Trends in Welding Research

Proceedings of the
th
7 International Conference

May 16–20, 2005

Callaway Gardens Resort
Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Edited by
Stan A. David
Tarasankar DebRoy
John C. Lippold
Herschel B. Smartt
John M. Vitek

Sponsored by

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Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
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ii

Dr. Tarasankar DebRoy, FASM
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Prof. John C. Lippold, FASM
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
International Organizing Committee
Prof. Harry K. D. H. Bhadeshia
University of Cambridge
Great Abington, Cambridge,
United Kingdom
Prof. Horst Cerjak
Graz University of Technology
Graz, Styria, Austria
Dr. Sidney Diamond
U.S. Department of Energy
Washington, D.C., USA
Dr. Pingsha Dong
Battelle
Columbus, Ohio, USA
Conference Co-Chairmen
Dr. Stan A. David, FASM
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Prof. Thomas W. Eagar, FASM
Massachusetts Institute of
Engineering
Cambridge, Massachussetts,
USA
Prof. Toshihiko Koseki
The University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Prof. Kindo Kou
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin, USA
Prof. Erich Lugscheider
Aachen University of Technology
Aachen, Germany
Prof. David Olson
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colorado, USA
iii
Dr. Herschel B. Smartt
Idaho National Engineering and
Environmental Laboratory
Idaho Falls, Idaho
Dr. John M. Vitek, FASM
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Mr. Christopher Smallbone
Welding Technology Institute of
Australia
Lidcombe, Australia
Prof. Yanhong Wei
Harbin Institue of Technology
Harbin, China
Dr. Christopher Weisner
TWI
Cambridge, United Kingdom
Prof. Konstantin Yushchenko
E. O. Paton Electric Welding
Institute
Kiev, Ukraine
 Trends in Welding Research
Contents

Solidification
Recent Advances in Modeling of Solidification Behavior.....................................................1
J.M. Vitek, S.A. David, S.S. Babu, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

Relationship between the Formation of Hollow Bead Defects and

Hydrogen Assisted Cold Cracking........................................................................................11
I.H. Brown1, G.L.F. Powell1, V.M. Linton1, A. Kufner2, The University of Adelaide,
Adelaide, South Australia1, F-H Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany2

Achieving Grain Refinement through Weld Pool Oscillation..............................................17

T.J. McInerney1, R.B. Madigan1, P. Xu2, C.E. Cross2, Montana Tech of the University of
Montana, Butte, MT, USA1, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany2

Modeling and Analysis of a New Solidification Cracking Test ...........................................23

L. Zhu, S. Bachani, R. Nordstrom, M.V. Li, and J. Devletian, Portland State University,
Portland, OR, USA

Proposal of Independent Two Phase Growth during

Solidification in Austenitic Stainless Steels ........................................................................29
H. Inoue1, T. Koseki2, Nippon Steel Corporation, Japan1, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan2

A Transport Phenomena Based Model to Prevent Liquation Cracking in

Aluminum Alloy Welds...........................................................................................................35
S. Mishra1, T. DebRoy1, S. Chakraborty1,2, Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
PA, USA1, currently with the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India2

Advances in Modeling
Prediction of Mechanical Properties of Steel Spot-Welds ..................................................41
M. Mimer, L.-E. Svensson, Volvo Truck Corporation, Gothenburg, Sweden

Predictions of TIG Weld Depth from a

Unified Electrode-Arc-Workpiece Treatment .......................................................................47
J.J. Lowke1, M. Tanaka2, M. Ushio2, CSIRO Industrial Physics Sydney, NSW, Australia1,
Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka, Japan2

Algorithms for Inverse Analysis of Welding Processes......................................................53

S.G. Lambrakos1, D.W. Moon1, J.O. Milewski2, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory,
Washington, DC, USA1, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA2
Improving the Understanding of Laser Deposition
Processes through Process Simulation ...............................................................................59
R.P. Martukanitz, A.C. Naber, R.M. Melnychuk, R.W. McVey, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, PA, USA

A Microstructure Model for Laser Processing of Ti-6Al-4V ................................................65

S.M. Kelly1, S.S. Babu2, S.A. David2, T. Zacharia2, S.L. Kampe3, Pennsylvania
State University, State College, PA, USA1, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
TN, USA2, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA3

Simulation of Effect of Weld Variables on Thermal Cycles during

Twin Wire Welding..................................................................................................................71
A. Sharma, N. Arora, S.R. Gupta, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India

Transport Phenomena
Three-Dimensional Modeling of Transient Heat Transfer and
Fluid Flow during Orbital Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Pipes..........................................79
W. Zhang, C. Conrardy, I. Harris, Edison Welding Institute Inc., Columbus, OH, USA

Reliable Modeling of Heat and Fluid Flow in Gas-Metal-Arc Fillet Welds through
Optimization of Uncertain Variables .....................................................................................85
A. Kumar, T. DebRoy, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Transport Phenomena and Genetic Algorithm Based Window of

Welding Variables to Achieve a Target Gas Metal Arc Fillet Weld Geometry ...................91
A. Kumar, T. DebRoy, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Quantitative Observations of Surface Flow and Solidification on

Autogenous GTA Weld Pools................................................................................................97
D. DeLapp, G. Cook, A. Strauss, W. Hofmeister, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA

Scaling Laws in Welding Modeling .....................................................................................103

P.F. Mendez, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA

Alloying Element Vaporization and Liquid Metal Expulsion during

Laser Microjoining of Stainless Steel with Short Pulse ....................................................109
X. He1, T. DebRoy1, J.T. Norris2, P.W. Fuerschbach2, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA, USA1, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA2

Numerical Analysis for Optimization of Aluminum Tube Welding...................................115

J. Menke1, D.F. Farson1, M.H. Cho1, B. Green2, L. Brown2, Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH, USA1, EWI, Columbus, OH, USA2

Advanced Welding Processes

Laser Plasma Powder Hybrid Welding in Vertical-Up and
Vertical-Down Positions.......................................................................................................121
K. Stelling, Th. Boellinghaus, M. Lammers, H. Schobbert, Federal Institute for Materials
Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany
Experimental Differences between Aluminium Welding of Tee and
Lap Joints by a cw/Nd:YAG Laser ......................................................................................127
L. Dubourg, National Research Council Canada, Quebec, Canada

Hybrid Laser-GMAW Welding of Aluminum Alloys: A Review .........................................133

D. Rasmussen, L. Dubourg, National Research Council Canada, Quebec, Canada

Laser-GMA Hybrid Welding: Process Monitoring and Thermal Modeling.......................143

E.W. Reutzel, S.M. Kelly, R.P. Martukanitz, M.M. Bugarewicz, P. Michaleris,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Double-Sided Arc Welding Process....................................................................................149

Y.M. Zhang1, A.T. Male1, B. Losch1, L. Kvidahl2, M. Ludwig3, J. Emmerson4, University of
Kentucky Center for Manufacturing, Lexington, KY, USA1, Northrop Grumman Ship
Systems, Pascagoula, MS, USA2, General Dynamics Bath Iron Works, Bath, ME, USA3,
Magnatech Limited Partnership, East Granby, CT, USA4

Thin Plate Gap Bridging Study for Nd:YAG Pulsed Laser Lap Welds .............................155
J. Norris, R. Roach, P. Fuerschbach, J. Bernal, Sandia National Laboratories,
Albuquerque, NM, USA

Gravitational Effects on the Weld Pool Shape and

Surface Deformation during GTAW and LBW....................................................................161
N. Kang1, J. Kim1, J. Kim1, C. Kim1, J. Singh2, A.K. Kulkarni2, Korea Institute of Industrial
Technology, Incheon, S. Korea1, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA2

Cored Wires for MIG-Welding of Aluminum .......................................................................167

S. Baumgartner1, H. Cerjak1, G. Posch2, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria1,
Böhler Schweißtechnik Austria, GmbH, Kapfenberg, Austria2

FSW: Tools, Machines, and Equipment

Tool Design in Friction Stir Processing: Dynamic Forces and Material Flow.................173
D.E. Clark, K.S. Miller, C.R. Tolle, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, USA

Experimental Characterization of Tool Heating during Friction Stir Welding .................179

J.L. Covington, W. Robison, B.W. Webb, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of

Friction Skew-Stir Welded Lap Joints in 5083-0 Aluminium.............................................185
G.M.D. Cantin1, S.A. David2, E. Lara-Curzio2, S.S. Babu2, W.M. Thomas3, CSIRO
Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Adelaide, Australia1, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA2, TWI, Cambridge, United Kingdom3

Recent Advances in Welding of Aluminum Alloys Using a

Self Reacting Pin Tool (SRPT) Approach with Application Examples .............................191
R. Edwards, G. Sylva, MTS Systems Corp., Eden Prairie, MN, USA

A Novel Tool Design for Friction Stir Spot Welding ..........................................................201

M. Valant, E. Yarrapareddy, R. Kovacevic, Southern Methodist University, Richardson, TX, USA
Friction Stir Spot Welding of Automotive Lightweight Alloys..........................................207
S. Lathabai, M.J. Painter, G.M.D. Cantin, V.K. Tyagi, CSIRO Manufacturing and
Infrastructure Technology, Woodville, Australia

Design and Testing of a Friction Stir Processing Machine for

Laboratory Research............................................................................................................213
K.S. Miller, R.J. Bitsoi, E.D. Larsen, H.B. Smartt, Idaho National Labroatory,
Idaho Falls, ID, USA

Complete Inspection of Friction Stir Welds in Aluminum Using

Ultrasonic and Eddy Current Arrays...................................................................................219
A. Lamarre, O. Dupuis, M. Moles, R/D Tech, Quebec, Canada

MWM®-Array Inspection for Quality Control of Friction Stir Welded Extrusions ............227
D. Grundy1, V. Zilberstein1, N. Goldfine1, J. Green2, I. Stol2, JENTEK Sensors, Inc.,
Waltham, MA, USA1, Alcoa Technical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA2

FSW: Process Physics and Modeling

Friction Stir Welding and Processing: A Sprinter's Start, A Marathoner's Finish ..........233
M.W. Mahoney, Rockwell Scientific, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA

Torque and Plunge Force during the Plunge Phase of Friction Stir Welding .................241
A. Nunes1, J. McClure2, R. Ávila2, NASA, Huntsville, AL, USA1, University of Texas at
El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA2

Development of a Heat Input Model for Friction Stir Welding ..........................................247

J.W. Pew, J.H. Record, T.W. Nelson, C.D. Sorensen, Brigham Young University,
Provo, UT, USA

Quantifying the Material Processing Conditions for an Optimized FSW Process ..........253
J.A. Schneider1, A.C. Nunes, Jr.2, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA1,
NASA, Huntsville, AL, USA2

Metal Cutting Theory and Friction Stir Welding.................................................................257

L.N. Payton, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

3D Modelling of Thermofluid Flow in Friction Stir Welding ..............................................261

E. Feulvarch1, Y. Gooroochurn1, F. Boitout1, J.-M. Bergheau2, ESI Group, Cedex 03,
France1, ESI North America, Bloomfield Hills, MI, USA1, Laboratoire de Tribologie et
Dynamique des Systèmes, Cedex 02, France2

Eulerian Elasto-Plastic Formulations for Residual Stress Analysis of

Friction Stir Welding.............................................................................................................267
J. Song, P. Michaleris, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Modelling Temperature Histories in Friction Stir Welding

Including Material Convection Effects................................................................................273
A. Simar, T. Pardoen, B. de Meester, Université Catholique de Louvain,
Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Simulation of HSLA-65 Friction Stir Welding .....................................................................279
D. Forrest1, J. Nguyen1, M. Posada1, J. DeLoach1, D. Boyce2, J. Cho2, P. Dawson2, Naval
Surface Warfare Center, West Bethesda, MD, USA1, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA2

Simulation of Friction Stir Weld Microstructures in Steel: Preliminary Studies .............287

S.J. Norton, J.C. Lippold, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Weldability
Repair Weldability of Service-Exposed, Heat-Resisting Alloys—
Austenitic Stainless Steel Castings: HP45Nb, HP50Nb, and 20-32Nb .............................293
S. Shi1, J.C. Lippold1, J. Ramirez2, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA1,
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, OH, USA2

Weldability of Boron Alloyed High-Temperature

Resistant 9% Chromium Casting Steel COST-CB2A .........................................................299
P. Mayr, A. Schalber, E. Letofsky, H. Cerjak, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria

Weldability of a High Strength Engineering Steel with High Carbon Equivalent ............305
L. Hasselrot, P. Olund, Ovako Steel AB, Hofors, Sweden

Prediction of Maximum Crack Length in Longitudinal Varestraint Testing ....................313

C.V. Robino1, M. Reece1, G.A. Knorovsky1, J.N. DuPont2, Z. Feng3, Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA1, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA2,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA3

Linear Inspection of Welds Using Ultrasonic Phased Arrays...........................................319

M. Moles, S. Labbé, R/D Tech, Quebec, Canada

Ductility-Dip Cracking Susceptibility of

Filler Metal 52 and 52M Ni-Base Filler Metals.....................................................................327
N.E. Nissley, J.C. Lippold, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Cracking Behavior in Nickel-Based Single Crystal Superalloy Welds.............................333

J.M. Vitek1, S.S. Babu1, S.A. David1, J.-W. Park2, Y. Hu3, W. Hehmann3, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA1, Samsung Electro-Mechanics Co., Suwon,
South Korea2, Honeywell Aerospace Services, Greer, SC, USA3

Thermomechanical Behavior of Nickel Base Single Crystal Superalloy towards

Understanding of Weld Hot Cracking .................................................................................339
J.M. Vitek1, S.A. David1, S.S. Babu1, M. Murugananth2, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, TN, USA1, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore2

Liquation Cracking in Full-Penetration Aluminum Welds:

A Necessary Condition for Crack Susceptibility ...............................................................345
C. Huang, G. Cao, S. Kou, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA

Liquation Cracking in Partial-Penetration Aluminum Welds:

Effect of Welding Conditions ................................................................................................353
C. Huang, S. Kou, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
New Approaches to Evaluation of Weldability of Materials ..............................................361
K.A. Yushchenko, V.V. Derlomenko, E.O. Paton Electric Welding Institute, Kiev, Ukraine

Peculiarities of A-TIG Welding of Stainless Steel ..............................................................367

K.A. Yushchenko, D.V. Kovalenko, I.V. Kovalenko, E.O. Paton Electric Welding
Institute of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine

FSW: Application to Alloys

Process-Property Relationships and Microstructure Evolution in
Friction Stir Welded Thin Sheet 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy ................................................377
A.K. Shukla1, W.A. Baeslack III2, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA1,
Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA2

Transverse Tensile Properties of AA2524 Friction Stir Welds:

Quasi-Static and High Rate Loading...................................................................................383
A.P. Reynolds, J. Pohlman, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Effect of Microstructure on Postweld Formability in

Friction Stir Welded Al Alloy 5052 ......................................................................................387
Y.S. Sato, Y. Sugiura, Y. Shoji, S.H.C. Park, H. Kokawa, K. Ikeda, Tohoku University,
Sendai, Japan

Effect of Heat and Plastic Deformation on the Texture of a

Friction Stir Processed 6061-T6 Aluminum Alloy: A Neutron Diffraction Study.............393
W. Woo1,2, H. Choo1,2, P.K. Liaw1, Z. Feng2, S.A. David2, C.R. Hubbard2, D.W. Brown3,
M.A.M. Bourke3, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA1, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA2, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA3

Investigation of Properties of Friction Stir Welds in

Age Hardenable 7xxx Aluminium Alloys ............................................................................401
V.M. Linton, S. Renc, I.H. Brown, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia

Parametric Study on High Speed-Friction Stir Welding of

Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys ................................................................................................407
Gangadhar Bhat K, G. Talia, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS, USA

A Study on Dissimilar Friction Stir Welds between Al and Mg Alloys .............................413

R. Zettler, J.F. Dos Santos, A. Blanco, A. da Silva, GKSS-Forschungszentrum
Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany

Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance of

Friction Stir Welded AZ31B-H24 Magnesium Alloy ...........................................................421
M. Pareek, A. Polar, F. Rumiche, J.E. Indacochea, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, IL, USA

Modifying AM60B Magnesium Alloy Die Cast Surfaces by

Friction Stir Processing .......................................................................................................427
M. Santella1, Z. Feng1, C. Degen2, T.-Y. Pan3, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, TN, USA1, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology,
Rapid City, SD, USA2, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI, USA3
Friction Stir Welding of Copper:
Metallurgical Characterization and Corrosion Resistance...................................................431
A. Polar, F. Rumiche, M. Pareek, J.E. Indacochea, University of Illinois at Chicago,
Chicago, IL, USA

Microstructures and Performance of Welded Joints of Red Copper and

Brass by Friction Stir Welding ............................................................................................437
X. Liu, J. Yan, N. Yang, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi' an 710072, China

Sigma Phase Formation in Friction Stirring of Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys ................441

C.D. Sorensen, T.W. Nelson, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

Welding Processes and Consumables

Trends in Microwelding........................................................................................................447
G.A. Knorovsky1, D.O. MacCallum1, E.A. Holm1, J.R. Michael1, V.V. Semak2,
B.M. Nowak-Neely3, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA1,
Pennsylvania State University, Kittanning, PA, USA2, University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, NM, USA3

Microwelding Using a Modified SEM ..................................................................................453

D. MacCallum1, G. Knorovsky1, B. Nowak-Neely2, Sandia National Laboratories,
Albuquerque, NM, USA1, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA2

Prediction of Dilution in Universal Gas Metal Arc Cladding

Using Response Surface Methodology ..............................................................................459
A.S. Shahi1, S. Pandey2, Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Longowal, Punjab, India1, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India2

Weld Repair of Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tubing ..................................................465

D. Gandy, G. Frederick, K. Coleman, EPRI, Charlotte, NC, USA

Design of Process-Material-Shielding Combinations for

Hard Coatings Using Laser Surface Alloying ....................................................................473
S.S. Babu1, S.M. Kelly2, R.P. Martukanitz2, M. Murugananth3, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA1, Applied Research Laboratory, State College,
PA, USA2, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore3

Influence of Procedure Variables on C-Mn-Ni-Mo ANSI/AWS

A5.29-98 E111T5-K3 Metal Cored Wire Ferritic All-Weld Metal.........................................479
E.S. Surian1, N.M. Ramini de Rissone1, H.G. Svoboda2, L.A. de Vedia3, National
Technological University, Buenos Aires, Argentina1, University of Buenos Aires,
Buenos Aires, Argentina2, National University of San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina3

Development of Filler Metals for Super Austenitic Stainless Steels................................485

T.D. Anderson, M.J. Perricone, J.N. DuPont, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA

Effect of Arc Welding Electrode Temperature on Vapor and Fume Composition ..........491
N.T. Jenkins1, P.F. Mendez2, T.W. Eagar3, Massachusetts General Hospital,
Charlestown, MA, USA1, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA2,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA3
Thermoelectric Power Assessment of Weld Microstructure,
Phase Stability, Residual Stress, and Properties ..............................................................497
Y.D. Park1, D.L. Olson2, B. Mishra2, A.N. Lasseigne2, Hyundai Motors, Kyunggido,
South Korea1, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA2

Hydrogen in Rutile Wire Welds ...........................................................................................507

W. Mazur, CSIRO Division of Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology,
Woodville, Australia

Characterization of E6010 and E7018 Welding Fume........................................................513

J.W. Sowards1, J.C. Lippold1, D.W. Dickinson1, A.J. Ramirez2, Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH, USA1, Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Campinas SP, Brazil2

Root Bead Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel Pipeline Girth Welds without
Backing Gas..........................................................................................................................519
M. Boring1, N. Ames1, M. Collins2, D. Fetzner3, Edison Welding Institute, Columbus,
OH, USA1, ConocoPhillips Alaska, Inc., Anchorage, AK, USA2, BP Alaska, Inc.,
Anchorage, AK, USA3

Investigation of a Possible Health Hazard from

Asbestos Fibers Used in Welding Electrodes....................................................................525
A.A. Johnson, R.J. Storey, Metals Research Inc., Louisville, KY, USA

Residual Stresses and Distortion

Predicting Distortion and Residual Stress in
Complex Welded Structures by Designers ........................................................................531
J. Goldak1, J. Zhou1, S. Tchernov1, D. Downey1, S. Wang2, B. He2, Goldak Technolgies Inc.,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada1, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada2

Evaluation of a Decoupled Plastic Strain Method for

Welding Distortion Prediction .............................................................................................541
L. Zhang1, P. Michaleris1, J. Sun1, P. Marugabandhu2, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA, USA1, Maglev Inc., Monroeville, PA, USA2

Finite Element Modeling of Vibration Stress Relief after Welding ...................................547

Y.P. Yang1, G. Jung1, R. Yancey2, Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, OH, USA1,
Altair Engineering, Inc., Irvine, CA, USA2

MPI Implementation of the FETI-DP-RBS-LNA Algorithm and

Its Applications on Large Scale Problems with Localized Nonlinearities .......................553
J. Sun, P. Michaleris, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Residual Stress in Thick Sectioned Highly Restrained Steel Welds................................559

S. Pearce1, V. Linton1, G. Sloan2, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia1,
ASC, Adelaide, Australia2

Residual Stress Measurements in Side Bonded Resistance Welds ................................565

P.S. Korinko, E.G. Estochen, G.J. McKinney, M.J. Pechersky, Savannah River
National Laboratory, Aiken, SC, USA
Distortion Control in Precision Weldment by Penetration-Enhanced GTAW..................571
S. Khurana, N. Ames, W. Zhang, Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, OH, USA

Welding with a Trailing Heat Sink: How to Optimise the Cooling Parameters................577
E.M. van der Aa1,2, I.M. Richardson1,2, M.J.M. Hermans2, Netherlands Institute for
Metals Research, Delft, The Netherlands1, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
The Netherlands2

Development of Compressive Residual Stress in

Structural Steel Weld Toes by Means of Weld Metal Phase Transformations ................583
F. Martinez1, S. Liu2, Caterpillar Technical Center, Moosville, IL, USA1, Center for
Welding, Joining, and Coatings Research, Golden, CO, USA2

Numerical Analysis and Measurement of Residual Stresses in

Multi Pass Welding—Influence on Fatigue Root Crack Propagation...............................589
Z. Barsoum, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

Fatigue and Residual Stress Responses of Welded Piping Joints ..................................595

A.E. Humphreys1, T. Hassan1, C.R. Hubbard2, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, USA1, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA2

Vibratory Stress Relief: Methods Used to Monitor and Document Effective

Treatment—A Survey of Users and Directions for Further Research..............................601
B.B. Klauba1, C.M. Adams2, J.T. Berry3, Airmatic Inc., Philadelphia, PA, USA1,
Annapolis, MD, USA2, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, USA3

AH-Adaptive FE Scheme for Welding Distortion Analysis in Large Structures..............607

S.H. Tsau, P. Michaleris, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

Measurement of Welding Residual Stresses and

Redistribution due to Cyclic Loading .................................................................................617
C. Sanger, P. Kurath, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign,
IL, USA

Automation, Robotics, Sensing, and Control

Design of a Robotic Welding System .................................................................................623
H.B. Smartt, E.D. Larsen, D.P. Pace, R.J. Bitsoi, C.R. Tolle, Idaho National Laboratory,
Idaho Falls, ID, USA

Off-Line Programming of Robots for Metal Deposition.....................................................629

M. Ericsson1, F. Danielsson1, H. Carlsson1, P. Nylén1,2, University of
Trolhättan Uddevalla, Trolhättan, Sweden1, Volvo Aero Corporation, Trolhättan, Sweden2

Process-Planning Models for Welding Using Bayesian Network.....................................635

M. Kristiansen, O. Madsen, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Planning of Dynamic Trajectories for Weld Process Control Variables by

Finite Element Simulation and Iterative Learning..............................................................641
P.V. Jeberg1, S. Lambaek1, H. Holm2, Odense Steel Shipyard, Odense, Denmark1,
Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark2
Fabrication of Net-Shape Metallic Parts by Overlapping Reinforced Weld Beads .........647
K.P. Cooper, S.G. Lambrakos, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA

Effect of Welding Parameters on Formation of Toe Imperfections in

Tandem Gas Metal Arc Welding ..........................................................................................653
M. Farajian-Sohi1, N. Järvstråt1, M. Thuvander2, University of Trolhättan/Uddevalla,
Trolhättan, Sweden1, ESAB, Göteborg, Sweden2

Development of a Model to Predict Weld Bead Geometry during the

GMAW Process Using High Speed Camera .......................................................................659
E.J. Lima II, C. Castro, A.Q. Bracarense, M.M. Campos, Federal University of
Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Weld Pool Surface Monitoring and Depth Extraction Using a

Calibrated CCD Sensor ........................................................................................................665
G. Saeed, Y.M. Zhang, C. Jaynes, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

A Compact Sensor for Welding Process Control ..............................................................671

G. Saeed, Y.M. Zhang, S. Cook, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA

Arc Acoustic Feedback in GMA Welding............................................................................677

J. Tam, J. Huissoon, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Advanced Welding Control and Monitoring Systems Developed for

Thick-Section Narrow Groove Welding ..............................................................................683
J. Kikel1, S. Menicos1, B. Grut1, D. Schwemmer2, BWX Technologies Inc., Barberton,
OH, USA1, AMET Inc., Rexburg, ID, USA2

Model Based Metal Transfer Control ..................................................................................687

J.S. Thomsen, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Nonlinear Interval Model Control of the Double Sided Arc Welding Process .................693
B. Losch, Y.M. Zhang, Center for Manufacturing Systems, Lexington, KY, USA

Effects during the Starting Period of the MIG Process .....................................................697

G. Huismann, University of the Federal Armed Forces, Hamburg, Germany

Dynamic Response of Electrode Extension to Step Changes in

Average Current for Pulsed GMAW ....................................................................................705
P.G. Krepp, R. Crawford, G.E. Cook, A.M. Strauss, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA

Microstructure and Properties of Weldments

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Keyhold Gas Tungsten
Arc Welds in Titanium and Titanium Alloys .......................................................................711
S. Lathabai, K.J. Barton, L.K. Green, V.K. Tyagi, CSIRO Manufacturing and
Infrastructure Technology, Woodville, Australia

Residual Strength in Integral (Welded) Al Fuselage Structures:

Understanding Failure Peculiarities Enables Amazing Strength Values.........................717
F. Palm, EADS Corporate Research Center Germany, Ottobrunn, Germany
Correlating Temperatures, Structures, and Hardness in A36 GMA Welds......................725
D.W. Moon, C.R. Feng, S.G. Lambrakos, E.A. Metzbower, US Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA

Effects of Enhanced Convection on the Microstructure of Dissimilar Welds .................731

T. Gandhi, D.K. Aidun, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA

Welding Procedures and Type IV Phenomena...................................................................737

J.A. Francis1, W. Mazur1, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia2, CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure
Technology, Adelaide, Australia1, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom2

Tritium Effects on Fracture Toughness of Stainless Steel Weldments ...........................743

M.J. Morgan, G.K. Chapman, M.H. Tosten, S.L. West, Westinghouse Savannah
River Company, Aiken, SC, USA

Welding Development for the World's Strongest Pipeline: X120 .....................................749

D. Fairchild1, M. Macia1, N. Bangaru2, J. Koo2, A. Ozekcin2, H. Jin2, ExxonMobil
Upstream Research Co., Houston, TX, USA1, ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.,
Annandale, NJ, USA2

Structural Integrity of Submarine Pressure Hull Welds ....................................................755

G.W. Sloan, ASC Pty Ltd., South Australia, Australia

A Microstructural Study of Liquated Grain Boundaries in

Heat Affected Zone of Welded Inconel 738LC Superalloy ................................................761
O.A. Ojo, N.L. Richards, M.C. Chaturvedi, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada

Auger Spectroscopy Results from Ductility Dip Cracks Opened under

Ultra-High Vacuum ...............................................................................................................767
T.E. Capobianco, M.E. Hanson, Lockheed Martin, Schenectady, NY, USA

Welding of Single-Crystal Nickel-Based Superalloys:

How to Avoid Stray Grains and Why ....................................................................................773
J.M. Vitek, S.S. Babu, S.A. David, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA

The Effects of Processing Parameters on the

Microstructural Evolution and Mechanical Properties of
Inertia Friction Welded 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn .................................................................................781
J.D. Puskar1, B.P. Somerday1, D.K. Balch1, J.A. Brooks1, C.H. Cadden1, J.R. Michael2,
Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, CA, USA1, Sandia National Laboratories,
Albuquerque, NM, USA2

Effect of Penetration-Enhancing Compounds on the

Weld Metal Microstructure of Super Duplex Stainless Steels ..........................................787
N. Ames1, J. Lippold2, M. Johnson3, EWI, Columbus, OH, USA1, Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH, USA2, Los Alamos National Labs, Los Alamos, NM, USA3

Effect of Austenitic Fillers on Mechanical Properties of

AISI 410 Martensitic Stainless Steel Weldments ...............................................................793
A.V. Kumar, N. Muthukrishnan, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Tamilnadu, India
 Advanced Joining
Techniques for Determination of Interstitial Nitrogen Content in
Nitrogen-Strengthened Austenitic Stainless Steel Alloy 1.4565 ......................................799
A.N. Lasseigne1, D.L. Olson1, Th. Boellinghaus2, Colorado School of Mines, Golden,
CO, USA1, Federal Institute of Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany2

Spectroscopic Monitoring of Hydrogen in Welding Arcs .................................................807

J. Chandler, G. Edwards, S. Liu, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA

Analysis of Double-Electrode Gas Metal Arc Welding ......................................................813

C.S. Wu1, G.X. Xu1, K.H. Li2, Y.M. Zhang2, Shandong University, Jinan, China1,
University of Kentucky Center for Manufacturing, Lexington, KY, USA2

Experimental Investigations of the Arc in MIG-MAG Welding ..........................................819

S. Zielińska1, K. Musioł1, N. Pellerin2, S. Pellerin2, Ch. de Isarra2, F. Briand3, F. Richard3,
T. Opderbecke3, Jagellonian University, Krakow, Poland1, Centre Universitaire de Bourges,
Cedex 2, France2, CTAS-Air Liquide, Cedex, France3

Silicon Surface Modification due to CO2 and Free Electron Laser Radiation .................825
D.W. Neat, D.R. DeLapp, J.A. Kozub, G.E. Cook, A.M. Strauss, Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, TN, USA

Laser Cladding of Low Pressure Turbine Blades ..............................................................831

M. Brandt1, J. Harris1, A. Bishop2, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne,
Australia1, Welding Technology Institute of Australia, Melbourne, Australia2

Risk of Skin Cancer from Arc Welding ...............................................................................835

A. Dixon1, B. Dixon2, Skincanceronly, Victoria, Australia1, Defence Science Technology
Organisation, Victoria, Australia2

In-Process Monitoring of Pinch Welding:

An Investigation into a Bond Quality Metric ......................................................................839
D.A. Hartman1, M.G. Smith1, M.J. Cola1, V.R. Dave1, P.S. Korinko2, S.H. Malene2,
N.R. Tolk3, J.P. Miller4, W.H. King5, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos,
NM, USA1, Savannah River National Laboratory, Aiken, SC, USA2, Honeywell FM&T,
Albuquerque, NM, USA3, Honeywell FM&T, Kansas City, MO, USA4, William H. King
Consulting, Higganum, CT, USA5

Friction Model Parameter Optimization for Friction Welding

Simulation of Ti-6246............................................................................................................849
J.P. Åström, M.O. Näsström, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden

Process Optimization for Linear Friction Welding of Ti6Al4V ..........................................855

P. Wanjara, C. Booth-Morrison, E. Hsu, M. Jahazi, National Research
Council-Institute for Aerospace Research, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Effect of Substrate Grain Size and Orientation on the Transient

Liquid-Phase Bonding of Ferritic Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Alloys ......................861
V.G. Krishnardula, N.I. Sofyan, J.W. Fergus, W.F. Gale, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL, USA
Transient Liquid Phase Joining of a Current Generation Gamma TiAl Alloy—
Gamma Met PX .....................................................................................................................867
D.A. Butts, W.F. Gale, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

Joining of Inconel 617 Sheets in TLP Bonding Using Ni-P and Ni-Si-B Alloys...............873
F. Jalilian1, R.A.L. Drew1, M. Jahazi2, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada1,
Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada2

Wide-Gap Transient Liquid Phase Bonding of Single Crystal to

Polycrystalline Nickel-Base Superalloys: Microstructural Development and
Mechanical Properties..........................................................................................................879
R. Aluru, N.I. Sofyan, J.W. Fergus, W.F. Gale, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA

Solid-State Diffusion Bonding of MA956 and PM2000 ......................................................885

V.G. Krishnardula, R. Aluru, N.I. Sofyan, J.W. Fergus, W.F. Gale, Auburn University,
Auburn, AL, USA

Diffusion Bonding of Alloy 690—Initial Studies.................................................................889

P.W. Hochanadel, M.J. Cola, V.R. Dave, A.M. Kelly, R.S. Casey, R.D. Bramlett,
D.W. Rendell, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

Analysis of Cold Bonding at Gold-Gold Contact in a Thermal Switch.............................895

L. Li, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA

Phase Transformations
Advanced Techniques for In-Situ Monitoring of Phase Transformations during
Welding Using Synchrotron-Based X-Ray Diffraction.......................................................901
J.W. Elmer1, T.A. Palmer1, W. Zhang2, T. DebRoy2, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA1, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA2

Microstructures of Inertia Friction Welds in Fe-Ni-Cr Ternary Alloys..............................911

J.D. Puskar, J.A. Brooks, N. Yang, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, CA, USA

Phase Selection Phenomena during Low-Alloy Steel Weld Solidification ......................917

S.S. Babu1, S.A. David1, J.M. Vitek1, J.W. Elmer2, T.A. Palmer2, M.A. Quintana3,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA1, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA2, Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, OH, USA3

Simulation of Dissolution and Coarsening in the HAZ of

6061 Al-Alloy during Laser Welding ...................................................................................923
A.D. Zervaki, G.N. Haidemenopoulos, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece

Structure and Mechanical Properties of Pulsed-GMA Welded Al-Li Alloy ......................929

G. Padmanabham1, S. Pandey2, M.K. Schaper3, Ministry of Science & Technology,
New Delhi, India1, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Delhi, India2, Dresden
University of Technology, Dresden, Germany3

Development of Intergranular Corrosion Resistant 316

Austenitic Stainless Steel by Grain Boundary Engineering .............................................935
M. Michiuchi, H. Kokawa, Z.J. Wang, Y.S. Sato, K. Sakai, Tohoku University,
Sendai, Japan
Ferrite Formation in a Duplex Stainless Steel during Controlled Heating: X-Ray
Diffraction and Modeling Using Para-Equilibrium Diffusion Kinetics..............................939
W. Zhang1, T. DebRoy1, T.A. Palmer2, J.W. Elmer2, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA, USA1, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA2

Direct Observations of Sigma Phase Growth and

Dissolution in 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel........................................................................945
T.A. Palmer1, J.W. Elmer1, S.S. Babu2, E.D. Specht2, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA1, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA2

Numerical Simulation of Microstructural Evolution during

Welding of Duplex Stainless Steels ....................................................................................951
C.M. Garzón1, J. Gomes1, A.J. Ramirez1, S.D. Brandi2, Brazilian Synchrotron Light
Laboratory, São Paulo, Brazil1, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil2

Kinetics of the Delta Ferrite—Sigma Phase Transformation in

22Cr-13Ni-5Mn Multi-Pass Gas Tungsten Arc Welds ........................................................957
D.K. Balch1, J.D. Puskar1, B.P. Somerday1, D.F. Susan2, Sandia National Laboratories,
Livermore, CA, USA1, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA2

Microstructure and Properties of Post Weld Heat

Treated 2.25Cr1Mo Weld Metal............................................................................................963
E.-L. Bergquist, L. Karlsson, M. Thuvander, E. Keehan, ESAB AB, Gothenburg, Sweden

Understanding Mechanical Properties of

Novel High Strength Steel Weld Metals through
High-Resolution Microstructural Investigations................................................................969
E. Keehan1, L. Karlsson1, H.O. Andrén2, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia3, ESAB AB, Gothenburg,
Sweden1, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden2, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, England3

A New Methodology for Studying Phase Transformations in

High Strength Steel Weld Metal...........................................................................................975
B.T. Alexandrov, J.C. Lippold, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Effect of Steel Composition on the Dispersion of Oxide

Inclusions in Steel Melts ......................................................................................................981
T. Suzuki, T. Koseki, The University of Tokyo Hongo, Tokyo, Japan

Investigation of Factors Affecting Ferrite Transformation from

Steel-Oxide Interface ............................................................................................................987
M. Tsutsumi, H. Kato, T. Koseki, The University of Tokyo Hongo, Tokyo, Japan

A Dual-Mesh Strategy for Microstructure Development in a

Macroscopic Heat Affected Zone: Studies on AISI316L and AISI1005 ............................993
R.G. Thiessen1, I.M. Richardson1, J. Sietsma2, Netherlands Institute for Metals Research,
Delft, The Netherlands1, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands2

Genetic Algorithm Based Optimization of Johnson Mehl Avrami Equation

Parameters for Ferrite to Austenite Transformation in Steel Welds ..............................1001
S. Mishra1, A. Kumar1, T. DebRoy1, J.W. Elmer2, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA, USA1, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA2
Prediction and Measurement of Phase Transformations,
Phase-Dependent Properties and Residual Stresses in Steels......................................1007
M. Becker, C. Jordan, S.K. Lachhander, A. Mengel, M. Renauld, Lockheed Martin,
Schenectady, NY, USA

Author Index .......................................................................................................................1013

Keyword Index ....................................................................................................................1019

 Preface

The traditional Appreciation Barbeque at Callaway Garden’s West Beach

ASM International® proudly sponsored the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research (TWR) May
16–20, 2005 at the Callaway Gardens Resort in Pine Mountain, Georgia (USA). The five-day event, endorsed and
supported by the American Welding Society and fifteen International organizations, was attended by 275 delegates
from twenty countries around the world. As is the trademark of TWR, the ideal weather and relaxing venue provided
the prefect atmosphere for the week’s excellent technical programs, networking, and learning opportunities.

The conference continued to earn its well-deserved reputation as the only event of its kind to attract the world’s
leading welding researchers. There were five keynote presentations by world-renowned experts in the field of
welding science and technology, and a host of professional speakers from around the globe. It is our ability to attract
professionals of this caliber that makes TWR a globally recognized event for the welding research community.

TWR 2005 consisted of thirty oral technical sessions and one poster technical session. Topics covered included
transport phenomena, solidification of welds, modeling, microstructure and properties, phase transformation,
weldability, residual stresses, advanced characterization techniques, properties of welds, advanced joining processes
including hybrid welding, friction stir welding, and sensing control and automation. Some of the highlights of the
conference included five technical sessions devoted to friction stir welding and sessions on advanced neutron
diffraction studies and in-situ synchrotron, diffraction investigations to quantitatively understand evolution of phases
and phase transformation kinetics during welding. The presentations described recent and innovative developments
in the field of welding science and technology and were characterized by the integration of theory, modeling, and
experiments across a number of disciplines yielding a more comprehensive picture of the welding process.

Plans are already underway for the 8th Trends In Welding Research Conference to be held in the Spring of 2008.
Please visit our Website at www.asminternational.org/trends in the coming months for dates, location and
conference details. We hope to see you all in 2008.

As a final note, the 2005 Conference Chairmen would like to recognize the planning and organizational efforts of
the staffs of ASM International (Deborah Porter and Jennifer Arnold) and ORNL (Shirin Badlani) and their
dedication to making each Trends In Welding Research event a memorable experience for our delegates.

Regards, your TWR 2005 Chairmen

Dr. Stan A. David, FASM, and Dr. John M. Vitek, FASM Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Dr. Tarasankar DebRoy, FASM Pennsylvania State University
Dr. Herschel B. Smartt Idaho National Laboratory
Dr. John C. Lippold, FASM The Ohio State University

iv
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Recent Advances in Modeling of Solidification Behavior
J. M. Vitek, S. A. David
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U. S. A.
S. S. Babu
formerly Oak Ridge National Laboratory, now Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio, U. S. A.
Abstract
Modeling of weld solidification behavior has made significant
advances in recent years. Solidification theory has been
applied to produce models that identify phase selection during
solidification, phase transformation behavior after
solidification, and microstructural evolution in general. In
addition, the use of computational thermodynamics allows for
a robust evaluation of phase stability in multicomponent
systems that represent real alloy systems. Several examples of
currently available models for solidification behavior are
presented. The expanded use of models can lead to better
optimization of weld procedures and weld alloys at relatively
small cost since extensive trial and error experiments can be
avoided. Further success in modeling will rely, to a large
extent, on the ability to integrate existing models.
Introduction
A thorough knowledge of solidification behavior during
welding provides the necessary solid foundation for
understanding and proper interpretation of material
performance. Solidification behavior directly impacts the
weldability of an alloy, and it controls the solidification
microstructure, which in turn, controls the properties and
performance. Much progress has been made in the
advancement of solidification theory for castings and the same
theory is applicable to welding since welds represent small
castings [1]. However, there are many unique features of
welding that must be taken into account. Welding conditions
typically lead to high growth rates, cooling rates, and thermal
gradients. Welding is also associated with vigorous fluid flow.
Solidification often does not involve nucleation since epitaxial
growth conditions prevail. Finally, solidification conditions
(growth rate, thermal gradients, and cooling rate) vary
significantly with position in the weld pool. For example, the
highest thermal gradients but lowest growth rates are found at
the fusion line while the lowest thermal gradients and highest
growth rates are present at the weld centerline.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 1
Modeling and simulation are ideal tools for developing a
fundamental understanding of weld solidification behavior.
Since weld conditions vary with location, controlled
solidification experiments that may be useful for studying
traditional casting processes have more limited value with
regard to weld solidification. Therefore, modeling is needed to
consider the entire range of conditions that may exist.
Solidification theory has advanced significantly over the last
few decades. Rather than concentrate on the theoretical
developments, this paper will be directed at advances in
modeling techniques that allow for the application of the
advanced theories to study weld solidification. Furthermore,
this paper will not deal with advances in heat and fluid flow
modeling. This subject is treated elsewhere in this conference
as well as in earlier proceedings in this series [2]. Instead, this
paper will focus on the following subjects: thermodynamic,
kinetic and phase transformation modeling, interface response
function models, modeling of grain structure development
during welding of single crystals, and application of phase
field modeling to welding. Examples of these advanced
techniques will be presented in an effort to demonstrate the
wide range of phenomena that can be successfully modeled
with present-day techniques.
Computational Thermodynamics, the Backbone
of Advanced Models
A through understanding of phase stability is essential in order
to model microstructural development. This is especially true
in welding, where solidification segregation, dilution effects
between filler and base metals, and dissimilar welding all lead
to significant composition variations and related
microstructural variations, on both micro and macro scales.
This is shown in Figure 1, which is a phase field simulation of
competition between ferrite and austenite solidification. Figure
1a shows the solidification of a primary dendritic phase (grey)
into a melt (black) and the simultaneous formation of a
 potential for forming non-equilibrium phases during
(a) solidification but also is useful when predicting the phase
stability during subsequent solid state cooling, heat treating,
and service. Both the composition and quantity of phases can
be calculated. CT software became commercially available
within the last 15 to 20 years. Over the years, the databases
that are used to describe the free energy functions of phases
have been expanded to cover more alloy systems and the
accuracy of these databases has steadily improved. Three
examples will be presented to demonstrate the wide range of
calculations that can be made based on CT.

Example 1: Simulation of Solidification under Scheil

Conditions
During welding, local solute segregation effects on phase
stability can be simulated by considering the evolution of
stable phases as a function of fraction solid under so-called
Scheil solidification conditions [4,5]. An example of such a
(b) calculation for an IN718 alloy composition is shown in Figure
2. It is noteworthy that the calculation is done for an 8-
component system, and therefore is representative of the
behavior in the real alloy. Such a calculation is far more
accurate and realistic than simplified calculations based on
binary or even ternary phase diagrams. In Figure 2a, the
overall fraction solid is plotted versus temperature. Figure 2b
shows the fraction solid versus temperature for individual

(a)

Figure 1: (a) simulated solidification of ferrite (grey) and

austenite (white) into liquid (black) for an Fe-1 at % C- 1 at %
Mn alloy. (b) corresponding compositional map for carbon
showing segregation in and around the dendrites
secondary phase (white) in the interdendritic regions. The
secondary phase is stabilized by the local solute segregation
that takes place, as shown in Figure 1b. Solute concentrations
(for one component) are depicted by the intensity of the grey (b)
coloring and it is clear that significant solute segregation to the
interdendritic regions takes place during solidification. The
development of computational thermodynamics (CT) allows
one to address phase stability for multicomponent systems as a
function of temperature and therefore provides the critical
basis for understanding phase stability in weldments. Several
commercial packages are currently available for CT
calculations [3]. They all are based on the same fundamental
approach of modeling the free energy of a multicomponent
system as a function of temperature. This approach allows one
to identify phase stability under both equilibrium and non-
equilibrium conditions. With CT software, one can calculate
the extent of solute segregation as well as the phases that will Figure 2: Results from Scheil solidification analysis for alloy
appear as a result of such segregation. A thorough description IN718. (top) total fraction solid versus temperature, (bottom)
of the extent of solute segregation can be used to identify the fraction solid for each of 4 minor phases versus temperature.

