'W"b.~/n~;-:,:·~'"". . . .";!:=::':.J~.::~.:.:;~:~ i n :-,n ~e.

Le!'l€'n •••• 7.8.:2..,. B.1. ... ( 0 tin )

L! I . .•.•.J.'?:O,. "'" DTl .. i BM g ,! .~.7:7. (. ton )
J.ru .•U.J4.-, ... ....' Tin ."pt)" g .. .(2,(:$. (,:n )
Voila.• . JJ. 8:. 7 ... 1 Dry •• 1gnt g .1s,?:f..
lloht\:~1 l Ol l ~ ••
?-.7.'!l,
con ..3 ..
I':a.oh i r.• No.T:;:' ~C:ST'~F.E CUTE!i'!" ~ .• .f:p.:~
P.R . ~o . fU.:/J.-:~4- B!J~K D£N~ITY /If,!.) . ./:3.5.
F.R. {. 71.
~ a. libu don . . . N/~ ' v.·
. ~:...':...:.:":..:!lS",:T.:.':...M",,:..:"_':..:q:..:l"',:;:.:..4:...·-1I. _ _ _ _ _-"
LI

C ~ ll r~ • •• \Jn !OO . . . .lb' Rat. of Strain ; ; ..• ,.: per "'H.u~.

:5e::r:t r· 1Ssr:i· ,
St n ir. Suo.in
~io. l
sHenl Str&,;i ~ I
~;~~
SU .in
~;: l
St~ u .
'!.. l ,
S 'n;~

iv.
= !
d ,~.

0 ~ ... O

~. n
28 C. 25 5 .&0
6.5 11.10

11.60
"
l ~. ~

c .~o
4(, 0. 5 6.00 7. 5 i :2.00
"15, 5
"', (,J 0.75 6.w 12.~ O

,.ro 81 LO ~ . 80 a.51 12 . 80
"
LW 107 ! ·5 7.20 1}.20 16. 5
1.60 152 1. 0 0 ,., n .6C
"
'.00 187 2.~ 6 .00 ]0 l~ . 00 17 .,
Fig, 13.38 Specimen in triaxial cell ready for test 'u . ~ I ' .~ o
~ •• O ZIG "
' .ro 24-5 ,.5 6 .=0 10 .6(" l B.,

compression of about 16 mm) reached . Beyond this point the specimen becomes severely 272 ,.20
"
11 .~

distorted and further readings have little meaning.

).20

3.60 ;2 91 •. 5 9.60
15 · 20

15.60
"
19·5
With experience it is possible to plot the load·strain curve as the test proceeds. If the area- 0 . 00 297 10 .00
":2. 5 16. 00
correction grid sheet referred to in Section 13,5.1 (Fig. 13 . 17) is used, the correct form of 5.5 l O. W
'"
stress·strain curve is produced and the failure condition can be easily identified. The test
4 · 40 252
w.:-c
"
1: .5
should be continued until three or four consecutive readings show a decreasing stress, so as "'"
Itot. of P!il!!:!! De. ~Ti<ltion

0
to guard against a small momentary drop in the load dial reading (which can occur when Sdf 11j , brn.l"
coarse particles are present) being prematurely accepted as indicating that a maximum ~ siIt.J t s"" d:J clay
lncli~tior. ~!
.hnr pI.."., to
reading has been reached, ui • • j.J.~. EJ<fndld';::"'~ V-It?O 64.e

(13) Unloading
When it is clear that failure of the specimen has occurred, stop the motor and allow it to
come to rest before switching on in the reverse direction. Allow the specimen to unload, or
wind the machine platen down by hand, until the platen returns to its starting position,
There will then be a gap between the top cap and the piston, and the load dial should
indicate the zero reading,
Reduce the pressure in the cell to zero by opening the regulator valve R (Fig. 13.37). The
piston should then fall slowly under its own weight to rest on the top cap, Open valve b to
the waste line , or connect the cell outlet to waste, and open the air bleed valve e so that the
water drains out of the cell.
Fig. 13.39 Typical data from triaxial compression test on 38 mm diameter
specimen recorded on primed form
(15) Removing specimen
Take the specimen off the cell pedestal and stand it on a small tray. Pull up the folded-back
length of rubber membrane at the top and carefully roll the O-rings off the top cap. The
membrane can then be pulled down on to the lower end cap and the top cap removed.
These operations could alternatively be done while the specimen is standing on the base
pedestal, depending on the design of the end caps.

(14) Dismantling cell (16) Sketching mode offailure

When the cell is cIT,pry, close \"ah·es band d. Slacken the cell body securing screws or Sketch the mode of failure of the specimen, from two directions at right angles (front and
c!(l!;)P p:-I.. . g:e s ~i\ · e!)' and r uB up th e piqon before ca ~ ing the cell orf the bas-e. Take ca re si de) if one "iew dC'e5 not fully convey the derails, and record any other features observed,
nO! LO kn o.:k the cell agai mr the ~pedmen. Any water remaining on the cell ba ~ e can be If a surface failure is Yisible, meaS il re its incli::2tion to the horizom al using a clinometer or
mopptd up with a sponge. protraclOr (Fig. 13.40).
626 QUICK COMPRESSI O:'< TESTS 13 .6 TRIAXIAL (O~IPRE SSIO" TESTS 627

f-- -l. ----...J

-------,~()~ICk Undrained Triaxial Test
nRlU J ITOlA ' " ...... ., .. c
l i--., '0t;:4· ..,.,. .... . .3-t. ' ~
........(.... .. -3 /
500_ i _ ... .... 38 ..... . ,... 78 ...
..... ......... . 2. ..... ''''._
()o,. .!3. 3 . ?J

1------A-L i
jC&
llJ.
--

Fig. 13.40 Use of clinometer to measure inclination of surface of failure

(1 i) ,Weasurement a/moisture content

~I I I'" _
I' I '
1-111!1
. :' ,
- c-~
I =-1' +--1
I

Slide the specimen off the lower end cap (or cell pedestal), and place it together with any
loose fragments of soil adhering to the end caps or membrane on a weighed moisture
container o r small tray. Weigh, dry overnight, cool and weigh dry, as in the standard
moisture content test. The wet mass provides a check against the initial mass before testing.
It is sometimes desirable to measure the moisture content of a particular part of the
I .. "

,,,..
' .~.
. .~ .

,..,.,
.~".?I ...
""",\0,

.~..,,'
---""
C".'"''''
( <T,.o;)

,,""
, '.
specimen, for instance the zone adjacent to a failure slip surface. The soil from the zone
2!J / ., / 427 /·9 £.25 / 00 52'
'""'" " ,",

should be carefully cut out and measured separately from the remainder of the specimen,
and this procedure should be recorded with the help of a sketch. 38/ 575 2 '4 573 200 773
&1.7 ~75 2 '9 ~7.2 400 /072

(I8) Cleaning equipment 10 11 12 13 ,. " 's 11 " II 20

Remove the membrane and O-rings from the lower end cap. Wash the end caps, rings and
membrane. The membrane can be used again if careful inspection reveals no flaws, but
two uses should be a maximum; a new membrane is less costly than a spoiled specimen
(see Section 13.7.4).
Clean the cell body and base, and wipe them dry. Ensure that the screw threads and the
rubber sealing ring are clean,
The piston should be kept ch~an and dry, and not oiled . Before sloring, assemble the cell
and place a dust cover su ch as a small poly thene bag over the top of the cell to protect the
piston and bush.
Specimen tubes sh ould be cleaned and wiped dry after use, and given a very thin coat of
light oil inside. If the cutting edge is not sharp or is burred , it should be made true by filing
or grinding and wiped free of swarf.
STRA IN"
"P'''''''
Fig. 13.41 Set of three triaxial tests p/olled on area correction graph sheet
(20) Plotting graphs
For each specimen plot the stress-strain relationship as described in Section 13.5,1, stage
(13), either in terms of load dial reading against strain on the area-correction grid sheet or
by using calculated values of compressive stress (taking into account the area correction)
against strain. Curves for all three specimens may be plotted on one sheet, as shown on the
area·correction graph in Fig. 13.41. Curve A is drawn from the observed data tabulated in
Fig. 13.39.
The corrected peak load dial readings, and the corresponding strains at failure, are read
off and tabulated as shown in the bottom right-hand corner of Fig, 13.41.

(19) Tests 0 11 other specimens (21) Calculations

Repeal S!Jgl.'s (4) to (1 8) fo r the olh~r 1V. O spe(imem. (d~si g n&' l e d B and C) o f the set , usi ng Calculatio ns fo r the mea sured deviator stress at fai lure for each of the three specimens are
different cell pressur e, in ascendi ll £ order o f mdgnitude. sim ilar to those described in Sect ion l:l. 5.1 , stage (14).
 K C( ,S,I< srs 13.6 ~ \XIA _ _ . ~1PRJ ___ ~ T£ __
b ... ~

(DI!Yi : 1I0r stres s) = lCorrec ted maximum load dial divisions) x (Load ring ~ tre.ss constant)

."'. ':c :"iecrion has to be <i~::: ie d 10 this value fU 1" the effect o f th;:: iUt.hcr mt'rn ( H~lI r . Thl' {.~V
N ,"O
:~- j~~.kN/m
I,
"
1 _____ ._.
~
__ .. -===-~ ___~ 31 .
, ' 3419 1
-: I W "
amo unt o f the co rrection is read from a graph of the type shown in Fig. 13.18 (a) for a ~
plastic type of failure or Fig. 13.18 (b) for shear plane fai lure, again st the strain at failure ~

for each specimen. The correction is deducted from the measured deviator stress to give the ~ 200
corrected value denoted by (0 1 - OJ). The value of 0 1 is equal to (0 1 - 0 3) + 0 3, These ti ,,,,............ )1 .( ,I
13'.> J

calculations are shown in tabular form in Fig. 13.41. a

~
For each specimen calculate the moi sture content, bulk den si ty and dry density, as ~
described in Section 13.5.1, stage (J 4). ar r 1 .1 I I I I
o AlO 400 600 800 1000
(22) Plaiting Mohr circles pr inc ipal stresses k NJ m2:

Using the values of a) and 0 1 tabulated in Fig. 13.41, the Mohr circle at fa ilure for each Fig. 13.42 Mohr circles diagram from quick·undrained triaxial tests (set 0/3
specimen can be drawn, as shown in Fig. 13 ,42, The scale inter vals on the vert ical (shear specimens ploued in Fig. 13 .41)
stress axis) must be made the same as those used on the horizontal (principal stress) axis.
Draw the line of best fit to touch the circles, as shown in Fig, 13.42, The line may not
touch all or any of the circles, and may intersect one of them, but it should be drawn as a QUICK·UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TESTS
S~c lm." d il melM 38 mm
'mean' envelope. It may be necessary to discount one of the circles if the behaviour of one ot , ... ." 2Y. ~,
.,........'. . l. m
l"",.
.T..f ..g ....
specimen is not representative. The envelope should never be drawn to intersect the
horizontal axis to the right of the origin. . .
Ie, .,.", .. I.", ... ~ ,. 1 0" ...i. ",,.
. ..n,'.,. <on"n, .'",u'. ~ c.............
W ...
h ol/\
"' l"' ~

•
The tangential line is known as the Mohr-Coulom b en velope representing failure. The
angle of inclination (<p degrees) of the envelope to the horizontal is measured and the
. - , . ,.1",' .......' , """ .'
I
intercept (c kN / m2) on the shear stress axis is read o ff. A 1· 9S 2 1 100 4-25 " '0
(23) Reporting results B I-8J 20 200 ,7.3 6'2 131 17
The foll owing data are reponed.
Spe.c imen dimen sions (w ~ . 1 m m). 'C I' S'" 2 1 ·# 0 ",7Z , 7. ..... .

i i
.... u

Moi sture content of each specimen and of sample trimmings (to 0 , I 070). I ! I I I
Bulk density and dry density of each specimen (to 0.01 Mg/m~).
Set of stress-strain curves for the three specimenS, either as load dial readings against
Fig. 13.43 Summary 0/ results/or set 0/ quick-lJndrained triaxial tests
strai n on the area-correctio n graph, or as calcu lated stress against strain 070.
Tabulated values of OJ , 0 1 and (0 1 - oJ) at failure, with membrane corrections. APPARATUS
Mohr circle diagrams. The following items listed in Section 13.6.2 are required: items (I), (6)-(9), (II), (15)-(17),
Angle of shear resistance, <p (to the nearest Yz 0 if less than 10° , otherwise to the nearest (19), (25). In addition the following items, specifically intended for 100 mm diameter
I ' ). specimens, are required in place of the equivalent items in Section 13 .6.2.
Cohesion intercept, c (to the nearest 1 kN/ m 2 if below 100 kN / m2 , otherwise to the (27) Split mould for 100 mm diameter specimen 200 mm long.
nearest 5 kN / m 2). (28) Balance, 7 kg capacity reading to I g.
Strain at failure for each specimen (to 0.2 070).
Rate of strain (070 per min), (29) Load frame, 50 kN capacity. The platen speed for a rate of strain of 2'70 per min is
Sketch of each specimen at failure. 4mm / min.
Description of soil. (30) Load measuring ring. Suggested capacities are given in Table 13 .5.
Type of sample from which obtained.
Method of preparation of each specimen. Table D.S. SUGGESTED LOAD R1NG CAPACITIES
A suitable form for reponing the numerical data is sho wn in Fig. 13.43 .
Type of soil CapQcity Approximale sensilil'ity
13.6.4 Large Diameter Triaxial Tests (k N ) (N / division)

Triaxial tests on large diameter specimens (100 mm diameter or larger) are similar in Clays 4.S 3
prin ciple to those described above for 38 mm diameter specimens, bm there are differences
Frict ional materials 20 18
in some of the details. The special featu res relating to tests on 100 mm diameter
undi stu rbed specimens o bta ined from U- l00 sample tubes, which is a stand ard size in SOff rocks, frictional
Britai n, 3re dt'ait with bel o w. Addi tional com me nts relati ng to 150 mm diamet er soils at high eel! 50 'S
~pecimcm , \\·h ic h ar e less fre quently used, 3re given at the end o f this st'c:.i on. pre5s ure~
630 QUICK CO:,1i' RESSION TESTS
(31) Triaxia l cd l, w:th fittings , for 103 mm diameter specimens.
t32} !}::ll gcuce, ~I-' ~m t ra~' '!l readi::.g tc v.l)! ii1m.
(33) Base adaptor and upper end cap (pressure pad) 100 mm diameter, solid or fitted with
blanking plug and seal.
(34) Rubber membranes, 100 mm diameter and 330 mm long, nominal thickness 0.5 mm.
(35) Rubbe r O-ring sealing rings to fit tightly on 100 mm diameter end caps; four required.
(36) Suction membrane device for 100 mm diameter specimens, with rubber tube and pinch
clip.
(3 7) Metal tray to hold 100 mm diameter specimen .
(38) Hal f·roun d plastic rainwater guttering of about 100 mm diameter; two lengths about
450 mm long and two lengths 200 mm long.
PROCEDURE
The procedure is generally similar to that described in Section 13.6.3. Where modifications
are necessary they are detailed below against the relevant stage numbers shown in brackets.
Specimens 100 mm diameter are usually tested singly, directly from the sampling tube jf
undisturbed, although samples from several tubes may be grouped together as a set.
Samples of this size require very careful handling and may need two people when extrud ing,
transporting , and setting up.
SAMPLE PREPARATION (stage (4))
See Chapter 9, Section 9.2.5.
MEASUREMENT OF SAMPLE (stage (5))
Measure the diameter of the specimen with vernier calipers at three or fou r posit ions along
its length, and average the measurements. Measure the length LO the nearest 0.5 mm, unless
the split former has been used for trimming.
Weigh the sample on a weighed tray or length of guttering, to the nearest 1 g. Support it
between pieces o f guttering when moving it to and from the baJance.
SETTING UP (stages (6) and (7))
Fit the 100 mm diameter base adaptor, if one is necessary, on the cell pedestal. A slightly
oversize sample (say 106 mm diameter) may require a special base or an additional plate to
support it, but this is not essential except for a soft clay which may be liable to local plastic
deformation. If a separate plate is used, the corners should be well·rounded, with no
exposed sharp edges, so as not to puncture the rubber membrane. A fillet of plasticine is
also desirable (Fig . 13.44). A similar arrangement should be made next to the top cap .
Fit the membrane and the a-ring seals, two at each end, over the sam ple and end caps
using the 100 mm membrane stretcher, in the same way as fo r a 38 mm specimen. Ensure
that the specimen is aligned vertically. Place the ball·bearing in the recess in the top loadi ng
cap if needed. : contains a large particle, or particles, which could invalidate the test results.
ASSE~BLlNG CELL AND ADJUSTMENTS (stages (8) - (11))
The 100 mm cell body is heavier and more difficult to handle th an the 38 mOl cell and needs
extra care, an d perhaps an assistant. Particular care sho uld be taken not [ 0 knock the
sample.
The procedures for tightening down , connecti ng up, filling the cell , pressurising, and
making final adjustments are similar to stages (8) - (11) of Section 13 .6. 3. A much larger
\'olume of water , and therefore a longer time, is required to fill the cell than for a 38 mm
1l.6 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS 631
_.,..----------.' ,,-----y
"
106mm d I Qm~t~j" rubt @r membrQ n ~
5cmp l ~
b05~ p l ct~
rour ded edge
100 mm d ia m @t @r pl os ici ne- fill et
p ~de st Q I
_ _ _ rl
-------- 0 . 9 sea l !>
Fig.13 .44 End plates/or 106 mm diameter sample
cell. \Vhen the strain dial gauge is set in place allowance should be made for a clear travel of
50 mm. A specimen 100 mm diameter is shown ready for test in a 50 kN load frame in Fig.
13.45.
COMPRESSION TEST (stage (12))
The compressio n test is similar to that for 38 mm specimens, but requires a machine platen
speed of about 4 mm / min. Suitable inter vals for reading the load di'al , to give convenient
intervals of strain, are shown on the printed test form in Fig. 13.46. The strain per~cntages
are valid for sample lengths from about 185- 210 mm .
The test is continued until the maximum compressive stress has been passed, or until a
strain of 20070 has been reached, as fo r 38 mm specimens. The same area·correcti on graph
sheet as shown in Fig. 13.41 may be used fo r plotting the load·strain curve if the horizontal
axis represents percentage st rain.
AFTER TESTING (stages (13)- (18))
Procedures are the same, in principle, as those used for 38 mm diameter specimens. For the
measurement of moisture content the sample can be cut down the middle so that two or
three representative portions can be taken and the results averaged. Other portions can be
used for index tests. If the whole sample is weighed and dried for measuring moisture
content, several check weighings should be made after drying to ensure that constant mass
has been reached .
For a detailed inspection of the specimen, cut about one-third to halfway through along
its axis and then break it open. The broken surface will reveal details of soil fabric more
clearly than a cut surface, especially if it is left overnight to partially air·dry, when it will be
in an ideal condition fo r photographing. Breaking open will also reveal if the sample
PLOTTI NG, CALCULATION AND REPORTING (st ages (20)-(23))
Results are ploued and calculated in the same way as for 38 mm diameter specimens. If two
or more samples are to be grouped together as a set their Mohr circles should be drawn on
one diagram so that an envelope can be drawn. Otherwise the circles should be either drawn
si ngly or labelled separately on one diagram with no attempt to draw an envelope. The
com pressive stress and cell pressu re for each test is reported separately.
It shoul d be stated Ihat 100 mm diameter 'whole core' samples were used.
OJ2 QUICK COMPRESSION TESTS 1l .6 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSIO:-'; T ESTS 633

The cell and accessories are si milar in principle to tho<:.e for 100 mm samples, but the!!'
::i iz.; &ild
Iilil,) ,);V C ..:onstlUdion mean!) that physical handling IS more difficult. For inst ance

the cell itself weighs about 50 kg, about 3 Y2 limes the weight of a 100 mm cell . A typical soil
sample would weigh about 12 kg.
Undisturbed samples of 150 mm diameter are not often taken from boreholes, but when
they are the provision of a specially constructed extruder would be justified. Alternatively
an extrusion device could be fitted to a large load frame, using the drive unit to provide
the extruding force while the frame provides the reaction.
This size of sample is more likely (0 be required for testing recompacted soils which
contain particles up to 37.5 mm. For this purpose a split mould and ancillary items are used
(Fig. 9.7). Preparation of compacted samples for triaxial tests is di scussed in Section
13 .6.9. Testing procedures are similar to those already described, but special attention must
be given to the handling of samples and equipment.
Triaxial compression tests on samples 254 mm (10 in) diameter using 'free' ends (see
Section 13.6.6) have been reported by Rowe (1972).

13.6.5 Multistage Tests

When it is not practicable to obtain three small specimens from a U-lOO sample for triaxial
tests at three different cell pressures, the whole sample is tested but this gives only one Mohr
Hg. 13.45 100 mm diameter sample in triaxial cell circle. A method which enables a set of three circles to be obtained from a single specimen,
so that the Mohr-Coulomb envelope can be drawn, is the 'multistage' tria.xial test. This
procedure is usually associated with effective stress tests (Kenney and Watson, 1961), but
m1'
ttIMl.ll COp'!U:S§lOti
met tT!tuPr!:!! 100mm its application to quick-undrained tests was described by Lumb (1964) and Anderson
(1974). It is given here not as a recommended procedure, but as an expedient for
~~:l ~"."8!oo1 i;,~£1 2 R~:~ :>t St .... ~r. • " ..•.• ~ por nr.u:.
e:o:lcmi ~i r.g a n ~oil samples when whole core sam ples have to be tested. The test i:; ~ crc

... ,
sr-,a
s~ ...... S:n~"
satisfactory for plastic soils, requiring large strains for failure, than for more br ittle soils. It
S~~t
St,...1n St ..... Stn!r. ~g:!n Strai~
D~l lr e ~ ; m~ < ~
u .

0 13.00 6.' 21UXI

C.50 0.25 14 .00 ,g.O<>

"U.S
1.00 0.' l~.OO ,., 30.00

L50 0.75 16.00 !-l.OO

"
l~.~

2. OC LO 17.00 e.~ ~2.00

,.'" l.5 18.00 ",OJ

"l6.5
'.00 19.00 9.' ~4 .00 .,
~ .IX' ,., ~.'"
" ~: .oo 1".5
,.OC 21.00 ].c..~

-.00 ,., 22.00 U

'6.00
'1.00
"
111.5
n.oo
'.00
C,OC

lC.OC
.., U .OO
;1.5

"
}8.00

! 9.00
40.00
"
19.5
".00 12.5
'"
11.00 ~ .5 26.00
l'
<.2.00 6• n.oo n .s

Fig. 13 .46 Test form/or lOO mm diameter triaxial fesl

TESTS ON LARGE R DIAMETER SAMPLES

Triaxial tests on samples I SO mm diameter and larger require a large testing machine,
probably of 100 kN ca pacity o r more, with sufficient horizontal and vert ical clearances to
accommodate the large cell. A load ring of up to 100 kN capacity may be required for some
soils. A typical apparatus is shown in Fig. 13.47. Fig. 13.47 Triaxial apparatus/or 150 mm diameter sample flO(; k.V load/rame)
•
"'"J- VUI,_,'\CO~'I ' ,,~ .J~IO;'. I L":> rs 13 .6 1 K1AXIAL LU.\1PRE:'.')lV.' TES I:;:' 635
is therefore 'Jse fll l for stony clay soils such as those referred to as 'boulder clay', from
which it may be impracticable to obtain small specimens.
In this test the axial load is applied to the sample under the first cell pressure (stage A)
until the load-strain curve indicates that failure is imminen t, Le. it is reaching a maximum
value. The cell pressure is then raised to the second value (stage B). and compression of the
sample is resumed, The process is repeated and the third cell pressure is applied (stage e),
under which the sample is allowed to reach failure. The three stages provide data from
which a set of three Mohr circles can be plotted.

L ~II'i pressll!";
~ 1~;a1
,reduce-l
~to stQ~A
PROCEDURE
1 vo!u e.:",J.
The multistage test is usually carried out'on a 100 mm diameter sample 200 mm long, using :t l ~ :
the apparatus and procedure given in Section 13.6.4. Since it is necessary to plot the load· I----JI
o '
_~r---+-- i
t----.J.
I
I!
,I
I ------.,. 1 C .' '
strain curve as the test proceeds, it is convenient to run the test a little slower than the 6~_I 0"-"" .:.
I
i-------.J
standard rate; about 1DJo per min is suitable. 300-'"~ Ii ! t;'r ; .l-""""'"
After applying the first cell pressure, the compression test is started and readings of the
load dial gauge are observed at the usual intervals of strain, and plotted immediately on an
area-correction grid sheet (stage A in Fig. 13.48). It may be necessary to take readings at
strain intervals which are closer than usual, in order to see clearly when the curve bends
0_ '

--+
over and approaches a peak value. When this happens, stop the machine, and wind down
the load platen carefully by hand until the load dial just indicates the zero reading. The
I.
I

20~ 17r I•i Iii, i~l=

required downward movement is usually quite small. Read the strain dial at that point, and ...l...
plot the percentage strain on the horizontal axis {point P, Fig. 13.48 (a)). Increase the cell , I
" 1£
STRAIN ' ;'
• 10 21

pressure to the second value and re-set the load dial to the same zero reading as before. ( c)
Re-start the motor for stage 8, and take a few readings as the load increases to the stage A
'failure' value. This will be reached fairly quickly, and the stage 8 loading curve may
coincide with the unloading curve initially.
Continue taking readings and plotting as before, until failure looks imminent for stage 8.
Repeat 'the above procedure, applying the third cell pressure for stage C, which is allowed
to continue until failure occurs.
The maximum readings for stages A. 8 and C are used for deriving a set of three Mohr
~'I
,
,. ,I'" I"·. .
"'' ' ,
. 'n ~
w ...
'.e<.,
~St"'Je "... ",,,,'/... ...",,'
, ,, .. ,
..-.",
<"''''''''.
"'~
fo;.O'",)

. ~"...
0'",

.~,-,.J
"i

"",...'

circles, as in Fig. 13.48 (b), in the same way as for separate specimens. ~ A 3.5 0 '98 3,8 35"8 /00 4,8
The reported results should include a note that the multistage test was used, and that each 13 18 14/0 4 10 200 6/~
stage was unloaded before proceeding to the next. A sketch of the configuration of the C 4-,,(' .447 447 400
sample at the end of each stage, as well as at the end of the test, should be included. The &p~~~N~11 12
1! 1~ 1~ 16 17 1& ,p 20

sample should be broken open to ascertain whether excessively large particles were ( 0)
included.
It is not essential to unload between each stage, but removal of the load enables the load 'E
dial gauge to be re-set so that it indicates the axial load only during each stage. If the cell
pressure is increased without first removing the load it would cause changes in both the load
dial and strain dial readings which might be difficult to reconcile afterwards.
Z30G
~

~
~
j .,
c ;: 1':'5 kN/m a
S'
-----
A multistage test usually comprises three stages, as described above, but in some
instances only two stages may be practicable, and in others it may be possible to extend the
test to four stages.
If the soil behaves in a plastic manner and a clearly defined maximum stress is not
:
a
1:
2~~5
100
8: 77 ?<:?< ~
o;--~~~-:~-j~~~~~~__~t
indicated, each stage should be terminated at the following arbitrary values of strain: ~

Stage A: 16010.
Stage B: 181li,. o 100 200
•300
I ,
400 500 600
"
700 800 900
Stage C: 20lli,.
(b) ~r in cipa( stressE'S
I kN /rn 2
Anderson (1974) recommends that the deviator stress-strain curves for stages A and B
should be extrapolated to a strain of20"o, asshown in Fig. 13.48 (c).
8y carrying out a fourth stage (D) after reducing the cell pressure to the initial (stage A) Fig. 13.48 Results from multistage triaxial lest: (a) graphicul plot on area
correcrion sheer, (b) Mohr circles diagram, (c) extrapolation of cunes (0 200/0 strain
value, he found that the deviator stress at 20 070 strain obtained by producing curve D back- for plastic deformation
 "

636 QUICK COMPRESSION TESTS 1l.6 TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS 637

...·i:l.fLl.:i (~ig. ;::.':'0 ~,;)"was iu goo,:; ct~1I..;:'11.eii.t .~~~!~ ~~~: ~bi.~!:;"•.::'
many 'boulder clay' samples.
13.6.6 Tests using 'Free' Ends
In the conventional method of mounting triaxial specimens described in Sections 13.6.3 and
13.6.4, frictional or adhesion forces between the loading caps and the specimen inevitably
restricts free lateral movement of the specimen ends (Bishop and Green, 1965). This results
in the formation of 'dead zones' adjaceqt to the platens (Fig. 13.49 (a», and the familiar
barrelling effect (Fig. 13.49 (b» which occurs in plastic soils. The soil is unrestrained only
within the middle third of a specimen of 2: 1 height: diameter ratio, which is why a smaller
ratio is not normally used.
The restraining effects at the ends can be reduced considerably by a simple method
described by Rowe and Barden (1964). Special end caps are used, of a diameter slightly
larger than the specimen diameter, and made of stainless steel with a highly polished
surface. Between each end cap and the specimen, two discs of rubber membrane material of
the same diameter as the specimen are inserted, separated from each other and from the end
caps by layers of silicone grease (Fig. 13.49 (c)). This arrangement is not claimed to
eliminate friction altogether, but the end friction is so small that they are referred to as
'free' ends, or lubricated ends.
When subjected to compression, specimens with 'free' ends maintain an approximate
cylindrical shape (Fig. 13.49 (d)), instead of barrelling, resulting in a more uniform stress
distribution. This applies to specimens of height·to-diameter ratios of less than 2: 1, as well
as to conventional specimens , making it practicable to test specimens of a ratio of 1: 1.
T'!~!i!'2 of 1M mm rl;:lmf>tf>r o;pf':c-imeno; of 100 mm length ;0; p:~'.:tka"le. so that th:p ..
::,:.;n tl~;; ;ir:;t S:.:6. . , :.:: (1f''''') Til'" ,· r,. -~. :;-r~'" -"' .... ;., ""~'"' 'lr;.''' .... ~~o.,.'"'uc fur "'''It;·St'''''' ''''~ ~'' '(,,--';"n 13'" "I
~h~t-h~r o;"n~;~h~' h;ight:di~;;e~~r-;~ti~· i~> l~~;- th'a-~ 2. Th;~;e~ co~~;c~i-~~- i;~;ill·;alid . ." .. ,
It is not necessary to obtain special end platens if two discs of polished stainless steel are
used, one at each end of the specimen, as shown in Fig. 13.49 (e). These are about 6 mm
thick, and about 108 mm diameter for 100 mm specimens and 41 mm diameter for 38 mm
specimens. The edges should be well rounded sO as not to cut into the rubber membrane.
Apart from economy of soil samples, the main advantage of using 'free' ends is that the
results obtained are more comistent than those obtained from conventional tests. However,
to take advantage of the more uniform stress distribution, and to ensure equalisation of
pore water pressures within the specimen , tests should be run more slowly than usual. For
100 mm diameter specimens of low permeability (clay) soils, a rate of strain of 20/0 per hour
may be appropriate.
13.6.7 High Pressure Tests
SCOPE
Triaxial tests on relatively strong materials with a high ql value require cell pressures higher
than those normally used for soils in order to obtain a reasonable spacing of Mohr circles
for drawing a failure envelope. Typical materials in this category are soft rocks, such as
friable or uncemented sandstones, for which cell pressures up to 3.5 or 7 MN/m" would be
appropriate. Stronger materials would be treated as rocks for which special equipment
using pressures up to 70 MN/ m 2 are required, but tests of this kind are beyond the scope of
this volume.
'Cl"lflTO"~C"'''T
- ,<,-", ... _ •••

separate specimens can be obtained from a U·IW unaisturbed sample. Triaxial tests on
specimens 254 mm diameter and 254 mm height using 'free' ends were referred to by Rowe To obtain and maintain constant pressures in the medium pressure range (i.e.
0.1-7 MN/m 2) a hydraulic oil pump with an oil/water interchange cell, of the type shown in
Fig. 8. I 1, is normally used.
Ir;:; j /,.I'//*/1I II
~ -
j j I
...,- I
Specially designed steel·bodied triaxial cells are required to withstand pressures of this
magnitude. Cells with acrylic bodies should never be pressurised beyond the
frict l(ln ol
restra int
manufacturer's stated working capacity - typically 1 MN/m 2 for unbanded cells or 1.7
'dead'· ...4-'active'
MN/m 2 for cells reinforced with nylon banding. Large cells may incorporate a porthole
zon es~ zone barrelling for illuminating and observing the test specimen. Connecting hoses and pipework must be
C lreSSion capable of withstanding the applied pressures.
-, A high capacity load frame and load measuring device are required. Correct alignment of
the specimen with the piston, and on the axis of the load frame, is essential.
"f

· 'I
(0) (b)
standard
end cop
TEST SPECIMENS
Test specimens should be carefully prepared with flat ends which are at right angles to the
axis. Specimens containing coarse grains or surface irregularities may cause piercing of the

IT
-pen,h ,d
. ~' su rf ace normal rubber membrane. This can be avoided by applying a thin coat of paraffin wax to
polished
\ icyer of :\..... negligible stee l dbc the curved surface of the specimen followed by a layer of aluminium foil, before placing
I end
twO rubber membranes separated by a layer of silicone grease.

U
\ greo$ e silicone
res troint

;;:~~~~~~~b~, 1' I ,
grease
I ",
uniform
la te ral
I, di$c 01 TEST PROCEDURE
rubber

rrm expcnslon ' specimen

(0 ) (d)
Fig. 1].49 Lubricated ends for triaxial lest specimens: (oj 'dead' zones in
conventional test, (b) frictional restraint resulting in barrelling, (e) provision oj end
cap lubrication, (d) resulting speciml:n dejormation, (e) assembly using polished
discs with standard end caps
membrane An undrained quick compression test on fairly hard materials should be run at a slower
speed than the normal 2% per min because failure is likely to occur at quite small strains.
(,) Instead of reading the load dial at regular intervals of strain it may be better to read the
strain dial at regular intervals on the load ring dial, because this procedure is likeiy to
provide more points for plotting the stress/strain curve up to failure. The maximum load
dial reading should be observed, together with the corresponding ~. trai;; reading, after
which the load is likely to fall dramatically.
 J

638 QCI CK COM PRE SSIO.'i TESTS IJ .6 TRI AXIAL CO~IPRESSIO:'J TESTS 639

TYPICAL RESULTS
::c;... C0r.\' er,t icnol
s et 0 1
,- ----
A typical set of Mohr circles from high pressure triaxial tests on a friabit! sandstone ";:OiOi, _ ,

generally indicate a slight curvature of the envelope, i.e. a small decrea se of I:p with :3 specim ens I -.... ~ !. t', ear surta ce
increasing confining pressure. This is because under high stresses panicles become flattened ~ c utt ing acro ss
d iscont inui t ie s
at contact points and lose their sharp corners, resulting in a decrease in the interlocking ~d i sc on t i nu it' e s f""- ~ I".=--'
effect. For a given type of material the strain at which peak deviator stress occurs generally
increases with increasing confining pressure.

