Boiler-Tuning Basics, Part I

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Boiler-Tuning Basics, Part I
Boiler-Tuning Basics, Part I
03/01/2009 | Tim Leopold
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On my first project as a combustion control engineer, I was responsible for loop checks and for watching the
experts tune the system controls. The first loop I tried to tune solo was the drum level control. At that time
the trend-tune program defaulted to a 2-minute window, and no one bothered to mention to me that the
proper time span to tune drum level control to is 20 to 30 minutes. I also zoomed in on the drum level, which
has a normal range of ±15 inches, though my trend range was ±3 inches. Finally, I did not know that drum
level can be a very "noisy" signal, so the hours I spent trying to tune out that noise were wasted.
Eventually, I got the bright idea to add a little derivative to the loop control. In the time it took to program
0.01 as the derivative gain and then immediately remove it, the boiler tripped. Thus began my career in boiler
tuning.
1 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
Boiler-Tuning Basics, Part I http://www.powermag.com/boiler-tuning-basics-part-i/?printmode=1
In the 20-plus years since my inauspicious debut, I’ve had the opportunity to successfully tune hundreds of
boilers, new and old, that needed either a control loop tweak or a complete overhaul.
Many inexperienced engineers and technicians approach boiler tuning with a heavy hand and little insight
into the inner workings of individual control loops, how highly interconnected they are with other loops in the
boiler system, or what change should be expected from the physical equipment the loops are to control. My
purpose in writing this article is to explore these fundamentals and share my experiences. I trust these in-
sights will be of value to the power industry and specifically to those who want to tune boilers for rock-solid
stability yet agility when responding to process changes.
What Constitutes Good Control?
Every boiler ever built has its own set of peculiarities. Even two boilers built at the same plant at the same
time to the same drawings will have unique quirks and special tuning issues. I begin with a description of the
various boiler and subsystem control loops before moving to good boiler-tuning practices that are sufficiently
robust to accommodate even minute differences between what should be identical boilers.
From a pure controls perspective, the most important goal is to tune for repeatability of a value, not the ac-
tual value itself. We do not care that there are exactly 352,576.5 pph of fuel going into the furnace; we only
care that, for a given fuel master demand, we get the same amount every time. There will be process varia-
tion, of course, but the goal is to tune the controls to keep that variation as small as possible and then tune for
accuracy.
Boiler control processes are where I will begin. Additional control functions outside the furnace will be ex-
plored in Part II in a future issue of POWER.
Operator Controls
The operator’s window into the control system is referred to as a master or as a hand/auto station, control
station, or operator station. The station is the operator interface to a given control loop and is typically a
switch located on the control panel in older plants or accessible from the operator’s keyboard in those
equipped with all-digital controls. Typically, the control station allows the operator to move between manual
and automatic modes of operation. All of the control loops discussed in this article combine to form the set of
controls that manage the key boiler operating functions.
When a control loop is placed in manual mode, the operator will have direct control of the output. In auto-
matic mode the output is modulated by the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. In automatic
mode the operator usually has some control over the set point or operating point of the process, either di-
rectly or through the use of a bias signal. Occasionally, as in primary airflow control, the set point is displayed
either on the controller located on the control panel or on the computer screen graphic display. Cascade
mode is a subset of the automatic mode in which the operator turns over control of the set point to the mas-
ter, whose internal logic generates the set point. Usually, there is some digital logic that requires the station
to be interlocked to manual, as well as control output tracking and set point tracking.
Furnace Pressure Control
Furnace pressure control is a fairly simple loop, but it’s also one that has important safety implications. The
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) codes, such as NFPA 85: Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards
Code, are dedicated to fire and furnace explosion and implosion protection. Before you begin tuning a boiler,
you must read and understand the NFPA codes that apply to your boiler.
Balanced draft boilers use induced draft (ID) fans and/or their inlet dampers to control boiler furnace pres-
sure. The typical control system has one controller that compares the difference between the furnace pres-
sure and the furnace pressure set point that uses a feedforward signal usually based on forced draft (FD) fan
master output. The output from the controller typically is fed through an ID fan master control station.
