Main Structure:

WALL
Prepared For:
Dr Noor Faisal Abas & REG370 members

Prepared By:
Masyatul Husna Bt Othman 107280
Marhamah Abdul Hadi 107279
Muhammad Khairil Aizad Bin Senin 107300
Amirahtul ‘Aqilah Binti Mohd Sabri 110603
Nurul Nadia Binti Omar Bakri 107340
Rossamsurifaiza Mohammad Ropi 107353

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INTRODUCTION
Walls are exterior,
partitions are interior.
• Walls
– A general term for a vertical building
component used to support loads and divide
up living spaces
– Also a term used exclusively to describe
exterior vertical surfaces
• Partitions
– Interior walls
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Types of Walls

• Partitions and walls may each be load-

bearing (LB) or non-load-bearing (NLB).

• With these combinations, there are four

possible types of walls and partitions.

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Types of Walls

• LBW – Load-Bearing Wall

• NLBW – Non-Load-Bearing Wall

• LBP – Load-Bearing Partition

• NLBP – Non-Load-Bearing Partition

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Virtual Construction
A portion of a typically
framed house.

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Virtual Construction
Construction
begins on a floor
system.

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Virtual Construction

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Virtual Construction
These are exterior,
thus they are walls.

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Virtual Construction
They are also
load-bearing.

LBW

LBW

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Virtual Construction

LBW

LBW

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Virtual Construction
This wall is exterior,
but is not load-bearing.

LBW

LBW NLBW

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Virtual Construction
This is an interior wall
(partition) and can be
load-bearing.

LBW
LBP

LBW NLBW

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Virtual Construction
The others are interior
and non-load-bearing.
NLBP
LBW
LBP

LBW NLBW

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Virtual Construction

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Virtual Construction
Construction is
systematic
Removing the
roof system

Taken from: http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/plawless/powerpoints/Carpentry/16-Wall%20Types.ppt

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 MATERIALS USE IN WALL
• Concrick and brick
• Steel and metals
– Steel girders provide a strong, stable
framework around which to build the walls
– Reinforcing bar, also known as rebar, is also
used in concrete structures to increase their
strength and durability.

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• Lumber and sheetrock
– Wood frames may supplement stronger steel
or concrete walls, or may be used for non-
supporting interior walls.
• Insulation materials
• In order to reduce energy consumption, insulation
is placed in the walls to minimize heat transfer
between the interior of the building and the
outside.
• Fiberglass is a material commonly used for
insulation, but any thick and porous material may
provide some protection from outside
temperatures.
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Damp-Proof Course
Function of a D.P.C.
• Prevent the passage of moisture or water through those
parts of a structure in contact with the ground.
• To prevent the downward passage of moisture or water
through those parts of the wall structure such as window
jambs i.e. vertical DPC and cavity trays.
• To prevent moisture penetrating a building at sill or head
level.

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 Plaster
Internal Plaster
• Internal plaster provides a smooth and level surface to
walls and ceilings. It can improve the fire resistance of a
structural element or the acoustic or thermal properties.
External Plaster
• External plaster is generally sand and cement rubbed
smooth and painted with a masonry paint. Wet dash or
marble chips are also very popular.

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 DEFECTS AND CAUSE
Cracked brickwork
• Symptom
– Horizontal,vertical and diagonal cracks can be seen
running along, down or accros external wall and may
be accompanied by overhanging of brickwork at dpc
level and bowing of the wall.
• Causes
❖ Failure of wall ties
❖ Spread of the roof structure
❖ Expension of brickwork

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Cracked brickwork
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Crumbling of brickwork mortar joints
• Symptom
– Crack may appear along the horizontal joints
– Brickwork may absorb moisture shown by
damn patches
• Causes
❖ Incorrect mortar mixture
❖ Leaking gutter or rainwater paip
❖ Chemical action

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Crumbling of brickwork mortar joints
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Crumbling of bricks
• Symptom
– Some brick crumble on the surface and are
visibly recessed back from the rest
• Causes
❖ chemical action

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Crumbling of bricks
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Flaking of rendering
• Symptom
– Top coat splits away from the undercoat,
sometimes taking with it a thin film of
undercoat
• Causes
❖Differential shrinkage of top and bottom

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Flaking of rendering
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Horizontal cracking of rendering
• Symptom
– Horizontal cracking along the lines of the
brickwork joint underneath
• Causes
❖Chemical action cause the mortar joint to
expand upward causing rendering to crack.