2
minor phases and it is clear that many different phases can be
expected to form during the latter stages of solidification.
Many of these are non-equilibrium phases and are a direct
result of the solute segregation that takes place during
solidification. In many cases, current CT software can also
account for the effect of solid state diffusion.
Example 2: Diffusion Kinetics Modeling of Solidification
Using CT as the foundation, diffusion kinetics calculations for
multicomponent systems can also be carried out. One such
software package that is commercially available is Dictra,
which interfaces with the commercial ThermoCalc software
[6]. In such simulations, equilibrium conditions imposed at the
interface between two phases act as the driving force for phase
transformation. When applied to solidification behavior, the
effects of both solid and liquid diffusion can be calculated
directly, without any need for the simplifying assumptions
used in the Scheil solidification analysis. While these
calculations can be made for multicomponent systems, the
example shown in Figure 3 considers only a simple binary Al-
4 wt % Cu system. The solute profiles are shown as a function
of distance and time. Solidification proceeds from the left into
the liquid at the right and both the solid and liquid solute
profiles are displayed. The fact that the solute profile in the
solid does not change with time indicates that diffusion in the
solid during solidification is negligible. However, such
calculations can be extended to reveal much more than simply
the solute profiles and whether Scheil solidification conditions
exist or not. For example, if one assumes a thermal gradient
along the length of the primary dendrite, then one can apply
the results from Figure 3 to derive an approximate dendrite
shape, as shown in Figure 4a (note that the formation of
time
Figure 3: Concentration profiles from diffusion kinetics
simulation of solidification in an Al-4 wt % Cu alloy as a
function of time. Solid grows from left into liquid on right.
3
secondary dendrites is ignored in such a calculation).
Furthermore, by relating the compositional profile in the liquid
to the phase stability of liquid versus solid, one can derive an
estimate of the extent and spatial distribution of the liquid
undercooling. This is shown in Figure 4b for the same
conditions shown in Figures 3 and 4a. Such calculations can
be used to quantitatively evaluate the extent of interdendritic
undercooling and could, in theory, be used to estimate dendrite
arm spacings. For example, if the spacing used in the
calculations is too large, then large undercoolings will be
found, indicative of an unstable condition that would lead to
the stabilization of more dendrites and to the reduction in
spacing. Similarly, if the calculated extent of undercooling
was small, then one could expect the dendrite arm spacings to
increase as a result of the balance between undercooling and
dendrite surface energy.
Example 3: Calculation of Ferrite Number Distribution
The last example in this section does not deal with welding but
it demonstrates the power of CT-based kinetics calculations in
understanding as-solidified microstructure. The example
considers the distribution of ferrite in stainless steel
continuous castings. Experimental results revealed that the
center of continuous-cast stainless steel billets had a higher
ferrite number than the billet surface. This behavior could not
be explained by standard qualitative arguments. The
remaining ferrite represents as-solidified ferrite that did not
transform to austenite during cooling after solidification. One
might expect that the ferrite content at the surface, where the
cooling rates are higher, might be largest since the ability to
transform as-solidified ferrite to austenite during cooling
would be diminished. However, this is counter to the
experimental findings. Alternatively, one might expect a lower
ferrite content at the surface if the primary mode of
solidification changed from primary ferrite formation to
primary austenite formation. Once again this explanation is
not correct because the alloy in question solidified as primary
austenite at all cooling rates. Kinetics calculations were used
to explain the results. Approximate thermal histories for
continuously cooled billets were available in the literature [7].
These thermal histories should be applicable to the continuous
castings in question and they are shown in Figure 5a. The
curves show that the cooling rate during solidification was
larger at the surface than at the billet center. However, cooling
rates in the range of 1300 to 1100°C were comparable at the
surface and center, and even were smaller at the surface over
part of the temperature range. Calculations were carried out
for the ferrite to austenite transformation using the calculated
thermal histories and setting the dendrite spacing proportional
to the inverse square root of the cooling rate during
solidification. The results of the calculation are shown in
Figure 5. Although the kinetics calculations did not predict the
final ferrite numbers at the surface and center exactly, they
clearly showed a difference between the two locations, with a
higher ferrite content in the center, in agreement with
experimental results.
 (a)
Distance (µm)
Distance (µm)
Figure 4: (left) calculated dendrite shape corresponding to growth in Figure 3 and using an imposed thermal gradient. (right)
corresponding map of extent of undercooling, calculated by relating liquid composition profile (Figure 3) and associated liquidus
temperature to thermal gradient used in the calculation.
Interface Response Function Models
Solidification theory can be used to calculate the extent of
undercooling at the solidification front as a function of the
growth rate, morphology (dendritic versus cellular versus
planar growth) and the phase that is growing [5]. The results
of such calculations can be used to generate interface response
functions which identify the most stable phases and
morphologies as a function of growth velocity [8]. By
comparing the undercooling for different phases and
morphologies at a given growth rate, one can predict which
phase will solidify and in what morphological mode at that
growth rate (phase or morphology with minimum
undercooling will prevail). Such calculations can be readily
combined with thermodynamic calculations that provide
critical parameters such as the solute partitioning as a function
of composition to predict the growth characteristics under high
growth rate conditions such as those found during welding. In
this way, competitive growth between different phases can be
evaluated. Such competitive growth is shown in Figure 1a at
4
(b)
Distance (µm)
Distance (µm)
the bottom right where the secondary phase (white) is shown
to be growing ahead of the primary phase (grey). This is a
consequence of the undercooling that is present (non-uniform
in the schematic figure) and the solute segregation to the
remaining liquid that results from solute partitioning during
solidification. These interface response function models have
been applied to Fe-C-Al-Mn alloys [9]. The calculations were
compared to in-situ experimental results that identified the
primary solidification phase under relatively slow growth and
high growth weld solidification conditions [9,10]. It was found
that the model calculations could reproduce the observed
transition from primary ferrite formation to primary austenite
formation at high growth rates, but only if some model
parameters are adjusted (Figure 6). The results show that
solidification models can effectively simulate competitive
growth among phases during welding. However the
calculations also indicate that the model results can be
sensitive to the parameters used in the models and more work
is needed to identify reliable and accurate model parameters.
a)

b)

c)

Figure 6: Calculated solidification front temperatures for

dendritic growth versus growth rate for both primary ferrite
and primary austenite formation in a low carbon steel. (a)
calculation using standard parameters showing no stable
austenite formation, contradicting experiment and (b)
calculation with modified parameters showing stable
austenitic growth at high growth rates, in agreement with in-
situ experimental observations.

Modeling of Stray Grain Formation in Single

Figure 5: (a) thermal histories at the edge and center of Crystal Welds
continuous castings (taken from reference [7]), (b and c)
calculated percent ferrite versus temperature during cooling Models have been developed that describe the evolution of
after solidification showing decrease in ferrite content due to grain structure in weldments [11-14]. These have been used to
transformation from ferrite to austenite. (b) ferrite content at explain the change in grain morphology from columnar to
center of ingot and (c) ferrite content at edge of ingot,
showing less ferrite at the edge, in agreement with experiment.
5
equiaxed when going from the weld fusion line to the weld
centerline. The grain morphology has a direct impact on the
weldability of some alloys; equiaxed centerline grain
structures are more resistant to center line cracking than
columnar grain structure morphologies.

More recently, much work has been directed at studying the

grain structure evolution in welds made on single crystals.
Early work on model Fe-15Cr-15Ni alloys showed that such
welds can maintain the single crystal grain structure as a result
of the epitaxial growth that prevails during weld solidification.
However, for the case of single crystal nickel-based
superalloys, retaining the single crystal grain structure is
significantly more difficult and yet, of significantly more
interest The loss of the single crystal structure in these alloys
often results in weld cracking [15,16] and is likely to lead to a
loss in elevated temperature creep resistance. Successful
retention of the single crystal grain structure during welding is
desirable because it could allow for weld repair of single
crystal turbine components. Recent work has focused on
evaluating the grain structure development during welding of
single crystal nickel-based superalloys and identifying
conditions under which successful welding could be
accomplished [17]. Such modeling requires the integration of
several models. First, a thermal model must be used to identify
the weld pool shape, and the thermal gradients that are present
at the solidification front as a function of position in the weld
pool. The results from such a model must be combined with a
geometric model that describes the active dendrite growth
directions in the single crystal as a function of solidification
front orientation and base metal crystallographic orientation
[18,19]. Finally, these two models must be combined with a
model that describes the extent of undercooling ahead of the
solidification front and the extent of nucleation and growth of
new grains that would destroy the single crystal grain structure
[13,14,20]. Results from modeling studies that combined these
three different submodels have been published recently
[13,14,17]. Representative results are shown schematically in
Figure 7, where the value of Φ, which depicts the area fraction
of new grains, is shown as a function of position in the weld
pool. The results show that Φ varies significantly with welding
conditions and position in the weld pool. Furthermore, results
for asymmetric base metal orientations show asymmetric
distributions of new grains can be expected. These results
were compared with experimental observations and they
agreed perfectly with the experimental findings [16,21,22].
This type of analysis can also identify optimum welding
conditions for avoiding new (stray) grains and results are
shown in Figure 8. The calculations indicate that high welding
speeds and low weld powers are preferred in order to avoid
stray grain formation, and these predictions have been Figure 7: Calculated tendency to form stray grains as a
supported by recent experiments [23]. function of position in the weld pool for three different weld
conditions. Light color represents low Φ (no stray grains) and
dark indicates high Φ (high probability of stray grains). (top)
low speed symmetric orientation weld, (middle) high speed
symmetric weld, (bottom) low speed asymmetric weld.

6
 4000
[110], (001) Orientation
3000
Power (W)
2000
0.45
0.5
0.5 0.45
1000 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25
0.2
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3
0.01
Weld Speed (ms )
Figure 8: Contour plot showing the calculated extent of stray grain formation (Φ) as a function of weld speed and power. Low Φ
indicates low area fraction of stray grains and is the desired condition. Calculations show low Φ is achieved with low power and high
speed.
Phase Field Modeling and Potential Applications
to Welding
In the last decade a new modeling method, phase field
modeling, has been developed and is the focus of much
ongoing activity. This approach can be used to describe the
spatial variation of composition, grain orientation, phases, etc
and has been adapted to study many complex problems. A
commercial package has recently become available that
integrates the phase field approach with CT to allow for
multicomponent kinetics calculations to be carried out [24].
Phase field modeling is very computationally intensive, and
requires the identification of many parameters that may not be
known very well. Nonetheless, its ability to handle
multicomponent systems and characterize the spatial variation
in two or three dimensions provides many unique capabilities.
For example, in contrast to the kinetics calculations described
earlier, phase field modeling adds the ability to model the
spatial distribution in addition to the composition and extent of
transformation derived in the kinetics models. As computer
power improves, the application of phase field models will
undoubtedly grow and the insight derived from these models
will be immense.
Preliminary results that demonstrate the power of the phase
field modeling approach were obtained for a three component
Fe-C-Mn system. Solidification was modeled under a linear
thermal gradient (from bottom to top in Figure 1). The
7
0.4
0.35
0.3 0.1
0.2 0.15
4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5
0.1
-1
analysis considered the nucleation of five ferrite grains (the
equilibrium primary solidification phase) and allowed for the
nucleation of fifteen austenite grains. The nucleation of the
austenite grains was controlled by the local composition and
temperature. The results at an intermediate stage of
solidification are shown in Figure 1. The ferrite grains are grey
and austenite grains are white. The simulation over time
clearly shows primary ferrite formation and the dendritic
microstructure evolution (including formation or
disappearance of primary and secondary ferritic dendrites).
The solute segregation can be readily followed, for both
substitutional (Mn) and interstitial (C) solutes. As
solidification proceeds, formation of secondary austenite in
the interdendritic regions is observed. Furthermore, where the
solidification front lags behind (far right) due the absence of
primary dendrites (only five were allowed), the liquid
enrichment and higher undercooling stabilize primary
austenite formation. As the solidification simulation is
continued to longer times, the primary austenite at the bottom
right is found to grow at a rapid rate and eventually overtakes
the ferrite completely, as shown in Figure 9. Thus, the
simulation reproduces competitive growth and corresponds
directly with the results from models using interface response
functions (described earlier). Since phase field models
consider the spatial distribution of phases and composition,
virtual composition scans across the microstructure can be
readily made, as shown in Figure 10. Both the carbon and
manganese concentration maps are shown. It is impossible to
Figure 9: Same phase field simulation shown in Figure 1 but
at a later stage of solidification showing the overtaking of
primary ferrite solidification by austenite growth. Away from
the solidification front, as-solidified ferrite has transformed to
austenite during solid state cooling, resulting in a nearly
100% austenitic microstructure.
clearly show the variations in absolute concentrations in black
and white so the coloring was adjusted to enhance the changes
in concentration. The model results clearly show the
segregation behavior. The variation in carbon concentration
along the displayed line trace is shown more quantitatively in
Figure 11. Rejection of carbon by ferrite into the liquid,
8
Figure 10: Composition maps for (top) carbon and (bottom)
manganese corresponding to the microstructure shown in
Figure 1. With limited ability to display compositions
quantitatively in black and white, color scales were enhanced
to dramatize the compositional variations as a function of
position and to display the solidification segregation effects.
leading to appreciable enrichment in the liquid, is shown. The
results show the power and potential of the phase field
modeling method in simulating the microstructural evolution
during welding.
 integration with advanced heat and fluid flow models is still
needed. With these advanced models, real multicomponent
systems under realistic welding conditions can be addressed.
The use of modeling as applied to welding can be used to
identify optimum weld consumable alloys and welding
conditions that lead to microstructural control and improved
properties. While experimental research has achieved these
same goals in the past, the intensive use of models can
produce more optimum solutions in a fraction of the time and
at a fraction of the cost that has been the norm when using
experimental techniques. Combined modeling and judicial
experimentation is the ultimate means for achieving superior
weld performance.

Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the Division of Materials
Sciences and Engineering, U. S. Department of Energy, under
contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC.

Figure 11: (top) carbon concentration map at intermediate
stage of solidification (same as Figure 1 and Figure 10) and
(bottom) quantitative display of composition versus distance
for the line scan shown by the grey bar in the top figure.
Summary
Advances in solidification theory have led to the development
of computational models that can be used effectively to
describe the solidification behavior during welding and the
phase stability during subsequent cooling, heat treatment, and
service. The challenge that remains is to integrate existing
models so as to better simulate the entire welding process and
its inherent complexity. The examples that were presented
demonstrate the potential of model integration. Computational
thermodynamics provides a solid framework for the
application of kinetics and phase transformation models, for
solidification models that predict the solidification
morphology and competition among phases, and for
microstructural models such as phase field models. Further
References
1. S. A. David and J. M. Vitek, Correlation Between
Solidification Parameters and Weld Microstructures,
Inter. Mater. Rev. 34(5), 213-245 (1989)
2. See proceedings from earlier conferences in the
Trends in Welding series, e.g., Trends in Welding
Research, eds. S. A. David, T. DebRoy, J. C.
Lippold, H. B. Smartt and J. M. Vitek, ASM-
International, Materials Park, OH (2003) or Trends
in Welding Research, eds. J. M. Vitek, S. A. David,
T. DebRoy, J. A. Johnson, H. B. Smartt and T.
DebRoy, ASM-International, Materials Park, OH
(1999)
3. See special issue of Calphad, 26(2), 143-312 (2002)
4. M.C. Flemings, Solidification Processing, p. 159,
McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (1974)
5. W. Kurz and D.J. Fisher, Fundamentals of
Solidification, p. 240, Trans Tech Publications Ltd.,
Aedermannsdorf, Switzerland (1984)
6. J-O. Andersson, T. Helander, L. Höglund, P. Shi and
B. Sundman, ThermoCalc and Dictra, Computational
Tools for Materials Science, Calphad 26(2), 273-312
(2002)
7. O. J. Pereira and J. Beech, Factors Influencing the
Delta Ferrite Content of Cast Stainless Steels, p 315-
321 in Solidification Technology in the Foundry and
Casthouse, Metals Society, London (1983)
8. S. Fukumoto and W. Kurz, Solidification Phase and
Microstructure Selection Maps for Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys,
ISIJ International, 39, 1270-1279 (1999)
9. S. S. Babu, J. W. Elmer, J. M. Vitek and S. A. David,
Time-Resolved X-Ray Diffraction Investigation of
Primary Weld Solidification in Fe-C-Al-Mn Steel
Welds, Acta Mater., 50, 4763-4781 (2002)

9
10. S. S. Babu, J. W. Elmer, S. A. David and M. A.
Quintana, In Situ Observations of Non-Equilibrium
Austenite Formation during Weld Solidification of an
Fe-C-Al-Mn Low-Alloy Steel, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A,
458, 811-821 (2002)
11. T. Ganaha,, B. P. Pearce, and H. W. Kerr, Grain
Structures in Aluminum Alloy GTA Welds, Metall
Trans A, 11A, 1351-1359 (1980)
12. J.D. Hunt, Steady State Columnar and Equiaxed
Growth of Dendrites and Eutectic, Mater Sci Engg,
65, 75-83 (1984)
13. M. Gäumann, R. Trivedi, and W. Kurz, Nucleation
Ahead of the Advancing Interface in Directional
Solidification, Mater. Sci. Engg, A226-228, 763-769
(1997)
14. M. Gäumann, C. Bezençon, P. Canalis, and W. Kurz,
Single-Crystal Laser Deposition of Superalloys:
Processing-Microstructure Maps, Acta Mater., 49,
1051-1062 (2001)
15. J.M. Vitek, S.A. David, and L.A. Boatner,
Microstructural Development in Single Crystal
Nickel-Base Superalloy Welds, Sci. Technol. Weld.
Joining, 2(3), 109-118 (1997)
16. J.-W. Park, S.S. Babu, J.M. Vitek, E.A. Kenik, and
S.A. David, Stray Grain Formation in Single Crystal
Ni-Base Superalloy Welds, J. Appl. Phys, 94(6),
4203-4209 (2003)
17. J. M. Vitek, The Effect of Welding Conditions on
Stray Grain Formation in Single Crystal Welds -
Theoretical Analysis, Acta Mater., 53(1), 53-67
(2005)
10
18. M. Rappaz, S.A. David, J.M. Vitek, and L.A.
Boatner, Development of Microstructures in Fe-
15Ni-15Cr Single Crystal Electron Beam Welds,
Metall Trans A, 20A, 1125-1138 (1989)
19. M. Rappaz, S.A. David, J.M. Vitek, and L.A.
Boatner, Analysis of Solidification Microstructures in
Fe-Ni-Cr Single Crystal Welds, Metall Trans A, 21A,
1767-1782 (1990)
20. M. Gäumann, S. Henry, F. Cléton, J.-D. Wagnière,
and W. Kurz, Epitaxial Laser Metal Forming:
Analysis of Microstructure Formation, Mater. Sci.
Engg, A271, 232-241 (1999)
21. J.M. Vitek, S.S. Babu, S.A. David, and J-W. Park,
Microstructure Development in Single Crystal Welds,
Mater. Sci. Forum, 426-432, 4123-4128 (2003)
22. J.M. Vitek, S.S. Babu, J-W. Park, and S.A. David,
Analysis of Stray Grain Formation in Single-Crystal
Nickel-Based Superalloy Welds, p 459-466 in
Superalloys 2004, eds. K.A. Green, T.M. Pollock, H.
Harada, T.E. Howson, R.C. Reed, J.J. Schirra, and S.
Walston, TMS, Warrendale, PA (2004)
23. J. M. Vitek, S. S. Babu and S. A. David, Welding of
Single-Crystal Nickel-Based Superalloys: How to
Avoid Stray Grains and Why, in proceedings of this
conference
24. MICRESS software, Access e.V., Aachen, Germany
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Relationship Between the Formation of Hollow Bead Defects and Hydrogen

Assisted Cold Cracking
I. H. Brown, G. L. F. Powell, V. M. Linton
The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia

A. Kufner
F-H Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany

Abstract
Hydrogen assisted cold cracking (HACC), also referred to as
The relationship between the occurrence of Hollow Bead delayed cracking or cold cracking, occurs in the weld metal of
Defects in root runs of pipeline welds, weld metal high strength welds. The factors leading to HACC are well
microsegregation, and hydrogen assisted cold cracking is known [3], namely the simultaneous presence of a critical
investigated. Hollow Bead Defects and hydrogen assisted cold concentration of diffusible hydrogen, a residual or applied
cracking are both found to occur in welds containing stress and a susceptible microstructure. In addition, the
segregated regions of manganese and silicon. An cracking normally occurs at a temperature below 200°C.
experimentally substantiated model for the formation of
Hollow Bead Defects is proposed. Since the major gas inside the Hollow Bead Defect is
hydrogen, it seems likely that there could be a relationship
Keywords: welding, hydrogen assisted cold cracking, hollow between the occurrence of Hollow Bead Defects and HACC.
bead
In pipeline welding, Hollow Bead Defects are not seen as a
major defect if their length and size is within the limits
Introduction specified in the relevant Australian Standard [4]. This is a
consequence of the rounded nature of the pore. However these
Oil and gas pipelines are commonly welded using the stove- limits may need reassessment if it could be shown that the
pipe technique, a manual metal arc welding technique using conditions for the formation of Hollow Bead Defects are
cellulosic electrodes. Cellulosic electrodes provide good similar to those for the appearance of hydrogen assisted cold
penetration and high travel speeds and hence high cracking (HACC).
productivity.
Experimental
Hollow Bead Defect occurs in the root pass of pipeline welds
and is commonly described as an elongated linear porosity
Welded samples of two line-pipe steels, API 5L X70 (X70)
located in the root pass of a pipeline weld.
and API 5L X80 (X80) were examined. The samples
manufactured from 8.3mm thick API 5L X70 steel plate were
Cantin [1] and Barkow [2] both attempted to experimentally
supplied by Cantin. Further test plates were manufactured
determine the conditions under which Hollow Bead occurs.
from 9mm thick API 5L X80 steel plate under conditions
Cantin [1] found that the most important factor for the
likely to produce Hollow Bead. The composition of both steels
occurrence of Hollow Bead Defects was a fast weld travel
is given in Table 1.
speed combined with high welding current. The major gas in
the Hollow Bead pore is hydrogen, which has been rejected
Table 1: Chemical compositions of X70 [1] and X80 [5] plates
from the super-saturated liquid ahead of the solid-liquid
interface. On the basis of these findings Cantin postulated that
C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Al Nb Ti
the hydrogen gas rejected by the saturated liquid ahead of the
X70 0.09 1.56 .33 .022 .017 .002 .03 .04 .012
solid-liquid interface accumulates in one single gas bubble,
which is enclosed by columnar grains growing parallel to the X80 0.09 1.7 .38 - - .035 .05 .08 0.25
welding direction. However no evidence was provided to
substantiate this mechanism.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 11

All welds were single pass root runs with no filling runs and
were produced using cellulosic electrodes (AWS E6010/AS
E4110). These electrodes are commonly used for the field
welding of line pipe. Welds were produced in an automated
manual metal arc welding machine designed to simulate the
stovepipe welding technique using a travel speed of
500mm/min, a welding voltage of approximately 30V and a
welding current of 190A giving a heat input of 0.66kJ/mm.
Joints in the 200mm x 450mm steel plates were prepared to
the Australian Standard AS2885.2 – 2002 with a root face of
1.6 – 2.1mm, a root gap of 1.3 – 1.6mm and a bevel angle of
30o. The welding was done at room temperature with no
preheat.
When etched with LePera’s reagent, all of the transverse
sections showed long columnar grains growing from the
parent material towards the centre of the weld. However, in
the region of the Hollow Bead pore, the microstructure
changed. There was a triangular region above the pore that
appeared to contain equiaxed grains. The apex of the triangle
was on the centreline of the weld and the region was
symmetrical either side of the pore. This feature was observed
in the X70 and X80 samples. Figure 3 is an optical micrograph
where this feature has been highlighted.

After welding, the plates were x-rayed to locate Hollow Bead

Defects. Cross sections of those welds containing Hollow
Bead Defects were prepared using standard metallographic
techniques for examination using optical light microscopy.
The samples were examined after etching with 2% Nital, and
then repolished and etched in LePera’s reagent [5] Nital was
used to reveal the phases resulting from the solid-state
transformation, whereas LePera’s reagent was used to reveal
the microsegregation resulting from liquid to solid
transformation.

The samples were further analyzed using a FEI/Phillips XL30

FESEM field emission scanning electron microscope on
etched and unetched samples, and a Cameca SX51 electron
microprobe was used on unetched samples for x-ray analysis
and x-ray mapping.
Figure 3: The microstructure at the weld centerline above a
Results Hollow Bead Pore in X70 steel: Segregation is indicated by
the darker etched regions of the cellular dendrite boundaries
Segregation at the Weld Centreline The triangular region referred to in the text is marked. The
Visibly sound welds produced using the welding parameters cellular dendrites are approximately 20μm in diameter.
described above were x-rayed, and Hollow Bead Defects were Etchant LePera’s reagent.
found in all x-rayed welds.

A transverse section of a Hollow Bead Defect is shown in
Figure 2. Although not discernable at this magnification a
crack emanates from the defect towards the top surface of the
weld.
A crack is evident along the centreline of the weld shown in
Figure 4. The crack follows a zigzag pattern along the
boundaries of the cellular dendrites as indicated by the black
arrows. The growth direction of the cellular dendrites at the
mid height of the weld is horizontal; in the upper region is
inclined slightly upwards towards the centre of the weld and in
the lower part of the weld is inclined downwards towards the
Hollow Bead pore. This indicates the change of the direction
of the heat extraction and hence the direction of solidification.

To identify the segregated elements in the weld centreline, x-

ray line scans were carried out across the crack along the
white line shown in Figure 4 using an x-ray analytical facility
attached to an SEM. The scans were made with a voltage of
20kV, a dwell time of 100 seconds per point and 128 points
per line. A typical line scan is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 2. Transverse section of Hollow Bead Defect in X70
steel with crack initiation point arrowed. Magnification x1

12
 Manganese and silicon are clearly segregated at the weld
centreline, with manganese in particular showing a high
intensity peak. All samples which contained Hollow Bead
Defects showed similar characteristics:

Investigation of segregation surrounding a crack

Figure 4: Collage of optical micrographs extending from a

hollow bead pore to the weld surface showing cracking along
Figure: 6 SEM collage of a crack emanating from a Hollow
the segregation at the centerline of the weld. The position of
Bead Defect (bottom) and following a path through oxide
the x-ray line scan (Figure 5) is shown by the white arrowed
inclusions (arrowed). Etchant: LePera’s reagent.
line. Etchant: LePera’s reagent.
Figure 6 is a collage of micrographs taken using the back-
scattered electron mode of the SEM. The sample has been
Line 1
etched in LePera’s reagent. The figure shows that the crack
centreline has grown in a band where the material was smoother after
8 etching in LePera’s reagent than the surrounding areas. The
crack is tight, follows a staircase pattern and is branched. It
net intensity

6
can also be seen that the crack travels along a path running
4
between inclusions.
2
To identify the elements segregated around the crack, x-ray
0
maps of the crack shown in Figure 6 were collected using
0 20 40 60 80 100
electron probe microanalysis.
distance in um

SiK CrK MnK NiK

Figure 5: Linescan across weld centerline showing increased

concentrations of manganese and silicon.

13

100μm
100μ
M
Mn
Figure 7: X-ray map of the cracked region using the
microprobe. The manganese segregation appears in the
outlined area as the lighter region. (Unetched)
100μm
Si
Figure 8: X-ray map of the cracked region using the
microprobe. The silicon segregation appears as the lighter
region. (Unetched)
The maps (Figures 7 and 8) show that the crack follows a
segregated region which contains considerably higher
manganese and considerably higher silicon contents than the
bulk of the weld metal. The segregated region corresponds to
the smooth region in Figure 6.
The nominal concentrations of silicon, manganese and iron
were confirmed using x-ray line scans across the segregated
area containing the crack shown in Figure 6. These confirmed
the results shown in the area scans Figures 7 and 8. The scans
were collected at approximately the mid length of the crack. In
the segregated region the silicon content increased from
approximately 0.2% to 0.5%. and the manganese content
14
increased from approximately 1% to 5% with a subsequent
decrease in the iron content from approximately 99% to 95%.
Investigation of Hollow Bead Pore
Cantin [1] suggested that the growth direction around the
Hollow Bead Defects is parallel to the welding direction
(which is also the orientation of the Hollow Bead Pore). This
theory was supported by Powell et al. [6], whose research on
elongated gas pores in welds, observed cellular dendrites
growing parallel to the gas pores. To substantiate Cantin’s
hypothesis, it was considered important to further investigate
the structure surrounding the Hollow Bead pores.
To investigate the solidification mode around the Hollow
Bead Defects, longitudinal sections of welds containing
Hollow Bead pores were cut along the centreline of the pores.
The samples were polished and etched with LePera’s reagent
to reveal the microstructure as shown in Figure 9.
Growth
direction of
pore
Black arrow indicates cellular
Hollow Bead Pore
growth direction
Figure 9: Microstructure of a longitudinal section of a hollow
bead pore. The pore is at the bottom left of the image and the
black arrow indicates the direction of welding. The lighter
etched regions indicate intercellular segregation. Etchant:
LePera’s reagent
The section shows that in the region to the left of the dotted
line in Figure 9 the cellular dendrites grow parallel to the
welding direction, which is the growth direction of the pore.
Further away i.e. to the right of the dotted line in Figure 9, the
columnar grains grow in a direction almost normal to the page
i.e. almost at 90 degrees to the growth direction of the pore.
To substantiate these findings the inside surface of Hollow
Bead pores were closely examined. Cross-section samples of
welds containing Hollow Bead Defects were
metallographically ground to the mid height of the pore, and
the inside surface of the pores examined in the SEM.
On the internal surface of the pore, protrusions which were
aligned in the longitudinal direction of the pore and the
welding direction, were observed. These protrusions were also
evident on the bottom surface of the pore. The protrusions do cellular dendrites growing in the direction of the Hollow Bead
not run absolutely parallel to the elongated direction of the pore
pore, but run slightly towards the centre of the pore. The
distance between the protrusions is approximately 20μm,
which corresponds to the diameter of the cellular dendrites as weld centre-line
shown in Figure 3.
top
Discussion
Segregation surrounding a crack
A hydrogen assisted cold crack was found in the root pass of a
weld in X70 steel. The crack was initiated at a Hollow Bead
Defect. X-ray line and area scans revealed that the crack parent metal parent metal
occurred in a region where the manganese and silicon contents
were higher than in the surrounding weld metal. The localised
increase in manganese and silicon content was a result of
segregation at the cellular dendrite boundaries during the bottom
solidification of the weld metal [7]. This increase in the alloy
content of these two elements increased the hardenability of Hollow Bead Defect
these regions which increased their susceptibility to HACC

Scanning electron micrographs showed the crack path ran

between oxide inclusions. This is expected because these
inclusions would also be segregated to the cellular dendrite Figure 10: Schematic of a transverse cross section of a weld
boundaries during solidification. It has previously been containing Hollow Bead Defect in the root pass.
reported [8] that HACC follows these inclusions and that these
oxide inclusions not only act as stress raisers but also as
Examination of the inside of the Hollow Bead pores, revealed
hydrogen traps, i.e. the residence time of diffusible hydrogen
protrusions on the inside surface. The distance between the
is longer at the inclusion than in other parts of the
protrusions was approximately 20μm, which is approximately
microstructure. This leads to an increase in triaxial stresses
the diameter of the cellular dendrites. These protrusions were
around the inclusion which further increases the susceptibility
almost parallel to the welding direction. It was shown by
to cracking.
Powell [7] that these protrusions are regions of segregation at
the cellular dendrite boundaries as a consequence of the lower
Segregation associated with Hollow Bead Defect
liquidus temperature of the enriched liquid. The protrusions
With the chosen welding parameters, the production of
point towards the centre of the pore. A model for the
Hollow Bead Defects in the welds was very reproducible.
formation of Hollow Bead based on these findings, and
Every weld contained several Hollow Bead Defects, generally
supported by the hypothesis suggested by Cantin [1] is
in the bottom part of the weld
presented in Figure 11.
The occurrence of Hollow Bead Defects corresponded with
Cantin [1] showed that the gas inside Hollow Bead Defects is
with the weld growth pattern shown in Figure 3.
almost 100% hydrogen. The solutibility of hydrogen in the
liquid phase of steel is higher than in the solid phase.
The solidification mode of the welds is as described by Savage
Hydrogen was rejected from the supersaturated liquid phase
[9]. A transverse section of the solidification morphology is
ahead of the solid-liquid interface as the temperature
shown schematically in Figure 10. The cellular dendrites grow
decreased. The hydrogen accumulated in the form of hydrogen
from the parent metal towards the centre of the weld, where
bubbles. These bubbles were forced towards the outer surface
they meet. The growth direction at the mid-height position of
of the weld by the advancing solidification front, where they
the weld is horizontal, whereas in the top section of the weld it
would normally escape. However, due to the high weld travel
is slightly upwards, and in the bottom section of the weld it is
speeds and the high cooling rates involved in the present
slightly downwards. In the welds with Hollow Bead Defects, a
experiments, a layer of solid metal rapidly forms at the surface
triangular shaped area just above or below the Hollow Bead,
of the weld and the hydrogen cannot escape. The bubbles
and generally towards the middle of the weld, was observed.
become encapsulated in a thin layer of the last metal to
In this area, the grains appeared to be equiaxed, but it could be
solidify, metal that is enriched in alloying elements and at the
shown by taking a longitudinal section through the Hollow
centreline of the weld bead.
Bead and etching in LePera’s reagent, that they were in fact

15
 solid-liquid interface
welding direction
liquid
rejected hydrogen
top
last region to solidify
bottom
segregation
film of solidified metal on weld surface
Hollow Bead Defect
Figure 11: Transverse section of a schematic model for the
formation of Hollow Bead Defects.
The Hollow Bead pore propagates in the direction of the
solidification front, i.e. the welding direction as more and
more diffusible hydrogen is rejected from the liquid metal.
The cellular dendrites next to the Hollow Bead pore are
observed to be relatively large compared to the epitaxial grains
growing from the parent metal. These grains were probably
nucleated at the skin around the gas pore ahead of the epitaxial
growth solidification front. They are located in the last metal
to solidify at which stage the heat transfer is relatively slow,
giving the grains sufficient time to develop their size.
In welding tests, conducted with the low travel speed, cellular
dendrites growing parallel to the welding direction were not
found. This suggests that growth in the direction of welding
requires a high travel speed with a corresponding high cooling
rate. None of the specimens taken from the low weld travel
speed welds (300mm/minute) showed either cellular dendrites
parallel to the welding direction or Hollow Bead Defects. The
cellular dendrites grew from the parent material towards the
weld centreline. This was the case from the top of the weld to
the bottom of the weld in all of samples (Figure 12).
Conclusion
From the results of the present research it has been possible to
postulate a model for the formation of the Hollow Bead
Defect. Previous research on Hollow Bead Defects has
concentrated on the conditions for its formation rather than the
mechanism of formation [1][2]. In agreement with that
previous work, this work found that Hollow Bead Defects
formed at higher weld travel speeds and higher welding
currents. These welding conditions produce a change in the
16
growth direction of the cellular dendrites from perpendicular
to the welding direction towards the welding direction and
also produce a line of segregation from the bottom to the top
of the weld. In addition it was found that in the samples
containing the Hollow Bead Defect the cellular dendrites
surrounding the Hollow Bead Defect and the Hollow Bead
Defect itself grew parallel to the welding direction. When
welded at slower travel speeds and lower currents no change
in growth direction or Hollow Bead Defect were detected.
A crack initiated at the surface of a Hollow Bead Defect and
travelling to the weld surface was investigated. The crack
followed the segregated regions at the centreline of the weld.
The segregated regions were higher in manganese and silicon
indicating that these regions would have higher hardenability.
Therefore all of the factors necessary for the formation of a
cold crack were present, hydrogen, residual stress due to
solidification and regions of increased hardenability. The
morphology of the crack reflected cold cracks previously
investigated and reported [7] in that it was tight, branched and
linked inclusions
References
1. G. M. D. Cantin, An Investigation of the Formation
of Hollow Bead Defects in Pipeline Field Welds, PhD
Thesis, 1998
2. A. G. Barkow, New Welding Problem for Pipeliners,
The Oil and Gas Journal, 71 40-47 (1973)
3. P .H .M. Hart,., Resistance to Hydrogen Cracking in
Steel Weld Metals. Welding Journal, 14-22 (1986)
4. AS2885.2, Pipelines - Gas and liquid petroleum. Part
2, Welding. Standards Australia, 2002
5. F. S. LePera, J. Met., 32, 38-39 (1980)
6. G. L. F. Powell, and P. G. Lloyd, Characterisation of
an Elongated Gas Pore in a Weld in Terms of
Solidification Mechanics. Prakt. Metallogr., 1995. 32:
p. 25-31
7. I. H. Brown, G. L. F. Powell, J. L. Davidson, V. M.
Linton, Cold Cracking and Segregation in Multi-pass
Welds of a Quenched and Tempered Steel, 6th Int.
Conf. on Trends in Welding Research, Georgia USA,
2002.
8. Bhadeshia H., Microstructure modelling in weld
metal, Mathematical modelling of weld phenomena
3, H. Cejrak ed., 650, 1997, 229 - 282.
9. Savage, W.F., 1980 Houdremont Lecture. Welding in
the world, 18(5/6), 89-114, 1980
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Achieving Grain Refinement through Weld Pool Oscillation
T.J. McInerney, R.B. Madigan
Montana Tech of the Univ. of Montana, Butte, Montana, USA
P. Xu, C.E. Cross
Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany
Abstract
Autogenous, bead-on-plate, gas tungsten arc welds made on
aluminum 2219 plate have been mechanically oscillated
during welding in order to achieve grain refinement in the
weld metal. Various combinations of frequency and
amplitude of oscillation have been examined to define the
conditions necessary for breaking up the columnar grain
structure. A critical energy has been identified as being
required for grain refinement, expressed in terms of the
product: frequency x amplitude (fa). The possibility for grain
refinement by exciting the weld pool at its natural frequency
has also been considered.
Introduction
Weld metal grains are typically columnar, nucleating
epitaxially on base metal grains, and growing in a continuous
manner normal to the weld pool interface. The presence of
long, continuous grain boundaries is deleterious to both
toughness and weldability.
In welded aluminum alloys, grain refinement is normally
controlled with TiAl3 grain refiner additions to the filler alloy
[1]. However, in cases where impact toughness is of
particular importance and the presence of intermetallic
compounds must be minimized, an alternative method for
grain refinement becomes desirable.
One such application involves welds made on aluminum alloy
2519 used in the construction of the US Navy’s Advanced
Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAAV), where weld ballistic
properties have been identified as a potential problem [2].
Greater resistance to cracking from ballistic impact could be
achieved through improved weld metal toughness associated
with grain refinement. Use of a low copper filler alloy would
also be desirable (i.e. fewer intermetallic compounds), in
which case grain refinement would be needed for weldability.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 17
The intention of this study was to investigate different
combinations of frequency and amplitude using mechanical
oscillation, and to identify regimes capable of achieving weld
metal grain refinement through pool oscillation. Aluminum
alloy 2219 was used in this study because of its availability
and similar composition to alloy 2519 used in the AAAV.
Also of interest was the identification of natural frequencies
for aluminum welds, with the possibility of achieving grain
refinement through pool agitation at its natural frequency.
Background
Outlined below are several models for grain refinement
pertinent to this study, taken from the literature. Also
considered here are predictions for natural frequencies in
aluminum weld pools.
Grain Refinement
Grain refinement in solidification represents a columnar-to-
equiaxed transition (CET); i.e. an interuption in the continuous
advancement of a columnar grain by the nucleation of new
equiaxed grains ahead of it. In order to effectively nucleate
new grains ahead of a columnar solid/liquid interface requires
both undercooling and a suitable substrate. How this might be
achieved in weld solidification is discussed below.
Undercooling. Accounting for both partitioning and surface
tension effects, the undercooling ahead of a dendritic
solidification front can be shown to take the following form
[3], expressed in terms of growth rate R and temperature
gradient G :
GD
ΔT = + AR1 / 2 (1)
R
, where D is solute diffusivity in the liquid, and A is a material
constant. While the first term in this expression can usually be
neglected for most casting applications, weld solidification
poses a special boundary condition wherein the solidification
rate approaches zero along the weld pool boundary, making Table 1: Comparison of physical properties for liquid metals
this term a major contributor to undercooling [4]. near their respective melting point taken from [17].
γ (N/m) ρ (x103Kg/m3) γ/ρ
Considering the second term in Equation 1, undercooling also Al 0.91 2.4 0.38
becomes high along weld centerline where R becomes large as Fe 1.87 7.0 0.27
it approaches the torch travel speed (Rmax). Thus, one might
normally expect to find grain refinement along the fusion line
and at the weld center, with columnar grains in between [5]. The natural oscillation frequency of a molten weld pool (f) has
In practice, equiaxed grains at the weld center are common [6, been considered to be similar to that of a molten droplet [14],
7], but they are seldom observed along the fusion line except which is proportional to mass (M), volume (V), and physical
in certain alloys (e.g. aluminum alloys containing zirconium properties surface tension (γ) and density (ρ) :
dispersoids, ref. 4).

Applying this knowledge to an oscillated weld pool requires
an understanding of how the solidification front advances with
time. If you take a steadily advancing weld pool (i.e. constant
torch travel speed), and impose a periodic oscillation motion
in the direction of travel, Rmax can be expected to vary between
two extreams: Rmax¯ and Rmax+. In the case where remelting
occurs, it follows that Rmax¯ is negative, and thus Rmax must at
some point pass through zero. When this happens, the
undercooling will momentarily become very high (from
Equation 1) giving the possibility for grain refinement. Such
is the case with banding in weld metal, where the non-uniform
advancement of the weld pool has been shown to result in both
macro-segregation and grain refinement [8].
Substrate. The most effective substrate for the nucleation of a
new grain is the grain material itself [9], fulfiling desirable
attributes of wettability and similar chemical and
crystallographic structure. Mechanisms that allow for this
scenario include peritectic reactions, dendrite fragmentation,
and grain detachment [7, 9-11].
Of particular interest to this study is the possibility for
dendrite fragmentation or bending, caused by shear forces
associated with the periodic sloshing motion of the weld pool.
A comprehensive review of this subject for castings by
Campbell [12] has demonstrated this mechanism to be a
tangible possiblity for grain refinement. In particular,
Campbell examined the work involved in fragmentation or
bending, expressed in terms of the product: frequency x
amplitude (fa). The derivation for this relationship is
presented in the Appendix.
Natural Frequency
Use has been made of natural frequency measurements to
control weld penetration in steel weldments [13-16]. Control
methodologies have involved sensing a change in natural
frequency, representing a change in oscillation mode in going
from partial to full penetration. The question arises, can use
also be made of this natural frequency to agitate the weld pool
into grain refinement. This appears to be a little studied topic
for welds. Also, most studies regarding weld pool natural
frequency characterization have been limited to steel welds.
γ γ
f =N =N (2)
M ρV
, where N is a constant related to the mode of oscillation. Use
is made of this relationship in order to predict the natural
frequency of an aluminum weld, based upon published values
for low alloy steel welds. Using the properties given in Table
1:
f Al (γ / ρ ) Al 0.38
= = = 1 .2 (3)
f Fe (γ / ρ ) Fe 0.27
Thus, a comparable sized aluminum weld should have a
natural frequency 1.2 times larger than its steel counterpart
when oscillating in the same mode. It is understood, however,
that these high temperature properties are not known to a high
level of certainty, which leaves the exact value of this factor in
question.
Natural frequencies reported for partial penetration mild steel
welds are compared below, derived from data published for
specific modes [18], and expressed as a function of pool
diameter (D) :
−3 / 2
Mode 1 (peak-valley mode): f = 2,030 D (4)
−3 / 2
Mode 2 (slosh mode): f = 967 D (5)
, where f is in herz and D is in mm. The D-3/2 dependence
follows from the volume term in Equation 2, assuming a
hemispherical shaped weld pool. Equations 4 and 5 represent
linear regressions for data with considerable scatter (±10 Hz).
Thus, a 6 mm diameter steel weld should oscillate at
approximately 138 herz for mode 1, and 66 herz for mode 2.
Based on Equation 3, corresponding frequencies for an
aluminum weld would be 166 herz for mode 1, and 79 herz for
mode 2. Viewed from another approach, it is interesting to
note that a numerical analysis of slosh dynamics, for liquids in
a moving container, predicts a natural frequency of 52 Hz for
a 6 mm diameter, half-filled spherical vessel [19], which is
somewhat close to the previous prediction.