13.6.8 Specially Orientated Specimens

The standard method for obtaining a set of three triaxial specimens from a U-loo tube
sample, described in Section 9.2.4, produces cylindrical specimens with their axes vertical, (a) ( b)
as in Fig. 13.50 (a), assuming that the U-lOO sample was taken vertically. If the soil contains
Fig. 13 .50 Triaxial specimens from soil containing 'laminations'; (a) sample in
discontinuities or lithological features which are horizontal, or nearly horizontal, they are U-JOO tube from which conventional specimens are prepared. (b) test specimen
not likely to influence the measured strength because a surface of shear failure will cut after failure
across them at an angle of 45 0 or more to the horizontal (Fig. 13.50 (b». These
discontinuities or other features are referred to below, for brevity, as laminations.
It may sometimes be desirable to induce failure to occur along one of these surfaces, to
ascertain whether they represent planes of weakness. To do this a set of specimens of the shea r surface
form shown in Fig. 13.51 (b) is required, which need to be orientated in the U-IOO sample in fo ll owing
the manner shown in Fig. 13.51 (a). Clearly it is impracticable to obtain such specimens by .discontinu it ies

jacking directly into 38 mm tubes. It would be possible to extrude the whole sample and cut
the specimens by hand or to push 38 mm tubes in by hand using a clinometer as a guide to
• B c '"

~~~
the orientation, but by neither process can the orientation be controlled to any accuracy.
The essential requirement is to obtain a set of specimens whose axes are inclined at a
e
certain angle to the axis of the tube . The value of 9 depends upon the inclination 6 of the
laminations to the horizontal, and on the angle 0 at which the laminations are to lie relative
to the specimen axis, as shown in Fig. 13.52. From the geometry of the arrangement it can
be seen that

9 + • = (90' - 6)
i.e. 9 = 90' - (. + 6) (a) (0) (e)

Fig. 13.51 Triaxial specimens prepared to a specified orientation: (a) orientation in

Theoretically the angle. should be equal to (45' - '1'/2), where 'I' is angle of shear
resistance of the soil. However, the value of 0 is not critical, and may be assumed to be
between 27' and 30'. If it is less than (tan--l 0.5), about 2611,', the plane of shear surface
would intersect one or both end caps. The angle 6 can be measured to the nearest 10 , so the
e
specimen orientation needs to be accurate to within 10 at least. An apparatus which was
designed by the author to achieve this is shown in use in Fig. 13.53. The sample is extruded
from the U-loo tube and laid with the laminations in the verticaJ plane in an alloy support
of semicircular section mounted on a turntable. The mounting can slide horizontally in vee-
groove bearings, and can be locked into position by thumbscrews. The turntable carries a
scale graduated in degrees, which 'can be read to the nearest Y2 o. The turntable is mounted
on a rigid base on whi ch a rack-and-pinion operated specimen extruder is al so mounted.
Thin-walled 38 mm diameter tubes are rigidly fixed to the back end of the extruder ram.
The turntable carrying the sample can be rotated to any angle between 0 0 and 90 0 , and is
locked in the position corresponding to the angle 8. The tube is then pushed steadily into
the sample, and is withdrawn. The sample carrier is moved horizontally by the required
di stance to allow a sccC'nd tube to be in serted , and a second specimen to be taken.
maintaining the same orientation. Several specimens inclined at exactly the same angle to
the axis of th e sampl ing tube ca n thus be obtained , to an accuracy o f withi n I !) . The
inOuence of specimen orientation was discussed by Bishop and Little (196/).
U-JOO tube. (b) set of 3 specimens of required form. (c) failu re on a discontinuity
surface
13.6.9 Reconstituted Specimens
COMPA CTION
Specimens of recompacted soil for compression tests may be prepared by apply ing the
standard compaction procedures described in Volume 1, Chapter 6. Usually it is required to
prepare specimens either at a specified dry density or by applying a specified compactive
effort . Meth ods of specimen preparation are given in Sect ions 9.5.3 and 9.5.4 for 38 mm
diameter specimens, and Section 9.5.5 for larger specimens.
Procedures for testing recompacted specimens, including calculation, plotting and
presentation of results, are t.he same as for similar tests on undi stur bed specimens . The
reported test data shoul d include details of the procedure used for preparing the spec imens,
and the relationship of their moisture co ntent and dry density to the optimum conditions
defined by the re leyant compaction curVe".
Compaction procC'dure~ referred to ab ove apply mainly to cohesive so il s and to partially
saturated cohesionless so il (such as 'damp' sand). Preparation of :-pecimens of dry and
6 ,,") QLlI... t.. CO~'l r'h. t:.:>SlO~ 1 c ::. ;5 13 .6 -I KIA....,:IAL \",v.,"lrR£S..)lV. " TEY.I .) 64,
C' :o ~e "h ::'h ::a'- r?cn c::;!:1rat::-0. h b(';!:re in V. ?lf:-, a:}j !!->e t'> 'l::" :' i ~ ~·~;t!c:""::l to the

~+-~--TI equilibrium position as shown in Fig. 13.54:- .

A rubber membrane is sealed to the cell pedestal by two O-nngs, and a split former
incorporating a recess for the rings is assembled around it and clamped in position after
first applying a thin film of grease to the mating surfaces. The top end of the membrane is
fitted around a metal ring, secured there by two O-rings, and supported by a clamp held by
a burette stand . A rubber bung and funnel are fitted into the top of the ring, as shown in
Fig. 13 .55. Water is poured in slowly through the funnel, thereby pressing the membrane
against the side of the former. Entrapped pockets of air must be avoided. Water is added
e+a = (90 0 _ 5) until the funnel is about half filled, and the rubber stopper on the end of a glass rod is
.• • €I =90 0-(a+ 6) inserted in the mouth of the funnel. If the cell pedestal connection is fitted with a valve, it
should be closed,
The quantity of dry sand required to fill the specimen former is weighed out and mixed in
a beaker with enough water to just cover the sand, and the mixture is boiled to remove air.
The sand is transferred to the funnel with a spoon.
The specimen is formed by displacing the stopper so that the sand flows steadily, but
fairly rapidly, into the former. A steady rate of flow should minimise segregation, and the
Fig. 13.52 Geometry of orientated specimen in tube rate should be standardised if several identical specimens are to be prepared. This
procedure will result in a spec.imen of low density (high porosity), which will not be
maintained if the specimen is subjected to disturbance such as by vibration or knocking
against it. therefore the subsequent setting-up operations must be performed with extreme
care. A higher density (lower porosity) can be obtained by tamping or by light vibration
using an electric engraving tool referred to in Section 9.1.2 (Fig. 9.14).
Excess water is siphoned from the funnel, enabling the funnel, bung and upper ring to be
removed. Any surplus sand not used in the specimen is dried and weighed, so that the actual
mass of sand in the specimen can be determined. The top of the specimen is carefully
leveiled, the loading cap is placed in position and the rubber mer:>.brane is sealt:d on to it
with two O-rings. The cap should be slightly smaller in diameter than the former, so that
downward movement is not restricted if the specimen should consolidate.
Saturated sand possesses no cohesion, and to enable the specimen to support itself a
small negative pore pressure is applied by lowering the burette so that the free water level is
below the base of the specimen (Fig. 13.56), with the valve on the cell pedestal open. The
suction required depends upon the size and density of the specimen. The difference in level,
d, (Fig, 13,56) may need to be only about 200 mm for a 38 mm diameter specimen, but
500 mm or more for a 100 mm diameter and 200 mm high specimen . \Vhen the valve on the
cell base is opened, consolidation of the specimen occurs almost at once and is indicated by
a small rise in water level in the burette.
Fig. 13.53 Apparatus designed by author for preparing specimens to a required The split mould can then be removed and the consolidated height and diameter of the
orientation (courtesy Soil Mechanics LId., Bracknell) specimen are measured, using vernier calipers and steel rule, allowing for the thickness of
the rubber membrane. This requires extreme care if the specimen is in a loose state. The
consolidated density and porosity are calculated. If a number of specimens are to be
fully saturated cohesionless soils requires special procedures which are described below.
For convenience the soil is referred to as sand, although it may also contain silt or gravel-
1 prepared at the same density, the suction procedure described above should be

size particles.
SATURATED SAND SPECIMENS
The foUowing procedure for the preparation of a triaxial specimen 38 mm diameter of
saturated sand is based on that given by Bishop and Henkel (1962),
A triaxial cell with a pore water pressure connection fitted to the base pedestal is
required. The outlet on the cell base is connected to a burette by about 1.2 m length of
flexible tubing. The burette and tubing are fined with de-aired water, without entrapping
an) air, and by rai~ing the level of the burette the connection to the pedestal is also filled
with df.> aired water, displacing all the air. The hole in the pedestal is covered by a porous
I
I
standardised.
The cell body is carefully fitted into place and tightened down, and the cell is filled with
water and pressurised. Any additional volume change resulting from consolidation under
the confining pressure can be measured by the change in water level in the burette. The
burette is then placed alongside the cell with the water level at the specimen mid~height.
For this type of specimen a drained test would normally be carried out by applying the
axial load slowly so that failure takes place after about one hour. During the test the
drainage valve remains open and the burette reading is recorded along with load and strain
readings. The burette sho uld be adjusted if necessary to maintain the water level always at
about the mid-height of the specimen. (Drained tests will be covered in greater detail in
Volume 3),
f, ..E QL' J C}~ CO ~f P RESSIO~ TESTS 13.6 TRIAXIAL CO~(PRESSION rE STS 643 "
,- .
1=1
: .;; ,;>;. :,
'i,CJP---f4
::,;ret.te - -
~;.turctf"J p".-G-';::' J:~c
on ceH pedesta l
. ~ sand spec i men
V '
~

equill brivm woter l eve l sp li t tormer IJl\ :/:l3.

v a!ve open
f J
valve
open
' ~J
:~
,~

ce ll pressvre
connect i on
fil led
de-air ed woter
Lth f lexibl e----JJ
tvbin g

\J Fig. 13.56 Application oj suction to saturated sand specimen

Fig. 13.54 Triaxial cell basefitted with bureueJor preparing specimen oj saturated
sand

gloss rod 1 II
dry sond v' ..:. vacuum J,.
I
\:~:.: ;-.1(,1
lin e

~~==~~ -_ g los s rod

~
wew --
.......
,
..
":,',,'
funnel
so nd \ : '•.J r c i !oe us 5~~O
tvnn el ~:~] r v bber tvbing
is poured

sto pper
r u bber bun Q m e mb ra ne I I
vo cu um
c l omp r uo ber t Ubin g - - - i . f:l t v b i ng

O - r inQs ~ ~~-::J
metol r i ng
retain ing c li p bu r ette stond
sp li t former~: !~
~
oil'"
de-oired bJ ).J.: bleed
woter
0- rings ----e

Fig. 13.57 Preparation oj triaxial specimen oj dry sand

Fig. 13.55 Preparation oj triaxial specimen oj saturated sand (after Bishop and
Henkel, 1962)
By closing the drainage valve before applying the cell pressure, an undrained test can be
carried o ut at the 'quick' rate of strain. This can be used to demon strate that it is possible to
obtain a value oflPc1ose to zero in sands, under these conditions.
DRY SAND SPECIMENS
The following procedure is based on that described by Bishop and Henkel (1962) for the
preparation of triaxial specimens of dry sand and of ot her dry materials such as grain and
sugar.
A split former fitted with a vacuum connection, enclosing a rubber membrane, is
clamped to the pedestal of the triaxial cell as described above, except that a dry porous
stone is used. Two vacuum lines are required , one for connection to the split forme r for
holding the membrane in contact with its inner wall , the other (which is capable of being
controlled to give a very slight suction) for connection to the pore pressure outlet on
the triaxial cell . Vacuum for the specimen can be obtained from a water filter pump, or if a
vacuum line is used by providing an air bleed which can be easily regulated . A vacuum
gauge, or a water or mercury manometer, should be incorporated so that the degree of
vacuum can be controlled.
The specimen is formed by pouring a weighed quantity of sand into the mould from a
funnel, fitted with a length of rubber tubing (Fig. I3.Si), while applying a vacuum
6->4 QUICK CO~lPRESSIO!'l TESTS 13 .7 TRIAXIAL TEST EQUIP~IE:-; T
645
to the s!"lir former. To obtain a 'loose' specimen of low den sity (hi gh porosity),
continuous rap lo pouring from a smail drop, whicn shouid be kept \..I)u.;lant by steadily
raising [he funnel, should be used. A loose specimen should not be subjected to shock or
vibration. A higher density (lower porosi ty) may be obtained by pouring at a slower rate
from a higher drop (Kolbuszewski, 1948). Alternatively. the specimen may be vibrated,
using the tool refer red to above, or tamped in layers, taking care not to damage the rubber
membrane.
The top surface of the specimen is carefully levelled, the top loading cap is placed in
position and the membrane is sealed on to it using two O~ring s. A small suction (only about
2- 5 kN / m2 below atmospheric pressure, say 200- 500 mm of water, or 15- 40 mm of
mercury) is applied to the base of the specimen to give it sufficien t strength to stand while
the split former is removed. The specimen is carefully measured and the cell body is fitted,
filled with water, and press uri sed as described above.
The vacuum line is removed and the pressure in the specimen is restored to atmospheric
before proceeding with a quick com pression test, keeping the drainage valve open.

Fig. 13 .58 Triaxial cells; maximum specimen diameters (left to right): 50 mm,
70 mm, 1(}() mm, 150 mm (see Table 13.6)
13.7 TRIAXIAL TEST EQUIPMENT

13.7.1 General Items Cells are made of a corrosion resistant metal, wit h an acrylic plastic transparent
cylindrical body. In addition to the standard cells which are designed for pressures up to
Triaxial tests require the use of numerous items of equipment which also have a more 1000 kN /m2, cells reinforced with bonded fibreglass are available for withstanding
general application. These items were described in Chapters 8 and 9, in the following pressures up to 1700 kN / m2• Steel cells are also manufactured for tests at higher pressures
sections. (up to 7 MN / m2), and for testing rocks (up to 70 MN / m 2 ). The stated working pressures of
L~~d fram'!!:, Sedic;). 8.2.3. a cell mllSt never be exceeded and C!1!Y water should be used as the pressurising fluid. It is
Constant pressure systems, Section 8.2.4. dangerous to pressurise triaxial cells with air or other gases. The maximum piston load as
Load rings, Sections 8.2. 1 and 8.3.3. stated by the manufacturer should never be exceeded, otherwise the cell is likely to become
Pressure gauges, Sections 8.2.1 and 8.3.4. distorted. Incorrect alignment can also cause distortion, even under a moderate load.
Dial gauges. Sections 8.2.1 and 8.3.2. Cells should be used under stable ambient conditions at normal temperatures.
Specimen preparation equipment, Section 9.1.2. Excessively high or low operating temperatures may cause leakage past the piston, or
The sections which follow give details of equipment required specifically for triaxial increased friction between the piston and its bush.
tests, and include the care of triaxial cells and the calibration of rubber membranes . The piston and bush are manufactured to match each other and are ground, honed and
lapped to a very close tolerance (within 0.002 mm). This provides the necessary watertight
13.7.2 Triaxial Cells yet almost frictionless fit. Pistons should never be changed from one cell to another.
Pistons should be kept dry and free from grease and dust, but the manufacturer's
Triaxial cells are available in several sizes. each of which can accommodate several different recommended silicone grease lubricant should be applied occasionally and sparingly,-with a
specimen diameters by means of interchangeable base and top cap fittings. Typical cell sizes grease gun to the nipple on the cell bush. A well-fitting piston should allow no water to
are given in Table 13.6, and a corresponding range of cells is shown in Fig. 13.58. A cell of escape when the cell is pressurised, yet should fall slowly under its own weight when the cell
recent design for specimens up to 50 mm diameter is shown in Fig. 13.59. is empty. \\'hen not in use the piston and bush should be protected from dust by covering
with a small po!ythene bag, and the piston should be wiped dry with a clean cloth. Dust and
Table 13.6. TYP1CAL SIZES OF TRIAXIAL CELLS
dirt will rapidly cause scoring of the piston and bush, causing leakages or binding or both.
Some cells have an annular recess around the bush , for collecting any slight leakages
Type oj Typical maximum
which may occur during a test. The water can be led away to a beaker by fitting a length of
c('lI Specimen diameters piston lood rubber tubing to the outlet if provided. For tests of long duration a layer of oil can be
(mm) (inches) (kN) inserted to float on top of the water in the cell, and this both reduces leakage and acts as a
piston lu bricant .
Small 3S. 38. SO 1.5, 2 13.5
A sticking piston must never be gripped with pliers or a similar tool. If a piston becomes
intt'rmediale 35, 38, 50, 70 2.8 29 seized in the bush. gentle heat (hot water) applied to the cell top while keeping the piston
cool may free it. If the piston cannot be moved the whole cell top shou ld be sent to a
J(l0 mm ]00 • 4S precision workshop or ret urned to the manufacturer for attention.
____I ,~~c__ . _ _ .___ 1~~. _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ o_ ___ _ R2
The cell base and base adaptors should be carefully cleaned before assembly. In
part icular, the O-ri ng seals must be free from dm t and dirt, un<.!~ maged, and correctly
 QUICK CO~lPRESSIO)l TESTS 13.7 TRIAXIAL TEST EQL' IP~IENT 647
646
Base adaptors, lOP caps and other acce!>sories for four different specimen diameters are
shown in Fig. j 3.GO.
Rubber a-rings are required for making a watertight seal between the rubber membrane
and the top cap and base adaptor. Two are normally used at each end of the specimen. The
rings must be of the correct size and should be examined before use to ensure that they are
free from defects such as necks or cuts. Fitting O-rings in place is made easier if they are
first filled around the membrane st retcher, and then rolled off into place. A thin film of
silicone grease between cap and membrane helps to emure a watertight seal.

• .\ 13.7.4 Rubber Membranes

Ii Membranes of latex rubber for triaxial test specimens are supplied in the standard sizes
shown in Table 13.7. Ideally a fresh membrane should be used for each test specimen.
However for quick triaxial tests a membrane may be used a second time provided that
it is carefully examined before re·use. Flaws or pinholes show up if the membrane is held
against the light while stretching it first lengthways and then widthways. If defects are
visible the membrane should be thrown away immediately, or cut along its length if the
material can be used for other purposes such as fo r 'free ends'.
Membranes suitable for re-use should be washed carefully in clean water and hung up to
dry on a rack made of lengths of wood dowelling projecting from a vertical board. \Vhen
completely dry they should be lightly dusted inside and out with french chalk and stored in
a cool dark place.
Fig. 13.59 Recent design of triaxial cell for specimens up to 50 mm diameter
,.
Tabl£' 13.7. RUBBER MEMBRANE SIZES
seated. They should be given a light smear of silicone grease immediately before fitting into
place, but they must not be :lUo ...... ed to pick up any dirt. When piacing a cell on its base, Speci" io , ,f;' lill;?f :?' .~ !(!m br(Jn(> ieng!h x thickness
(mm) (i n) (mm)
ensure that any index marks correctly coincide. Screws or tie-rods should be tightened
progressively, lightly at first, then by gradually tightening opposite pairs a little at a time. 3S
Ensure that the tie-rods are vertical and nuts properly seated before final tightening. Wing 38 J.l 150 x 0.3
nuts or knurled nuts should be tightened only by hand, without the use of a spanner or
SO 2 200 x 0.4
other tool.
70 2.8 250 x 0.4
13.7.3 Triaxial Cell Fittings and Accessories
· 100 4 3)0 x 0.5
A base adaptor and top cap of the appropriate diameter are required for each size of ISO 6 510 X 0.5
triaxial specimen, which are listed in Table 13.2. Base adaptors fit on the cell pedestal and
are generally su itable only for the type of cell for which they are designed. Adaptors are
either solid (as used for quick tests) or perforated with a small diameter central hole (for
drained tests or pore water measurements). A solid plug can be fitted over a perforated
adaptor when a drainage connection is not required.
Top caps, otherwise known as ioading caps or pressure pads, are also either solid, or
perforated with an eccentric small diameter hole to which a drainage connection can be
fitted. Top caps for smaller specimen diameters are usually of acrylic plastic and are
bonded to a hemispherical stainless steel ball which fits the recess in the end of the cell
loading piston. Larger diameter caps are usually of aluminium alloy and may be formed
with a central recess into which a steel ball-bearing is placed to transmit the load from the
pisto n.
Other accessories which are required for quick·undrained triaxial tests and which must
conform to the specimen diameter, are
Split formers: Sections 9.1.2 and 13.6.9.
Suction membrane stretchers: Section 13.6.3, stage (6). Fig. 13.60 Triaxial test accessories for specimens of 38, 50. 100 and 150 mm
Rubb(:r membranes: Section 13.7.4. diulllf ler: sucrion 11It!l1lbrane strefchers, rubber membranes (150 !'lin membrane is
O -rings: (S« below). filled on srretcher), Q· rings, base adapfors. rop caps

I
~8 QClCK (O~1PRESSION TESTS 13.7 TRIAXIAL TEST EQL'lP~IE:--;T 649

.1'<;///////1/// CAL:BRAT ION -:-£ST GRAPH

700 • - - - , - - - . . , - - - - - , - - - - ,
membrane
t hickness
clrcumlerential str i p membrane d i ameter- D = 38mm
Of rubber membrane , tmm~ 6co l A1 width = 25mm
thickness =O·3mm

gIO$S' 1 1'1-I
dT=[f
or
pol;,oe,
E 500
rod diame t er d
nomina l init ia l l e ngth
= 3mm

r-------1t
25
m ete l I to
E
~ = 1i x 38 =119·4mm
mm rods "l ~ 400 for a strain of ', 5 % ,

-.-.l ~
0
1
x =-"2 X 0·15 X 119 ·4= 9mm approx.
E from graph, load for 9mm extension
'"t ~ 300
u = 330grcms
c
r=:0=:J extended
l ength
i nit i 01
l ength
•
0
:. modulu s M

"
~ 200 '",
"100UV
- x 9 · 81

initial length of membrane I

pan only
1000.xO·15X2~

(nominally nD) 0'43N/mm

scale pan 2l0+2xtnd
ond weights
o!J../ I ! [ !
o 5 10 15 2 0mm
moss of pan and weights = W grams extension )(
te~s ion i n membrane = wx9'8 1 newtons
2 Xl 000 Fig. 13.63 Typical data/rom extension modulus test on rubber membrane
d tension per mm w idth I
ma UlU5 M = stro:n N mm
The extension modulus of the rubber membrane material, which is required for
Fig. 13.61 Principle of extension modulus test on rubber membrane material (after calculating the membrane correction to be applied to the measured compressive strength
Bishop and Henkd, 1962) of triaxial specimens (Section 13.3,8), can be obtained as follows. (Bishop and Henkel,
1962).
Cut a length of 25 mm from a rubber membrane of the size to be used. Set up the
apparatus shown diagrammatically in Fig. 13.61, after dusting the inside of the membrane
and the glass rods with french chalk. The author's apparatus in use is shown in Fig. 13.62.
Add weights to the suspended pan in increments and measure the resulting extended lengths
of the membrane, denoted by x in Fig. 13. 61. This can be done to the nearest 0,5 mm by
using calipers and a steel ruler to measure the distance from the upper and lower edges of
the glass rods at both sides. A graph of pan mass against distance x can be plotted, as in
Fig. 13 .63, from which the load giving say 15070 strain can be read off. This enables the
modulus M of the rubber membrane to be obtained, from which a membrane correction
curve of the type shown in Fig. 13.18 can be derived as described in Section 13.3.8.

REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials, Part 11. Test designation D 2166-66. 'Unconfined compressive
strength of cohesive soil' . Philadelphia, USA.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Part 11. Test designation D 2850-70. 'Unconsolidated undrained
strength of cohesive soils in tria,ial compres~ion·. Philadelphia, L·SA .
Anderson, W. F. (1974). 'The use of multi·stage triaxial tests 10 find the undrained strength parameters of stony
boulder day'. Proc. Ins! . Civ. Eng., Technical Note No. TN89.
Bi~hop, A . W. and Henkel, D. J. (1962). The Measurement oj Soil Properties in the Triaxial Tesf. (2nd edn.).
Edward Arnold, London.
B; <; hop. A. W. and Green, G. E. (1965) . 'The innuence of end restraint on the compression strength of a
cohe<ionle ~ $ soil'. GeOlcchnique, \·0J. 15. No.3.
B I ~hop, A. W. <i iid Lit:le. A. L. ( 196":'). 'The iliilucnce oflhe sin' and oriemation of the sample on the apparent
Fig_ 13.62 Author's apparatus/or test on rubber membrane mareT/at wenglh 0f .he LC'ndon clay at Maldon , Essex. Proc. Geolech. Con/., 0,10, \'01. I.

l
6~ lJ QUICK COMPRESSION TESTS

BS Code of Pracrice CP 2001 (1957). 'Site investigations'. British Siandards Instituti on, Londo n.
AS ~o3 0 : ' '::'''1 r :Jd~ ~j Pm,tict> fnr Site lnves figaric.,·. Br;:;sh "t:l;lc ards ;h~ ti tll ' ; V U, London .
Case, J . and Chi/ver, A. H . ( 197 1) . Strength oj Materials and Structures, Arnold, London.
Cooling, L F. and Golder, H. Q. (1940). 'Po rtable apparatus for compression tests in cl ay soils' . Engineering, Chapter 114
149 (J862). 57-58.
Cooling, L. F. and Smith, D. B. (1936). 'The shearing resistance of soils'. Proc. lSI/nt. Conf. Soil Mech. and
Found. Eng., Vol. 1. Harvard, Mass.
Henkel. D. J. and Gilbert, G. D. (1952). 'The effect of the rubber membrane on the measured triaxial
compression strength of clay samples' . Giolechnique. Vol. 3, No. I. Oedometer consolidation tests
Kenney, T. C. and Watson, G. H. (1961). 'Multiple-stage triaxial tests for determing c' and f of saturated soils'.
Proc. 5th Int. Can!. Soil Mech., Paris, Volume I.
Kolbuszewski, J. (1948). 'An experimental study of the maximum and minimum porosities of sands'. Proc. 2nd
Int. Conf. Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Rotterdam, Vol. 1.
Lumb, P. (1964). 'Multi-stage triaxiallests on undisturbed soils'. Civ. Eng. and Public Works Review, May 1964. 14.1 INTRODUCTION
Marschi, N. D., Chan, C. K. and Seed, H. B. (1972). 'Evaluation of properties of rockfill materials'. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, Vol. 98, Paper No. 8672, January 1972.
Mohr, 0. (1871). 'Beitdl.ge zur Theorie des Erddruckes'. Z. Arch. u. lnng. ver. Hannover, Vols. 17 and 18. 14.1.1 Scope
Rowe, P. w. (1972). 'The relevance of soil fabri c to site investigation ·practice'. 12th Rankine Lecture, Geo-
technique. Vol. 22, No.2. The standard oedometer consolidation test for saturated clays is the main feature of this
Rowe, P. W. and Barden, L. (1964). 'Importance of free ends in triaxial testing'. 1. Soil. Mech. Found. Div. chapter, Characteristics of both normally consolidated and overconsolidated clays are
ASCE, Vol. 90. SMI, January, 1964.
SCOIt, C. R. (1974). An /nuoduction (a Soil Mechanics and Foundations. Applied Science Publishers.
described. Analysis of data from tests on clays is presented as a standard conventional
Skempton, A. W. and Bishop, A. w. (1954). 'Soils'. Chapter X of Building Materials - their Elasticity and procedure, variations on which are described for application to tests on silty soils. Special
Inelasticity (Ed. M . Reiner and A. G. Ward). North Holland Publishing Company. Amsterdam. test procedures are described separately for soils having a swelling potential, for partially
Skempton, A. W. and Henkel. D. J. (1957). 'Tests on London Clay'. Proc. 4th lnsf. Con/. Soil Mech. and Found. saturated soils and for peats. Tests for the direct measurement of permeability in the
Eng., Vol. I. London. consolidation cell are included.
Skernpton, A. W. and La Rochelle, P . (1965). 'The Bradwell slip; A shon-term failure in London Clay'. Geo-
technique, Vol. 15, No.3. As with other load testing devices, calibration of the consolidation loading frame is
Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R. B. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Wiley, New York. important and this is covered together with other practical aspects of the apparatus and
Transport and Road Research Laboratory (1952). Soil Mechanics/or Road Engineers. Chapters 19, 22, HMSO, testing procedure.
London.
Wh:tlo". R. ( 1973). Materials and Structures. Longmans, Lo ndo n.
Wood, D. M. and Wroth, C. P. (976). 'The correlation of some basic engineering properties of soils' . Proc. Int. 14.1.2 Purpose
Conf, on Bl'ha-.;iour o/O//shore Structures, Trondheim, Vol. 2.
Wood, D. M. and Wroth, C. P . (1978). 'The use of the cone penetrometer to determine the plastic limit of soils'.
Ground Engineering. Vol. II, No.3, April, 1978. The oedometer consolidation test is used for the determination of the consolidation
characteristics of soils of low permeability. The two parameters normally required are:
(1) The compressibility of the soil (expressed in terms of the coefficient of volume
compressibility; also known as modulus of volume change) , which is a measure of the
amount by which the soil will compress when loaded and allowed to consolidate.
(2) The time related parameter (expressed in terms of the coefficient of consolidation)
which indicates the rate of compression and hence [he time-period over which consolidation
settlement will take place.

(I) COMPRESSIBILITY
Whenever a load, such as that due to a structural foundati on, is placed on the ground, some
degree of settlement will occur even if the applied pressure is well within the safe bearing
capacity of the soil. The limitation of settlements to within tolerable limits is sometimes of
greater significance in foundation design tha,n limitations imposed by bearing capacity
requirements derived from shear strength.

(2) TIME EFFECTS

Settlements in sands and gra\'els take place in a short time, usually as construction
proceeds, and these rarely cause major problems. But in clay soils, because of their low
permeability, settlements can take place over much longer periods - months, years,
decades. even centuries, after completion of construction. Estimates of the rate of settle-
ment, and of the time within which settlement will be virtually complete, are therefore
important factors in foundation design.

MI
6S2 OEDOMETER CO~SOLlDATlO:-< TESTS 14, 1 I~ TROOLCT I ON 653
!4.J.3 Principle of Tpli:t I
p'Y~L!S
d :$C:~" \¥I(;'o:::!O:

The test is carried out by applying a sequence of some four to eight vertical loads to a -D --...
/
-0
----., ~

~ ~ .,
<7 ,..
laterally confined specimen having a height of about one quarter of its diameter. The
vertical compression under each load is observed over a period of time, usually up to 24 h.
Since no lateral deformation is allowed it is a one-dimensional test, from which the one-
dimensional consolidation parameters are derived.
l.' , <
."
5?E,IMEN ~ ~ ­
<'" , ,
" ""'"
,'. l. . , j ~ . J;):~;\;;1
N
C

r
~ • -; " ~ '.
The consolidation cell consists essentially of a mould for containing and rigidly
supporting the test spec imen; an upper and lower drainage surface; a loading cap; and an
ring supported on r e~ a~ lv e mOV E!':neo nt
outer casing comaining water in which t!1e whole can be immersed. Details of the cell, and lower porous disc only at top surface
the loading frame in which it is mounted , are given in Section 14.5.3.
(a) (b)

14.1 .4 Historical De"elopment Fig. 14.1 Principle offixed ring oedometer consolidation cell: (a) initially,
(b) after consolidation
Attention was first drawn to the problem of the long-term consolidation of clays by
Terzaghi (l925), with the publication in Vienna of 'Erdbaumechanik'. Terzaghi proposed a
theoretical approach to the consolidation process, and he had already designed the first
~ !OOd
consolidation apparatus which he named an 'oedometer' (from the Greek oidema, ,-

Umn
swelling). In the early 1930s, consolidation tests on specimens of various sizes were carried --"'- <" . , n
out in the USA and were reported by Casagrande (1932), Gilboy (1936), and Rutledge
I:~ A - ,PECIMEN_= '~
(1935). The mathematical theory of consolidation was published by Terzaghi and Frohlich
in 1936.
, I
~,).::,
~ .~ ,, --
In 1938, Skempton at Imperial College, London, developed an oedometer for a I in thick ~~~
specimen based on the Casagrande principle, using a bicycle wheel to support the beam
counterbalance weight. A more compact oedometer, fo r a specimen 3 in diameter and % in \ i ng sup~rted only
\
relat ivE!' mOvement at
by spec i men bo(h surfacE'S
high, \,I,'as designed by Nixon in 1945, and four of these were mounted 011 (.'De bcn(;h . Otilef
machines, based on the same principle, were developed by the leading manufacturers of
testing equipmen t, and many are st ill in use today .
[ (.)

Fig. 14.2
(b)

Principle of floating ring oedomefer consolidation celt:

'W hen oedometer consolidation testing became recognised as a standard laboratory (a) initially, (b) after consolidation
procedure after 1945, two types of oedometer cell were developed, known as the fixed-ring
cell and the f1oating-ring cell. In the fixed-ring cell, the mould into which the speci men was
transferred fro m the cutting ring was clamped in the cell on to p of a lower porous disc stu ds (3) , / / . . . . - - ball b ear lnQ seating
having a diameter larger than that of the specimen (Fig. 14.1). The upper porous di sc , damping screws,
~IOOd i ng cop
immediately beneath the loading cap, was fractionally smaller so that it could enter the ring
as the specimen consolidated . Only the top surface of the specimen was di splaced during top porous di sc -
consolidation .
In the floating-ring cell the ring into which the specimen was initially trimmed was used
to hold the specimen during the test, but it was supported only by friction from the botiom por ous diSC- ii~i?"7fW»«-~
.' //'/ «")::/
~- .-,- .'
'-
, reta ining r ing
cutting r ing

specimen itself (Fig. 14.2). Both the upper and lower porous discs were slightly sma ller than O-ri ng seal ' "V /((O ~
">-'- . / ( /F cell ~ose
the inside diameter of the ring , so that the specimen was compressed about equally from - - - - - locat ing recess
top and bottom, and it was claimed that the amount of side friction was half that of a fixed
Fig. 14.3 Details of a typical oedomefer consolidation cell
ring cell (Lambe, 1951). The floating ring cell was cheaper than the fixed-ring type, and
another advantage was that spefimen disturbance was less because transfer from ring to
mould was eliminated . Its disadvantages were that only a light ring could be used to hold spec imen is under load during the test (Fig. 14.51, Section 14.6.6). The suggestion by
the specimen, and therefore it was likely to undergo some lateral deformation under high Lambe (1951), that applied loads should be increased by 10'70 to allow for side friction, is
pressure; and that the weight o f the ring could cause some disturbance to soft clays . In not taken into account in British practice, but friction is minimi sed by using a smooth
addition this type of cell could not be adapted for making direct measurements of polished ring with light lubrication.
permeability. Oedometer presses designed fo r working in Sf units were introduced in 1971 and the
The fixed-ring cell is the type now most often used and is standard in Britain. The normal British oed omet er now uses a specimen 75 mm diameter and 20 mm high. A
specimen is held in the cutting-ring, which is accu rately located and rigidly restrained by a suggested way o f using earlier oedometers , which were designed for traditiona l (imperial)
retainer or the cell body which avoids damaging the cutting edge (Fig. 14.3). Sett ing up and units, is gh·en in Section 14.7.4.
di ::. mantling are simple operations which entail little risk of disturbing the specimen . The major advan ces in recent years have been based on the use of displacement
Pro vision of '0' ring seals enables direct permeability measurements to be made whil e the transducers for the measurement of vertica l compression of specimens. so that automatic
65' OE DOMtTER CO NSO LI DATION TESTS 14.2 DEFINITIO NS 655
recordin g (d"y Rnd ni rh t), dat a proc:e!=si ng: and auto~ ?ti c print ing and graphical plc~!i !lg TIME FITTI NG r~(' ddcrminatic r. 0f ~ h c coeffkicnt of comolidaliull 0 )' \..vmparillg <l
SYSl em s are now commercially aval la ble (see Section M.2 .6). However, the pr ocedures gi ve n laboratory test curve with the characteristics of the theoretical curve .
in this chapter relate to manual operation and recording.
COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY (a ,.) The change in voids ratio per unit
pressure change as a result of consolidation due to that pressure change.
14.2 DEFINITIONS
6e
COf\:SO LIDATION The process whereb y soil particles are packed more closely 0 ... =
6p
together o"er a p eriod of time under the application of continued pressure. It is
accom pan ied by drainage of water froro the pore spaces between so lid particles,
COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY (m,,) Sometimes known as
VOID RATIO (e) The ratio of the volume of voids (water and air) to the volume of
modulus of volume change. The change in volume per unit volume, per unit pressure
solid particles in a mass of soil.
change, as a result of consolidation due to that pressure change.
DEGREE OF SATURATION (S) The volume of waler contained in the void space
between soil particles expressed as a percentage of the total voids. a, I ) 6e
m. . = 1 + e ( I +e 6p
PORE WATER PRESSURE (u) The hydrostatic pressure of the water in the voids, or
pores, between solid particles. Also referred to as pore pressure, or the neutral stress;
abbreviated p.W.p. COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION (c,) The parameter which relates the change
in excess pore press ure with respect to time, to the amount of water draining out of the
TOTAL STRESS (0) The stress in a soil mass due to the application of an applied voids of a clay prism during the same time, due to consolidation.
external pressure.
EFFECTIVE STRESS (0') The difference between the total stress and the pore water k
pressure. c. . = ml' P...,g
0' = 0 - u
Effective s!=-ess approximates to th.: stress .:::arried by the solid soHstructure. TIME FACTOR ll) The dimensionless parameter which is rel:lted to time, c\., ana the
length of drainage path; used for defining the theoretical rate of consolidation curve.
EXCESS PORE PRESSURE The increase in pore water pressure due to the sudden
application of an external pressure. Also called the excess hydrostatic pressure. c, I
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION (V) The ratio of the excess pore pressure lost after a T, = 11'
certain time due to drainage, to the initial excess pore pressure, at any instant during the
consolidation process. I~ is usually expressed as a percentage and is sometimes referred to as COEFFICIENT OF SECONDARY COMPRESSION (Ca) The ratio of the change in
the percentage pore pressure dissipation . height to the initial height of a consolidation specimen over one decade (one log cycle) of
INITIAL COMPRESSION The amount of compression which takes place in a time during the secondary compression phase.
laboratory test between the instant of application of the load and the beginning of the VIRGIN COMPRESSION CURVE Also known as the field compression curve. The
primary consolidation phase. relationship between voids ratio and effective pressure for the soil in situ.
INITIAL COMPRESSION RATIO (ro) The ratio of the amount of initial compression NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAY A clay which has never been subjected to a
to the total compression recorded during a loading stage of a consolidati on test.

I
greater pressure than the present overburden pressure.
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION The pa rt of the total co mpression und er load to which OVERCONSOLIDATED CLAY A clay which in past geological times has been
the Terz.aghi theory of consolidation applies. It is the phase during whi ch drainage and pore consolidated under a pressure greater than the present overburden pressure by overlying
pressure dissipation occu r.
PRIMARY COMPRESSION RATIO (rp ) The ratio of the am ount of primary
I, deposits which have since been eroded"away.
PRE-CONSOLIDATION PRESSURE The maximum pressure to whi ch an o\'er-
consolidation to the total compression recorded during a load stage in a teSt. 'II co nsolidated clay was subjected.
SECOl'\ DARY CO~1PRES S JO N The compression which cont inues aft er primary OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO (OCR) The ratio of the pre-consolidation pressure
conso ii d:,n ion has virtually finis hed and whic h is lim !! drpendent. !I to the present effective overburden pressure .
SECONDARY COMPRESSION RATIO (r, ) The ratio of the amount of secondary
compress ion up to the end of a load stage in a tt's t to the total com pr t:~sio n recorded dur ing
I SWELliNG The opposite process to consolidation, i.e . the expansion of a clay on
reduction of pressure due to water bdng drawn into the voids betwee n solid panicles .
tht' ~tJ.g e " SWELLI:"l"G PRESSURE Al so kn own as equili brium load . The p r e s~ur e requi red to
1ll~;1l~~~~1 C(l: .:::-'Cl nt \ "Ohl.l !t:', i.e. 10 prevent ~wellj n g , \ \ he ll an O\e:'" ..::onsolida ted clay has
ra 't" rp + r J :::. 1 al'CCSS to water.
656 OEDOMETER C0:--1S0LlDATIO:-; TESTS 14.3 COr\SOLIDATION THEORY 6)7
14.3 CONSOLIDATION THEORY load on
piston: o lOON lOON lQQN. . 100 N 200 N 200 N
votv e vOlve '., ',. \ '
14.3.1 Principle of Consolidation closed opened .," , ,I~,'

Soils consist of solid panicles between which are spaces (voids) which may be filled with a '.'.
gas (usually air), a liquid (usually water), o r a combination of both, (Volu me 1, Section
3.3.2). The voids in fully saturated soils contain water only, area =
When a soil is subjected to a compressive stress its volume tends to decrease, which for a A mml
saturated soil can take place by three means.
( I) Compression of the solid grains.
(2) Compression of the water within the voids between grains.
(3) Escape of water from the voids. load (N)
corrie<! by
In most inorganic soils the effect of (1) is extremely small, and is neglected in consolidation water 100 100
0 150 100 50 0
theory. For organic soils, especially peat, the compressibili ty of the so lid matter can be
considerable. (Peats are dealt with separately in Section 14.6.4). lood (N)
carried by
The compressibility of water is negligible in comparison with other effects, so item (2) spring 0 0 0 50 100 '50 100
can be ignored. Most sedimentary clay deposits are fully saturated or very nearly so, and it de>gr€'€' of
is in these soils that the process of consolidation is most significant. The presence of air in consolidoti on: 0°/. 0% 0 0
/. 25·'0 50°'0 75 °'0 lOO·'.
the voids is discounted; to allow for partial saturation would make the analysis much too
complicated for practical use. (al ( b) (c) (d) ( e) (I) ( g)
The theory of consolid ation is therefore based on item (3), the escape or 'squeezing out' Fig. 14.4 Spring and piston analogy illustrating the principle of
of water from the voids between the skeleton of the solid grains. consolidation (after Taylor, 1948)
In a free-draining soil suc h as saturated sand the escape of water can take place rapidly.
But in a clay, for which the permeability may range from tens of thousands to millions of The loads carried by the spring and by the water at va ri ous time intervals from the start
times less than that of sand, the movement of water occurs very much more slowly and, are shown in Fig . 14.4 (c)- (g), together with the percentage of the final compression of the
therefore. considerable time may be required for t:xcess water to be squeezed out to spring, which is the same as the percentage of the final total load which it carrks at i1l1y
permeable boundaries. instant. -When equilibrium is reached, as in Fig . 14.4 (g), compression is 100070 complete.
The volume change associated with consolidation occurs equally slowly. and the resulting In this model the time required to reach a given percentage compression depends on the
settlement under load therefore takes place over a long time period. This process can be following factors.
visualized by means of the mechanical model described below.
(I) Size of drainage outlet.
14.3.2 Spring and Piston Analogy (2) Viscosity of water (which depends on temperature).
(3) Compressibility of spring.
This simplified version of lhe model analogy described by Terzaghi and Peck (1948) is due Items (1) and (2) give the rate at which water can escape through th e outlet. Item (3) is
to Taylor (1948). Significant because a spring of greater compressibility would shorten more under the 200 N
Consider a cylindrical container fitted with a watertight but frictionless piston of load and would require more water to escape, therefore a longer time would elapse before
negligible mass, of area A mm 2 , and provided with a drainage valve connected to a small- equilibrium was reached.
bore outlet tube. The container is filled with water, and between the piston and the
base is an elastic compression spring (see Fig. 14.4 (a», Initially the system is in 14.3.3 Co nsolidation of Soils
equilibrium with the valve closed and no load on the piston. The spring is not compressed
and there is no excess pressu re in the water. The behaviour of the mechanical model described above is analogous to the behaviour of
A weight of 200 N is now applied to the piston (Fig. 14.4 (b)). Water is not aHowed to soils during the consolidation process. Those properties of the model and real soil which
escape, so the piston cannot move down and the spring is not compressed. The downward relate to each other are summarised in Table 14.1.
force is therefore supported by an upward force on the piston due to an additional pressure The st ress induced by the externally applied load is known as the 'total stress' and is
in the water. This pressure, called the excess hydrostatic pressure, is equal to 200/ A denoted by o. The pressure in the water in the voids between solid particles in a soil is
N / mm 2 • At a certain instant (lime = 0), the drainage valve is ope ned and the timer clock is known as the 'pore water pressure' (p .w.p.), or pore pressure, and is denoted by u, or
slar!{'d. " ·ater can now begi n to escape from the cyl inder (Fig. 14.4 (c»), but only slowly sometimes u.... \Vhen an external load is applied to a saturated clay soil, the entire load is at
because of the small bore of the outlet tube. The piston sinks slo wly. res ulling in first carried by the additional pore water press ure whkh is ind uced, referred to as the
progressively more load bei!1g carried by the sprin g and less by the pressure of the water . 'excess pore water pressure', which is equal to the total applied stress.
(fig. I-tA (d) (0, ) Fir.Jl!y th:, ~ ,ring is fu lly com pre ~" .:-d toy the applied iOfCI;.' and c:l ~ ri ::-<; !he If the day is bounded by sur face s from \\ hich \\ ate, c ~ n escape (such a!' adjoining sand
whol;:.' of lhc- load. There b no'" no excess p!~ssu re in the V..-a l er, (;.'ljuilibl i ~:m j:-, ! e~:,) ~e~i dlld I::ye:s shown in f ig . 14.5 , Sectio n 14 .3.4) the ex:::css presq;rc will calISe w ~!cr 10 no w out of
movement has ceased (fig. 14.4 (g)). the clay into the adjoining layers . This will occur slowly, because of the low pe,meability of
 • .1, 3 \" '-.,, ~ ,.,0 LIf ~;, ,1 ... :--1 Thn ,,\ t' 659
6.,<:" (J[uU :\H: TER \"'j!'o50 UUA I JON T c~ r'>

fahle 14.1. C{)'dl',i.R ISUN Of PI~OPEiHJE S ( 'F Mi.CHASICAL MuDEL At'D SO IL Mi r = sellJemt!l1t which will ultimaLely take place (i .e. wht'rl U = lOO V7o) then

1 ,'';111 ,\-hchafl icui "'VU'o;: Soil i1Hx 100'10

u~ (14.3)
(I ) Rate at ~ hkh water can e~care Rate of drainage depends on: i1Hr
depends on:
(a) Size of ouliet Size of pore spaces (i.e. permeability) Since no measurements of pore water pressure are made in the oedometer test, the degree
(b) Viscosity of water Viscosity of pore water (depends on of consolidation has to be related to the change in height of the specimen. The beginning
temperature)
(e) Length of outlet tube LengIh of drainage path and end conditions are as follows. At the start of consolidation,

(2) Compressibility of spring Compressibility of soil time t = 0, U = uo• I1H = 0 and U = 0070.
controls: SJructure determines:
(a) Amount of compression Amount of consolidation settlement
(b) Time to reach equilibrium Time to achieve lOOOJn consolidation At completion of consolidation,

(3) Initial pressure in water Initial excess pore waler pressure Uo

t ~ = (theoretically), u ~ 0, i1H ~ i1Hr and U ~ 100'10.
(4) Pressure in 'Jo'ater at any lime t Average excess pore water pressure u
According to the theory, 100070 consolidation is never quite reached . Nevertheless the
(5) Load in spring Stress carried by soi l skeleton magnitude of the ultimate settlement can be calculated, and the time required to reach any
percentage of consolidation can be evaluated. Times for 500/0,900/0 and 95% consolidation
(6) Percentage of final compression Percentage consolidation
are usually significant.
In practice the flow of water and displacements which take place during consolidation
are nearly always three*dimensional. The analysis of three· dimensional effects is ex tremely
the clay, but as water drains out an increasing proportion of the load is transferred to the complex and is rarely practicable. (Davis and Poulos, 1965). For most applications
grains forming the soil 'skeleton' and the pore pressure correspondingly falls. The Terzaghi's one*dimensional analysis provides a sound basis for the estimation of the
difference between the total applied stress and the pore water pressure at any instant is magnitude of settlements, although the rate at which they develop has to be interpreted
known as the (effective stress', and is approximately the same as the stress carried by the with caution. For cases in which a wide foundation rests on a relatively thin layer of clay
soil skeleton (Simons and Menzies, 1977). This is written in the form of;;.n equation between pen'iom layers. ~~e drainage pattern j~ very similar to the one·dimensional
assumptions.
a' 0- U (14.1)
14.3.4 Assumptions for Consolidation Theory

which is one of the most fundamental relation ships in the field of soil mechani cs (Terzaghi,
1926). In essence, the consolidation process consists of the gradual transfer of stress from
the pore water to the soil skeleton; as the pore water pressure decreases, the effective stress
increases.
At any stage during this process the extent to which this transfer of stress has progressed
is known as the 'degree of consoli dation', and is expressed as a percentage and denoted by
U (which must no t be confused with pore pressure u).
If Uo = initial excess pore pressure and u = excess pore pressure at time / from start of
consolidation, then the degree of consolidation at time 1 is given by the equation
o-
U - u
U ~ - x 100'1, (14.2)
",
The value of U is sometimes referred to as the 'percentage pore pressure di ssipation'. The
solution to th e consolidation equation (Section 14.3.S ) is expressed in terms of U.
The pore water pressure falls more rapidly near the drainage surfaces than at points
remote from them. If the percentage U is rel ated to the average pore pressure at time I, it
can be assumed that the degree of consoJidalion is proportional to the amount of settlement
which has t3kt' n place by ti me f. If
dH = settlement up {Q tim e I
The assumptions on which the Terzaghi theory of consolidation is based, some of which
have already been referred to, are su mmarised below.
(1) The layer of soil being consolidated is horizontal, homogeneous, of uniform thickness,
and is laterally confined .
(2) The soil is fully saturated, i.e. the voids are completely filled with water.
(3) Soil particles and water are incompressible.
(4) Darcy's law (Section 10.3.2) for the flow of water through soil is valid.
(5) The coefficient of permeability and other soil properties remain constant during any
one increment of applied stress.
(6) The applied pressure is uniform along a horizontal plane.
(7) Flow of water takes place only in a vertical direction, i,e. drainage and compression
are one·dimensional.
(8) A change in effective stress in the soil causes a corresponding change in voids ratio and
their relationship is linear during anyone stress increment.
(9) The initial excess pore press ure due to the application of load is uniform throughout the
depth of the clay layer.
(10) The extended duration of the consolidation period is due entirely to the low
permeability of the soil.
(11) One or b(~th of the strala adja;:"t;'nt to the clay layer are p ~rfect ly free -draining in
c01n pari<;on wi th the clay.
660 UEDO~ lETEi( ( O:<SO LlDA nON 1 ES1S J4. ) CO~SOLI DAnO~ THEORY 66 1
(12) The weight of the soi l itself may be neglected. In Equat ion (14.4) the compound coefficie nt on the right-hand side is replaced by the
i!1 this C~3!",!N Ti-)e symbol H is med for Ill': l !Jk~l lc:,>S o r i11t! ... i4 Y layer or for the !hi.:kfjc~s coefficient c.. called the c0~fficie!!~ of cc!"'!5c li dat ion, where
of the soil specimen in the test.
When calculating or using the coefficient of conso lidation, c\., the significant measure- k
ment is not the thickness of the clay, H, but the length of the longest drainage path, Cv = - -- (14.5)
p .... gmv
denoted by h. They are the same where the clay drains only to one pervious surface and the
other surface is impervious. Where the clay drains to bOth surfaces, the longest drainage
path is equal to half the thickness of the layer. Thus, in Fig. 14.5 (a) (single drainage), so that Equation (14.4) becomes
h ~ H. In Fig. 14.5 (b) (double drainage), h ~ 'h H.
The same theo retical equations apply to both cases, provided that they are expressed in (lu
- =C II
a2u
terms of h . The symbol h can be subsequently replaced by H o r Ih. H, whichever is -
(14 .6)
appropri ate. In the standard oedometer consolidation test, double drainage condition s at az2
apply, as in Fig. 14.5 (b).
The solution of Equation (14.6) expresses the percentage consolidation, U (defined in
Section 14.3.3), as some function of cv • h and time I, where h is the length of the longest
14.3~5 Theory of Consolidation
drainage path, i.e.
Details of the mathematical theory of consolidation are not given here and are not
necessary for an understanding of the consolidation test nor for the derivation of U Cv t \
parameters from the test data. The mathematical analysis is given by Terzaghi (1943) and in 100
~f ( Ii') (14.7)
other text books on soil mechanics (for example, Scott (1974)).
The simple one·dimensional case of consolidation of a clay layer subjected to uniform
loading, based on the assumptions given in Section 14.3.4, was shown by Terzaghi to lead The expression (c v £/h 2) is a dimension less number, and can be replaced by a 'time
0' factor'. T1., where
to the following differential equation:

iJu k il'u C, t
04.4) Tv = (14.S)
ct p ... gm\. cr ii'

in which so that Eq uatio n (14.7) can be written,

u = excess pore water pressure at time I, at a given point
z = vertical height of that point
k = coefficient of permeability of the clay U
100 ~ f(T,) (14.9)
mil ~ coefficient of volume compressibility of the clay
Pw = ma ss densi ty of water
g = acceleration due to gravity The relati onshi p between U and T\., representing the so lution of Eql,)ation (14.6) , as
derived mathematically by Terzaghi (1943), is shown graphica lly in Fig. 14.6. The same
relationship is given in Fig. 14.7, where U is plotted again st Tv drawn to a logarithmic scale,
uniform pressure uniform pr essure
and in Fig. 14.8, where U is plotted against the square root of Til' The second and third
~~~.)JLl t .) ~ .). .t J t types o f curve are commonly used in the analysis of one-dimensional consolidation, rather
than the first. In mathematical terms the curve approaches the asymptote U = 1000/0 as
'p'E'ry ioos str'atum' time approaches infinity; in other words consolidation approaches 'completion' aft er a