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Horizontal cracking of rendering
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Random cracking of rendering
• Symptoms
– Crack forming no definite pattern are seen.
When tapped the rendering in vicinity of the
crack may sound hollow whilst in some place,
it may have fallen away.
• Causes
❖Crack resulting directly from brickwork
❖Shrinkage of cement based rendering causing
crack and penetration of water.

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Random cracking of rendering 31
Blistering of paintwork to rendering and
cladding
•Symptoms
–Blisters or bubbles forming early in the life of
building may contain water
–In old building the paint film may have crack
and peeled back
–Efflorescent salt may also be seen
• Causes
❖Water from rendering which has not adequate
❖Chemical attack on the paint film

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Blistering of paintwork to rendering and cladding
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Full thickness of plaster loose
• Symptom
– Full thickness of plaster has come away from
the background, loose areas sound hollow
when tapped and crack will often be evident.
The plaster may bulge or sag and in extreme
cases will have fallen away.
• Causes
❖Plaster has failed to adhere to a dense
concretes background probably due to the
use of an un suitable undercoat

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Full thickness of plaster loose
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Top coat of plaster loose
• Symptom
– The top coat of plaster has come away from the
based coat so that it sound hollow when tapped,
cracking and bulging is probably evident. It may have
came away all together exposing the undercoat
plaster.
• Causes
❖The background have shrunk after being plastered
this may happen if the background is a cement based
material, such as in situ concrete. If the undercoat
was also cement based it would shrink with the back
ground possibly splitting off the finish coat
❖A strong expending top coat has been applied to a
weak or shrinkable undercoat.
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Top coat of plaster loose 37
• Pitting of plasterwork
• Symptom
– Small conical shaped craters occur in the surface
of the plaster generally with a small place of
foreign material in the based, initially, loose pieces
of plaster may be found.
• Causes
❖the small piece of foreign material expands by
absorbing water from either the air or the
background wall
❖Impurities in the sand, plaster, cement and even
clay brick may also be the source of defect
❖Wetting of plastered surfaces can accelerated this
type of pitting. 38
Pitting of plasterwork 39
 REMEDIAL & RECOMENDATIONS

• Ancon 63 mechanical
• Ancon 63 resin
• Staifix resin
• Stairib bar
• Ancon AC 31
• Cameron T 47

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41
PREVENT MEASURE AND
REMEDIAL

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Craked Brickwork
• Determine the wall type, whether dealing
with a concrete wall, a plaster wall or dry
wall
• Older homes are finished with plaster
• A gooey substance carefully spread onto
closely-spaced, horizontal slatted boards
called lathes

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Crumbling or brickwork mortar joints

•Can be very expensive to have fixed

•The repair work called tuckpointing, can be
done by anyone with a strong arm
•Because loose or crumbling mortar lets
moisture through, it can result in damage to
interior wall as well aw hasten the
deterioration of sound mortar
•For both reason, tuckpoint as soon as
weather permit when you notice damaged
mortar joints
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 Flaking of rendering on brickwork
(moisture related)

•Install
proper waterproofing system before
painting
•Arrest moisture source
•Prepare & treat the surface
•Repaint on receiving surface with
moisture content not exceeding 6%

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 Algae & Fungi Growth

• Avoid details with very rough textures or rough-

cast plastered finishes
• Use a more algae resistant paint to delay the
onset algae growth
• Employ over hangings roof to protect the wall
• Remove dirt and algae by high pressure water
jetting
• Treat infected ares with fungicidal wash
• Re-Paint with more algae resistant paint

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 Incorrect paint system

• Prime or seal all bare surfaces with

appropriate primer or sealer
• Remove all defective paintwork and
prepare the surfaces
• Repaint with appropriate system

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 Reference
• http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/plawless/powerpoints/Carpe
ntry/16-Wall%20Types.ppt
• Common building defect diagnosis and remedy, the
national building agency.
• http://www.ehow.com/list_7435245_materials-used-
walls-commercial-buildings.html
• Common building defect diagnosis and remedy, the
national building agency.
• http://www.wisegeek.com/how-do-i-repair-cracks-in-
walls.htm
• Iguas-gpgs-painting Pcommondefect

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