18
 Experimental
Material
The material used in this study was aluminum Alloy 2219-
T87, an aluminum-copper binary alloy with a nominal
composition range: 5.8 to 6.8 wt.% Cu. Coupons (110 mm
wide x 125 mm long x 6 mm thick) were cut from 6 mm rolled
plate. Welds were performed in the rolling (long) direction,
with two welds per coupon. Surface preparation for welding
included oxide removal with a plastic abrasive pad, followed
by acetone degreasing.
Welding Process
An autogenous, bead-on-plate, gas tungsten arc weld was
made on aluminum 2219 plate using a constant-current power
supply with direct current and negative electrode polarity
(DCEN). The welding torch was mounted to a motorized
carriage, permitting controlled advancement of the torch at a
constant travel speed. Welding parameters, given in Table 2,
were held constant, producing a partial penetration weld of
approximately 8 mm width and 4 mm depth. The weld shape
was found to vary somewhat with oscillating conditions.
Table 2: Welding parameters held constant.
Welding Current 140 amps
Travel Speed 4.2 mm/s
Tungsten Electrode 2%La, 2.4 mm Ø, 30° tip
Arc Gap 2 mm
Shielding Gas 28 L/min, Helium
Mechanical Oscillation
A mechanical oscillation test devise was constructed wherein
the weld coupon was positioned between two opposing audio
speakers, each rated at 900 watts. Displacement of the coupon
was achieved through fixed contact with the speaker
transducers. A sinusoidal wave was applied using a function
generator and dual channel amplifier, 600 watts per channel.
Frequency and amplitude could be varied independently over
a range of 25 to 2500 Hz with a maximum displacement of 11
mm. By phase shifting signals to each speaker, they could be
operated in a coordinated push-pull mode, with controlled
displacement of the coupon in the direction of welding. A
total of 5 different frequencies were examined: 25, 38, 50, 63,
and 75 Hz. The amplitude of oscillation was varied at each
frequency, in order to identify conditions over which grain
refinement occurs.
directly at the arc, attaching leads to the electrode collet holder
and to the ground cable. Voltage signals were stepped down
and protected against welding current surges before being sent
to an analog-digital converter and computer processing. A
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) program was used to identify
periodic fluctuations in the arc voltage.
Metallography
The distinction between columnar and equiaxed grains in the
weld metal was determined by means of optical
metallography. The complete elimination of any columnar
structure was taken to represent grain refinement.
Metallographic specimens were sectioned both transverse and
longitudinal to the welding direction and prepared by grinding
and polishing to 1 μm alumina, followed by immersion in
Keller’s double etch.
Natural Frequency Measurement
Two different methods of pool excitation were examined:
hammer blow and current pulsation. In the first method, a
single hammer blow was applied to a plate where a stationary
weld pool was being made. This was done on both aluminum
2219 and 2519 plates, utilizing the parameters in Table 2.
Plate thickness was 38 mm for 2219, and 16 mm for 2519.
In the second method, a current pulse was periodically applied
(5 Hz) to a moving weld pool. Gas tungsten arc welding
parameters were: 200 A (20 ms), 60 (180 ms), 2 mm arc gap,
4.2 mm/s, and helium shielding gas. This was done on 4 mm
thick aluminum 6060 plate to produce partial penetration
welds of approximate 6 mm diameter. The voltage signals
resulting from both methods of excitation were FFT processed
to identify recurring frequencies.
Results and Discussion
Arc Gap-Arc Voltage Calibration
The calibration curve for arc voltage, expressed in terms of the
stepped down voltage signal, is shown in Figure 1.

Oscillation Measurement
The frequency and amplitude of pool oscillation was
monitored by means of measuring small fluctuations in the arc
voltage. This possibility arises due to the changes in arc gap
associated with pool oscillation, together with a linear
relationship between arc gap and arc voltage at constant
current power. The correlation between arc gap and arc Figure 1: Calibration curve for voltage signal (proportional to arc
voltage) and arc gap.
voltage was accurately calibrated. Arc voltage was measured

19
It is apparent that a linear relation exists over the range of arc
voltage and arc gap examined. Use was made of this linear
relationship to calculate oscillation amplitudes in the
frequency-amplitude analysis that follows.

Frequency-Amplitude Analysis
A comparison is made in Figure 2 of the various frequencies
and amplitudes investigated. Each of the peaks located at 25,
38, 50, 63, and 75 Hz represents one test that was evaluated
for grain refinement using metallography. Some harmonic
peaks are observed at higher frequencies. Amplitude is
displayed in this figure in terms of both voltage signal and
calculated displacement (in mm), based upon Figure 1.

Figure 3: A log-log plot of frequency versus amplitude for aluminum

2219 weld pool oscillation demonstrating that the critical conditions
for grain refinement follow the relation: fa=constant, and fall within a
range of critical values observed for castings [12]. Shown are data
points for three different frequencies: 25, 50 and 75 Hz.
Combinations of frequency and amplitude below the line fa=19 Hz-
mm do not result in grain refinement.

Figure 2: Graphic comparison of oscillation conditions examined.

Columnar grain structure is absent in welds made above the
superimposed line.

A line has been superimposed on the peaks of Figure 2

demarking the boundary between those welds with a columnar
grain structure and those without. Welds made with an
amplitude above this line were observed to be grain refined. It
is clear that at lower frequencies, higher amplitudes are
required for grain refinement. Although the CET boundary
has not been defined precisely at any given frequency, a
narrow amplitude range has been defined (between peaks)
within which grain refinement is known to occur.

When this critical range for grain refinement is plotted on a

graph of log frequency versus log amplitude, as presented in
Figure 3, it is observed that the data falls on a line with a slope
of negative 1. This implies that the product fa is constant,
which suggests that a critical energy is required for grain
refinement (see Appendix). This energy could be taken to
represent the work required to either fragment or bend
dendrites in the sloshing motion of the weld pool. When the
oscillation parameters lie below this line, there is insufficient
energy to achieve grain refinement.

Also observed in Figure 3, the critical line for aluminum

welding (fa=19 Hz-mm) falls within the bounds reported by Figure 4: Arc voltage oscillation signals resulting from the hammer
blow method of pool excitation for two different aluminum plates: a)
Campbell [12] to represent conditions appropriate for grain
38 mm thick Alloy 2219 and b) 16 mm thick Alloy 2519.
refinement in the casting of numerous different materials,
based upon an extensive literature review.

20
Natural Frequency
Results from the hammer blow experiment are presented in
Figures 4 and 5, showing both voltage signals and FFT
analyses, respectively, for stationary 2219 and 2519 aluminum
welds. A natural frequency is indicated at approximately 83
Hz. The size of the weld pool was not accurately determined.
Part of the problem with this method is that the pool size
increases with time as the plate heats. Also, there is the
possibility that the results may be affected by the oscillation of
the welding table.

Figure 6: Arc voltage trace of moving weld pool with current

pulsation showing regions of pool excitation and FFT analysis.

Figure 5: FFT analysis of oscillation voltage signals generated

in hammer blow experiments presented in Figure 4. The peak
at approximately 83 Hz shows this to be a recurring frequency.

Results from the current pulsing experiment are given in

Figures 6 and 7 showing a typical voltage trace and FFT
analysis, respectively. A natural frequency is indicated at 76
Hz for a continuous weld made on 6060 aluminum,
approximately 6 mm in diameter. This corresponds closely
with predictions based upon data available for the slosh mode
in steel welds as discussed earlier. Examination of aluminum
pool movements using a high speed video camera also suggest Figure 7: FFT analysis of voltage oscillations in Figure 6 showing
a slosh mode of oscillation. strong recurring frequency at 76 Hz.

Conclusion

It has been demonstrated that grain refinement can be

achieved in aluminum 2219 alloy weld metal using
mechanical oscillation applied in the direction of welding.
Furthermore, it appears that grain refinement can be achieved
at any frequency (within the range examined), provided the
amplitude is sufficiently high, as defined by fa=19 Hz-mm.
This suggests that a critical energy is required for grain
refinement, giving credence to a dendrite fragmentation or
bending mechanism associated with the sloshing motion of the
weld pool.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the US Office
of Naval Research (ONR) and the Bundesanstalt für
Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM) for providing funding
for this research. The authors are also grateful to AMET Inc.,
Rexburg, Idaho, for providing equipment for voltage signal
conditioning.

A natural frequency has been experimentally identified for

aluminum welds, occurring at approximately 80 Hz in the
slosh mode for a 6 mm diameter weld pool. This value
corresponds well with theoretical predictions.

21
 References
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7. S. Kou and Y. Le, “Nucleation Mechanisms and
Grain Refining of Weld Metal”, Welding J., 65, 305s-
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Solute in Fusion Welding”, Welding J., 45, 569s-576s
(1966)
9. L.F. Mondolfo, “Grain Refinement in the Casting of
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and G. den Ouden, “Grain Refinement due to Grain
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Welds”, Sci. Tech. Weld. Join., 8, 309-312 (2003)
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22
Pulsed GTA Welding”, Welding J., 77, 181s-187s
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Appendix
The following derivation comes from Campbell [12], which
shows the relationship between work W and the oscillation
frequency f and amplitude a. For periodic, sinusoidal
oscillation of angular frequency ω, the acceleration s is given
by:
s = −ω 2 y (6)
, where y represents oscillation displacement, which varies
between ±a. Making use of the definition of angular
frequency ω=2πf, it follows that force F can be expressed in
terms of mass m and acceleration s:
F = ms = −mω 2 y = − m(4π 2 f 2 ) y (7)
Considering the work done in ¼ cycle (e.g. as the weld pool
sloshes back towards the solidification front):
0 0
W = ∫ Fdy = −4π mf 2 2
∫ ydy = 2π
2
m( fa ) 2 (8)
a a
Thus, it is observed that a constant value of fa represents a
constant amount of work performed. Equation 8 can be
applied to the line in Figure 3 (fa = 19 Hz-mm) to relate this to
a quantity of work:
W = 2π 2Vρ (19 x10 −3 m / s ) 2 ≅ 2.3x10−6 Nm (9)
, where V=1.34x10-7m3 is the volume of an 8 mm diameter
hemispherical weld pool of density ρ=2.4x103Κg/m3.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Modeling and Analysis of a New Solidification Cracking Test
L. Zhu, S. Bachani, R. Nordstrom, M. V. Li, and J. Devletian
Portland State University, Portland, Oregon, USA
Abstract
Ejig is a new solidification cracking test. It is similar to the
Sigmajig test in that the specimen is loaded in tension to a
preset value before welding. The difference is that the
displacement at the ends of the Ejig test specimen is fixed
during welding whereas the stress in the Sigmajig test
specimen is maintained during welding.
Ejig tests on AISI 1018 steel specimens are analyzed in this
study using a three-dimensional finite element model and a
fully coupled and integrated thermal-metallurgical-mechanical
analysis procedure. The objective of this study is to
understand the metallurgical and mechanical conditions of
solidification cracking. With the proper consideration of
melting, solidification, and property changes in the weld, this
study proves it feasible to predict the thermal, metallurgical,
and mechanical conditions for solidification cracking to occur.
The length of centerline solidification cracking is found to be
proportional to the mechanical strain at the terminal stage of
the weld metal solidifiction.
Introduction
Solidification cracking is one of the most detrimental defects
in welding manufacturing and fabrication. It occurs at the
terminal stage of weld metal solidification. Metallurgically,
solidification cracking is attributed to solidification conditions
and temperature range, solidification grain structure and sizes,
solute segregation, and presence of low melting films.
Mechanically, solidification cracking is attributed to the stress
buildup due to metal shrinkage in the terminal stage of
solidification and slow recovery of ductility.
Susceptibility of metals to solidification cracking has been
often determined from the “brittle temperature range” using
longitutinal varestraint and transverse varenstraint tests,[1]
Houldcroft test,[2] and Sigmajig test.[3] Recently, Shankar
and Devletian[4] studied the unique solidification cracking
mechanism in low carbon steel weld metal. They observed
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
increased cracking susceptibility in the low carbon range of
0.03-0.05%C and in a narrow range band close to 0.1%C. A
new solidification cracking test was developed and used in
their study. The testing procedure has been described in detail
by Bachani and Devletian.[5] The test is similar to the
Sigmajig test originally developed by Goodwin of Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. In the Sigmajig test, a predetermined
stress/force is applied to the weld coupon during welding. In
this new test, a predetermined strain/displacement is applied to
the weld coupon. Sigma is the Greek symbol of stress. This
new test is called Ejig test where E denotes engineering strain.
Like many other laboratory weldability tests, Ejig test is useful
in studying the characteristics of solidification cracking and in
evaluating compositional, metallurgical, and mechanical
effects on solidification cracking. However, it is extremly
difficult, if not impossible, to reliably apply the laboratory
weldability test results to actual fabrication problems. The
difference primarily lies at the mechanical driving forces
between laboratory test welds and actual field welds. There is
a lack of quantitative understanding of the metallurgical and
mechanical interactions in the terminal stage of the weld metal
solidification.
This study analyzes the mechanical response of the weld metal
during the Ejig test using advanced finite element analysis
techniques. The objectives of the study are to better
understand the thermal-mechanical conditions associated with
solidification cracking and to aid the interpretation of
experimental results.
Materials and Experiments
Steel plates in this study are AISI 1018. The chemistry of the
steel plates is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Chemical composition of steel AISI 1018 (wt%).
C Mn Si Ni Cr Cu S P
0.18 0.69 0.22 0.08 0.15 0.27 0.014 0.039
23
Test specimens are of the dimension of 6.4×50×150 mm marked. The finite element model is shown in Figure 4. It
between two hardened round pins. Run-on and run-off tabs are consists of 8,248 linear brick elements and 10,314 nodes with
used. The test set-up is illustrated in Figure 1. Prior to both temperature and displacement degrees of freedom.
welding, a prescribed transverse stress is applied to the weld
coupon through two pins. Then the two pins are fixed to allow Table 2: Test conditions and crack lengths.
no displacement in the transverse direction. An autogenous
gas tungsten arc weld is made along the centerline of the Arc Travel Crack
Current Preload
specimen, i.e. the direction perpendicular to the preset load. A voltage speed length
(A) (kN)
transducer attached to the fixture is used to record the (V) (mm/s) (mm)
mechanical response (load variations) of the coupon to the Case I 25 213 2.5 36 0
welding. A photo of the actual experimental setup is shown in Case II 25 220 2.5 32 7.64
Figure 2. Case III 25 213 2.5 41 25.4

Figure 1: Illustration of Ejig test coupon and procedure.

Figure 3: Schematic illustration of the FEA model

Figure 2: Experimental setup of Ejig test.

To understand the mechanical response of the material during

the Ejig test, three cases are selected for modeling and 3

analysis. These three cases represent no crack, small crack,
and large crack. The welding parameters and preload levels
for these three cases are in Table 2. Compared to the no-crack
Case I, Case II has a lower preload but slightly higher heat
input which leads to a small crack; Case III has the same heat
input but a higher preload, which leads to a large crack.
Modeling and Analysis
Finite Element Model
Commercial finite element code ABAQUS/Standard 6.4.1 is
used to simulate the Ejig test. This study utilizes a three-
dimensional finite element model to represent the test coupon.
Due to the symmetry in both the shape of the specimen and
the loading condition with respect to the weld centerline, only
half of the specimen is considered. Figure 3 illustrates the
geometric representation of the model with points of interest
Figure 4: Finite element model of Ejig test
The hardened pins, run-on and run-off tabs are included in the
model. A pin hole is created with its center at point ‘O’. Nodes
at the top and bottom surfaces of the test specimen around the
hole are constrained in the Z (thickness) direction. A rigid
revolved surface is used to simulate the pin. The rigid surface
is fixed in both X (welding direction) and Z (thickness)
directions. A contact pair between the rigid surface and the
inside surface of the hole is created to simulate the surface
interaction. The rigid surface is prescribed with a displacement
in the Y (transverse) direction to produce stress in the test
specimen to a preset value. Computed reaction force at the
reference point ‘O’ of the rigid surface during the welding
simulation is saved in a result file. Variations of reaction force
from finite element analyses are compared with the
experimentally measured load trace using a transducer.

24
Modeling Procedure
A fully coupled thermal-metallurgical-mechanical analysis
procedure is applied to simulate the Ejig test. The coupled
analysis procedure leverages the coupled temperature-
displacement analysis solver capability in finite element code
ABAQUS/Standard. As illustrated in Figure 5, the coupling
between heat transfer and metallurgical analyses is achieved
with user subroutine UMATHT, which defines the thermal
constitutive behavior of the material. Microstructural
constituents are treated as solution dependent state variables
that are computed and updated at each time increment in the
UMATHT subroutine. Enthalpy change caused by phase
transformations is considered in the thermal solutions. The
metallurgical models are based on the previous work by
Li[6,7].
Figure 5: Coupled Analysis of Welding.
Thermal strain and strain induced by the volumetric changes
due to phase transformations are non-mechanical strains and
are computed in user subroutine UEXPAN. Rate components
of mechanical strains are determined in user subroutine
UMAT
ε& mech = ε& el + ε& pl + ε& tp (1)
where ε& mech
, ε& , ε& and ε& are the rates of mechanical
el pl tp
strain, elastic strain, plastic strain and transformation
plasticity. The elasticity model is based on classic theory of
isotropic elasticity. Plasticity model is based on the von Mises
yield criteria and isotropic hardening. Transformation
plasticity model was based on the work of Leblond[8,9]
considering the Greenwood-Johnson mechanism[10].
Heat Source
A moving heat source with prescribed power density is used to
simulate the heat input from the gas tungsten arc. The model is
in accordance with the double ellipsoidal heat source model
proposed by Goldak et al.[11] This heat source model is
implemented in the finite element analysis using user
subroutine DFLUX in ABAQUS/Standard.
25
Thermal Physical Properties
Transient heat transfer analysis requires the values of mass
density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and latent heat of
fusion and solid state phase transformations. Density is needed
in conjunction of specific heat to compute the internal energy.
Since the computation of internal energy always refers to the
original volume, room temperature value of the density is
required.
Thermal conductivity of steels are dependent not only on
temperature but also on microstructure. Figure 6 presents the
reported thermal conductivity values of AISI 1018 steel[11].
During cooling, austenite may exist in a mestastable state until
decomposition reactions are completed. Note that the reported
thermal conductivity values at temperatures above the Ac3
temperature appear to be linear. Thus in this study, the thermal
conductivity value of austenite is linearly extrapolated to
lower temperature and linear rule of mixture is used to
obtained the thermal conductivity of a mixed microstructure
that may consist of austenite, ferrite, pearlite, bainite, and
martensite.
Thermal Conductivity (W/m.°C) 140
Stable Microstructure
120
Unstable Austenite
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
Temperature (°C)
Figure 6: Thermal conductivity of AISI 1018 steel.
Temperature-dependent specific heat values are used in this
study. The dependency of specific heat on microstructure is
known to be weak when no phease transformation occurs.
Specific heat values for AISI 1018 steel are obtained from the
reported data in Ref. 12.
Temperature dependent elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio
are used in this study. The temperature dependency of yield
strength of AISI 1018 is shown in Figure 7 based on the data
published in Ref. 13.
Melting and Solidification
Upon heating, the melting is assumed to occur closely
following the conditions of phase equilibrium. Phase changes
during heating normally occur much faster than those during
cooling due to higher diffusivity and the additional driving
force provided by the reduction of interface energies. The
solidification of weld metal is a non-equilibrium process. It
can be simulated using the Scheil equation coupled with
computational thermodynamics models and databases.
Commerical software JMatPro is used to compute the enthalpy
change of AISI 1018 steel during heating with melting
included and during cooling with solidification included. The
computed results are shown in Figure 8. Latent heat of fusion
and enthalpy change due to solid state phase transformations
are obtained from the calculated enthalpy results.
600
Yield
500
Tensile
Strength (MPa)
cracking during solidification of the remaining 10% liquid in
the interdendrtic regions. This is considered in the user
material subroutine UMAT.
Results and Discussion
Mechanical load variations during Ejig tests were measured
using a transducer attached to a hardened pin. The measured
load traces were compared with the reaction force predicted
from finite element analyses. Figure 9 shows the comparison
for Case III in which cracking occurred. A rapid drop of the
mechanical load is observed in the experimental curve. In all
cases, predicted reaction forces match very well with the
experimental measurements until cracking occurs. Since the
fracture constitutive model is not yet developed, the current
model is unable to predict the rapid change of reaction force
due to cracking. Nevertheless, it is useful to compare the

400
mechanical stress and strain in the weld when cracking occurs
300 to understand the conditions of solidification cracking.

200 50
Experiment
100 Simulation

Reaction Force (kN)

40
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 30
Temperature (°C)

Figure 7: Mechanical properties of AISI 1018.

20

1600
Heating 10
1400
Cooling 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1200 Time (sec)
Ehnthalpy (J/g)

1000 Figure 9: Experimental load variation and predicted reaction

800
600
400
200
0 distribution for Case III is presented in Figure 10(a).
800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature (°C)
Figure 8: Enthalpy change during heating and cooling.
Mechanically, all plastic strains accumulated in the material
are annihilated once melting occurs. Upon melting, elastic
modulus is substantially reduced and the Poisson’s ratio
approaches the limiting value of 0.5. Computation of plastic
strain resumes when 90% fraction of solid is reached. At this
point, the primary dendrites are well developed that prevent
the liquid metal in the bulk to flow into the interdendritic
regions. Material is capable to carry limited stress but has little
ductility, which gives rises to the propensity of solidification
force in Case III.
Welding in the Ejig test is conducted along the width direction
of the test specimen at a travel speed of 2.5 mm/s. The test
specimen is 50 mm wide. At 17 sec, the welding arc has just
passed the middle of the specimen. The predicted temperature
Temperatures in the red region exceed the liquidus of the
1600
material. This region thus represents the weld pool. Transverse
stress (S22) at this moment is shown in Figure 10(b).
Transverse plastic strain (PE22) at this moment is shown in
Figure 10(c). As the weld cools down to room temperature,
predicted transverse residual stress is shown in Figure 11,
which is consistent to existing knowledge on residual stress in
welds.
Martensitic transformation introduces increased yield strength,
volumetric expansion, and transformation plasticity, thus is
expected to have marked effect on the residual stress and
strain in the weld. However, martensitic transformation should
not affect the cracking in the Ejig test. When the welding arc

26
moves out of the test plate, the temperature at the starting edge
of the test plate is still above the MS temperature. Moreover,
AISI 1018 is not very hardenable. Only a small amount of
martensite is formed in the weld HAZ. The effect of the
martensitic transformation on residual stress and strain is not
fully manifested.
propogate to the top surface. All cracks observed in the
experimental welds are centerline cracks. Metallographic
examinations revealed that cracks indeed initiated under the
surface. Some cracks did not propagate to the surface.
400
30 sec
630 sec

Transverse Stress S22 (MPa)

300

200

100

0
(a) temperature
-100
0 10 20 30 40 50
Welding distance X (mm)

Figure 11: Transverse stress along the weld centerline.

0.040
Transverse Plastic Strain (PE22) 0.035

(b) transverse stress 0.030

0.025

0.020

0.015
Case III
0.010
Case II
0.005 Case I

0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(c) transverse plastic strain Thickness (mm)

Figure 10: Temperature, transver stress and transverse plastic Figure 12: Transverse plastic strain through plate thickess
strain during welding (17 sec) (path C-J-F at 30 sec).

It is commonly agreed that it is the solidification cracking is
attributed to the mechanical strain at the terminal stage of the
solidification.[14] Mechanical strain consists of elastic strain,
plastic strain, and transformation induced plastic strain. Note
that the material trailing the weld pool picks up plastic strain
rapidly underneath the weld bead surface.
During the Ejig test, the welding arc starts at the run-on tab,
travels through the width of the test specimen, finishes on the
run-off tab in about 30 seconds. Transverse plastic strains at
this time instance through the thickness along the path C-J-F
in Figure 3 are presented in Figure 12 for all the three cases.
Note that maximum plastic strains occur underneath the plate
surface. The transverse plastic strain distribution profiles
suggest solidification cracks initiate under the surface and
At the time the welding arc extinguishes (30 sec), transverse
plastic strains along the welding centerline (path A-C-D-B in
Figure 3) for three cases are presented in Figure 13. Top views
of the experimental welds are shown in Figure 14. It is clear
that the maximum plastic strains occur in the first 10 to 20 mm
of the weld length and underneath the surface. A wider
cracking openning is observed at this location. Crack lengths
appear proportional to the magnitude of the transverse plastic
strain.
Conclusions
A three-dimensional finite element model and a fully coupled
and integrated thermal-metallurgical-mechanical analysis
procedure have been developed to simulate the Ejig test for

27
the evaluation of solidification cracking. Changes of material References
properties due to metallurgical changes, especially the melting
and solidification, are properly accounted for. The simulated 1. C. D. Lundin and W.F. Savage. The Varestraint Test.
results show a good agreement with the experiments, Welding Journal, 44:433–442, (1965)
indicating that solidification cracking initiated underneath the 2. N. Bailey and S. B. Jones, Solidification Cracking of
surface and the crack length is proportional to the transverse Ferritic Steel during Submerged Arc Welding,
plastic strain. Welding Journal, 57:217-231 (1978).
3. G. M. Goodwin, Development of a New Hot-
0.025 Cracking Test — the Sigmajig, Welding Journal, 66,
Case III 33–38 (1987)
Transverse Plastic Strain (PE22)

Case II 4. V. Shankar and J. H. Devletian, Solidification

0.020
Cracking in Low Alloy Steel Welds, Science and
Case I
Technology of Welding and Joining, 10:236-243
0.015 (2005).
5. S. Bachani and J. H. Devletian: Use of Acoustic
0.010
Emission to Detect Solidification Cracking in Steel,
46th Annual Meeting of International Acoustic
Emission Working Group, Portland Oregon,
0.005 August 5, 2003.
6. M. Li, Computational Modeling of Heat Transfer and
0.000 Microstructure Development in the Electroslag
0 10 20 30 40 50
Cladding Heat Affected Zone of Low Alloy Steel,
Weld Distance (mm)
Ph.D. Dissertation, Oregon Graduate Institute of
Science and Technology, 1996.
Figure 13: Transverse plastic strain along the weld centerline 7. M. V. Li, D. V. Niebuhr, L. L. Meekisho, and D. G.
(path A-C-D-B at 30 sec) Atteridge, A Computational Model for the Prediction
of Steel Hardenability, Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions B, 29B, 661-672, 1998.
8. J. B. Leblond, J. Devaux and J. C. Devaux.
Mathematical Modeling of Transformation Plasticity
in Steels I: Case of Ideal-Plastic Phases, International
Journal of Plasticity, 5:551–572, (1989).
9 J. Leblond, G. Mottet, J. Devaux and J. C. Devaux,
Mathematical Models of Anisothermal Phase
(a) Case I Transformations in Steels, and Predicted Plastic
Behaviour, Materials Science and Technology,
1:815-822 (1984).
10. G. W. Greenwood and R. W. Johnson, The
Deformation of Metals under Small Stresses during
Phase Transformations, Proceedings of the Royal
Society, A283: 403-421 (1965)
11. J. Goldak, A. Chakravarti, and M. Bibby, A New
Finite Element Model for Welding Heat Source,
Metallurgical Transactions B, 15B:299–305 (1984)
12. British Iron and Steel Research Association, Physical
(b) Case II Constants of Some Commercial Steels at Elevated
Temperatures, Butterworths Scientific Publications,
London, 1963.
13. F. J. Clauss, Engineer’s Guide to High-Temperature
Materials, Addison-Wesley, 1969.
14. Z. Feng. A computational analysis of thermal and
mechanical conditions for weld metal solidification
cracking. Welding in the world, 33:34–41, 1994.

(c) Case III

Figure 14: Topview of experimental welds.

28
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Proposal of Independent Two Phase Growth during Solidification
in Austenitic Stainless Steels
H.Inoue
Steel Research Laboratories, Nippon Steel Corporation, Japan
T.Koseki
Department of Materials Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
Solidification morphologies of austenitic stainless steel weld
metals that solidified with primary ferrite were investigated in
terms of crystallography. At the fusion boundaries, austenite
grows first with plane-front morphology from the base metal
austenite in an epitaxial manner. Then, ferrite forms on the
growing austenite by keeping the Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation
relationship with the austenite. The ferrite grows, as the primary
phase, more rapidly with dendritic morphology than the planar
austenite. Though the phase diagram indicates that the
formation of the austenite results from the eutectic reaction in
the primary ferrite solidification mode, no specific orientation
relationship was confirmed by crystallographic studies between
the primary ferrite and the interdendritic austenite. The
austenite is found to grow independently, growing along <100>
direction, even when the primary ferrite changes its growth
direction. Consequently, it is suggested that the austenite in the
interdendritic regions is not crystallographically restricted by
the primary ferrite during the growth. The growth manner of the
primary ferrite and secondary austenite is named as
“independent two-phase growth”, and was confirmed not only
in weld metals but in cast metals.
Key Words
solidification; independent two phase growth; welding; casting;
dendrite; nucleation; austenitic stainless steel; primary ferrite;
crystallographic orientation relationship
Introduction
Most austenitic stainless steel weld and cast metals are
designed to solidify to give primary ferrite and secondary
austenite to minimize the occurrence of hot cracks. This
solidification mode is known as ferritic-austenitic solidification
mode (FA mode)1-3). In the case of this solidification mode, the
phase stability and/or the phase selection were mainly
discussed4-10), but solidification morphologies of each phase is
still uncertain11-13). In the present study, solidification behaviors
of austenitic stainless steels that solidified with primary ferrite
were investigated from the viewpoint of the crystallography of
the ferrite and the austenite.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Experimental procedures
The material used in the present study was an austenitic
stainless steel containing approximately 19wt%Cr and
11wt%Ni. The contents of the solute elements other than Cr and
Ni were reduced as low as possible.
In the present study, the welding process was adopted to
examine solidification behaviors to confirm the change in
crystallographic orientation relationships between the primary
phase and the secondary phase by changing the solidification
growth direction determined by the movement of heat source.
Autogenous welding was performed using a gas tungsten arc
(GTA) welding process at a current of 150A and a voltage of
12V with a travel speed of 1.67mm/sec. To examine the
microstructural change during weld solidification, the liquid tin
quenching method14) was used to quench the solidification front.
The identification of phases and their crystallographic
orientations were performed using an SEM equipped with an
electron back scattering pattern (EBSP) analyzer15).
Results and discussion
Microstructural change during solidification
Figure 1. shows the microstructure around solidification front
in the weld metal obtained by liquid tin quenching method.
Ferrite dendrites can be distinctly observed within a region of
around 50μm from solidification front. At the ferrite dendrite
boundaries, austenite is solidified in succession to retained
liquid phase. This result indicates that the solidification mode
of the material used in the present study is FA mode.
Fig.1 Microstructural change during solidification in the
weld metal obtained by liquid tin quenching method.
Figure 2 shows the front area of austenite, which is solidified
as the secondary phase in Fig.1. At the interdendritic region of
29
the preceding ferrite dendrites, the cellular austenite is
solidified and the tip of austenite overhangs forward the
solid-liquid interface with curvature. Though the phase diagram
indicates that the formation of the austenite of the present steel
results from the eutectic reaction in the primary ferrite
solidification mode, neither lamellar nor rod-like eutectic of
ferrite and austenite is confirmed but the only cellular austenite
single phase is observed. This result suggests that the austenite
is formed as divorced eutectic16).
δ that the austenite at the dendrite boundaries of the preceding
Liquid γ shown in Fig.2. It was reported that because the secondary
δ between the two phases17). However, there is no specific
Liquid γ the present study.
Fig.2 Growth front of the interdendritic austenite
during primary ferrite solidification.
Crystallographic orientation relationship between ferrite
and austenite during solidification
Figure 3 shows the crystallographic orientation relationship
between primary ferrite and interdendritic austenite (measured
by EBSP) near the solidification front in the weld metal
quenched during solidification. The upward direction in the
micrograph corresponds to the solidification growth direction.
All the primary ferrites at dendrite cores (points 1-12) have an
identical crystallographic orientation, showing growth along the
[100]δ direction, the preferential growth direction of ferrite.
The austenite located at dendrite boundaries (points 13-27) also
Fig.3 EBSP analysis results for the primary ferrite and the
interdendritic austenite near the solidification front.
30
grows along the [100] γ preferential growth direction of
austenite. Therefore, the [100]δ direction of ferrite is found to
be almost parallel to the [100] γ direction of austenite.
Austenite, however, has two crystallographic orientations (γ1,
γ2) : these two orientations are obtained by rotating the crystal
structure around the [100]γ direction. This result indicates that
no additional specific orientation relationships are identified at
the interface between the primary ferrite and the interdendritic
austenite.
In the case of this FA solidification mode, it was suspected
ferrite dendrites was formed as divorced eutectic from the
viewpoint of the microstructural change during solidification
phase nucleates on the primary phase as divorced eutectic16),
the specific orientation relationship needs to be established
orientation relationship between the ferrite and the austenite in
Weld metal first forms from HAZ (Heat Affected Zone) of
base metals. Figure 4 shows the EBSP analysis results near the
fusion boundaries in the weld metal obtained by liquid tin
quenching method. The upper side in the micrograph is weld
metal and the lower side is base metal (HAZ). The surrounded
region including ferrite by dotted line corresponds to the
primary ferrite formed during solidification. All of the austenite
in both base metal (points 1-2) and weld metal (points 3-12) has
an identical crystallographic orientation, and therefore it is
confirmed that the austenite formed at the fusion boundaries in
the weld metal results from epitaxial growth with plane-front
morphology from the austenite of base metal. Then, ferrite is
formed on this planar austenite. Namely, the formation of ferrite
is somewhat delayed and occurs away from the fusion
boundaries. All of these ferrite (points 13-16), however, has
different crystallographic orientation, respectively, furthermore,
the parallel relationship between the <100> direction of ferrite
and the <100> direction of austenite is not established, unlike
the crystallographic orientation relationship near the
solidification front shown in Fig.3. However, between the
ferrite and the austenite, the Kurdjumov-Sachs (K-S)
orientation relationship18) is present (0-11)δ15//(-1-11)γ, [111]
δ 15//[011] γ :(1-10) δ 16//(1-11) γ ,[111] δ 16//[011] γ ) or close
packed planes19) are found to be parallel ((011)δ13//(-111)γ
,(-101) δ 14//(-1-11) γ ). These results indicate that the
crystallographic orientation relationship between the ferrite and
the austenite can not be determined even within one weld metal,
and therefore the relationship near the fusion boundaries is
different from that near the solidification front. The fact that the
K-S relationship or the parallel relationship between close
packed plane is established between the ferrite and the austenite
at fusion boundaries indicates that the ferrite is nucleated on the
planar austenite with coherency, and it is necessary for the
ferrite to keep the crystallographic correlation with the austenite
for its formation. On the other hand, the growth of austenite at
dendrite boundaries as a secondary phase is epitaxial from the
base metal. It is suspected that austenite is not crystallo-
graphically restricted by the primary ferrite during the growth.

Fig.4 EBSP analysis results for ferrite and austenite
formed near the fusion boundary.
During formation of weld metals, the solidification growth
direction is changed in turn by the movement of the weld heat
source. Figure 5 shows the EBSP analysis results at the region
where the ferrite changes its growth direction in the weld metal.
Though Fig.5 is the analysis results of the weld metal cooled to
room temperature, the crystallographic orientation relationship
during solidification can be analyzed because the orientation
relationship established during solidification is retained on
cooling to room temperature12). The right-upward direction in
the micrograph corresponds to the heat flow direction. All the
austenite (points 1-18) has identical crystallographic orientation.
It is confirmed that this region is one austenite grain. Though
all the ferrites (points 19-28) are remaining within one austenite
grain, two different crystallographic orientations (δ1: points
19-23, δ 2: points 24-28) corresponded to their growth
directions are present. It is considered that the growth of the
prior ferrite ( δ 1) stopped because of the large deviation
between its preferential growth direction and the heat flow
direction determined by the movement of the heat source, and
then, the new ferrite (δ2) nucleated instead of the prior ferrite
(δ1), or the secondary or the tertiary dendrite arm of the
another ferrite (δ2) grew instead of the prior ferrite (δ1). As
31
to this result, however, it must be kept in mind that the
crystallographic orientation of the austenite does not change
even if the crystallographic orientation of the ferrite changes. If
the secondary austenite in the interdendritic region is formed as
divorced eutectic, the specific orientation relationship is
established between the primary ferrite and the secondary
austenite, and therefore the crystallographic orientation of
austenite must be changed with the formation of the new ferrite.
However, the change in the crystallographic orientation of the
austenite can not be ascertained as to the result of Fig.5.
Fig.5 EBSP analysis results for ferrite and austenite.
Note that the ferrite changes its growth direction
in the middle of the area examined.
Figure 6 shows the EBSP analysis results for the primary
ferrite and the interdendritic austenite at the region away from
the fusion boundaries in the weld metal cooled to room
temperature. The upward direction in the micrograph
corresponds to the heat flow direction. All the ferrite (points
1-4) has an identical crystallographic orientation, and the [100]
δ direction of the ferrite corresponds to the upward direction of
the micrograph. On the other hand, the austenite (points 5-13)
has two different crystallographic orientations (γ1: points 5-9,
γ2: points 10-13), and the austenite grain boundary is seen in
the middle of the micrograph (indicated by dotted line). The
<100>γ1 direction of the lower side austenite (γ1) does not
agree with the heat flow direction, but the <100>γ2 direction of
the upper side austenite (γ2) approaches the upward direction
of the micrograph and gets near to parallel with the [100]δ
direction of the ferrite. It is considered that the lower side
austenite (γ1) is weeded out by the upper side austenite (γ2),
whose preferential growth direction is closer to the heat flow
direction than that of γ1, because of the large deviation
between the preferential growth direction of γ1 and the heat
flow direction. This result is the inverse of the result shown in
Fig.5 and indicates that the austenite is displaced regardless of
the growth of the primary ferrite. Therefore, the ferrite with
identical crystallographic orientation grows across two more
austenite grains with different crystallographic orientations.
Fig.6 EBSP analysis results for ferrite and austenite. Note
that austenite grain boundary is seen in the middle
of the area examined while ferrite goes through the
area without any change in growth direction.
The crystallographic characteristics in the austenitic stainless
steel weld metals solidified as FA solidification mode obtained
in the present study are summarized as follows:
a. At the solidification front, the <100> directions of primary
ferrite and interdendritic austenite are parallel along the
solidification growth direction, but the specific orientation
relationships do not exist at the interface between the
ferrite and the austenite.
b. At the fusion boundaries, the austenite in the weld metal
grows from the base metal austenite in an epitaxial
manner.
c. At the fusion boundaries, the parallel relationship between
the <100> direction of the ferrite and that of the austenite
is rare, but the K-S relationship or the parallel relationship
between close packed planes is established between the
ferrite and the austenite.
d. The ferrite with different crystallographic orientation is
formed within one austenite grain with identical orienta-
tion.
e. The ferrite with identical crystallographic orientation
grows across more than one austenite grains with different
orientations.
Eutectic reaction, peritectic reaction etc. are known as solidi-
fication manner of most alloying metals. These reactions are
provided with specific crystallographic orientation relationships
between two phases20,21). In other words, two phases grow
dependently each other not only as to composition but as to
crystallographic orientation. It was considered that the austenite
as a secondary phase in the weld metal of the stainless steel
used in the present study was formed as outwardly divorced
eutectic. However, the above (a-e) crystallographic character-
istics can not be explained by the conventional solidification
32
manner, which two phases grow dependently while keeping a
specific crystallographic orientation relationship. Consequently,
it is suggested that another solidification manner should exist.
Solidification manner in the austenitic stainless steel
solidified as FA mode
The solidification manner of the ferrite and the austenite in
the austenitic stainless steel solidified as FA mode can be
summarized in a schematic illustration shown in Figure 7.
Fig.7 Schematic illustration on the formation and the
growth of ferrite and austenite near the fusion
boundary of weld metal solidified in FA mode.
When the base metal is fully austenite, the growth of
austenite is more favorable than the nucleation of ferrite
because of no nucleation barrier of austenite at the fusion
boundaries, and therefore austenite first grows epitaxially from
the base metal austenite with plane-front morphology. During
this planar austenite solidification, Cr is rejected into the liquid,
which increases the stability of ferrite and causes the nucleation
of ferrite on the growing planar austenite by keeping the
favorably coherent crystallographic orientation relationship
with the austenite. Once the ferrite forms, it grows more rapidly
as the primary phase with dendritic morphology to dominate
over the planar austenite growth. And the only ferrite whose
crystallographic preferential growth direction is aligned with
the heat flow direction continues to grow. When the preferential
growth direction of ferrite deviates significantly from the heat
flow direction, its growth stops, whereas new ferrites nucleate
successively and the ferrite with the preferential growth
direction nearly along the heat flow direction among them can
grow. On the other hand, in the interdendritic region of the intact columnar morphology even if titanium and nitrogen are
primary ferrite at the final stage of solidification, Ni is rejected added. The similar phenomenon was suggested in the weld
into the liquid, which increases the stability of austenite and metal of type 321 stainless steel26).
causes the formation of austenite. Austenite, however, grows If the secondary austenite forms in relation to the
more easily from the austenite which has already solidified than crystallographic orientation of the primary ferrite after the
the nucleation of austenite on the preceding ferrite or in the equiaxed solidification of the primary ferrite, each equiaxed
liquid, and therefore the formation of the austenite at the ferrite should be surrounded by the respective austenite.
dendrite boundaries is invariably epitaxial growth and fills the However, the equiaxed solidification of ferrite and the
interdendritic region of the primary ferrite. There is no columnar solidification of austenite occur simultaneously. Thus,
inevitability of keeping the favorably coherent crystallographic the phenomena, shown in Fig.8, can be explained only by the
orientation relationship between the austenite and the ferrite, “Independent Two-Phase Growth” manner.
and the interdendritic austenite is not crystallographically
restricted by the preceding ferrite during the growth.
Consequently, the austenite grows independently, growing
along the preferential growth direction, even when the primary
ferrite changes its growth direction. And the austenite whose
preferential growth direction is nearly aligned with the heat
flow direction can grow as forming columnar grain. As the
ferrite and the austenite independently repeat the competitive
growth respectively, the parallel relationship between the
<100> δ direction of ferrite and the <100> γ direction of
austenite along the heat flow direction is finally established at
the solidification front, but no specific orientation relationship
exists between ferrite and austenite during solidification.
The crystallographic characteristics obtained in the austenitic
stainless steel weld metals solidified as FA mode can be
explained by the following manner. At only the nucleation stage
of new ferrite, the specific crystallographic orientation
relationship is established between ferrite and austenite.
However, the following growth of austenite at the dendrite
boundaries of the primary ferrite is invariably epitaxial and is
not crystallographically restricted by the preceding ferrite
during the growth. This means that ferrite and austenite grow (a) No addition (b) Ti and N addition
independently, and therefore the authors name the growth
manner as “Independent Two-Phase Growth”22).
Fig.8 Microstructures and macrostructures of austenitic
stainless steel cast ingots,
Verification of “independent two-phase growth” manner
(a) no addition, (b) Ti and N addition.
To verify the “Independent Two-Phase growth” manner
proposed, the following experiment was performed. It is well
known that titanium nitride (TiN) is effective for the ferrite In the austenitic stainless steels with similar compositions to
nucleus and makes equiaxed solidification of ferrite promote in the present study, eutectic structures were confirmed at the
ferritic stainless steel23-25). Though the material used in the lower solidification velocity (10-6m/sec) by directionally
present study is an austenitic stainless steel, the primary solidification method and the K-S orientation relationship
solidification phase is the ferrite because of FA solidification between the eutectic two phases was confirmed9,10,13). On the
mode. Consequently, even in the austenitic stainless steel other hand, the solidification velocity in the present study is
solidified as FA mode, it is expected that the primary ferrite approximately from 10-4m/sec to 10-3m/sec. As the solidi-
solidifies as an equiaxed morphology by TiN. Titanium and fication velocity increase, the solidification morphologies of
nitrogen are added to the austenitic stainless steel with the same ferrite is shifted from eutectic growth to cellular or dendritic
compositions of the present study’s steel. Figure 8 shows the growth9,10), even if the chemical compositions are identical. It is
microstructures and macrostructures of this austenitic stainless considered that the “Independent Two-Phase Growth” manner
steel cast ingot. The fine ferrite is dispersed and TiN is proposed in this study becomes more feasible at the
observed at the center of the fine ferrite. The equiaxed solidification conditions of practical solidification processes,
solidification of the primary ferrite caused by TiN is confirmed. such as welding, continuous casting etc., in which the primary
However, in the macrostructure of the same cast ingot, a coarse phase grows as cellular or dendritic morphology.
grain; namely, the columnar grain of austenite is observed. It is Most previous investigations for solidification behaviors
found that the only primary ferrite is solidified as equiaxed were performed by directionally solidification method. Because
morphology but the secondary austenite is solidified as an the heat flow direction in the directionally solidification method