:-:~ 1~~:-"~ 1d'r-~~og~1 :::=:=..:- "~~AY :_jtt f.::; .--1dra;n'oget: : e" ~ . very long time, but is never fully achieved. Computed values of U, Tv and vTII are listed in
Table 14.2 .
.:.H.-=- -=~_= dir ecti on
.. ~ .- ...... - -- ---
-:~---- LAYER
»'S?/"f.;'S?/INS'/)4.0.'J7fi"Y7A'S'/
-_H 1::_ -_ I::;rain-a
r Yzt ---- 'I"
......... .
g,-
et .,--~ 1 For cases of no n-unifo rm loading, three-dimensional consolidation, and other
condit ions which depart fro m the one·dimensional analysis , the mathematica l equations
Im per vious stratum pervious. 'st ratum' lead to different curves relating U and Tn but these are not di scussed here. Examples are
given by Terzaghi and Peck (1967), Fig. lOS, and Tschebolarioff(J95 I), Fig. 6-11.
Mcximum leng ' h of drainage path Mo)(imum length of crainoge path An impo rt ant consequen ce o f Equat ion (14. 7) is th at th e degree of consolidation reached
aft er a certain time is in versely pr o porti ona l to the square o f the length of the maximum
• H
: Hh drainage path. [n practical terms this means that the co nsolidati on time increases with the
(0) (b)
s.qua re of the thickness of the clay layer; fo r in slance, loadings and other factors being
rig. 1~ .5 Clay layer under consolidaTion: (a) single drainage, (b) double C:-:jUal. the ti:ne required 10 reach say 90:t'c con:.oiidlltion wjll be nine times greater for a clay
drainage layer 6 m thi ck tha n for a layer of the same clay 2 m thic k.
662 OEDOMETER CUN:::tuLlD..." I IV1'-J TE:::, i.:J 1'+ . .) C0. ""v ...JDA . ~,-,,, THE ..... , ..
theoret ica l tim E' f ac tor ' Tv (l og scale )
Table 14.2. TIME FACTORS FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION 0_ O~ 0'
Degree of
consofidalion
Time/aclor
0,
L _,_~:iii,
"-"I " ~: , :' !
>__ _ ~
"

'_--4.,:
,1
3~56- a ;'1

_ ___ _
u •• T, ..fT, 10
0 0 0
i I !i' _ __
20 ----'1--:-
10 0.0071 0.0877 ...
\-"--t~~g~-nt - ~'i --
:::J
0.176
30 I '
20 O.Oll
,/" inflect ion oint
30 . 0.071 0.266 c
.2
40 I ---'- i ~
a
40

'0
0.126

0. 196
0. 355

0.443
.i ~
0
~
c
0
50

60
1---.:......1'
I ' -
,!,_ r
I
--- -
60 0.286 0.535 v

70 0 .403 0.635 0 70
80 0.567 0.753
••
\

From Leonard, (!96 l )

90

9'
100
0.848

1.129

=
0.921

1.063

=
~
"
80

90

100
Fig.
!
Ii
14.7
'
:1'11·t ""
Time facIor Tv (logarithmic scale) related /0 degree oj
consolidation UO/O '
=t , ~
th eoretical t im e foctor Tv
square-root of theoretical timE" factor ,rT~-
o o2 0· 3 0 '4 0·5 0·6 0· 7 0- 6 0·9 1·0 1-1 1·1
00".( 0·1 0·1 0·3 0·4 0·5 0·6 0,7 0·8 0·9 1·0 1·1 1·2

"'10~~
I _I ~ --T! __I_l_!_!L:T-lI i Tl 1 ~--'
:> .': : ' 0'
I I 1'--+ 1 I
20
----r-----r---~--
i l
. l
: :
I,
:::J

I, '
~.
30r-r~->- --'-! 1-;------,;-
20
1
:
-+-. -j" ; -
.. '
j-.
§ 30 I \( ! I -_.- ---,--~-~---
_..1-_.---1 i
1 c
~
~ 40 I \ 0
.0 I . , I I
(; "(;
~ 50 I \I ~
c
8 " 0
v
50 ~52-6 _ ,_ _ ,
0601 ' ~ 0 60 ~ -- - - -
t 70 I ••
g.. ". <

~
70f-1- - - - -
" 80 If..-- - - . " 80~ ~.--~~~-----+----~
90f-1- - - -
90
100 I
asym ptot e
iJ I l00L-~-------L----~---- _________~
Fig. 14.6 Time fOClor Tv related to degree of consolidation 1J 0/0 Fig . 14.8 Square-rool oj time faclor, y'T I" related to degree oj
consolidation U %
6M OEDO~1E T ER
14.3.6 Phase!' of COllsoJictation
The relati onship between degree of consolidation an d time, derived from a typical
laboratory test on a specimen o f clay. is sim ilar in general form to the theoretical relation-
ship referred to in Section 14 .3.5, but there are sign ificant deviations which are referred to
belo w. In this context the degree of consolida tion is represented by the amount of
compression (L e. settlement) o f the specimen at a particular time from the start.
Settlement is plotted against time drawn to a logarithmic scale (log-time/settlement
curve) o r against square root o f time in minutes (square-rool time /settlement curve).
Typical laboratory curves of these types are shown in Figs. 14.30 and 14.31 (Section 14.5.5,
stage (15)) respectively, and their similarity to the theoretical curves in Figs. 14.7 and 14.8
will be apparent.
For analytical purposes the com pression of cla ys under load can be divided into three
phases, known as
(1) Ini tial compression.
(2) Primary consolidation.
(3) Secondary compression.
In fact, these phases overlap and the time-dependent components (2) and (3) probably
occur simultaneously. However it is expedient to consi der them separately. (See Fig. 14.9).
CO!'SOLlDATION TESTS 14.3 CONSOLl DATIO.'i THEOR Y 665~'
(1) Inirial compression takt::s p!J.ce almost simulto.neously with th e application of a
load i~c!'ement in a laboratory test and before commenceme!lt of drainage-. It is due partly
to compressio n of small pockets of gas within the pore spaces and partly to bedding down
of contact surfaces in the cell and in the load frame. A small proportion may be due to
elastic compression, which is recove rable when the load is removed. This phase is
responsib le for a deviation from the theoretical curve nea r the beginning of a loading
increment. In highly permeable relatively stiff soils the inclusion of some drainage, i.e.
primary consolidation , is unavoid able during this phase.
(2) Primary consolidation is the time-dependent compression due to the dissipation of
the excess pore pressu re under loading , and is accounted for by the Terzaghi consolidation
theory. If the soil has access to water when the load is remo ved a small amount of recovery
(swelling) can take place. Th is phase relates closely to the theoret ical cu rve for m OSI clays.
(3) Secondary compression continues after the excess pore pressure of the primary
phase has virt ually dissipated. The mecha nism is complex, but secondary compress ion is
thought to be due to continued movement of particles as the soi l structure adjusts itself [Q
the increasing effective stress . Secondary com pression is not usually recoverable on
removal of the applied load, although secondary swelling has been observed, for instance,
in peats.

r •
In many applications only the primary consolidation phase is used for the estim atio n of
t im e (log scale) settlement s. Fo r inorganic clays it is usua ll y by far the most sig nificant of th e three phases,

I ~' 4\ ,
square - roo t - t i me
E: fi5ij
I dl 1
0
init ial r(>ad ing
FsO

do
,
-dA- - --
r ' DEFORMATION OF APPARATUS
I e : : ' ort(>ce
COMP~fll'to~t
\ d

P HAS EX
,",\.0: '......cn;
0./.
di e: initial reoding

.. Q I 0°/.'
\. "I
C b
I, A
i '
I ::>
.
::>
c \ ad= ac PR IMARy l §
• f ir st i CONSOllDAT lON ~
I ~
~ r ecorded Z
~ i
.§
r ead ing PHA SE ~ c
• u i I u
~ w'
811 - 0 Sv
:-"'-50 '0 , '0
§
"
c
~i !
"0
t
c
.,
o PR IM ARY
CONSOLIDATION - - -- - « - - - - 50"/0
v

~ I
~ 0z
g. ~

~
15

••
u

~l
0.

'"iii0: E
~
"0. ·w ov
E
o n.
v :>:
8 cv
- " ;i
S ECON~ARY
D
~C\......... p q~ pr= l '15)(pq ..
I
I

d
100 :;:
1- ' COMPRESSION
PHAS£,
\
8 F
A+dSO
1
B" C "- 90·/.
"
~
~f
, (d = d for r.E'..:t s!age)
f i
.
fmal
.
rE'ad lng ~
/ D+ "100
d, ~·F
Fit· 1·1 .9 Phases of consolidarion, and analysis of log-rime / settlemenr
curve ng. 14.10 A""'!Y\I~<; (~(.vl:l .. re- r()or rime s(.lili?menl ("<ine
 .----.---- --------------------------~ ..................~~. ~

II 666 OEDOMETER COl'SOLIDATION TESTS 14.3 CONSOLIDATION THEORY 067

Wi.!
ar•.:! lii;:' ;:'';~.loiishmcJlt oi lil\.; ulagnituue of primary consoiidalion and of the primary Theoretical 1000/0
consoli dar ion/time curve, together with derived parameters, are the main objectives of a
I laboratory consolidation test. The primary phase is the only one which can properly be The point of inflexion of the log-time/settlement graph, which is the poim at which the
called 'consolidation' in the sense defined in Section 14.2. However, in peats and highly curvature changes, and is the steepest pan of the curve, occurs at about 75ftJo consolidation.
organic clays the secondary compression phase is of greater significance, and if taken over a The intersection of the tangent at this point with the backward extension of the secondary
sufficiently long time period can exceed the amount of primary consoli dation. compression line defines the U = 1000:0 abscissa, as show n in Fig. 14.9.
The three phases are illustrated on the idealised log time/settlement curve, Fig. 14.9, in
(2) SQUARE·ROOT·TIME METHOD
Ij terms of conventional boundaries. The derivation of the compression ratios, which indicate
! f the relative magnitudes of the three phases, is explained in Section 14.3 . 12. This procedure was introduced by Taylor (1942), and is known as Taylor's method. The
< i, 14.3.7 Primary Consolidation - Curve Fitting
~Linciple is illustrated in Fig. 14.10 and is explained below. An example of its application
to a laboratory square root-time/settlement curve (derived from the same set of readings
•
!.
.,
The process of comparing a laboratory consolidation curve with the theoretical curve
referred to in Section 14.3.5 is known as 'curve fitting'. It relates only to the primary
as was Fig. 14.30) is shown in Fig. 14.31 <::nd is de"cribed in Section 14.5.6, item 1 (b) .

Theoretical 0%
consolidation phase, and enables the coefficient of consolidation, cv , in Equation (14.8) to
be determined for each increment of loading. The first half of the laboratory curve has a straight line relationship simi lar to the
theoretical curve (Fig. 14.8) except for a deviation at the beginning, which is a

i!
Two curve-fitting procedures are used, one using the log-time/settlement curve (the log-
time method), the other using the square-root-time/settlement curve '(the square-root-time consequence of the initial compression phase referred to in Section 14.3.6. This line
method). extrapolated backwards gives the deformation representing a consolidation of U = 0070,

,II (I) LOG-TIME METHOD

i.e. the value do, where it intersects the zero time axis (point Q in Fig. 14.10).

TheorericallOO%
" This procedure was derived by Casagrande, hence it is also known as the Casagrande
The equation to the theoretical straigh t line ponion, from Equation ( J4 .10), is
method. The principle of the method is illustrated in Fig. 14.9, which is a representation of
"
one stage of a log-time/settlement curve for a specimen under consolidation, and is U ,. ,'''' \
explained below. An example of the application to an ctc[uai laboratory compression cun·e
is shown in Fig. 14.30, and described in Section 14.5.6, item 1 (a).
100 = 2 J ('; ) = 1.128 Y T,.
Ii' In Fig. 14.9, the settlement gauge reading at the instant of loading (time t = 0), i.e. the
initial reading, is denoted by d i , but the ordinate corresponding to zero time cannot be This equation is represented by the line 08 in Fig. 14.1 I. At point B on this line, where
\~1' U= 90%,
, shown on a logarithmic scale. The displacement at the termination of the load increment
(usually at t = 24 h, i.e. 1440 min), the final reading for the increment is denoted by dj . We
need to establish the displacements representing the beginning and end of the primary . r 0.90
! consolidation phase, i.e. at theoretical degrees of consolidation of U = 0070 (denoted by do) v T. = - - = 0.798
1.128
and U = 100% (denoted by d)oo)' These are not the same as the observed readings di and
,t dj , and are obtained as indicated below. From Table 14.2, the value of vT", at U = 90070 on the theoretical consolidation curve
Ii (point C, Fig. 14. 11) is 0.921. The ratio of these two values is 0.921/0.798 = 1.154 (say
Theorericu/O% 1.15).
11 Using the above relationship, a line drawn from the theoretical origin (point Q in Fig.
~:
The first half of the theoretical consolidation curve defined by Equation (14 .9), from
U = 0070 to U = 52.6070, can be represented to a very close approximation by the equation 14.10) having abscissae 1.15 times greater than those of the line QB will intersect the
laboratory curve at the point C where U = 900/0. The horizontal line through C intersects
iIi

"
.ill,1,
.!!..--
= 2
lOOn
J(T,.) (14.10)
the vertical axis at A. The compression at which U = 100% is represented by D, where
QD = (100/90) QA .

RELATIVE MERITS OF THE TWO METHODS

ill which can be rewritten
Ii Usually the log·tirne procedure is preferable to the square-root-time procedure jf the

=: C~)'
" I
settlemem curves are of the conventional shape. When it is difficult to evaluate the do point
f· (14.11) from the log·time plot, it may be possible to obtain do from the square-root plot. It can
T.
then be transferred to the log-time pial if the latter provides a clear indication of the d 100
point.
Equation (14.11) gi ves a parabolic cun.·e and the pmperties of the parabola are u"ied in Eval uation of the d !oo point from the square·ro~H plot is not very satisfactory because the
~ the geometiical construction shown in Fig. 14 .9 for establishing the position of the U = 0 d9(j point is defined by a line and a curve which intersect at a very small angle, and so the
absci ssa. This construction is valid even though it is performed on the log-time graph, exa.:t position is not ea~y to identify.
pro,·ided that the general form is similar to the theoretical curve in Fig. 14.7. When starting to perform com ('l Hdation te~ts, or when testing ~!: unknown so il for the
668 OEDO~1ETER CO:-;SO UDA T10 'l TESTS 14.3 CO'lSOUDATION TH EORY 669

ol K • The coefficient c" is usually expressed in square metres per year (m2/year). so if h is
measun:o in U"l.111 ana ( in minules

~ linear section of theoretical curo.o e

0.197 x C~)'
"" ~ ,;r; :iff,JL
2 100
C" = t",
x 60 X 24 x 365.25

c
~
0.1036h'm'/yea r
.2 50
a
52·6% ~ t",
(14.14)
'2
"0
~
c
~ In the standard oedometer consolidation test wirh double drainage (Section 14.5) the
height H of the specimen is equal to 2h, so Equation (14.14) becomes, for practical
a
v ~ purposes, .) 0 2. ~ J
~ ,
90 1A
/

B . =
o.@H'
. rn 2/year
Cv (14.15)
~ ~ ("
100
0r;; 0 j O' 8,a 0 0·921 where His the mean specimen height during the load in crement, measured in mm, and Iso is
measured in minutes.
yr:
"
0 j'ff ,..2Q.
----r- 100
0 079B If I'jf) from the square-rool-plot is used instead of !'JO' Equation (14.13) becomes

~ 0921 1.155
AS 0798 To h'
Cv = ~ h 2 = 0.848 x -
190 1'J()
Fig. J 4.11 Deri\·alion a/sQuare-rool lime graphical analysis proCedlllf!
Equation (14.14) is then
first time, it is useful to plot both types of graph concurrently on separate sheets, using the
same vertical scale of settlement readings for both. It can then be decided which type of 0.446 h'
Cv =
graph is preferable or whether both should continue to be plotted. t",
Tests on some soils may give curves which differ too much from the theorvtical curves for
the principles referred to above to be directly applicable . The analysis then departs and in terms of H
somewhat from the conventional procedures given in Section 14.5. 6, item (1). Suggested
procedures for silty soils are given in that section under items (2) and (3), and for
unsaturated clays under item (4). The analysis for peats is given in Section 14.6.4. c• -t",- H'-
= 0.112 (14.16)

14.3.8 Coefficient of Consolidation

It is preferable to calculate Cv from Iso rather than from 190 because the middle of th e
When the actual time I for a given percentage of primary consolidation is known for a laboratory settlement curve is the portion which agrees most closely with the theoretical
particular load increment of the test, Eq uation 04.8) can be used to determine the curve.
coefficient of consolidation for that load increment by re-writing it as Typical values of the coefficient of consolipation as derived from oedometer tests on
spec imens of uniform soil, related to their approximate plasticity ranges, are indicated in
Table 14.6 (Section 14.4.5).
Cv
T.
= _h 2 (14.12)
t
14.3.9 Voids Ratio
If t !O ' corresponding to 500;'0 primary consolidation (U = 500/0), is used, the theoretical time
factor T,. = 0.197, from Table 14.2. Therefore from Equation (14.12) The terms voids ratio and degree of saturation, and the relationship between them and
moisture content and dry density. are explained in Volume J, Section 3.3.2. The following
equations derived there arc relevanlto the consolidation test.
C
r
= T~\) h2 = 0.197 x h' (14.1) )
tw [~

where h is the length of the maximum drainage path. VOl'd S ratio

' e = ( Po
G, ) - 1 (14.17)
 - -..
\,/0 Oi:DO \ IETER CO=" SOLlUA I IO >~ 1 E~15 14.3 LO;"; ~ OLIDA,.110:\i THiORY 671

h' X Gs The first is rarely used. The second is normally calculated for each load increment and
Degree of saturation S = --e- x 100070 (14.18) values ar~ prrsented as part of th~ r~ stl l ts of a labor:ltory consolidation test. The third rr:.Jy
be derived by the engineer from the e/log p curve, or empirically, but its determination is
where G~ = specific gravity of soil panicles not usually considered to be part of the laboratory test. The coefficient m" is generally
PD = dry density of soil (Mg/ m') applied to overconsolidated clays and Cc to normally consolidated clays.
w- = moisture COnlent of soil (0;0) Mother coefficient, the swell index CSt gives an indication of the expansion of a soil on
unloading.
The volume change which occurs during consolidation takes place only in the voids. The
change in height, Mi, from an initial height H o, Fig. 14.12, corresponds to a change in COEFFICIENT OF COMPRESSIBILITY
voids ratio!J.e from an initial voids ratio t'o. For a particular load increment this is equal to the change in voids ratio 6e for that
The change in voids ratio denoted by !le, and the change in height denoted by ill, refer increment, divided by the incremental pressure 6p.
to the overall change of e and of H, with respect to the initial values, eo and Ho. The actual The change in voids ratio denoted by 6e. and the change in pressure denoted by op, refer
change in height of the specimen is the measu red settlement less the correction for to incremental changes, that is the change with respect to the immediately preceding values
deformation of the apparatus (Section 14.5.6, item (5)). Therefore, by proportion of e and p, as distinct from cumulative changes related to initial conditions denoted by !:J!
and!J.p referred to in Section 14.3.9.
llH Ile
-=--
Ho 1 + eo e2 - e j oe
0, = -- - - (14.22)
op op
1 + eo
i.e. Ile = - -
Ho
llH (14.19)
G re e, and e, are the voids ratios at the beginning and end of consolidation under
mcrement, respectively. The negative sign appears because e decreases asp increases.
\ th~oad
or Ile = F llH (14.20) The coefficient a" is equal to the (negative) slope of the voids ratio/ pressure curve (Fig.
14.13) assuming it is linear over the pressure increment range. ThEj units are the reciprocal
where F is a coefficient having the dimension mm-l, relating the change in voids ratio to of the stress units, i.e. m2/ kN in customary 51 units.
change in height, and depending only on the initial conditions of the test speci men.
Wh ~n the ir.i rial voids ratio eo is known, the vuiJs ratio e at any stage of the test can be COEFfICIENT OF VOLUME COMPRESSlBlLITY
calculated from the change in height by using Equation (14.20), and then using the equation
A more useful parameter than a" is one which indicates the compressibility per unit
e=eo-!:J! (14.21) thickness of the soil. This is known as coefficient of volume compressibility or sometimes

A graph of voids ratio e against applied pressure p (to a log scale), known as the e/ log p ,
curve, can then be drawn as in Fig. 14.40 (Section 14.5.7). (1.~
e.1.' e) -- /

"t~ '"~
()

14.3.10 Compressibility Coefficients voids . , s lope - av = e} 6pez (1

rat i o 1'1.
Three coefficients which are derived from consolidation tests to indicate the compressibility
of soils, from which an estimate of the amount of settlement due to primary consolidation " "2
can be made, are: bp I l inE>ar range
Coefficient of compressibility, a"
Coefficient of volume compressibility, m"
Compression index, Cc
E>a - £>b

6H,-L':'" _ _ _ _ ...J be j = Ce

~
I
I voi ds )"--,-
i eo
, "b

,///... ~//0~:
/.%//
one log eyel£>
H•.
//),70:/// /
, .- > so lI d /' ' /
Po lOPa
J r / / ,/.- -' ",... / .._ _---L p r£>ssur p p ( log sca le)

Fig. 14. 12 Representation oJlIoids ralio change Fig. 14.13 Log·pressure/ voids ralio curve (e / log p curve)

1,.
 OEI _ TER OU! )N T' C( ,IDA THE :;73

:.... i he modulus of volume change. It is deoored by mi' and is defined by the equation T ll bl~ 14.3. U~ITS FOR PERMEABILITY RELATlOl'\SH! P

=- a
-'- = - - ( - -6e) I
Symf>nf Practical ConsisleN lifrllriplying
m, (1423) unit unit foctor
I + el I + el \ 6p (I) (2) (3) (4)

L",
::t"
'e e, is the VOIds ralio at the start of the load increme~The
umls are the same as for
bu t are usually muluplied by I(XX) to express m." in m I MN so as to aVOid inconveOiently
k

c,
ml ,

m 2/year
mi.

m 2/s (365 .25 x 24 x 3600) - 1

5;11311 numerical values. Therefore,
m, m2/ MN m21 N 10- 6

m,
1000
1 + el (- :;) m'/ MN (14,24) P. Mg/ ml kgiml 10l (P ... = 1 Mg/ml)

g m /s 2 m /s2 I (g = 9.81 m /s 2)
If op is measured in kN / m • 2
c~ x my x P ... x g = k
The values of m~ calculated for each load increment of the consolidation test are the
i['ooratory values and should be reported as such. (See Section 14.3.14). m2 m1 kg m
Some typical values o f the coefficient of volume compressibility for a number of types of
':iay are given in Table 14.5, Section 14.5 .5. A similar coefficient, related to swelling, may
I
j
- x -
s N mJ
x ~ x -
s2
= m /s (since N = kgm/s2)

he ob tained from the unloading curve.