Smaller units may have a single ID fan, but larger units usually have two or more ID fans. The most I have
seen is eight ID fans for a single unit. In this case, the output from the control loop or master is distributed to
the individual fan control stations.
2 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
The NFPA also requires some additional logic for the furnace pressure control loop to ensure adequate oper-
ating safety margins. There should be high and low furnace pressure logic to block the ID fan from increasing
or decreasing speed, as is appropriate. For example, because this fan sucks flue gas out of the furnace, on a
high furnace pressure signal the fan should be blocked from decreasing speed and on a low furnace pressure
signal it should be blocked from increasing speed. On a very negative furnace pressure signal, there should be
an override that closes the ID inlet damper or decreases ID fan speed. The settings of these signals are deter-
mined by the boiler and fan supplier during the design of the plant.
Also, on a main fuel trip (MFT) there should be MFT kicker logic. An MFT occurs when the burner management
system detects a dangerous condition and shuts down the boiler by securing the fuel per NFPA and boiler
manufacturer requirements. When fuel is removed, the flame within the furnace collapses violently, which can
cause a lot of wear and tear on the boiler and related boiler equipment. It also presents the very real danger
of an implosion. The MFT kicker should immediately reduce the control output to the fan(s) proportional to
the load being carried at the time of the MFT and then release the device back to normal operation.
I am constantly amazed at how well furnace pressure can be controlled, especially when you consider the
amount of fuel and air being injected into a ball of fire many stories tall and the ferocious and chaotic environ-
ment inside a boiler. The fact that a well-tuned system can maintain furnace pressure to – 0.5 inches H 2O is re-
markable.
A typical mistake made by boilers tuners is the use of very fast integral action to the furnace pressure con-
troller. Furnace pressure changes quickly, but not instantaneously, so consider the size of your furnace and
the amount of duct work between the furnace and the fans as capacitance in the system, because air is com-
pressible. I recommend restraint when tuning furnace pressure when it comes to adding integral gain. Inter-
estingly, the feedforward for almost every boiler is on the order of 0% to 100% in, and 0% to 80% out.
The trends in the following figures show what you should expect to see from your furnace pressure control.
The plant from which these data were taken uses both fan inlet damper position and fan speed to control fur-
nace pressure. Figure 1 illustrates an ID fan tuning trend and the reaction of the ID fans and the furnace pres-
sure to a change in set point.
1. Blowing hot air. Induced draft fans are used to control furnace pressure and primary combustion airflow.
In this test, induced draft fan and furnace pressure respond to a step increase in furnace pressure set point.
Source: Tim Leopold
Airflow and Oxygen Trim
Forced draft fans are typically placed in automatic after the ID fan master is placed in automatic. Usually, the
FD fan master is only controlling airflow; however, some boilers are designed with secondary airflow dampers
that control the airflow. In this case the FD fan will control the secondary air duct pressure to the dampers
(Figure 2).
3 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
2. Favorite trend. I typically monitor airflow, O2 content in the flue gas, and furnace pressure control when I
tune airflow. The particular response of those variables was observed after a 20% load increase in coordi-
nated control mode. Source: Tim Leopold
Air and, consequently, O2 control are critical to the safe and efficient operation of a boiler. The airflow signal is
normally measured in terms of a percentage and is usually not available in volumetric or mass flow units. The
obvious question is, "Percentage of what?" The answer is the percentage of airflow that is available from a
given fan or system of fans. The actual measured pounds per hour of air does not matter, because air is free,
and the final arbiter of proper airflow is the O2 content in the flue gas (gases leaving the furnace). Because of
variations in coal heat content, air temperature, and combustion conditions inside a boiler, we ensure proper
burning by measuring the amount of oxygen content in the flue gas, commonly referred to simply as O 2.
Pulverized coal has an interesting property: Under certain conditions of heat in a low-oxygen atmosphere,
coal can self-ignite or even explode. Therefore, personnel safety and equipment protection require boiler op-
erators to maintain excess O2 in the flue gas. The amount of excess O2 is determined by the load on the plant
and the type and design of boiler. Typically, the load signal used is steam flow. In any coal-fired boiler, airflow
demand is a function of the boiler firing rate or boiler demand (Figure 3). Gas- and oil-fired boilers have lower
O2 requirements at higher loads.