33
is not changed, a crystal continues to grow while maintaining
the crystallographic orientation relationship established at the
stage of nucleation, and therefore the specific crystallographic (4) The coexistence of equiaxed solidification of ferrite and the
orientation relationship is more likely to exist. In other words,
the crystallographic orientation relationship obtained by the
directionally solidification method is the orientation relation-
ship at the nucleation stage, but does not always indicate the (5) The “Independent Two-Phase Growth” manner could be
orientation relationship during growth. On the other hand, the
results obtained in the present study can indicate the orientation
relationship between two phases during growth. This relation-
ship could be clarified by the examinations using the solidi-
fication process which the crystallographic orientation (the heat
flow direction) changes. Furthermore, the results obtained in 1)
the present study are important for materials engineering
because the crystallographic orientation (the heat flow 2)
direction) changes in many practical solidification processes.
3)
Conclusions 4)
Solidification morphologies of austenitic stainless steels 5)
solidified as FA solidification mode were investigated in terms
of crystallography. The results obtained in the present study are 6)
as follows:
(1) In the austenitic stainless steel weld metals solidified as FA 7)
mode, the cellular austenite as a secondary phase is formed
at the dendrite boundaries of the preceding primary ferrite 8)
during solidification.
(2) The following crystallographic characteristics (a-e) were 9)
observed in the weld metals solidified as FA mode. 10)
a. At the solidification front, the <100> directions of primary 11)
ferrite and interdendritic austenite are parallel along the
solidification growth direction, but the specific orientation 12)
relationships do not exist at the interface between the
ferrite and the austenite. 13)
b. At the fusion boundaries, the austenite in the weld metal
grows from the base metal austenite in an epitaxial 14)
manner.
c. At the fusion boundaries, the parallel relationship between 15)
the <100> direction of the ferrite and that of the austenite 16)
is rare, but the K-S relationship or the parallel relationship
between close packed planes is established between the 17)
ferrite and the austenite.
d. The ferrites with different crystallographic orientations are 18)
formed within one same austenite grain.
e. The ferrite with identical crystallographic orientation 19)
grows across more than one austenite grains with different
orientations. 20)
(3) In austenitic stainless steel weld metals solidified as FA
mode, ferrite and austenite do not grow dependently in
terms of crystallographic orientation during the 21)
solidification. Only at the nucleation stage of new ferrite 22)
on austenite, the specific crystallographic orientation 23)
relationship is established between the ferrite and the 24)
austenite. The following growth of the austenite in the
dendrite boundaries is invariably epitaxial and would not 25)
be restricted crystallographically by the preceding ferrite 26)
during the growth. Thus, the ferrite and the austenite grow
34
independently, and this growth manner is named as
“Independent Two-Phase Growth”.
columnar solidification of austenite in TiN dispersed
stainless steel can be explained only by the “Independent
Two-Phase Growth” mechanism mentioned above.
clarified by the solidification process that can change the
growth orientation of solid (i.e., the heat flow direction).
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
A Transport Phenomena Based Model to Prevent Liquation Cracking in
Aluminum Alloy Welds
S. Mishra, S. Chakraborty1 and T. DebRoy
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
1
Currently with the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
Abstract
A numerical model has been developed for non-equilibrium
solidification in welds that considers momentum, heat and
solute transport. The model uses an effective partition
coefficient, which considers both the local interface velocity
and the undercooling for accurate prediction of solute
concentration in the mushy zone. The calculations show that
convection plays a dominant role in the solute transport
inside the weld pool. The predicted weld metal solute
content agreed well with the independent experimental
observations. The liquation cracking susceptibility in Al-Cu
alloy weldments could be reliably predicted by the model,
based on the computed solidifying weld metal composition
and the resulting solid fraction considering non-equilibrium
solidification.
Keywords: Liquation cracking, solidification, transport
phenomena
Introduction
Liquation cracking, also known as edge-of-weld cracking,
base metal cracking, hot cracking and heat-affected zone
(HAZ) cracking, occurs in the HAZ when a low melting
point region, i.e., partially melted zone (PMZ), is formed
during welding. Cracks form when the PMZ cannot
withstand the tensile stresses generated during solidification
[1]. The occurrence of liquation cracking in aluminum
alloys have been confirmed by experiments [1-4]. Huang
and Kou [1] found that the partially melted zone (PMZ)
becomes prone to liquation cracking when the solid fraction
in the PMZ becomes lower than that in the mushy zone of
the aluminum alloy weld metal. They argued that a lower
solid fraction in the PMZ makes this region weaker than the
weld metal mushy zone, making the PMZ vulnerable to
liquation cracking.
Composition of the weld metal results from the mixing of
the base metal with the filler metal. Solutes are distributed
within the weld pool by convection and diffusion.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 35
Furthermore, both the thermodynamics and the kinetics of
solidification affect the solute partitioning during
solidification. Both the partitioning of the solute and the
mixing of the filler metal with the base metal need to be
considered to understand the solidification process during
welding. However, many previous attempts to understand
weld pool solidification considered thermal field alone [5,6]
and ignored the convective solute transport in the weld pool.
Chakraborty and Dutta [7] developed a solidification model
for studying heat and mass transfer in a single-pass laser
surface alloying process. However, they [7] assumed
equilibrium at the solid-liquid interface that may not be
attained when the interface speed is comparable with or
faster than the diffusion speed. Both the velocity of the
solidification front and the undercooling must be considered
to accurately represent solidification during welding. The
complex coupling of momentum, heat and solute transport
under non-equilibrium conditions during fusion welding
have not been investigated. Such an approach is desirable
for accurate prediction of the evolution of the solute
concentration and improved understanding of the weldment
solidification structure.
The goal of the research presented here is to understand the
solute concentration field and the solidification process,
considering filler metal addition, fluid flow and solute
transport in the weld pool and non-equilibrium
solidification. The model predictions of liquation cracking
susceptibility in various aluminum alloy weldments based
on Huang and Kou [1] criterion are compared with the
results of independent experimental studies to assess the
capability of the model.
Mathematical Model
The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process is considered
in the present study. This process involves a heat source
with a constant speed. The welding arc heats the work-piece
surface and contributes to the formation of a molten pool.
The filler metal melts and mixes with the molten base metal
by convection and diffusion. As the heat source moves
away, the molten zone solidifies. A numerical model for
non-equilibrium solidification in gas metal arc welds has
been developed that considers momentum, heat and solute
transport. The model uses an effective partition coefficient,
which considers both the local interface velocity and the
undercooling for accurate prediction of solid fraction in the
weldment. The solution of the governing equations of
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy has been well
explained in the literature [5,8-10] and are not repeated here.
Only the salient features of the model dealing with the
solute transport, filler metal addition and non-equilibrium
solidification are described.
Species conservation and solidification: The general form
of the species conservation equation is given by:
∂ (ρC ) ∂ (ρu i C ) ∂ ⎛ ∂C ⎞ ∂C
+ = ⎜ ρD ⎟⎟ − ρU
∂t ∂x i ∂x i ⎜⎝ ∂x i ⎠ ∂x
where C is the solute concentration and D is the effective
mass diffusivity of the solute. The variable C embodies
components from both solid and liquid phases. Voller et al.
[11] have shown that Eq. (1) may be rewritten in terms of
liquid phase concentration, Cl, and non-equilibrium partition
coefficient. Following their approach and neglecting
diffusion in solid, Eq. (1) may be rewritten as [11]:
∂ ∂(ρu i Cl ) ∂ ⎛ ∂Cl ⎞ ∂
(ρ Cl ) + = ⎜⎜ ρf l Dl ⎟+ (ρ f s Cl )
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ⎝ ∂ x i ⎟⎠ ∂ t
∂ ∂C l
-k pCl (ρ f s ) − ρU −Sm
∂t ∂x
where kp is the partition coefficient. In Eq. (2), Dl is an
effective diffusion coefficient to be described subsequently,
f denotes the appropriate phase fraction with subscripts l and
s referring to liquid and solid phases, respectively, and Sm is
a time-averaged volumetric mass source term to incorporate
the filler metal addition.
Since the solute partitioning at the solid-liquid interface
may not reach thermodynamic equilibrium, calculations of
fs and fl and the prescription of an appropriate partition
coefficient in Eq. (2) requires a rigorous non-equilibrium
solidification model. Equation (2) also indicates a strong
coupling between the thermal, solutal and velocity fields. A
key factor in this coupling is the appropriate modeling of the
liquid fraction that affects the orientation and location of the
pool boundaries. The iterative updating of liquid fraction
(or, equivalently, nodal enthalpy) is done in the entire
concentration field, since the enthalpy and concentration
fields are coupled through the non-equilibrium solidification
kinetics at the interface.
Filler metal addition: Filler metal addition to the weld pool
is considered by incorporating time-averaged volumetric
heat and mass sources in the enthalpy and solute
conservation equations. The volumetric heat source is
characterized by its radius (Rv), height (d) and power
density (Sv) and considers the interaction between the metal
droplets and the weld pool for various welding conditions
[8,9]. The radius of the volumetric heat source is assumed to
be 2.7 times the droplet radius [12]. The calculation of the
volumetric heat source term has been described in the
literature [8,9] and are not repeated here. Solute addition
from the filler metal is considered by incorporating a time-
averaged volumetric mass source term, Sm, in the solute
conservation equation, Eq. (2). The dimensions of the
volumetric mass source are assumed to be the same as the
volumetric heat source. The net mass of solute from the
metal droplets, Qt, is given as:
Q t = ρπrw w f (C f − C)
2
(3)
where ρ is the density, rw is the radius of the wire, wf is the
wire feeding rate, Cf is the concentration of solute in the
(1)
filler metal drops, and C is the local solute concentration.
The time-averaged volumetric mass source, Sm, for grid
points within the mass source region is given by:
Qt
Sm = (4)
πD d d
2
where Dd is the droplet diameter.
Thermo-solutal-flow coupling: The following iterative
enthalpy updating scheme proposed by Brent et al. [13] is
chosen in the present study for its adaptability in a fixed-
(2) grid enthalpy based framework:
[ΔH P ]n+1 = [ΔH P ]n + a 0P λ [{h P }n − F −1{ΔH P }n ] (5)
aP
where a P and a 0P are the coefficients of enthalpy for the
nodal point P in the discretized energy equation for the
current and the previous time steps, respectively [14], ΔHP
is the latent heat content, hP is the sensible enthalpy
associated with the nodal point P, n is the number of
iterations, λ is a relaxation factor, and F-1 is a suitable
function that relates local enthalpy with temperature and
liquid fraction. In order to include the appropriate thermo-
solutal effects [15] in F-1, the interfacial temperature, T, is
represented as a function of local liquidus composition, Cl,
as [16]:
T = Tm + m L C l − V / β 0 − Γκ (6)
where Tm is the melting point of the solvent, mL is the non-
equilibrium liquidus-line slope described by Eq. (7), V is
the normal interface velocity, β0 is a kinetic coefficient of
interface motion, Γ is a capillary constant calculated by the
expression (γ.Tm)/(L.ρ), γ is the surface tension, L is the
latent heat of freezing, ρ is the density, and κ is the mean
curvature of the solid-liquid interface. Equation (6)
represents a deviation of the interfacial temperature from its
local equilibrium value due to motion of the interface, the
36
local interfacial curvature-undercooling effect and the non- (C l − C s )df s = (1 − f s )dC l (12)
equilibrium partitioning of the solute. The partitioning effect
is considered by relating the non-equilibrium liquidus-line where fs is the mass fraction of the solid and Cs is the solid
slope (mL) in Eq. (6) with its equilibrium value ( m*L ) as phase composition. Replacing fs by (1-fl) in Eq. (12), where
[16,17]: fl is the mass fraction of the liquid, and integrating, fl is
obtained as:
⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
m L = m *L ⎨1 +
−
1
[ ]
k *p − k P (1 − ln( k p / k *p )) ⎬ (7) ⎧⎪ C l dC l ⎫⎪
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
*
1 k p f l = exp ⎨− ∫ ⎬ (13)
⎪⎩ C 0 C l (1 − k p ) ⎪⎭
where kP is the modified partition coefficient that can be
expressed in terms of the equilibrium partition coefficient, where kp, which replaces Cs/Cl, is a convection-corrected
k *P , as [16]: partition-coefficient representing the non-equilibrium
effects, given by Eq. (8). Equation (13) can be integrated if
the variation of kp with Cl is known. For the specific case of
⎧ k * [1 − ( V / VDL ) 2 ] + V / VDL ⎫
kP = ⎨ P ⎬ L for V < VD
L
a composition independent partition coefficient, integration
⎩ 1 − ( V / V L 2
) + V / V L
⎭ (8)
D D of Eq. (13) gives [18]:
= 1L for V ≥ VDL
k p −1
Cl = C0 f l (14)
L
In Eq. (8), V is the diffusive speed in the liquid, which can
D
be calculated as [16]: where C0 is the initial composition of the liquid. Although
Eq. (14) appears similar in form to the well-known Scheil’s
VDL = ( D *l / τ LD ) 0.5 (9) equation [18], a key difference lies in the fact that the
partition coefficient in Eq. (14) is a strong function of the
where τLD refers to the time of diffusional relaxation of interface growth rate governed by Eq. (10) and not a
constant.
collective atoms (molecules, particles) to their equilibrium
state in a local volume of alloy [16]. The diffusive speed at
With the aid of Eqs. (6) and (14), a final form of the
which a solute atom diffuses through the interfacial region
enthalpy updating function appearing in Eq. (5) can now be
can be approximated by the ratio of diffusivity of the solute
obtained as:
atoms at the interface and a length scale characterizing the
interface width. Furthermore, the interface velocity (V) in (k p −1)
Eq. (8) can be calculated in an iterative manner using the ⎡ ⎛ ΔH ⎞ ⎤
F −1 ( ΔH ) = c p ⎢Tm + m L C 0 ⎜ ⎟ − V / β 0 − Γκ ⎥ (15)
following equation [5]: ⎣⎢ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎦⎥

k SG S − k l G l
V= (10) Finally, the liquid fraction is calculated by using Eq. (5) as:
fl L
ΔH
fl = (16)
where GS and Gl are the temperature gradients in solid and L
mushy zone at the mushy zone/solid interface, respectively,
kS and kl are thermal conductivities of the solid and liquid Possible unrealistic intermediate estimates predicted by Eq.
phases, respectively, fl is the liquid fraction, and L is the (16) during iterations can be avoided by imposing the
latent heat of freezing. For a known interface velocity, the following constraints:
diffusion coefficient appearing in Eq. (2) can be prescribed
as [16]: f l = 0 if f l < 0
(17)
= 1 if f l > 1
D l = D*l [1 − ( V / VDL ) 2 ]L for V < VDL
(11)
= 0 L for V ≥ VDL Boundary conditions: The temperature and velocity
boundary conditions are available in the literature [5] and
where D*l is the diffusion coefficient in the liquid under the are not repeated here. The boundary conditions for solute
conditions of interfacial equilibrium. transport at the solidification interface needs to consider
non-equilibrium partitioning of solute at the solidification
Equations (7) to (10) can be effectively used to complete the front:
iteration cycle involving updating of enthalpy using Eq. (5).
Cw
The calculations require an appropriate functional relation Cl = (18)
between liquid composition, Cl, and liquid fraction, fl, kP
consistent with the local solute balance:

37
where Cl is the local solute concentration in the liquid and from the base metal resulting in a weld metal composition
Cw is the solute concentration in the solidified weld metal. that lies between the filler metal and the base metal
Similarly, the boundary condition at the melting front can be compositions. At the solidification front, the solute is
written as: rejected from the solidified material into the molten pool.
As a result, high solute concentration is observed at the
Cl = Cb (19) solidification front in Fig. 2. Similarly, in the transverse
sections ahead of the heat source, the composition near the
where Cb is the concentration of the solute in the base metal. melting front is same as that of the base metal. However, in
transverse sections behind the heat source, segregation of
Results and Discussion the solute is observed near the solidification front. In the
middle of the weld pool, a large amount of filler metal is
GMA welding of 2219 aluminum-copper alloy containing added and the solute concentration is fairly close to the filler
6.3 wt% Cu was simulated. The filler metal compositions metal composition.
considered varied from 0.08 wt% Cu to 9.0 wt% Cu. The
data used in the calculations are summarized in Table 1.
Figure 1 shows the computed velocity and temperature
fields in the weld pool of 2219 alloy with the filler metal
composition of 0.08 wt% Cu. The weld pool is wide and
shallow because the aluminum alloy has a negative
temperature coefficient of surface tension (dγ/dT) which
causes the liquid metal to move from the middle to the
periphery on the weld pool surface. The Peclet number for
heat transfer is 12 while the Peclet number for mass transfer
is 2.9×105, which indicates that convection is the primary
mode of heat and mass transport in the weld pool.
Therefore, it is necessary to consider convective heat and
mass transport in order to accurately predict the temperature
and velocity fields as well as solute concentration Figure 1: Velocity and temperature fields in the weld pool
distribution in the weld pool. for the welding conditions indicated in Table 1. The filler
metal concentration was 0.08 wt% copper. All the
Table 1: Data used in the calculations. temperatures are in degree Kelvin.

Problem data/physical property Valuea

Arc current (amp) 140
Arc voltage (volt) 22
Welding speed (m.s-1) 4.2 × 10-3
Density (kg.m-3) 2400
Viscosity of liquid (kg.m-1.s-1) 0.3 × 10-3
Specific heat (J.kg-1.K-1) 1.06 × 103
Thermal conductivity (W.m-1.K-1) 192
Equilibrium partition coefficient 0.16
Equilibrium slope of liquidus line (K/wt%) -3.37
Solidus temperature of alloy 2219 (K) 821
Liquidus temperature of alloy 2219 (K) 911
Mass diffusivity of copper in liquid
aluminum (m2.s-1) under interfacial 3.0×10-9
equilibrium conditions
a
See Reference [19]. Figure 2: Concentration field (wt% Cu) in the weld pool.
The filler metal composition was 0.08 wt% Cu.

Figure 2 also shows that the high computed solute content at

Figure 2 shows the computed solute concentration
distribution within the weld pool for filler metal
composition of 0.08 wt% Cu. It can be observed that
convection plays a dominant role in solute distribution in
the weld pool causing efficient mixing of the base metal
with the filler metal. At the melting front, in front of the
pool, the base metal melts and forms a liquid of the same
composition. The filler metal then mixes with the liquid
the solidification front does not have as much influence on
the overall concentration distribution as the mixing of the
filler metal with the base metal. This behavior can be
attributed to the very low mass diffusivity of copper in the
alloy and very low liquid velocities in the two phase region
adjacent to the solidification front. The rejected solute is
confined to a very small region and the low velocities in the

38
two phase region prevent rapid mixing of the rejected solute the equilibrium value, k *P , which is consistent with the
into the weld pool. shrinking of the two phase region at high solidification
rates. Once k *P and kp were obtained for each temperature,
Since the composition of a single-pass GMA aluminum
Eq. (7) was used to get the non-equilibrium liquidus line
weld is essentially uniform [1], the solidified weld metal
slope, ml, at these temperatures. Next, the modified liquidus
solute concentration was assumed to be equal to the average
composition, Cl, at each temperature was calculated using
concentration of the solute in the molten weld pool. Table 2
kp, ml, and the melting point of pure aluminum, 933 K. The
lists the solute content (wt% Cu) of the solidified weld
corresponding values of the modified solidus compositions,
metal and the solidifying weld metal (mushy zone at the
Cs, at each temperature could be obtained from the values of
trailing end), corresponding to the four different
kp and Cl at these temperatures. The modified Cs and Cl
compositions of the filler metal used in the present study.
were then used to calculate the non-equilibrium solid
Table 2 indicates that the concentration of the solute in the
fractions. The computed solid fraction for the 2219 alloy,
solidified weld metal and the solidifying weld metal
having 6.3 wt% Cu, is shown in Fig. 3. The solid line curve
strongly depends on the filler metal composition. The
in Fig. 3 was calculated from the equilibrium phase diagram
accuracy of the calculated solidified weld metal composition
using the equilibrium Cs and Cl values. The non-equilibrium
can be examined by comparing the computed solidified
solid fraction is lower than the corresponding equilibrium
weld metal composition for 0.08 wt% filler metal addition
value because of undercooling which prevents solidification
with the corresponding independent experimental result of
to occur at equilibrium temperature at high solidification
Huang and Kou [1]. For a GMA weld of 2219 alloy using a
rates.
filler metal containing 0.08 wt% copper, Huang and Kou [1]
measured the weld metal composition to be 3.43 wt%
copper. For the same welding conditions, the computed 1
solidified weld metal composition was equal to 3.17 wt%
copper as shown in Fig. 2 and Table 2, thus confirming the
0.9
accuracy of the calculations.
0.8
Table 2: Composition of the filler metal (wt% Cu) and the
Solid fraction (f s)

corresponding solute content (wt% Cu) of the solidified

weld metal and the solidifying weld metal (mushy zone at 0.7

the trailing end). Four different filler metal compositions

were used. Base metal contained 6.3 wt% Cu, and the rate 0.6 Equilibrium
Non-Equilibrium
of addition of the filler metal was 9.31 cm/s.
0.5
Filler metal Solidified weld Solidifying
metal weld metal 0.4
(wt% Cu) (wt% Cu) (wt% Cu)
0.08 3.17 0.31 0.3
823 833 843 853 863 873 883 893 903
2.0 4.13 2.16
Temperature (K)
4.0 5.14 4.09
9.0 7.67 8.91
Figure 3: Solid fraction versus temperature for alloy
composition of 6.3 wt% copper. The solid line was obtained
from the equilibrium phase diagram and the dotted line was
Gittos and Scott [20] proposed that liquation cracking
obtained using the modified non-equilibrium solidus and
occurs when the base metal solidus temperature is below the
liquidus lines.
weld-metal solidus temperature. In other words, if the base
metal solute content is higher than that of the weld metal,
The variation of non-equilibrium solid fraction with
then the PMZ is susceptible to liquation cracking. However,
temperature for three cases has been plotted in Fig. 4. One
Huang and Kou [1] argued that the cooling rate during
plot is for the base metal or the PMZ composition, i.e., 6.3
welding may be too high for equilibrium solidification to
wt% Cu, and the other two are for the solidifying weld
occur, and solidification can continue far below the
metal compositions in the mushy region computed from the
equilibrium solidus temperature. They [1] proposed that the
solute transport model for two welding conditions. The
partially molten zone (PMZ) becomes prone to liquation
lower plot represents welding of 2219 alloy using a filler
cracking when the solid fraction in the PMZ becomes lower
metal with 9.0 wt% Cu that leads to a mushy zone
than that of the mushy zone in the weld metal. A weaker
composition of 8.91 wt% Cu as listed in Table 2 for the
PMZ with lower solid fraction makes this region vulnerable
welding parameters indicated in Table 1. Similarly, the
to liquation cracking. Calculation of the solid fraction in the
upper plot indicates the use of a filler metal of 2.0 wt% Cu,
solidifying region requires the computed values of non-
for the same welding conditions, that leads to a mushy zone
equilibrium partition coefficient. The non-equilibrium
composition of 2.16 wt% Cu. The solid fraction in the PMZ
partition coefficient, kp, was found to be higher than that of

39
can be compared with that in the solidifying region, i.e., the
mushy zone. The lower graph representing 9.0 wt% Cu
containing filler metal has a lower solid fraction in the
mushy zone than that in the PMZ. Therefore, the solidifying
weld metal has a lower strength than the PMZ and the PMZ
is not susceptible to liquation cracking. In contrast, when
the 2.0 wt% Cu containing filler metal is used, the solid
fraction in the solidifying metal is higher than that in the
PMZ. Consequently, the solidifying weld metal is stronger
than the PMZ making the PMZ susceptible to liquation
cracking. Thus, the present calculations considering
convective solute transport, non-equilibrium solidification
and filler metal addition can be used to predict liquation
cracking susceptibility in aluminum alloy welds.
In each case, the susceptibility of liquation cracking was
determined by Huang and Kou’s criteria, i.e., by comparing
the solid fraction in the solidifying weld metal with the
corresponding value in the PMZ. The model predictions of
liquation cracking susceptibility in Al-Cu alloy weldments
were confirmed by independent experiments for various
filler metal compositions.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences,
Division of Materials Sciences, under grant number DE-
FGO2-01ER45900.

References
1

Susceptible
1. C. Huang and S. Kou, Weld. J., 83, 50s (2004).
region 2. H. Zhao and T. DebRoy, Metall. Mater. Trans. B, 32,
Non-equilibrium solid fraction

0.8 163 (2001).

3. H. W. Kerr and M. Katoh, Weld. J., 66, 251s (1987).
4. C. Huang and S. Kou, Weld. J., 82, 184s (2003).
0.6
Safe region
5. W. Zhang, G. G. Roy, J. W. Elmer and T. DebRoy, J.
Appl. Phys., 93, 3022 (2003).
6. X. He, P. W. Fuerschbach and T. DebRoy, J. Phys. D:
0.4 2.16 wt% Cu Appl. Phys., 36, 1388 (2003).
6.30 wt% Cu
8.91 wt% Cu
7. S. Chakraborty and P. Dutta, Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, 17, 455 (2002).
0.2 8. W. Zhang, C.-H. Kim and T. DebRoy, J. Appl. Phys.,
95, 5210 (2004).
9. W. Zhang, C.-H. Kim and T. DebRoy, J. Appl. Phys.,
0 95, 5220 (2004).
823 833 843 853 863 873 883 893 903
10. K. Mundra, T. DebRoy and K. Kelkar, Numerical Heat
Temperature (K) Transfer A, 29, 115 (1996).
11. V. R. Voller, A. D. Brent and C. Prakash, Int. J. Heat
Figure 4: Non-equilibrium solid fraction versus temperature Mass Transfer, 32, 1719 (1989).
calculated using modified non-equilibrium solidus and 12. A. Kumar and T. DebRoy, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
liquidus lines for different alloy compositions. The PMZ 47, 5793 (2004).
composition was 6.3 wt% Cu. The calculated mushy zone 13. A. D. Brent, V. R., Voller and K. J. Reid, Numerical
compositions, or the solidifying weld metal compositions, of Heat Transfer, 13, 297 (1988).
2.16 wt% Cu and 8.91 wt% Cu correspond to the filler 14. S. V. Patankar, Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid
metal compositions of 2.0 wt% Cu and 9.0 wt% Cu, Flow, Hemisphere/McGraw-Hill, Washington DC
respectively. (1980).
15. S. Chakraborty and P. Dutta, Metall. Mater. Trans. B,
Conclusions 32, 562 (2001).
16. P. Galenko and S. Sobolev, Phys. Rev. E, 55, 343
A numerical model for non-equilibrium solidification in (1997).
welds has been developed that considers momentum, heat 17. W. Kurz and D. J. Fisher, Fundamentals of
and solute transport. The model uses an effective partition Solidification, 3rd Edition, Trans. Tech. Publications,
coefficient, which considers both the local interface velocity Switzerland (1992).
and the undercooling for accurate prediction of solid 18. M. C. Flemings, Solidification Processing, McGraw
fraction in the weldment. The solute concentration Hill, New York (1974).
distribution in the weld pool was effectively simulated. The 19. Q. Z. Diao and H. L. Tsai, Metall. Trans. A, 24, 963
predicted weld metal solute content agreed well with the (1993).
independent experimental observations. Using the computed 20. N. F. Gittos and M. H. Scott, Weld. J., 60, 95s (1981).
average composition in the two phase mushy region, the
solid fraction in the solidifying weld metal was compared
with that in the PMZ for various filler metal compositions.

40
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Prediction of Mechanical Properties of Steel Spot-Welds
M. Mimer, L-E Svensson
Volvo Truck Corporation, Gothenburg, Sweden
Abstract
Spot welding will continue to be the dominating process for
joining of thin steel sheets in the automotive industry for many
years, due to the reliability and low cost of the process. The
overall strength of a component is determined by the strength
of the individual spot welds, together with parameters like
spot interdistance, number of spot welds etc. Thus, the
mechanical properties of spot welds are essential to know.
From work based on mild strength steels, it is known that the
strength of a spot weld is closely related to the properties of
the base material and the size of the nugget in the spot weld.
However, with the introduction of higher strength steels more
complex relationships may appear. For example, joints
between steels having large differences in strength are
becoming much more common. Such joints may also be more
difficult to weld, due to the differences in steel characteristics.
To reduce cost and increase speed of product development,
simulation is becoming more important. Simulation of the spot
welding process can now be made on standard PC’s using the
simulation program SORPAS®. With SORPAS® the size of
the nugget in a spot weld can be estimated. For prediction of
the strength and hardness of spot welds, two different
approaches have been used. A model was constructed using a
DOE program, relating spot weld strength to base metal
strength and spot-weld dimensions. As an alternative approach
the hardness of a spot weld was estimated from the chemical
composition of the spot welds, following equations given by
Blondeau et al (1).
In the paper, it is demonstrated how the chain of simulation
programs can be used to predict the mechanical properties of
spot-welds in a wide range of steels.
Introduction
Safety, weight reduction and cost efficiency have been and
will continue to be the three main factors controlling the
development of car bodies, the so called Body-In-White. The
properties of a Body-In-White are determined by material
choice and thickness, design solutions and the joining
processes used. In the case of spot welding, which is the
dominating joining process for thin sheet applications, the
diameter of the spot-welds as well as the interdistance between
spots is commonly assumed to have the largest effect on
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
overall joint strength. The intense heat input associated with
the welding process has a radical effect on metallurgy and
strength of the spot-welds, which makes it necessary to
perform different kinds of mechanical testing, such as static
tensile testing, fatigue testing and even high strain rate testing.
With the introduction of high strength steels, established
relations between base material strength, size of the weld and
mechanical properties of the weld is changed (1). In addition,
it has been found during testing that certain grades of high
strength steels are susceptible to less desired behaviours like
interfacial failure and brittle fractures (2, 3). Thus, it might be
necessary to predict mechanical properties such as strength
and hardness in order to avoid less desirable fracture
behaviours and provide sufficient information for further finite
element analysis.
A second benefit of an increased amount of simulation and
modelling is the possible reduction in number of prototypes
and amount of time-consuming testing, which must be reduced
as the lead time for introduction of new products in the
automotive industry is continuously decreasing. Through a
chain of simulation and modelling it is possible to predict the
mechanical properties of any steel spot-weld and thereby
avoid undesirable fractures as well as enable a reduction in
amount of testing.
Work description
In the work of creating equations for prediction of mechanical
properties it is necessary to start with a process simulation in
order to get input to the creation of predictive formulas.
SORPAS® is an acronym for Simulation Of Resistance
Projection And Spot-welding. In this paper, the outputs used
from the software are nugget diameter and cooling rate.
The cooling rate obtained from the process simulation can
then be further used to predict the hardness of the spot welds.
For this, it is necessary also to know the chemical composition
of the weld. If both these pieces of information are available, it
is possible to predict the weld nugget hardness using an
equation suggested by Blondeau et al (4). The strength of the
spot weld cannot, however, be predicted from the hardness. It
is anyway useful to know the hardness of the spot weld since
it gives an indication of the risk of for example cleavage
fracture or interfacial failure (2, 3).
41
The strength of spot-welds as function of variables like sheet
tensile strength, sheet thickness and spot-weld size can be
predicted using data from previous testing. In this paper, only
predictions of static tensile strength for shear and cross tension
are made. The data, which the prediction models are based
upon, comes from a number of spot-welding projects at the
Swedish Institute of Metals Research (SIMR) (5, 6, 7). In
total, the prediction model for shear strength is based on 198
tensile tested spot-welds and the model for cross tension
strength is based on 428 tensile tested spot-welds. For all test
specimens, the material thickness, yield and tensile strength as
well as plug size was measured. These parameters were used
as factors, to which a model for strength was fitted using PLS
(Projection to Latent Structures). A software for statistical
modelling was used to obtain as good models as possible. This
paper only demonstrates prediction models where two
materials of similar grade and thickness are welded. However,
by adding more factors to the model, similar prediction
models for welds of dissimilar material and thickness can be
made. For future developments, the weld size can be
calculated using SORPAS®. The other factors are easily
accessible.
Results
Spot-weld simulation with SORPAS®
With the software SORPAS® it is possible to simulate the spot
welding process on a standard PC. The simulation is based
upon a finite element analysis where metallurgical, electrical,
mechanical and thermal models work together in close
interaction; see Fig. 1 (8).
® rate of a spot-weld is initially, i.e. at the moment when current
Figure 1: The algorithm used by SORPAS includes four
models, which all are closely interrelated.
The input data for the software includes:
• Material properties, including electrical resistivity,
thermal conductivity, heat capacity, material strength
of the work pieces and electrodes.
42
• Welding current and electrode force as a function of
time.
• Electrical contact resistance and thermal conductance
at the interface together with friction conditions at the
surface. (8)
Outputs from the simulations are nugget diameter and
electrode indentation as well as information of temperature
and resistance as a function of time. Figure 2 is showing an
example of how a simulated weld nugget compares to a real
nugget. In this case the simulated weld nugget diameter is
slightly larger and the electrode indentation of the real weld is
larger.
Figure 2: Illustration of simulated and welded nuggets. The
material is a high strength steel with 7μm of zinc coating. (9)
From previous work, comparing simulated weld nuggets with
physical spot-welds (9) the accuracy of simulations made
using SORPAS® has been determined. Just as shown in Fig. 2,
the results correlate well in many cases, but some areas of the
program need improvements.
Prediction model for weld hardness
The calculations of weld nugget hardness are based on the
following equations (4)
HV (martensite) = 127 + 949C + 27Si + 11Mn + 8Ni
+ 16Cr + + 21×log V [1]
HV (bainite) = -323 + 185C + 330Si + 153Mn +
65Ni + 144Cr + 191Mo + (89 + 53C – 55Si – 22Mn
– 20Cr – 33Mo)×log V [2]
HV(ferrite/pearlite) = 42 + 223C + 30Mn + 12.6Ni +
7Cr + 19Mo + (10 - 19Si + 4Ni + 8Cr + 130V)×log V
[3]
Here, C, Mn etc stand for the concentration of the elements in
wt% and V is the cooling rate in °C/hour.
From SORPAS® simulations it can be seen that the cooling
is turned off, as high as 2000 °C/s, but it gradually decreases
as the temperature drops. In equations 1-3 above the cooling
rate comes in as a logarithmic term, which means that a large
variation in cooling rate does not make a large difference in
final weld hardness. For the calculations made here, a cooling
rate of 1 000 000 °C/hour is assumed.
The chemical composition of the weld nugget was estimated
by assuming that each sheet contributed to composition in 30
proportion to its thickness. This is of course a relatively coarse 28
assumption. It is possible that a future development of 26
SORPAS® may provide a more accurate calculation of how 24

Observed
22
much from each sheet is melted into the nugget. 20
By comparing the calculated hardness in equations 1-3 above 18
to measured weld hardness of 24 spot-welds it was noted that 16
equation [1] provides the best results for the calculated weld 14
12
hardness for all welds except when the welded materials are 10
very lean alloyed mild steels, where equation [2] provide 8
better results. Fig. 3 shows a plot of how the predicted 6
hardness relates to measured hardness for the 24 welds. The 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
24 welds were made on two different types of test specimen, Predicted
here called coupon and H-specimen. The hardness tests were Figure 4: Measured and predicted strength values for shear
made using a Vickers diamond and a load of 1kg. specimens. The values are given in kN.
As seen in Fig. 3, the fit between calculated and measured
values is not perfect, but taking the scatter in measured The suggested predictive equation for shear strength is:
hardness and the rough assumption regarding chemical
composition of the weld nugget into account the results must
FSS = -8,01976 – 14,1373×t + 0,0185996×Rm +
be seen as encouraging.
3,24976×d + 11,2113×t2 - 1,07619e-5×Rm2 –
0,224022×d2 + 0,0061255×(t×Rm) [4]
500
Here, t stands for material thickness, Rm is the tensile strength
H-specimens
of the material and d is the plug diameter of the weld.
450 Coupons

Mild steel coupons (Mart)

If the coefficients for each terms in equation 4 is scaled and
Predicted hardness

400
Mild steel coupons (Bainite)
centered it becomes clear that the material thickness followed
350 by base material strength has the largest individual influence
on spot-weld strength. Such a plot is shown in Fig. 5. The
300
scatter bars indicate the 95% confidence level of each
250
coefficient.

200

150
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
4
Measured hardness 3
Figure 3: Comparison between measured and calculated
hardness for the 24 welds. The error bars show the minimum 2
kN

and maximum hardness in each nugget. 1

Prediction models for weld strength 0

As described above, the prediction models for strength are
-1
based on a large amount of tensile tests in shear mode as well
as in cross tension mode. The fracture force was recorded -2
Rm

Rm*Rm

t*Rm
t

t*t
d

d*d

during the tests and was used as a response in these models.

As the model for shear strength was fitted using PLS, a very
good model was obtained. In Fig. 4, the observed values for
shear strength are plotted against the values predicted by the
model. Once again, the results must be seen as encouraging.
The relation between predicted and measured values is
particularly good in the lower load range, whereas some
scatter in results are seen in the higher load range.
Figure 5: Scaled and centered coefficients for spot-weld shear
strength. Large bars indicate large effect on strength.
In graphical illustrations, shown in Fig. 6, it once again
becomes clear that material thickness has the largest
individual influence on strength. One can also see that
material strength has a positive effect on joint strength,
especially for thicker sheets. The image to the right, showing

43
the effect of plug diameter, indicates minor influence
compared to material thickness and strength.
12
10

Observed
8
6
4
2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Predicted
Figure 7: Observed versus predicted plot for cross tension
strength. The values are given in kN.

The predictive equation for cross tension strength is:

FCT = 6,55921 - 23,1511×t - 0,00152876×Rm +

2,51058×d + 13,3216×t2 - 0,160177×d2 [5]

By looking at the plot of the scaled and centered coefficients

for the terms in equation [5] (Fig. 8), it becomes very clear the
thickness has the largest individual influence on weld strength.
It can also be seen that the material tensile strength has a
negative influence on joint strength, i.e. by increasing the
tensile strength of the material, the cross tension strength is
reduced.

1,5
Figure 6: Surface plots, showing the predicted shear strength.
To the left the plug diameter is fixed at 5,96mm and to the 1,0
right the material strength is fixed at 965MPa.
kN

0,5
Just as the model for shear strength, the fitted model for cross
tension strength reflects the measured values very good.
0,0
Figure 7 is showing the observed versus predicted plot for
cross tension. It can be seen that the predictions are especially
good in the lower load range, whereas some deviations is seen -0,5
for specimens which fractured with higher loads.
Rm
t

t*t
d

d*d

Figure 8: Scaled and centered coefficients for cross tension

strength. The scatter bars indicate 95% confidence level.

The graphical illustration (Fig. 9) for cross tension strength

shows that the material strength has minor influence on
strength and the thickness and plug size have larger and
positive influence on joint strength.

44

Figure 9: Graphical illustration of cross tension strength. To
the left, the plug size is held constant at 5,75mm and to the
right material tensile strength is constant at 965MPa.
Discussion
By using a chain of simulation and modelling software, as
demonstrated here, not only the mechanical properties of each
individual weld is possible to predict, but also the weldability
for any combination of materials, which are to be welded.
It has been shown in this paper that the mechanical properties
of a steel spot weld can be predicted with reasonable accuracy.
From a statistical point of view, the models reflect the
measured values to approximately 90%, which must be seen
as very good at this stage. The large amount of data, which the
models are based upon provide a solid basis for the modelling.
However, in order to come up with even better models, the
data needs to be designed in such a way that a large volume of
the input factors are being tested. That has not been the case
for the data in this paper. Another limiting factor for achieving
better models, is the natural scatter in spot weld strength,
which is obtained by testing. When it comes to weld hardness
predictions the limiting factor for better correlation between
45
observed and predicted values is most likely the rough
assumption of the chemical composition in the weld nugget.
However, by combining the results from SORPAS®
simulations with the predictive models for strength and
hardness, the possibility to predict the properties of single
spot-welds from scratch is very promising.
It is worth noting that equations for calculating spot-weld
strength in shear and cross tension have been published by
several other (10, 11) authors. Although somewhat different
approaches have been chosen, the results seem to be fairly
similar. When using the equations mentioned above, some
material constants have to be used. Due to these constants,
which might not be available for all materials of interest,
equations [4] and [5] presented here may be favourable. It
must also be stated that the predicting equations in this paper
as well as in the papers mentioned above are valid for full plug
failures. In the case of partial plug or interfacial failures the
fracture forces are normally lower.
Statistical modelling of data from mechanical testing of welds
is a good way of making predictions. This paper has been
limited to static testing only and also to sheet materials of the
same grade and thickness. However, similar work can easily
be done regarding predictions of other mechanical properties
such as elongation during static testing, fatigue life of spot
welds or high strain rate testing. It is also possible to make the
predictive equations valid for just any combination of steel
grade and thickness simply by introducing factors for each
sheet into the equations.
Conclusion
The main conclusions of this study can be summarized as
follows:
• The thickness of the sheets being welded has the
largest individual influence on spot-weld strength. In
addition, larger nugget (or plug) diameter increases
the strength. The tensile strength of the base material
mainly affects the strength in shear mode.
• Simulation of the spot welding process using
SORPAS® provide results, which correlate well with
physical spot-welds in most situations. In certain
areas does the program need improvement in order to
reflect process properly.
• The equation for prediction of martensite hardness,
suggested by Blondeau et al. is valid for all steel
spot-welds except very lean alloyed mild steels where
the equation for bainite provide more accurate
results. Some further work needs to be done
regarding the chemical composition of the weld
nugget when to sheets of dissimilar material grade
and thickness are being welded.
• Predicting spot-weld strength by statistical modelling
of historical data provide a solid basis for further
modelling and analysis.
 • A combination of simulation using SORPAS® with
the other predictive equations will further enhance
the possibility for predicting the properties of single
spot welds from scratch.

Acknowledgement
This paper is published by the permission of Volvo AB.
Discussion with Dr Wenqi Zhang, Swantec A/S is gratefully
acknowledged.

References
1. L-E Svensson, Prediction of hardness of spot welds
in steels, Submitted for publication in Welding in the
world
2. M. Eliasson, L-E Svensson, R. Johansson and J.K.
Larsson, Doc IV-850-03 Improvement of mechanical
properties of laser welded TRIP 700 steel, 56th
Annual Assembly of the International Institute of
Welding (IIW) 2003
3. M. Mimer, L-E Svensson and R. Johansson, Process
Adjustments to Improve Fracture Behaviour in
Resistance Spot Welds of EHSS and UHSS, Welding
in the World, 2004, Vol. 48, no. ¾, 14 – 18.
4. R Blondeau, P Maynier, J Dollet and B Vieillard-
Baron, Mathematical model for the calculation of
mechanical properties of low alloy steels
metallurgical products: a few examples of its
applications, Proc Int Conf Heat Treatments’76,
1976, Metals Society, London
5. J Hedegård, J Andersson, E Tolf, Resistance spot
welding of ultra high strength C-Mn and stainless
steels – enclosures, IM-2002-561:2
6. J Hedegård, J Andersson: Resistance spot welding of
some EHS and UHS steels, Part 1, C-Mn steels, IM-
2001-513
7. E Tolf, Possibilities with Advanced Control of the
Resistance Spot Welding Process, Swedish Institute
for Metals Research 2004/05
8. SORPAS® User Manual version 5.0 Professional,
Swantec software and engineering Aps. 2004
9. D. Axelsson, Optimization of the Resistance Spot
Welding Process and Evaluation of the Simulation
Software SORPAS®, Diploma workNo.56/2004,
ISSN 1651-0003, Chalmers University of
Technology
10. S. Ferrasse, P.Verrier, F. Meesmaecker, Resistance
spot weldability of high strength steels for use in car
industry, Welding in the World 1998 Vol 41 p.177-
195
11. T. Nilsson et al., Fogningshandboken SSAB Tunnplåt
AB 2004, p3.15 p3.22-24

46
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Predictions of TIG weld depth from a unified electrode-arc-workpiece treatment.
John J Lowke
CSIRO Industrial Physics Sydney, NSW, Australia
Manabu Tanaka and Masao Ushio
Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka, Japan
Abstract
Two dimensional predictions have been made of temperature
profiles of the arc, electrode and work-piece for stationary
TIG arcs in a unified treatment. Increases in weld depth of
over a factor of two are predicted for different surface tension
properties of the weld pool or if an insulating layer exists on
the weld pool. The calculations indicate possible explanations
of weld depth variability in practical welding and also possible
explanations for the increase in weld depths obtained in TIG
welding activated by a flux (ATIG).
Introduction.
Theoretical predictions of weld depth depend on the whole
electrode-arc-workpiece system. For TIG welding, the heat
input to the workpiece depends on the current density
distribution at the surface of the workpiece, which depends on
the arc. The current density distribution in the arc depends, in
turn, on the shape and sharpness of the cathode. It follows that
for predictions of weld pool properties, the whole arc-
electrode system needs to be included in the calculation.
Analyses can then be made of the dependence of quantities,
such as weld depth, on particular properties such as the surface
tension of the weld pool, arc gas properties or electrode
properties.
Calculations of temperature profiles [1],[2],[3], and thus also
weld depth, have been made in two dimensions for an
idealised TIG system, consisting of a stationary and vertical
tungsten cathode producing an arc in argon of current 150-200
A to a stainless steel electrode, the bottom surface of which is
maintained at room temperature, i.e. 300 K. Solutions are
obtained of the coupled equations for the conservation of
mass, energy and momentum for the whole electrode, arc,
workpiece and weld pool region. These equations define
temperature, velocity and pressure, for this region including
the weld pool. Values of transport coefficients such as density,
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 47
specific heat, viscosity, thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity are required as a function of temperature for the
arc plasma, the electrode, the solid work piece and also for the
liquid weld pool. For the arc plasma, values are obtained
assuming “local thermodynamic equilibrium” of the plasma.
Solution of the three conservation equations of mass,
momentum and energy follows conventional heat transfer
theory for heat transfer in fluids, and we have followed the
numerical methods of Patankar [4]. But there are two
important extensions to this treatment.
Firstly, account must be taken of the magnetic pinch forces, or
“j×B” forces, in the momentum transfer equation; j is the
current density and B the magnetic field. These forces
dominate the convective flow for arcs, in that the current
density is highest at the cathode tip, resulting in an increased
pressure near the cathode tip due to the magnetic field, which
drives plasma flow from the electrode to the workpiece.
Similarly magnetic pinch forces can be dominant in
determining the convective flow in the weld-pool.
Secondly, the electrical conductivity of the arc plasma poses a
special problem because in the regions adjacent to the
electrodes, where the temperatures are very low compared
with usual plasma temperatures, the equilibrium electrical
conductivity is near zero. Electrical conduction through these
electrode regions is accounted for by considering ambipolar
diffusion of electrons from the plasma to the electrodes. The
electron continuity equation is solved for the arc region to
determine the non-equilibrium electron density accounting for
ambipolar diffusion. The current continuity equation is also
solved to obtain distributions of the electric potential and thus
the electric field. But solution of the current continuity
equation differs from conventional solutions in that (1) we use
the calculated non-equilibrium electrical conductivity obtained
from the electron density and (2) electron diffusion current is
included in addition to the usual electric field component of the surface of the weldpool is flat. No consideration is made of
current. space charge sheaths at the electrodes.