COM PRESS ION INDEX

I The practical units normally used are shown in column (2) of Table 14.3, and the units
required to make the above equation consistent in colwnn (3). Multiplying factors are
shown in column (4). Therefore in terms of practical units,
r he compression index, Cr. is equal to the slope of the field consolidation curve ploned to a
iogarithm ic scale of pressure p. in the linear range. This straight line is represented by the
::qua tion:
k _ (
-
c,
365.25 x 24 x 3600
) (mI~ ) ( I x 10') x 9,81 ml s

e = eo _ C, log '0 Po- +- 6p (14.25) C" mi' x 0.3109 x lQ"4 m/ s

Po
or for practical purposes
i': umericaJly, Cr is equal to the change in voids ratio for one log cycle of pressure change, as
)ilow n in Fi g. 14.13. It is a dimensionless number. k = cy my x 0.31 x 10- 9 m l s (14.19)
The compression index has been found to be related to the liquid limit of clay to a
rt."asanable degree o f approximation by the equation if c" is expressed in m 2 / year and m yis expressed in m2 / MN.

C, = 0.009 (LL - 10%) (14.26) 14.3.12 Compression Ratios

(Skemplon 1944), subject to the lim itation s referred to in Section 14.4.4. The relative magnitudes of the three phases of consolidation, described in Section 14.3.6,
Fo r a remoulded clay the corresponding compression index C r' is given approximately by can be expressed in terms of compression ralios, designated as follows.
' he equation Initial compression ratio: '0
Primary compression ratio: 'p.
C: = 0.007 (LL - 10'10 ) (14.27) Secondary compression ratio: 's
The symbols used to represent compression gauge readings at various time intervals from
V:EL L INDEX the start of a ~on s olidation stage a:e listed in Table 14.4. The footno~e ex~lains the two
!'he swell index, CSt is equal to the slope of the swelling (unloading) curve of e plotted symbo ls that differ from those used 10 the BS. '1 r Co
<o..;a:!1S1 log p. It is obtained in a similar manner to the compression index. Its value also The total observed compression during a loading increment, after ' allowing for the
;:'ICI ~ ases with in creas ing liquid limit. deformation of Ihe apparatus (Seclion 14.5.6, ilem (5», is (d, - d/). The compression
ratios are the proportions of this amount contributed by each of the phases of
• "-:' .3. 11 Coe ffident of Permeability conso lidation and are calculated as follows. They are illustrated in Fig. 14.9 .

,1-'c:1 the parameters c,.and m\. have been ob tai ned it is possible to calculate the coefficient of .. I .. de - do
Imua compreSSlOn rallO: ro = - - - (14.30)
:.!il'i.:ability, k, by using Equation (14.5), whic h can be re·wriuen d c - d, :'"

k = c\ m,.p .. _g (14.28) • Referred to earlier as ';'Irimary cl,)nsolidation ratio ' but the term i nolo~y used here is as in BS 1377 : 1975.

\
67' OE[''' ... .(r:TER rr."-'<' oup "'TI'1N TF<':'T<;: CC' '......... IDA..... T.- '· THEr .... " 75
~

·d o - d ,oo time (log scole)

Primary compression ratio: (14.31)
fp =
d, - dj I ~
"0,
! !
•
o r r -10- xdo--- d"
- . (14.32) I I
9 d,-dj p- ,

(if calculated from d9(J on square·root-time plot) initial he-ight

01 spec i men I one log cyc le
d100 - df :: Ho
Secondary compression ratio: r,
d, - dj r: " (14.33)
c
c
o
or 's = J - (rQ + fp) (14.34) ~
~

•
c
The compression ratios are dimensionless numbers and are usually reported to the second "-
E
o

l
decimal place (or the nearest whole number if expressed as percentages). The sum of the u
three is equal to 1 (or lOOOJa).
For most inorganic clays the primary compression ratio fp is by far the largest of the three.

14.3.13 Secondary Compression

coeffic ient of secondary compression

Secondary compression effects are often disregarded for inorganic clays, in which the (SH)</ (OH)s
CO( =
primary consolidation phase is responsible for the majority of settlement. However, 7 H. H.
secondary compression is a much more significant factor in the settlement of organic soils, 6 (log.' )
especially peats, and increases as the applied load increases.
The estimation of settlements due to secondary compression is less reliable than that Fig. 14.14 Determination of coefficient of secondary compression Cex
based on primary consolidation. Secondary compression is conventionally considered to
start immediately after the end of the primary consolidation phase, although in fact there is secondary compression graph is extended so that it covers one complete cycle of log time,
some overlap. Secondary compression is usually ~\'ident as a linear relationship on a iog~
i
and the compression gauge readings at the beginning and end of the cycle (e.g. at 1000 and
time settlement plot, as shown by EF in Fig. 14.9. The coefficient of secondary
compression Cu. on which calculations are based, is equal to the slope of this line in terms
of strain per log cycle of time. It is a dimensionless number.
I
I
10,000 min) are noted. If the change in height of the specimen is (6H)s mm over one log
cycle. and H mm is the initial height of the test specimen, the coefficient of secondary
Q

compression is given by the equation

A graphical method for determining C" is shown in Fig. 14.14. The linear portion of the
Co = (oli), (14.34)
Table 14.4. SYMBOLS REPRESENTING GAUGE READINGS AT VARIOUS TIMES Ho
Gauge reading Symbol It may be multiplied by 100 to express it as a percentage.
Initial reading for load increment
(zero time)
d, (-) . \ The value of C a has been found to be independent of applied stress for inorganic clays
loaded above the pre-consolidated pressure. But for highly organic soils and peats the value
tends to increase with increased applied stress. The ranges of typical values of Ca are given
Initial reading corrected for
deformation of apparatus

Corrected zero point -

0010 primary consolidation
d,

do
(do) ..

(ds ) • I
t
in Table 14.7, Section 14.4.5.

14.3.14 Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated clays

When considering their consolidation properties, naturally occurring clays may be divided
50llJo primary c~nsolidatjon dso into two main types.
90010 primary consolidation d"
(1) Normally consolidated clays.
(2) Overconsolidated clays.
100010 primary consolidation d,oo
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Final reading
(end of increment)
df
[ These are clays which have never been subjected to an effective stress greater than the
• Tll~ ~ymb"lf if) bmchls ar e rho , < used in BS 1,17 : 19?~ . SeeliQn ~. 2.4 4. bul i, ''''' msmQfe COn~i~ler\\ l() u!t dOfor 0", pt,mary c011 >olid at ion
I present effective overburden pressure. They are usually soft for a considerable depth.
The BS d ocs n;::.; ind" Je ~ f)'m ba! ~qu 'va lcn \!O ai. ,,'hkh, uC~pt fOf th. fi rM in"tmt nt. i~ th~ Um~ a. d/ fro m \he pr~\' i('Oul in" em~n\.

I Examples are geologically recent alluvial deposits from \. . hich no subsequent overburden

t
 0 _ __ IETE "SOL
has been :emo\"cd. Sedi ment s which are still in the process of being formed, such as very
re"ent marine or estuarine muds, and tailings in settling ponds, could be described as
'undercon~oiidated' .
Normally consolidated clays are sensitive to the effects of disturbance , which can
influence the relationship between voids ratio and pressure derived from a consolidation
test. Hence the need for extreme care in the preparation or lest specimens.
The effect of sample disturbance on the ellogp curve is illustrated in Fig. 14.15, in which
the line A represents the field loading curve (virgin compression curve) for the natural soil
in-situ. Curve B indicates the form of the 'ideal' loading curve for a truly undisturbed
sample. The solid curve C is typical of a laboratory test curve for an undisturbed sample of
average quality. This becomes linear as it converges towards the line A. The dashed curve D
represents a test on a completely remoulded clay.
Because there is a difference between the field curve and a typical laboratory curve, the
values of mycalculated from a laboratory test (Section 14 .3.10) usually differ from the field
values on which settlement computations are based. They must therefore be referred to as
laboratory values.
The field loading curve can be derived from the laboratory curve by seve ral procedures
(for instance Schmertmann (1953», but this forms part of the engineering analysis and is
beyond the scope of this book. The analysis relies on there being sufficient load increment s
in the laboratory test to obtain three points in a straight line on the ellog P curve. The
specific gravi ty of soil particles should be measured and the Atterberg limits determined as
a cross check on the compression index Cc (Section 14.3.10).
QVERCONSOLIDATED CLAYS (precompressed clays)
These are clays which in the past have been subjected to a pressure greater than the present
overb urden pressure. This may be due to the clay having been covered either by deposits of
soi l or rock, perhaps several kilometres thick, which were subsequently eroded away in the
ION I C< LID.' THI :;:"
course o f geological lime: 01 by great thick.nesses of i.:-e during peri ods of glaciatio n. O\'eT ~
consolidation is the result of a reduction in effective presst:rt!, which can also be caused by 3.
ri ~e in the grou nd water table. Weathering i£'.nd partia l dr~'i!"'~ :;:a,re other factor!: !h~! ': ~:1
I' produce an effect of preconsolidation. Overconsolidated clays are often stiff or hard , but
they can be softer if the excess pressure was small. Th ey swell and soften readily when
allowed free access to water, but if restrained from swelling they can exert consi derabl:!
swelling press ures.
The maximum previous effective stress to which the soil has been subjected is kn own a~
the preconsolidation pressure, and is denoted by PC' The ratio of the preconsoli dat ion
pressure to the existing effective pressure Po is known as the overconsolidation ratio (O CR),
i.e.
OCR ~ p ,
p,
OverconsoJidated clays are less sensitive to mechanical di st urbance than softer, normail y
consolidated clays, but they are susceptible to the effects of stress reli ef resulting from the
removal of the sample from the ground. This is especially true for fiss ured clays.
The process of overconsolidation can be illustrated by the el log P curves in Fig. 14.16.
The line ABCH represents the virgin compression curve in situ as the clay was consolid ated
under the pressure of superimposed deposits. The maximum press ure reached was Pc>
represented by the point C. Erosion of part of the overburden or removal of ice during the
course of geological time reduced the press ure to Po, the present overburden pressure.
Swelling occurred alo ng the unloading curve CDE to [he poin t E, where the OCR is equal to
pclPo' If the clay is now re~loaded by the imposit ion o f foun dation loads it will r e~
consolidate along a new field curve EFG. Initially this curve is much flatt er than the virgi n
I curve (i.e. the clay now has a much lower compressibility), bllt it be~ornes much Sleep"?!' (~~ '"
clay becomes more compressible) if a pressure equal to Pc is reached, and it then appr oJ.che ~

'-
""~ __ '- \
! the virgin curve at H.
Removing a sample from the ground and setting it up for a consolidation test withom
access to water unloads the sam ple to a very small press ure represented by the point K, with
eo I A t ie\d lin e
no change in the voids ratio. The tendency to swell when water is added to the oed ome!er
cell is resisted by applying the swelling press ure or equilibrium load, Ps, denoted by the
voi ds point L. A laboratory consolidation tes t then gives the dashed curve LM N, altho ugh in
ratio "'" B

___ C
id eal undistu rbed

typ ica l sample

many cases the test would terminate at a point M where the pJessure is appreciab ly less th an
Pc, due to limitations of the capacity of the apparatus.
\ The laboratory curve LMN is quite different in form from the field curve EFG.
'Y \ ' \0 re moulded However, the laboratory curve can be used to derive the preconsolidation pressure Pc and
the overconsolidation ratio, using the procedure devised by Casagrande (1936). There arc
also recognised procedures, such as those due to Schmertmann (1 954) and Leonards (1 962),
among others, which enable the field consolidation curve 10 be const ructed. These
\ . procedures are part of the engineering ana1ysis and therefore beyond the scope of th is

\\ \ .
book. They require certain data from the laboratory whic h are listed in Section 14.6.5.

14.3.15 Swelling Characteristics

\~ Swelling is the reverse of the consolidation process; it is the increase in volume of a soil due
to absorpti on of water within the void s wh en the applied stress is reduced . It i~ represel1!cd
by the unloading curve (also known as a decompression curve) marked MNP in Fig. 14.1 7.
The compression due to consolidation is never fully recoverable on unloading and a Joad -
log pressur e-
Po unload ~ rel oad cycle produces a hysteresis loop of the form denoted by LMNPQR in Fip:
Fig. 14. 15 E.(fcc/ oj d:SlUrba!l ce on el log p curve for norma/~v
14.1 7.
con5{;ildar~d dey Swelling occurs when overconsolidaled cla ys are allowed free (l.CCe5S !O Waler on
 010 , TH SOLl ~!'J 1 CC - IDA .. · .. ·· TlIE .. ·· · ' 79 ,
\A 14.3.16 Temperature

"O ' CS
rat i O
t
r 1---__
K
\
',r .--...---__ / virgin co mpreSS ion li ne
.
geological unloading
The rate of c~::s:)lidatjon of clay depend') upc n ils (,0mpressibilit)' a:-:.':i :!~ p~r rr.:2..::i!ity. Th e
latter is related not only to the size of the pores but also 10 the. viscosity of the wafer in the

•
I I ''-
,......,
, ~ -- '~
--- ...-
_____ fi€'ld re>-lood:ng curve
curve pore spaces (Table 14.1). Viscosity depends on temperature (Volume J, Table 4.10), and the
viscosity of water at 3S oC is about half that at soc. The coefficient of consolidation, from
which the rate of consolidation is evaluated, is therefore dependent on temperature.
Consolidation tests are usually carried out at an ambient laboratory temperature of
I I
010
" '----0""" I c~or ctory test
....... ./'
20- 2S °C. The average temperature of soil in situ in Great Britain is around lO oC, and a
temperature correction to laboratory test data may be appropriate before applying them to
QI I ~I M'" // curve
field conditions. The correction factor graphs given in as 1377: 1975, and reproduced in
~I ~I "'vI \ Fig. 14.18, provide a convenient way of doing this. These curves may also be used to

~I ~I 1'" ' convert laboratory test results [Q standard 20°C values, when the laboratory' tes t has been
carried out at a significantly different temperature.
rl ~I
=I.n
I '-.\
'-. '
Although an increase in temperature increases the rate of consolidation, it does not affect
the amount of consolidation during the primary stage, but it can increase the amount of
~I
III
~I
0 1
II N,,~H secondary compression. This is probably negligible for inorganic soils, but it can be more
significant for organic soils, especially peats.
For the above reasons it is good practice to maintain continuous records of laboratory
Ps P, Pc temperature adjacent to oedorneter presses throughout the duration of consolidation tests.
pressu re (lo g sca le) However , corrections for temperature are normally made more for the standardisation of
Fig. 14.16 Effect of o verconsolidafion on e/ log p curve results than for the apparent increase in accuracy of ell values, which in any case are little
more than an indication of an order of magnitude.

14,3.17 Voids Ratio of Peat

voids
r at;o "- For the calculation of voids ratios of peats from Equation (14 .17), the specific gravity
e
" / f iel d curve should be determined with a reasonable degree of accuracy, bt'causc it is more variable than
L

" " '(" / ' /'/

aboratory curve-
init i al l oad in g
that of mineral soils, ranging from about 1.S to 2.S. Direct measurement by the density
bottle method requir.es the use of kerosene (Volume 1, Section 3.6.2L and can be difficult
and time-consuming. A preferable method when a large number of peat samples is being
/ unload in g
p, // (swe> lIi ng) 35 I ,-" , - - r : \ " \ . -,------,

I I
I \'-I~+. .\~_.\iL>\ __ f. . _
./'/
.~ __ _ _ re-Ioad ing \J ~vf:'rog (" t("mpe-ro~ur("

' ", u
30 of soil in! situ I(. C)
'::-., ~ i n ol un loading 25

" ---- R\ ~ 20
2
0
~ 15
0-
;>ressure (log sca le) E
2! 10
Fig. 14,17 Unloading and re-/ooding in oedomeler test
;;;
unloading because of their great affinity fo r water , An overconsolidated clay when -• 5
unloaded possesses very high suction tensi o ns within Ihe soil skeleion , These draw water o t '> '> ...... i ...... 1 --....,
into the voids causi ng the \'olume of voids to increase and the soil to swell, and eventually
- often rapidly - to disintegrate. However, swelling can be prevented by constraining the 0, 4 O~ oa ,,0 ',2 "4 ,, 6 ,·8 2'0
clay to mainrain its original vol ume. The pressure required to pre\'ent swelling is known as cOTrf:'ction foet or
the swelling pressure, and can be appreci ab le. In very heavily oyerconsolidated clays the Fig, 14.18 Correction factors for coefficient of consolidation (based on
author has measured swelling pressures of well O\·er I i\1N / m". ! Fig, 43 of BS 1377,: 1975, by kind permission of BSl)

l
6., OCl~ -ER (
t~!. led
is 10 ;n<l. ke no;: e I) { th:..' loss on j g n ~ li o n (Volume I. Sl'l;lion 5.7.1) as ~n index propcfly
which can be rdated i ,J organic contenl and specific gravity, as outlined below.
The re!z!ic!"!~h!~ be!UI ,=,~!'l "::,c..:ifiC' gravity <:l nd '" ~;..n~c L:t)ntent o f !)eiJIY ~oi! s. w~s s!3ted by
Skempton and Petley (1970) as follows:
G = -;-:::------,G,;:,-,:-=-G!::-p-----::-
(G, - Gp)P + Gp
in which G :::: mean specific gravity o[peat sample
Gs = specific gravity of mineral particles
Gp = specific gra\'ity of organic matter
P = proportion of organic matter by dry mass
For most practical purposes it can be assumed that the organic maner content is equal to
the loss on ignition if a furnace temperature of 550°C is used (Skcrnpton and Petley (1970),
ignoring their co rrection factor of 1.04). Thus P is approximately equal to N l lOO, where N
is the ignition loss expressed as a percentage.
The specific gravity of mineral soi l particles is usually about 2.7 and that of organic
matter is typically 1.4. Substituting these values in Equation (14.37), the rnean specific
gravity, G, of a peat sample can be obtained from the ignition loss, NOlo, by using the
equation
3.78
G=
( L3X~)+I.4 100
Nevertheless, a few check tests ~y the direct method should be done to confirm this
relationship.
14.4 APPLICATIONS
14.4.1 Foundations for structures
Consolidation tests are carried out on specimens prepared from undisturbed samples taken
from clay strata not only from immediately below the foundation level but also from
considerable depth. Data obtained from these tests, together with classification data and a
knowledge of the loading history of the clay, enable estimates to be made of the behaviour
of foundations, as outlined below.
(I) The amount of settlement which will ultimately take place for the structure as a whole
can be calculated. (See, for instance, Terzaghi (1939); MacDonald and Skempton (1955);
SkemplOn and Bjerum (1957).
(2) Variations in long-term settle:nents between individual footings can be estimaled.
Differential settlements are usually more critica l than the overall settlement , and mus t be
kept within limits to a\'oid structural damage (Skempton, 1956).
l3) Non~uniform ground (onditions can cause differential settlements which re sult in
tilting of the structure as a whole and distonions with in the structure. Analysis based o n
proper investigation and testing can guard against this occurrence.
The most famous example of tilting is the campanile tower (the 'leaning tower') in the
Ilalian city of Pi \a. which \\ a~ bui lt during the twelfth century and is still settling (Terzaghi,
1934; \1 itchei!, \,i\'<ll r:'H and La mbe, 1977).
:)ut: ..
.'.. ' 'I- r :\PP ' -. ":'10 :\" "·1
(";) The sett lement of piled foundati o ns due to the pre ~ e nc e of a de~j)~<; eated stratum of
comrressible clay can be estimated.
~5) T~€' ~r!",r~lxim;Ht' rale ('of ':('i·,.~t)li(j(l.lion can he estimated, from which it can :e :; :;;:~:::
whether settlements will be substantially completed during the construction period or
whether appreciable seulements will continue and, jf so, for how long after completion of
(14.37) construction. (But this information must be used with caution - see Section 14.4.4).
(6) If long-term settlements are indicated, a settlement/time graph can be drawn to show
the duration of the significa nt part of the settlements, which can be compared with the
economic life of the structure.
(7) From the seltlementlt ime relationships it can be ascertained whether unacceptable
differential settlements are likely to develop, either in the long term or at any time during or
after the construction period.
14.4.2 Soft Ground and Fill
Soft soils, such as alluvial silts and clays, are [00 weak to carry any bu t the lightest of
foundation loads unless the shear strength is first increased by consolidation, which can be
effected by pre-loading the ground with a surcharge of temporary fill. Laboratory
consolidation tests can be used to estimate the extent of the resulting sett lement, but the
rate of settlement is usually under-estimated. (See Section 14.4.4). Field tests are more
reliable for indicating whether provision of means for accelerating the consolidation, such
as the installation of sand drains, is justifiable.
Fill placed on soft ground prior to construction will cause the soft strata to consolidate,
(14.38)
and settlement of the fill may continue for a long period . If piles are dri\'en through the soft
material to transmit the building loads to a deeper firm stratum , continued downward
movement of both the fill and the soft layer could throw additional loads on to the piles due
!o ':1e:;a!i\'~ skin friction'. Knu'.d~ge of the ccnsolidation characteristics pro vid'='lJ a bas is
for safeguarding against overloading of piles due to this effect.
An embankment or earth darn consolidates under its own weight and the resulting
increase in effective strength is made use of in the analysis of its long-term stability. The
same applies to the soil st rata beneath the embankment or dam.
Estimates of the amount and rate of consolidation of peat are possible from laboratory
teSts. But because of the relatively high proportions of both initial and secondary
corn pression which occurs in peat, these estimates are more approximate than those made
for inorganic soils and a different approach is used (Section 14.6.4).
,
14.4.3 Effect of Ground Water
Consolidation can take place in clay as a result of lowering the ground water table, because
the effective stress is thereby increased. A fall of I m in the ground water level will increase
the effective stress in the whole of the clay deposit beneath the water table by about
to ,':£k?:kN /m~. The amount of consolidation depends on the change of effective st ress in the
'<sorf, and setrlements due to dc-watering can be estimated from laboratory tests in the same
way as those due to loading.
14.4,4 Limitations and AdYan1ages
I Although more sophisticated consolidation tests using larger samples are now available, the
laboratory oedometer test is still recogni sed as the standard test for determining the
I• consolidation characteristics of homogeneous clays. In general, for inorganic clays the test
pro\'ide s a reason able estima te of the amo unt of settlement. Ho wever, the rate of
s ~ a lern"nt is ohen under-estimated, that is, a gi\en percent a£t' of Ihe ultimate
 OFr.r., 1ETEo rr.'..;'SOL"" ·"!ON ..,.. ........ ~)
AP i .TIO;
-. - -- -
J3
i .. cl..'! Ja! ly rcarhed in a shorter time than that predicted from the le!>t data
CO lhO Ii.:I :IlIC'll
1~.4.5 T )'pical Values of Consolidation Codficiellis
using the theor y of comolidation . This effect is largely due to limitations imposed by the
small size of the specimen. which make it impracticab le to represent many of the n'l.tHrai The- range ':. · f \I(1111t's of th~ coefficient of volume cOr!':pressibility (Ii:,.) fer typical l)riti~h
features such as laminations, iissures, ano other discontinuities (collectively referred to as soils , classified on the basis of compressibility. are given in Table 14.5. This coefficient is
the soil fabric), and their profound effect on drainage conditions. (Rowe, 1972). The most usua lly applied to overconsolidated clays.
reliable means of obtaining c~ values, on which calculations for the rate of settlement are The usual range of values of the coefficient of consolidation (c.,) obtained from
based, is to determine m \l from laboratOry oedometer consolidation tests and to measure laborato ry oedometer tests is indicated in Table 14.6, together with values of the
the permeability, k, in the field, and then to use Equation 14.29 to calculate C\I' -
compressio n index, Cc • Skempton's empirical equation (Equation (14.26) relating Cc to the
Attempts- are so metimes made to take horizontal drainage into account in oedometer liquid limit of normally consolidated clays does not apply 10 highly organic clays or where
consolidation tests, either by fitting a pervious lining inside the sampling ring and sealing the Ll exceeds 1000/0 or where the natural moi ~ture content exceeds the LL. The coefficient
the specimen ends (Fig. 14.19 (a), or by trimming a speci men in a vertical plane (Fig. 14. 19 Cc is usually applied t6 normalliconsoiidated clays,
(b». Neither method is as satisfactory as testing larger specimens under hydraulic loading in Some typical values of the coefficient of secondary compression C are given in Table Q
a cell designed for the provision of horizontal drainage (Rowe, 1966). This type of test will 14.7.
be covered in Volume 3.
Another limitation of the test is that there is no means of measuring excess pore
Table 14.5. SOME TYPICAL VALUES OF COEFFJCIENT OF VOLUME COMPRESSIBILITY
pressures, the dissipation of which controls the consolidation process. The extent of
consolidation is based solely on measurements of the change in height of the specimen . Descriprion of Coefficienr of volume Clay types
However, the limitations referred to above are frequently outweighed by the practical compressibility compressibility, m.
advantages of th e test, which may be summarised as follows . (m2/MN)

(I) The procedure and calibrations have been standardised so that they are straightforward Very high Above 1.5 Very organic alluvial
clays and peats
and can be easily reproduced.
(2) The test provides a reasonable indication of the amount of settlement if the results are High 0.3 - 1.5 Normally consolidated
properly interpreted. alluvial clays (e.g.
estuarine clays)
(3) The test is applicable to a wide range of soil types; silts and peats, as well as clays.
Medium 0,]-0.3 Flu\lio-glacia] clays
(4) Tests can be carried out on undisturbed specimens trimmed from standard 100 mm I Lake clays
diameter tube or piston samples. I Lipper ' blue' and wt:<ilheled
'brown' London Clay
(5) Several tests can be conveniently run simultaneously in a row of adjacent oedometer
presses. -t Low 0,05 -0, ] Boulder clays
Very stiff or hard
(6) Because of the relatively small specimen thickness, testing limes are not excessively
'blue' London Clay
long. One day for each stage is normal, and a load/ unload cycle is usually completed within
two weeks . Very [ow Below 0.05 Heavily overconsolidated
'boulder clays'
(7) A test can easily be extended into a long·term test if the secondary compression Stiff weathered rocks
characteristics are required.

U-lOO tube sar-rple Table }4,6. TYPICAL RA.NGE OF VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION AND

~
impE'fvioU5 COMPRESSION INDEX FOR INORGANIC SOILS
perv iou s discs
I;mng~ I
..
Soilrype

8 .
, r·,
......' spec imen (a) -
F -~.j ~~
v
ax is vert ical.
hori zon tal (rad ial) drainag e Clays-mommorillonite
to per iphery high plasticity

-ffi-
~
- · - spec lmen{b)- ax is hor izontal,
hor i zonta l (axial) dra inage
:0 porou s d i scs
I
!
I
medium
plasticity

(sta n dard procedure) low plasticity

Fig. 14 .19 Test specimens to provide horizontal drainage in standard Silts
oedomeler
. ll' T l..4mt-t Br,d Wr..:n'l,n l l r9)
 ( .IETI ~so -ION S cc lOA fES1
T:i\.lle 14.7. T~ PleAL \'f\ LLES OF CO' on com act su rfaces. The compression dial gauge registers thi s deform at ion in addition to
the sett lement of the specimen itself, but the deforma tion occurs as wo n as the load is
S:;i1 type Co ~!1pJied. It can be allowed fer by CI.pplyi!:g ? o:.'?! ibration correctior:.., '.vhi:::h is obtained ~5
Normally consolidated clays 0.005 - 0.02
described in Section 14.7.1. A calibration curve shou ld be obtained for each load frame
before it is put into use. If several load frames of a similar type are found to have very
Very plastic days 0.03 or higher similar calibration curves, a mean curve may be appropriate for all of them.
Calibration corrections are of relatively greate r significance for stiff clays, for which the
Organic days 0.03 or higher
amount of total settlement is small, than for firm or soft clays.
Oyerc:onsoiidated days
(Overconsolidation ralio Less than 0.00 1 SIZE OF SPECIMEN
greater than 2)
The size of the test speci men can influence the results obtained from a consolidati on lest.
from Lambt and Whitman (1979) Id eally the specimen should be as large as possible, so that it can be representative of the
soil fabric as well as the material itself. Large specimens are less susceptible to disturban ce
14.5 CONSOLIDA nON TEST than small ones, and the greater the specimen height the better is the relative accuracy of
settlement readings. However , the effect of side friction between the specimen and
14.5.1 General containing ring increases with the height to diameter ratio (H:D ratio), so this value should
not be too large. For practical reasons the specimen should be of a size suitable for easy
The test which is described in Sections 14.5.3 to 14.5.7 below, generally follows the preparation from standard undisturbed samples.
procedure given in BS 1377: 1975, Test 17. Noles on the ASTM test (Designation 02435) The British Standard specifies a H:D ratio of between 1:3 and 1:4, which provides a
are given separately in Section 14.5.S. The apparatus referred to, incorporating a fixed ring reasonable compromise between the above requirements. The H:D ratio for a specimen 75
type of oedometer cell with a test specimen 75 mm diameter and 20 mm high, is typical of mm diameter and 20 mm high is 1: 3.75 and this size allows a reasonable trimming margin
that which is commercially available in Britain for routine testing in accordance with the from the outer edge of a 100 mm diameter tube or piston sample. The ASTM standard
BS. requires a minimum H:D ratio of 1:2.5 , and specimens not less than 50 mm diameter and
The so il is assu med to be a virtually saturated, normally consolidated inorganic clay, of a 12.5 mm thick. For specimens of about these dimensions, Cooling and Skempton (1941)
consistency ranging from soft to stiff. The procedure also applies to inorganic silty clays showed that observed behaviour agreed closely with that predicted from the Terzaghi
and silts. The specimen is a1lowed to drain freely from the top and bottom surfaces. Special theory, and that the assumptions made were reasonably valid.
procedures fo r other type.;; of soil, including: peats. and for different test conditions, are Some types of loading fram~ can accommod at~ specimens of several different sizes, for
dealt with separately in Section 14.6. which a range of cells and fittings is available. This enables the largest practicable size of
The maximum size of particle in the test specimen should not exceed 2 mm for a specimen
75 mm diameter and 20 mm high. For other specimen dimensions, as a general rule, the
.\ specimen to be used as standard procedure, while providing for the use of smaller
specimens when the size of sample is limited, or when stresses higher than usual are to be
particle size sho uld not exceed one·tenth of the specimen height. applied. It also allows for the testing of specimens conforming to standards prevailing in
In order to carry out the necessary calculations from the test data, the specific gravity of many pans of the world. Some of the recognised specimen sizes are listed in Table 14.8.
the soil grains is required. This should be measured by using the procedure given in
Volume 1, Section 3.6.2 , unless a reliable value can be assumed. For peats this may be 14.5.3 Apparatus for BS Consolidation Test
supplemented by the indirect method given in Section 14 .3. 17.
Analysis of the graphical data obtained from the test is described in Section 14.5.6, using PREPARA TlON OF TEST SPECIMENS
the conventional procedure applicable to clays. The time/s ettlement curves for silty clays
Most of the items listed below are described elsewhere, as indicated.
and silts may depart from the theoretical relation ships, and the analysis of these soils is
presented separately. Peats are dealt with in Section 14.6.4. (I) Flat glass plate, such as is used for the liquid limit test (Volume I, Section 2.6.4).
(2) Cutting tools and straight· edge for specimen trimming (Section 9.1.2).
14.5.2 Features of Apparatus (3) Jig for holding the consolidation ring in place while jacking out the sample from a U·
100 tube (Section 9.2.2 and Fig. 9.16) .
PRESENT DESIGN
(4) Watch glass 100 mm diameter, or metal tray, to hold the consolidation ring .
Several design s o f consolidation cell and loading frame have been introduced in the past ,
(5) Balance, and measuring instruments, for weighing and measuring the specimen and
some of which were referred to ir. Section 14.1.4. Of these the fixed ring cell is the type now
ring (Volume I, Sections 1.2 and 1.3).
generally pre ferred, and a loading yoke arrangement on the loadin g frame virtually
eliminates any tendency towards eccentric loading or side thrust on the specimen as the (6) Apparatus for determining moi sture co nt ent (Volume I , Section 2.5.2).
beam defl ects. Use o f standardi sed equipment is a ma jor facto r in obtaining consistent and
.1 AP PARATUS FOR THE TEST
reproducible results.
DEFORM ATION CHARACTERISTICS I (7) Consolidation cell, consisting of:
(a) Consolidation ring (cutting ring) , 75 mm internal diameter and 20 mm high, o f
When weight s are added to the load hanger of a consolidation pre~s , some deformat ion of
the apparatus is unavoidab le because of t;,e elasticity of the frame itself and bedding effects I stainless steel or plated brass or gunmental, ri gi d, with polished internal surface and a
cuning edge.
 14.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST 687
686 OEDOMETER CONSOLIDATION TESTS
(9) Consolidation press or load frame, the main features of which are as follows:
(t-) C";; :,1'1,;:, ?::d b~'ie (\,Lf:tlf>r(i~. ilt) . (""; RiC;id !:::.::: :::;:porte:! ::-:: ::;-.;:~;:r,;:'i: ::;:=.:-:::.~: !: ~:-~·.'i~! :! '.'~:!':!nien ! ::I2.gn:~·::.. :::~
(c) Consolidation ring retainer and fixing screws or nuts. ratio accurate to within 10/0 .
(d) Loading cap (pressure pad). When working in SI uni ts of pressure, a 9; 1 beam ratio is suitable for a 75 mm specimen
(e) Two porous discs of ceramic ware, sintered bronze or sintered fused aluminium using kilogram weights. Other possibilities are given in Table 14.8.
oxide, and free' draining, with plane upper and lower surfaces. They must be capable of (b) Adjustable counterbalance weight on beam.
withstanding the maximum vertical pressure applied to the specimen. The upper disc (c) Loading yoke assembly, to apply a vertical force to the specimen loading cap through
should be 0.5 mm smaller in diameter than the inside diameter of the ring, and chamfered a spherical seating on the loading stem.
to prevent jamming. The lower disc should be large enough to support the ring. (d) Screw-jack support for beam.
The cell assembly is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 14.3. The separate components can (e) Rigid bed to support consolidation cell.
be seen in Fig. 14.20 (a) and the assemblea cell in Fig. 14.20 (b). (f) Vertical specimen compression movement of at least 15 mm (or at least 75~o of the
The British Standard recommends that a disc of filter paper should be placed between the specimen thickness if greater than 20 mm) .
specimen and each porous disc. The author"prefers to omit filter papers because fine soil (g) Rigid support and mounting for compression gauge.
particles can become enmeshed in the fibres of filter paper, causing clogging of the pores (h) Weight hanger for slotted weights.
and impairing the drainage. However, proper attention must be given to the porous discs. (i) Pan for smaller loose weights.
They should be inspected before each test, to check that they allow free drainage of water. The principle of an oedometer press is shown in Fig . 14.22, and a group of presses in
After each use the discs should be scarified with a bristle or nylon brush, and boiled. Do not operation is shown in Fig. 14.23.
use a metal brush or steel wool. Grinding may be necessary periodically to remove surface
(10) Rigid stand or bench, to which the load frame (or several frames) can be bolted. It is
clogging. Clogged discs were examined by Baracos (1976).
essential to bolt down the back of the frame, to prevent it overturning when the hanger is
(8) Micrometer dial gauge (referred to as the compression gauge), 12 mm travel, graduated fully loaded. The stand or bench must be bolted to the floor, or provided with a shelf on
in 0.002 divisions (readable to 0.001 mm). A 'backward reading' gauge is convenient, i.e. which counterbalance weights can be placed (Fig. 14.24).
one on which the reading increases as the stem is extended, as seen in Fig. 14.21. If a number of frames are mounted on one bench, it must be strong enough to carry the
frames and the full complement of weights without distortion, and must be made secure
against overturning when all frames are fully loaded. The stand or bench should preferably
be placed on a solid floor at ground level, but jf installation on a suspended floor is
~navcH:aoie th! feet should be ph:u;eu 011 ,~" ... -,; ... , ~, ... ,;. ;,) ~ 'i ":'; ;,;g;1!Y ';:OIi';Clltrat~d J.';"~::::
loads on the floor.
(II) Calibrated masses, the exact value of which should be known to an accuracy of I OJo:
Slotted weights 15 no. X 10 kg Separate weights I no. x 500 kg
I no. X 5 kg 2 no. X 100 g
2 no. X 2 kg I no. X 50 g
I no. X I kg I no. X 10 g
When not in use, slotted weights for the load hangers should be stored carefully (see Section

(al .. (b) Tabl.14.8. OEDOMETER SPECIMEN SIZES AND BEA.'1 RATIOS

Fig. 14.20 Typical oedometer consolidation cell: (a) component parts,
(b) assembled cell Specimen Beam Load Stress Typical Stress for Application
ratio maximum J kg
diameter area (kg) s(ress
(mm) (mm2)

50.0 1963 10:1 50 kPa 8 MPa 50 kPa High pr:ssurr (Sf)

50.5 2DOl 10:1 10 5 kgflcm 2 80 kgflcm 2 0.5 kgf/ cm 2 MetriC'trchnical'

6l .5 3167 10:1 1.55 J()(X) lbflft l 103200 Ibflft 2 645 Ibflft 2 ASTM
(2.5 in) (4.909 in 2)

71.4 4004 10: 1 2 0.5 kgflcml 40 kgf/cml 0 .25 kgflcm 2 Merrie 'technical'

75.0 4418 9,t 20 kPa 3.2 MPa 20 kPa 85 1377: J975 (SI)

112.0 9352 10:1 10 kPa 1.6 MPa 10 kPa Large diameter (51)

3 in 7.069 in l JLI JOl b I ton flft 2 16 tonflft2 O.n IOnUft 2 01' o!ete BS
(76. 2) (4561) ( 107.3 kPa) (23.7 kPa)
Fig. 14.21 Dial gauge mounted Jor oedometer consolidation lesl
6t'<~ .R c ....... \ T!( ~"' ''' ST
)1 I) ; LID .' TL:o 'O~f ~, ''' 689
•
I
dH.H go.:. 'J; ~ or·:', E-t

~O'.err"r.
f1
dial gauge f or measuri'-lg se':~ l emfflt c nc r·,' :l.';: !:·.:-Its
';""."J'" ~ ; llc r - __

~
st : .:.nl::r::';
c ons: ruc ted
._.--~ __ Ioading stem & lock-nu t bench
00
_ _ loading yoke __ maximum lever retio
counter~alance
..... eight -..~.
__ c ansolidal ion cell
9:1 10:1 11:1 beam ratios
lock ing screw I 9 ..... cell platform
t t t t====1 -~ mCiximum toad
,1 I r " ~. __ pan for
small (WI! kg)
""" b ea m ..- -; ~ I weights hol d lng- I
I
_..--~__
down counter:>a lance weights
hanger
PIvots ~o l ts '~I on shelf
beam support jock f--=-:=--I i (We kg)
'/~; .' ,'. ,', (.//., . ,-------,
"
r-- _~.:, --~_ welght TO ENSURE STABILITY,
beam fulcr u m bench or L_ _<- hanger
(W x :, ) > ( WH x a)
support frame. L ___. a c
.............. slo tted
yoke bearing' /' weight s

r---lT-
--r::::!:hr--J~
centre of gra .... ity of
count erbalonce w eight s
L - - .-I

Fig. 14.24 Stabiiity requirementsJor oedometer pre~ and bench

a ' b
,- ; - --'- --- .._--- '
Be>am Ratio : 'Yo 8.3.6). Each load frame should be allocated its own set of weights. Small loose weights
Fig. 1·-1.12 General arrangement oj a typicul oedometer press should be kept in a box on the bench beside the load frame.
(12) Stop-clock or timer, readabk 10 I s.
(13) Maximum and minimum thermometer.
(14) Wash-bottle or beaker containing water at room temperature.
(15) Filter papers, Whatman No. 54, 110 mm diameter.
(16) Silicone grease.

