IMPORTANT!!!

DO, DOES, DID + bare infinitive

Tags:
 emphasis
 infinitive
 past
 present
 simple
The auxiliary verbs do, does and did are followed by the bare infinitive to
form negative and interrogative sentences in the past simple and present
simple tenses:
Do you take any vitamins?
He doesn't live here any more.
Did you ask the shop assistant?
Do, does and did can also be used in affirmative sentences to express
emphasis:
I do know what you mean.
He does travel a lot.
I did want to write, but I forgot.

Cleft sentences
Tags:
 clauses
it + be + phrase + defining relative clause
Cleft sentences (also called it-clefts) result from changing the normal
sentence pattern to emphasise a particular piece of information. The
emphasis in the resulting cleft sentence is on the phrase after it + be.
Look at the following example:
János Irinyi invented the non-explosive match in 1836.

We can transform this sentence in different ways depending on

which part of it we want to bring into focus:
It was János Irinyi who/that invented the non-explosive match in
1836.
It was the non-explosive match which/that/(-) János Irinyi invented
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in 1836.
It was 1836 when János Irinyi invented the non-explosive match.
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In the clauses that follow it + be + phrase, we can use the same
relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) and relative
adverbs (where, when, why) that we normally use in defining
relative clauses.
However, if we bring a whole adverbial phrase into focus, we use
that:
It was in 1836 that János Irinyi invented the non-explosive match.
If we use a personal pronoun after it + be, it will be in the object
form:
It was him who invented the non-explosive match in 1836.
It is also possible to expand the phrase in focus with a non-defining
relative clause:
It was János Irinyi, who was a Hungarian chemist, that invented the
non-explosive match in 1836.

what-clause + be + phrase
Pseudo-cleft sentences (also called wh-clefts) are similar in function
to cleft sentences, but they are formed with the pronoun what (= the
thing(s) that/which). The emphasis in a pseudo-cleft sentence is on
the phrase after the what-clause + be:

What you need is a good sleep.

What I didn't like was the end of the movie.
What changed his mind was a book he'd read.

If we want to refer to a person, we say The person/people who/that:

The people who/that I met were members of the delegation.

If we want to emphasise an action, the verb after be usually takes the
form that corresponds to the form used in the what-clause:
What you should do is write a letter to the manager.
What I need to do is get some rest.
What they were doing was arguing about which train to take.
What I can do is call for a taxi.

In the following examples, the verb after be takes the form that the
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verb in the what-clause is normally followed by:

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What I want is to sleep.

Future time clauses

Tags:
 clauses
 completion
 duration
 emphasis
 future
 point in time
 present
In time clauses that refer to future time (clauses with if, when, after,
before, as soon as, once, until, while etc.) we use the present tenses:

Say hi from me if you see him. (present simple)

Will you wait for me until I get back? (present simple)
As soon as I arrive, I'll give you a call. (present simple)
You can play in the garden when you have finished your homework.
(present perfect)
I'll be waiting outside while you are speaking to the doctor. (present
continuous)

HARDLY, SCARCELY, BARELY, NO SOONER

Tags:
 emphasis
 inversion
 past
 perfect
hardly / scarcely / barely ... when
no sooner ... than
When a story is told in the past tense, the adverbials hardly,
scarcely, barely and no sooner are often used to emphasise that one
event quickly followed another. The verb describing the earlier event
is usually in the past perfect tense. If hardly, scarcely, barely and no
sooner are in the initial position, the subject and auxiliary are
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inverted:

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Hardly had I arrived home when my phone rang. (I had hardly
arrived home when my phone rang.)
Scarcely had she finished reading when she fell asleep. (She had
scarcely finished reading when she fell asleep.)
Barely had they won the match when the coach had a heart attack.
(They had barely won the match when the coach had a heart attack.)
No sooner had the company launched its new product than it went
bankrupt. (The company had no sooner launched its new product
than it went bankrupt.)
Note that hardly, scarcely and barely are followed by when, while no
sooner is followed by than. (Sooner is the comparative form of soon.)