Physical Model A significant heating mechanism at the surface of the cathode

is due to ion currents, contributing jiVi, per unit area of the
(1) Magnetic Forces. surface, if the derived total current density is greater than the
A term, jz×Bθ is introduced into the axial momentum equation theoretical thermionic emission current; the ion current ji is
[2] to represent the magnetic pinch forces. The azimuthal then assumed to be equal to the difference between the derived
magnetic field Bθ induced by the arc current is evaluated by total current and the theoretical thermionic emission current;
Vi is the ionization potential.
Maxwell’s equation,
A boundary condition was imposed at the surface of the weld
1 ∂
(rB ) = μ0 jz pool setting the axial velocity of the liquid to zero. This
r ∂r θ boundary condition effectively uncouples the pressure of the
arc region from that of the weld pool region, so that no
where r is the radial coordinate, μ0 is the permeability of free
account was taken of the arc pressure in depressing the surface
of the weld pool. Convective velocities were also set to zero at
space and jz is the axial component of the current density. the base of the weld pool. The position of this boundary was
re-determined after each numerical iteration according to the
(2) Electrical Conductivity. temperature of each cell. If the temperature of a cell was
Instead of the usual representation of the current density, j, as above the melting point, the cell was regarded as being liquid,
dependent only on the electric field E, by Ohm’s law, otherwise solid. We have a non-uniform grid with a total of 95
j = σ E , where σ is the electrical conductivity, we also points in the axial direction and 75 points in the radial
include a term to account for diffusion current from electrons. direction. These points are needed to span the cathode,
This term overcomes the problem that the equilibrium cathode tip, the arc and the weld pool, but we were still able to
electrical conductivity is effectively zero in the plasma close have 20-23 points in the axial direction for the weld pool and
to the electrodes owing to the low plasma temperature. Thus, 41-43 points in the radial direction at the top of the weld pool.
Mesh sizes varied from 0.0001 cm at the surface of the weld
∂V ∂n pool to 0.5 cm at the base of the cathode.
jr = −σ + eDe e
∂r ∂r
and Specific calculations.
∂V ∂n
jz = −σ + eDe e
∂z ∂z (1) 150 A, Stainless steel.
Figure 1 shows calculated results of temperature profiles for a
where De is the electron diffusion coefficient, e is the 150 A arc in argon with a 1 cm thick workpiece of stainless
steel. The contour for a temperature of 1750 K in the
electron charge and ne is the electron number density. The
workpiece gives the limit of the liquid weld pool, as 1750 K is
electron continuity equation in terms of ambipolar diffusion is the melting point of steel. Principal features of this calculation
are in good agreement with experimental measurements i.e.
1 ∂ ∂n ∂ ∂n the central temperature of the arc, the temperature of the tip of
(rDamb e ) + (Damb e )
r∂r ∂r ∂z ∂z the cathode, and the depth and extent of the weld pool. Fig. 2
shows calculated velocity profiles for both the arc and the
+ γ [K eq (T )n e na − ne3 ] = 0 weld-pool for the same conditions as Fig. 1. Contours are also
obtained for current density, potential and pressure, as
components of the total calculation.
where Damb is the ambipolar coefficient, K eq (T) is the Saha
function, γ is the three-body recombination coefficient, T is (2) Influence of surface tension on weld pool depth.
the temperature and na is the neutral number density. The It is found that the predicted depth of the weld-pool depends
non-equilibrium electrical conductivity is given by σ = neμ critically on the direction of the convective flow in the weld
where ne is obtained from the solution of the electron pool. The upward flow at the weld pool center, shown in Fig.
2, is normal for cases where the surface tension gets smaller
continuity equation and μ is the electron mobility [2].
with increasing in temperature. However, for high sulfur
steels, or if a surface flux dissolving in the weld pool changes
(3) Boundary Conditions.
the temperature dependence of the surface tension to increase
The calculations assume laminar flow in the arc plasma and
with temperature, the central flow in the weld pool can be
the weldpool, neglect ion currents in the arc and assume that

48
downwards and the predicted weld depth then can increase by Figure 2: Calculated velocity profiles for the conditions of
a factor of two or more. Fig. 1; from [1].

0 2 4 6 8 10 Fig. 3 shows calculated temperature profiles in the work piece

for a 200 A arc where the gradient in the surface tension
2000 K Ar, 150 A coefficient with temperature, dγ/dT, was taken to be constant
-6 τ = 20s with temperature at a value of -0.6 dyne/(cm K). In this case
2500 K
-4 the convective flow in the weld pool, indicated by the arrows
3000 K
of Fig. 3, is radially outward at the surface of the weld pool.
3500 K
-2 The calculated shape of the weld pool is then very shallow,
1000 K,
Interval 2000 K
being less than 1 mm in depth. The calculated extent of the
Axial distance (mm)

0 17000 K
weld pool is the region having a temperature above 1750 K of
Fig. 1, as the melting point of stainless steel was taken to be
2 1750 K. Arrows indicate the direction of convective flow
within the weld pool.
4
Fig. 4 shows the calculated temperature contours, again for a
6 current of 200 A, but for the case of the gradient of the surface
1750 K
tension coefficient dγ/dT being 0.6 dyne/(cm K). In this case
8 1500 K the convective flow is radially inwards at the top of the weld
pool, again shown by arrows in Fig. 4, and there is a strong
10
2000 K
1000 K flow downwards at the centre of the weld pool. This flow
carries heat downwards with the result that the calculated weld
12
500 K
SUS 304 (LS) depth is significantly larger than that of Fig. 3, i.e. 3.2 mm,
compared with 0.6 mm for dγ/dT = -0.6 dynes/(cm K).
0 2 4 6 8 10
Radial distance (mm)
0

1750 K
Figure 1: Calculated temperature profiles for a 150 A arc in
argon with a stainless steel workpiece 1 cm thick and an 0.2
electrode-workpiece spacing of 5 mm; from [1]. 1500 K

0.4 1250 K
0 2 4 6 8 10

150 A 1000 K
0.6
-6 τ = 20 s
750 K
-4
Max. 201 m/s 0.8

-2 500 K
Axial distance (mm)

0 1.00
0.2 0.4 0.6
Radius; cm
Max. 54 cm/s
2

4
Fig. 3 Calculated temperature contours in the work-piece for
200 A, for dγ/dT = -0.6 dyne/(cm K). Arrows show the
6 direction of convective flow in the weld-pool; from [3].
8

10

12
SUS 304

0 2 4 6 8 10
Radial distance (mm)

49

0
2000 K
0.2
1750 K
0.4
1500 K
1250 K
0.6
1000 K
750K
0.8
500 K
1.0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6
Radius; cm
Fig. 4 Calculated temperature contours in the work-piece for
200A, for dγ/dT = 0.6 dynes/cm K. Arrows show the direction
of convective flow in the weld pool; from [3].
(3) Influence of a surface insulating layer.
If the surface of the work piece is covered with an insulating
layer, for example an oxide layer or a flux, the arc diameter at
the surface of the work piece is reduced, magnetic pinch
forces in the weld pool are increased at the weld pool surface
and the resulting increased pressure can drive convective flow
downwards leading to a markedly increased weld depth.
Figure 5 shows the calculated temperature contours where we
have simulated the effect of flux placed on the surface of the
metal, by introducing an insulating layer on the surface of the
weld pool and metal, except for a circular region of diameter 4
mm at the centre of the weld pool. It is assumed that in the
high temperature region at the centre of the weld pool, the
insulating flux is evaporated to allow arc current to enter the
weld pool. There is then a much higher current density at the
centre of the weld pool, as the radius of the current region is
now only 2 mm, compared with about 5mm for the weld pool
radius in Figs. 3 and 4. This increased current density leads to
a significant j×B force, both in the plasma and in the molten
metal at the surface of the weld pool. Thus there is an
increased pressure at the arc centre, which forces a strong
downward convective flow in the metal, as indicated by the
arrows of Fig. 5. This downward convective flow carries heat
energy downwards and leads to a significantly increased weld
pool depth. The weld pool depth of Fig. 5 is 7 mm, compared
with a weld pool depth of 0.6 mm of Fig. 3 and 3 mm in Fig.
4.
The value of dγ/dT for Fig. 5 was taken to be 0.6 dynes/(cm
K), as in Fig. 4. If we set dγ/dT to be -0.6 dynes/(cm K), as in
Fig. 3, the calculated weld depth corresponding to Fig. 5 is 5
mm, still larger than for Fig. 4. There is then a very thin
convective circulation of metal outward at the surface of the
weld pool, on top of the major circulative flow as in Fig. 5.
50
The calculated voltage for Fig. 5 is 15 V compared with
voltage calculations of 9 V for Figs. 3 and 4. Of course the
diameter that is taken for the extent of the insulating surface
introduced by the flux simulation of Fig. 5 is just an estimate.
For a larger diameter of the central conducting region, the
convective flow effects that increase the weld depth would be
weaker and the increase in the calculated arc voltage due to
the increased current density would also be smaller. In Fig. 6,
we show calculated temperature profiles as in the case of Fig.
5, but for the arc and the tungsten cathode as well. It is noted
from the 16000 K contour of Fig. 6, that there is an arc spot at
the centre of the anode, as well as at the high temperature
region in front of the tungsten cathode. This anode arc spot
does not exist in the calculations of Figs. 3 and 4. The spot
from Fig. 6 is introduced because of the high current density
region forced to be at the centre of the anode by the insulating
layer imposed on the weld pool surface. Such an anode spot is
seen experimentally in investigations of ATIG arcs [5], but is
not seen in normal TIG arcs.
Insulating Layer
0
0.2
1750 K
1500 K
0.4
1250 K
2000 K
0.6
1000 K
0.8 750 K
500 K
1.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Radius; cm
Fig. 5. Calculations of temperature contours in the weld pool
where the effect of a flux is simulated by an insulating layer on
the outer surface of the weld pool, beyond a radius of 2 mm.
Arrows show the direction of convective flow in the weldpool.
Discussion
The calculations of weld depth indicate that weld depth can
vary by a factor of two or more depending on the surface
tension properties of the weld pool surface, or if an insulating
layer exists on the liquid surface. These calculations give a
possible explanation of the large variability experienced in
weld depth experienced in practical welding. Impurities of
oxygen or sulfur of as little as 0.01 percent can change the
surface tension to be an increasing instead of a decreasing
function of temperature [6]. Such a change in temperature
dependence can result in the convective flow in the weld pool
changing from being radially outward to radially inward,
resulting in large changes in weld depth. Effects of an oxide
layer on the metal being welded could also produce changes in
convective flow and thus a change in weld depth.

-0.5
200 A; Argon
Cathode

500 K
-1.5

1750 K
-2.5
10000 K
5000 K

16000 K
-3.5
Insulating Layer

1750 K 500 K

-4.5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Radius; cm

Fig. 6. Predicted temperatures of cathode, arc, weld pool and

workpiece, for the conditions of Fig. 5. An arc spot is evident
at the weld-pool surface.

An explanation can also be given for the large changes in weld

depth observed when the metal surface is first coated with an
activating flux. The flux could dissolve in the molten weld
metal producing a change in surface tension properties and
thus a change in weld depth, as in the previous paragraph. Or
the effect of the insulating layer of the flux can produce an
increase in current density at the centre of the weld and thus
downward convective flow from the magnetic forces and thus
a similar increase in weld depth.

References

[1] M. Ushio, M. Tanaka and J.J. Lowke, Anode melting from

free burning argon arcs, IEEE Trans. Plasma Science
32,108-117 (2004).
[2] L. Sansonnens, J. Haidar and J.J. Lowke, Prediction of
properties of free burning argon arcs including effects of
ambipolar diffusion, J Phys D: Appl. Phys. 33, 148-157
(2000).
[3] J.J. Lowke, M. Tanaka and M. Ushio, Arc modeling for
prediction of weld depth variability in TIG welding,
Australasian Welding Journal 47, 2, 33-37 ( 2002).
[4] S.V. Patankar, Numerical heat transfer and fluid flow,
McGraw Hill, New York (1980).
[5] M. Tanaka, T. Shimzu, H. Teresaki, M. Ushio, F. Koshi-
ishi and C.L. Yang, Effects of activating flux on arc
phenomena in gas tungsten arc welding, Sc. & Tech.
Welding and Joining, 5, 6, 397 (2000).
[6] B.J. Keene, Review of data for surface tension of iron and
its binary alloys, Int. Materials Reviews 33, 1-37, (1988).

51
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Algorithms for Inverse Analysis of Welding Processes
1 2
S. G. Lambrakos, J.O. Milewski, D.W. Moon
1
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, USA
2
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA
Abstract
An examination of the structure of algorithms for inverse
analysis of welding and heat deposition processes is
presented. The mathematical foundation of these algorithms
is that a very large class of temperature fields, associated
with different types of welding processes, can be represented
parametrically by a relatively small set of functions that
includes linear combinations of solutions to the heat
conduction equation. Issues concerning the use of algorithms
based on different types of parametric representations related
to different types of welding processes are discussed. Our
emphasis is on the characteristics of algorithms for inverse
analysis as well as general aspects of the inverse problem
approach. A prototype analysis is presented that serves to
demonstrate many of the characteristics of these algorithms
that are significant for their practical application.
Introduction
According to the inverse-problem approach, a system is
represented by a model and associated set of adjustable
parameters (1-5). The particular choice of a model (or
equivalently, set of model parameters) is termed a
“parameterization” of the system. The choice of a
parameterization to be used to describe a system, however, is
in general not unique. In order to address the property of
non-uniqueness of system parameterization, inverse problem
theory has adopted the concept of “model space,” where each
point of this space represents a “conceivable”
parameterization of the system (3). Given the model space
of a specific system, quantitative inverse analysis of the
system is further enhanced by isolating the regions of model
space that correspond to parameterizations that are physically
consistent, sufficiently general in terms of mathematical
representation, and optimal in the sense that the number of
model parameters is the least required for representing the
system. A physically consistent and sufficiently general
parameterization of heat deposition processes is significant
for the following reasons. First, temperature distributions
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
1
calculated by inverse methods represent a mapping from data
space into parameter space. It is therefore preferable to
adopt a parametric function representation whose form tends
to minimize any bias resulting from its mathematical form.
Second, a set of parameters associated with a physically
consistent representation can in principle be used to extract
relationships between parameters, which can provide further
insight related to physical characteristics. Third, control and
optimization of heat deposition processes associated with a
specific application requires a quantitative assessment of
process characteristics over a wide range of values of process
parameters, e.g., beam current, accelerating voltage and
chemical composition of the interacting environment.
System identification for purposes of process control and
optimization is only realizable by specification of a
parametric representation, which establishes a
correspondence between model and process parameters over
a sufficiently wide range of values. And fourth, a
sufficiently general parametric representation can be adjusted
to include influences due to incomplete information
concerning the system.
In the case of heat deposition processes, such as welding,
parameterizations that are both physically consistent and
sufficiently general in terms of their mathematical
representation can be defined in terms of a relatively small
set of basis functions. These basis functions are the modified
Beer-Lambert law and Gaussian function, for the general
representation of heat sources associated with deposition-
type processes, and solutions to the heat conduction equation
corresponding to a finite set of boundary conditions.
Formulation of Inverse-Problem Approach
Representations of Temperature Field: Presented in this
section is a representation of the temperature field, which
provides a general foundation of inverse methods and of the
concept of a model space for welding processes. A
parametric representation of the temperature field T(x,y,z)
within the workpiece is given by
53
 N input (e.g., energy per distance); and (h) information based
T(x, y, z) =
wi fi (x, y, z) , (1) on physical model representations of aspects of heat
i =1 deposition process. The functions fi(x,y,z) provide for the
inclusion of the following types of information: (a) boundary
and T(x k ,y k ,z k ) = C k (2) conditions on the workpiece; (b) estimates of the temperature
field for subsequent optimization based on constraints; and
where the functions fi(x,y,z) are assumed to have trends (c), explicit physical model representation of the process.
consistent with that of the temperature field associated with Selection of a well posed set of fi(x,y,z) is based on
the specific welding or heat deposition process. The determining the characteristic model space of welding
constraint conditions are represented by the quantities Ck. processes and subsequently isolating those regions of the
model space corresponding to parameterizations that are both
The formal procedure underlying the inverse method physically consistent and sufficiently general in terms of
considered here entails the adjustment of a temperature field their mathematical representation. It follows that for heat
T(x,y,z) defined over the entire spatial region of the deposition processes f(x,y,z) is given by
workpiece. This approach defines an optimization procedure
where a temperature field spanning the spatial region of the f(x,y,z) = C1 (x,y,z) C 2 (x,y)TB (x,y,z) (4)
workpiece is adopted as the quantity to be optimized.
Depending on the characteristics of the spatial distribution of where the functional forms of C1, C2 and TB are the Beer-
constraint information, the temperature field is represented Lambert law, Gaussian function, and solutions to the heat
parametrically by Eq.(1). Accordingly, an optimization conduction equation for a given set of boundary conditions,
criterion may be defined by minimizing the value of an respectively. This follows for C1(x,y,z) since deposition-type
objective function of the form processes,(e.g., transmission of electrons or photons) can be
represented with respect to penetration by the modified Beer-
2
N1 Lambert law, which given in Napierian form is
Z =
w n ( T(x ,y ,z )  T
c
n
c
n
c
n
c
n )
n =1 I 4

N2 2 C1 (x,y,L) = -ln  = μCLf1 + f 2 =
 i Li (5)

 I0 
m =1
(
+
w m max{T(x,y cm ,z cm )}  Tmc ) (3) i= 0

where I0 is the incident intensity at the origin o, I is the

where wn and wm are weighting coefficients and the
quantities having superscript “c” designate constraints on
temperatures or positions within the workpiece. The
mathematical structure underlying the general formulation
defined by Eqs.(1)-(3) is that of a parametric function-
approximation, using a linear combination of nonlinear
functions. This structure establishes an equivalence between
inverse methods and methods of constrained parameter
optimization. Reference 5 examines the formal equivalence
of inverse methods for heat conduction problems and the
least-squares method. Reference 6 examines formulations of
the inverse problems in terms of optimization. The
mathematical structure of the formulation defined by eqns
(1)-(3) provides for the inclusion of information either
through specification of constraints Ck or the functions
fi(x,y,z).
intensity at a distance L from the origin, μ is the extinction
coefficient, C is the concentration of the ambient medium, f1
is a pathlength factor, which accounts for increases in
pathlength caused by scattering within the material, and f2 is
a geometry factor, which accounts for instrument geometry,
e.g., shape or spatial profile of beam source. The general
functional form of the Beer-Lambert law (see Fig.1) is that of
a monotonically decreasing function that is characteristically
represented by five parameters (e.g., right side of Eq.(5)).
Similarly, a sufficiently general representation of the
transverse character of heat sources C2(x,y), is that of a
Gaussian function, i.e.,
C 2 (x,y) = Aexp[-1 (x - x 0 ) 2
 2 (y
y 0 ) 2 ] . (6)

The constraints Ck provide for the inclusion of the following

-ln(I/I0)

types of information: (a) solidification cross-sections (e.g.,

transverse, longitudinal and top surface cross-sections); (b)
spatial character of energy source (e.g., position of maximum
temperature, shape and relative location of keyhole in deep-
penetration welds); (c) geometric information (e.g., shape
features of workpiece and top surface of weld); (d) boundary
r0 r1 r2 r3 r4
r
conditions on workpiece; (e) information related to
temperature history (e.g., microstructure correlation with
temperature); (f) thermocouple measurements; (g) energy

54
Fig. 1 General form of basis function C1(x,y,r) defined in where
Eq.(5). C(xk ,y k ,z k )  (x - x )2 
Tk (x k ,y k ,z k ,n
t) = TA + exp - k 
Although heat deposition processes may be characterized by n
t 
 4 1 (n
t) 
complex coupling between the heat source and workpiece, as 
  m 2  2 (nt)  my  myk 
well as complex geometries associated with either the  1 + 2 exp  - 2 2
 cos   cos 
workpiece or deposition process, (e.g., reinforcement 
m=1
 a 
 a
 a

structures), in terms of inverse analysis, the general
functional form of the temperature fields associated with all
such processes is within a restricted set of functions. 
  m 2  2 (nt)  mz  mz 
Accordingly, a sufficient approximation of this restricted set
m=1
 l
 l

of functions are the solutions to heat conduction equation
TB(x,y,z) for the set of boundary conditions given in Fig. 2.
A parameterization based on this set is both sufficiently
general and convenient relative to optimization.
Fig. 2 Boundary conditions for basis functions TB(x,y,z)
defined in Eq.(4).
Case Study Analysis
For the present case study we consider an analysis of a
prototype wire structure of finite cross section whose surface
is heated over a given period of time by a heat source whose
spatial distribution is that of a Gaussian function. Although
we adopt as input data for this analysis thermocouple
measurements of temperature histories for a grapite-fiber
wire structure, the prototype wire structure modeled is
representative of a wide range of different types of material
response characteristics that can be associated with heat
deposition processes in general. In particular, the analysis
presented can be applied to processes involving spot welding
and heat treatment of complex structures.
Heating of a Wire Structure: For unsteady heat deposition
within a wire structure of finite cross section a consistent
parametric representation of the time dependent temperature
field is
Nk Nt
T(x, y,z, t) =

T (x ,y
k k k ,z k , nt) (7)
k=1 n=1
55
 1 + 2 exp  - 3 2
 cos  cos k



 l 
where TA is the ambient temperature of the wire structure
and the time t = N t
t ( N t = 1, 2, 3, …) is expressed as N t
multiples of discrete time steps
t . The coefficients
C(xk,yk,zk), which specify the spatial distribution of discrete
surface heat elements, and the diffusivities
1 ,
2 and
3
are adjustable parameters of the inverse model defined by
Eq.(7). The quantities a and l are the lengths of the sides of
the rectangular cross section of the wire structure. In general
the wire structure is characterized by an anisotropic thermal
diffusivity such that the “through-thickness” diffusivities,
i.e.,
2 and
3 , are significantly less than the “in-plane”
diffusivity
1 . The spatial coordinates (xk,yk,zk) and (x, y, z)
are the discrete locations of the heat elements on the surface
of the model wire structure and positions within the wire
structure at which the calculated temperature is defined,
respectively. The solution to the heat conduction equation
given by Eq.(7) represents a modification of that given in
reference 7.
The wire structure considered for the present analysis was a
silicone rubber coated carbon fiber having a rectangular cross
section, a = 0.125 in and l = 0.25 in. Surface heating of this
wire structure was achieved using an electric hot air source
whose maximum air temperature was 600 oC. The heating
pattern, which appeared white, is correlated with the
formation of a silica coating resulting from decomposition of
the silicone rubber coating of the wire structure. This pattern
was adopted for assigning the spatial distribution of surface
heat elements, i.e., the values of coefficients C and set of
positions (xk,yk,zk) defined in Eq.(7). For the purpose of our
prototype analysis two thermocouple measurements were
made during the heating period. One thermocouple was
attached within the center of the wire structure, below the
point of maximum heating, while the other was attached on
the surface of the structure at the point of maximum heating
from the hot air source. Shown in Fig. (3) are temperature
histories corresponding to thermocouple measurements at
these two positions, on and within the graphite-fiber
prototype wire structure.
The inverse model defined by Eq.(7) is function of the
adjustable parameters C(xk,yk,zk),
1 ,
2 ,
3 and
t . For
the purpose of our prototype analysis we consider only
adjustment of the parameters C(xk,yk,zk) and
1 . This is
consistent with our use of two thermocouple measurements assigned according to their relationship to
1 .
of temperature histories. The values of
2 and
3 are
Fig. 3 Bottom and top “coarse” curves are for experimentally measured temperatures at center and surface, respectively. Bottom

56
 (a)

(b)

(c)

and top “smooth” curves are for simulated temperatures at center and surface, respectively. Parameter values are given in Fig.4.

Fig. 4 Simulations of heat transfer within the prototype wire structure corresponding to the three different modes of heat
2 -3 2
conduction. (a)
1 = 7.7 x 10-4 m /s,
2 =
1 ,
3 =
1 , adjusted according to Fig.3 (top); (b)
1 = 3.0 x10 m /s,
2 = 0.27
1 ,

3 =
2 , adjusted according to Fig.3 (middle); and (c)
1 = 3.7 x10 -3 m 2 /s,
2 = 0.0176
1 , adjusted according to Fig.3 (bottom).

57
This relationship is specified according to the mode of heat
conduction occurring within the wire structure. We consider
three modes of heat conduction, purely isotropic, moderately
anisotropic, and anisotropic heat conduction (typical of
laminate wire structures). A typical value of
2 /
1 for a
graphite/epoxy laminate is 0.01757, which we have adopted
for our prototype analysis. The discrete time step
t and
total number of time steps N t were 0.4865 s and 1000,
respectively.
Shown in Fig.(3) are calculated temperature histories, at the
locations of thermocouple measurement, corresponding to
three different modes of heat conduction within the prototype
wire structure. For each case the values of C(xk,yk,zk) and

1 have been adjusted so as to achieve the best
correspondence of the calculated and measured temperature
histories over the entire time interval extending over 500 s.
The spatial distribution of C(xk,yk,zk) was that of the
decomposition pattern such that the discrete locations
-3
(xk,yk,zk) were at a grid spacing
l = 1.27 x 10 m. Shown
in Fig.4 are simulations of heat transfer within the prototype
wire structure over a period of time prior to the assumed
point of thermal breakdown corresponding to the three
different modes of heat conduction:
2

1 = 7.7 x 10-4 m /s,
2 =
1 ,
3 =
1 ;
-3 2

1 = 3.0 x 10 m /s,
2 = 0.27
1 ,
3 =
2 ;
and
-3 2

1 = 3.7 x 10 m /s,
2 = 0.0176
1 ,
3 =
2 .
The time dependent temperature fields shown in Fig.4 are for
the xz-plane at midpoint of the y axis. The three simulations
shown in Fig.4 are for the same spatial distribution of heat
sources. The values of the parameters C(xk,yk,zk),
1 ,
2 ,

3 and
t have been adjusted according to the inverse
model defined by Eq.(7) with respect to this specific heat
source. These parameters will, in principle, provide an
estimate of the response of the wire structure to heat sources
having different spatial and temporal characteristics. The
level of anisotropy is specified according to the ratio
1 /
2
(where
3 =
2 ). In practice, this quantity may be assigned
according to the temperature history measured by an
additional thermocouple measurement at a different location
along the x-coordinate. One can, in principle, adjust both

1 /
2 and
1 /
3 according temperature histories
measured by two additional thermocouples. In the case of
more than three measured temperature histories, the model
parameters should be optimized following a least-squares
procedure (see references 5 and 6).
Summary and Conclusions
General Aspects of the inverse problem approach for a range
of different welding and heat deposition processes have been
presented in more detail elsewhere (1,2). Here, we have
58
presented an examination of the foundation of algorithms for
inverse analysis of heat deposition processes such as
welding. These algorithms can be based, in principle, on a
relatively small set of mathematical functions, or
equivalently, parameterizations. From the perspective of
inverse problem theory, the fact that a given process can in
general be represented by a relatively small set of functions
that is both physical consistent and convenient with respect
to parameter optimization is based on the concept of a
“model space” for a given system. According to this concept,
although parameterizations for inverse analysis are not in
general unique, there does exist for any given system an
optimal inverse model representation based on its physical
characteristics. This concept is discussed further in reference
3. The case study presented demonstrates the use of a
relatively optimal parameterization for inverse analysis of the
heating of complex wire structures and further demonstrates
the general flexibility and convenience of the inverse-
problem approach for analysis of complex processes
involving heat deposition.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Office of Naval
Research, Arlington, VA for support of this research.
References
1. S.G. Lambrakos and J.O. Milewski, “Analysis of
Processes Involving Heat Deposition using Constrained
Optimization,” Science and Technology of welding and
Joining, 7 (3) 137, 2002.
2. S.G. Lambrakos and J.O. Milewski, “Analysis of
Welding and Heat Deposition Processes Using an
Inverse-Problem Approach,” to appear in Mathematical
Modeling of Weld Phenomena 7 (ed H. Cerjak).
3. A. Tarantola: “Inverse Problem Theory and Methods for
Model Parameter Estimation,” SIAM, Philadelphia, PA,
2005.
4. K.A. Woodbury, editor: “Inverse Engineering
Handbook,” CRC Press, New York, 2003.
5. M. Rappaz, M. Bellet and M. Deville: “Numerical
Modeling in Materials Science and Engineering,”
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2003, pp. 448-475.
6. C.R. Vogel, “Computational Methods for Inverse
Problems,” SIAM, Philadelphia, PA, 2002.
7. H.S. Carslaw and J.C. Jaegar: “Conduction of Heat in
Solids,” Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd edn: 1959, p. 374.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Improving the Understanding of Laser Deposition Processes

Through Process Simulation
R. P. Martukanitz1, A. C. Naber2, R. M. Melnychuk3, and R. W. McVey3
1
Applied Research Laboratory, 2Department of Mathematics, and 3Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16803

Abstract
The laser surface modification process, as described using pre-
placed powder, is typified by a relatively diffuse energy input
from a laser beam to metal powder residing on the surface of a
metal substrate. Based on this description, a model
representing the laser deposition process using pre-placed
powder has been constructed. In the computation, special
attention is given to the interaction of laser radiation with the
powder bed. Initial results of simulations under a relatively
wide variety of conditions indicate the utility of the model for
improving the basic understanding of the laser deposition
process.
As stated, laser surface modification is a versatile process
through which one can modify the surface properties of metals
and ceramics to obtain improved component performance.
This is accomplished through modifying the material’s
properties by localized melting and solidification on or near
the surface of the substrate. Many of the laser surface
modification processes utilize powders as well as solid
material in the form of wire for depositing material. When
high deposition rates are required, the powdered materials are
typically fed into the interaction area directly ahead of a
diffuse laser beam, and may be described as pre-placing the
powder onto the substrate. This process is illustrated below in
Figure 1.

Introduction Diffuse Beam

There is a continued need for new and improved coatings that

provide increased life for critical mechanical components.
This is particularly true for heavy industries such as mining
Powder Feed
and mineral processing, primary material production and Nozzle
fabrication, paper and pulp, and agriculture. Typically,
coating technology utilized for these industries requires
metallurgical bonding for durability, high deposition rates
affordable restoration, and hard surfaces for maintaining high
wear resistance. Laser surface modifications, in the form of Deposited Layer
cladding and alloying are gaining widespread use because of
its ability to provide high deposition rates, low thermal
distortion, low base-metal dilution, low metallurgical Substrate
degradation of the base material, and refined microstructures
in the deposition due to high solidification rates. A variety of Figure 1. Schematic of laser deposition process using pre-
applications have been developed for the laser surface placed powder.
modification process, and the most common uses are for
improving resistance to corrosion, abrasion, erosion,
oxidation, and wear. Since the properties of the modified
surface depend on the microstructure that evolves during Model of the Laser Deposition Process
melting and cooling, an accurate depiction of the thermal
history associated with the process can play an important role The laser surface modification process, as described using pre-
in developing improved coatings and advanced processes. placed powder, is typified by a relatively diffuse energy input

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 59

from a laser beam to the metal powder residing on the surface
of a metal substrate. The powder is melted along with a small
amount of substrate material, metallurgically bonding the
powder layer to the substrate, thus creating a new surface.
The energy balance for such a system may be represented as:
∂H
= ∇ ⋅ (k∇T ) + Q (1)
∂t
where Q represents energy introduced to the powder and
substrate by the laser and surface heat losses, while enthalpy is
utilized to account for latent heat and may directly describe
temperature within the computation space through:
H = ρ (C P T + L) (2)
Although standard boundary conditions are applied, such as
surface losses due to radiation and convection, unique
properties of the computation involve the spatial distribution
of energy and absorption associated with the laser source and
the attenuation due to scattering to finite depths within the
powder layer. For a heat source having some intensity (I)
distribution, which may or may not be Gaussian:
dΔI - γ 2 I = 0 in Ω (3)
where Ω represents the powder domain γ represents the
absorption coefficient due to attenuation within the powder
layer. Letting L(x) be the spatial distribution of the laser
energy, within the powder domain that is addressed by the
beam, I(x) is equal to L(x) ; whereas, within the powder
domain that is outside the area of laser interaction, I(x) is
equal to 0 . Hence, γ if is known, the intensity within the
powder layer may be described as:
∫ I(x)dx = Qin (4)
Ω the porous powder layer. As described earlier, the dramatic
where Qin is the total laser energy provided to the substrate.
Another important factor specific to the description of the
laser deposition process involves the large difference in
thermal diffusivity associated with the porous powder layer,
the melted powder, and the metallic substrate. For positions
on the boundary that is separating materials reflecting this
difference, i.e. the interface between the powder and substrate,
conservation of energy requires1:
k1 (∇T)i,1 = k1 (∇T)i,2 (5)
60
These relationships were approximated through the explicit
finite difference method involving a three-dimensional
computational space. A schematic of two dimensions of the
space, along with a Gaussian energy input, is shown in Figure
2. Also illustrated in the figure is the variable grid spacing
that was employed to represent depth and width and the
powder layer, shown as the shaded portion of the
computational space. A fine node spacing of 0.1 mm, which
was used for computation within the vicinity of the powder
layer that was exposed to the beam and then melted, was
required to accurately depict the energy attenuation within the
powder layer.
Figure 2. Schematic of computational space in the x and y
plane for the finite differencing model.
Model Parameters
Several parameters that are critical to the accuracy of the
model must be discussed. This includes the variation of
thermal conductivity and density of material in the powder,
liquid, and solid state, and absorption of laser energy within
difference in thermal conductivity between a material in
powder and solid state, which can be two orders of magnitude,
coupled with the decreased density of powder, which may be
reasonably approximated at 60-percent of the bulk material,
results in a significant variation of thermal diffusivity between
the powder, melted or consolidated powder, and the substrate.
Various relationships were evaluated for describing the
effective conductivity of the powder in terms of the
conductivity of the bulk material comprising the powder;
however, the relationship by Batchelor, et al. was found to
provide values within the range of other relationships, while
also providing the most accurate simulation results. This
relationship determines the effective conductivity of the
powder based on the conductivity of the bulk material
comprising the powder and the thermal conductivity Results of Simulations and Discussion
representing the interstitial voids, assumed to be air2:
Various simulations were conducted to ascertain the
2kair ln(k powder /kair ) sensitivity of the model to processing conditions. Shown in
k= [ − 1] (6) Figure 3 are cross-sectional isotherms for laser irradiation of
1 − (kair /k powder ) 1 − (kair /k powder ) iron powder with 3.0 kW of power using a Nd:YAG and CO2
laser. The circular heat source has a Gaussian distribution, is
The amount of energy absorbed during laser irradiation of 5.0 mm in diameter, and is moving at a rate of 8.47 mm/s over
powder layers is extremely important in accurately a 2.0 mm thick powder layer pre-placed on an iron substrate.
representing the process in numerical simulations. When laser The isotherms represent the mid-plane of the powder layer and
energy is directed onto a powder layer, the reflectance of the substrate with the center of the beam slightly ahead of the
beam is confined to the particles near the top surface and a mid-plane. Temperatures above the melting point of the iron,
fraction of the laser radiation propagates through the powder 1808K, are shown in white.
layers by way of the void spaces between particles. The
radiation is then thought to scatter (produce secondary
radiation) through the thickness. This results in significant
“penetration” into the powder and an increased absorption,
when compared to solid materials, and although it has long
been recognized that the use of powder significantly improves
the absorption of the laser beam3-6, data that accurately
describes this phenomena is virtually nonexistent.

Experimental data was recently obtained through closely

controlled experiments designed to measure the amount of
reflectance, transmission, and absorption of CO2 (wavelength
of 10,600 nm) and Nd:YAG (wavelength of 1,064 nm)
irradiation. These experiments utilized an integrating sphere
to measure the optical response during irradiation of pure iron
or pure copper powder at varying bed thickness, as well as
various powder size distributions. In all cases, the degree of Figure 3. Isotherms at the mid-plane during laser deposition
absorption within the powder followed an exponential decay, of a 2.0 mm thick pre-place iron powder layer using 3.0 kW of
which could then be used to estimate the absorption power with Nd:YAG (top) and CO2 (bottom) lasers.
coefficient. The estimated absorption coefficients (γ ) for the
pure iron and pure copper powders from these experiments are
shown in Table 1. It should be noted that the values shown in As shown in Figure 3, the energy density associated with the
Table 1 are up to 4 orders of magnitude larger than those 3.0 kW over the 5 mm diameter spot is not sufficient to cause
obtained for solid materials. melting into the substrate when using the CO2 laser; whereas,
the Nd:YAG laser was easily able to achieve full melting of
the substrate. This large difference in thermal input is chiefly
due to the absorption of the iron powder at the CO2 and
Table 1: Estimated absorption coefficients for three size Nd:YAG laser wavelengths. The absorption of iron with
distribution of pure iron and pure copper powder for Nd:YAG Nd:YAG radiation is nearly twice that of CO2 radiation6.
irradiation.
Shown in Figures 3 and 4 are the time dependent temperatures
at the top surface of the powder and the original interface
Powder Fe Fe Fe Cu Cu Cu
Material 44-149 > 106 < 45 44 -149 >106 < 45
position between the powder layer and the substrate for the
and Size μm μm μm μm μm μm Nd:YAG and CO2 laser irradiation, respectively.

Nd:YAG Shown in Figure 5 are results for laser deposition of a cobalt-

0.7802 0.5443 0.0365 0.0204 0.8803 0.1086
γ value based powder using 4.0 kW of power distributed over a 12
mm by 1 mm area and assuming a wavelength similar to a
CO2
0.0193 0.0130 0.0258 0.0158 0.0092 0.0253 Nd:YAG laser. The long axis of the heat source is
γ value perpendicular to the traverse direction. In this simulation, an
absorption of 0.6 was utilized for the powder and an
absorption of 0.45 was employed to represent the consolidated
powder.

61
 431SS Powder on 4140 with 3kW Nd:YAG
Because of the attempt to accurately represent the interaction
of the laser energy with the powder bed, the model has also
7000
shown the ability to illustrate the dynamic nature of the laser
6000 deposition process. Shown in Figure 6 is a top view of a
Powder Surface
Substrate Surface simulated 1.5 kW Nd:YAG beam irradiating a metal powder
5000
bed. Based on experimental measurements, the powder bed is
Temperature (K)

4000 assumed to have an absorption value of 0.55 and the

consolidated or melted powder represents an absorption of
3000
0.486. Upon scrutinizing the resultant temperatures, it is
2000 theorized that an area of high absorption near the leading edge
of the beam may be the controlling factor in powder melting
1000
and deposition, and this phenomena is driven by the
0 interaction of the laser irradiation with the virgin powder.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)

Figure 3. Time dependent temperatures at the top surface of Powder and two
the powder and the original interface position between the phase region
powder layer and the substrate for surface deposition using a under beam
Nd:YAG laser.

431SS Powder on 4140 with 3kW CO 2

7000
Area under
the beam
6000
Powder Surface
Substrate Surface
5000
Temperature (K)

4000

3000
Figure 6. Top view of simulation of laser deposition of a
2000 nickel-based powder bed with a 1.5 kW Nd:YAG laser.
1000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Summary
Time (s)

A model representing the laser deposition process using pre-

Figure 4. Time dependent temperatures at the top surface of
placed powder has been constructed. In the computation,
the powder and the original interface position between the
special attention is given to the interaction of laser radiation
powder layer and the substrate for surface deposition using a
with the powder bed. Initial results of simulations under a
CO2 laser.
relatively wide variety of conditions indicate the utility of the
model for improving the basic understanding of the laser
deposition process.

Acknowledgements

Research sponsored by the Department of Energy’s

Industrial Materials for the Future Program under
contract DE-FC07-02ID14247. The authors would also
like to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Jay Tressler
in supporting various experimental tasks described in
Figure 4. Isotherms at the mid-plane during laser deposition this work.
of a 2.0 mm thick pre-place iron powder layer using 3.0 kW of
power with Nd:YAG (top) and CO2 (bottom) lasers.

62
 References

1. Barbašin, E. A. Approximation of the Solution of

Partial Differential Equations. American p. 463,
Mathematics Society, Providence, RI (1963).

2. Ba tchelor, G.K., O’Brien, R.W., Thermal or

Electrical Conduction Through a Granular Boundary,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 335, 313-
333 (1977).

3. Haag, M., Hugel, H, Albright, C.E., and Ramasamy,

S., CO2 Laser Light Absorption Characteristics of
Metal Powders, J. Applied Physics, 79 (1995).

4. Bohren, C. F., and Huffman, D. R., Absorption and

Scattering of Light by Small Particles, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1983).

5. Tolochko, N.K., T. Laoui, Y.V. Khlopkov, S.E.

Mozzharov, V.I. Titov, and M.B. Ignatiev,
Absorptance of powder materials suitable for laser
sintering. Rapid Prototyping Journal., Vol. 6, 217-
223 (2000).

6. Martukanitz, R.P., Melnychuk, R.M., and

Copley, S.M., Dynamic Absorption of a Powder
Layer, Proceedings of the 23rd International
Congress on Applications of Lasers & Electro-
Optics, Laser Institute of America, 97, 1404-
1409 (2004).

63
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

A Microstructure Model for Laser Processing of Ti-6Al-4V

S.M. Kelly
Applied Research Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
smk22@psu.edu

S.S. Babu, S.A. David, T. Zacharia

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA

S.L. Kampe
Materials Science and Engineering Department, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

Abstract Figure 1. The layer band consists of a colony-α morphology,

while the material between the layer band is a distinctly
The current challenge in laser processing titanium alloys using different morphology consisting of basketweave-α. A region
methods such as Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) is in of material containing the colony-α layer band and adjacent
understanding the complex microstructure evolution during scale-graded basketweave-α comprise a fully developed
multiple passes of the laser. The microstructure is affected by characteristic layer. The characteristic layer is found in each
the repeated thermal cycling that occurs during the deposition deposited layer except for the last three to be deposited. The
process. The current work focuses on the thermal and last three layers of the deposit are in an undeveloped state
microstructural modeling of multilayered Ti-6Al-4V deposits. indicating that the characteristic layer forms in a layer n after
Prior work with LMD-Ti-6Al-4V has shown that a complex the addition of three layers of material (n+3th layer
microstructure evolves consisting of a two-phase α+β deposition).
structure that is measurably different across the deposit. A
microstructure model has been developed to predict the
evolution of the alpha fraction during thermal cycling. Alpha
dissolution and growth rates were obtained using
computational thermodynamics and diffusional phase
transformation software as well as available TTT diagrams.
The results indicate that during the n+3 layer addition, the
material in layer n will experience the greatest change in
evolution path. The results of the microstructure model will
be discussed in relation to the as-deposited microstructure.