14.5.4 Procedural Stages

(1) Prepare and check apparatus.

(2) \Veigh and measure consolidation ri ng.
(3) CUI and trim specimen int o ring.
(4) Determine moi sture content and specific gravity from trimmings.
(5) Weigh specimen in ring.
(6) Assemble specimen in consolidation cell.
(7) Fit cell in load frame.
(8 ) Set up loading yo ke.
(9) Adjust beam.
(10) Sel di a l gauge.
(11) Add first load increment to hanger.
(12) Saturate spedmen.
(13) Apply load to speci men.
FIg. 1~ . 2J Oulomera presses ...... ith ce1l5 under (eST (courtesy Soil (14) Record s.etrlement readings .
."' ft'( h""h'\ L:d., Br(lckl!eil) C 5) PIO! rcadillf<;·
6~) ,Ene.. ~R O LID: TE S . .. eel" ' " I D Ar"" -EST ' 91
(1 6) Decide \\ he:.h e ~ to p r0c(,"t'J to nn( load in crement . l3 \ Cuning 5:pee-ime'!! c.:lld (rimming inro ring
( 7) Appiy neAt load increment. The procedure depends upon the type of sample. and three pos::.i biiities arc described in
(IB) Further loadmg stages. Chap!e~ ~ .
(19) Unload. (I) Preparing an undisturbed specimen from a tube sample (Section 9,2.2).
(20) Plot readings. (2) Cutting an undisturbed specimen from a block sample (Section 9,3.1),
(21) Further unloading stages. (3) Making up a recompacted specimen (Section 9.5.2 or 9.5.4).
(22) Drain cell.
(2"3)Remove specimen. (4) Delermination a/initial moisture content and SG
(24) Weigh specimen.
The trimmings taken from immediately adjacent to the test specimen are placed into one or
(25) Dry and weigh. more moisture content containers. Fit the lid or lids without delay and determine the
(26) Calculate moisture content of specimen. moisture content (w%) of the trimmings by the usual method (Volume I, Section 2.5 .2),
(27) Analyse settlement graphs. (Graphical analysis is described in detail in Section 14.5.6). Some of the trimmed material can be used for the determination of the speci fic gravity of
(2B) Calculate values of e, m,., c,. } the soil particles (Volume I, Section 3.6.2).
(29) Plot voids ratio curve. (Described in Section 14.5.7)
(30) Report results. (5) Weighing specimen
Place the specimen in the consolidation ring on the watch glass or tray, and weigh to the
14.5.5 Test Procedure nearest 0,01 g (m l ). The mass of the specimen, m, is determined from the equation

(I) Preparation oj apparatus m = Inl - (mR + mT) grams

Check that the consolidation ring is clean and not distorted, the inside face is smooth, and
the cuning edge is sharp with no burrs. If the cell body and base are separate components,
ensure that the '0' ring seal is in good condition and fits properly, and apply a little silicone
grease to it before screwin~ the base tight home. Ensure that the cell components are clean
and dry, and assemble them to see that they fit together properly in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. Take care not to damage the cutting edge of the consolidation
ring, Dis·assemble the components and moisten the inside surfaces of the cell body, The
porous discs should be dampened but not saturated, so that they will neither absorb water
from nor lose water to the test specimen . Fit the lower disc into place at the centre of the cell
base.
Check that the beam moves freely and that the weight hanger is fitted to give the required
lever ratio. (See Table 14.8).
With the loading yoke in the vertical position, adjust the counterbalance weight as
necessary so that the beam and hanger assembly is just in balance. Lock the counterbalance
weight in position, and re·check. Ensure that screwed connections on the loading yoke,
weight hanger and gauge support are all tightly secured.
Detailed adjustments and checks will vary with the type of equipment used, and the
manufacturer's instructions should be carefully followed.
(2) Measurernent 0/ consolidation ring "'
Measure the internal diameter of the ring, using internal vernier calipers, to an accuracy of
0,1 mm in twO directions at right angles. The mean di ameter is denoted by D (mm).
Measure the height of the ring ar several poims using a micrometer. to an accuracy of
0,01 mm, Alternatively, the measurements may be made on a flat glass plate using a dial
moun ted on a comparato r st and, The average measurement, ro unded to the nearest
0.1 mm, is the initial specimen height Ho. Weigh the ring to the nearest 0,01 g (mR)'
Lubricate the inner face lightl y with silicone grease, or apply a light coating of PTFE
compound from an aerosol spray can , to minimise side friction. \\'eigh the watch glass or
metal tray to the nearest 0,0 1 g (m T)'
(mR and mTare as measured in stage (2».
(6) Assembly oj consolidation cell
With the lower porous disc located centrally on the base of the cell, lower the consolidation
lin g aud specimen (cutting edge uppermost) centrally on to the disc.
Fit the ring retainer and cell body around the ring so that it is securely held and tighten
the fixing nuts progressively. In some types of cell the body itself acts as the ring retainer.
Place the upper porous disc centrally on top of the specimen, checking that the clearance
is equal all round,
Locate the spigot on the loading cap into the recess in the upper disc, so that the cap fits
centrally _
The British Standard recommends the insertion of a disc of filter paper between each face
of the specimen and the porous di scs. This may be disadvantageous, for the reasons gi ven
in Section 14.5.3, item 7 (e).
(7) Fitting cell in 10adJrame
With the loading yoke swung forward and resting on the beam, place the cell centrally in
position on the platform of the machine base (Fig, 14,22), locating with the spigot if there is
one, An intermediate adaptor may be necessary if a non-standard cell is used. Rai se the
beam to just above the horizontal position and hold it there with the screw jack support. A
small weight (10 g) placed on the top weight pan shou ld be enough to prevent the beam
from 'floating'.
(8) Sell ing lip loading yoke
lift the end of the beam to allow the loading yoke to be ra ised to the \'ertical pos it ion (Fig.
1~,2S ) and adj ust [he loading stem by sc rewing it do wnwards un ti l the end engages closel y
in the recess on the top of the loading cap (Fi g. 14 .26). In some presses a separate ball·
bearing is pro\'ided to tran smi t the load from the stem 10 the cap.
fi l.. : ,,i[D()\fFI ER C\')"'SULlD,'~ 1 10,'" TE~ T::' CO ' ~ "\_' L;n :\l , .... . , jF<:;T
1.1,. :
n -;

1 ,
'Ji=--==1, ~
li D
I' T

II
II slart .
o\~t._ _A

r-- . -~ __
'~t-'~"
' -- -<>---G--<> .• -hQriz.QJl1 .9L __ .

' I
-6 1 ,

Inclinotion OA upwards
'!; 05 downwords

Fig. 14.25 Raising loading yoke inro position Fig. 14,27 Ideal limits of beam inclinarion during a rest

Fig. 14.26 Adjusting beam inclination by turning the loading stem

(9) Adjustments 10 beam

The ideal position fo r the beam initially is to be i!}clined above the horizontal at about the
same angle as it will be below the horizontal at the end of the maximum load increment
(Fig. 14 .27), The exact position is not critical, especially for stiff soils for which the amount
of compression is small, and can be estimated from experience. Inclination adju stment
requires only a small rotation of the loa,ding stem.
Jf a large depression of the beam occurs during a test on a soft soil, the beam can be
rai sed at the end of a loading increment by adjusting the loading stem. Any movement of
the compression dial gauge as a result of this operation should be recorded and accounted
for in th e sub:;(," quent calculations, but it may be possible to re-set the gauge to give the same
reading as before adjustment. After adjustment tighten the locking nut on the stem (Fig,
14.28) and check that contact with the cap is sti ll maintained .
Fig. 14.28 Tigh(ening locking screw on loading stem
should be used (see Section 8.3.2). Adjust first the height of the dial gauge, and then rotate
the dial bezel, so that the gauge reads an exact number of hundreds. The gauge stem should
be near the top end of its travel, but nO[ fully compressed. Thi s reading is the initial zero
reading of the compression gauge, If the screw jack support is wound down slightly for an
instant, a fractional downward indication of the dial gauge confirms that all members of
the assembly are properly seated . Re·adjust the su pport so that the dial gauge reads zero
again.
(II) Addition of weights 10 hanger

( 0 ) Setting dial !wuge Add weights carefully to the load hanger to give the required initial pressure, and remove
the small weight from the top pan. There should ~e liule or no defle'clio n indicated by the
Anach th e cO l"';--I't' .. ,ior. dia! gauge to the arm on the :;uppon post. If the top surface of the compre~sjon gauge bt.'C"3USC the 30Cit io llJll03d is . .:arried by the <.;crew ;;,.-\: k suppOrt.
\''"lad 51 (' lj; i~ fl~: . ~hl.: di~d gJ:Jge sh 0ul J b< fitted Wi1h a ba li am'i l; ir spherical, a flat amil The ir.itial pil.·... sl;rc ~h(J..! ld he apr~opr;ate f(lr the type (If !-:Jil. \ • lues Sl!ggcsted as a
 (;9.1 OElJO\lETE R CO".>OUlJAT lt)" TLSTS 14.!l C0l'SOo....lDA l·tO;-.; TE~ -I i95
general working gu ide are given in Table 14.9, and are based on those given in the BS. Th e Table 14.9. SUGGESTED INITIAL PRESSURES FOR CONSOLlDAT1(;N T EST
symboi !Io: ' iJlukat es the effecti\'e overburdc:1 pressure at the horizon from whir:h the
specimen was taken . COrl5istency of soil Imtlol pressure
Weights should be placed on the hanger systematically. The main (lower) weight pan is Equal to Po' , or swelling pressure.
Stiff
intended for the largest (10 kg) slotted weights and the upper one for smaller slotted weights The nearest pressure on the 'standard'
(5, 2 and I kg). The small pan at the top, if fitted, is intended for small loose weights. The loading sequence (Table 14.12) may be used
suggested disposition of weights for standard loads is summarised in Table 14.10. for convenience

Firm Somewhat less than Po' (or nearest 'standard'

(12) Saluration o/specimen pressure)
Add water at room temperature to the cell, so that the specimen and upper porous disc are
Soh Appreciably less {han Po·; 20 k N / m 2
completely submerged. If a swelling pressure measurement is to be made, start the clock at or less
the same instant and follow the procedure given in Section 14.6.1. Otherwise continue at
stage (13). Very soft, including peat Very low; 6 or 10 kN / m 2• Consolidation
under initial very small load will give
sufficient added strength to prevent
(13) Application of load to specimen
soil squeezing out through clearance
\Vind down the beam support and at the same time start the clock. The compression gauge between ri ng and upper porous disc when
the next increment is added
should indicate an immediate downward movement. If after a time the gauge indicates an
upward movement (swelling), refer to Section 14.6.1 .

(14) Recording settlement readings

Table 14.10. SUGG ESTED DISPOSiTiON OF HA NGER WEIGHTS
Observe the compre ssion gauge readings and the clock, and record the readings on a Beam ratio: 9: 1, Specimen 75 mm diameter
consolidation test form (Fig. 14 .29) at the selected time intervals.
Pressure Tow( Disposition of weights
weights Pon Upper hanger Lower hanger
Consolidation Test Settlement (kN / m 2) (kg) (kg) (kg)
(8)
I e' :- 7~'9 l ~·'·"· 3 j ~""' ''''' 38.24-
I ~,~'.~•• 19·~-iol 0 'NI",~!<-;~.Ii'I' 20 ·1 Jr..", ,,": .3 ._ S,,,,,,'. No._ .~?-_--?~ 3 O.IS 100 + SO
6 0.3 200 + 100
10" 0.5 500
I r: ""'" 1~I"•. k". ~ '" I" •• '" 12 0.6 SOO + 100
ooo!"il~-! ,,"'. ~OC40.,j+-"c~:"":~;:'-""-"::+---' 20' I 1
25 1.2S 200 + SO I
~ 2. ' IJ~ 50 2.5 500 2
121 100 5 2 + 2 +
t1i [toto! 200 10 2 + 2 +
Il i ~' 400 20 2 + 2 + 5 + 10
," 800 40 2 + 2 + S + (3 x 10)
1600 80 2 + 2 + 5+(7x IO) I",
3200 160 2 + 2 + 5 + (IS x 10)
ju J,! • Not consillelll " 'ith doub li ni Kquence > ->- '(:. In
lO I ~.,
" if
'()2~ 86
(;jT7I' ) /J 1
.3)2 !
'914'620
661
i098
1/5 3
/lOS-
1018
m I'ote . Ste Se;:tion S.4.2 rel lfdinllhr lta.k inl of slonod "~i llh LS on .. hanller .
1(;17 ~ t;/
'" 10$ 'KJ 9$"'
~ 1.1$ I

,,.
142 1/ .
~ ~~, /0 7 ,
' 1.'3 lIo·S
1'.6 1120J. '75"
!
I J2]
,
,349 !
I !
.,
J64 1
7"

JJ!i5i 74- I
-
1211

f21xJ --
". I
/161.

I ff, :
19,
i16
Convenient intervals are tho se given in the left-hand half of Table 14.11, which are based
on those given in the BS. These give approximately equal intervals on a log-time scale.
Co rresponding values of square-root -time (minutes) are included and if these are primed on
I ~IIO , 2' .f -{22-!1 5 , 1-'27 375 \ 17'Z 1761 1717 111 r]1S1 /f )) 7 8_' the test form as in Fig. 14.29 it facilitates plotting the square-root-time graph .
• 770 ;2i7 • i ;UJ I T'f , i I
;' i ,•• ~ J' .O f~~:I.zf 7i;i: ii4- )14. il'() ,7,}3 .jJj 1J3Q ~ ~y~~ Q1!~J'!-'~JJ!.:Hd G),IO ! 7(.3 An altern ative series of time intervals, which provides equal intervals on a sq uare-root-
~ ·1810 ~J:; 2 ~· 'S" 'l.. ' .'2 2: time scale, is given in the right-hand half o f Table 14.11. But in practice these time
.> tf:tVk. ~32"l ttz ~-...=-l intervals are less easy to remember, and plotting to a log-time base is more difficult than
with the other series.
i r•• " . .. · . . ..
~.
' :06 1 1'360 ~ 7g JI~-?~ 1tt.§L lli£ At the end of the day record the 8 h reading o r as close to it as possible. Record the 24 h
.:.. 0 A D /JN l otib
reading next day.
Fig. 1.t.~9 Typical settfemenr readings from an oedomeler consolidation The exact time of reading is not critical , especially after the first hour, provided that the
test of six stages (./ loadings. 2 1If1{oadingSj recorded on p .-jnred form act ual time is recorded as well so that the true time intef\,al can be pi(lued .
696 OEDO:-'1ETER CO;";~OLlDA,T!O)1 TEST~ 1• . 5 CO:-;,OLlD.-\ TlO~ TEST 697
Ta hI r 1.U!, Tl:-.![ I:-';TER\'ALS FOR RECORDING COi\lPRESSIO)\. READINGS (17) Application of next load incremefll

Square-rOOI ;mer\"ols
""hen it has been established that the loading stage may be terminated and the next load
Logarithm IC illlerl'u/s (85)
increment applied, wind up the screw jack unit until it just tOuches the beam. A fractional
(hi I(min) (s) Vi {(min) (s) Vi movemen t of the compression gauge may be indicated. Re-set the timer clock to zero.
0. 167 10 0.409 0 .09 l.4 0.3 Place additional weights on the hanger to give the requ ired new pressure. Normal
0.25 15 0.5 0.25 Il O.l procedure is to double the pressure at eac h new stage. A recommended 'standard' sequence
O.l 30 0.707 0.49 29 0.7 of loading is given in Table 14.12, together with the pressures suggested in the BS.
I I 60 I Loading increments are discussed further in Section 14.7 .2.
2 1.41 2.25 135 1.5 If small weights need to be removed in exchange for larger weights, add the larg er
4 2 4 2
8 2.83 9 3 weights fir st so that the pressure on the samp le is not momentarily diminished. All the
Il 3.87 16 4 additional load will be carried by the beam support jack. See stage (11) for the disposition
1/1 )0 5.48 2l l of weights .
36 6 To start the next loading stage, wind down the beam support and simultaneously start the
60 7.75 64 8
-90-:->- '30, '2 r 9.l clock, as in stage (13). Take readings, and plot the settlementltime graphs , as in stages (14)
2 120 10.95 121 Zll- .j.- ~110,;", II and (15).
240 "I ~ 15.S
4
8
24
''"
480
14..0
15.49
21.91
37.95
484
1444
S'"
~" !
22
38
(18) Furrher loading slages
Repeat stages (17), (4) and (15) for each successive load increment, afte r first complying
28 1680 41.0 with the recommendations of stage (16). The number of stages to apply depends on the
32 ,' 1920 43 .8
53.7
purpose of the test and is discussed in Section 14.7.2. Settlement readings are plotted
2 days 2880
3 days 4320 65.7 cumulatively against time, as shown in Fig. 14.32.
Extended tests only
4 days 5760 75.9 When the end of the primary consolidation phase under the maximum required pressure
5 da ys 7200 84.8 has been reached, as indicated by the beginning of the seconda ry compression line, the
6 days 8640 92.9 speci men is considered to be f ully loaded and consolidated.
7 days 10080 100.4

(19) Unloading
(I5) Plotting readings Unloading should take place not all at once but in a series o f decrements. Usual practice is
to unload and allow swelling in about half the number of stages as were applied during
Plo t the readings of the compression gauge against time to a logarithmic scale using five
consolidation, with not less than two unloading stages. For instance if the loading sequence
cycle semi-logarithmic paper (Fig. 14.30). A graph of gauge readings against square-root-
was 25, 50, 100, 200,400,800 kN/m', a suitable unloading sequence would be 400, 100,
time may also be ploued on a sepa rate sheet (normal graph paper), Fig . 14.31 , in which case
25 kN/m'.
it is preferable to make the ordinate scale of gauge readings the same on both graphs.
Before taking off any weights from the hanger, set the cloc k to zero, and wind up the
Plotting should be started as soon as convenient after the application of the load and then
beam support so that it just touches the beam. Hold the beam down firmly against the
kept up to date as the test proceeds.
Table J4.12. RECOMME:\'DED LOADING STAGES
(16) Decision regarding next load increment
Presure on speCimen
After plotting the 24 h reading, the decision must be taken whether or not to apply the next (kN/m2)
load increment. tf the log-time graph shows a flattening out from the steep part of the curve
to a straight line which is less steeply inclined, as in Fig. 14.30, it indicates that the primary as 1377:1975 Recommended for
Load ralio "" 2 Application
consolidation phase is complete and that the next load increment may be applied. However,
if the inclined straight line representing secondary compression has not yet been 6 Extended rang~ for
10 very soft soils
established, the load should be left unchanged for another 24 h. The only additional
12
readings necessary are at about 28', 32 and 48 h from the start of the increment, i.e. two
20
during the day and one the next day. It is rarely necessary to extend a loading stage any
further, unless data on seco ndary compression are required, in which case one week (about 21 2l
lO '0
10,000 min) o r longer may be required. 100 100 'Normal' ta n~e
The duration of every load increment throughout the test should be the same. Normally 200 200
this will he 24 h for convenience. Prolonged secondary compression can affect the primary 400 400
consolidat ion charactcri stic s o f succeeding stages. If a longer period than norm~l under one 800 800
load can not be a\ GldeJ (( .g. o \'('r a week-end), and appreci able secondary compression 16utJ 1600 E>:tmje-j range for
0cC' u r~ durlng i his addilior;zJ l ime, this <;h cuJd be al lowed for whcn cakubting (he data for ~ti ff or mcr':,lL\olidat ed
the void~ ral io c hangt~ gr 2ph. (See Seclion 14 .5.6 . item (2" and Fig:. 14.34). 3200 c! a ~ ~
 OEDr)~I;:;TER \nN~O LID4 TION TE 14.5 CONSOLI DATION TEST

lime minulE:>S (log scalE') S4uan.-rOO\-ul1'~· (rrnnu. e ,) --I

0 ·1 1 10 lOa 1000 0246810 20 30 40
")
~ O(\
I-- ~ l ~ ~6 "
. <, "
I ;: 3 ~ ~6 ~ !
i !
21
i
. I
I ! : ,:: ' !
1
r 300 I 1 ~ I I 1 ,I I II! 1 I 1 I ! I J!
11 I, .. ··!i.4nOUI':.
I , , I I I , 'I I '" 1, • .

! 11:
1
Ili" 1 '11'"'''1. • I.
"SO - ,
_ II. '\ _ 'C'. ":IE ....
- .. - "VU I ~

I~'" ~~:~~, .-~

,I d, _ I
~df~r;,;:r +
40ot".·'----1 d, - ___ l,() ~
~
", , .I
de
(c~ I,' t ~~
1---1--'-- f lo.
'. " ' - -- de - - - I 1 I
.l. j-.¥,. -+rr' d 0 - --.-
I
~e.';,el,'nr~'1- "

m' .
i-"; I
, I
do

n
I~O ~~

,\1
STAGE (3) 200 kN/
) I ES
"
OJ
0.
I I c
0

II 0

" ~
"
\,
0

./
1
E ~

,50 •
;:6 t\-- I r- 50-i §u
] ,,
0
~
c
0
u
•
~
, I
15
••
•
.~
15
•• I,) IJ)S
;;
-; 1-6e7 d 90 iI i;,
90-1 {)
~
---- ,E7 .={ 00
" ~ \~
N. u '"
i' rjI -

! I'
- - ' '''10..., , _.

=--=1 - - -, - 'fi's= ,
F: \ ~ c~
r
;' ,;; , ----...... '
I .
, '1
~,

, o. ... <-0. dt
4A.3-4.1S
df -

':= ~
I '074 (; ' 07)
800 "
r = 462 41, _
• 7}2-4 1, -
47
377 ~ ·/25
1

(c·/))
,J. A 7j;?-4 ~ 5 .377 C=~
'0 49 Ie
0( (20'0/1) y I r = 10 X ('87- 4.2 _ 225
L-.
, 7 5'1 -443 = JOB 8 1 7 (0'82) -~~ 1/ _ 4c ! p ~ .377 -'3,377='06.3(0'66)
'i .Ie 377 377 0 ' 0024-

752 -7'1 =.!:..!.... · 1o? (0 '// ) _ j1<W"'-" . r, = 1-(0 '12.'+ 0'6(3) = '212 (0'21)
'i' -
377 J 7? --- -;/! ....,1,...1 Fig. 14.31 Square-root time/settlement curve/rom stage (3) of Fig. 14.29
/·000
do I, (compare with Fig. 14.10)
Fig. 14.30 Log·rime/setl/emenl curve from readings in stoge (3) of Fig. ':" ~.f.-:(.""
14.29, with calculations oj compression ratios and secondary compression I, de
coefficient (compare with Fig. 14.9) easily distinguishable because they slope the other way, as shown in Fig. 14.32. Square-
root-time graphs are not usually plotted for the swelling stages.
Completion of swelling under a particular load is indicated by a flattening of the graph.
support while the weights are removed; this requires a second person, except when only If this is not evident after 24 h, allow to swell fo r a furt her 24 h before removing the next
small weights are being removed . Check that the dial gauge shows little or no movement. stage of load.
Release the beam, and at the same instant start the clock. There is no need to \\'ind down
the beam support because the beam will rise as the specimen swells. Ensure that the upper (21) Further unloading stages
loading cap remains covered with water. Take readings of the compression gauge exactly as
during the consolidation stages, as shown in Fig. 14.29. Each load decrement is removed as described in stage (19) and readings are ploned as in
stage (20). making sure that swelling is virtually complete at each stage. Sometimes it may
(20) Plotting readings
be possible to rem ove two stages of loading in one day.
When the pressure is back to the initial pressure (or the swelling pressure if applicable), a
Plot the compression gauge readings against log-time on the same graph ~heets as for the period longer than 24 h rnl,' be needed to allow completion of swelling. It is essential that
consolidation stages. The swelling curves will cut across the consolidation curves but will be equilibrium be eSlablished before finally unloading and removing the specimen.
7,10 Ol:uu'\1cTER U) , SOUu.,-\ J. ,ON 1 C~ I~ , ... 5 CG:'o.:l>"" LIDA l I V ; ' TES', 701
I
: ;:n €' m,p utes (!og SCJ ' e-) discs carefully; any soil adhering to them should be s(Taped off ;lnd returned to the
C; 10 ~OO WOO ~pecimen. \Vipe the outside of the ring dry_

r-----iD ,",",;, _ ____'j''' :l

v ~ "- - - --,-- - -- - r- - I I

(24) Weighing specimen

Place the specimen and ring on the weighed \,.,atch-glass or tray. and weigh to the nearest

'~Or
0.01 g (m z). Calculate the final mass of the specimen (mf) from the equation

] mf = m2 - (mR + rnr)
---l.- _change of scale - - -
WOLE where mR and mTare as measured in stage (2).

- ;j: .
1"-

200 ~
~.
~
CD 100 k,N/m
if,
2

(25) Drying and weighing

~

300 iro
<
c ... Place the tray with specimen and ring in the oven overnight or long enough to ensure that
the specimen has dried to constant mass. Allow to cool in a desiccator and weigh (m 3 ).
_________ 100 ::::l
I~ Calculate the dry mass (ms) of the specimen from the equation

4°°i~r ___ G) 200 kN/m z

c
o
o
Ins = m) - (mR + mT)
500,
, ~
<5 The dry mass is the same at the end of the test as at the beginning if no material has been
I -I'
6JO ~~ - - : c---lc: • lost .
!:;:: o
u
12
70Q ~~ (26) Calculation oj moisture contents
,- '0
' J ~;cv The initial moisture content is given by the equation
'0
8(1 [':- t"
Qool--
o i
o 400 kN/m'
' 0) 50 "1m'
D
il'
w, m - ms
m,
x 100070

10001--- 1,..,,," \' which provides a check against the moisture content w obtained from t he trimmings (stage
(4)) .
noo L ,.---- - -- - --50
The final moisture content (wf) is calculated from the equation
® 100 kN/m
2

1200L mf-m
WI = s X 100070
, \0")
m,
lO ~
1300
, ~ z." (27) Analysis oj settlement graphs
Fig. 14.32 Cumulative /og-time/seulemem curves (loading and unloading)
for all stages of Fig. 14.29 The analysis of the log-time/settlement and square-root-time/settlement graphs is detailed
in Section 14.5.6.

(22) Draining cell

(28) Calculations
When equilibrium is achieved, remove the water from the cell, either by draining off if
there is a suitable connection or by siphoning it out. Allow to stand for about half an Calculations for each stage of the test are set out in Section 14.5.7.
hour so that the porous discs can drain. Observe any further movement of the compression
gauge. (29) Plotting voids ratio curve
See Section 14.5.7.
(23) Remova{ o/specimen
L.Je o:f !h;,>- remaining wc:ghts from the load hanger and move the compression gauge to
(30) Reporting resu{ts
cn~' ~ide, d :-: :k ioad~l~£
y·:>h' fon\a:-d~, so that the c,;,:i! can be rem o\·cd .
Dismantle the cell, and ta ke out the consolidation ring and specimen. Remove the porow:. See Section 14.5.7.
71 OEf TER - - ;OU ' . -'") ~ r---
14.5.6 Graphical Analysis
The plotting cf se:!!e~~nt ~time graphs. both to a log-lime base and to a square-root-time
base, for each loading slage, was described in Section 14.5.5, stage (15). These graphs are
used for the determination of values of the coefficient of consolidation, c~ , by performing
the curve~fiHing analyses referred to in Section 14.3.7, and described below. The form of
the curve obtained depends upon the type of soi l. For saturated clays, on which the theory
o f consolidation is based, conventional curves similar to those derived from the theory are
usually obtained. These are regarded as 'standard' and their analysi s follows routine
procedures,
Other types of inorganic soil such as silts give curves which appear to depart from the
conventional curves, but fundamentally ihey are similar and the differences are only in
degree resulting from the much higher permeability of these soils. Soils which are not fully
saturated may give non-standard curves for other reasons . The analysis of non-standard
curves sometimes causes difficulties, and suggestions for dealing with them are outlined
below.
Four main types of soil are considered, namely:
(I) Clay soils ('standard').
(2) Clayey silts.
(3) Silts.
(4) Unsaturated soils.
Other aspects of graphical analysis which are included are common to all types, and are
as follows: 1 intersects the settlement curve at C, The level of this point gives the theoretical 90 0/0
(5) Allowance for deformation of equipment.
16) Calculation of compression ratios.
(7) Determin(ltion of coefficient of secondary compre ~!' i()n.
The analysis of results from tests on peats, for which values of Cv are not relevant, is
described in Section 14.6.4.
(I) CLAYS ('Standard' curves)
The conventional methods of analysing settlement·time curves are given below for
(a) log-timecurves
(b) square·root-time curves
These methods are similar to those given in the British Standard and in most textbooks.
(a) Log-lime method
Theoretical 0% This construction applies to the initial convex-upwards portion of the
curve which is usually clearly defined for clay soils. The procedure is illustrated in fig. 14.9,
and a typical example is shown in Fig . 14.30.
Select two points on the curve whose time values are in the ratio 1 to 4, e.g, 0.5 min and
2 min (points a and b in Fig. 14.30). Measu re a distance ad equal to ac (the vertica l
distance between a and b) upwards from point a to obtain the point d. Repeat the process
once or twice more, say at 0.25 and 1 min and at 0.75 and 3 min, provided that all points
lie on the convex - upwards part of the curve. Draw a horizontal line at the mean level of
the points d so determined, This represents the theoretical U = 0 0/0 line and its intersection
with the compression sca le gi ves the gauge reading corresponding to the corrected point
denoted by d, (see Figs. 14.9 a nd 14.30).
Theoretical100% The point of inflexion of the log time/ seulement curve, i.e. the point
at ""'hich the cu r\',H ure changes dir ection , occu rs a t about 75 0/0 consolidation. Dra w the
tangent at this point, which is [he tangent commo n to both t he upper and the Im\er
CC "" L1DA -' ''' - TES-
branches of the S-shaped curve. (Line A B in Fig. 14.9). Draw the tangent to the stra ight
line portion at the end of the curve, and produce it backwards (line D E F) to meet A B at
the point C . Draw:i horizontal line through C; this represents the theoretical U = 100070
line and its intersection with the compression scale gives the gauge reading of the corrected
100'10 primary consolidation point, denoted by d,,,,
(Fig. 14 .30 and 14.9) .
A percentage consolidation scale, from U = 0070 to U = 100070 can now be constructed
from do to d 100 on the right-hand side of the settlement curve. Hence the abscissa dso
corresponding to 50UJo primary consolidation, which lies at a compression gauge reading
equal to Y2 (do - d\oo), can be drawn . At t he intersection of this horizontal line with the
settlement curve the time for 50070 primary consolidation, denoted by tso (minutes), can be
read off as shown in Fig. 14.30.
(b) Square-roo I-lime mel hod
TheoreticalO % The procedure is indicated in Fig. 14.10, and a typical example is shown
in Fig. 14.31. Extend the straight line portion of the settlement curve downwards , and
upwards to intersect the zero time ordinate at Q (Fig. 14.10). This point represents theo-
retical U = 0070, denoted by do, which lies below the initial reading d j •
Theoretical 100% From the point Q draw the line which at any level has an abscissa
1.15 times that of line QB. An easy way of doing this is r.o find the point q on the line QB
at which vr = 10, and draw a horizontal line through q to intersect the zero time ordinate
at p. Make p r = 1.15 x p q (i.e. the point r corresponds to vt= 11.5). Join Q f, which
consolidation point, d9(j . Read off the corresponding value of vt9() and multiply it by itself
to give 190 (minutes).
The 100070 primary consolidation point d 100 can be found by divid ing the vertical distance
between d') end dro into nine equal spac~~, and extrapolating below d'JJ by a distan('~ t"l'J.llal
to one space, The percentage consolidation scale from U = 0% to U = 100070 can be
marked on the right hand side of the graph (Fig. 14.31), The d" point can then be found
and the value of vI" read off, which multiplied by itself gives the 50'70 consolidation time
tso (minutes).
(2) CLAYEY SILTS
This example relates to a soil for which the log time/ settlement curve is of the form shown
in Fig. 14,33, The latter part of this curve is similar to that shown in Fig. 14.30, and two
tangents can be drawn for the establishment of the d 100 point (100% primary consolidation)
as explained above.
The shape of the early part of the curve differs from the curve shown in Fig. 14.30, which
invalidates the construction described above for the determination of the do point
(theoretical 0 070 primary consolidation). It is reasonable to assume that settlement occurred
so rapidly immediately after loading that the initial convex-upwards portion of the primary
curve was passed before any readings could be taken, as indicated by the broken curve to
the left of the 0.1 minute ordinate in Fig. 14.33. In some cases it is possible to make a
reasonable estimate of the do point from the square-root-time/settlement curve, using the
construction described above. The do point is then transferred to the log-time-curve and the
conventional analysis can be carried out as before.
lfthc position of do is not evident from the square-root-time curve, a reasonable estimate
is to assume that it lies somewhere within the middle third of the range between the initial
reading at the start of the increment, d;, and the earliest observed reading . These limits are
marked on the graph, as show n in Fig. 14 .33, and the probable limits of d so ca n then be
drawn, from which the range of possible values of t~o can be read off.
The mid-poin t of this ra nge can be used to obtain an approximat e value of CI ., which
 "DO: RCC .IDA r ES" CQ:-' - . ' JATl " . - ':5T 70',

time (log scale) log t ime

0·1 ~,rcng€'
." .- - .- - .-
lp 100 minutes
I
"1
K-- increment no.G)
j
, cHI

~l-;-fo;-do - -~
di
~
--+ (e l )
i estlmaled
- - I- - o 6H2
" I

= .-= ~ c ~ -+(e 2)
\ 50-'. ~

\ ronge E
CD
c
o
.;;;
ear liest
recorded II .
~ SH3

- :;
1
extE'nded secondary compressi on
reading /
~
c. ~
p /
--+ (e3 )
>
E .;;:;
o
v dlOO--- 100
' /.
0
;;
-3 Q

,E
v
<D CH4

d -
f
!. - - -----L ( e , )
1. -.
o_, CL"7'j _"
O-oL>,.I Fig. 14.34 Evaluation oj voids rarios jor a load increment which includes
Mean height during load . age H = 19.8 m~ I ex/ended secondary compression
.. 0.256 19.8' 10 \0 1,'

-----
t5IJ = 1 min gIves Cv = .1 = ear - '~ I t ime ( log sca le ) .

gives ell = ~0x 19.8' = 100-'

0 : ~o lCO rninut !2s
{(J 1 \"
(:; ' G:)
.. fir 1year
t:.o = O. 1 min
.1 , +I di
If t50 is between 1 and 0.1 min,
e" lies between 10 and 100 rril l year I de
(do indeterm li note-)
o
and is reported to the nearest 10 rrIl/year
~ I
"-
Fig. 14.33 Derivation of likely range of cvirom {og-time/selflemenf curve " (t
jar clayey silt "" ,
oc~tOF