IF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONG AS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,

UNLESS, BUT FOR, IF NECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASE etc.
Tags:
 clauses
 conditionals
 emphasis
 inversion
 IF
IF and WHEN
When can replace if in zero conditionals:
If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.
When you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.
In the other types of conditionals, we cannot use when instead of if.

EVEN IF
Even if emphasises that something will happen, would happen or
would have happened whatever the condition:
Even if we leave right now, we still won't catch the train.
I wouldn't go into the water even if I could swim.
Even if we had booked our flight earlier, it wouldn't have been
cheaper.

ONLY IF
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Only if makes the condition more restrictive:

Acetaminophen is dangerous to children only if dosage is too high.

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If the if-clause is first, the subject and the auxiliary in the main clause
are inverted:
Only if you like classical music is it worth coming tonight.

SO/AS LONG AS, PROVIDING/PROVIDED (THAT)

So/As long as and providing/provided (that) can be used instead of if to
express a condition. Note that providing/provided (that) is a bit formal:
You can stay here as long as you keep quiet.
Provided/Providing (that) the bills are paid, tenants will not be evicted.

SUPPOSE/SUPPOSING, WHAT IF
Suppose/supposing and what if can replace if, mainly in everyday
conversation, and are often used without a main clause:
Suppose/supposing you won the lottery, what would you do?
Suppose/supposing you can't find a job?
What if you are not accepted to university? What will you do then?

UNLESS
Unless is followed by an affirmative verb to express "if ... not":
My leg's broken. I can't stand up unless you help me. (I can't stand up if
you don't help me.)

IF IT WEREN'T FOR / IF IT HADN'T BEEN FOR, BUT FOR

These expressions mean "without". They are used in second and third
conditionals and are usually followed by a noun phrase:
If it weren't for Miguel, we wouldn't know what to do now. (Without
Miguel...)
If it hadn't been for your foolishness, we wouldn't have got lost. (If you
hadn't been such a fool...)
But for your help, I would have been in big trouble. (Without your help...
/ If you hadn't helped me...)

IF IN DOUBT, IF POSSIBLE, IF NECESSARY etc.

We can make the if-clause shorter by omitting the subject and the
verb be:
If (you are) in doubt, consult a dictionary.
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In certain idiomatic expressions, the subject and be are normally

omitted:

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If necessary, you can call Jake at home.
I'd like a seat by the window if possible.

IF SO, IF NOT
If so and if not can stand for an if-clause which is understood from the
context:
"According to the weather forecast, it might rain tomorrow." "If so, we'll
go hiking another day."
I hope Peter gets here soon. If not, we'll have to start without him.

IN CASE and IF
An in case-clause gives a reason while an if-clause describes a
condition:
I'll buy a sandwich in case I get hungry. (I'll buy a sandwich because I
may get hungry later.)
I'll buy a sandwich if I get hungry. (I'll buy a sandwich when I get
hungry.)
We can use should after in case:
Take an umbrella in case it should rain.

IT'S (BEEN) + DAYS / WEEKS / MONTHS / etc. + SINCE

Tags:
 emphasis
 perfect
 period of time
 point in time
 present
 SINCE
The structure it's (been) + days / weeks / months / etc. + since is used to
emphasise the length of time that has passed since a past event:
It's been weeks since his last blog post.
It's been a long time since I met him.
How long has it been since they moved away?
In the sentences above, it's been stands for it has been (present perfect);
however, in everyday speech, it is more common to use the present
simple instead of the present perfect:
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It's weeks since his last blog post.
It's a long time since I met him.
How long is it since they moved away?

Modals to express habits: WILL, WOULD, USED TO

Tags:
 annoyance
 criticism
 emphasis
 habitual actions
 modals
 USED TO
 WILL
 WOULD
Present
Would can express annoying habits which are typical of a person:
Tom would do something like that, wouldn't he? It's so typical of him!
Will is used to emphasise the characteristics of a person rather than
describing the person himself or herself:
A friend will always help you. (this is one of the characteristics of a
friend)
Past
USED TO
Used to refers to past habits and states which were true in the past but
are not true any more. It can be used with both action verbs and state
verbs:
On Sundays, my parents used to take me to dance school. (habit, action
verb)
I used to hate dancing in those days. (state, state verb)
The negative and interrogative forms of used to are:
I didn't use to like dancing in those days.
Why did you use to hate dancing?
Used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to +
gerund (verb-ing):
She used to live alone in a small apartment. (it was true in the past, but
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not any more)