3. Extra air is a good thing. A typical O2 set point curve for a coal-fired plant is a function of boiler firing rate
or boiler demand. Minimum levels of air are required so that reducing conditions in the furnace never occur.
Source: Tim Leopold
The term cross-limiting refers to the function of fuel flow that limits the decrease in air demand and the func-
tion of airflow that limits the increase in fuel demand. When decreasing load, the air demand follows its lag
function and the fuel demand follows the boiler demand to ensure that there is always more air than fuel go-
ing into a furnace so explosive conditions never develop inside the furnace. When increasing load, the oppo-
site is true. This is truly an elegant piece of logic.
The output from the boiler master is the boiler demand. Cross-limited air demand is developed by choosing
the highest of four calculated values: boiler demand function, the lag of the boiler demand signal, a minimum
value (per the boiler manufacturer under the NFPA codes), and a function of the actual fuel flow. The cross-
limited fuel demand is selected from the least of three signals: boiler demand function, a lag of boiler demand,
and a function of actual airflow. When load is increased, air demand follows the function of the boiler demand
and the fuel demand follows its lag of the boiler demand.
To develop the air demand for your boiler, hold your O2 trim controller in manual at 50% output. At a low,
4 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
medium, and high load, place your FD fan master, or secondary airflow dampers (if the boiler is so equipped),
and your fuel master in manual. Then manipulate the airflow until you find the amount that satisfies your O2
set point requirement, using stack opacity as a reality check on the O2 set point. Next, manipulate the airflow
characterization curve as required to allow the air demand to equal or slightly exceed the fuel flow or boiler
demand. Record the airflow required for that fuel flow and then move on to another fuel flow setting. Three
points should be sufficient for a good airflow curve.
Typically, the airflow measurement is a differential pressure taken in air ductwork and requires a square root
in order to make it linear. Ensure that your signal is also temperature-compensated. Each boiler should have
an airflow characterization curve that should be a virtual straight line. If it isn’t, I would be concerned about
unexplained "correction factors" or "magic numbers" that should not be necessary.
Next, the characterized airflow is multiplied against a function of the O2 trim controller. The O2 trim control
loop uses the set point curve, discussed above, plus an operator bias to calculate an O 2 set point for various
loads. This set point is compared with the O2 content of the flue gas used by the control system. It is best to
have several O2 measurements because of striations or variations of temperature and oxygen that are
present across the stack cross-section.
Different plants use different measurement schemes, selecting the average, the median, or the lowest mea-
surement to control. O2 trim is designed to be a steady state trim of the airflow. If you, or your tuner, are try-
ing to control airflow with the trim controller, stop it. The O2 trim controller should be mostly integral action
with very little proportional and no derivative gain. Your time is better spent reworking your air demand
curves or airflow characterization than attempting to tune the airflow using the O 2 controls.
The output from the O2 trim control station then goes through a function generator such that a 0% to 100%
input signal equals a 0.8 to 1.2 output signal. This value is then multiplied against the characterized airflow.
This means that the O2 trim controller can adjust the airflow ±20%. In some extreme cases this amount can be
varied, but for most boilers ±20% is more than sufficient. The final result is a signal referred to as "O 2 trimmed
airflow." This value is then used by the airflow controller to modulate the ID fans or dampers.
Because O2 trim control uses a primarily integral-only controller, it does not have the dynamic capabilities of
most controllers. As a result, there are times when the controller should not be allowed the full range of con-
trol. At low loads, typically less than 30% to 35%, output from the O2 trim controller should not be allowed to
go below 50% but should be limited to some minimum setting so that an air-rich atmosphere is always main-
tained in the furnace.
Also, when the lag function in the cross-limited air demand is driving air demand, airflow will lag behind. That
is, the air will remain elevated for a period of time as the load, and the fuel flow, decreases. As a result, oxygen
in the flue gas will spike up. If the O2 trim controller is not limited, the controls would see the O2 go higher
than the set point and start cranking, cranking, cranking down. Then, when the load gets to where the opera-
tors have set it and the fuel flow is no longer decreasing, airflow demand will catch up with the boiler demand,
and the O2 will quickly begin to fall. The controller will see the O 2 falling and begin to crank up. But because
there is very little, or no, proportional gain, it will take a long time to bring the air back. This can result in an
unsafe or, at the least, a nerve-wracking condition.