1
j i
2 \ ! I
should be reported as such to one significant figure , i.e. to the nearest 10 m /year if
between 10 and 100 m2/year. This degree o f accuracy is adequate because a c" of this \L! -
magnitude indicates that settlements would occur quite rapidly and would not be expected \1 ~rObOble 1 range ot d SO - C
to cause long-term problems.
If the primary stage has clearly been completed by the tim e 100 min has been reached, as
in Fig. 14.33, it would be feasible to apply a second increment almost immediately instead c
o
of having to wait for 24 hours. It may even be possible to complete several increments
within one day . But if a subsequentJoad increment is sustained for a longer period, such as
overnight, the consequent additional secondary compression occurring during this stage
should be included in the primary consolid ation of the following stage to avoid a
-•
~

6.
E
(:;~nd:: ral ·)_? Lr:_
o
v
discontinuity in the ellog p curve. This is illustrated in Fig. 14.34, from which the point p.
instead of point Q, is used to compute the e value at the end of increment No.3. F

(3) SILTS
A t),pi ca llog -timc/ settlemcnt curve for a relatively rapid draining soi l, such as silt, is of the
ISO

Fig. 14.35
< 0-1 minut e e,
~
' 156
> - - 1
19 8'

Derh'arion o/probable c~. value from log-fime/ selflei/lenr curve

2
;- 100 m fye::.r

form shown in Fig. 14.35 . In this in stance the recorded data gives a curve which is concave- for si,"t

L
706 OEDOMETER CONSOLIDATION TESTS 14.5 CONSOLIDA nON TEST 707

upwards from the start. The point of inflexion has been passed earlier than 0.1 min, as
ir:dicated by the hypothetical dashed curve, Ttle d loo (IOOa;'u primary) point car.!'!C'! be
determined by the conventional method, and the square-root-time curve (Fig. 14.36) is of
little use for determining the do (00/0 primary) point because there is no linear portion
evident. However I it is reaso nable to assume that the d5(J (500/0 consolidation) point will lie
in a zone around the mid-way point for the test, i.e. about half way between the d e and dj
points. If this zone clearly lies above the beginning of the laboratory cu rve, the value of {XJ
must be less than 0, I min, as shown in Fig. 14.35. For a specimen of tlle,, 8~Qdard 20 mm
thickness, the value o~ c" will therefore be greater than about@Wx 2()2/0. 1 = 102.4
m= / year. The coefficient of consolidation would then be reported as being greater than
100 m2/year, i.e. c" > 100 m 2 /year. This' indicates very rapid consolidation, and a more
explicit result may not be needed.
If the probable zone of the dS(} point lies within the range of settlement readings, an
estimated value of t 50 can be obtained from which an approximate value of c" can be
calculated and reported to one significant figure as in (2) above.
"v
To obtain a more definite vwue of a test using a larger sample, such as the use of a
Rowe consolidation cell (to be covered in Volume 3) would be needed. Alternatively, a
single'~drainage test can be carried out in the standard oedometer cell by placing an
impervious membrane (such as a disc cut from a triaxial test rubber membrane) between the
specimen and the lower porou-' disc. Drainage then takes place upwards only, and the
length of drainage path, h, is equal to the specimen height, H. The time to achieve a given
percentage of consolidation is increased by a factor of 4. Using Equation (14.14) the value
of c" is calculated from the equation
-,
0.104 x (if) m' / year
c" = Voids ratio change
I"
for the single drainage case. Other calculations are the same as those for double drainage.
(4) UNSA TURA TED CLAYS
Clays which are not fully saturated contain pockets or bubbles of gas (usually air) in the
voids between the solid particles. This results in two significant departures from the
assumptions given in Section 14.3.4.
(I) The pore fluid is compressible
(:!) The permeability changes under the influence of applied sfress.
These effects are more likely to be significant in compacted clays, even when compacted at
or slightly wet of the optimum moisture content, than in naturally occurring unsaturated
clays.
The characteristic features of the time/settlement curves obtained from oedometer
consolidation tests on unsaturated clay are generally as follows:
(l) A large initial compression.
(2) A log-time/ settlement curve which is somewhat flatter than the theoretical curve in the
primary consolidation phase.
(3) A square-rooHime/settlement relation sh ip which is co ntinu ously curved, instead of
showing an initial linear portion .
(4) A steeper secondary compression line.
These features are illustrated in Fig. 14.37. Allowances may be made for these effects on an
empirical basis when analysing the curves, on the Jines indicated in (3) above. A detailed
theoretical study was made by Barden (1965), but as yet no standard curve fitting procedure
has been devised.
(5) CALIBRATION CORRECTIONS
Allowance has to be made for the deformation of the apparatus when calculating voids
ratio changes and the compression ratios. The corrections are usually insignificant for very
compressible soils.
The method of calculating voids ratio changes given in Section 14.3.9 uses the cumulative
displacement for each stage, with reference to the start of the test. The cumulative
deformation of the apparatus, denoted by 1uJ, is subtracted from the observed cumulative
displacement at the end of each stage to obtain the nel change in specimen height, denoted
by MI. Values of M are read directly from a calibration curve of the type shown in Fig.
14.52, obtained as described in Secrio.n 14.7 . 1.
~
square· roo t t i me time ( log scale)

o square _roo t - time

,\
'conventional' cu rve w ith
, / linear portion
~ la~~~p:~~~~~n
V " \. .convent .ional ,
di \ -/ curve
'\ / /cont inuous ly curved

\ c
:::, •E steep
secondary
~
'\
1; .!!
c compress ion ..... '\
~ ~
~

~
f i rst recorded readi ng •E
0. .!!
E no cl early de fin ed linea r por t ion .
ov •
~
.
do IS IndetE'rminc te

(a l • ( bl
~ Fig. J4.37 Features 0/ rimelserrlement curves /or partially salurated clay:
Fig. l4.36 Square-root time/ sertlement cun:ejorsilt with a high Cv (0) square-rool time, (b) log-time
 _.
-
" (I ~ OEDmlETER CO'lSOLlDA no'l TESTS 14.5 CO'lSOLlDAT10"" TEST 7u9
Compression ratios 14.5.7 Calculalions and Results
The compression ratios (Section 14.3.12) are calculated for each loadmg stage inuiviJually.
The incremental deformation of the apparatus, denoted by 6, due to the additi o nal load Calculations are summarised below, generally in the form of equations, grouped under the
placed on the hanger, is added to the initial displacement gauge reading d j for the stage main aspects of the test, i.e. initial conditions; final conditions; parameters from each load
(which is the same as the final reading dj at the end of the previous stage) to give the increment stage. They are illustrated by the examples shown in the typical work sheets of
corrected initial reading d c• The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 14.9. The value of 6 is Figs. 14.38 and 14.39, using (he seu lement gauge readings tabulated in Fig. 14.29 which are
obt ained from calibration data for the load frame tabulated in the manner shown in plotted graphically in Fig. 14.32.
Fig. 14.52, Section 14.7 . 1. The symbol s used in the equations, some of which have appeared earlier, are summarised
in Table 14.13. Plotting of the voids ratio/log pressure curve, and reporting of results, are
(6) COMPRESSION RA nos given at the end of this section.
The compression ratios roo fpo rs are calculated by using Equations (l4.30)- (14.34) after
applying the correction referred to above. An example is included in Figs . 14 .30 and 14.31 .

(7) COEFFICIENT OF SECONDARY COMPRESSION INITIAL CONDITIONS

The coefficient of secondary compression, Co, is derived from the straight-line portion of . nIY
Area of specimen A = - mm'
the log-time/settlement curve, as follows. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 14. 14. 4
Initial hei gh t of specimen at start of test = Ho mm
Compression in the linear range over one log cycle of time = (Mf)s mm A x Ho
This is the same as the slope of the line, related to one log cycle. Initial volume Vo = ~ em'
Coefficient of secondary compression, Co = (Mf)s
. Ho Initial mass m = m t - (m, + m() g
An example is shown in Fig. 14 .30. The value of Co is a dimensionless number and the
resui( is expressed to two significant figures. Dry mass (remains constant) Ins = 111) - (m, + m() g

CONJOL.!Dn'OIf TUT _ CAk,CUU. T!OH "'E~T

m-m
001. S,.rtl<l .... .... , '- : ~..... ~~ l.o<:.""' . ....... }.e...?4........ Moisture content Wo = _ _s x 1000;0
.. ...........l!..'"':/!.fr.>n. ....... ".... ".-.-,_, ............... ,,,..... s_,. No" ... _••(;...? ,~..-?..?.. m,
fool ' T~ _.J...It ~..h:'.~J_~ J.."-~f.!!J.. c."......
.............. ,,:mol!!fd...~,(1y ..~yy... ......... "" ...
RI"Q ",~.'-'=-
3
.3:~'._"- '- ...,.........._-..-.
.
DenSity p = -
m Mg/ m 3
Vo
us:, ".... ",....,"11" . ... ?.4.:.9. , . II 5.a.~ 11oIt"~"~1 0 ... . 7 'b<e...
.. ._z-t:J.. _.. _._._
~J..J..~.J ~ ~ 4.4P.~
.U'O"l

.... (• ." ... 0"''' , .

"'-' .... '" u ....... ""11. trey - . -,?6P.:+,3
.. V o'u-,. , 0 -" ... ...... ............ "."z
I AI •• A ........ .............. 2.0 'l
100
Dry density Po = p x 100 + Mg/m'
"'.'i"'~·.,"Il · t'a,_ , ....i7~·j2. I n,(o ....... H _ •.•. _ ...... $f?6' "-' Wo

~:i :~,~:~~:::. ·?j{5~_: ~~i'~~::.-~q1~~: . ::~

'"1Ii1l Vol~ Flatlo <t. •
0_'
PO ~ S' 8 '"
.d.
VOl sratloeo = - - 1
0,
PD

23"/":2'~6 • ..... J . . ".

'0111., SoM'''''' Ii\, - ~. 0 '62i!
, Degree of saturation So = Wo x Os 0/0
eo
Vol~ Ril l. Ch'oll' ~ , o,o, ~ • ~ •
j'e2.Z
20 '/
~ --,
AFT(" lUT
" Voids ratio change factor F = 1 + eo mm-]
w.;~, ... om~, •. rn:; .tfo.y ...... 4.36..}.i v 0,. ... 11:10111 __ "' " o· 74-/ Ho
_II'" 01 0') ....pI •• • .-r;; - 1rcJ._ 40~' )' v .... ,.-co,•• j :'2"G.: ...3
M '\tI'oIr,n-;.trC"1 ?-6:J'7- 3 ~ F'."".!.,...
"-;f:-3p .- ...3
2 y,- FINAL COND ITION S
1 76 .5 1 ,,; ,.,3
....g'" 01 ..., ..,...
~"I1"I "'O'~""P"
",,~\ O! """U,".
:f.;.·?J. 1I
. 3 ," . 5'3
0 F''''ID.M!tr ___ •
F,,,,,Orr 0.,.,'(1) " .

~ ' ..I V",~ Roll ' ., _

I' 7"-
o · 5'~~
... ' ", Mass tn, = tn2 - (tn, + tn,,) g
F,_.., ...!,,"'. C....,.'I.., 2 f .8 '"
tnr- m
2f S ~) ,;.c, Moisture content "1 = ' x 100070
F,,,,,I 5.,"",'" $, •
- ,,-
"'.' G
.: ,; . ~
': ,3 ' 2 _
m,
s

Fig. 14.38 Typical data sheet for oedol1~ele r lest specimen details Height o f specimen Hj = Ho - (Mf)jmm
 ,
71 0 OEDOMETER CONSOLIDATION 1 EST, 14 ,5 O./l-";'. :lL,LlD,A 11V;J TES. 711 ~,

CONSO; ;;}Ai ION TEST-IlATA FOR e/logp CURVE

])v.lSl-M. 33?..4- C2~-?5.
,-
lO'; o:' .;t'
2f · ~- ~O
s.:ry... no
Table 14.13. SYMBOLS USED FOR OEDOMETE R TEST CALCULATIONS
Volume Coefficient of
Voic's r e t io corrpressibiti t y consolidat ion
Measurement Units Before During tesf Ajler
RI:~ ""ttlf- Iocr""""""! mv: c" _ .
~e= H: H: or reading tesl lesl
..Mt
e ::; ~"'" Start End Cumulal;ve Incremental
Fx6.H
&eX~ (H )' 'Ou.(;;) {, of Of change
p LI~
F:
e -l1e Se. Op t .e. ) ~ I+e \50 H;Ltf HI· Hz. --y- tso -, stage stage
change

. . .fcl rrm '0 30 ~

eo ::; .",,,' m',/t.- •• ~ ,,' ';'/."r
~
Specimcn mass
,,~

Ho::; g m mJ
0 1 0 0 0 -622 o 0 ~ 20 " 0
r;- i-5'D ·/0(, 'DOA" . (,,13 -0086 50 ,.61.3. O"fJ--7 13 19' 97 20 '05 402 0·804- Dry mass g m, m,
i ·.}~O . ,02" 1:OZO:- - 50 19'7/; /9' 81 395' 1·63
2 too
3 200 L '762 -0 6 15 '5'" '0,32 100 J· 5'61
'57~ "<1" 0'20$ In' 19-J/; 19" ;'
O· 15} , ,)

J82 0'432
Diameter· mm D D

.. 4 00 1/ l!j -/024- -520 -0 41 200 /-520 o Irli 19 1683 19 'O c! 364- 0,498 Height mm H, H, H, Iili

--
6H HJ
,.....-
5 200 1f." 8- -0, 02 '532 -01"2 2M ...........
6 50 I -741 ~8 -562 - ' 032 150 .-/'
I
........... ----
---
~ I- Mean height

Compression gauge
mm

"m G,
if
G,
= \1 (HI +

G,
Hv

I Area • mm' A A
Fig. 14.39 Oedometer consolidation test calculation sheer, using data I Volume om) V,
from Figs. 14.29 and 14.38
;0- ,_ . , \ ~.;- v J
Pressure kN/m 2
~\
p
C'1 6: focr41..-"'-\ ('vt<-l"';e~J J' 1'....., , __,\,C_' ... t ""'- I 'p 6p

~,,\oS !
I-",..p
o
1\...... ('>1 ,
i.) "":""""
i I: 'i!!';"
e o =0622
:" .'!'
,~
~l ~ '1 L·

1 b1~
[ l-"l
Swelling pressure

Voids ratio
kN / m 2 p,

e,
" "
., 6e
p,

'I

, Lor Saturatian
•• S, Sl
I ;i i ~
'5("""(,
J-
••
v' ,'1
Moisture content w,
' '. i '\ wJ
I : i! i , l'1 ! ! ! I Coefficient of
0-58 il-' \. ,load.lng _ I _ volume m 2/ MN m,
I iI I I: I 'i ii, ! compressibility

0,56 .
~ I iI
, , "
:1 ",locd~O
' ...L.~
1\
1
' ., ,I
I
I -
I
I, i
,,
C oefficient af
consolidation m2 /year
0-54 , Ii, I I: I "
I~
'I ,,\
1,1
, I
0-52 , ,
I
I I '
.
I I I' : '
! .
I ',
I I I
P ermeability m/,
•
I Ii. iii I, I ,~ Mass of specimen

8
+ ring + container m,
"5 ' '•
II '
'I
I '. II
2.0'I _ I ,,
I I
g m,
! : 1·5":" I . Mass o f ring g mR mR
I j' ,i
I i Cv , .

,__ "L , ~, , " I

,' , Q'Sri--t"-;
"0 'm'/yro Density M glm3 P P
! 1- - ~ r-' , -! 0:
i i! Dry density Mglml
I !: . . I . • "
PD POJ
""tSS"'" ''I .. Specific gravity G,

.,
,,_, __ 75' __ . 2" _ " ~ . ' ;.... . G,
..........." Soh f~ {,r,.., qnr J 0'"'>../'7 •0 ••• ! • . -.:,.
," ~!I I~~d s':~J :_.t~~ ~ ..,;~ ;~; i ?~ Correct ian for
,_. __ .. 8S .. •_ _ . ~, ..._~~
defo rmation of apparatus "m 6
:.~. >:~-2~}: :.. ~"~';~-~.;~ "'f; ' ~~ib.~C • Values ,.,h,ch remain cc>nSllIn!

Co~s~ii~;~ti~;;--T;sl ~;',... ..;. .... SM" _ '';::'- ,... _.::--zz

'''''''l!'C''V~I''. ''('''::'~' . <C.']' ,,,I. _ ___ ,,,_~~_
Fig. 14AO Void~ ralio 'I(lg pre.<l<;ure currc and results summary fro m Fig. 14 .39
 i12 OEDO~IETER CO:--;SOllDATJO:--; TEST'i 14.5 CO:-;SOLIDAT IO.'i TI,ST 7 13

ti' nt -
Density P, = .:..::.L x 1000 l\lg/ ml
, ..1Hj
Coefficient of second an:
increment (if required):
~o;<1rr(, :;5 ion dIll ing the secondary \,:(lmpre ~sio n :;ta.:;e at Jon

C, = (MI),
Dry density PDf = x 100 Mg/m '

I
Pf H,
100 + " I
Voids ratios are calculated for the unloading as well as the loading stages. Calculations
. . G,
VOlds rano e/ = - - 1 of m,., C v an d k are made for the loading stages only,
t PDf Two methods provide cross-check The calculation of the compression ratios, ' 0' 'P' 'sis described in Section 14 .3. 12, an d an
example is referred to in Section 14.5.6, item (6) (Fig. 14.30).
or ef = eo - (M)f
PLOITI NG VOIDS RATIO CURVE
\ Degree of saturation Sf = Wf x Gs
ef
flJo
From the calculated data derived as in Fig, 14,39, plot a graph of voids ratio against log

I (often gives rather more than 100%),

pressure for the loading and unloading stages, as shown in Fig. 14.40. This is known as the
el log p curve.
Values of c~ can also be plotted against log pressure, in the manner shown by the graph
! END OF EACH LOADI NG STAGE
below the e/ iog p curve in Fig, 14.40, The Cv values can alternatively be plotted mid·way
between each pressure value, because c~. and m l , relate to the increase from one load to the
I The total observed settlement from the beginning of the test (settlement dial gauge reading
Go) to the end of a given load increment stage (reading O 2 ) is (02 - 0 0 ) j..lm. From this must
next. In Fig. 14.40, the C1, and mv values are tabulated in this way, These coefficients are
laboratory values and should be so described, They may not be directly applicable t9
be subtracted the cumulative correction for the deformation of the apparatus, denoted by settlement calculations. (See Section 14.3. 8 and 14.4.4).
6a (Section 14.5,6, item (5», to obtai n the net compression of the specimen ill, as shown
by the last two lines in Fig. 14.29. The difference on the bottom line is divided by 1000 to REPORTING RESULTS
co nvert to mm and is transferred to the approp riate line in the ill column of the calculatio n
A com plete set of results from an oedometer consolidation test comprises the followine:
sheet, Fig. 14 .39, for the following calculations.
Spedmen identification, location, depth.
Soil description .
Voids ratio change (cumulative):
Specimen dimensi ons.
M=FMf Bulk densi ty, moisture content, dry densi ty.
Initial voids ratio, degree of saturation (if the calculated degree of saturation exceeds
Voids ratio after an increment: JOOOio, report it as lOO flJo ).
Specific gravity of so il particles and whether measured or as sumed.
e=eo -6e Atterberg limits,
• Swelling press ure (to the nearest I kN / m:'!) .
Voids ratio change during an increment: Voids rat io/ log pressure curve (loading and unloading).
Load increments and decrements applied (kN / m 2).
6e = e 1 - e! Coefficient of volume compressibility (to three significant figures).
Coefficient of consolidation (to two significant figures). These coefficients are reported
Coefficient of volume compress ibility for an increment: for each load in crement, with the remark that they are laboratory calcul ated values.

IN v =
oe
~x--
1000 Coefficient of permeability (to two significant figures) is not normally reported unless
requested, and [hen as a laboratory calculated value.
6p 1 + el .' Initial, primary and secondary compression rati os for each load in crement (to two
signifi ca nt figures).
Coefficient of consolidation during an increment: Coefficien t of secondary compression (to two signifi cant figures) for Ihe secondary phase
of each increment (if appropriate).
c,. 0.026 X (iN m'/year
The laboratOry settlement /t ime curves may also be prese nt ed as pan of [he test results.
t",

Coefficient orco nso lidation under a given load (if required): 14.5.8 AST:'I Consolidation Test
"
The one-dimensional consolidation test specified by ASTM Designation 02435 is ver y
k = e,m,. x 0.31 x 10 - 9 m/s
! sim ilar in principle to the BS test, but there are differen ces in some details, the most
If this is calculated it
p r c~s ure,
mUSl be reron ed as the ca/culated permeabilit y under the slated
I significant of which are summarised as follows.
(I) T he c('\n~0J:d;:lIio n ('e ll ma y he e:lhcr !'1c n -.;rd rif1 ¥ t ~';,e or !he 0 0L :ng ring type,
714 OEDOMETER CONSOLI DATION TESTS 14.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE TESTS 715
(2) The minimum ~peC:!':1e:-! dimer.sica:; are 2 in (50 mm) cl:-1.ln,...to;r ::lnd 0.5 i:1 02 .5 mm) Plut a g,i"Ciph of the yi\:55ure on the spedrneH (kN/ m 2)
against square-root-time, as in Fig.
high, with a minimum height: diameter ratio of 1 : 2.5. 14.41. Flattening of the curve indicates that equilibrium is virtually reached. The pressure
(3) A copper disc is used for the deformation calibration of the apparatus, with the porous required to maintain the specimen at its original height is known as the swelling pressure (or
stones moistened. equilibrium load) and is reported as such to two significant figures. When equilibrium is
(4) An initial seating load of 100 lbflfe (S kN / m2) is applied to the specimen unless it is a established the dial gauge reading should be the same as that shown on the calibration curve
very sofl soil, in which case 50 Ibflft' (2.5 kN / m' ) is applied. for that hanger load.
(5) Standard loading pressures, in Ibflft 2 , with approximate equivalent pressures in SI The consolidation test (Section 14.5.5) is then started at stage (13) by adding weights to
units, are as follows: the hanger to bring the total pressure on the specimen to the next pressure above the
swelling pressure on the 'standard' loading sequence (Table 14.12). The compression gauge
100 Ibf/ fl' 5 kN/ m' should not be re-set. Thereafter, a normal loading sequence is followed.
250 12.5 Unloading is carried out as for a standard test, but the final unloading pressure should be
500 25 equal to the swelling pressure. Unless provision is made for a swelli test (Section 14.6.2)
1000 50 the pressure should not be reduced below that value until the specimen is removed. After
2000 100 reaching equilibrium at the swelling pressure, the cell is drained and the specimen removed
4000 200 as described in Section 14.5 .5, stage (22) onwards.
On the e/ logp curve (Fig. 14.42) the swelling pressure is indicated by a vertical line. The
Smaller increments may be used on very soft soils. Alternatively, 6,12,25,50,100, 200DJo first point on the curve is the intersection of this line with the horizontal line representing
of the maximum field load may be applied. the initial voids ratio, because during the swelling pressure test the volume, and therefore
Calculations, plotting, graphical analysis and reporting of results are similar to those the voids ratio, remains constant. The whole of the ellog p curve lies to the right of the
described for clay soils in Section 14.5.6 and 14.5.7. vertical line representing the swelling pressure.
14.6.2 Swelling Test
14.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE TESTS It is important to appreciate the difference between the swelling pressure test, described
above, in which the pressure to prevent swelling is measured, and the swelling test,
This sect ion des\:! ;t-t~ teSt p:-c·cedures other than the standard consolidation test given in dc!)criot:d below, in which swelling is allowed to take place and is measured.
Section 14.5. Most of them are extensions of that test or relate specifically to particular soil When the swelling characteristics are to be measured, special provisi on must be made at
types. the specimen preparation stage. The specimen height must be less than the height of the
consolidation ring so as to ensure that the specimen remains laterally confined as it swells.
14.6.1 Measurement of Swelling Pressure A difference in height of 2 mm to 5 mm is usual.

APPARATUS
This test is applicable to over-consolidated clays or to other soils which are susceptible to
swelling when they are allowed free access to water (Section 14.3.15). These could include Tbe only ilem required in addition 10 Ibat listed in Section 14.5.3 is a disc of glass or melal
recompacted soils which have been very heavily compacted . The following procedure for of a thickness equal to the difference in height between the consolidation ring and
the determination of swelling pressure continues from stage (12) of Section 14.5.5 if it is specimen. Tbe f""es must be flal and parallel, and tbe diameter sbould be about I mm less
known beforehand that a swelling pressure measurement is required; or from stage (13) if than the internal diameter of the ring.
swelling is indicated after a load increment is applied for a standard consolidation test. The
procedure was developed by the author. I eqUil i br i um _ ~
As soon as swelling is indicated, add a small weight to the pan at the top of the weight swelling pr~
hanger to bring the compression gauge back to the zero reading, or to within two or three
divisions of it. If this is not enough, add more weights; if too much, leave for a little while
r
I 0.-- .......
I
pressure
in case swelling resumes. Continue to observe the compression gauge and add more weights on ~ ~
·~~
o_v.~r~
n~g~
h I~~
~r_iO~d~~
as neces sary to maintain the reading as close as possible to zero. Record the amount of each sp ec im en / .
load increment and the time from the start when it was added . 0/
As the weight on the load hanger increases, the deformation of the apparatus has to be kN { m'
taken into account. The calibration is described in Section 14.7 . 1 and reference to the /
calibration curve (su ch as Fig. 14.52) will indicate the appropriate deformation correction. I
This correction is added to the original zero reading to give the gauge reading at which 10
ai m. The ' target' therefore moves with every ad justment o f the load. .'
t
Several hours may be needed to reach equilibrium with an over-consolidated cl a y. If the .j
specimen is left overnight, enough weights should be placed on the hanger to ensure that
excessive sweiljng does not occur while it is unattended. Ad j ustment s can be made to the j t i m e ( m j n u~ p. s )
h:,m ger weights next morn ing. Fi ll. !.; J I t; .....dr.·fi.: ....,C_~., i.i ~(" · ~ .. (,Jr H'
716 OfDO :'\1ETER COi'- 5(;1I0ATJ O,'\' 1 ES rs I.J 6 5"PEc'! \L PL·k.POSE TE.>·15 717

"
o?o=iQS2
.• ' .~ O f' .:lcrn~ l H
r ing
I]lqc,c, 0r m'?'! 'J.!
diSC

:-_-
cut off,
1'05
q~- V-TH, q -~ n_-
- -
~ - '~-
- ---
-
-- ~ l-
- -_.
1'00 .. -~- I ~t
I
(b)
0'95
(a)
.....tr im flat r --,
d q----.: ,
- ~- --- -V ~./ ;---)':"/.,. . }. . ~y;. .;..' . >...:... · \·..'~--'-f

~;:>~/;,-_,~.';
_ .- n_

,: D3
- .
~IIl.
:
0'90
.. / ..·,-//,·/v :.1
~
"J· SS \"~. ,,.j :t·:· ~$I ." ' 0; ,..-c:''<:::? ini tial s;:lE'c imen height
Ho = H, - t
11 ( e) (d)

Fig. 14.43 STages in rhe prepara{ion of specimen jor oedomerer swelling

PRt:SSU~[ "N "'.
Fig. 14.42 Typical e/log p curve for overconsolidared clay
PROCEDURE
Measure the thickness of the disc to the neare st 0.01 mm, using a micrometer.
Prepare the apparatus and the specimen in the consolidation ring as described in Section
14.5.5, stages (1) to (3), and measure the moisture content of trimmings, stage (4).
Place the disc on the fl3t glass pb.!e, and place the specimen and ring, cutting edge
downwards, centrally over the disc. (Fig. 14.43 (al).
Push the ring steadily downwards, without tilting, until the cutting edge is firmly in
contact with the glass plate (Fig. 14.43 (b». Without moving the specimen, cut off the
extruded portio n and trim the specimen flat and f1u~h with the end of the ring (Fig. 14.43
(c)).
Weigh the specimen in the ring, assemble in the oedometer cell and set up in the load
frame, as in Section 14.5.5, stages (5) - (10). The difference now is that the top of the
specimen is a few millimetres below the top edge of the ring, as shown in Fig. 14.43 (d).
Adjustment of the loadin g stem will allow for this. The initial height of the specimen is
equal to the height of the ring less the average disc thickness .
The swelling pressure is then determined as in Section 14.6.1.
When equilibrium has been established, the swelling test is performed by unloading the
specimen in stages from the swelling pressure as the starting point. The procedure is as
described in Section 14.5.5, stage (19), and log~time graphs are plotted as in stage (20).
Loads are usually halved at each decrement; i.e. if the swelling pressure is denoted by PS'
the unloading sequence could be Y2 Ps' I~ PS ' VS Ps, and so on, down to the smallest load
required. • because the voids ratio will change under a constant pressure (Fig. 14.44). Further loading
Alternatively the load may be reduced in equal decrements by removing for instance
20 kN / m 2 at each st age. Each stage should be continued until the graphical plot indicates
that equilibrium has been reached.
If the amount of s\\'ell approaches the t hickness of the di sc , no further swell in g should be
a llowed, otherwise th e top o f the specimen will no longer be co nfined by the ring. If this
ha ppens a repeat test should be carried out using a thinner specimen.
Re ~ loadi!1 g bJck to the f:'quilibrium load is carried out in the same st a ges as for
unloading. If il:c com(llicL!ion charac! eris. tics are also re;..juir<d, the test m::lY th ('n be
c(,ntinut'd a~ a qantlJ~d \.·('I:<;olid.:ltion !e~t. Qthcr\\ i~e the ~p('cim('n ca n he Tt.' mo\'cd after
(' ~rJili br ium i" rCi!\.L ..·j, J~ JC"~c r ibed in qafe~ (2~ ) or.\\;,.rd~. 'el'tin!~ 1 4.~ . :' .
lest
In either case the complete cycle of unloading and reloading is plotted in the form of an
e/ logp cur\'e. Values of m vand C v are derived for the loading stages only.
Resu lts are presented in the same way as for an ordinary consolidati on test (Seclion
14.5.5, stage (30». The test is described as a 'Swelling Test ' or a 'Swelling and Consolida-
tion Test', as appropriate .
14.6.3 SeUlemenl on Saturation
For soils that are not completely saturated, t he effect of sudden indundation is sometimes
significant. For instance , silt or sand at a low relative density, whether naturally-deposited
or recompacted, may show a sudden decrease in volume on saturation due to collapse of the
grain structure (Capps and Hejj, 1968). Fly ash (PFA) is a material which is susceptible 10
this effect. This phenomenon is in contrast to the behaviour of over-consolidated soi ls
which tend to swdl on being allowed access to water.
The usual laboratory procedure for investigating this possibility is to set up a specimen in
the oedometer ctll and to fir st load it, in suitable stages, up to a pressure equal to the
overburden pressure without the addition of water to the celL During this operation the cell
shou ld be covered with a damp cloth under a piece of polythene sheet to prevent the
, speci men drying ou t. When equilibrium has been reached, water is added to the cell so that
I the sample becomes totally submerged while the pressure remains unaltered. If collapse
occurs this will be indicated by movement of the compression dial ga ug e, which should be
i observed and reco rded in the sa me way as for a normal consolidation stage unti l
equilibrium is fe-establi shed. On the e/ log P curve this stage will appear as a verricalline,
and unloading stages may be carried out, \vith the specimen remaining saturated, as
approp riate. An e.xample is quoted by Kezd i (1980).
14.6.4 Consolidation Tests on Peat
I
! GEN ERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PEAT
I The .:omrosition of peats differ s signifi ...'antly fr o m that of inorganic soi ls, in waY1i which
h:J \e an irarO;!311t innucnce 0n their er.giJ;cering properties. In stead of beir.g made up of
t ;1:jld~ in "" · \ :~h:al r:i:n l.: r~1 rani,:k . . . Ib.~ c0;, ,,j,T ~~ '. :_ ~ ~y "~ rh" l rc ,,:~"ns i· 1 the form of

I,-
 O. ;ETE ~ _v -lSOL JON _ SPI . PL'f. : TES ' 19

Cry ,
void s
rat io ~ woter added

e ----
- r
<3

I
L
coll apse due to saturation
under constant pressure ."
~ §
<;;...::
• <
"'- Z
~
•
~

"
~

·"
... >.
;:
0<1
(1)0.
~
. >o!.
.!:
rOo~
>.
.~;:;;
~~

ti·~
>-=
~ ",:~:;
o
2ls~c.