She was used to living alone in a small apartment. (she was accustomed

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to it)
She got used to living alone in a small apartment. (she became
accustomed to it)
WOULD
Would describes repeated past actions but not states. It can only be
used with action verbs:
From time to time, he would call her to ask if she wanted to meet for lunch.
USED TO or WOULD?
With action verbs, often either used to or would is possible:
On Sundays, my parents used to take me to dance school.
On Sundays, my parents would take me to dance school.
With state verbs, however, only used to is possible:
I used to hate dancing in those days.
I would hate dancing in those days.

NEVER, RARELY, LITTLE, IN / UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES,

ON NO CONDITION, IN NO WAY, NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO etc.
Tags:
 emphasis
 inversion
When never, rarely, little etc. are placed at the beginning of the
sentence for rhetorical effect, the subject and auxiliary are inverted:

Never (before) have we faced such a challenge! (We have never

faced such a challenge!)
Rarely has there been so much speculation about the future of the
company. (There has rarely been so much speculation about the
future of the company.)
Little did she understand what the conversation was about. (She
didn't really understand what the conversation was about.)
Under no circumstances are you allowed to disturb the pilots. (You
are not allowed to disturb the pilots under any circumstances.)
On no condition will the company bear responsibility for lost
property. (The company will not bear responsibility for lost property
on any condition.)
In no way am I related to the suspect. (I am in no way related to the
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suspect.)

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Not only did he exceed the speed limit, but he had also consumed
alcohol. (He not only exceeded the speed limit, but he had also
consumed alcohol.)
Not only were you late, but you didn't even have a good excuse.
(You were not only late, but you didn't have a good excuse either.)

ONLY AFTER, ONLY IF, ONLY IN THIS WAY etc., NOT UNTIL
Tags:
 emphasis
 inversion
When only after, only if, only in this way etc. are placed at the
beginning of the sentence for rhetorical effect, the subject and
auxiliary are inverted:
Only after lunch can you play. (You can only play after lunch.)
Only after finishing your homework can you play. (You can only
play after you finish your homework.)
Only after you have finished your homework can you play. (You can
only play after you have finished your homework.)
Only by guessing can you solve this puzzle. (You can only solve this
puzzle by guessing.)
Only if everybody agreed would I accept this position. (I would only
accept this position if everybody agreed.)
Only in this way does this machine work. (This machine only works
in this way.)
Only then did they discover his secret. (They only discovered his
secret then.)
Only when he needed some help did he call me. (He only called me
when he needed some help.)
Only when I filled my glass did I notice that it was broken. (I only
noticed that my glass was broken when I filled it.)
The last sentence can be rephrased as:
Not until I filled my glass did I notice that it was broken. (I didn't
notice that my glass was broken until I filled it.)
If only is followed by the subject at the beginning of the sentence,
there is no inversion:
Only you can understand. (No one else can understand.)
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Past perfect with superlative forms of adjectives

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Tags:
 clauses
 emphasis
 past
 perfect
 superlatives
The past perfect is used with superlative forms of adjectives to
express emphasis:
It was the strangest piece of music I had ever heard.
Jill was the most beautiful girl John had ever met.
The second sentence above implies that until that time John had
never met such a beautiful girl, but since then perhaps he has. If,
however, John hasn't met anybody like Jill since then, the present
perfect is used instead of the past perfect:
Jill was the most beautiful girl John has ever met.

Present perfect with superlative forms of adjectives

Tags:
 clauses
 emphasis
 perfect
 present
 superlatives
The present perfect is used with superlative forms of adjectives to
express emphasis:
This is the first time I have been to the Philippines.
This is the worst film I have ever seen.

Subject-auxiliary inversion after SO + adverb / adjective and SUCH

Tags:
 emphasis
 inversion
When adverbial or adjectival phrases starting with so are placed at the
beginning of the sentence for emphatic effect, the subject and auxiliary are
inverted:
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So quickly did he run that the others couldn't catch up with him. (He ran
so quickly that the others couldn't catch up with him.)