Introduction
One of the current challenges in laser processing titanium
alloys (Ti-6Al-4V) using methods such as Laser Metal
Deposition (LMD) is in understanding the complex
microstructure evolution during multiple passes of the laser. It
has been shown that the microstructure evolution is affected
by the repeated thermal cycling that occurs as multiple layers
of material are deposited.1-3 The periodic movement of the
heat affected zone (defined by the depth of the beta transus)
results in a similar variation in the two phase α+β phase
fraction and morphology. An example of the variation of Figure 1: Macrograph of a laser deposited Ti-6Al-4V cross-
microstructure within the deposit is shown in Figure 1. section showing the last 6 layers of an 18 layer deposit. Layer
bands (“LB”) are highlighted. Layer bands are periodic
Previous work has focused on the characterization2 of the regions of colony-α and are present for every layer except for
periodic microstructure that evolves in laser deposited Ti-6Al- the last three layers. The material between layer bands is
4V. Particular emphasis was placed on understanding the basketweave-α . In this cross section, x is the direction of
origin of the banded structure seen in the macrograph of laser travel, and z is the direction of layer addition.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 65

The focus of this paper will be to model the variation of alpha
phase fraction during the deposition of multiple layers of Ti-
6Al-4V using a commercial layer deposition process.4 In
addition, existing theories2,5-7 as to the thermal cycle
responsible for the for the formation of variation in
microstructure will be reinforced with the microstructure
model results.
Experiment
The microstructure model seeks to describe the evolution of
alpha phase fraction with temperature. Ti-6Al-4V is a two
phase, α (HCP) + β (BCC), at room temperature. Above
approximately 1273K (beta transus tempertaure) the beta
phase is stable. The model will consider the nucleation and
growth and dissolution of the alpha phase seperately.
Alpha nucleation and growth
During cooling through the beta transus, alpha nucleates first
at the beta grain boundary, typically as allotriomorphic
sideplates (colony-α). At further undercooling, the alpha
phase appears to nucleate intragranularly as basketweave-α.
The alpha phase that froms during cooling through the beta
transus is designated primary-alpha (αP). The isothermal
nucleation and growth of the α phase can be described by
classical Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmorgorov8-10 (JMAK)
kinetic equation:
ζ = 1 − exp(−k (T )t n ) , (1)
where the function k(T) describes the kinetics (nucleation and
growth rates) and is strongly dependent on temperature, while
n describes the nucleation/growth mechanism of
transformation taking place and is independent of temperature.
JMAK kinetic equations have been derived for Ti-6Al-4V by
Malinov, et al11; however, the differential scanning
calorimetry experiments used to calculate k(T) were performed
at cooling rates much slower than those expected in laser
deposition processes and are not applicable here. Thus, k(T) is
calculated from existing time-temperature transformation
diagrams. The material property software, JMatPro12-14 is
used to calculate the TTT diagram for an alloy composition
Ti-6.00Al – 3.99V – 0.25Fe – 0.20O – 0.02C – 0.01N (wt%)
using the titanium alloy database (Ti-DATA).15 The JMatPro
calculated TTT diagram contains transformation curves for
grain boundary and intragranularly nucleated alpha, e.g. two
equations (k(T), n) for each morphology.13,16 In the current
model k(T) is determined for a single start curve, assuming n =
5/2 as detailed in Ref [1]. It should be noted that k(T) is a
nonlinear function with temperature and is incorporated into
the alpha phase fraction calculation using numerical
interpolation techniques. The resulting TTT diagram showing
the JMatPro calculated and modeled transformation start and
finish curves is shown in Figure 2.
66
Figure 2: Modeled (single transformation curve) and JMatPro
calculated TTT diagram for grain boundary and intragranular
nucleation and growth.
Alpha dissolution
Alpha completely dissolves to beta under slow heating
conditions as the temperature rises above TBETA = 1273K. The
alpha dissolution reaction occurs by movement of the alpha
beta interface, which is caused by the transport of beta
stabilizing elements across the interface.17,18 In this sense
alpha dissolution can be thought of as diffusion controlled beta
growth. The dissolution of alpha / growth of beta is modeled
assuming a parabolic beta growth rate (α*(T)) determined
from isothermal diffusion controlled beta growth simulations
as shown in Eq. 2.
ζ = α * (T )t1 2 (2)
Kinetic parameters for alpha dissolution in Ti-6Al-4V have
been derived, based on JMAK kinetics, by Elmer, et al19 from
time-resolved x-ray diffraction experiments; however, when
applying the resulting kinetic parameters to continuous heating
models, it is predicted that melting will occur before complete
dissolution of the alpha phase for heating rates greater than
100K/s. Hence the validity of this data is questioned.
Briefly, α*(T) is calculated using diffusion controlled
transformation (DiCTra) software20 and ThermoCalc solid
solution (SSOL2)21 and mobility (MOB2)22 databases. A
diffusion cell is set-up to represent the room temperature alpha
and beta phase composition and fraction that is typically found
in Ti-6Al-4V (91%- α, 9%-β). The beta thickness is
approximately 100μm, after TEM observations of the as-
deposited material.1 The diffusion cell is instantaneosly
heated to a temperature, Ti, below the beta transus and the
alpha phase is allowed to dissolve. α*(Ti) is the slope of the
thickness versus time1/2 plot for the isothermal temperature.
The best-fit equation describing the parabolic thickening rate
as a function of isothermal temperature found to be:
 1/ n
⎛ ⎛ ⎞⎞
α D* (T ) = 2.2 * 10 −31
T 9.89
(3) ⎜ ln⎜1 − fα ,i −1 ⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ fα ,eq (Ti ) ⎟⎠ ⎟
tG* ,i = ⎜ ⎝ ⎟ (10)
Further details of this calculation may be found in Ref [1]. ⎜ − k (Ti ) ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
Application to non-isothermal heating and cooling ⎝ ⎠
The aforementioned methods for describing alpha nucleation fα ,i = fα ,eq (Ti )ζ α ,i (11)
and growth and alpha dissolution are developed for isothermal
heat treatments. In other words, the methods are theoretical The subscript i refers to the current time step, i-1 refers to the
tools for predicting time-temperature transformation (TTT) previous time step, D refers to dissolution, and G refers to
diagrams. In order to apply the above methods to non-
growth. The variable ζ refers to the extent of reaction. The
isothermal treatments, such as the LMD thermal cycles, one
flow of the phase fraction model calculations begins by
must integrate the kinetic equations over the thermal cycle.
checking the alpha fraction against the equilibrium fraction for
The principle of additivity23-26 is applied to accomplish this
the current (ith) temperature and time step. Based on whether
task: to predict microstructure evolution for non-isothermal
dissolution or growth is occurring (Eq. 4), the appropriate
heat treatments based on isothermal experiments.
dissolution (Eqs. 5-8) or growth (Eqs. 9-11) equations are
evaluated for the current temperature and time step. The
Now consider a thermal cycle where alpha dissolution and
alpha growth occur during heating and cooling, respectively. phase fraction of alpha (fα,i) is stored for each time step. This
The thermal cycle has been discretized into many small time process is repeated each time step in the entire thermal cycle.
steps, defined by Ti and ti. The equilibrium phase diagram Further details of the phase fraction model may be found in
fraction of alpha determines the appropriate sub model Ref[1].
(dissolution or growth) that is used for the ith time step. The
model will utilize the guidelines in Eq. 4, where fα,eq and fα,i
are the equilibrium and current alpha fractions. The
equilibrium alpha fraction is calculated using ThermoCalc Results and discussion
v.P27 and the Ti-DATA thermodynamic database. The
appropriate sub-model is chosen based on the equilibrium and Review of thermal model results
current α fractions for the current temperature and time step
(i). The results presented herein are based on calculated thermal
cycles for the laser deposition of Ti-6Al-4V; however, the
fα ,i > fα ,eq Alpha Dissolution above equations may be utilized in any non-isothermal heating
and cooling sequence. The thermal model utilizes implicit
fα ,i < fα ,eq Alpha Growth (4) finite difference techniques to solve two-dimensional heat
fα ,i = fα ,eq Equilibrium conduction equations, assuming a volumetric distribution of
heat input caused by the deposition of each layer. Further
Alpha dissolution is described by Eqs. 5-8: details of the thermal model may be found in Refs [1,3,28].
Figure 3 shows the calculated maximum temperature during
( )
⎧⎪α * (T ) Δt 1/ 2 the eighth layer addition in the modeled deposit in the form of
(i ) −(i −1) + t D ,i 0 < Δt (i )−(i −1) + t D* ,i ≤ t D,i ,crit
*
ζ β ,i = ⎨ D i (5) a contour map. Also shown is a cross section of the deposit,
⎪⎩ 1 Δt (i )−(i −1) + t D* ,i > t D ,i ,crit with similar regions of the thermal modeled and as-deposited
(
t D , i , crit = α D* (Ti ) )−2
(6)
microstructure highlighted. In the thermal model results,
discussed in detail elsewhere1, it was observed that after the
2 third layer is deposited a heat affected zone develops that
⎛ f β ,i −1 ⎞
t D* , i = ⎜ ⎟ (7) extends approximately 4 layers into the deposit. With each
⎜ f β , eq (Ti )α D (Ti ) ⎟
*
additional layer deposition the heat affected zone increments 1
⎝ ⎠
layer in the positive z direction, which in theory should result
fα ,i = 1 − f β ,i = 1 − f β , eq (Ti )ζ β ,i
(8) in an evolution of microstructure that is periodic, as observed
in the as-deposited material. The periodic characteristic layer
Alpha growth is described by Eqs. 9-11: containing the graded basketweave and layer-band (colony α)
is designated layer n and forms during the deposition of layer

⎣
(
ζ α ,i = 1 − exp ⎡⎢− k (Ti ) Δt(i ) − (i −1) + tG* , i ⎤⎥
n
)⎦ (9)
n+3. The last three layers (n+1 through n+3) consist of a
microstructure that is uniquely different from n, n-1,...n-j and
define the heat-affected-zone microstructure in the deposit.
Layers below n, e.g. n-1 are unaffected by thermal cycles after
layer n+2.

67

Figure 3: Comparison of modeled maximum temperature with
the as-deposited macrostructure. The modeled data is taken
after the eighth layer addition. The as-deposited
macrostructure consists of the last 6 layers added to the
deposit, with the layer n representing the characteristic,
repeated layer. Layers n+1 through n+3 represent a transient
layer. The locations of the characteristic and transient layers
are indicated by boxes on the macrograph and modeled data.
Figure 4: Temperature and alpha phase fraction evolution
with time at two z positions along the centerline (y=0) of the
deposit. The positions lie within a layer n and experience an
additional three thermal cycles (n+3), with the n+3 cycle
causing the most variation in the phase fraction evolution
path. Gaps in the phase fraction data near 400 and 500
seconds distinguish between 100%-β and 100%-liquid.
68
The results of the microstructure model will focus on the
phase fraction and morphological evolution in the last 5 layers
of material, which will provide evidence that the characteristic
microstructure in layer n develops during the deposition of
layer n+3 and remains unaltered by the deposition of layer
n+4 as originally hypothesized.2
Phase fraction model results
The discussion of the phase fraction evolution begins with the
last five layers to be added in the modeled deposit. These are
layers 4 through 8, where layer 4 can be thought of as layer
“n” and layer eight would be layer “n+4”. In Figure 4 the
alpha phase fraction evolution with time is shown at two z-
positions along the centerline (y=0) of the deposit, within
layer 4 (or layer n). The thermal cycles these two points
experience are also shown. The periodic increases in
temperature are caused by the addition of molten layers of
material to the deposit, which eventually cool to near room
temperature before the next layer is added. A phase fraction
amount of zero corresponds to 100% β, except when β
transforms to liquid, which is indicated in Figure 4 by a gap in
the alpha fraction curve (This occurs near 300 and 400
seconds). In all instances, alpha transforms completely to beta
before melting.
During the first three thermal cycles (n through n+2),
temperatures above the beta transus are experienced by both z-
positions. The alpha phase fraction evolution path is
essentially equivalent at both positions during the first 3
thermal cycles. During heating, alpha dissolves rapidly to beta
before melting due to the high heating rates. Upon cooling,
equivalent amounts of alpha form. The final amount of alpha
after the deposition of each layer n through n+2 is the room
temperature fraction (91% α, 9% β).
During the thermal cycle caused by the deposition of n+3, the
greater z-position experiences a temperature above the beta
transus and alpha dissolves completely. The lower z-position
is heated high into the two phase (α+β) field and as a result,
only 20% of the alpha dissolves during the deposition of layer
n+3. As result, a significant change in the evolution path is
observed, though the final amount of alpha is the same for
both positions: 91%-α, 9%-β. Further thermal cycles, i.e., the
deposition of n+4, will be insufficient to produce changes in
the alpha fraction with time since the temperatures will be
below the dissolution start temperature (TDISS = 981K).
The effect of the position sensitive variation in phase fraction
evolution path as shown in Figure 4 is further illustrated if the
variation of alpha morphology is considered. Morphology
being defined here as colony-α and basketweave-α. The
morphology model assumes that any alpha to form above
1100K does so as colony-α, while below 1100K both colony-
α and basketweave-α may form. This is appropriate
considering the JMatPro calculated TTT diagram shown in
Figure 2, where at low undercooling (above 1100K) alpha
forms at the grain boundary as Widmanstatten alpha
sideplates. With further undercooling, the driving force for
nucleation increases and intragranular nucleation dominates.
Further details of the morphology model may be found in Ref.
[1].
Figure 5 clearly shows a periodic variation in the amount of
colony-alpha present in the final deposit. This variation is
present in each layer except the last three layers deposited. In
these last layers, the alpha phase morphology would be near
90% basketweave alpha (fα =0.91, fC-α ≈0, fBW-α ≈0.91). Both
of these results are in good agreement with the as-deposited
results, where the 3 most recent layers to be deposited
consisted primarily of basketweave and fine-colony alpha.
Figure 5: Calculated amounts of colony-α after the
deposition of eight layers of material using a morphology
model and calculated thermal cycles. White indicates a high
amount of colony-α while black indicates basketweave-α. For
reference, only half of the deposit is shown (due to symmetry).
The substrate is 16 mm thick and each layer is 5 mm thick.
Layers are added in the +z direction and the laser travels in
the +x direction.
69
In addition, Figure 5 shows that the fourth most recent layer
(36 < Z <41mm) is the last layer to contain the periodic
variation in colony-alpha, thereby representing a characteristic
layer that is periodically repeated through the deposit. In the
as-deposited structure, the characteristic layer contained a
layer band consisting of colony alpha and a region below the
layer band consisting of a basketweave morphology with a
variation in the individual alpha lath size. In Figure 5, the
regions of higher colony alpha correspond to the colony
morphology observed in the as-deposited layer band. This
conclusion is drawn based on the assumption that the kinetics
for grain boundary nucleated colony-alpha formation is
equivalent to the kinetics for intragranular colony alpha.
Further experimental work must be performed in order to
develop better kinetic parameters to model the dissolution and
growth of different alpha morphologies, especially for thermal
cycles where incomplete dissolution occurs prior to alpha
growth.
Summary and Conclusions
The thermal model results for LMD of Ti-6Al-4V were used
as input to an alpha phase fraction model, resulting in a
predicted microstructure that is qualitatively similar to the as-
deposited microstructure. The phase fraction model predicts a
near equilibrium evolution with the greatest spatial (z)
variation in the maximum alpha fraction during the n+3
thermal cycle, corresponding to heating into the α+β phase
field. The phase fraction evolution paths for the deposition of
layers n through n+2 are similar, while the deposition of n+4
leads to no change in the phase fraction. The phase fraction
results reinforced the theory that the as-deposited
characteristic layer forms after the deposition of layer n+3
onto layer n.
A microstructure model has been developed to describe the
evolution of both alpha phase fraction and morphology
assuming accurate thermal cycles are known. As such, this
model may be applied to any type of thermal processing of Ti-
6Al-4V.
Acknowledgements
Research was sponsored by an appointment through the Joint
Institute for Computational Sciences at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. The Division of Materials Sciences and
Engineering at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory sponsored
a portion of this research. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory
is operated by UT-Battelle, LLC for the U.S. Department of
Energy under contract number DE-AC05-00OR22725. A
portion of the research was sponsored through the Office of
Naval Research under contract number N00014-98-3-0022
with Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
 22
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S. Malinov, Z. Guo, W. Sha, and A. Wilson,
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70
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Simulation of Effect of Weld Variables on Thermal Cycles during Twin Wire Welding

Abhay Sharma, Navneet Arora, S. R. Gupta.

Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department,

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India, 247 667.

Abstract the help of a double set of drive rolls and guides. As

The weld thermal cycles during twin wire welding
has been simulated with three dimensional heat
transfers modeling. An appropriate model has been
developed for twin wire welding process which has
been validated with experiments. The model has
been considered with two different heat sources for
leading and trailing wires and it gives better results
in comparison to the conventional double ellipsoidal
heat source.
Due to consideration of different heat sources at two
wires it has become possible to better model the
process in which leading and trailing wires have
been subjected to different surroundings. The
consequence of this difference has been quantified
in terms of energy share of particular arc to melt the
base metal and contribution in producing
penetration.
shown in Figure 1, both the wires are fed at the
same feed rate and current is supplied from a single
power source. The current splits between the two
wires and results in lower penetration and higher
deposition rate. The technique of twin wire welding
has been known for a long time [1-5] and it is
practiced where higher deposit rate without deep
penetration is advantageous. Although the twin arc
welding is used in practice and has numerous
advantages over single-wire welding, it has almost
not been investigated [6].
Power source
Contact tube

Effects of different weld variables like speed,

voltage and current on thermal cycles, peak
temperature and cooling time have been simulated
at different points including HAZ and points
situated at surface. These effects have been
quantified and plotted which can be useful to
visualize the interrelationship between weld
parameters and thermal responses.
Keywords: Twin wire welding, Thermal cycle,
Heat transfer, Modeling, HAZ
Introduction
Twin wire welding is a variant of conventional
single wire welding in which two wires are fed with
Figure 1: Twin wire welding system.
In the present state of welding research the main
emphasis has been on modeling of physical process
and simulating outcome of the process with help of
developed model. This exercise has helped
researchers to make process mechanism more
transparent as well as time and cost involved in
experiments has been avoided. Not only the
techniques under development and evaluation but

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 71

also the existing techniques can be better b) If above doesn’t work, whether two
understood with help of modeling and simulation identical double ellipsoidal heat sources at a
exercise. given distance (distance between wires)
would work.
As welding is mainly governed by pattern of heat c) Else if two different double ellipsoidal heat
transfer between heat source and work piece, heat sources (Figure 2b) would be needed to
transfer study is an essential part of any welding simulate different surroundings of leading
process. The fundamental requirement for heat and trailing wires, as the leading wire has
transfer modeling has been to define heat source in been subjected to fresh metal while the later
terms of appropriate mathematical function, which is subjected to molten metal generated by
can correspond with the work piece in the same the former.
manner as the actual heat source does. Initial studies
in this area had been made with use of a point heat
source [7] and with due course of time 2-D and 3-D Qg
distributed sources came into picture. In case of arc x
welding process double ellipsoidal heat source a
ξ
given by Goldak [8] has been considered one of the z
authentic and versatile heat source models. Various c
br bf
heat sources for different process can be modeled
by adapting the above stated model. The present
work has been involved in same line of action and
an appropriate heat source model for twin wire (a)
welding has been developed.
Qrr Qfr
Development of heat source model x
a a ξ
In present investigation heat source has been z
modeled with adaptation in the double ellipsoidal cr cf
brr brf bfr bff
heat source model. This heat source model
corresponds to the heat generation term (Qg) in the
fundamental heat condition equation (Eq.1).

DT DH
(b)
∇.(K∇T) + Qg = ρ.C p = (1)
Dt Dt
Where K is the temperature dependent thermal Figure 2: (a) Double ellipsoidal heat distribution
conductivity of the material, T is temperature, Qg is and (b) Combination of two double ellipsoidal heat
volumetric heat generation rate (heat source), ρ is distributions.
density, Cp is specific heat, H is enthalpy and t is
time. Mathematical formulation for double ellipsoidal
heat source is given as follows:
Following approaches has been considered for
⎛ 6 3Q ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞
model development: ⎜ p ⎟ ⎜ − 3x 2 ⎞⎟ ⎜ − 3(ξ)2 ⎟ ⎛⎜ − 3 z 2 ⎞⎟
Qg = f j ⎜ ⎟exp exp⎜ ⎟exp (2)
a) Whether the double ellipsoidal heat source ⎜ π π a.b j.c ⎟ ⎜⎝ a 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ b2 ⎟ ⎜⎝ c2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ j ⎠
(Figure 2a) with change in its geometric
parameters would work and if an equivalent Where Qp is amount of energy transferred to work
heat source would effectively represent the piece from the arc which is equal to ηVI, V is
heat pattern generated by combination of voltage, I is current and η is arc efficiency and j = f,
two wires. r stands for front and rear of the source respectively.

72
In the front half of the source, ff and bf refer to heat
input fraction and semi axis along longitudinal
direction respectively. Where as ‘a’ and ‘c’
represents semi axis in transverse and depth
directions. The sum of the fractions, fj, between the
heat deposited in the front and rear must equal two,
i.e., ff + fr = 2. ξ is moving co-ordinate fixed with
the arc. To get continuity in Eq.2 when ξ =0 the
following condition must yield,
2b f
ff = (3a )
bf + b r
2b r
fr = (3b)
bf + br
In case of combination of two double ellipsoidal
heat sources, new geometric parameters and heat
input fractions have been incorporated.
Mathematical formulation considering two double
ellipsoidal heat sources has been given as follows:
⎛ 6 3Q ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛
⎜ p ⎟ ⎜ − 3x 2 ⎟ ⎜ − 3(ξ) 2 ⎟ ⎜ − 3 z 2 ⎟
Qij = fijdi ⎜ ⎟exp⎜ ⎟ exp⎜ ⎟exp⎜
⎜ π π a i bij.ci ⎟ ⎜ a 2 ⎟ ⎜ b 2 ⎟ ⎜ c 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ i ⎠ ⎝ ij ⎠ ⎝ i ⎠
Where i = f, r for leading and trailing heat source
respectively and j = f, r for front and rear half
of particular source and di represents power
density factor
For determination of above stated parameters,
inverse modeling has been applied. At different
values of these parameters heat conduction equation
has been solved and peak temperature at three
different points situate on surface and within the
body of work piece have been compared with
experimental results. These three points are shown
in Figure 3.
The conduction equation has been solved with finite
difference method with enthalpy method and semi-
discrete technique [9] coded in C language while
experimental measurements have been made on
bead on plate welds produced with submerged arc
welding. The semi axis in transverse direction for
both the source has been considered as half of the
weld width. Semi axis of trailing source in depth
direction has been considered equal to depth of
penetration. Remaining parameters have been
varied and the combination, which can reproduce
experimental result, has been considered.
C
B
A
Figure 3: Positions of points for temperature
measurements: A – at bottom of weld pool, B – at
surface (8 mm from center line) and C – at surface
(9 mm from center line.
⎞ It has been observed that approach (a) and (b)
⎟ (4)
produced error in computed temperature while
approach (c) i.e., two dissimilar heat sources
produced computed results in good agreement with
experimental results. Numerical values of df, dr, cf,
bff, brr equal to 0.25, 0.75, 0.65, a/4, a/2
respectively, where ‘a’ is half of weld width, has
been found most appropriate (Appendix).
As the leading wire is subjected to fresh metal and
colder surroundings, spread of arc at this wire is
leaser in comparison with the trailing wire. Due to
smaller spread, heat density has been more, which
results in higher proportion (65 %) of penetration.
On the other hand due to application of heat to melt
flux, proportion of heat supplied for conduction has
been lesser (25 %).
This outcome has been further justified with
comparison of computed and measured weld
dimensions as shown in Table 1. Computed depth
of fusion zone and heat affected zone has been
found in good agreement with experimental results.
73
Table 1: Comparison of FZ and HAZ depth temperatures at different speeds have not been
differing. It has been due to the reason that this
Measured Calculated point has been directly in contact with the arc,
Depth of FZ (mm) 11.750 11.035 hence time lag between heat generation and
Depth of HAZ (mm) 13.580 14.033 conduction has not been present. As soon arc has
passed from this point, temperature has reached to
peak point without any time lag.
Simulation of effect of weld variables
1800
Simulation of effect of speed and position on 20 cm/min
1600
thermal cycle 30 cm/min
Thermal cycle at different points situated at the 1400

Temperature in °C
40 cm/min
surface and within the body of the work piece has 1200
been simulated at different speeds with the help of 1000
developed model. Figures 4 to 6 show the same. It
800
is evident from Figure 4 that speed considerably
effect the thermal cycle. 600
400
At lower speed, higher peak temperature has been 200
observed. This is due to the reason that heat
0
available per unit length is more at lower speed as 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
well as sufficient time has been available for heat to
time in sec.
conduct up to bottom of the weld pool. On the
contrary, responses at points situated at surface are Figure 5: Effect of welding speed on the thermal
considerably different from the point situated at the cycle of point situated at surface (8 mm form center
bottom of the weld pool. line), current 950 Amp and voltage 33V.

1800 1800
1600 20 cm/min 1600 20 cm/min
30 cm/min
1400 1400 30 cm/min
Temperature in °C

40 cm/min
Temperature in °C

40 cm/min
1200 1200
1000 1000
800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
time in sec. time in sec.

Figure 4: Effect of welding speed on the thermal Figure 6: Effect of welding speed on the thermal
cycle of point situated at the bottom of the weld cycle of point situated at surface (9 mm form center
pool, current 950 Amp and voltage 33V. line), current 950 Amp and voltage 33V.

It can be seen in the Figure 5 that incase of point The point situated far from weld centerline at
situated at surface (8 mm form center line), peak surface of the work piece has also shown difference

74
in peak temperatures (Figure 6) at different welding due to increase in current, heat input has increased
speeds but it has not been as dominant as in the case in lesser amount yet both the changes in current and
of the point situated at the bottom of the weld. On speed have resulted in almost same amount of
carefully studying, there has been one more change in peak temperature. Current has been more
difference in the responses. Thermal cycles of dominant in producing the peak temperature
surface points have shown two maxima points because of its role in joule heating and melting of
where as same has not been observed in the other wire.
case of weld bottom. It seems that effect of two
wires on thermal response has been prevailing at the 1600
surface as well as it has been more dominant in case
1400
of higher welding speed. 850 amp

1200 950 Amp

Temperature in °C
Simulation of effect of current and position on
1000
thermal cycle
With increase in current, peak temperatures of all 800
the points of consideration have increased. It has 600
been evident from Figure 7 to 9 that change in peak
temperature due to change in current has almost 400

been independent of position of the point of 200

consideration.
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
1600 time in sec.
1400 850 amp
Figure 8: Effect of current on the thermal cycle of
1200 950 Amp
Temperature in °C

point situated at surface (8 mm form center line)

1000 speed) 30 cm/min and voltage 33V.
1600
800

600 1400 850 amp

1200 950 Amp

Temperature in °C

400

200 1000

0 800
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
600
time in sec.
400
Figure 7: Effect of welding current on the thermal 200
cycle of point situated at the bottom of the weld
pool, speed 30 cm/min and voltage 33V. 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
time in sec.
The heat input per unit length of the work piece can
Figure 9: Effect of current on the thermal cycle of
be changed by change in current and speed both. It
point situated at surface (9 mm form center line,
can be seen that change in current from 850 Amp to
speed 30 cm/min and voltage 33V.
950 Amp has increased the heat input
approximately 1.1 times and on the other hand
In cases of all the three points peak temperature has
reduction in speed from 40 cm/min to 30 cm/min
increased in proportional manner, irrespective to the
has increased heat input by 1.33 times. Although

75
position of the point of consideration. This has been
due to the fact that generation of peak temperature
is a momentary event which has occurred just at the
moment when arc has been passing through the
plane of particular point of consideration.
Simulation of effect of variables on cooling time
Increment in speed has resulted in reduction in
cooling time (T800-500). It has been observed that
cooling time has also been a function of the position
of the point of consideration as shown in Figure 10.
12
11
850 Amp, 33 V, Point A
10 950 Amp, 33 V, Point A
9 850 Amp, 33 V, Point B
cooling time in sec
950 Amp, 33 V, Point B
8
7 different wire combinations and thermo-mechanical
6 aspect of the process.
5
4 References
3
2
20 30 40
Speed in cm/min
Figure 10: Effect of welding speed on cooling time
T 800-500 at different points.
In case of point situated at bottom of the weld,
cooling time has been inversely proportional to
speed and it is almost independent of change in
current. While on the other points which have been
situated at surface, rate of decrement in cooling
time has been higher then the earlier case as well as
change in current also affect the cooling time. This
has been due to the reason that the surface is
subjected to continuous heat loss due to convection.
At higher speed, heat input per unit remains lesser
but loss due to convection is almost same which
causes faster cooling.
76
Conclusions
Heat source model for twin wire welding has been
developed by adapting the conventional double
ellipsoidal model. With help of this model twin wire
welding can be better represented. Thermal
responses have been examined under the effect of
different set of welding variables. Simulation of
thermal cycle with developed heat source model is
capable to produce results which can be justified
with help of physics of the process. Role of twin
wires in producing the thermal response at different
point of body of the work piece has also been
evaluated and it has been observed that twin wires
has significant effect on the thermal response of the
points situated near the surface of work piece.
Further research will be carried out to extend the
present work on twin wire with consideration of
1. T. Asthon, Twin arc submerged arc welding.
Welding J ,33(4),350-54(1954)
2. D.E. Knight, Multiple electrode welding by
Unionmelt process, Welding J, 33(4), 303-
12(1954)
3. S.L. Mandel and V.E. Lopta, The high speed
twin SAW Process, Welding Production
February No-2, 25-28(1966)
4. J.E. Hinkel and F.W. Forsthoefl, High
current density SAW with twin electrode,
Welding J 55(3),175-180(1976)
5. P.J. Konkol and G.F. Koons, Optimization
of parameters for Two-Wire AC-AC- SAW,
Welding J, 57(12),367s-74s,(1978)
6. Janez Tuesk, Mathematical modelling of
melting rate in twin-wire welding. J of
Material Processing Technology,100,250-
56(2000)
7. D. Rosenthal, The theory of moving source
of heat and its application to metal
treatments. Transaction of ASME, 849-
63(1941)
 8. J .Goldak, A. Chakravarti and Bibby, A new
finite-element model for welding heat-
sources. Metall Trans B—Process Metall.,
15,299–305(1984)
9. Robert L. Ule, Yogendra Joshi and Eugene
B. Sedy, A new technique for 3-
dimenssional transient heat transfer
computations of autogeneous arc welding,
Metallurgical Transactions, 21B, 1033-
47(1990)

Appendix
df dr cf* bfr brf bff ( bf) brr(br) Computed peak Temperature in RMSE
°C
A B C
1 - - - - - a** 4a 1122 923 619 307.59
2 - - - - - a 3a 1248 908 656 283.01
3 - - - - - a/2 3a 1243 911 655 282.35
4 - - - - - a/2 2a 1254 1002 715 219.25
5 - - - - - a/2 3a/2 1261 1068 758 173.83
6 - - - - - a/2 a 1276 1166 822 106.06
7 - - - - - a/2 3a/4 1272 1219 867 68.52
8 - - - - - a/2 3a/5 1275 1267 908 36.63
9 - - - - - a/4 3a 1239 912 655 282.25
10 - - - - - a/4 2a 1249 1005 716 218.04
11 0.5 0.5 1 p p*** a/2 a/2 1466 1164 852 127.48
12 0.5 0.5 0.9 p p a/4 a/2 1427 1166 851 113.02
13 0.5 0.5 0.8 p p a/4 a/2 1347 1166 851 95.36
14 0.5 0.5 0.7 p p a/4 a/2 1250 1164 840 105.73
15 0.4 0.6 1 p p a/4 a/2 1465 1211 879 105.88
16 0.4 0.6 0.9 p p a/4 a/2 1425 1212 887 86.60
17 0.4 0.6 0.8 p p a/4 a/2 1379 1213 887 69.72
18 0.4 0.6 0.7 p p a/4 a/2 1292 1212 876 65.41
19 0.3 0.7 0.75 p p a/4 a/2 1356 1246 913 42.92
20 0.3 0.7 0.7 p p a/4 a/2 1327 1247 913 36.71
21 0.3 0.7 0.6 p p a/4 a/2 1264 1245 910 49.14
22 0.25 0.75 0.7 p/2 p/2 a/4 a/2 1338 1263 926 28.12
23 0.25 0.75 0.6 p/2 p/2 a/4 a/2 1285 1262 924 32.55
24 0.25 0.75 0.5 p/2 p/2 a/4 a/2 1261 1262 923 42.25
25 0.25 0.75 0.65 p/2 p a/4 a/2 1327 1253 917 32.77
26 0.25 0.75 0.65 p/2 p/2 a/4 a/2 1323 1264 926 25.23
Experimental 1318 1307 932
*** cf = fraction of semi axis along depth direction for trailing arc i.e. cf = 0.5 means half of cr ,**2a= weld
width,***p = distance between wires

77
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Three-dimensional modeling of transient heat transfer and fluid flow during
orbital gas tungsten arc welding of pipes
W. Zhang, C. Conrardy and I. Harris
Edison Welding Institute Inc., Columbus, Ohio, USA
Abstract
The evolution of temperature and velocity fields during orbital
gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding is studied using a transient
thermo-fluid model. The model solves the equations of
conservation of mass, momentum and energy using the Finite
Volume Method (FVM) in an unstructured mesh. The driving
forces for melt convection include the electromagnetic,
gravitational and surface tension gradient forces. An adaptive
meshing technique is used to maximize the resolution of
solution variables while minimizing the computational cost.
The thermo-fluid model is applied to calculate the fusion zone
geometry and thermal cycles during orbital GTA welding of
aluminum 6061 alloy pipes. The calculated weld bead
geometries at different locations along the circumferential
joint were compared with those measured experimentally, and
the model predictions were in fair agreement with the
experimental results. The transient model provides a baseline
for future work in optimizing welding conditions to achieve
uniform root beads on full penetration butt joints, minimize
procedure development cost, and avoid weld defects such as
porosity.
Keyword: weld pool modeling, orbital GTA welding,
aluminum pipe
Introduction
During orbital gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding of pipes, it is
important to obtain uniform bead shape, size and penetration
over the full length of the joint. For pipes of small diameters
and high thermal diffusivities, the bead width becomes wider
as the welding proceeds, if the welding conditions are kept
constant. In traditional applications, multiple welding
schedules using decreasing heat input are empirically
developed to compensate for the increasing preheat. Excessive
experimental costs are typical to achieve satisfactory weld
results.
Since the past two decades, various computational models
have been developed to simulate the orbital GTA welding
process. Kou et al. [1] developed an unsteady heat conduction
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
model to calculate thermal cycles and fusion boundary during
orbital GTA welding of aluminum alloy pipes. In their model,
the heat source is stationary in space and the material is
rotating at a constant angular velocity. Lho et al. [2] studied
the transient heat flow considering a moving heat source.
Mesh with variable spacing was regenerated at each time step
to effectively resolve the high spatial gradients of
temperatures in the vicinity of the heat source. Matsutani et
al. [3] developed a heat conduction model to calculate the
transient temperature distribution and molten pool size. The
computed molten pool boundary was then used in a set of
equations, which were based on the minimization of total
surface energy consisting of surface tension and gravity
potential energies, to determine the shapes of the top and
bottom surfaces of weld pool. Although these heat conduction
models have provide many useful insights into the orbital
GTA welding process, they did not take into account an
important physic phenomenon in the weld pool, i.e., liquid
metal convection, which is dominant in dissipating the heat
energy in the pool and largely determines the pool shape [4,5].
Comprehensive modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer is
required for a more fundamental understanding of the welding
process.
In the present study, a three-dimensional transient heat transfer
and fluid flow model is developed to calculate the liquid
convection in the weld pool, the temperature distribution in
the pipe, and the shape and size of the weld bead. The
numerical model solves the equations of conservation of mass,
momentum and energy using the Finite Volume Method
(FVM) in an unstructured mesh. The electromagnetic force,
gravitational force, and Marangoni shear stress are considered
for driving melt flow in the weld pool. An adaptive meshing
technique generates a box of dense mesh in the vicinity of the
moving welding arc. Such meshing technique maximizes the
resolution of variables while minimizing the computational
cost. The transient model is used to compute the weld bead
size and thermal cycles during orbital GTA welding of
aluminum 6061 alloy pipes. The computed results are verified
with the available experimental data.
79
 Mathematical Formulation
where φ is the electric scalar potential, σ is the electric
r
In the present work, the welding arc is not simulated and the
conductivity assumed to be constant, B is the magnetic field,
interactions between the arc and the test piece material are r
taken into account by using the appropriate boundary μm is the magnetic permeability, and J is the electric current
conditions. The mathematical equations representing the heat density vector which can be obtained using the following
transfer and fluid flow in the weld and their numerical relationship.
solutions are described as follows.
r
Governing equations The basic assumptions of
J = −σ∇φ (6)
the transient thermo-fluid model are the following.
Solving Eqs. (4) to (6), the electric current density vector and
(I) The thermo-physical properties of the material are magnetic field can be obtained. The electromagnetic force is
assumed to be constant. The model is capable of then calculated by the following equation.
easily incorporating temperature dependent thermo-
r r r
physical properties. F = J ×B (7)
(II) An incompressible, laminar and Newtonian molten
metal flow is assumed in the weld pool.
(III) The effect of turbulence is considered using the Boundary conditions As shown in Fig. 1, only a
effective thermal conductivity and viscosity for the half of the pipe is considered since the weld is symmetric
molten metal. about the z = 0 plane. For the molten metal convection, the
(IV) The weld pool surface is assumed to be not boundary conditions at the outer and inner surfaces are the
deformable. following [7].
r r r r
With the above assumptions, the heat transfer and molten μ∇(u ⋅ t ) ⋅ n = γ T ∇T ⋅ t (8a)
r r
metal flow can be described by the following equations. u ⋅n = 0 (8b)
∂ui r
=0 where γT is the temperature coefficient of surface tension, t is
∂xi (1) r
a surface unit tangential vector, and n is the surface unit
∂u j ∂ (ui u j )⎛ ∂u j ⎞∂ normal vector. Eq. (8a) represents the Marangoni shear stress
ρ +ρ ⎜⎜ μ
= ⎟⎟ + F j + S j
∂t ∂xi ∂xi
⎝ ∂xi ⎠
at the surface, and Eq. (8b) indicates that the normal velocity
r
of molten metal is zero. At the end surface, u = 0 .
(2)
∂h ∂ (ui h ) ∂ ⎛ ∂h ⎞
ρ +ρ = ⎜α ⎟ + Sh
∂t ∂xi ∂xi ⎜⎝ ∂xi ⎟⎠ End surface
(3)

Equations (1), (2) and (3) represent the conservation of mass, Travel direction
momentum, and energy, respectively. In these equations, x is
the distance, u is the velocity of molten metal flow, t is the
time, µ is the viscosity, h is the enthalpy, and α is the thermal Welding arc
diffusivity. Details of these equations as well as the
momentum source term (Sj) and the enthalpy source term (Sh)
are available elsewhere in the literature [5] and are therefore
not repeated here. The term Fj in Eq. (2) corresponds to the
electromagnetic force and its calculation is described in the
following section.
y
Calculation of electromagnetic force The
electromagnetic force is obtained by solving the following two Outer surface
steady-state Maxwell equations [6]. z
Symmetric surface
x Inner surface
∂ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
⎜⎜ σ ⎟⎟ = 0
∂xi ⎝ ∂xi ⎠ (4) Figure 1: Schematic plot showing the solution domain used in
r r
∇ × B = μm J the calculations.
(5)

80
For the heat transfer, the boundary condition at the outer
surface is the following.

3IVη ⎛ 3d 2 ⎞ Welding arc

qn = exp⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟
πrb2 ⎝ rb ⎠ (9a)

where qn is the normal heat flux, I is the welding current, V is

the welding voltage, η is the arc efficiency, rb is the arc radius,
and d is the distance to the welding arc. At the inner surface,
the heat loss (qc) due to the convective heat transfer between
the workpiece and surrounding gas is given as:

qc = − hc (T − Ta ) (9b)
(a)
where hc is the heat transfer coefficient, T is the workpiece
surface temperature, and Ta is the ambient gas temperature.
T = Ta
At the end surface, .

For the electrical scalar potential equation, the boundary

condition at the outer surface is:

Welding arc
3I ⎛ 3d 2 ⎞
Jn = exp ⎜⎜ − 2 ⎟⎟ (10)
πrb2 ⎝ rb ⎠

where Jn is the normal electric current density. The inner

surface is assumed to be an insulated surface. Therefore, the
∂φ r = 0 . The
current density flux is equal to zero, i.e.,
∂n
end surface is assumed to be grounded, i.e., φ = 0 . (b)
Adaptive meshing A fine mesh is often
required near the welding arc to adequately capture the
vigorous molten metal convection and high spatial gradient of Figure 2: Adaptive meshing as the welding arc travels.
temperature. Since the welding arc was traveling along the
circumferential direction of the pipe, a very large number of Results and Discussion
cells would have been needed along this direction if no special
meshing technique had been used. In this study, an adaptive In the present work, the experimental data reported by Kou
meshing technique was utilized. As shown in Fig. 2(a), a box and Le [1] is used to validate the transient thermo-fluid model.
of dense mesh was placed near the welding arc. The dense Table 1 summarizes the welding conditions used in the orbital
mesh box followed the motion of the welding arc, as shown in GTA welding experiments conducted by Kou et al. The
Fig. 2(b). Such adaptive meshing technique maximized the thermo-physical property data of the aluminum 6061 alloy and
resolution of solution variables while minimizing the other parameters used in the calculations are summarized in
computational cost. Table 2.

Numerical solution The governing
conservation equations are solved using the commercial
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code, FLUENT ®.
FLUENT discretizes the governing equations using FVM in
an unstructured mesh [8]. User-defined scalar transport
equations are solved to calculate the electromagnetic force.
Electromagnetic force Figure 3(a) plots the
distribution of the magnetic field at the outer surface of the
pipe. Since the electrode was positive, the electric current
flied into the outer surface. As a result, a clockwise magnetic
field was generated. The electromagnetic force at the
symmetric surface is plotted in Fig. 3(b). In the absence of
other driving forces, the electromagnetic force will cause a
downward flow.

81
It should be noted that the electromagnetic force was
calculated by numerically solving the two steady-state Max = 8.5×10-3 Tesla (a)
Maxwell equations. Unlike the widely-used analytical
equation for the calculation of electromagnetic force in the
weld pool [5], the present method has the ability to take into
account a curved weld pool surface.

Welding arc
Table 1: Welding conditions during orbital GTA welding of
aluminum 6061 alloy [1].

Welding condition Value

Power supply DCEP
Welding current, I, (A) 110
Welding voltge, V, (V) 10
Travel speed (rpm) 2.12
Outer diameter of pipe (mm) 38.1 5 mm
Wall thickness of pipe (mm) 3.2
Shielding gas Argon
* DCEP – Direct current electrode positive

Welding arc (b)

Table 2: Physical property of aluminum 6061 and other
parameters used in the calculations.

Property Value
Density, ρ, (kg m-3) 2700
Thermal conductivity of solid (J m-1⋅s-1⋅K-1) 168
Effective thermal conductivity of liquid 420
(J m-1⋅s-1⋅K-1) 2 mm
Specific heat (J kg-1⋅K-1) 1066
Effective viscosity, μ, (kg m-1 s-1) 0.02
Solidus temperature (K) 855
Max = 2.4×105 N m-3
Liquidus temperature (K) 925
Temperature coefficient of surface tension, -3.5×10-4
γT, (N m-1⋅K-1)
Arc efficiency, η 82% Figure 3: Computed distribution of (a) magnetic field, B, at
Arc radius (mm) 3.0 the weld outer surface, and (b) electromagnetic force at the
symmetric surface.
Magnetic permeability, μm, (N A-2) 1.26×10-6
Ambient temperature, Ta, (K) 298 K

Heat transfer and melt convection in weld pool

Figure 4(a) shows the weld pool at a time equal to 0.4 s. At
this moment, the pipe is partially penetrated. Two distinct
flow patters can be observed in Fig. 4(a). At the top surface,
the liquid metal is pulled from center to periphery of the weld
pool by the surface tension. In the middle of the weld pool,
Lorenz force is dominant in driving the liquid flow downward.
Figure 4(b) shows the weld pool at a time equal to 2.2 s when
the pipe is fully penetrated. Flow patters similar to those
shown in Fig. 4(a) are observed in the fully penetrated weld
pool.

Figures 5(a) and 5(b) compare the calculated weld pool

geometry at two instants. As shown in these figures, the
model predictions agree well with the experimental results.

82
 Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)
(a) Time = 0.4 s (a) Time = 0.4 s
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

(b) Time = 2.2 s

(b) Time = 2.2 s
Figure 4: Evolution of the weld pool during orbital GTA
welding of aluminum alloy pipe. The maximum velocity in (a)
is 0.31 m/s while that in (b) is 0.33 m/s.
Figure 5: Comparison between calculated and measured weld
pool shape at two instances. Experimentally measured weld
pool boundaries are represented by dashed lines. The
maximum velocity in (a) is 0.31 m/s while that in (b) is 0.33
m/s.

Thermal cycles Figure 6 shows the calculated

thermal cycles at different locations in the weldment. As
shown in this figure, the temperatures start to increase again
15 s after the weld starts. This is because the heat continues to
build up during welding and the areas yet to be welded are
preheated.
Conclusions
The evolution of temperature and velocity fields during orbital
GTA welding of aluminum 6061 alloy pipe was studied using
a three-dimensional transient thermo-fluid model. The
following conclusions can be made from the investigation.
The geometry of the FZ predicted from the model was in good
agreement with the corresponding experimental results. The
computed thermal cycles indicate that the build-up of the
preheat causes significant rises of temperatures in the
weldment.

The transient model provides a baseline for future work in

optimizing welding conditions to achieve uniform root beads
on full-penetration butt joints, minimize procedure
development cost, and avoid weld defects such as porosity.

83
 1000

900
A D
A
800
Temperature (K)

700 B B

C
600

D
500

400

300
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)

Figure 6: Calculated thermal cycles at different locations

during orbital GTA welding of aluminum alloy pipe.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Drs. Wangen Lin, Robert
Yancey, and Dennis Harwig at Edison Welding Institute, Inc.
for his valuable suggestions.