~;"i~
U '" 0

c:'d 'C
t:: -l3
-;::
g
u

so/v
rO/(Q

I 0'

~
u ,
"E - 0 •

~ ~~ ~ =
" ~
~
~ ,-'::; '-
c . - ~ '" ~
overburden
OJ
f-
] ~ "• ~

"E_ •
~
o
0 :..: ::
."g g ~
og~3:
-0'5
, :;;;~~~ ~~~
~ ~ ~
c.",P. " "~
~2 ...
g •,
~ >.
pressure >- ~
.~ u ~~ ••
log pressure p
~ ~

" ~ c. 0:; -;::~~ .!:'5~..>o! "'~P. -= ;; § ~ ~ ~

f-
~ -,,- "0
o ~
._
">;: 00
, < • < • ,
-"o ""
~o~~ ~tg
~~~ ~~ 3:
.
.
oQ. • O]::'C ... ::1_
.~ ~ t ~
_. ::'Oi ~ ~~
'5~8.~ ;;g-~ ... -t' ~~
~
Fig. 14.44 Effect 0/ settlement due to saturation on e/log p curve ...
.: ~ '-' '-' u ...
~
~~~~
r: ;:; ~ rl
u,
~ ;::::"
E 0 -t:~ ~­
"
• • :Eil
~
0 - ,0 ou <l>O"'o~
~ [~ <~~ .~ <l3.~3: Z ~;§ <] g:~
.c~",~
-=~~:o .'-
f
.0;::1'-';,.
>- ",0
" >
stems, roots, leaf cells and the like which may be in various stages of decomposition by f-
humification. Peats range from coarse fibrous material showing little or no hurnification,
to amorphous highly humified black peat with a granular appearance. The degree of
'"
OJ
"-

humification according to the 'von Post' system can be assessed by the simple test described o'-
Z ;; ~

below (von Post, 1924; Landva and Pheeney, 1980). o il -6 ~ ~ ~ ~

11.
~~
~

" c :g ,.) ~ 0
f::
"E• ~~
'C ~ .~

'"-6§ 13"
t ~ "
~
is '-'
~
~
E''§ "
E.S ~u "
;; ~ ~
~ ,"
"B3
CLASSIFICATION BY THE VON POST TEST C5
i;: ~
~
<; ,cr
"-
~~ ~
E"
'U "E g "- E 2 . . "5 i;;"
Take a handful of peat and squeeze it in the palm of the hand. Examine the liquid or other
material extruded between the fingers and the residue remaining in the hand. By comparing
i::l
J:
1
o
~
"
13
~~
~
o
13
~~
::o ~" '"~
......
o " "
t:l ." .e
c
~­
t::c"
,~'
""
~~
c-
;;;:;;:0
8 c.~
~.<
~­
t::~
" <
~ ~
the observations with the description given in Table 14.14 the degree of humification and
decomposition on the von Post scale {HI to HJO} can be assessed.
'-
o < ~

"E 2~ 5>
~u
3 .::
'C<:i~
~ .:: .S
o;:;;~
i;'C..
8,;.: .-
~~ ;:;'C..~
R<i~
o c
8 ::
.
.
8 0;:;;
w
W
-2 § .~ £1 <-
8 ~ o. ~~
> _ C
;::::rl~ ~ .~ Zg, 3 - ~­