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So strong was the wind that we couldn't open the window. (The wind was
so strong that we couldn't open the window.)
So + adjective can be replaced with such:
Such was the wind that we couldn't open the window. (The wind was
such that we couldn't open the window.)

Subject-verb inversion after place adverbials

Tags:
 emphasis
 inversion
When an adverb or an adverbial expression of place comes in the initial
position (at the beginning of the sentence), the subject and verb are inverted:
Down the hill rolled the children.
Round the corner was a nice café.
This is a rhetorical device used mainly in formal and literary styles;
however, it may also occur in everyday conversation:
Here comes the bus.
There goes Sally.
Here's my number.
But if the subject is a personal pronoun, there is no inversion:
Here it comes.
There she goes.
Here it is.

The auxiliaries DO and DOES for emphasis

Tags:
 emphasis
 present
 simple
In the present simple, the auxiliaries do and does (in the third person
singular) followed by the bare infinitive form of the main verb can be
used in affirmative sentences to express emphasis. In speech, the
auxiliary is stressed:
We do want to help you.
Diego does work hard.
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But I really do love you, baby!

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The auxiliary DID for emphasis
Tags:
 emphasis
 past
 simple
In the past simple, the auxiliary did followed by the bare infinitive
form of the main verb can be used in affirmative sentences to express
emphasis. In speech, the auxiliary is stressed:
I did want to tell you, but I didn't know how.
He did arrive late.
She did go to a school, but she is not nationally certified.

The TO-infinitive in non-finite relative clauses

Tags:
 clauses
 emphasis
 infinitive
 superlatives
The to-infinitive is often used in non-finite defining relative clauses
after ordinal numbers (the first, the second etc.), superlatives (the best,
the most beautiful etc.) and after next, last and only:
Neil Armstrong was the first person to land on the moon. (Neil
Armstrong was the first person who landed on the moon.)
The last person to leave should turn off the lights. (The last person who
leaves should turn off the lights.)
Mike was the only one to help me. (Mike was the only one who helped
me.)
Passive infinitives are also possible:
His was the last composition to be marked. (His was the last
composition which was marked.)

WISH / IF ONLY
Tags:
 emphasis
 unreal situations
 IF ONLY
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 WISH

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We can make second and third conditionals more emphatic by
placing only after if:
If (only) I knew the answer, I'd tell you.
If (only) I had revised more, I would have done better on my exam.
If only can be replaced with I wish, and the main clause can be
omitted:
I wish I knew the answer.
I wish I had revised more.
Patterns introduced with I wish... are used to express wishes about
the present, past and future.

Wishes about the present

Tags:
 present
 subjunctive
 unreal situations
 IF ONLY
 WISH
wish / if only + past subjunctive
This pattern is used to express wishes or regrets about the present:
I wish I lived nearer. Then we could meet more often. (I'm sorry that I
don't live nearer)
Cathy wishes she had blond hair. (Cathy is sorry that she doesn't have
blond hair)
Instead of the past subjunctive, we can use could + infinitive:
You're brilliant. I wish I could play the guitar like you. (I'm sorry that I
can't play the guitar like you)

Wishes about the past

Tags:
 past
 subjunctive
 unreal situations
 IF ONLY
 WISH
wish / if only + past perfect subjunctive
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This pattern is used to express wishes or regrets about the past:

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I wish I had never told him my secret. (I'm sorry that I told him my
secret)
Santiago wishes he hadn't spent so much money last night. (Santiago
regrets spending so much money last night)
Instead of the past perfect subjunctive, we can use could + perfect
infinitive:
If only I could have been there. I'm sure it was a great concert. (I'm sorry
that I couldn't be there)

Wishes about the future

Tags:
 future
 IF ONLY
 WISH
 WOULD
wish / if only + would
This pattern is used for wishes about the future when there is a
chance that something may happen or somebody (but not the person
who wishes) may change their behaviour:
I wish it would stop snowing.
I wish Mark would call me back.
I wish more people would read my blog.
Wish + would can also express not-so-polite requests or complaints:
I wish you wouldn't smoke in here.

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