References
1. S. Kou and Y. Le, Heat flow during the autogenous
GTA welding of pipes, Metall. Trans. A, 15A, 1165-
71 (1984)
2. T. J. Lho and S. J. Na, A study on three-dimensional
transient heat flow in circumferential GTA welding of
pipes using periodicity conditions, Proc. Instn. Mech.
Engrs., 205, 271-8 (1991).
3. T. Matsutani, F. Miyasaka, T. Oji and Y. Hirata,
Mathematical modeling of GTA girth welding of
pipes, Weld. Int., 11, 616-20 (1997).
4. T. DebRoy and S. A. David, Physical processes in
fusion welding, Rev. Mod. Phys., 67, 85-112 (1995).
5. W. Zhang, G. G. Roy, J. W. Elmer and T. DebRoy,
Modeling of heat transfer and fluid flow during gas
tungsten arc spot welding of low carbon steel, J.
Appl. Phys., 93, 3022-33 (2003)
6. R. Moreau, Magnetohydrodynamics, p. 30, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Boston (1990)
7. W. Zhang, C. H. Kim and T. DebRoy, Heat and fluid
flow in complex joints during gas metal arc welding -
Part I: Numerical model of fillet welding, J. Appl.
Phys., 95, 5210-9 (2004)
8. FLUENT, Inc., FLUENT 6.2 User's Guide, Lebanon,
NH (2005)

84
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Reliable Modeling of Heat and Fluid Flow in Gas-Metal-Arc Fillet Welds through
Optimization of Uncertain Variables
A. Kumar and T. DebRoy
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Abstract
Although numerical heat transfer and fluid flow models
have provided significant insight about fusion welding
processes and welded materials in recent years, several model
input parameters cannot be easily prescribed from
fundamental principles. As a result, the model predictions do
not always agree with the experimental results. In order to
address this problem, the approach adapted here is to develop
and test a model that embodies a heat transfer and fluid flow
sub-model and an algorithm for optimizing and learning the
values of uncertain process variables from a limited volume of
experimental data. The heat transfer and fluid flow sub-model
numerically calculates three-dimensional temperature and
velocity fields and the weld geometry during gas metal arc
(GMA) welding of fillet joints. The proposed model could
estimate the unknown values of arc efficiency, effective
thermal conductivity and effective viscosity as a function of
welding conditions based on only a few experimental
measurements. A vorticity-based mixing length hypothesis
was also used to independently calculate the values of the
effective viscosity and effective thermal conductivity. Good
agreement between the experimental and the predicted weld
geometry showed that this approach was useful in improving
reliability of heat transfer and fluid flow calculations.
Keywords
Gas-Metal-Arc fillet welding, Heat transfer and fluid flow,
Reliability, Optimization, Vorticity, Mixing length.
Introduction
In recent years, phenomenological models of fusion
welding have provided important understanding of welding
processes [1-7] and welded materials. Although these models
use time-tested fundamental equations of conservation of
mass, momentum and energy with appropriate boundary
conditions, their predictions are affected by the uncertainty in
the values of various input parameters used in the modeling
[4-7]. For example, the reported values of arc efficiency vary
significantly for apparently similar welding conditions
reflecting the complexity of the GMA welding process.
Furthermore, strong convection currents are present in the
weld pool during GMA welding process. Generally, this
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
strong convection is considered in the phenomenological
models by enhancing the values of thermal conductivity and
viscosity to account for the enhanced heat and mass transfer.
Unlike the molecular values of the thermal conductivity and
viscosity, the enhanced values of these “transport properties”
are not physical properties of the fluid and, as a result, their
values cannot be obtained from the standard compilations of
thermophysical properties. In contemporary transport
phenomena, the enhanced values of transport properties are
calculated using an appropriate turbulence model.
The momentum transport rates in the weld pool owing to
the strong recirculating velocities with fluctuating components
is often taken into account [1-5] by simple ‘zero-equation’ or
algebraic turbulence models. In these calculations, the effects
of turbulence are simulated by arbitrarily enhancing the
molecular values of thermal conductivity and viscosity by 10
to 100 times. The values of the enhanced viscosity and thermal
conductivity are properties of the specific welding system and
cannot be easily assigned from fundamental principles [4-7].
Although the established turbulence models often serve as a
basis for the estimation of enhanced transport properties, the
empirical constants in these models have been determined
using experimental data from large scale parabolic flows. In
contrast, fluid flow in the weld pool is strongly recirculatory
or elliptic in nature and the size of the weld pool is rather
small. Currently there is no unified basis to accurately
prescribe the values of effective thermal conductivity,
effective viscosity and arc efficiency. Values of these
parameters significantly affect the results of numerical heat
transfer and fluid flow calculations.
The present work seeks to enhance the reliability of the
heat and mass transfer calculations in the weld pool by
determining how the uncertain input parameters, i.e., the arc
efficiency, effective thermal conductivity and the effective
viscosity vary with heat input. The values of these parameters
are determined from a limited volume of experimentally
measured weld pool penetration, throat and the leg-length data
using a combination of an optimization algorithm and a
numerical heat transfer and fluid flow model. The
optimization algorithm minimizes the error between the
predicted and the experimentally observed penetration, throat
and the leg-length during the GMA welding process by
considering the sensitivity of these geometric parameters to
85
each of the uncertain parameters. The Levenberg-Marquardt
(LM) [4-7] and two versions of conjugate gradient method
(CG) i.e., Fletcher-Reeves and Polak-Ribiere of non-linear
parameter optimization [4-6] are used to estimate these
uncertain parameters with a well-tested three-dimensional
numerical heat transfer and fluid flow model. The obtained
values of effective thermal conductivity and viscosity are also
validated by calculating their values using a vorticity based
mixing-length turbulence model [8,9].
Mathematical model
Modeling of Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow during Gas
Metal Arc Fillet Welding
The heat transfer and fluid flow model takes into account
the liquid metal convection in the weld pool, the complex fillet
joint geometry, the deformation of the weld pool top surface,
additions of the filler metal, and the heat transfer by metal
droplets. The output from the model includes temperature and
velocity fields, thermal cycles, fusion zone geometry and the
solidified geometry of the weld reinforcement. Since the
numerical model of heat transfer and fluid flow has been
described in the literature [2-5], only its salient features are
described here. By using a coordinate system attached to the
heat source, the welding process can be treated as a steady
state problem [1,2]. For fillet welding, accurate solution of
heat transfer and fluid flow with a deformable weld pool
surface and complex joint geometry requires the use of non-
orthogonal deformable curvilinear grid system [1, 2].
Therefore, the governing equations are transformed from the
Cartesian to curvilinear coordinate system [1-3]. The
transformed governing equations are discretized using the
control volume method, where the computational domain is
divided into many small rectangular control volumes.
Discretized equations for a variable are formulated by
integrating the corresponding governing equation over the
control volumes in the computational domain. A power-law
based scheme is used to describe the convective flux at the
control volume faces [10]. A modified Semi-Implicit
Algorithm for Pressure Linked Equations (SIMPLE) is used to
solve the discretized equations. In the present work, the
droplet heat transfer in the spray mode is effectively simulated
by incorporating a time-averaged volumetric heat source term
(Sv) in the energy conservation equation [11, 12].
Optimization of Uncertain Variables
The goal of the optimization problem is to determine
how the uncertain parameters, e.g., arc efficiency, effective
thermal conductivity and effective viscosity vary with heat
input per unit length. For simplicity we assume the following
linear relations between these variables and heat input.
η = f1 + f 2 ⋅ Pe*
k e = f3 ⋅ k L + f 4 ⋅ k L ⋅ Pi*
μe = f5 ⋅μL + f6 ⋅μL ⋅ Pi*
IV /(πrw2 w f ) IV /(πrb2 U w )
Pe* = and Pi* =
[ρc p (TL − Ta ) + ρL] [ρc p (TL − Ta ) + ρL]
where η is the arc efficiency, ke is the effective thermal
conductivity, kL is the conductivity of the liquid material, μe is
the effective viscosity, μL is the viscosity of the liquid
material, I is the current, V is voltage, rw is wire radius, wf is
the wire feeding rate, ρ is the density, cp is the specific heat,
TL is the liquidus temperature, Ta is the ambient temperature,
L is the latent heat of the alloy, rb is the arc radius, Uw is the
welding speed, and f1, f2, f3, f4, f5 and f6 are constants. In the
literature, it has been shown that arc efficiency varies linearly
with heat input per unit length [11] but the slope of this
variation depends on the welding conditions and the technique
[11]. Recent work on butt welding showed that effective
thermal conductivity and effective viscosity is also a linear
function of heat input per unit length [7]. Also, due to narrow
range of experimental data used in the present work, it is
justifiable to use the linear variation of the arc efficiency,
effective thermal conductivity and effective viscosity with
input power.
In order to calculate the values of arc efficiency,
effective thermal conductivity and effective viscosity, we
require values of constants i.e. f1, f2, f3, f4, f5 and f6 in
equations (1) to (3). To find the values of these terms, an
objective function is minimized that depicts the difference
between the computed and measured values of the weld
dimensions. For example, if the penetration, throat and the
leg-length of the fusion zone are of interest, an objective
function, O(f), can be defined as follows:
(m ) (m ) (m )
M 2 M 2 M 2
O (f ) = ∑ pe − pc + ∑ te − tc + ∑ le − lc (5)
m m m
m =1 m =1 m =1
where pcm , t cm and lcm are the computed penetration, actual
throat and the leg length of the weld bead, respectively and
pem , t em and lem are the corresponding experimentally
determined values of these three variables. The subscript m in
equation (5) corresponds to a specific weld in a series of M
number of total welds. In equation (5), f refers to a set of six
uncertain non-dimensional parameters, f1, f2, f3, f4, f5 and f6
that are constants in the assumed linear functions of
efficiency, η, effective thermal conductivity, ke, and effective
viscosity, μe, expressed by equations (1) to (3). For the
estimation of these uncertain variables, Levenberg-Marquardt
(LM) method and two modifications of the conjugate gradient
method suggested by Fletcher-Reeves and Polak-Ribiere are
used in the present study. The mathematical descriptions of
these techniques are available in literature [4, 6].
Results and discussion
The evolution of weld pool involves complex interaction
of physical processes such as application of welding arc, metal
(1) droplet transfer, heat transfer through conduction and
convection, free surface deformation and the fluid flow inside
(2) the weld pool. To simulate these simultaneous processes
(3) correctly in the numerical heat transfer and fluid flow analysis,
the accurate values of arc efficiency (η), effective thermal
conductivity (ke) and effective viscosity (μe) are needed. The
(4)
following section shows how the values of arc efficiency,
86
effective thermal conductivity and effective viscosity are 6
calculated.

Objective Function (x10 m )

2
LM
CG (Fletcher-Reeves)

-5
Table 1: Welding conditions used in the experiments. CG (Polak-Ribiere)
4
Wire
Travel
CTWD feeding Voltage
No. speed current
(mm) rate (V)
(mm/s) (A) 2
(mm/s)
1 22.2 169.3 4.2 31 312.0
2 22.2 211.7 6.4 31 362.0
3 22.2 169.3 6.4 33 312.0 0
0 5 10 15 20
4 22.2 211.7 4.2 33 362.0 Iteration Number
5 28.6 169.3 6.4 31 286.8
Figure 1: Computed values of the objective function, O(f),
6 28.6 169.3 4.2 33 286.8 using LM method and the two versions of CG method as a
7 28.6 211.7 4.2 31 331.4 function of iteration number.
8 28.6 211.7 6.4 33 331.4
1.0 1.5

Non-dimensional Weld Geometry

9 25.4 190.5 5.3 29.6 322.6 Arc efficiency

10 25.4 190.5 5.3 34.4 322.6

Leg-length
Actual throat
(a)
Penetration 1.3

Arc Efficiency
11 25.4 190.5 7.8 32.0 322.6 0.8
12 25.4 240.8 5.3 32.0 375.6
1.1

Optimized values of effective thermal conductivity, 0.6

viscosity and arc efficiency 0.9
Figure 1 depicts the variation in the objective function
(i.e. O(f)) with number of iterations. The objective function
decays rapidly in the first 4 iterations in the Levenberg- 0.4 0.7
4 9 14
Marquardt (LM) method and both versions of the conjugate Iteration Number
6
gradient (CG) method. After that, the objective function
becomes almost constant for several iterations and then starts (b)
fluctuating. Figure 1 shows that the Fletcher and Reeves’s CG 5
Enhancement Factor

method gives somewhat better convergence of the objective

function compared to the other two methods. In the Fletcher 4
and Reeves’s CG method, the minimum value of the objective
function obtained is 0.22 after 13 iterations while LM and
Polak-Ribiere’s CG method produced the value as 0.27 and 3
0.26 in 13 and 14 iterations, respectively. Therefore, the final Conductivity
optimized values of arc efficiency, effective thermal 2 Viscosity
conductivity and effective viscosity are calculated using
Fletcher and Reeves’s CG method. 1
Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show the variation in the values of 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Iteration Number
non-dimensional weld dimensions, arc efficiency,
k Figure 2: Optimized values of (a) arc efficiency and non-
enhancement factor for thermal conductivity, f k = 1 + T ,
e
kL dimensional weld dimensions (b) enhancement factor of
μT thermal conductivity and viscosity by using Fletcher-Reeves
and viscosity, fμe = 1 + with iterations for case #2 in Table CG method for case #2 of Table 1.
μL
1. Figure 2(a) shows that non-dimensional weld geometry Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show that enhancement factor for
parameters are initially very large due to the large value of the thermal conductivity and viscosity increases as the calculation
assumed arc efficiency. However, as the calculation progresses and the computed weld pool dimensions tend to
progresses, the weld dimensions decrease and tend to attain agree progressively better with the corresponding
the target value of one. The decreasing trend of the values of experimental values. The optimal value of these unknown
the weld dimensions is somewhat similar to that of arc parameters can be expressed as:
efficiency. These trends are consistent with the fact that arc
efficiency has a major impact on weld pool dimensions.

87
 IV between the two variables is governed by the turbulent Prandtl
η = 0.31 + 4.65 × 10−6 (6) number (Pr) which is defined as:
wf
μ c
IV Pr = T P (9)
k e = 41.80 + 3.17 × 10−5 (W/m-K) (7) kT
Uw
where μe = μ L + μT , k e = k L + k T , μT and kT are the turbulent
−8IV
μe = 0.016 + 1.05 × 10 (kg/m-s) (8) viscosity and turbulent conductivity to account for the
Uw fluctuating fluid movement and resulting enhanced transport
where I is the current (A), V is voltage (V), wf is the wire of heat and mass within the weld pool. The optimized values
feeding speed (m/s) and Uw is the welding speed (m/s). The of μT and kT obtained from Fletcher and Reeves CG method
values of η, ke and μe calculated from equations (6), (7) and results in Prandtl numbers between 0.2 to 0.3. These values of
(8) can be used for the experimental conditions given in Table the Prandtl number lie between laminar and fully turbulent
1 for the GMA welding in spray mode. Equations (7) and (8) flow which suggests that the flow in GMA fillet weld is
also show that the effective value of thermal conductivity and neither laminar nor fully turbulent in traditional sense for the
viscosity is higher than the corresponding molocular values welding conditions given in Table 1. The structure of the flow
even at low heat input per unit length. It is due to high velocity in the weld pool is consistent with the need for enhanced
droplets impact on the weld pool surface which leads to values of transport properties for the heat transfer and fluid
turbulence in the weld pool during GMA fillet welding in flow calculations.
spray mode.
Table 2 show that the arc efficiency increases slightly as Table 2: Optimized values of arc efficiency, η, effective
the input power increases and as the wire feeding rate thermal conductivity, ke, and effective viscosity, μe, obtained
decreases (case #3 and case #8 of Table 1). Approximately, 8 using Fletcher and Reeves CG method for the first eight welds
% increase in the value of arc efficiency is observed with listed Table 1.
decrease in the value of wire feed rate from 211.7 mm/s to
169.3 mm/s for almost same heat input/length (case #3 and No. Heat input/ length η ke μe Pr
case #8 of Table 2). This behavior is consistent with the fact
(KJ/m) (J/m-s-K) (kg/m-s)
that with decrease in wire feed rate, less power is consumed in
melting the wire and more heat is available for the workpiece 1 2302.8 0.58 112.9 0.04 0.29
for the same heat input rate. Table 2 also shows that there can
be 50% variation in the value of the effective thermal 2 1753.4 0.56 96.1 0.03 0.24
conductivity depending on heat input rate. Equations (7) and 3 1608.7 0.59 92.0 0.03 0.23
(8) show that effective thermal conductivity and effective
viscosity increase with increase in the heat input per unit 4 2844.3 0.57 133.8 0.04 0.24
length. The increase in heat input rate enhances mixing in the 5 1389.2 0.55 87. 8 0.03 0.28
weld pool and increases the effective thermal conductivity and
viscosity. The optimized values indicate enhancement factors 6 2253.4 0.57 112.9 0.04 0.29
for thermal conductivity and viscosity to be in the range of 5 7 2446.0 0.54 121.2 0.04 0.26
to 9. This behavior is consistent with the presence of turbulent
flow in the weld pool during GMA welding as reported in the 8 1708. 8 0.55 96.1 0.03 0.24
literature [2, 4,13-16]. Hong and Weckman [13, 14] suggested
an enhancement factor between 12 and 15 for thermal Calculation of effective viscosity and thermal conductivity
conductivity and a factor more than 6 for the viscosity for using mixing-length hypothesis
GTA welding using 150 A current and 25 V based on peak A vorticity based mixing length turbulence model has
temperature analysis in the weld pool and k-ε turbulence been used for the calculation of effective viscosity and
model calculations. Choo and Szekely [16] suggested an effective thermal conductivity. In this model, the
enhancement factor of 8 for thermal conductivity and a factor computational effort is significantly less compared to the k-ε
of 30 for the viscosity at a current of 100 A by matching the turbulence model, since it is algebraic in nature and does not
calculated weld pool geometry with the experimentally require solution of any additional partial differential equations.
determined geometry. They also verified the weld pool shape Hong et al. [15] implemented a vorticity based turbulence
and values of enhancement factors using the k-ε turbulence model in their thermo-fluid calculation in the weld pool using
model. The values available in the literature [3, 7, 13-16] are a constant value of Prandtl mixing length that was calculated
specific to the welding procedure and the specific welding by taking the ratio of the weld pool volume to its interfacial
conditions. Because of the scarcity of data, the available area. The constant mixing length model cannot be applied to
literature cannot be used as a basis for the selection of finger-type penetration characteristic of the GMA fillet
enhanced transport parameters for any specific welding welding process where the flow is constrained by the weld
conditions. boundary which varies with the location. Therefore, mixing
The computed values of ke and μe for various heat inputs length was calculated in the present work using Van Driest
indicate that the rates of transport of momentum and heat are model [8, 9] which can accommodate local variation of
considerably higher than that for laminar flow. The relation mixing length in a weld pool of irregular geometry containing

88
finger penetration. According to this model, mixing length at 4
distance y from the weld pool boundary is given by: (a)
+
/ Ao+
lmix = κy[1 − e− y

Penetration (mm)
] (10) 3
The values of the constants used in equation (10) are 0.41 and
26.0, respectively [8, 9], whereas the non-dimensional
distance, y+, from the weld pool boundary is calculated as 2 wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
follows [9]: 33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
ρ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ 1 31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
y+ = y ⎜ ⎟ (11) 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
μ ⎝ ∂y ⎠ w 33V, 4.2mm/s,
33V, 6.4mm/s,
211.7mm/s
211.7mm/s
0
⎛ ∂u ⎞ 275 300 325 350
The term ⎜ ⎟ in equation (11) represents the velocity Arc current (Amp)
⎝ ∂y ⎠ w 14
gradient at the weld pool boundary. For the three-dimensional (b)
flow in the weld pool, the turbulent viscosity is calculated 12
using Badwin-Lomax model [8, 9] as follows:

Throat (mm)
μT = ρl2mix ω (12) 10

where, ω is the magnitude of the vorticity vector given by: wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww

31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
8
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
1/ 2
⎡⎛ ∂v ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂w ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂w ⎞2 ⎤ 2 2 33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s

ω = ⎢⎜ − ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
− ⎟ +⎜ − (13) 6 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
⎢⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎥ 33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
⎣ ⎦ 33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
4
275 300 325 350
Viscosity (Vorticity) (a) Arc current (Amp)
Enhancement Factor

17 Viscosity (Proposed)
14 (c)
13
Leg-length (mm)

12

9 10

31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
8 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
5 33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
6 31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
1 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
1.5 2 2.5 3 4
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
Heat Input (KJ/ mm) 33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s

275 300 325 350

Arc current (Amp)
Conductivity (Vorticity)
Conductivity (Proposed)
(b)
Enhancement Factor

17 Figure 4: Weld bead geometric parameters as a function of

welding current: (a) penetration, (b) actual throat, and (c)
13 leg-length obtained using the optimized values of arc
efficiency, effective thermal conductivity and effective
viscosity. The open symbols represent the experimental results
9 while the filled symbols indicate the corresponding calculated
result. The standard deviations of the experimental data are
5 shown by error bars. The values indicated in the legends
represent the arc voltage, welding speed and wire feed rate,
respectively.
1
1.5 2 2.5 3
Heat Input (KJ/ mm) The calculated average enhancement factor of viscosity
by using equation (12) for welding conditions listed in Table 1
Figure 3: Computed values of enhancement factor for (a) is shown in fig. 3(a). This shows a reasonably good agreement
viscosity, and (b) thermal conductivity using estimated values between the values of enhancement factor in viscosity by
of unknown parameters by using proposed model and vorticity using vorticity based mixing length turbulence model and the
based turbulence model for different welding conditions listed proposed equation (8). Using the value of effective viscosity
in Table 1. and Pr, the enhancement factor for thermal conductivity was

89
calculated. Figure 3 shows the calculated enhancement factors
for thermal conductivity and viscosity as a function of heat
input by using vorticity based turbulence model and the
proposed equations (7) and (8). The calculated enhancement
factors for thermal conductivity and viscosity by using
vorticity based turbulence also increase with increase in the
heat input per unit length as obtained by equations (7) and (8).
The reasons for slightly lower values of the average
enhancement factors for thermal conductivity and viscosity by
the vorticity based turbulence model compared to equations
(7) and (8) are not known. However, the fact that the values
+
of constants κ and A o in equation (10) were obtained from
experiments in parabolic flows may be a contributing factor.
Figures 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) depict comparison between
the computed and the experimentally obtained weld pool
dimensions using the optimized values of arc efficiency,
effective thermal conductivity and effective viscosity obtained
from equations (6) to (8) for the welding conditions listed in
Table 1. These figures show satisfactory agreement between
the computed and the experimentally obtained weld geometry
for various welding conditions. The reliability of numerical
heat transfer and fluid flow calculations can be significantly
enhanced by using the optimized values of uncertain welding
parameters from a limited volume of measured weld
dimensions.
Summary and conclusions
To improve the reliability of numerical heat transfer and
fluid flow calculations, a comprehensive model has been
developed and tested which embodies a heat transfer and fluid
flow sub-model and an algorithm for searching and optimizing
the values of uncertain process variables from a limited
volume of experimental data. This model was able to estimate
the unknown values of arc efficiency, effective thermal
conductivity and effective viscosity based on only a few
experimental measurements. The optimized values of arc
efficiency, effective thermal conductivity and effective
viscosity were found to depend on the welding conditions. The
enhancement factors for thermal conductivity and viscosity
were in the range of 5 to 9 for the welding conditions used in
this study. The average values of the enhancement factors for
thermal conductivity and viscosity using vorticity based
mixing length turbulence model agreed well with the values
predicted by the proposed model. The reliability of the
numerical heat transfer and fluid flow calculations in the weld
pool can be significantly improved by including a suitable
optimization model to determine the uncertain welding
parameters from a limited volume of experimental data on
weld dimensions.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences,
Division of Materials Sciences, under grant number DE-
FGO2-01ER45900. Mr. Amit Kumar gratefully acknowledges
award of a Fellowship from the American Welding Society.
90
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Transport Phenomena and Genetic Algorithm based Window of Welding
Variables to Achieve a Target Gas Metal Arc Fillet Weld Geometry
A. Kumar and T. DebRoy
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Abstract
Current transport phenomena based welding models are
designed to calculate temperature and velocity fields and other
weld attributes such as the weld geometry. However, in many
instances, the desired attribute such as the geometry is known
and the correct set of welding parameters need to be
determined. The mismatch between the practical need and the
capability of the current models has restricted the use of these
powerful models. This paper shows that by combining a
numerical thermo-fluid model with an appropriate genetic
algorithm based optimization scheme, many possible sets of
welding variables that are capable of producing a given weld
geometry can be determined. A three-dimensional numerical
heat transfer and fluid flow model for the gas metal arc
(GMA) welding of fillet joints is combined with a genetic
algorithm (GA) based optimization scheme to obtain a
window of welding variables. To reduce the computation time,
the model is parallelized to run on multiple processors
simultaneously. The approach outlined in this paper
completely restructures numerical heat transfer and fluid flow
calculations and empowers users to determine a window of
input variables consisting of several sets of welding variables
all of which would lead to a target weld geometry.
Introduction
The welding related expenditure in the U.S. in the year
2000 was approximately $34 billion, equivalent to about $325
per household [1]. The large economic impact of welding
originates from its extensive use in industries that support the
nation’s defense, infrastructure, and standard of living.
Systematic tailoring of weld attributes can potentially save life
and property by preventing catastrophic failures of large
welded structures. Since there are a large number of process
variables in welding, the desired weld attributes such as the
weld geometry and structure are commonly produced by
empirically adjusting the welding variables. However, this
approach does not always produce optimum welds and
inappropriate choice of variables can lead to poor welds.
Systematic tailoring of weld attributes based on scientific
principles still remains an important milestone in changing
welding from an empirical art to a mainstream science-based
technology. The ability to determine multiple welding variable
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
sets to achieve a target weld geometry, based on scientific
principles, would be an important step to achieve this goal.
What is needed, and not currently available, is the capability
to systematically determine multiple paths to tailor weld
geometry and assess robustness of each individual solution to
achieve safe welds. Here we show that a genetic algorithm
assisted numerical model of heat transfer and fluid flow in
fusion welding can systematically determine multiple paths for
tailoring weld attributes and help in the production of reliable
welds.
The welding variables can be linked with the weldment
attributes by means of statistical regression analysis [2, 3],
artificial neural network [3, 4] or phenomenological modeling
[5-10]. The use of regression and neural network based
models require large volume of experiments that are time
consuming and expensive [8, 9]. The phenomenological
models simulate the essential physical processes in welding
through the equations of conservation of mass, momentum and
energy. These models are unidirectional in nature because
they are designed to function with known welding variables as
input [8, 9]. The outputs from these models include
temperature and velocity fields, thermal cycles, and the weld
shape and size. The available phenomenological models
cannot currently predict multiple combinations of welding
variables that can result in a target weld attribute.
There are three main attributes of a model that are required for
systematic tailoring of a weld attribute such as weld geometry.
First, the procedure should embody an adequate
phenomenological description of the complex physical
processes in welding. Second, the model must have bi-
directional capability. In other words, in addition to the
capability of the traditional forward (unidirectional) models to
compute the weld shape and size from a given set of welding
variables, it should also be capable of reverse modeling, i.e., it
should be able to systematically search and optimize the
variables needed to produce the desired weld geometry.
Finally, the methodology must be able to determine a
population of solutions, i.e., various welding variable sets to
attain a target weld attribute. The gas-metal-arc (GMA) fillet
welding process involves nonlinearities and complex
interactions among various welding variables [5-10]. As a
result, a given weld attribute such as the fusion zone geometry
is attainable using multiple combinations of welding variables.
Since multiple paths can lead to a target weld geometry, the
91
classical gradient-based search and optimization methods that
produce a single optimum solution cannot be used.
Furthermore, most of the classical optimization algorithms are
designed to solve a specific type of problems. For example,
the conjugate directions or conjugate gradient methods have
better convergence for solving quadratic objective functions
having one optimal solution. The Frank-Wolfe’s successive
linear programming method works efficiently on linear
functions and constraints. Its performance largely depends on
the chosen initial conditions for solving non-linear problems.
Thus, many of the classical methods of optimization are
suitable for finding a single value of a parameter as these
methods use a point-by-point approach [11-15], where one
relatively imperfect solution in each iteration is modified to a
different more appropriate solution. Therefore, a combination
of one of these classical optimization methods with a
phenomenological heat and fluid flow model can provide only
a single local optimum solution where multiple solutions exist.
In contrast, genetic algorithms (GA) mimic nature’s
evolutionary principles to derive its search towards a
population of optimal solutions [11-15]. In the context of
welding, GA can systematically search for multiple
combinations of welding variable sets that comply with the
phenomenological laws of welding physics and improve with
iterations following certain rules of evolution. Therefore, the
GA, when combined with a transport phenomena based
model, has the potential to produce multiple sets of welding
variables that can result in a particular weld attribute. We
show here that multiple sets of welding variables that are
capable of producing a target weld geometry can be calculated
by combining a numerical heat transfer and fluid flow model
for GMA fillet welding with an appropriate GA.
Mathematical model
The main computational engine used here is a well-
tested heat transfer and fluid flow model [5-10] that solves the
equations of conservation of mass, momentum and energy in
three dimensions. This forward model takes into account the
complex fillet joint shape, the deformation of the weld pool
top surface, heat transfer by the hot metal droplets and the
addition of the filler metal from the consumable electrode. The
convection in the weld pool is driven mainly by the spatial
gradient of interfacial tension and the electromagnetic force
field and to a much lesser extent by the buoyancy force. The
complex joint shape and the severely deformed weld pool
surface in fillet welding require the use of deformable
curvilinear grid system for accurate calculation of heat transfer
and fluid flow. Therefore, the governing equations are
transformed from the Cartesian to curvilinear coordinate
system [5,6]. The transformed governing equations are
discretized using the control volume method [16]. The
discretized equations for enthalpy, three components of
velocity and pressure are formulated by integrating the
corresponding governing equation over all the interior control
volumes in the computational domain. The equations,
typically several hundreds of thousands of them, are then
solved simultaneously at every iteration by a Gaussian
elimination technique known as the tri-diagonal matrix
92
algorithm [16]. The three dimensional temperature field in the
GMA weld, computed from the model, is used to calculate the
weld dimensions, i.e., penetration, throat and leg-length. An
effective search for multiple welding variable sets to attain a
given geometry requires many runs of the heat transfer and
fluid flow model. Only because of the recent advances in
computational hardware and software can such a
computationally intensive task for tailoring weld attributes be
undertaken. More details of the numerical model of heat
transfer and fluid flow of gas metal arc fillet welding are
available in the literature [6, 9].
The genetic algorithm based search for multiple sets of
welding variables to achieve a target weld geometry starts
with many initial sets of randomly chosen values of the four
most important welding variables, i.e., current, voltage,
welding speed and the wire feed rate. A systematic global
search is next undertaken to find multiple sets of values of
these four welding variables that lead to least error between
the calculated and the target weld dimensions, i.e., penetration,
throat and the leg-length. The phenomenological model of
heat transfer and fluid flow calculates the values of these weld
dimensions for each set of input welding variables. The
chosen values of welding variables do not always produce the
desired weld dimensions and the resulting mismatch between
the computed and the desired weld dimensions is expressed by
the following objective function, O(f):
⎛ pc ⎞
2
⎛ tc ⎞
2
⎛ lc ⎞
2
O (f ) = ⎜ − 1⎟ + ⎜ − 1⎟ + ⎜ − 1⎟ (1)
⎜ pt ⎟ ⎜ tt ⎟ ⎜ lt ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
c c c
where p , t and l are the computed penetration, throat and
the leg-length of the weld bead, respectively and p t , t t and
l t are the corresponding target or desired values of these three
parameters. The objective function, O(f), depends on four
main welding variables, i.e., current, I, voltage, V, welding
speed, U, and the wire feed rate, wf.
⎛ I V U wf ⎞
O(f) = O ( f1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 ) = O ⎜ , , , ⎟ (2)
⎝ I r Vr U r (w f ) r ⎠
In Eq. 2, the reference values, Ir, Vr, Ur and (wf)r
represent the order of magnitude of the welding variables.
Note that Eq. 2 is made non-dimensional to preserve the
importance of all four welding variables by making their non-
dimensional values comparable in magnitude. The GA
produces new individuals, or sets of welding conditions, with
iterations based on the evolutionary principles as explained in
the literature [14, 15].
The genetic algorithm used in the present study is a
parent centric recombination (PCX) operator based
generalized generation gap (G3) model [12, 14, 15]. To reduce
the computation time, the model is parallelized to run on
multiple processors simultaneously. The multiple island (or
deme) based parallelized GA model [12, 17] is used to achieve
rapid search for the multiple sets of welding variables by
dividing the search space into multiple islands. Rapid
convergence is achieved when each island is assigned to a
separate processor because the size of each island is smaller
than the total population. After each iteration, a few solutions,
selected based on their fitness or objective function value, are
allowed to migrate to other islands [17]. The migration of the 4
best individuals to replace the worst individuals in the (a)
neighboring processors (islands) enhances the speed of

Penetration (mm)
convergence [17]. Figure 1 illustrates the working of the 3
model to find the window of welding parameters to achieve a
target weld geometry.
2 wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
1 31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
0
275 300 325 350
Arc current (Amp)

14
(b)
12

Throat (mm)
10

wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
8 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
6 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
4
275 300 325 350
Arc current (Amp)
Figure 1: Flow chart of the parallelized generalized
generation gap (G3) model
14 (c)
Results and discussion
Leg-length (mm)

12
A reliable forward model provides a useful link between
10
the welding variables and the weld attributes. This link reveals
significant insight not just about the effect of welding 31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
variables but the very strategy of tailoring weld attributes 8 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
based on scientific principles. For example, fig. 2 indicates the 33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
computed values of penetration, throat and leg-length for 6 31V, 4.2mm/s, 169.3mm/s
various welding conditions. These results demonstrate two 31V, 6.4mm/s, 169.3mm/s
33V, 4.2mm/s, 211.7mm/s
special features. First, a comparison of the computed and the 4 33V, 6.4mm/s, 211.7mm/s
experimental weld dimensions indicate that the forward model 275 300 325 350
provides both the expected trends and the correct values for Arc current (Amp)
various combinations of welding variables I, V, U and wf.
The agreement provides confidence about the adequacy of Figure 2: Weld bead geometric parameters as a function of
quantitative representation of the essential physical processes welding current: (a) penetration, (b) throat, and (c) leg-
in the phenomenological model and demonstrates its promise length. The open symbols represent the experimental results
to serve as the main computational engine in the overall goal while the filled symbols indicate the corresponding calculated
of systematic tailoring of weld attributes. Second, and more result. The standard deviations of the experimental data are
interesting, the results show that a given weld dimension can shown by error bars. The values indicated in the legends
be obtained using various sets of welding variable values. represent the arc voltage, welding speed and wire feed rate,
Since GA can provide a population of solutions, the heat respectively.
transfer and fluid flow model must be combined with an Let us consider an example to illustrate how the overall
appropriate GA to tailor weld attributes from scientific model to tailor weld geometry from scientific principles
principles. works. The task involves three steps. First, a target weld

93
geometry is selected by specifying one set of values of
penetration, throat and leg-length. Second, the model is run to
obtain multiple combinations of welding variable sets to
achieve this target geometry. Third and final, the results
obtained from the model are adequately verified. Let us now
examine these three steps in detail.
The first step, i.e., the specification of the target
geometry, in principle, involves stating any plausible
combinations of the three weld dimensions, i.e., penetration,
throat and leg-length. However, it is useful to specify the
weld dimensions from an actual welding experiment as a
target geometry. Such a choice provides a useful advantage
because one of the solutions, i.e., the welding variable set used
to produce this target geometry is known. If the model works
correctly, the solutions obtained from the model must include
a set of welding variables that are fairly close to a set used in
the experiment. It should be noted that the ability of the
processors with I and V plotted as their product for
accommodating all variables in three dimensional space.
Values of the variables I, V, U and wf were chosen in different
ranges on the processors to maintain the diversity and explore
the solution space. To analyze the effect of island model on
the solution, two different schemes were used for initializing
the initial population on each processor. In the first scheme,
only the values of U were chosen in different range on
different processors while I, U and wf were selected randomly
between 250.0 to 400.0 A, 25.0 to 40.0 V and 100.0 to 250.0
mm/s, respectively (fig. 3(a)). In the other scheme (fig. 3(b)),
the diagonal of the solution hyperspace was divided into parts
depending on the number of processors to select the values of
the variables randomly.
1.6
(a) Processor 1
Processor 2
1.4

Objective function
model to produce this solution is only a necessary, but not Processor 3
sufficient, component of the model verification. Since the 1.2
model produces multiple solutions, other solutions obtained 1
from the model also need to be verified.
0.8
(a) 0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Welding velocity (mm/s)
0.6 Processor 1
(b) Processor 2
Processor 3
Objective function

(b) 0.4

0.2

0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Welding velocity (mm/s)

Figure 4: The value of the objective function corresponding to

welding speed variable of all the individuals in the initial
Figure 3: Initial values of individual welding variable sets (a)
population generated using (a) scheme 1 and (b) scheme 2.
Scheme 1-The initial ranges for these variables are as follows:
I (250.0 to 400.0 A), V (25.0 to 40.0 V), wf (100.0 to 250.0
Figures 4(a) and (b) show the initial values of the
mm/s) while U is in the range of 2.25 to 4.5 cm/s, 4.25 to 6.5
objective function for various values of welding speed on all
cm/s and 5.5 to 8.0 cm/ s, respectively on the three processors.
three processors for both the schemes. An individual with a
(b) Scheme 2-The initial ranges for these variables are defined
low objective function indicates correct values of current,
along the diagonal of the search space.
voltage, welding speed, and wire feed rate that result in low
error between the computed and the target weld geometry.
The second step, i.e., the operation of the model to
For example, fig. 4 shows the computed values of the
tailor weld geometry starts with specifying a large population
objective functions for all the individuals depicted in fig. 3.
of potential solutions. Each individual in the population
The values of objective function of the randomly created
represents a set of randomly chosen values of welding
individuals is lower for scheme 2 than that of scheme 1. It
variables. Figure 3 depicts the initialization of individuals, i.e.,
shows that solution may exist in the region of hyperspace
sets of values of I, V, U and wf of each population on different

94
diagonal where the individuals in scheme 2 are selected. (a)
Figure 4 also shows that for many sets of welding variables,
the values of the objective function, O(f), are fairly low
indicating that each of these welding variable sets can produce
a weld geometry that is close to the target geometry.
To prevent premature loss of useful solutions, different
values of GA parameters (i.e. the random seed to initialize the
population) were set on each processors so that some
populations converge slower than the others. This procedure
maintains the diversity for longer duration in the population.
These welding variable sets are then improved iteratively
using a combination of GA and the forward phenomenological (b)
model as shown in fig. 1. The progress of the iterations is
monitored by calculating the objective function values for
each set of welding variables (individuals) after each iteration.
Figure 5 shows that with increase in the number of iterations,
the objective function decays rapidly for the best individuals
whereas the average value of the objective function of the
whole population decreases at a relatively slower pace for both
the schemes. It is because the GA tries to explore the solution
space which can produce sets of welding parameters that may
have higher O(f). The diversity of population decreases with
the increase in the number of iterations and the solution starts
crowding in some specific regions providing the window of Figure 6: The plots show the welding variable sets that
welding parameters. produced low values of the objective function, O(f) with
iterations. (a) individuals after five iterations with O(f) less
O(f) evaluations than 8.0×10-3, and (b) individuals after ten iterations with O(f)
0.3
100 150 200 less than 4.0×10-3.
Scheme 1 (Processor 1)
Scheme 1 (Processor 2) The third and the last step involves verification of the
Scheme 1 (Processor 3)
Scheme 2 (Processor 1) computed solutions. Since the target weld geometry was
Average O(f)

Scheme 2 (Processor 2) produced by an experiment, a preliminary test is to check if

0.2 Scheme 2 (Processor 3)
0.1
0
20 40 60 80
Generation
Fig. 5: Variation of average objective function of all the
individuals in the population with number of generations.
Figures 6(a) and (b) indicate several clusters of
welding variable combinations that have objective function
values lower than 0.008 and 0.004, corresponding to the 5th
generation and 10th generation of individuals using scheme 2.
What is of special interest in fig. 6 is that sets of welding
variables are distributed throughout the welding variable space
signifying the existence of multiple paths to attain the target
geometry. Improved solutions are obtained with iterations (or
generations) as observed from the reduction of the values of
the objective function of the best individuals. When the values
of the objective functions are low and they do not decrease
further with iterations, the computed welding variable sets
constitute the final solutions and these are presented in Table
1.
the population of solutions produced by the model include an
individual set of welding variables that is very close to, if not
the same as, that used to produce the weld. These
experimental welding variables are presented in Table 1
together with the computed optimum welding variable sets.
The table shows that the computed values of current, voltage,
welding speed and the wire feed rate in the individual solution
(b) in the table all lie within less than 1% of the corresponding
experimental welding variables. However, the model also
predicted other individual solutions (a) through (f) listed in the
table. The accuracy of these individual solutions was
examined by calculating weld geometry for each welding
variable sets (a) and (c) through (f) in Table 1 and comparing
the computed weld dimensions with the target weld geometry.
The values of the four welding variables listed in the table
differ from each other considerably. For example, the voltage,
current, welding speed and wire feed rate values vary between
solutions by 38%, 12%, 47% and 50%, respectively. In
solutions (a) and (f), the powers required to achieve the target
geometry were 9.7 and 14.2 kW, respectively. Furthermore,
other welding parameters such as the welding speed and the
wire feed rate were also significantly different in the two
solutions. All these differences in the important welding
variables indicate significant diversity in the paths, all of
which lead to the same set of target weld dimensions.

95
Table 1: Optimized window of welding parameters, i.e., arc 3. I. S. Kim, S. H. Lee, P. K. D. V. Yarlagadda, Comparison
current (I), arc voltage (V), welding speed (U) and wire feed of multiple regression and back propagation neural
rate (wf) to achieve the following target weld dimensions: network approaches in modeling top bead height of
penetration = 3.8 mm, throat = 11.0 mm, and leg-length = multipass gas metal arc welds, Sci. Technol. Weld Joining,
12.5 mm. The target weld geometry was obtained 8, 347-352 (2003).
experimentally using the following welding variables: I = 4. H. B. Smartt, J. A. Johnson, C. J. Einerson, and G. A.
331.4 A, V= 31 V, U = 4.2 mm/s and wf = 211.7 mm/s. Cordes, Development of a Connectionist Fuzzy Logic
System for Control of Gas Metal Arc Welding, in
No. I (Amp) V (Volt) U (mm/s) wf (mm/s) Proceedings of the Artificial Neural Networks in
Engineering (ANNIE’91), Ed. C. H. Dagli, S. R. T.
(a) 315.0 30.7 4.1 239.3 Kumara, Y. C. Shin, Eds. ASME, NY, 711-716 (1991).
(b) 330.0 31.2 4.2 212.1 5. C. H. Kim, W. Zhang, T. DebRoy, Modeling of
temperature field and solidified surface profile during gas
(c) 331.5 30.2 4.0 228.4 metal arc fillet welding, J. Appl. Phys. 94, 2667-2679
(d) 321.5 30.7 4.1 239.2 (2003).
6. W. Zhang, C. H. Kim, T. DebRoy, Heat and fluid flow in
(e) 354.0 31.4 4.1 230.4 complex joints during gas metal arc welding -part I:
(f) 338.0 41.9 5.9 319.2 numerical model of fillet welding, J. Appl. Phys. 95, 5210-
5219 (2004).
7. W. Zhang, C. H. Kim, T. DebRoy, Heat and fluid flow in
Concluding remarks complex joints during gas metal arc welding -part II:
application to fillet welding of mild steel, J. Appl. Phys.
The ability of the model to correctly predict multiple 95, 5220-5229 (2004).
welding variable sets that can lead to the target weld 8. A. Kumar and T. DebRoy, Guaranteed Fillet Weld
dimensions proves that by combing the principles of Geometry from Heat Transfer Model and Multivariable
evolutionary biology with welding physics, a useful Optimization, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 47, 5793-5806
phenomenological framework can be created to systematically (2004).
tailor a weld attribute via multiple paths. Although the work 9. A. Kumar, W. Zhang, and T. DebRoy, Improving
reported here focuses on tailoring of weld geometry, these reliability of modelling heat and fluid flow in complex gas
results provide hope that with the development of new metal arcfillet welds—part I: an engineering physics
methodologies at the crossroads of basic and applied sciences, model, J. Phys.D: Appl. Phys. 38, 119-126 (2005).
the promise of science based tailoring of structure and 10. A. Kumar and T. DebRoy, Improving reliability of
properties of weldments may also become attainable in the modelling heat and fluid flow in complex gas metal arc
future. fillet welds—part II: application to welding of steel, J.
Phys.D: Appl. Phys. 38, 127-134 (2005).
Acknowledgement 11. D.E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithm in Search, Optimization
and Machine Learning, Addison-Wesley, MA (1989).
This research was supported by a grant from the U.S. 12. T. Back, D.B. Fogel, Z. Michalewicz, Eds., Handbook of
Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Evolutionary Computations, IOP Publishing Ltd., Oxford
Division of Materials Sciences, under grant number DE- University Press (2000).
FGO2-01ER45900. Mr. Amit Kumar gratefully acknowledges 13. K. Deb, Multi-objective optimization using evolutionary
award of a Fellowship from the American Welding Society. algorithms, Wiley, New York (2001).
We have received helpful comments from Professors L.Q. 14. A. Kumar, S. Mishra, J. W. Elmer and T. DebRoy,
Chen, W. M. Small and R. Roy of Penn State, and Dr. S.A. Optimization of Johnson-Mehl-Avarami Equation
David of Oak Ridge National Laboratory during preparation Parameters for α-Ferrite to γ-Austenite Transformation in
of this manuscript. Steel Welds using a Genetic Algorithm, Metall. Mat.
Trans. A. 36, 15-22 (2005).
References 15. K. Deb, A. Anand and D. Joshi, A computationally
efficient evolutionary algorithm for real parameter
1. American Welding Society, Welding Related optimization, Evolutionary Computation, 10, 371-395
Expenditures, Investments, and Productivity Measurement (2002).
in U.S. Manufacturing, Construction, and Mining 16. S.V. Patankar, Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow,
Industries, AWS, Miami, Fl. (May 2002). Hemisphere, NY (1980).
2. P.W. Fuerschbach, G.R. Eisler, and R.J. Steele, Weld 17. E. Cantú-Paz, Efficient and Parallel Genetic Algorithms,
Procedure Development with OSLW- Optimization Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston (2000).
Software for Laser Welding, in Proc. of the Trends in
Welding Research, Pine Mountain, Georgia, ASM
International, OH (1998).