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
0:
!il .~
~

"E
-"~il- ~E
:.=>.
"~ "'~
u'C..::::
§ ~ ~
b
u'C..o
• E
~ ~~,
0 '-
c~
u .s
0" 0
'uO~
c . <;;
"
u "~
a.o~>. -'-'
~~~ .=.E t5..5
~~ ~~
c
Q .~
.§~ ,~~
O!~
.-UiE" o:s ... :s -g ~ =~ E -g E s-g~
The specific gravity of peat ranges from about 1.4 to 2.5, depending upon the amount of
mineral matter present. In highly organic peats most of the material is lost when subjected ;i
8 ~ ",.t: >~
~

"- ~" ~E-.o ~ ~ <E~ U E ';;

to the loss on ignition test (Volume 1, Section 5.7.2). Specific gravity can be obtained from ;i
the loss on ignition by using Equation (14.38) (Section 14.3.17). :li
Unconsolidated peats typically contain 75070 to 95070 water by volume. Voids ratios range ,! <
from about 5-20, and moisture contents of several hundreds percent (sometimes over :~ E
:t
,;
~
1000(70) are not uncommon. The voids also include gas which is generated during ~ ~ ~
" ~
~ ~ ~
~ ~ u"
~
humification. Consequently, peats have a very high compressibility, low shear strength,
high initial permeability, very rapid initial rate of consolidation and a high degree of
secondary compression. These properties can change dramatically under increasing load.
The conventional Terzaghi theory of consolidation (Section 14.3.5) is not strictly
I ~
o
Z
"
.~

]
"
>
~
~
Ui
~
:E
il~
~g
~
o
2
v;
~

"
>
~[
• c
Z u
0.
E
8
applicable to peats. Departures from the basic assumptions on which the Terzaghi theory is
based, listed in Section 14.3.4, may be summarised as follows.
(1) The solid material is itself compressible.
~ .~ c;
~!::::d:
•,
j

~s. ~
t-oo£:l::-
(2) Permeability changes considerably during a load increment stage. o ]
~.E!~ I J: £' :t :t ;{ -i: :£ £ -" J: ~
(3) Vertical displacements are large compared with the material thickness , resulting in a
moving boundary which invalidates [he conventional boundary assumptions.
7.:!(J ()EDO~lETER COSSOLlDAT10S TESl S 14.6 SPEClA L PL!~POSE TE STS 721
(4) As a re.~u1t cf th ese large deformations, appreciable S!PJctural rearrangements !?k~ Ii/fIt' \ ivg scc l ei
place within the material during consolidation. t p(a) t p(o) 24 hrs.
Problems in the evaluation of test data arise as a result of the factors outlined above.
Sometimes a settlement/time relationship simi lar to the Terzaghi theory may be discernible,
but in many instances the similarity is not apparent and the conventional approach based STAGE 1
I
on the determination of c l • and mv is not vali d . An empirical approach is outlined below and
makes use of the following terminology, which is relev a", only to this section.
'Primary' conso/idar;on (cpJ: The total compression which takes place during a loading
I"", ,,
I "'" (0 ) concave upwcrds
(b) conv ex upwards
...L
stage from the end of the 'primary' consolidation of the previous stage (or, in the first stage ,~

of loading, from the instant of application of the load) to the end o f the 'primary' phase of
the stage considered. The end of 'primary' is ascertained as described below.
~
.'--j
\ .'----
- _/
...........

--~:>.:
'"
..-- sec ondary beg Jns

-- --
..... ~ ...........
This definition of 'primary' encompass es the 'initial' compression (see below), and any
secondary compression from the previous loading stage.
'-- STAG" 2
Cp
Time tp: The time elapsed from the start of the load increment to the end of the 'primary' tp
phase.
Initial compression (cJ: The amount of compressi on which occurs from the instant of
(CHis
loading (t = 0) to the arbitrarily selected time t = l5 s (0.25 min), being the time at which
the first sensible sett lement reading can usually be observed.
Secondary compression: Compression following the 'primary' phase, showing a linear
relationship with log time.
IP'-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:i~C=YC~I~
---. ~~ Co:. = (Ho -.6Hp)
•.

Compression I1Hp: The cumulative compressio n of the specimen up to time tp.

Coefficient of secondary compression (C,): The ratio of the change in ·height of the
specimen over one log cycle of time during the secondary phase, to the height of the
specimen at the beginning of that phase.
The above definitions are illustrated in Fig. 14.45, and some differ from those given
earlier for conventional tests. That is why 'primary' is here written in quotation marks.
The division of t he consolidation process into initial, 'primary' and secondary phases is
arbitrary. and follows the practice normally used in Britain. Some Canadian engineers
prefer to consider only an 'immediate' or 'initial' phase, followed by a 'lo ng-term'
(secondary) phase.
The initial compression, Cj, forms a very large proportion of the 'primary' consolidation,
cp • at first. but the proportion decreases with increasing load. It also takes place very
rapidly. The parameter Cj is useful because it provides the engineer with an indication of the
proportion of settlement which will occur in the field quite rapidly relative to the rate of
construction loading.
The time tp for 'primary' consolidation is initially very small but increases with increasing
load as the permeability decreases, and eventually becomes quite large. It can be
determined mo re accurately if pore water pressure is measured, either by using a Rowe cell
o r by the simple method outlined below for a test in a sample tube.
The coefficient of secondary compression, C", can be affected by the type of test
(whether conventional or single increment loading) an d by the load increment ratio in
multiple loading tests. Opinions differ as to whether it is related to the app lied load.
The amount of both primary and secondary compression is approximately proportional
to the thickness of the specimen or to the layer in situ, as for clays. Calculations of the
amount o f settlement are based on strains, not on val ues of m v , and therefore a plot of
observed settlement, Mip ' again st log pressu re is required as well as an e/ logp plol.
The time for 'primary' consolidation, {p ' would be proportional to the square of the
length of drainage pa th, h (equallO the layer or specimen thickness for one-way drainage;
see Section 14.3.8) jf it could be assumed that Darc y's law (Section 10.3. 2) holds good; i.e.
', 0:.112. H ow e\·er, compariscns between field data and laboratory tests indica te that the
rrl~ti()t1 "h :p for peab is £er.\.'~JlIy (If th e [orr:; r a: ': ; ~ . Tl;, 1..· ('ulJ ~~t' due In :ht. ~·ff\.'~~ ts of
tp cp
STAGE 3
Fig. 14.45 Illustration of symbols used in consolidation analysis jor peat
lateral drainage in the field, which are not reproduced in a laboratory test with only vertical
drainage. The coefficient of consolidation, cl ., has little meaning for peats fo r that reason
and because its value,like permeability, changes very rapidly under load.
SAMPLES AND TEST SPECIMENS
Sample tubes containing undisturbed peat samples should be sto red on end, not lying
down. Tubes which are not full should be topped up with water taken from the site - not
with tap water, because the p~ r meability of peat can be affected by the water chemistry.
The length of each undisturbed sample should be measured and compared with the
distance the tube was driven when the sample was taken. The 'recovery ratio' can then be
calculated, i.e. the ratio of the length of sample recovered to the corresponding thickness
in-situ.
Specimens should be prepared as desc ribed in Chapter 9, Secti on 9.2.2 or 9.3. 1, with
attention to the- follQ\.\;ng additional details.
Examination of the sample, together with the von Post test, shoul d indicate whether the
peat con tains lumps of woody matter or other hard material. '\\'oody' peats can cause
difficulties such as tilting and possible jammi ng o f ;he loading C ~j1 or the indication o f a
marked :-td:' ;.;.:1 .... f ::.'1. j1'''':h.;~.:lj!\ :. ; \ .. J.. ' pC ,·;·' ~ '.': ou ld therefore- be
712 OEDOMETER C001S0UlJA TIO,", TES1;,
~e!::ed \'.'h~reverpo"sible. If the use of a standard 'thin' specimen is unavoidable, it should
be closely examined and probed with a pin LU iuca{.; any pit.:':cs of '::oody or hard material,
which should be removed and replaced by peaty material before weighing. If excessive
disturbance is caused the specimen should be discarded and a new one prepared. However it
is better to accept some disturbance than to test a thin specimen containing a hard lump.
A difficulty which can arise with a peat or soil containing organic matter is that gas in the
pore water may cause the specimen to expand, causing a trimmed flat surface to swell up to
a rounded profile. If this is observed it should be reported and, if practicable, the amount
of swell should be measured over a period of time while preventing the specimen from
losing moisture. A second specimen should be prepared for the consolidation test and
placed in the cell and loaded as quickly as possible.
In addition to measuring the bulk density of the specimen, the following tests should be
carried out on sim ilar material immediately adjacent to it, even though preliminary
classification tests may have already been done, in order to provide data for correlation of
the relevant properties of peat.
Von Post classification (see above).
Moisture content (lOS ' C).
Loss on ignition (5S0'C).
Liquid limit (after thorough mashing and mixing).
Plastic limit (if practicable).
Specific gravity (on selected representative specimens only, to confirm the relationship
between SG and ignition loss, Section 14.3.17).
APPARATUS FOR CONSOUDA TlON TESTS
Conve:-.tiona.l cecomeler consolidation LC!lis using the normal size of specimen may not be
suitable for peats unless modified procedures are used. Ideally, test specimens should be as
large as possible, and use of Rowe consolidation cells (250 mm diameter for block samples,
150 mm diameter for piston samples) is preferable to a standard oedometer. This apparatus
will be described in Volume 3. Consolidation of a block sample may al so be carried out in a
large shearbox, using a specimen about 300 mm square and 150 to 200 mm thick. The
contact surfaces between the two halves of the box should be well greased and tightly
clamped together, to make the box watertight. A settlement dial gauge with 50 mm travel
may be necessary.
If a standard oedometer is the only suitable apparatus available, provision should be
made for testing a specimen thicker than the normal 20 mm if one can be accom-
modated. The duration of the 'primary' consolidation phase can be extended by a
factor of 4 if a single drainage test is carried out, as referred to in Section 14.5.6, item (3). A
settlement dial gauge with 25 mm travel, instead of the usual 12 mm, sh ould be used.
Another arrangement is to consolidate a portion of an undisturbed tube sample while it is
still in the sampling tube. A U~I00 tube can be cut so that a convenient length, up to
100 mm, is available for testing. The sample can be loaded either in a load frame or by
means of dead weights suspended from a co unterbalanced hanger , as indicated in Fig.
14.46. Adequate clearance should be provided between the loading piston and tube wall to
avoid the ri sk of jamming. A porous di sc should be placed between piston and sample to
permit drainage of water. Consolidation settlement is observed by means of a long travel
dial gauge a nd the overall settlement can be checked with a steel ruler. The volume o f water
squeezed out can also be collected and measured. A pressure o f 100 kN / m2 on a 100 mm
diamete r sa mple requires a load of about 80 kg, so this method is pract icable only if the
ma).i rnum desired loading i~ not too high.
.-\. disa(l\ ~ntag~ of rhi'i- proced ure is the relatively large amou nt of si de fric tion, which
c0: ild am () lIJll to GboJ t JOU:-o of the applied load for a sp~,-ime n with an H:D ratio 0f 1: I.
An 'lpprojYiate.:crrc(,liC'n ;':.~:l be made to [he ap:)Jied load .
14.6 SPECIA L Pl;RP0:,c fEST" .- I
On the other hand it is possihle to mea sure the change in pore water pressure by
~0nnecting a long capi!!2.ry tub"! to the ba"~ of the specimen, as indicated in Fig. 14.47. The
lower end of the sample tube includes a layer of coarse sand, which must be 5Qluratcd aG.G
completely free of air, contained between two layers of fine wire mesh.
Initially the water in the capillary tube should be about level with the mid~height of the
specimen and this is taken as the datum level. The height of the water level y in the capillary
tube above datum is observed at the same time as each settlement reading and is plotted in
the same way. About 1 m of capillary tube is required above datum level for every
10 kN / m2 of pressure to be applied. A fine bore tube is necessary to limit the volumetric
displacement to a negligible amount.
The test procedures to be described may be carried out by using any of the above
apparatus.
TEST PROCEDURES
Four types of test, which are a function of the rate of application of loading irrespective of
the type of apparatus used, are described below. They are
(1) Conventional loading in multiple increments, as described in Section 14.5.5.
(2) Rapid loading in multiple increments.
(3) Uniform increment loading, attempting to model the likely field loading.
(4) Single increment loading.
Procedural details that are common to all three types are as follows.
The highest pressure to be applied need not be much in excess of the maximum estimated
field loading. The initial loading stage should be at a small pressure, to guard against
material being squeezed out past the loading piston. >
Because of the very !arge initial settlement immediately after loading, the correction for
the deformation of the apparatus (Section 14.7.1) may be neglected.
Throughout the test the clearance between the loading plate (including the porous stone)
and the oedometer ring, or cell or tube wall, should be checked with a feeler gauge or piece
of razor blade. If rubbing against the side is detected the test should be discontinued and
the reason recorded on the test form.
At the end of the test any free water in contact with the specimen should be removed as in
the standard test (Section 14.S.S, stage (22)). The specimen can then be finally unloaded
and removed, and weighed and dried for the determination of moisture contents as in
"ages (23) to (26). The oven drying temperature should be the standard IOS - I IO'C, even
though some oxidation of organic matter may occur. The whole test specimen should be
dried fo r the moisture content measurement and then used fo r the loss on ignition test.
Initial voids ratio, moisture content, bulk density and dry der.sity are calculated from the
final dry mass.
The graphical analyses described below makes use of plots of settlement against log time.
However, settlement readings should also be plotted against square~root·time, and against
time to an arithmetical scale. These curves are sometimes helpful in locating the end of the
'primary' phase, and they can provide a useful check as to whether the selected point
(which in any case is arbitrary) looks sensible.
CONVENTIONAL LOADING TEST
The conventional test described in Section 14.5.5, using a load increment ratio of unity and
extending each increment to 24 h, is not a good method for peats, because the large amount
of secondary compression following each primary consolidation phase can affect the
primary phase o f the subsequent loading stage. However, if this method has been used as a
rout in e procedure, and graph, have been drawn up as described in Section 14.5.5, stage
(15), the following analy ~i~ .. hould be applied instead of the conventiona l method.
724 O!'Dm.: ETER ('U~ .'ULIDATiON TESTS 1•. 6 SPECIAL PLRPOSE TESTS 725

• • P:C:"Iw :~C' !:!

'
" pu Heys /
(or a bicycle .....neel)
settlement dial gauge
(long navel) load
Jl..
';
L .
-- -'J

U-l00 tube_
- di al gauge
support :J:£'- __ .L....991l!!:!l.~
.--. ---I}~
leve l
.... no leakage
~,
f in e bore
1 ine wire mesh__ tJ '.2:,. -- capil lar y tube
! - ·,-yoke hanger
coarse sond --.~~~

It
clearance
"i r-_ _ -· rr,m sca le
( - - loading piston
counter':lalanc e
f or yoke ~+-~ porous disc end cap fitted with '''- seal ing ring

~/
outlet tube
o ~sembly rubber or
- 5';~PlE-- i II U-100 tubo
. plast ic tube
cut to
convenient length

- porous d iSc
-- -- trey to (o l! ect
water
FIg. 14.47 Simpte meihod jor measuring pore waler pressure using
capillary lUbe. Elel'ation o/waler lel'el y mm indicates pore pressure at base
a/sample:

pwp = 1~ kN/ m2 approximately_

- - - - - we ight hanger

/ slotted we ights
Fig. 14.46 Consolidation 0/ pear sample in U~ JOO rube
On the log time /settlement curve for each load increment the ( p point at which the 'primary'
consolidation ends is identified as follows. If the point of inflection of the curve is evident
(i.e. double curvature), as in Fig. 14.45, Stages 2 and 3, two tangents are drawn in the same
way as described in Section 14.5.6, Stage l(a). A horizontal line drawn through the inter-
section of the tangen ts intersects the settlement curve at the ( p point. as shown in Fig. 14.45.
If the curvature is in one direction only (whether concave upwards, Stage l(a) in Fig. 14.45,
or convex upwards, Stage 1 (b», the (p point is assumed to be where the linea r pan of the
graph (the secondary compression line) begins.
For the first load increment the 'primary' compression cp is that which occurs from the
instant of application of the load, time ( :::: 0, to lime I :::: tp. Fo r subsequent loading stages.
cp is measured fr om one tu point to the next and includes the secondary compression o f the
prc\'ious incrf'IT.-:IH. <:.s ~rC'w !1 in fig. 14.45 . Th is is a simplifying asc:. L!mp~io n which gi\'es a
more .reali st ic result than w.:'Iuld be obtained from the conventional analy~js .
The initial cc mpres!-ioll. c" is the displacement which wk~s pl ace during the first 15 s
after application of the load increment, as shown in Fig. 14.45.
The time to the end of each 'primary' phase, (p. and the corresponding cumulative
settlement , 6H p. are recorded. Values of I1Hp are used for the calculation of voids ratio at
the end of each 'primary' stage in the equations given in Section 14.5.7.
The coefficient o f secondary compression, Cu , is obtained from the slope of the
secondary compression line for each loading stage, and is calculated on the basis of the
specimen thickness at the end of the 'primary' phase . In Fig. 14.45,
c. = (6H),
Ho - llip
Resu lts are tabulated and presented as outlined under 'Test res ults' below.
RAPID LOADII'IG TEST
This procedu re was described by Macfarlane (1969), who recommended a specimen H:D
ratio of abou t I : 3. and not greater than I : 2.5 .
The specimen is set up and loaded as for a conventional test. As the specimcn
c o nso !id ate~, a cur"'c of se;'lIlemcnt again st log time is plotted. \\'hen the end of the
'primary' phase is detected by the curve running into the linear seco ndary phase (Fig. 14.48)
or by virtual dis sipation d rxce'i~ pore waler pres ~ ure, the next load :;-:,: remrr,t is applied.
i26 OEDOMETER CONSOLIDATION TESTS 14.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE TESTS 727
!
, -\ v '
t
\ ",,--" " ';' \'r"'S ~ _' '( .'" ."::-:':G~ .: . :, :"::-~I.;",u::; . . :-7i:..;T
6Hp ~. ooE---l~""O\Jt 5' oge)
This procedure is based on a method described by Macfarlane (1969). Only one increment
-- -- - \ - t i me (tog sco te)
ofloading is applied , the pressure being enough to cover the maximum loading expected in
0·25 min. 21. hrs . the field. The test requires at least 24 h and could extend to several days.
The load should not be applied all at once, otherwise squeezing out of material may
i occur. A small load is applied at first (say 6 kN/ m 2), followed by further small increments
__ -.L Ci
at perhaps 1 min intervals, depending on the time required for the initial very rapid
settlement to take place. Timing of settlement readings is measured from the instant of
placing [he initial load. The full load is applied when it is judged that the sample has
Cp
become stiff enough not to be squeezed out past the loading plate.
The load is maintained until the secondary compression line is well established (Fig.
14.49). The pressure is then reduced by 50070, and left long enough 10 establish both
c
•E primary and secondary swelling. The specimen is then unloaded to a small pressure and
allowed to reach equilibrium before draining off any free water and removal.
.•
~ It may be desirable to test several specimens, some of which may be spoiled if the initial
applied pressures are too high.
, start of linear
•
~
.~ .6H - - - /y ' /,/.-" (secondary) phose TEST RESULTS
c,
dj
P
---
- - /0
,C'. ,, / t
' / ' ~Iermination
--- of sloge The following data should be presented for each loading increment, and unloading
,E
u
tog cyc le I decrement where appropriate.
-i Time/settlement curve.
Log-t ime/ settlement curve.
c'" ~ (OH)s
Square-root-time/ settlement curve.
Ho - 6H p
Fig. 14.48 f(opl(i iuaamg rest on peat-Iog-timelsettlement curve Jor one
(log scale)
stage 0·25 min.
I
ci due 10
This process is repeated for each loading stage except the last, which may be extended to init ial l oad
obtain a reliable value of the secondary compression coefficient. If a thin specimen is used
it may be possible to complete all the loading stages within one day, and to unload and
I
remove the specimen on the second day.
I It ·
~
At the end of each loading stage the cumulative compression IlHp should be plotted
against log p. The test need not be extended beyond the maximum field loading pressure apPlicat i ont
unless a straight line relationship between IlHp and logp has not been reached. at small !
By extending the duration of each loading increment into the secondary compression line
load increments

1 /(1,
by about half a log cycle of time, the slope of this line can be estimated for calculating
intermediate values of Co.
The resulting small amount of secondary compression becomes part of the 'primary'
full
10Gd
appti ed
/'
,/ /
I: I Cp

consolidation of the succeeding stage, as referred to above. Otherwise a separate test will be ; /'
necessary if values of Cit are required , possibly using only three load increments but E
.:: ,,«0/
~
extending the duration of each to ~4 h or more.
•• ,/
,"~
UNIFORM INCREMENT LOADING TEST
This procedure, suggested by Hobbs (1982), is an attempt to model the likely field loading ,:,~~L
sequence whereby fill is placed in successive layers of approximately uniform thickness. dj
The laboratory equivalent is a series of uniform increments of pressure instead of a
constant increment ratio as is normally applied. A sequence of loading representing layers one log c.~
_ (OHL
of fill of about O.S III thickness might be 10, 20, 30 1 40, ... kN /m~. Otherwise lhe C~ - fio- 6Hp
procedure is as described for rapid loading with multiple inc rements,
This type of loading sequence is suggested as a preferred method, but details should first Fig. 14 .49 Single load increment tesl on peal-Iog-/ imelsE/!,';:I"fn:
be decided in consultation with the engineer , SI> c::iI1g cU''I'es .
7:. OED·~I ;\lL:. i E R t U:"";::.,)UDA IluN TESTS 14.6 SPEC IAL PURPOSE TESTS 729

Time to en d o f 'prim 2.ry" c(ln."olidation, tp. V:J: CS

CUffiu.:"i.;,'C.;calerne:1t to end of 'primarY' i)~.Ci :;C . ill,.. rat IO
Specimen thickness at end of 'primary' phase, (Ho - ; AHp). 'i (fI el d m oi stur e content)
I1H
Cumulative strain, H P •
o
Voids ratio at end of 'primary' phase, e. eo
Coefficient of secondary compression , C".
Initial compression, Ci '
'Primary' com pression, cpo
-=-r
Total change in height during load increll)ent, 6H.
Initial compression ratio: 6% x 1000/0 .

' Primary' com pression ratio: 6cit x 1000/0.

If pore water pressure is measured, it should be plotted against tim e, square-rool-time, and
log tirne.
The following data should be reported for the whole test.
I1H .
Plot of H P agamst log pressure.
o
et J rchange
1 log

I = Cc
per
cycle

Plot of voids ratio, e, against log pressure (Fig. 14.50). I

Plot of C" against log pressure.
Initial and final moisture contents, Wo % and w/'lo • Po ( 1leld load )
Initial and final voids ratios, eo and ef pr essure ( log sca le)
Initial bulk density and dry density. Fig. 14.50 Typical ellog p curve/or peat
Compression index, C. (Fig. 14.50) .
Specimen diameter, thickness and depth.
liquid li mit. similar to BCDEFG in Fig. 14.16 . The reloading curve eventually merges with the
Plastic limit (if possible). continuation of the initial loading curve.
loss on ignition.
Specific gravity. 14.6.6 PermeabiJity Measurement
Initial degree o f saturation.
Some oedometer cells are provided with a means of carrying out a direct permeability
Degree of humification and decomposition on the von Post scale.
measurement while the specimen is under load. The essential features of such a cell are a
Visual description of specimen.
bottom inlet, which can be connected to a standpipe such as a burette; sealing rings to
prevent water finding its way aro und the specimen and containing ring; and an upper
14.6.5 Overconsolidated Clays
overflow outlet. A cell of th is type, arranged for a falling head permeability test, is shown
diagrammatically in Fig . 14.51 .
Some of the methods of analysis of consolidation test data for overconsolidated clays were
When equilibrium has been reached under the pressure at which the permeability is to be
referred to in Section 14.3.14. Those procedures are beyond the scope of this book, but the
data required for the analysis includes the following which can be provided from laboratory measured, connect the bottom inlet to a burette or to a sui tably calibrated glass tube, by
tests. means of a length of rubber tubing fitted wi th a pinch clip. Connect a length of rubber
tubing to the upper outlet leading 10 a beaker. Fill 10 near the top of the burette with
(1) The e/ log p cu rve , extended 10 as many load increments as the capacity of the de-aired water without trapping any air, and fill the cell up to the overflow level. Open the
apparatus will allow. Three points qn a st raigh t line do not nece ssarily indicate that the pinch clip, and start the clock when the level in th e burette reaches a given mark. Record the
virgin compression line has been reached. time taken for the level in the standpipe tube to fall to a second mark. Repeat two or three
(2) The unloading cu rve back to the Po value or to the swelling pressure Ps' This is just as times.
im portant as the loading curve and should be well defined by means o f several decrements From each set of readings calculate the permeability of the soil specimen as fo r the
of load. falling-head permeability procedure, Section 10.7 .2. The height of specimen used in the
(3) The Atterberg limits of the clay, for the derivation o f Cc empirically. calculations is the height of specimen at the end of the load increment.
An alternative procedure is to connect the lower end of the cell to a constant pressure
(4) Measured speci fic gra\'ity of soi l particles. supply, such as the apparatus shown in Fig. JO.33 (Chapter 10), and carry out a constant
(5) Some ana lY!' is procedures ma ke use of a laboratory load-unl oad-reload cycle. The type head test. 8 U1 the pressure applied should be carefully cont~0l1ed to avoid pipin g. and
('If :'~ Ir\ t" ,:,' br ~_:I·. d j, ; r;~ ::,·;~l(.'J iii Fif. 14 . 17 , \\ hi.:h can k u,d (J ot'!ain a fi t'l:! c.n:.:: 1'<:,,:,;:.:1. i .!- i..: : I~ .;:0' :. '.; ;'~ , ' .-- : .1.
 o IETE \'so; ' ION 5 c; ATI( vw EQL: NT 731

MEAN CAliBriATION OF OECOMETER PRESSES NO. ~ 6, ;; 8

n load on hanger kg
Cumulat ive correction .6a

Incrementol corredion 0 ~m
bu r ette or
standpipe with mm scoll? D. £ 5- . Oot·-.!..U:..iJ.._
Ca' !yc: !od tly
-
bu r ette stand load on hanger kg (log scale)
JIOOd / p orous discs
0
0·3 06 J·l 1·5 5 10 20 40 80 160 320
I
outl et connE'ct ion L",
i-+--- ~ : : : :
I
I I
20
I

~$%?1n
I
~ [--....1
I I I I I I

,1~~~hl ~
c
I
:/ _ _ .+. :- ~ _ _/ _ overflow "- 40 I I I I I I I

;~
10 book.r I I I I I I I I
c I I I I I I I I
~ 60

l!1
I I I I I I I
't
v I I

inle t
.0,~,,:~" ", "- .."
~ I
80
I I I I

I
I I I I I

: ~
oedamE'ter I I I I I I I
C- I I I I I I I I
sea lin g ~ 100
~
I I I I I I I I I I
E
Fig. 14.51 Arrangemenr for failing head permeability rest in oedomeler
120 I I ,I· I I I I I ' I I
consolidation cef( 10 100
Hi. 14.52 Typical calibration dOla for oedOllWfDr presses
r. ~::)Un ~ile Ct"erag~ value, to two !l'!gnificar.! fi2t!r':"", .~~ .:'!'::" ,~:::::.: u;r£c ;::;n::ubiii,y under
that particular effective stress.
readings at each standard load from the calibration curve and tabulate them. Incremental
deflections from one standard load to the next, denoted by 6, are obtained 'by difference
14.7 CALIBRA nON AND USE OF EQUIPMENT and can also be tabulated. (See Fig. 14.52).
Load frames and cells of the same type usually give very similar calibration curves, so an
14.7.1 Calibration of Load Frame average curve can be drawn up for all such frames. However, if a non-standard cell is fitted
or different porous discs are used, a fresh calibration will be necessary.
The necessity for obtaining the deformation characteristics of the apparatus was explained The cumulative correction !J.a is subtracted from the cumulative settlement of the
in Section 14.5.2. specimen at the end of each load increment (Section 14.5.6, item (5), and Fig. 14.29). T he
For the calibration test a disc of metal (preferably brass or copper) of the same incremental correction (} is applied to the settlement/time graphs for each loading stage in
.I dimensions as the test specimen is required. The end faces mu st be machined flat, smooth order to obtain the d, points (Fig. 14.9) .
! and parallel. Reference to the calibration curve is necessary during a swelling pressure test (Section
The load frame and cell are calibrated as one unit. The cell is assembled and placed in the 14.6.1).
load frame exactly as for a standard test (Section 14.5.5, stages (6) to (10)), except that the
metal disc is placed between the two porous discs in place of the soil specimen and ring. No 14.7.2 Load Increments
water is added to the cell.
After setting the dial gauge to its initial reading, add weights to the hanger to provide a In a typical standard consolidation test, six load increments and three decrements are
pressure of 12 kN/m', as described in Section 14.5.5, stages (II) and (13). Read the normally applied. Additional load increments may be necessary if the test is extended to a
compression gauge; the deflection will take place almost instantaneously. Continue adding maximum press ure that is higher than usual. The number of load decrements should not be
load increments in the usual stages, doubling at each stage, up to the maximum for the less than half the number of increments, because the unloading curve may be needed as part
apparatus, and record the compression gauge reading!J.a under each load. Reduce the load of the analysis for establishing the field compression curve (Section 14.6.5). For a
by the same stages to 12 kN/ ml, again reading the gauge. Repeat the load/ unloaded cycle shortened test, the number of incremen ts can be reduced to four, followed by two
twice more. decrements, but this should be regarded as a minimum.
Plot the compression gaiJge readings against load on hanger (kg), the latter t.o a log scale, The usual procedure is to apply increments of load 'Such that the pressure is dOl"bled at
as shown in Fig. 14.52. Draw a smooth mean curve through the points obtained for the each increment, i.e. a load ratio of 2. (Another way of expressing this is that the load
loading stages and use this as the calibration curve for that apparatus. Read off the gauge increment, op, is equal to the load, p, already applied, i.e. op l p = I). The loading
i32 OEDIJMEi ER <.Ol\-::,JLlD.\: IIL N TE.d~· T '''.1 CA •. lot'\.. \ TIO . ~-/"\ . ,D US •. __ , c QU • .. 1_ ,T 33

sequence recommended by the BS (Table 14.14) does not maintain a load ratio of two
i:i iuUghoi.it the Idnge, ..·ll.i.:h iii why the ~!t.:::-~ative suggested preSS"i..i.res ha';c b::e!! :!~de:;!!0
Table 14 .12. Pressures outside the normal ranges, for very soft and sti ff (or hard soils), are
included in Table 14.12.
1t1J
I y .
I
I
t~z~' I
iI
Throughout a test the load ratio should be kept constant, preferably at a value of 2,
Ii -re-
~Zl
because a change of ratio from one increment to the next can affect the e" values. If a closer
spacing of points than normal is required to define the e/ log p curve, a load ratio of y 2 is
co nvenien t because ailernale loads will be Ihe same as the 'standard' loads, giving a o I ! II
sequence 6,8 .4, 12 , 17 ,)5,35,50,71,100 .. . kN /m' . If a ratio of 1.5 were used, most
.2
'0c II I I
loads would be non-'standard' and would r.equire inconvenient combinations of weights.
-
ii
I I i -jz
I
,I
r
~
:2
14.7.3 Multiple Tests 0 I I I I
,
>
I ton Ipe-r I
qJor
I
loot I I
I Ib pI
xl000
I
r squ re 1
In a commercial soil laboratory, consolidation tests are rarely carried out singly, but are
more usually run several at a time, Consolidation frames can be mounted side by side on a
0·5 1
I
2 • 8 16 2I • 8 16 ot 32
bench, provided that the bench is strong enough and that provision has been made to 50 1 200 .00 800 1600 SO 100 200 4 00 800 1600
prevent overtu rning when all frames are fully loaded (see item (10) of Section 14.5,3). 10 ·25 kN/m ~ 47"86 kN/m
l
One perso n can loo k after several consolidation tests, but the intervals between starting pressure (log scole) pressure (log scal e )
o ne test and the next should be cho sen with care to avoid two or more readings at standard (a) (b)
time intervals occurring simultaneously. Convenient intervals for starti ng eight tests are
shown in Table 14.15. Fig. 14.53 PloTling ellogp curves from (est data in imperial units of
The pattern ca n be repeated for subsequ ent tests. Aft er the first half hour from the start, pressure: (a) loadings in tons per square foot, (b) loadings in pounds per
the difference of a few seconds in taking a read ing is hardly noticeable . When large weights square foo t (y and z are exaggerated fo r clarity)
are to be moved on or off the load hanger the assistance of a second person may be needed.
plotting the el logp curve and when calculating pressures the conversio n 1 ton /ft 2 = lO7.25
14.7.4 Use of Obsoit:scent Load Frame kN/ni.2 shou!d be used.
Since the pressure scale is logarithmic, every point corresponding to the standard
If a load frame designed for imperial units is used for tests in S1 units, it is doubtful sequence ofloading will be displaced to the right from an exact multiple of 100 kN / m 2 by
whether it is worth while attempting to carry ou t any conversions to the apparatus. It is the same small distancey (Fig. 14.53 (a», The ellogp curve will be identical in form to that
easier to use the same specimen size and hanger weights as before, and to make an which would be obtained if pressures in exact multiples of 100 kN / m 1 were used. The
adjustment when plotti ng the el log p curve. For instance the standard apparatus previously displacement y, on a typical A4 graph sheet, is about 1.5 mm.
used in Britain had a specimen 3 in diameter and a beam ratio of II : I, so that IO Ib on the Similarly, a load frame designed to ASTM standards , for which the loadings are in
hanger gave 1 ton/ ft 2 on the specimen. The apparatus is used exactly as before, but when multiples of 1000 lb/ ft2, can be used without modification by using the conversion
1000 Ib/ft' = 47 .88 kN/ m' . Every multiple of 1000 Ib / ft' will be di splaced to the left from
an exact multiple of 50 k N/ m' by the same small distance z (Fig. 14.53 (b)). The
Table 14.15. STA RTING TIMES FOR MULTIPLE TESTS displacement z on a typi cal sheet is abou t I mm.
The specimen dimensions should be expressed in millimetres (3 in = 76. 2 mm), and a
Tesl "'0. SI(Jrting rime Infervaf compression dial gauge measuring millimetres sho uld be used. Then, all other calculations
(min) (min) are exactly like those described in Section 14 .5 ,7,
0
5
2 REFERENCES
5
10 A merican Society for T esting and Mat erials P an II . Test Designation D243 5-70, ·Onc·dimensional consolidation
II properlies of soils'. ASTM , Philadelphia.
4 21 Baracos. A . (1976). 'Clogged filter discs'. Technical note. Ceofechlliqul', Vol. 26. No.4.
5 Barden, L. (1965). 'Consolidation of compacted and unsaturated clays', Geofl'chnique. Vol. I ~ , No.3.
26 Capps, J . F. and H ejj, H. (I 96S). 'Laboratory and field tests on a collapsing sand in nort hern Nigeria'. Technical
NOll' , Geotechnique, Vol. IS, No. 4.
6 JI Casagrande , A. (l932) . 'The structure of clay and its importance in foundation engineering'. J. BOSTon Soc.
II Civ. Eng .• Vol. 19.
; 42 Casagrande, A. (!~36). ' The delermination of the pre·consolidation load and its pra~tical significance' . Proc.
ht. 1m. CO'If. SO il Mech., Cam b;idgc . ~1a ~s .. \'('1. 3.
5
Cooling. L. F. anJ Skctr.rwn. A. W . (! 9" !). 'S,1:,I\: {'\r::rimer.t~ on t!-.c cor.~o!ida l ion of day'. J. Int . Civ. Eng.,
8
-~- ----~~~- " Vol. 16.
73· OE[ V!HL. TER . . . vn.'OUl,'" 1 HJN Tl '" J:)
. ~

Da\'is, E. H. and Poulos . H. (19M). 'The analysis of settlement under three-dimensional conditions'. Symp. on
s:::/: GrOl~.,,;;:l D:;;., In.':t. Eng, Australia, Bri~~1..~e.
Gilboy. O. (J936). 'Improved soil testing methods'. Eng. News Rec., 21 May 1936.
Hobbs, N. B. (1982). Engineering properties 0/ peat. Forthcoming Symposium on Peat to be held in 1982 under
aegis of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society of London.
Kezdi, A. (l980). Handbook 0/ Soil Mechanics, Vol. 2, Soil Testing. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. (English
translation from the H ungarian, 'Talajmechanika I', Budapest, 1960).
Lambe, T. W. (1951). Soil Testing/or Engineers. Wiley, New York.
Lambe, T. W. and Whitman, R. V. (1979) . Soil Mechanics, 51 Version. Wiley, New York.
Appendix*: Units, symbols, reference data
Landva, A. O. and Pheeney, P . E. (1980). 'Peat, Fabric and Structure'. Canadian Georech. J., Vol. 17, NO.3,
pp 416-435.
Leonards, G. A. (ed.) (1962). Foundation Engineering, Chapter 2. McGraw-Hili, New York.
MacDonald, D. H. and Skempton, A. W. (1955). 'A survey of comparisons between calculated and observed
settlements of structures on day'. Paper No. 19. Can! on Correlation Between Calculated and Observed B.I METRIC (Sf) UNITS
Stresses and Displacements in Building. Inst. Civ. Eng., London.
Mitchell. J. K., Vivatrat, V. and Lambe. T. W. (1977) . 'Foundation performance of the tower of Pisa'. Proc.
ASCE. Geotech, Eng. Div. , Vol. 103, No . GT3. Customary SI units used throughout Volumes 1 and 2, which are also generally accepted
MacFarlane, 1. C. (1969) . Muskeg Engineering Handbook, Chapter 4. University of Toron!o Press. for use in soil mechanics and foundation engineering, are summarised in Table B.I.
von Post, L. (1924). 'Oas genetische System der organogenen Bildungen Schwed ens' . Int. Comm. Soil Sci., IV Standard multiplying prefixes are given in Table B.2. A selection of factors for converting
Commission. British, US and CGS units to SI, and vice versa, is gi\'en in Table B.3, generally to 4
Rowe, P. W. (1966). 'A new consolidation cell' . Geotechnique, Vol. 16, No.2.
significant figures.
Rowe, P. W. (1972). 'The relevance of soil fabric [Q site investigation practice' . 12th Rankine lecture, Geo-
technique, Vol. 22, No.2. Definitions of some SI units, and explanatory notes, were given in the Appendix to
Rutledge, P. C. (1935) . 'Recent developments in soil testing apparatus'. J. Boston Soc. Civ. Eng., Vol. 22, No.4. Volume 1, Section A.I.3, and are not repeated here.
Schmertmann, J. H. (1953). 'Estimating the true consolidation behaviour of day from laboratory test results'.
Proc. ASCE, Vol. 79, Separate No. 3111.
Schmertmann, J. H. (1954) . 'The undisturbed consolidation behaviour of day'. Trans. ASCE, Vol. 120, Paper
Table B.1. SI UNITS FOR SOIL MECHANICS
2775 .
Scon, C. R. An Introduction to Soif Mechanics, Applied Science Publishers. Quantity Unit Unit Application Melric
Simons, N. E. and Menzies, B. K. (1977) . A Short Course in Foundation Engineering. Newnes·Butterworth, symbol conl'ersions
London.
Length millimetre mm Sample measurements. lum 10- 6 m
S~:~::::Jton. A. \\'. U(44). 'Notes on the comp,t:";;~\bBity of days'. Q.J. Geol. Soc., London, Vol. C.
panicle size
Skempton, A. W. and MacDonald, D. H. (1956). 'The allowable settlements of buildings'. Proc. Inst. Ciy. Eng.,
5(3), Part 3, Dec. 1956.
micrometre um Sieve aperture 10- 3 mm
and particle size
Skempton, A. W. and Bjerum. L. (1957). 'A contribution to the settlement analysis of foundations on day'.
Geotechnique, Vol. 7, p. 168.
Area square millimetre mm' Area of section
Skempton, A. W. and Petley, J. (1970). 'Ignition loss and other properties of peats and clays from Avonmouth,
King's Lynn and Cranberry !\1o~s'. Geotechnique. Vol. 20, No.4.
Volume cubic metre m' Earthworks
Taylor, D. W . (1948). Fundamenta!sojSoil Mechanics, Wiley, New York.
cubic centimetre em' Sample \'olume 1 m' 1()6 cm l
Taylor, O. W. (1942). 'Research on consolidation of days'. M.I.T., Dept. of Civ. and Sanit. Eng .• No . 82.
mil!ilitre ml FI~id measure
Terzaghi, K. (1925). Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage. Deuticke, \Vien. .
cubic millimetre mm 3 Sample volume as calculated
Terzaghi, K. (1934). 'Die Ursachen def Scbiefstellung des Turmes von Pisa'. Der Bauingenieur, Berlin. Reprinted
( 1960) in From Theory to Practice in Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York.
Mass gram g Accurate weighings
Terzaghi, K. (1939) . 'Soil Mechanics - a new chapter in engineering science'. James Forrest Lecture, J. Inst.
kilogram kg Bulk sample and I kg == lOOOg
CiY. Eng., London, Vol. 12, No.7.
approximate weights
Terzaghi, K. (1943). Theoretical Soil Mechanics. Wiley, New York. megagram Mg Alternatively known 1 MS 1000 kg
Terzaghi, K. and Frohlich, O. K. (1936). Theorie der Setzung von Tonschichten; eine EinjiJhrung in die
as tonne 10' g
analytische Tonmechanik. Deuticke, Leipzig.
Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R. W. (1948). Soil Mecnanics in Engineering Practice, (2nd edn. 1967). Wiley, New York. megagram per !vtg/m3 Sample density and
Density (mass) Density of waler
Tschebotarioff, G. P. (1951). Soil.'I1echanics, Foundations and Earth Structures, Chapter 6. McGraw-Hi!l, New cubic metre dry density I \1g/m3
York . I g/cm3

(weight) kilonewton per kN/m 3 Overburden I Mg/cm 3

cubic metre pressure 9.807 kg/ m3

Temperature degree Celsius 'C LaboralOr) and bath Celsius is

temperatures preferred name
for Centigrade

Time second Timing of laboratory I minute = 60 S

Ic~ts

The tables given here incorpo:-ate data tabulated in the '\rrendlx :0 Yolume I.

i 3~
 y, :-< 0 1

~
Q~(Jfll i;y [n il [ 'n i t AppiK(Jlion .HOrte
srmbol ____ _c.pIl.::.'~!!Jon"s'_______

Force newton N Load ring calibrations I kgf = 9.807 N

Small-magnitude forces I N = 101.97
gram f
kilonewton kN Forces of intermediate I kN "" 1000 N
magnitude "" approx. 0 .1
tonne f

Pressure newton per N/ m2 Very low pressures I g/ cm 2

and stress square metre and stresses = 98.07 N /ml
Pa • =. 98.07 Pa
= pa.s.cal
kilonewton kN / m2 Pressure gauges I kgf/cm2
per square Compressive strength = 98.07 kN/m2
metre and shear strength
= kilopascal kPa of soils I bar 100 kN / m2

Pressure torr Torr Very low pressure I lorr "" 133.3 Pa

(\'acuum) under vacuum 133.3 N / m2
= I mmHg

Dynamic millipascai mPas Viscosity of waler I mPas "" IcP

.... iscosity second {centipoise}
= millinewton second mNs/m2
per square metre

Coefficiem square metre per m 2/MN Settlement I cm2/kgf

of volume meganewton calculations = 10.20 m2/MN
compressibility
(m,.)

Coefficient oi )4U<lre metre m~/ year ESlimi!i.l'::·jl 01 I cm 2/ s

consotidation peT year rate of = 3156 m 2/ year
(c) settlement

Coefficiem of metre per m/ s Flow of water 1 cm/s

permeability second in soils = 0.01 m/s
(k)

Frequency hertz Hz Rate of I Hz "" Is-I =

vibration . load 1 cycle per second
repet ition elc. (cps)

I
MCI,k ,;t'C ,~rtu'c size~ u ~d fOf ~oil l estin~ are lilled in Table 4.5 (Volum e IJ.

Table B.2 MUL TIPL YING PREFIXES

PrefIX

I
symbol Name MUltiplying factor

G giga 1000000000 10'

M mega 1000000 Io'
k kilo 1000 10'
h · heclo 100 10'
da · deca 10
d · deci 10 - 1 0.1
, ·centi 10 - 2 0.01
m milli 10- 3 O.OClJ
micro 10 - 6 0.000 00 1

-----------~---==-~~-~-="-~
--~-~
--~.-----------
"
n na:'lO ,n - 9 n fVV\ IYV'I no''\ '

. ... c ,c~"mJae.Ia,<l;: ~ I
 -f

-:,i' APPEND lX APP E,, !1!\ ;39

'..-':'??."s ~oS! SI/O olflers Chapter reference Measured quonlify Symbol Unil of measurement

Coefficient of 0.09290 m 2/vear ft 21year 10.76

10 Coefficiem of permeability k
1O~3
m/s
consolidation 339.3 . m2/)·ear in 21minute 2.947x
(at PC)
1O ~ 4
kr m/s ,
3156 m 2/year cm 2/s 3.169x
Absolute (spe-cific) permeability K mm-
Specifi c surface 5 mm~1

Coefficient of
permeability
0.9659x 10- 8
0.01*
mls
mls
ft/year
cm /s
1. 03 5 x 1()8
100'
" California Bearing Ratio CBR .,
Rate of 0.01667 mils ml/ min 60' 12 , I] TOlal stress paramelers:
now 4546 mllmin gallon/min (UK) 2.20x 10- 4
Apparent cohesion Cu , C kNim 2
i5,77 litre/min gallon/hour (UK) 0.0132
Angle of shear resista nce ~ degrees
3785 mUmin gallon/min (US) 2.642x 10- 4
Drained strength:
0.028]2 (cumec)m 3/s cU.ft/ s (cusec) 35.31 Cohesion kNi m2
Cd. c'
Angle o f shear resistance qJ d.\P' degrees
• Exac! \"alu~ Residual strength :
Example~: Other un iLJ 10 5t: 10 con~crl (eollO melrU, muh,pl~' by O.3()48
Silo othel unlLJ : 10 con,'ert mt"lJrlO 10 (<<I, multi pl) by 3.281
Cohesion
Angle o f shear resistance
",
~',
kN/m 2
degrees

13 Unconfined compressive strength q" kN :"m2

B.2 SYMBOLS Remoulded compressive strength q", kN / m2
, Sensitivity S,
Symbols generally used in Volumes 1 and 2 are summarised in Table B.4 (soil properties)
and Table B.5 (miscellaneous). The Greek alphabet is given in Table B.6. 14 Coefficient of compressibility a,. m 2ikN
Coefficient of \olume compressibility Ill,. m 2,,\lN
Table 8.4 SYMBOLS FOR SOI L AND WATER PROPERTIES Coefficient of consolidation C,. m 1i ytar
Secondary com pression index CO
Chopl(!r reference lvi'!II!I,,":!d (ll/anlt!;" Symbol C'nil of tIleosuremenl
Secc-ncary .:ompression ind ex (peats) Co
Compression index C,

2 to 6 Moisture content .. ~,
Swell inde.'( e,
(Vol. I) Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Plasticity index
Non·plastic
LL
PL
PI
NP
.,
~,
~,

Table D,S MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS

Relative consistency e,
Liqu idity index
Shrinkage limit
Linear shrinkage
Shrinkage ratio
Ll
SL
LS
R
.,
0:0
Measured qllontity

l ength
Symbol

L, I
l 'nit of measurement

mm
kN / rnl
Diameter D mm
Unil weight y
Mg/m)
Heigh t, thickness H mm
Bulk (mass) density P
Mg/m3
Area of cross·section A, , mm'
Dry density Po Volume (solid) V ,m'
Saturated density P, Mg/m~ Volume (fluid)
Submerged density /I.1g/ rn 1
Q ml
p' r-,'lass m g
M inimum d ry densit), MgJrn1

.,
PDm.n Time { minutes
Maximum dry density PD max ~'l g/ml
Densit)' of water Mg/m 3
Temperature T 'C
P.· Rate of now o f fluid q mllminute
Optimum moisture content OMC Head of water h mm
Specific gra"ity of soil particles
Specific gra\'ity of liquid
Degree of saluratio n
\'oid s ratio
G,
GL
5
e
., Head difference
Heighl above datum
Hyd:-aulic gradient
Critical hydraulic gradient
6h
y

;,
mm
mm

P vrosity
" Velocity of now ,
.,
Per~'e ntage air voids
mm/ s
V, % Pressure p kN/m 2 (kPa)
Particle ~ize D J.4m or mm
Pressure difference or change
Perc.:ntage smaller than D P
6p kN/m 2 (kPa)
LClad ring factor C, N/ Ji\'ision
Effect i,.: ~ile D" mm Force P,F

"""
· ~It·~ ,-,1.[ 'han' ':z .... mm
D" S:lcar f~)r,:e S
L" nif·~· :~ ..,)crTi...:km L' Weigh! force Ii'
D~'nami c 1"i51,.1)sity of "ater mPas
" NOl mat $tre'$ 0, on k"/m2 (kPa)
742 APPENDIX
Table 8.8 USEFUL DATA

Time 1 day 1440 minutes

Index
I week 10 080 minutes
I momh(average) 43920 minutes
I year 525960 minutes
31.56 x \()6 seconds I Absolute permeability 401, 402, 407
Accuracy 338, 359, 360
stalic compression 483
static, in layers 487
Ai r bubbles 428-430, 454 undisturbed 391, 494
DensifY Pure water 0.99820 g/cml Air voids content 473 vibration 491, 493
(20'C) Sea water 1.04 g/cm 3 Air·water pressure system 343 ,34 5, 622 CBR soaking test 494-498
!\1ercury \3.546 g/cm3 Angle of friction 510,520 CBR standard forces 472
Angle of shear resistance 515 , 521, 522, 525 , 530, CBR typical values 478
Fluid pressure 1 kN/m 2 = I kPa 102 mm of water 538, 586 Cemented sand 525
7.53 mm of mercur), typical valu~ 541 CGS units 735, 737
1 mofwater 9.807 kN/m2 Angularity of 1:>~:'1nS 415,425 Chemical tests for sod ium cations 458, 466
Anvil, dial gauge 339, 357, 359 Chisel-edge anvil 499,501
MercurY-lo-water Apparent cohesion 515,522,528, 538, 586 Classification according to permeability 424
manometer: Appltcations of soil tests 421 ,476,538,599,680 C lassification from pinhole test 464
I mm difference 0.128 kN/m2 Area correction graph 596,605,624, 627 Coefficient of consolidation 530,65 1,655,661,
1 kN/m 2 7.8 1 mm difference Area correction in triaxial {eSI 594 668, 683
Area of COOlaC! in shear box 540, 565 of permeability 398,401,402,406,407,410,672
Areas of specimens 740 of secondary compression 655, 674, 684, 708,
General Circumference/diameter
ASTM standards 335-337 ,469 720,725,726
of a circle
Anerberg limits 676, 722, 728 of volume compressibility 65 1, 655, 671, 683
3.142
" Autographic unconfined apparatus 607-609 Cohesion 515 , 522, 524
Autographic unconfined test 610-614 Cohesive and cohesionless soils 524,557,593
Base of natu ral
logarithms Collapse of grain structure 717
Backward-reading gauge 341,356,358,686 Compaction criteria 394,473,475
e 2.718
Bar 364, 736, 737 degree of 396, 397, 423, 475
~:;~:::! :;::,; ~~ ~ , 594·~9~, 6~f riynami,. 196, 197.4]6
Standard acCt:;<!I .. ,i .... u
due to terrestrial gravity Base adaptor and top caps 646 III large snearOOX 564
g 9.807 m/s2 Base course 471,477 mould 396, 457
Base material 419,448 Compressed air 343, 345, 348 , 370
Beam ratio 687, 692 Compressibility coefficients 670, 683
l Bearing capacity 478, 538, 599 Compression index 672, 683
I Bearing ratio 470
Bench 370, 687, 689
Compression ratios 654, 673 , 708
Compression test 581,582,586,61 1, 623,631
BlBLlOGRAPHY

Anderton, P. and Bigg, P. H. ( 1972). Changing to the Metric System. National Physical LaboralOry, HMSO, London.
I Bishop sand sampler 422
Block sample 388-392, 565
'Boiling'sand 416,421,427
Compressive stress 613,656
Consolidated drained (CD) test 530, 542
Consolidation 529,568,651,654,656,657 , 660
British Geotechnical Society Sub-committee on the Use of 51 ur-its in Geotechnics (1973). 'Report of the sub-
committee'. News Item, Geotechnique, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 607--610.
BS 3763: 1970. 'The International system of units (SI),. British Standards Institution, London.
International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (1968). 'Technical Terms, Symbols and
I Boulder clay 391,601,634,636
Bourdon tube 364
British (imperial) units 336, 369, 470, 472, 613,
733, 735, 737
Consolidation cell 652, 684, 685, 690
Consolidation coefficients-typical values 683, 684
Consolidation press (load frame) 684-689,730
Consolidation {.est (ASTM) il3
Definitions (8 languages)', 4th edition. Societe suisse de mecanique des sols et des travaux de fondations, ZUrich.
Metrication Board (J 976). Going Melric - The International Metric System. Leaflet lJ~ I, 'An outline for technology
\
I
British standards 335,33 7,359,361,365,371
Brittle failure 583,597,614
(BS) 684·70 1
calculations 709-7 13
and engineering'. Metrication Board, London. i Brittle sample 370, 603 graphical analysis clay (standard) 702-704,706
Metrication Board (1977), How to Write Metric- A Style Guide/or Teaching and Using 51 Units, HMSQ, London, o\'erconsolidaled clay 728
Page, C . H, and Vigoureux, p, (1977), The International System of Units (approved translation of Le Systeme
International d'Uniles, P aris, 1977), National Physical Laboratory, HMSO, London.
r Calibration of instruments 337,355,359,361 ,
366, 369
peat 717-728
settlement on salUration 717
Walley, F, (1968), ' Metrication' (Technlca1 ,Note). PrQC, hlSt. Civ. Eng., Vol. 40, May 1968, Discussion includes Calibration of oedometer press 685,707 ,730 swelling 715
contribution by Head, K. H" Vol. 41, December 1968. Calibration of standpipes 41 3,451 swelling pressure 714
I California Bearing Ratio 469,470, 472, 476
Care of instruments 355,359,361,364
Constant head permeability test 398, 402, 409,
423,427.449, 729

i CB R mould 470
CBR penetration test 498-507
CB R sample curing 487
Constant pressure systems 343, 446
Consumable materials ]50
Conservatio n factOrs 735,737
CBR sample preparation 391,470,475,479, Coulomb envelope 523,528-532, 558, 559, 562,
480-494 5iO
AS [M Nmpaction 490 CO:.JJ0mb's law 515,522,538,593
f as compaction 489
material ~electlon 481, 483
Couple 515, 334
Critical hydraulic gradient 416-4 18,427,441

l
specified effon 4;5, 492 Critical voids ratio 515, ~25, 53: 538

i-B
 - ---_.
744
Crumb ICst 4tH
'_:.::.~ ;';,,;.1t, C':;':; , ';VL
CUI-plane method 370
CUl ting ring 375,382. 396, 685, 690
Damp sand 526
Darcy's law 399-402,406,416
Data logging and processing 350, 354
De-aired water 428,451
Dc-airing permeameter 439, 454
Dead-weight gauge It:ster 340, 366
Dead weighls 363, 368, J'O
Definitions 401,470, 51 4,5 85,653
Deformation 515
Deformation of oedomeler 685, 707, 730
Degree of consolidation 654, 658
Degree of saturation 654, 670
Dense sand 524, 532, 644
Densi!y 473,505.558, 5i8
Devialor Siress 585. 590, 592, 595 , 628
Dial gauge 339,341,355-359
Dietert compaction 395, 396., 546, 549
Differential seulement 680
Dilatancy 515,524
Direct stress 516
Discharge velocity 402, 403, 405, 407
Dispersion test 465
Dispersive soil 399,402,420,422,458,459,
46)·467
Displacement 5J 4, 5.21
Displacement contro! ~ I? ~! 1
D:s;ill~.j \J~·iuhi~n.:i "d(~1 .. ..:.6, 446
Disturbance 676, 677
Double drainage 669
Double hydrometer lest 465
Drainage 421,422,566
Drainage path 660
Drained shear strength 510, 530, 538, 565
Drained shear test 524, 527, 529, 64 I
Dry density 473,475,481,524,548
Dry sand 524, 64~
Duration of loading slage 696
DY:1amic \;iscosil), 402
e/!og p curve' 670,676·678,710, 7J3·718, 7~9, 732
Effective grain size 400,414,423,425
Effective shear strength 335,530,532
Effective Strcss 509, 529, 532. 654, 6~8
Electronic measuring and monitoring 350-354
Elevation head 401
Empirical relalionsh!p~ for permeability 413
Engineering pr0penies 335
Equilibrium load 677
Equipment, sample prepaiation 373·3 80
Equipment, lest 339-35.t
ErodibiJilY 399, 4~O
Erodibility tem .:158-467
Erodible da y 4(12
Erosion 399,402, 4J8 , 421, 423
Errors 337
E"r~~~ h~drcsta'ic ~:;:s sure >+C'I
Excess pore pre~ sure 654,657,658
EXIra-sensitive ~Ja~' (.CO
Extruder ad"fJtors 3-;~ " 3i"7
£X\ruder~ 373, ~ ,: .. , 382
[·m'.: ~i(>il 3SI. 382-3~~, :9~. 396
_ . ____= .. v F l l:
r!
INDEX L"DEX 74:,\
::-,: ~'d:_ . ~.-,;i :,;(1. "I'':' ~i:::, 4"i5 , ...,. , "-11'). ';11~ LdnLr!JlUf), praclice Jj I , jJ8 ~ormal idirect) force 51~, 516, 521
FactOr of safety 538 Laboratory valle appa~atu~ 572 Norrnal pressure 510,542
Failure 515,522.538.582.583,586 Laminar flow 401,402,406, 4!6 Normal stress 516,5 21, 522,552,555,558,585,
Failure e:lVelope 52], 528-530, 532, 559, 593 Laminations 540, 638 586. 590
Failure plane 585, 626 Large particles 392,564.567,634 NC'Tffiai!y consolidated clay 529, 533 , 655, 675,
Falling head permeability test 399.402,41 0, .123 , Large shear-box 391. 539. 562, 7:'2 684
.149-458, 729 Lathe, soil 379, 392-394
Field loading curve 676 La;.erecl soil 400. 42~, 638 Obsoles(ent load frame 732
'Filled' gauge 3M LC'\er-arm I\}ading 543, 553, 563 Oedometer 652, 686. 712
Filler material 565 Limit of p:'nelTJtioll (CBR) 480 O~domete r consolidat ion 65I,690-ili
Filter. air 346 Limitations of s0il teStS 422,478,540,600, 681 Oedomcter consolidation cell 399.685.729
Filter materials 448, 449 Limiting voids ratios 525 Oedometer specimen 383, 388, 395, 396
Filters. soi l 399,403,419-411 Liquefaction 417,418 Oil-water interchange 366
Fissu red clay 391,421,540,570,599,600,601, Liquid limit 600,672,676,683,712 OiJ-\\3ter pressure system 34],347,637
617,6i7 Liquidity index 526, 600 One-dimensional consolidation 652.659,660
Fixed-ring oedomeler cell 652, 684, 685 Load cel! 351, 363 Organic matt er 401,680, 722
Floating- ring oedometer cell f,~2 Load frame ]<12. 499, 585. 601, 632 Organic soil 666, 674, 675 , 683
Flo \\" line 402, 403 Load penetration relationship (C.BR) 472,474, Orientated specimens 6]8, 682
Flo\\" of w1;ter in soil 403-406 504, 507 O-rings 647
Foot pump 343 Load ratio 73 J Overconsol idated clay 530.532,533.540, 567,
Force 514,515 Load ring 339,341,351, 36Q..363, 498, 543, 655,676,714,728
Formers 374, 395 629, 632 Overconsolidation ralio 655, 677
f oundations 599, 680 lC3ding stages, oedometer consolidalion 697, 714, Oxygen 349,365,371
Free ends 636 726. ns, 731 Packing of grains 524, 541
Free-draining ~oil ~ 15, 524, 525, 542, 562 log-lime method 666, 702 PartiaHy saturated soil 601
Friction 520, 524, 540 Log·ti me/settlement cu ne 664,696,700, 723, 72.1 Particle shape 400,414,424,524,526
Loose sand 524,641,644 Particl e size 400,4 14,419,424, 461, 524, 526
Gauge tester 340 Lo~ s o f fines 441,445 Pavement 470, 47 I, 476, 478, 480
Gladed filter 419.411,422 Loss on ignition 680, 722 Peak st rength 515,522,532.568, 5/0. tlO ~.
Graphical analysis of consolldalion test 702-708 I .. hr ; .... "''' ... ,,"-I C' :- ~ r~~ ~!.!, t27
(; te"~' :'Il!","':::"~~ :-:::: Peal 567,666,674.675,679,681
Grid plates 547 ;\lachinery 370 Peat , characteristics and classification of 717-719
Ground temperalure 408,679 t-.tajor and minor principal mess 585 ,586 Peat, consolidation tests on 723-727
Ground water 68 1 :>.lanometer 340,363,364,368,369,440,441, Penetration resistance 471
448, 449 Penetralion test (CBR) 498-507
Hand trimming ]90,396
\larine deposits 600, 676 Permeability ]98-401,407,421,530,657
Harvard compactor 395,396,461,546
Ma ~k for unconfi ned ~ompres~ion apparalus 608, by indirect methods 424-427
Hazen's formula 400,413.414,425
612, 615 coefficients 407
Head los~ es 410
Maturing 395, 396, 397 factors affecting 399-401,408
Height/d ia meter (H:D) ratio 685, '712, 725
\la»imum siLe of panicle 384.397,482, 540. relevance to consolidation 422,427,672.712
High pressure triaxialtesls 63 7
616.633,684 relevance to C3rthworks 421
Highway base design 469
\1embrane correclio:1 596-598,628.649 Permeability ratio 400, 402, 421
H;stOrical notes 399, 469, 511, 584. 652
Membr3ne Stretcher 6.20, 646 Permeability test in consolidation cell 446, 456,
Ho rizontal drainage 682
~,knis~us 368 729
Humidified storage ]82
\Iercury 347,371 in falling head cell 450-455
H)drau!ic gradient 401,404 . .106, 4 iO, 442, 450
!'>I e ~cury pot pr::ssure system 34] ,346 in sampling lUbe 455
Ignition loss 680, 722 !--Ietric (51) unit s 336,735·7]6 in standard constant head cell 398, 423, 431-";:4J.
Imperial unu s 3]6,369,470,472,613,733,7] .'\, \llgration of partides 418.448,449 on filter materials 448
737 ,\ 1ineralogkal composition 400. 524, ~26, 541 on gravels 445
Inaccuracies 337 l\1uce o f failurc 583,604,612,625 on recompacted soil 457
Indire..:t l'I~ses~ment of p(rmeabllity 399,424-427 \ '.uhf cirde o f ~tre~s 585, 590, 593, 628, 634 under ;J.xial stress 444
~lohr failu re en\'e1o;>e 5S5, 628. 633 Permeabili ty values, range of 423,424
In itial compression 654,665, 724
Initial compre~sion ratio 654, 673 Mohr·Coulomb failurt criterion 586, 592 Per mea meter for gravel 445
In itial c~):npre~sion, peal -;10 !\l oi~tur e content 524 , 526,5 58, 57S, 605, 61 2, Perrr,eameler, ..:onstant head ]99, ",02, 409, 423,
Init ial pre~5 ure for ..:on~o!idatjoll 69], 695, 723 616,691,722 427,431-433
hHi~u leSlS 4"'0. 4-:'9, 681. 68~
\ioislu re con te nt fClr C3 R test 47 3.4-5,41'.1, falling head 423, 450
~F:1, 5(J1 Permeating fluid 399, 401
Il; ~t<:.b i; !ty 419
Ill ~ lrum ents 337, 339. 3~5 \tuitiple consoli dation tem 7n Pha~cs of consolidation 664
Int er!l lai~lll ar frk'tion 52.1 .\ h:!t ir1ying prefi xcs "'36 PielOl\1r'lCr Vi o.... 02. 410 , .!JI
Int{'r:-ne.1 ia1e prinri;:::!1 ~:res!> ~~5. ~,~ b :,juhis(a~(" Sh:Mbo.~ It'Sl 5-;'0 P iezometric head 403, 404
r'o-CBR lines 471,4 75.4i7 \lultistage triaxialt c< \ 63~-637 P m hole lest 458-464
Piping 399,402,416,421. 427. 441
Jig. ~!"'l'.:illl,., n Cult lr J76, 382 ;-';oid oe-aer<: !Ur 4:S P i~\(1n of ;riaxial cdl 62::. f.4 5
;-"'C'n-\·ohl:~i \ · e 'oil ~24 . .:'..1 I. ~ ~7 Pbnl' "f sl ip ~9"';
f\ (l7.:ny f.)rr:-,u'a ..J(~J • .!p, ":~ 4 :-' ~ !1 - ci,"r,:'t~i~c ~oiJ -l64 P:;"l,:i~' ckform;!ti0 n 583 :4';. t i ... , fo.t.t, 6}4
}\ ~v{'n~ C.<n: ...lII r~le,t;(ld 4~5·4:'/ ...: ......... r"." . .. , ..... " , ...;
 ~
7·{~)
P oinl<:r rt'mO I'e r J67
? ~:.;:: ~:e:su ~e d ;s ~ ; p~.';(I! !
Pore wafer pressure 335,524,527,529,654,657,
72l
Porosity 423, 524, 548
Porous discs 686
Position head 405
Pre-consolidation pressure 533, 655, 677
Precompressed clay 676
Preparation of specimens-CBR 470, 479, 480A94
disturbed material 481-483
large shear box 563
permeability 435-438, 453, 457
recompacted 394. 397
residual test 567
undisturbed 382·394, 494
Pressure gauge 339,363·367, 371
Pressure gradient 407
Pressure head 401, 403
Pressure reducing regulator 345,346
Pressurising fluid 370, 645
Primary compression ratio 654
Primary consolidation 654, 665, 696
Primary consolidation (peat) 720, 724
Principal plane 585, 586
Principal stress 585, 590
Principal stress difference 590, 592
Protection of samples 382, 386
Proving ring 361,363
Pusher 376, 386
Quartz grains, v:!iues of (fJ 541
'Quick' clays 600
'Quick' condition in sand 416,417
Quid:.undrained compression test 528,581,582,
585,642
Rate of displacement 527,529,530, 566, 568, 569
Rate of strain 582, 631, 634, 637
Recompacted specimen 394·397,457,633
Recompaction 381,457,479,639-644
Recording data 337
Recovery ratio 721
References 337
Relative density 524, 525
Relieved bore tube 381,385
Remoulded specimen 533, 605, 613
Remoulded strength 577, 600, 613
Remoulding 381,479,598,613
Reponing results 338
Residual shear strength 510,513,515,531-533,
538, 565, 570
Reversal shear test 510, 5]3, 532, 566, 569
Ring shear apparatus 511, 533
Rotational shear 534
Rubber membrane 596,620,621,647 ,649
Safety 337,369-371
Sample 372, 382
Sample extruders 373,374
Sample tubes 374,375,382,721
Sand filrer 430
S8rurared clay 613,702
S;! turJ.l ed sand 524 , 6-10
Saturation, degree of 526, 654
Saturat ion in permeam e l~r 439, 440, 454
l~DFX l~ O E X 747
SCS di~persion lest 465 procedures 382-397, 435-438,453,640 T riaxial co~!",r(>~s i Q [1 tes'S 616-614
~~8 .Se;:tlin~ load 4~9 ~;;' l u J <> I '-'''; ~..: ;.J 54 ~ , ~~ Triaxial test: lree ends 636
Secondary compression 654, 665, 674, 704 set of three 386,396, 616 high pressure 637
Secondary compression , peats 718, 720, 724 tools 378, 379 large diameter 628-633
Secondary compression ratio 654 Specimen sizes 396,617,685,687 multistage 633-636
Seepage pressure 421 Speed control 342 reconstituted specimens 639-644
velocity 406 Split formers 375, 38J, 385, 388, 397 special orientation 638
Sensitive clays 600, 676 Spring and piston analogy 656 standard 38mm diameter 619-628
Sensitivity of load ring 361 Spring constant 537 Triple-tube holder 376, 386, 396
Sensitivity TO remoulding 578, 586, 598-600, 613 Springs for unconfined apparatus 610,612 Tubes, piston 373
Settlement 651,656,658,680,681 Square·rool-time method 667, 703 sample 374,375,381,382
Settlemenl on saturation 717 settlement curve 568, 664, 666 U·lOO (U4) 377,382,383,386,388,572,575,
Shear 517,518' Standpipe tubes 450,451 628, 636, 638, 682, 722
Shearbox apparatus 538, 542-548, 562 Static compression 396,397,479,483,487 U-l00 liner 388
principle of 510,521 Steady rate of now 440 U-38 373, 375, 376, 384
Shear box test, drained 565-569 Slones 382,388,397,562,616,634 Turbulent now 401,416
large box 562-565 Strain 514,518,594
residual 565-571 Strain at failure 613,627 Unconfined (uniaxial) compression 581,585,586,
standard quick 542,551·562 Strain control 512,582 590
Shear failure 509, 585, 586 Streamline now 401,406,416 Unconfined compression tests 601-614
Shear force 510, 514, 516, 521 Stress 514,516 autographic 607
Shearing 556, 576 Stress - strain curve 605 , 611,624,627,634 laboratory 'standard' 601
Shear plane 585 Suess control 512,513 remoulded 613
Shear resistance 509,510,514 Stress history 533 soft rocks 614
Shear strain 514.519
Shear strength 335,509,510,514,521,534,581,
r Subgrade, sub-base 471,477,539
Suffusion 399,402,418,419,423,445
Unconfined compressive strength 370, 585, 594,
199
194 Surcharge weights 479,495,496 Undisturbed sample 372, 382, 388, 390, 391
Shear strength of clays 526, 60] Swell index 672 Undrained shear strength 510,514,527,528,
sands 524 Swell measurement, CBR 496 599, 601
soft clays 534,541,572,598 Swelling 655, 677, 722 Undrained test 594
sliff clays 562 ,598,603, 614 Swelling pressure 655,677,678 Uniformity coefficient 419
l~'picaj values 601 Swelling pressure ;,,$; 7:.; Units of measurement 735
Shear stress 509,514,516,518,521,585 Swelling test (oedometer) 715 Unloading, oedometer test 697,716,726,731
Shear zones 540 Symbols - soil and water properties 738 Use of instruments 355·369
Side friction 685, 722 miscellaneous 739 Useful data 742
Sign convention 517 U.S. units and standards 335,337,369,733,735,
Signal conditioning units 350 Tap waTer 428 731
Simple shear 520 Temperature correction 401, 408, 444, 455, 679
Vacuum de-airing 428
Single drainage test 706, 722 Test data 337
Vacuum gauge 341,364
5.1. units 336, 364, 735, 737 'Test' gauge 340, 364, 366
Vane shear, principle of 511,534
Slicing 570 Theory of consolidation 652 , 656, 659, 660-663
strength 515
Slotted weights 369, 370, 552-554, 687, 695 Three-dimensional consolidation 659,661
test 572-578
Soaking 479, 494·497 Time effects 651
Varved clay 400
Sodium absorption ratio (SAR) 466, 467 Time factor 655, 661, 662
Vibrating hammer 563
Soft clays 599,603,611,681 Time fiuing 655
Vibration 437,479,549,564,641,644
Soft rock 562,614,637 Time intervals 694-6%
Soi! lalhe 379,390, 392-394 Vibrator, small 379,435,546,549
Time to failure 568, 603 Virgin compression curve 655, 676, 677
Spacer disc-ASTM 483,485,490 Tools 349, 378, 380
Viscosity of water 401,407,408,414,679
Spacer plug-BS 483,485-488 Torque 515,534,574
Spanners 350 Visual inspection and classification 578,631
Torr 364 , 736, 737 Voids in soil 398
Specific gravity 676,679,684,691, 718, 722, 728 Torsion 515, 534
Specific permeability 401, 402, 407, 425 Voids ratio 400,425,524,525, 653, 669, 707
Torsio n spring 575
Specific surface 402,414,415 Voids ratio of peat 679, 718
Total dissohed solid~ (TDS) 467 Volume-change gauge 446
: Specimen 337, 372 Total head 401,404
Specimen areas, volumes 740 Volumes of specimens 740,741
Total stress 335, 5:!4, 528, 538, 654, 657
Specimen preparation : CBR 479·494 \'on Post classification of peat 718,722
Transducer: displacement 350
cohesive soil 550 load ring 351,360
Warming to remove air 430
dry sand 548, 642 pre~sure 352
Water extract for chemical analysis 466
for compression, l00mm diameter 388,390, 394, Triaxial apparatus 617-619, 621,644-647 Water for permeability test 427-431
395, 397 Triaxial cells 585, 644-646 Water trap 346
for compression, 38mm diameter 384, 389, 392, high pressure 637, 645 Woody peat 721
396 lar ge diameTer 628, 632
for shearbox 383, 388, 395, 396, 548 Tria\ ia! .:: om pres ~ ion :'U, ::S 5, 589, 590 Z(·ro air voids 478
labor atory \a ne 575
large diamece-r 390,397,617
large sn eart,ox 391, ~63
 _-.4-- · , --.,."--- ''''
~

ERRATA appearing in Volume 1

p.6 Table 1.1, fir slline, third column (under' Range') should read: '2 m or 3 m'
p.38 Table J .8, first line , under Unit, should read: 'Mg/ m"
p.57 T .... o lines immediaH:ly below Fig. 2.5 should read: 'Volume change expressed as
percentage of final dry volume, denoted by .6.( VR): V _ V2
t.(VR) -1- x 1000'/0'
Vo
p.57 Sixth line should read: 'By definition, shrinkage ratio SR ~ .6.(VR)/ .6.w .
p.59 Fig. 2.6, labelling to dashed line should read: 'B' LINE PI = 0.9 (ll-9)
p.98 Procedure (3): '(F ig. 3.35)' should read '(Fig. 2.35)'.
p.J03
p = v ~1g / m3 (not Mg/cm3)
III

p.J04 Fig. 3.2: 'G' should read ' Gs '

p.105 Equation (3.3) should read: 'n e
r+e
p. )07 Penultimate equation should read: G, + wG sp ..:
P J + e

p.124 Stage P), line 4: 'Stage (I)' should read 'Stage (I)(d)'.
p.124 Stage (9) line): 'wax' should read 'waxed'.
p .128 i"'ear bottom: '0.99708' should read '0.99704' (twice).
p.146 F:g. 4.~(b), particle siz~ .., ~:~!",: ~':l:lc! end shn;,;l'::: ,..;ad: ·200 mm' (I,,;t 60C rom).
p.150 Table 4.3, firs t four columns of last line should read: 'G <0.001 2.0 >2000'.

p.161 Stage (5), last sentence: 'emF)' should read '(mp)'.

p.204 Table 4.14 , line 3, column 3, should read: '+ 1.0' (not + .10).
p.2JO Bottom twO equations: ' HI' should read' H'.
p.212 Line 19: 'Fig. 4.42' should read 'Fig. 4.43'.
p.223 Table 5.3, heading to first column ~hould read: 'So/utian'.
p.230 Last item of equation near top should read: 'Ag 2 Cr04' (not '2Ag Cr04').
p.253 Stage (20), should read: '10 ml' (nOl 20 m!).
p.2S5 Fig. 5.13, Jabel '5' should refer to neck of reaction flask (B), not reservoir flask (R).
p.2S9 Table 5.7, t'ote I, should read: ' valid' (no t void).
p.264 Add to Stage (8): 'Record the volume (VJ ml) of siln:r nilrate solution used'.
p.164 Stage (9) should read: 'Titrate the test solution in the same .....ay, unlilthe same colour as
in (8) is obtained. Record [he volume ( V2 ml) of silver nitrate solution used. The "olume
(V ml) of silver nitrate solution required for the chloride reaction is the difference
between Ihe measured volumes, ie. V = (V2- VJl ml.

p.264 Stage (10) equatiom ~hould read: COio = 0.00936 V, COla = 0.9315 x
v
In

p.264 Stage (II) equations ~houlj read : COlo = 0.0468 V,0'io = 4.68
v
> x
m

S!c~e lI: ) qU;ltio:;~ :.h0d! r..:ad : ('0"0 = 0.O.J68 I', 0'e = 4.68 x
,.
m