The NFPA requires some additional logic for the airflow control loop. There should be high and low furnace
pressure logic to block the airflow from increasing or decreasing, as is appropriate. Because this fan forces air
into the furnace, on high furnace pressure, the fan should be blocked from increasing speed; on a low furnace
pressure signal, it should be blocked from decreasing.
Also, on an MFT there are NFPA and boiler manufacturer requirements that must be considered. One impor-
tant consideration is the need to hold the air in place for a time after an MFT or if the airflow should drop very
low during or just after a trip. The dampers should go to a full open position shortly after the loss of all FD or
ID fans (providing a natural draft air path). Moreover, in the typical boiler air control system, if the ID fan is
placed in manual, then the FD fan is normally forced to manual. If the FD fan is in manual, then O2 trim is
forced to manual.
Drum Level and Feedwater Control
5 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
Feedwater is fed into the drum in a typical subcritical pulverized coal – fired drum boiler via either a series of
valves in parallel with a series of constant-pressure feedwater pumps or a battery of variable-speed feedwa-
ter pumps. If the feedwater level in the drum goes too high, water can become entrained in the steam going
to the turbine and can cause catastrophic results. If the drum feedwater level goes too low, the drum itself
can become overheated, possibly resulting in catastrophe.
Feedwater (and drum level) control has two modes of automatic operation: single- and three-element con-
trol. The drum level set point for both modes is set by the operator. In single-element control the difference
between the drum level and the drum level set point provides the error signal that is used by the single-ele-
ment controller to control the rate of water entering the drum by modulating the feedwater flow control
valve. Three-element control governs the three variables, or elements, that are used in this control scheme:
drum level, steam flow, and feedwater flow.
Drum level control uses a cascaded controller scheme consisting of an outer and an inner controller. Steam
flow is an indication of the rate at which water is being removed from the drum. A function of steam flow is
used as a feedforward to the outer controller. The drum level error is then operated on by the outer con-
troller. The output of this controller is the feedwater flow set point. The difference between this set point and
the feedwater flow is then operated on by the inner controller. The output from this controller is then used to
modulate the feedwater flow control valve.
Three-element control is much more stable and robust than single-element control. The reason that we use
single-element control at all has to do with the nature of the instrumentation. Typically, feedwater flow, and
occasionally steam flow, is developed by using a flow-measuring device like an orifice plate or a flow nozzle,
where flow rate is proportional to differential pressure. However, a problem occurs at low flow rates (low
boiler load), where differential pressures are not as solidly proportional as we would like and therefore un-
trustworthy for boiler control. Consequently, single-element control is used at low loads.
A well-tuned drum level control can be placed in automatic as soon as a pump is started. By the time steam
flow has passed 25% of the total range, we can consider steam flow signals to be reliable. That is a good point
at which to switch to three-element control.
There really is not much in the way of manual interlocks or control tracking when it comes to the drum level
loop. If the drum level signal or the feedwater flow valve control output goes out of range, or no pump is run-
ning, this station is normally locked to manual mode. That’s about it.
Normally, tuning for the single-element controller consists of big proportional and very small integral gain
settings. Tuning for the three-element controller has some additional requirements. As in any cascaded loop,
it is absolutely crucial that the inner controller be tuned as tightly as time will allow. The inner controller, the
feedwater controller in this case, must have an integral action that is faster than that of the outer, or drum
level, controller (Figure 4). This is true for all cascade loops.
6 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
4. Rapid responder. A typical coal-fire boiler with a properly tuned drum level control will respond very
quickly to a substantial load increase (top) or load decrease (bottom). The dynamic response of other key vari-
ables in boiler drum level control system is also illustrated. Source: Tim Leopold
You may notice that as the load decreases, the drum level sags downward, and as the load increases, the
drum level is slightly elevated. This means that the steam flow feedforward is just a tad too strong. A minute
adjustment to the feedforward signal can add stability to the control loop (Figure 5).
5. Small is big. A small increase in the feedforward signal added more stability to the drum level controls.
Only very small incremental changes in feedforward should be made when tuning drum level controls.
Source: Tim Leopold
Superheat Temperature Control
Superheated steam temperature control is very straightforward. Normally, steam leaves the drum and trav-
els through a primary superheater(s) before entering the desuperheater, where attemperating water is
mixed with the steam to modulate its temperature before it enters the next superheater section. After the
steam passes through that superheater, the outlet temperature is measured.
If the inlet temperature to the superheater is a measured variable, the preferred method of control is a cas-
caded loop. In this case the outer controller uses the superheater outlet temperature as the process variable.
The output from the outer controller is the inlet temperature set point. The output from the inner controller is
spray water demand. If the superheater outlet temperature is the only available measurement, then we are
forced to use a single-element control loop. In either case, it is important that the controls are equipped with
a feedforward signal.
A variety of signals can be used for the superheater temperature control feedforward. Usually, the boiler de-
mand is a good starting point for the feedforward because this signal anticipates the measured temperature
signals. My experience is that the boiler demand usually has a well-defined relationship with the superheater
temperature.
Other measured variables are available to supply the feedforward signal. Throttle pressure is usually used in
tandem with the throttle pressure set point as an indication of over- or underfiring of the boiler, but throttle
pressure is transient in nature. Airflow versus fuel flow or steam flow may be used in the same way. The ratio
7 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
of fuel flow to the top mill versus the other mills is a good indicator of the changing dynamics in the boiler, es-
pecially if the boiler is large and has many burner levels. In this case it is a good rule of thumb to think of the
top elevations as affecting temperature more than pressure, and the lower elevations as affecting steam
pressure more than temperature. Finally, the reheater temperature control affects the superheater tempera-
ture to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the type of boiler manufacturer and its method of control.
The feedforward signal development may include both static and dynamic functionality. The static cases are
basically a function of the variable that you are using. Dynamic feedforward refers to a derivative kick based
on the movement of the chosen variable. For example, the ratio of airflow to steam flow might be used as an
indicator of the boiler’s movement up or down, and the feedforward then can be manipulated accordingly.
Patience is a virtue when tuning these feedforwards, because steam temperature processes may have long
time constants.
Deaerator Level Control
It is often possible to use a three- element controller for deaerator level control. Whereas the drum level con-
trols use drum level, steam flow, and feedwater flow, the three-element controller for the deaerator uses
deaerator level, feedwater flow, and condensate flow.
It is usually not necessary to provide adaptive tuning for this control loop, but do add it if possible.
Reheat Temperature Control
It is an interesting fact that superheater spray adds to the efficiency of a unit but reheater spray flow de-
creases the unit’s efficiency. Maximum boiler efficiency is always the goal, so boiler manufacturers have devel-
oped alternative approaches to control reheat steam temperature.
Babcock & Wilcox uses a gas recirculation fan to move flue gas from the outlet of the boiler back into the fur-
nace, either directly or through the secondary air wind box. More recirculation yields higher furnace tempera-
ture and, therefore, higher steam temperatures. Combustion Engineering, now Alstom Power, is famous for
its tangential, tilting burner design that can move the furnace fireball vertically to control steam tempera-
tures. Foster Wheeler boilers use a superheat/reheat gas bypass damper to shunt flue gas to the appropriate
gas pass ducts to control reheat temperature. Spray valves are also used in each design, although the reheat
temperature set point to the spray valve controller is usually several degrees higher to keep the reheater
spray to a minimum.
The setup for the reheat temperature spray valve control is the same as that for the superheat temperature
control: two valves (modulating valve and block valve), an attemperator or desuperheater, and a reheater
section. However, reheat steam temperature control is not normally a cascaded loop. Assuming that the pri-
mary method of control (gas recirculating fan, tilting burners, or bypass damper) is operating, the sprays are
held in reserve. The operator-adjustable set point is used directly by the primary control mechanism. A sliding
bias is added to the set point before it is sent to the spray controller. Usually, the spray set point is set higher
than the primary reheat temperature control set point before the sprays are enabled, to reduce the reheater
spray flow.
Part II will look at fuel flow control, pulverizer air control, and overall plant control options such as boiler- and
turbine-following modes and plant coordinated control.
–Tim Leopold (tim.leopold@hotmail.com ('+String.fromChar-
Code(116,105,109,46,108,101,111,112,111,108,100,64,104,111,116,109,97,105,108,46,99,111,109)+'?')) is a field
service engineer with ABB and has more than 20 years’ experience tuning controls on power plants around
the world. His book You Can Tune a Boiler But You Can’t Tuna Fish is slated for publication in March.
8 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
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The book title, a rip off of a great REO Speedwagon album from the 1970\'s......shame.
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/uploads/2016/05/Stock_CA02-Vogtle_Georgia- Source: EIA, derived from data in the Short-Term Energy Outlook
Power.jpg)
The last of six gigantic modules in the nuclear
island for Unit 3 at the Vogtle AP1000 reactors
under construction near Augusta, Ga., have
been placed. The CA02 and CA03 modules,
weighing 52 tons and 237 tons respectively, are
critical components and part of the
In-Containment Refueling Water Storage Tank,
Georgia Power said on May 31. Click here for
more (http://www.powermag.com/?p=90137).
Visit our video archive (/power-video-
archive/)
11 of 13 29 Aug 16 08:05
INDUSTRY NEWS
INDUSTRY PRESS
• Natural gas pipeline expansion top priority
for development corp Certified security in the development
(http://www.ottawacitizen.com/business process for Siemens automation products
(http://www.powermag.com/press-releases
/natural+pipeline+expansion+priority+development+corp
/12156313/story.html) /certified-security-in-the-development-
process-for-siemens-automation-
• Senvion Enters Indian Wind Energy Market products/)
Through Kenersys Acquisition Duke Energy receives new 30-year operating
(http://cleantechnica.com/2016/08 license for Keowee-Toxaway Hydroelectric
/28/senvion-enters-indian-wind-energy- Project (http://www.powermag.com/press-
market-kenersys-acquisition/) releases/duke-energy-receives-new-30-
year-operating-license-for-keowee-toxaway-
• Energy giant EDF issues 11th hour plea to
Theresa May for go-ahead of 18bn Hinkley hydroelectric-project/)
Point nuclear power station Greensmith Energy Partners with E.ON
(http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article- Climate and Renewables and Tucson Electric
3762367/Energy-giant-EDF-issues- Power for a 10 Megawatt Energy Storage
11th-hour-plea-Theresa-ahead- Project in Arizona
18bn-Hinkley-Point-nuclear-power- (http://www.powermag.com/press-releases
station.html?ITO=1490&ns_campaign=1490) /greensmith-energy-partners-with-e-
on-climate-and-renewables-and-tucson-
• Y108 Peoples Natural Gas Soldier Salute electric-power-for-a-10-megawatt-energy-
2016 (http://y108.cbslocal.com/2016/08 storage-project-in-arizona/)
/28/y108-peoples-natural-gas-soldier- 2 million-pound CA20 module safely lifted
salute-2016/) into Vogtle Unit 4 nuclear island
• Iran says 2 nuclear power plants funded
(http://en.trend.az/iran/nuclearp /2-million-pound-ca20-module-safely-lifted-
/2653783.html) into-vogtle-unit-4-nuclear-island/)
X-energy and Southern Nuclear Collaborate
on Advanced Reactor Development
/x-energy-and-southern-nuclear-
collaborate-on-advanced-reactor-
development/)
More (http://www.powermag.com/press-
releases/)
UPCOMING EVENTS
45th Turbomachinery & 32nd Pump
Symposia, 09/12 - 09/15
(http://tps.tamu.edu)
EUCG Fall Conference & Workshop, 09/18 -
09/21 (https://www.eucg.org/events
/future.cfm)
3rd SCADA & Cyber Security for Power and
Utilities Industry 2016, 09/28 - 09/30
(http://www.prosperoevents.com
/upcoming-events/item/259-3rd-scada-
cyber-security-for-power-and-utilities-
industry-2016)
Energy Storage North America, 10/04 -
10/06 (http://www.esnaexpo.com/)
ELECTRIC POWER, PRESENTED BY POWER
MAGAZINE – 19TH ANNUAL, 04/10 - 04/13
(http://www.electricpowerexpo.com)
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