96
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Quantitative Observations of Surface Flow and
Solidification on Autogenous GTA Weld Pools
D. DeLapp, G. Cook, A. Strauss, W. Hofmeister
Vanderbilt Uuniversity, School of Engineering, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
Abstract
Autogenous GTA welds were performed on 3mm carbon steel
plates. A macro camera and high speed frame grabber camera
system was employed to make direct observations and
measurements of weld pool solidification and surface flows.
Observations of the solidification process revealed fluctuating
rates of solidification, including rapidly occurring remelt
events. Observation of the motion of normally occurring
particles floating on the surface of the weld pool revealed
rotational flow patterns.
Solid growth often occurred in a direction tangent to the solid
liquid interface. Weld ripple formation and subsequent remelt
was also observed. Remelting of the solid when it occurred
was rapid, on the order of 300 mm/s, proceeding in the same
counterclockwise direction as the weld pool circulation.
Subsequent particle motion measurements revealed significant
fluctuations in surface flow velocity. Assuming the flow was
turbulent or at least in transition to turbulence based on a non-
zero vorticity evaluation, the turbulent intensity was found to
be 22%. The flow had a Reynolds number of 107, based on an
average velocity of 25.4 mm/s, and bead width of 2.5mm.
Keywords: GTAW, convection, turbulence, vorticity, flow
visualization.
Introduction
Assessing weld bead characteristics (post weld) is readily
done using the wide variety of destructive and nondestructive
tests presently available. Assessing the weld pool behavior
(post weld) is an area of welding research which has been
done primarily by metallographic examination of sectioned
and polished specimens, then extrapolating back to the weld
pool behavior that must have been present to create the
observed microstructures. Actual measurements on the liquid
weld pool are more difficult to obtain.
The only part of a weld pool that is observable is the free
surface although it is masked by the bright arc light. Liquid
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
metal is opaque so subsurface observation and measurements
are not presently possible. Temperature distribution and fluid
flow patterns are measurements that would prove to be quite
useful in understanding the melting and solidification of
welding processes. Numerical modeling of the weld pool is
the current method used to learn about the volume behavior of
the weld pool. This method relies on an incomplete knowledge
of the thermo-physical properties of the liquid metal and how
they vary with temperature, particularly for alloy systems [1].
Various researchers have observed weld pool fluid behavior
and solidification using high speed imagery. Woods [2]
observed flow patterns on the bottom surface of full
penetration, stationary and moving GTA welds. Flow patterns
were made visible by the presence of normally occurring
oxide particles. Observed motion was correlated to mixing
patterns of dissimilar materials added to the weld pool
followed immediately by a rapid quench. Ercer [3] made
observations of floating oxide particles on pulsed GTA welds
made on Fe-26Ni. Three types of pool motion were noted.
Radial flow, dominant in the early stages of the high and low
pulses, was attributed to sudden changes in arc pressure.
Faster flow velocities corresponded to a larger time rate of
change in current. Two symmetrical rotational flows appeared
during periods of constant current, were attributed to
electromagnetic affects. Up and down pool surface oscillations
were attributed to changes in arc pressure. DeLapp [4]
observed the formation of surface ripples in welds made on
mild steel and stainless steel. Ripples were found to have a
fluctuating rate of formation and growth sometimes proceeded
in a direction tangential to the edge of the weld pool. Hall [5],
[6], observed melting and solidification on the leading and
trailing edges, respectively, of moving GTA welds in stainless
steel. Images of solidification revealed dendritic growth,
melting and ripple formation. Analysis of the images showed
that the solid-liquid interface advanced at a fluctuating rate.
The nature of the fluid flow within the weld pool is extremely
important, as the flow dictates the distribution of momentum,
energy (heat) and species (alloy concentration). In a laminar
flow regime, fluid particles move in a predictable manner,
following well defined paths, with uniform velocity profiles.
97
Fluid motion is predictable and in general is readily modeled.
Turbulent flow is markedly more complex than laminar flow.
There is no one single precise definition of turbulence
applicable to all turbulent flows [7-9].

Weld pool flow models initially assumed fluid flow to be

laminar. Better agreement between numerical model and
experimental result occurred when turbulent flow models were
employed.

The hypothesis of turbulent weld pool flow behavior has been

tested experimentally on a limited basis. Malinowski-
Brodnicka [10] applied an axial magnetic field to welds made
on austenitic stainless steel. An annular flow velocity of
0.5m/s was reported. A Reynolds number of 3000 was
reported and the flow was considered most probably turbulent.
A critical Reynolds number associated with weld pool flow
was not cited.
Direct measurement of surface velocity has been done and the
corresponding Reynolds number calculated. Turbulent flow is
assumed based on the magnitude of the Reynolds number.
Hong [11] stated that the Reynolds number of 3000 reported
by Malinowski-Brodnicka was larger than the classical critical
Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow
in pipes, Re=2100, and concluded that the flow was probably
turbulent.
This work will present an experimental means to quantify the
vorticity vector and show that the weld pool flow is rotational
and is therefore not laminar.
Figure 1: Welding torch end of the macro view camera.
Orientation is 45° to the horizontal and 90° to the direction of
travel. A 105mm lens gave adequate magnification, depth of
field and sufficient working distance to protect the lens from
overheating.
Experiments were run on 3.2mm x 102mm x 457mm 1018
cold rolled mild steel plate. All weld specimens were prepared
by first cleaning off the oil coating with mineral spirits
followed by a final cleaning with denatured alcohol. All welds
were non-reinforced autogenous. To avoid the heat sink
effects of direct contact between the 25.4mm thick steel
worktable and the thin 3.2mm workpiece, the weld specimens
were placed on 3.2mm shims then clamped in place. Clamp
bolts were lightly torqued to provide uniform clamping force
and minimize heat transfer to the table.

Experimental Apparatus
Welding experiments were carried out using a semi-automated
GTAW apparatus. The experimental apparatus is composed of
the welding power supply, traversing system, macro camera,
and digital frame grabber camera. Welding power was
supplied by a TMC 500 welding power supply to a water
cooled torch assembly mounted to the weld traversing system.
On this apparatus the torch is held stationary and the work
Figure 2: Screen capture of the image playback controls of the
piece is traversed. The torch is mounted on slides which have
viewer program The yellow, red and green cursers can be
three degrees of freedom allowing the weld pool to be
moved to any pixel in the image. The x-y coordinate pixel
properly positioned in the ground glass view screen of the
position of each curser is given in the second and third
macro camera, Figure 1. A more complete description of this
columns from the left side of the dialog box shown in the lower
apparatus can be found in reference [12].
right of the figure. These coordinates multiplied by the
appropriate scale factor give spatial resolution on the order of
Digital images were recorded with a computerized digital
frame grabber system and later played back on a viewer 15-20mm.
program. The camera interface and viewer programs were Weld parameters were chosen to optimize the formation of
created at Vanderbilt University using National Instruments surface ripples while not overwhelming the macro camera
LabVIEW® software and analyzed. The viewer software was with excessive arc light. The most uniform ripples were
originally designed to study rapid solidification and was obtained when welding current was near 75-95A, voltage at
adapted for use on the macro camera to study weld pool 8.5-10V and travel speed in the range of 1.9-4.4mm/s. These
behavior. parameters resulted in partial penetration welds. These
parameters provide an upper and lower bound to what can be
imaged using the macro camera without the use of any light
filtering.

98

Figure 3: Typical autogenous weld investigated in this Ripples
are uniform in appearance and spacing. Weld pool is round to
slightly elliptical. Material used was 3.2mm 1020 CRS. Weld
parameters which enhance weld ripple formation typically
range 8.0-9.5 V, 75-90A and travel speed of 2-3 mm/sec.
The horizontal and vertical pixel resolution was used to
calculate the amount of material that remelted. Over the frame
interval 401-402, (1.15ms) a 0.304mm length of solid as
measured along the solidification front, melts back into the
weld pool at an average velocity of 264mm/s. The melting
velocity calculated for frame interval 402-403 and 403-404 is
302mm/s and 160mm/s, respectively. Subsequent work,
discussed below, has shown the average convection velocity to
be on the order of 25mm/s. The melting occurs at a rate
approximately one order of magnitude higher than the liquid
convection velocity.

Ripple Formation
As reported in a previous work [4] when primary weld
parameters (arc voltage, current and travel speed) were varied
individually around an optimum range for ripple formation,
ripples were observed to have a fluctuating rate of formation.
An additional velocity component was sometimes found when
the high-speed images of the weld pool solidification were
played back at slow speed. Weld ripples were observed to not
always form in a direction normal to local isotherms. Ripple
formation was found to proceed in directions tangential to the
edge of the weld pool.

This can be seen in figure 2, where a weld image is shown as

displayed in the viewer program. A ripple is shown during
formation; growth proceeded along the circumference of the
weld pool, growing simultaneously towards the weld edge and
centerline.
Figure 4: Composite image illustrating a remelting event in
Figure 3 shows a ripple pattern typical when weld parameters frames 401-404. Weld parameters: 85A, 9.5V, travel speed
are set within an optimal range. Near the weld centerline the 2.41mm/s and frame rate 870F/s.
ripple spacing is rather uniform. Near the edge the ripple lines
become less uniform. Some ripple lines extend from edge to
Figure 5 is a composite image showing repeated solidification
edge, but many do not. In this work the solid-liquid interface
and melting during the formation of a single weld ripple. The
is studied with attention given to solidification as influenced
line in each image represents the position of the solid-liquid
by surface fluid flow.
interface. The line in each left hand image was carefully
projected onto the right hand image maintaining its position
Remelting of Solid
with respect to a stationary coordinate frame so that the degree
to which solid material is melted back into the weld pool is
Figure 4 is a sequence of four consecutive frames that shows
readily seen.
the rapidity at which remelting of solid can occur. Frame 401
shows solid material that has been growing in a continuous
When comparing frame 421 to frame 425, it is evident that the
manner up to this point in time. Frame 402 shows the loss of
darker colored area, which represents solid material, has
solid material between cursor 1 and cursor 2. Frame 403
moved to the left. Since the travel direction was right to left,
shows the loss of solid material between cursor 2 and cursor 3.
with respect to a stationary reference frame attached to the
Frame 404 shows the loss of solid material between cursor 3
camera, the solid-liquid interface moved from right to left. The
and cursor 4. Following frame 404 during a time period of
light colored region above and to the left of the line indicates
33.4 ms, no apparent growth takes place. Ripple formation
the loss of solid material. A similar occurrence happens
resumes after this interval and continues for 411 ms when a
between frames 459 and 462. The melting occurred over most
similar remelting event occurs. The image exposure is such
of the solid-liquid interface shown. Only a small portion on
that the liquid region is too light to observe any floating
the lower left end of the line appears unchanged. In frame 497
particles which might give insight about the fluid flow when
the melting appears to be uniformly distributed along the
the melting occurred
interface.

99

The three frame pairs show three distinct re-melting events
that occurred during the formation of a single ripple. These
three events happened in a time period of 87ms, yielding a
frequency of 34.3 remelts per second. Each time the remelt
event occurred it was observed to proceed from an upper right
position to a lower left position across each respective frame.
In the context of a circular weld pool moving from left to
right, the melting event proceeded in a counter clockwise
direction.
Figure 5: A composite image showing repeated solidification
and melting during the formation of a single weld ripple. The
line in each left hand image is carefully projected onto the
right hand image maintaining its position with respect to the
stationary camera frame. Weld Parameters: 9.5V, 80A, travel
speed 2.96mm/s and frame rate of 862F/s
During the course of recording the various data files,
pool circulation patterns were sometimes revealed by oxide
particles floating on the weld pool surface. Generally, the
individual particle velocities are too fast to track by eye.
However, a "circular" (not geometrically round, but
recirculating ) flow pattern was noted. Sometimes a pair of
counter rotating eddies were seen on the weld pool surface.
When travel was halted, the particles were seen to stop the
rotational motion and move quickly to the outer perimeter of
100
the weld pool. When travel was resumed, the previous particle
flow patterns were reestablished
The melting behavior illustrated in figures four and five show
that a fluctuation in local temperature had occurred. This
could be due to rapid release of latent heat of fusion [13],
Solidification mode instability [14-17], or liquid temperature
fluctuations due to turbulence. The first two possibilities lie
outside the capabilities of this experimental apparatus to
measure, but the last possibility can be examined by tracking
the motion of oxide particles to ascertain the surface flow
behavior.
Surface Flow
The frame grabber camera is unable to record images over the
entire weld pool surface due to the bright light emitted by the
arc plasma. The weld pool is observable only near the solid-
liquid interface,
Frame grabber images have a low pixel count, and a grainy
image resolution. Often a particle could be identified and its
position tracked over a sequence of frames. Yet when
individual frames from the same sequence were examined,
that particle was difficult to identify. The method used to
identify the position of an oxide particle in an individual frame
was to repeatedly play a short series of frames just prior to the
frame of interest and place a cursor at the estimated centroid
position of the particle.
The images in figure 6A and 6B show the flow path of
particles floating on weld pool surfaces using different weld
parameters. Lines have been added to help define the
liquid/solid interface. Weld ripples have formed to the left of
the lines and liquid material lies to the right. The flow paths
were counterclockwise with respect to the weld pool.
Weld parameters for figure 6A are 80A, 9.5V, and travel
speed of 2.96mm/s. Average velocity of the particle over this
interval was 25.0mm/s with a max/min variation of 34.6/20.4
mm/s. The Reynolds number for the flow in figure 6A was
107. Pool diameter was used as the characteristic length and
the average particle velocity for the characteristic velocity.
Turbulent intensity for this flow was 22%.
Figure 6 A &B: The motion of an oxide particle was tracked
over a series of frames. Weld parameters, 6A: 80A, 9.5V
2.96mm/s 6B 90A, 9.5V 2.45mm/. Frame rate was 869F/s.
The image of figure 6B shows the path taken by a particle on a
weld using different parameters: 90A, 9.5V, and travel speed
of 2.45mm/s. More energy has been put into the weld pool
relative to figure 6A and the particle motion has become more
erratic. The average velocity was 9.73mm/s and the max/min
variation was 23.8/0.593mm/s.
Vorticity
Turbulent flow possess several characteristics the absence or
presence of which does not establish or eliminate the presence
of turbulent flow [9]. One criterion however does provide a
necessary, but not sufficient, condition that is the presence of
v
vorticity. The presence of vorticity, ω ≠ 0 , in a fluid flow
means that the flow is rotational. All turbulent flows are
rotational, but a rotational flow is not necessarily turbulent. A
rotational flow is definitely not a laminar flow.
The vorticity vector represents rotation of adjacent fluid
particles relative to a moving fluid particle. If the origin of a
set of coordinate axes were attached to a moving fluid particle
and the axes extended through each adjacent particle, then
each term of the vorticity vector represents an average angular
velocity about each coordinate axis. Equation (1) is the
mathematical expression for the vorticity vector in Cartesian
coordinates.
v 1 ⎡⎛ ∂Vz ∂V y ⎞ ˆ ⎛ ∂V x ∂Vz ⎞ ˆ ⎛ ∂V y ∂Vx ⎞ ˆ ⎤
ω = ⎢⎜⎜ − ⎟i + ⎜ − ⎟ j +⎜ − ⎟k ⎥ (1)
2 ⎣⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠ ⎦
The two spatial velocity derivatives inside each set of brackets
represent the instantaneous average angular velocity of two
fluid particles located on two orthogonal; axes relative to the
unit vector axis passing through the third particle. The
vorticity vector is the vector sum of the 3 average angular
velocity components about each coordinate axis.
Vorticity is a 3-dimensional phenomenon that if present would
exist through the entire volume of the weld pool. Experimental
determination of the velocity field in a weld pool is not
feasible at the present time. Assume that the free surface
serves as an observable 2-dimensional boundary for vorticity
present in the flow. Applying the assumptions: Vz = 0 and
∂
= 0 at the free surface (z=0) the equation (1) reduces to:
∂z
v 1 ⎛ ∂V ∂V ⎞
ω = ⎜⎜ y − x ⎟⎟kˆ (2)
2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
The vorticity vector is evaluated experimentally by an
approximation. Evaluation of the spatial derivatives was not
feasible, but the effect the velocity field had on the motion of
oxide particles was.
On the weld pool surface three oxide particles were found
oriented such that the lay approximately on an orthogonal x-y
axis, shown in the schematic diagram of Figure 7. They are
101
tracked over a short time interval and their relative motion was
observed. Assuming that the particles are sufficiently close
together such that their motion approximates the theoretical
motion of adjacent fluid particles and the time interval is
sufficiently short such that the velocity field can be assumed
constant over this interval, the effect of the spatial derivatives
on the particle motion, the vorticity, can be measured.
Figure 7 is a graphical evaluation of vorticity. The particles
were tracked over 5 frames and their position normalized with
respect to particle A. Change in angle ABC was 0.29 r over
11.7ms for an angular velocity of 4.96 r/s. The angular
velocity is the magnitude of the vorticity vector, since it is non
zero, the flow is rotational.
The diameter of the oxide particles was on the order of 50μm
length scale between oxide particles was on the order of
500μm compared to a pool diameter on the order of 3000μm.
The approximation improves with smaller size scale. If a
camera with higher pixel count were used it is possible to view
smaller oxide particles that are closer together and
approximation of vorticity is more accurate.
Figure 7: Graphical solution to the vorticity vector. Physical
significance of vorticity is the relative rotation of two fluid
particles B and C relative to a particle A. Finite space
approximation to theory derived using infinitesimal space.
Camera resolution, particle size and population density limit
the fineness of the approximation. Smaller distance between
particles ABC would have given give better accuracy.
Summary
High speed digital images of weld pool solidification and
surface flow were recorded and analyzed. Solidification was
found to occur at a fluctuating rate. Newly solidified material
was observed to melt back into the weld pool before final
solidification occurred.
Normally occurring oxide particles floating on the weld pool
were used for flow visualization. Particle position was tracked
over a sequence of frames and average and frame to frame
velocity was calculated. Reynolds number was 107, and 11 K. Hong, D. C. Weckman, A. B. Weckman and A.B.
turbulent intensity was 22%. Strong, The Predicted Influence of Turbulence in
Stationary Gas Tungsten Arc Welds, Trends in
A graphical method which utilized the velocity data from Welding Research, ASM International Conference
floating oxide particles was presented for evaluating the Proceedings, pp 399-404, (1995).
vorticity vector. Results showed that the magnitude of the 12 D.R. DeLapp, D.A. Hartman, G.E. Cook, R.J.
vorticity vector was nonzero indicating that the flow was Barnett, and A.M. Strauss, The Development of a
rotational. GTAW Observation System, 5th International
Conference on Trends in Welding Research, ASM
Rotational flow is a necessary condition for turbulent flow or International Conference Proceedings pp 405-409,
flow in transition to turbulent flow. Either type of flow can (1998)
possess velocity or temperature fluctuations which may 13 D. L. Cheever and D. G. Howden, Technical Note:
account for the observed remelting behavior during Nature of Weld Surface Ripples, Welding J, 48 (4),
solidification. pp 179s-180s, (1969)
14 R. Travedi and W. Kurz, Morphological Stability of a
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1 S.A. David and J.M. Vitek, Principles of Weld 15 W. Kurz, B. Giovanola and R. Travedi, Theory of
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(1992) Modeling of Weld Phenomena 2 The Institute of
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3 G.M. Ercer, A. Tzavaras, A Gokhale, and H.D.
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Local Solidification Rate of the GTA Weld Pool, 5th
International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research, ASM International Conference
Proceedings, pp 400-404, (1998)
5 A.C. Hall, G.A. Knorovsky, C.V. Robino, J. Brooks,
D.O. Maccallum, M. Reece, and G. Poulter,
Characterizing the Microstructure of a GTA Weld In-
Process using High-speed, High Magnification
Digital Imaging 11th Int. Conf. on Computer. Tech. in
Welding, Columbus OH, pp 117-124, (2001).
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and Rippling Phenomenon in 304 stainless Steel Gas
Tungsten Arc Welds, Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining, pp 103-108, (2004)
7 F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of
Heat And Mass Transfer, 2nded., John Wiley and
Sons, pp 293-296 (1985)
8 H. Tennekes, and J.L. Lumley, A First Course In
Turbulence, MIT Press Cambridge MA, pp 1-4
(1972)
9 R. L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, pp704-709 (1984)
10 M. Malinowski-Brodnicka, G. den Ouden and W. J.
P. Vink, Effect of Electromagnetic Stirring on GTA
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102
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Scaling Laws in Welding Modeling

P. F. Mendez
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado

Abstract
This “handbook formulas” approach would be very useful for
There are few simple formulas to predict the results of a welding, but there are very few universally accepted such
welding process. Such formulas would be of enormous help formulas in this field. Very relevant welding characteristics
in the design of welding processes, and they are ubiquitous in such as penetration, arc size, current in GMAW, voltage in
other engineering disciplines such as strength of materials, GTAW lack such a general expression. For welders in the
fluid mechanics, and heat transfer, typically in the form of field, who must have an approximate estimation of the right
scaling laws. Scaling laws provide accurate approximations welding parameters before they weld, there are rough aids
and display clearly the trends in a problem. In this paper I such as the “Miller Calculators” [8], which provide ballpark
review the reasons why scaling laws are so scarce in welding, values for some particular welding activities. Sophisticated
highlight previous and current efforts to develop scaling laws software is often difficult to operate, time consuming, and not
for welding, and present two complimentary approaches of widely available to welders or welding engineers.
great potential to develop scaling laws specific for welding.
Scaling laws are of enormous utility during the early stages of
welding design, when the configuration of a system is still
Introduction
uncertain. In this case, scaling laws could provide quick
estimations of the feasibility of a proposed process, help
The design of a new welding process involves so many
determine costs, and contribute to decisions about
parameters that it can seldom be predicted reliably; therefore,
configuration and materials. Scaling laws can be calculated in
extensive experimentation must take place in order to
negligible time; therefore, they can also be useful for robotic
determine an ideal process set-up. A set of simple and
welding systems predicting the behavior of a system in real
intuitive design laws based only on the most relevant
time, much faster than computationally intensive models such
parameters would be of enormous help in this case. Scaling
as finite element analysis, or computational fluid mechanics.
laws are particularly well suited for this purpose.
When experimental databases or numerical models exist,
Scaling laws appear in several disciplines such as physics,
scaling laws can be used to generalize and extrapolate the
biology[1, 2], geophysical [3, 4], Internet traffic[5], and even
results obtained. For existing processes, scaling laws are
economic systems[6]. A broad sample of problems that can be
useful for set-up and tuning operations and to compare
described with such scaling laws is presented in [7]. Scaling
different welding alternatives.
laws are ubiquitous in engineering; some of the reasons for
this are: 1) the combination of units has the form of a power
When modeling a welding process, it is convenient to divide it
law, 2) the expressions of many physical phenomena have the
into submodels such as the weld pool, arc, electrode, etc.
form of power laws as noted above, and 3) many empirical
Power laws are useful to link the submodels together. For
regressions of engineering data in log-log plots tend to give a
example weld pool depression depends on arc pressure.
straight line, which corresponds to a power law.
Power law solutions for the arc can relate the arc pressure to
the controllable parameters of the arc, thus embedding the arc
In engineering in particular, scaling laws constitute the
into the weld pool model. Power laws do not present
backbone of handbooks, together with the tables of values for
convergence problems of the type of numerical solutions.
the parameters involved. For example, the maximum
deflection of a cantilever beam is universally presented as a
simple power law involving the properties of the cross section
of the beam and the modulus of the beam material. This Scaling Laws, Dimensional Analysis, and
simple formula is accompanied by tables of properties of cross Similarity
sections and modulus of different materials. This power law is
valid for steel beams of a bridge, wooden beams of a house, or Scaling laws give us an accurate estimation a magnitude (e.g.
silicon beams in MEMS. penetration) as a function of the welding parameters. Welding

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 103

parameters are not only the obvious current, voltage, wire feed
speed, etc. They also include thermophysical properties of
materials involved such as heat conductivity, density, and heat
capacity for heat transfer in the solid, and the same plus
viscosity and surface tension for heat transfer in the weld pool.
Even more parameters are necessary to include a
characterization of the arc, electrode, laser beam or electron
beam. Some of these parameters can vary within the domain
of the problem, for example the surface tension depends on
temperature, which varies spatially.
Scaling laws have the functional form of a power law of the
relevant problem parameters such as the following proposed
scaling law for penetration in SMAW [9]
P = G I4/3V-1/3E-2/3 ................................................................(1)
Where G is a constant, I is the current, V is the travel speed,
and E is the voltage. We observe in this power law that the
parameters are raised to a constant power. Expressions where
a constant is raised to a variable power are not power laws in
this context; thus, if a is a constant, and P, is a parameter, Pa is
a power law, but aP is not. As power laws are aimed to
compare different welding processes, they are based on the
parameters, and not on the problem variables (space, time).
Thus if L is a length in the x direction, La is a useful power
law to compare welding alternatives, while xa is not.
Since power laws do not depend on the space and time
coordinates of the problem, a representative value must be
chosen for those parameters that vary with the coordinates.
For example, a representative value of the density of the
molten metal is chosen for scaling laws of the weld-pool.
Occasionally, spatial variations are relevant and they generate
driving forces, for example variations in density cause
buoyancy forces, and variations in surface tension cause
Marangoni forces. In these cases, the varying magnitude can
be expressed as two parameters, one capturing a characteristic
value, and another capturing the variation. For density we
thus have the Boussinesq approximation: ρ=ρ0+β(T-T0),
where β captures the variation of density with temperature.
For Marangoni flows we use σ=σ0+σT(T-T0).
Power laws are a natural consequence of dimensional
homogeneity[10], which states that all terms in an equation
must have the same dimensions, and dimensions can only be
formed as power laws of basic units such as m, kg, s. Power
laws often appear naturally as the exact solution of asymptotic
cases. As a welding example, temperature distribution in
Rosenthal’s solution[11], is expressed as a power law in units
of temperature, multiplied by a dimensionless function:
T-T0 = q/(4πkR)exp[-λν(x+R)]...........................................(2)
The fundamental nature of power laws is also evident in the
engineering wisdom that “everything is a straight line when
plotted in a log-log graph.” In mathematical terms, the
104
straight line y’=ax’+b in a log-log plot corresponds to the
power law y=10bxa, where y’=log y, and x’=log x.
Power laws are indeed very powerful. They clearly indicate
trends and can yield accurate predictions over several orders
of magnitude. They also convey much intuitive meaning: the
sensitivity of a power law to a given welding parameter is
directly proportional to the exponent of the parameter. Using
Equation (1) as an example, we see that penetration will
increase approximately 13% if we increase the current by
10%.
Dimensionless Groups
Dimensionless groups are a particular type of power law.
These groups have no units; therefore, their value is
independent of the unit system used, conferring them
generality. Well known dimensionless groups include the
Reynolds number and the Peclet number.
Dimensionless groups are at the core of the technique of
Dimensional Analysis, in which a problem is represented in a
simpler way without any loss of generality. A cornerstone of
Dimensional Analysis is Buckingham’s Π theorem[12], which
roughly states that a problem involving n parameters and k
units can be represented in a simpler form by m dimensionless
groups, where m=n-k. The technique of Dimensional
Analysis can greatly simplify a problem, and has been of
substantial help to the fields of Aerodynamics and Fluid
Mechanics.
A fundamental requirement for proper dimensional analysis is
that all relevant parameters must be included. For simpler
problems this is not too difficult; for example, in
Aerodynamics all geometrically similar problems can be
completely described by the properties of the fluid (density ρ
and viscosity μ), a characteristic length L, and a velocity V.
Such a complete description is practically impossible in
welding because of the large number of parameters required.
The obvious current, voltage, wire feed speed, etc., are only a
small fraction of all the parameters needed. In fact, relevant
parameters have been overlooked at times; for example, before
the early 1980’s[13], the effect of surface tension variation on
Marangoni forces had not been considered yet[14], and
welding engineers could not explain large penetration
variations in apparently identical welding conditions.
The large amount of parameters to be considered makes
welding modeling especially challenging. While not all
parameters are simultaneously critical, we often do not know
which ones to neglect before modeling. And models
considering all imaginable parameters can become intractable.
Dimensional Analysis is less powerful for problems with
several parameters such as welding; while the number of
parameters easily exceeds 10, the number of units is fixed to
approximately 5. Buckingham’s theorem indicates that the
problem still requires 5 or more dimensionless groups. In
comparison, in Aerodynamics, the four parameters mentioned
above (ρ, μ, L, V) involve three units (m, kg, s), and a single
dimensionless parameter (typically the Reynolds number) is
enough to characterize all problems. In this case, tabulation
and understanding of the problem are relatively simple, while
the same is virtually impossible for welding.
Complete and Incomplete Similarity
When two problems can be described using the same set of
dimensionless groups, the two problems will be considered
“similar” when the corresponding groups have the same value
for both problems. For similar problems, the behavior of one
can be deduced from the behavior of the other through the use
of scaling laws. For example, a model airplane in a wind
tunnel and a real airplane in flight can be considered similar if
both have the same Reynolds number, and measurements
made in the wind tunnel can translate directly to the actual
plane with the use of the appropriate scaling laws.
When only some dimensionless groups have the same value
on two systems, these models have “incomplete similarity.”
Incomplete similarity is especially important in welding, since
it is not possible to control all the dimensionless groups
associated with the large number of parameters. If the
dimensionless groups with the same value capture the
dominant parameters, and the groups with different values
represent secondary phenomena, we can still obtain useful and
representative results. Using weld pool flows as an example,
buoyancy is a secondary force when Marangoni forces are
dominant. In this case, a model and experiment with a
different Grashoff number (which captures buoyancy) will still
show essentially the same behavior.
The choice of which dimensionless groups to preserve and
which ones can be discarded is critical, and far from trivial.
Dimensional Analysis is useful to generate dimensionless
groups, but does not provide guidelines for which ones to
keep. In addition, there are several sets of dimensionless
groups that can represent a given problem; thus, there is the
additional challenge of selecting the best set of dimensionless
groups that would provide for the minimum influence of the
discarded groups.
The problem of selecting the most representative
dimensionless groups in partially similar problems has become
increasingly relevant since the introduction of powerful
personal computers in the 1970’s. At that time there was a
surge of mathematical models of increasing complexity, as
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 uses the modeling of a welding arc as an example. In
it, we appreciate the significant jump in the number of
dimensionless groups involved in the models after 1970.
Similar trends are also evident for other aspects of welding
modeling such as the weld pool.
105
20 Lo w ke 1997
Choo, 1990
18
M c K e llig e t 1 9 8 6
K im 1 9 9 7
L ee 1 9 9 6
16
R a m a k r is h n a n 1 9 7 8
H su 1 9 8 3
14
G lic k s te in 1 9 7 9
n u m b e r o f d im e n sio n le ss g ro u p s
M a e c k e r 1 9 5 5 ( a p p r o x im a te )
12
S h e r c lif f 1 9 6 9 ( a n a ly tic a l)
10
S q u ir e 1 9 5 1 ( a n a ly tic a l)
8
6
4
2
0
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
ye a r o f p u b lic a tio n
Figure 1: Evolution of arc modeling complexity [15-26]
I propose that the reason why there are relatively few general
scaling laws for welding is because useful models involve an
excessive number of dimensionless groups, and there are no
established techniques that can help the engineer to form and
select the most useful dimensionless groups on which to
establish similarity between model and reality, and upon
which to develop scaling laws. Especial tools are necessary to
accomplish this, and will be reviewed in a later section. In the
next section we will discuss past and current applications of
scaling laws to welding.
Scaling and Dimensional Analysis in Welding
Possibly the oldest scaling law developed for welding is the
estimation of penetration presented in Equation (1) and its
successors[27]. This law was developed empirically for
manual SMAW of ½” steel plate. We see that the constant G
needs units for this equation to be homogeneous, thus it
captures some physics such as the thermophysical properties
of the material being welded, not considered by the explicit
parameters. This formula is seldom seen today, possibly
because of its lack of generality.
The next improvement for scaling laws in welding was the
scaling of analytical solutions for heat transfer in the solid,
neglecting the effects of the fluid flow in the weld pool.
Scaling of analytical solutions for heat transfer in the solid
Rosenthal’s analytic solution for a point heat source in a semi-
infinite solid[11] was generalized with great success by
Christensen, and it is still widely used today. This problem is
formulated in terms of the thermophysical properties of the
solid: heat conductivity k and heat diffusivity α, process
parameters: heat input q and traveling velocity V, and a
characteristic temperature jump ΔT. These parameters involve
the units m, kg, s, K, and thus the whole formulation of this
problem could be characterized by a single dimensionless
group. This is actually the case, and Christensen used the
“operating parameter” n
n = qV /(4πkαΔT) ...............................................................(3)
All unknowns of this problem can be obtained from scaling
laws involving only the four parameters listed above and a
dimensionless function of the operating parameter.
This solution is restricted to thick plates and temperatures
significantly lower than the melting temperature of the base
metal, thus it does not provide accurate information about
weld pool shape and HAZ thermal history. One possible
reason for the success of Christensen’s generalization despite
its limitations is that it is derived from first principles;
therefore, its generality is assured as long as the starting
hypotheses are valid.
There is a family of solutions following a similar approach to
Rosenthal and Christensen for thin plates, line heat sources
and more. Comprehensive lists of solutions can be found in
the compilations by Grong [28, 29]. These last references also
list solutions for point heat sources on plates of intermediate
thickness. In this case, the plate thickness becomes an
additional parameter, and the problem needs two
dimensionless parameters to be completely described.
There are also solutions for multiple point heat sources, and
for distributed heat sources. Eagar and Tsai presented
solutions for a circular gaussian heat source on a thick
plate.[30, 31] In this case, in addition to the operating
parameter n, there is an additional dimensionless number u,
the “distribution parameter.” Further generalization to a
gaussian heat source on a plate of intermediate thickness were
presented by Manca et al.[32]. As expected, their solutions
depend on three dimensionless groups.
Similarly to the earliest work on arc illustrated in Figure 1,
these analytical solutions trace their roots to the times in
which computers were not readily available. The welding
problems were then just as complex as today, but their physics
needed to be simplified until a tractable problem was obtained.
Scaling laws and dimensional analysis of the welding arc
For the arc, two of the earliest scaling laws are those for
pressure and velocity by Maecker[21]. These laws involve
two dimensionless groups at the most, and they have little
influence on the resulting scaling laws. Thorough dimensional
analysis of an electric arc was performed by Yas’ko and
Shaskov[33, 34]. In their work they identified seven or more
dimensionless groups, proposed no particular solution
employing them, and indicated which groups were more
relevant for similarity of 10 different types of arc. Scaling
laws for pressure, velocity and temperatures in a laminar
welding arc are presented in[35, 36]. Most current work on
arc modeling will include a standard set of dimensionless
106
groups such as the Reynolds number, Peclet number, and
magnetic Reynolds number.
The increase in the number of dimensionless groups observed
in Figure 1 is due to the addition of thermal effects of the arc
and variations in geometry of the electrode or weld pool
surface.
Dimensional analysis of the whole welding process
There have been attempts to capture the whole welding
process with dimensionless groups. All of these efforts are
based on heat transfer in the solid, and are aimed at
generalizing numerical solutions or experiments.
Krivosheya[37] presented an analysis of SAW butt joints
based on seven parameters, thus obtaining three dimensionless
groups. Kou[38, 39] developed a dimensionless formulation
that considers the Stefan problem of heat of melting. A
relevant aspect of his normalizations is the use of the same
characteristic length for all three spatial directions.
Fuerschbach proposed a dimensionless parameter model for
arc welding[40], and Fuerschbach and Knorovsky proposed a
single dimensionless group to characterize the melting
efficiency of melting in PAW and GTAW[41]. A scaling
analysis for the butt welding of thermoplastics is developed
in[42].
Scaling laws and dimensional analysis of the weld pool
In the early 1980’s, a simultaneous development of weld pool
understanding and the availability of computer power
prompted the introduction of fluid flow and heat transfer in the
models of the weld pool. Dimensional Analysis is a standard
tool of fluid mechanics, and soon models incorporated the
traditional Peclet number, Reynolds number, and Marangoni
number.
Wang and Kou[43] extended Kou’s dimensionless formulation
of the welding problem to include convection in the weld pool.
Landmark studies of convection in the weld pool during spot
welding were developed by Oreper, Szekely, et al.[44-47]. In
them, the governing equations are normalized, generating the
Reynolds, Prandtl, Grashoff, Stefan, Rayleigh, surface tension,
and Marangoni numbers. An analysis of the relevance of the
driving forces is performed using these numbers, and scaling
laws are proposed for the characteristic velocity of the weld
pool when the driving forces are Marangoni, electromagnetic,
or buoyancy. In [48], Szekely also proposes scaling laws for
time constants in melting and solidification during the
transient regime of a spot weld pool. This approach of
determining the dominant forces using known dimensionless
groups, then using the appropriate scaling laws is being used
today by DebRoy et al. for weld pools in GMAW[49], and
spot[50] and traveling GTAW[51]. A well explained scaling
analysis of fluid flow is presented by Rivas and Ostrach[52].
In this work they considered three different regimes of
thermocapillary driven flows: I) when there is no surface
boundary layer, II) when there is a viscous surface boundary
layer, and III) when there is a thermal surface boundary layer.
Another systematic scaling of fuid flow in the weld pool is
presented by[53]. These last two references differ from the
analysis by Kou in that they use intrinsic scales for lengths in
different directions. This enables the estimation of differential
expressions without the need to solve the corresponding
differential equations. For weld pools under high currents,
dimensional analysis and scaling laws are presented in[54].
Dimensional analysis of LBW
For weld penetration in LBW, early correlations based on
three dimensionless groups were presented by Lubin[55]. An
empirical study of energy transfer efficiency based on
dimensionless groups has been presented by Fuerschbach[56],
and dimensionless maps for laser processing of materials
based on dimensionless groups have been developed by Ion,
Shercliff and Ashby[57]. An extension to LBW of the GTAW
weld pool scaling laws and dimensional analysis is presented
in [58, 59].
Dimensional analysis of GMAW
Several correlations for metal transfer in GMAW based on
dimensionless groups are presented by Murray in[60]. In[61],
he presents dimensionless correlations for penetration, and in
[62] there is a dimensionless analysis of droplet detachment.
An scaling analysis for flows in the weld pool during fillet
welding is presented in [49], and a thorough dimensional
analysis of weld pool phenomena involving eight parameters
is presented in[63].
Tools for Generation of Scaling Laws
Welding modeling has a difficulty that other disciplines do not
have: the number and parameters and dimensionless groups is
relatively large. Partial similarity is key to simplifying the
models and generating useful scaling laws, and to accomplish
it effectively, two tasks must be completed; first, an
appropriate set of dimensionless groups must be generated;
second, these dimensionless groups must be ranked by
relevance.
Dimensional Analysis provides no guidance to accomplish
these tasks. Applied mathematics tools such as dominant
balance[64] are limited to single equations, and are not
effective for the systems of equations often found in welding
modeling.
Most scaling laws for welding were generated either from
exact solutions of simplified problems, or from intuitive
normalization of governing equations. The intuitive approach
is not necessarily systematic, and requires a great deal of
experience to determine the best normalization scheme. A
systematic approach would involve trying all possible
normalization schemes, and checking for consistency of the
assumptions made. Such an approach was followed by Rivas
and Ostrach for a simplified weld pool with no
electromagnetic or buoyancy forces[52]. This approach has
been generalized using linear algebra, and improved
107
normalization of the differential expressions. It is called
Order of Magnitude Scaling, and it is described in[65-70]. A
similar approach to modeling was developed by Yip[71] using
concepts of Artificial Intelligence.
Another alternative for generating scaling laws is to analyze
sensitivity data from experiments or numerical simulations. In
this case scaling laws can be generated by minimizing fitting
error. The field of artificial intelligence has been active in this
task, although the models generated are difficult to extend to
welding. An algorithm called SLAW[72, 73] and associated
software were developed to generate scaling laws and
dimensionless groups ranked by relevance. This algorithm
correctly reproduced the scaling laws previously developed for
ceramic to metal joining[74].
Summary
Summarizing, scaling laws are desirable in welding. They
would help integrate models, speed-up weld process design,
and would facilitate costing estimations. However, scaling
laws are much less developed in the welding field than in
other disciplines such as fluid mechanics. The reason for this
disparity is that welding involves a much larger number of
parameters than other disciplines. It is difficult to decide
before modeling which parameters to neglect, and it is
difficult to model without neglecting some parameters.
Traditional tools such as Dimensional Analysis or dominant
balance are not powerful enough for the complexity of
welding. Current scaling laws were generated by solving
analytically very simplified systems, or by inspectional
analysis of the normalized governing equations. Two methods
are proposed to systematically generate scaling laws and
associated dimensionless groups. The first, Order of
Magnitude Scaling, is proposed for analyzing systems of
coupled differential equations. The second, SLAW is
proposed to analyze experimental or numerical sensitivity
studies.
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Alloying Element Vaporization and Liquid Metal Expulsion during Laser

Microjoining of Stainless Steel with Short Pulse
X. He, J. T. Norris*, P. W. Fuerschbach*, T. DebRoy
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
*Joining and Coating Department
Sandia National Laboratories, New Mexico, USA

Abstract
Vaporization and liquid metal expulsion are the two main
mechanisms of material loss during laser microjoining.
Various factors that affect alloying element vaporization and
liquid metal expulsion during microjoining of 304 stainless
steel with short Nd-yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) laser
pulses were investigated experimentally and theoretically. The
temperature fields used to simulate the loss of materials were
obtained from a well-tested comprehensive three-dimensional
transient heat transfer and fluid flow model. The calculated
fusion zone geometry and composition change produced by
laser microjoining under various welding conditions showed
fair agreement with the corresponding experimental results.
The conditions necessary for the initiation of liquid metal
expulsion were determined by balancing the vapor recoil force
with the surface tension force at the periphery of the liquid
pool. The laser power density and pulse duration are important
parameters for liquid metal expulsion. Higher power density
and longer pulse duration increases the tendency of liquid
metal expulsion during laser microjoining.
Introduction
Laser spot welding is characterized by its small length
scale, fairly short pulse duration, highly transient nature and
very high heating and cooling rates. Because of the high
power density used, the temperatures of weld metal often
exceed the boiling points of materials. In such situations, the
equilibrium pressure on the weld pool surface becomes higher
than the atmospheric pressure, and significant vaporization
takes place from weld pool surface.1-5 If the weld pool
temperature is very high, the escaping vapor exerts a large
recoil force on the weld pool surface.6 As a consequence, the
molten metal may be expelled from the weld pool.
Vaporization and liquid metal expulsion are the two main
mechanisms of material loss during laser microjoining. The
loss of alloying elements can result in significant changes in
the microstructure and degradation of mechanical properties of
weldments.3-7 Moon and Metzbower7 investigated the change
of properties of aluminum alloy before and after welding using
a CO2 laser with He gas shield. They found that the tensile
properties of the welds were inferior to the base metal, mainly
because of magnesium depletion, loss of strain hardened
structure, and porosity. Cieslak and Fuerschbach3 investigated
the property change of aluminum alloys 5456 and 5086. They
found that the hardness of the weld metal was lower than that
of the base metal due to the magnesium vaporization. The loss
of hardness was attributed to a reduction in the solid solution
strengthening effect as a result of lower magnesium
concentration. In the electronics industry, where components
are often processed in a clean room environment, discharge of
metal vapors is not acceptable. During laser assisted joining of
components, loss of alloying elements needs to be minimized.
Therefore, quantitative understanding of the evaporation of
alloying elements and liquid metal expulsion is important in
the welding of engineering alloys.
Vaporization of alloying elements during laser spot
welding is different from that during linear welding in several
ways. First, the evaporation rate is strongly time dependent,
i.e., the rate is negligible at the initiation of the pulse and
gradually increases owing to increase in temperature. Second,
because of the short duration of the laser pulse, experimental
determination of temperature and velocity fields is difficult
and remains both an important goal and a major challenge in
the field. Third, although both surface area and the volume of
the weld pool are small, they change significantly with time.
As a result of these difficulties, very little information is
available in the literature about measurements of important
variables such as the temperature field during microjoining.
In order to have a quantitative understanding of
vaporization and liquid metal expulsion during microjoining, a
comprehensive model is needed. Aden et al 8 investigated the
laser induced vaporization from steel and aluminum surfaces
as a function of laser intensity and material properties. A
material-dependent minimum laser intensity above which no
further expansion of the metal vapor occurs was discussed.
Anisimov9 and Knight10 derived expressions for the vapor
temperature, density, velocity and the extent of condensation
by solving the equations of conservation of mass, momentum
and energy in a thin layer adjacent to the liquid-vapor
interface, known as the Knudsen layer. Their approach has
been incorporated into vaporization models1,2 to calculate the
laser-induced vaporization rate. von Allmen11 indicated that
vapor pressure acts like a piston that exerts a pressure onto the
melt, squirting it out of the hole radially. He also developed a
theoretical model to calculate drilling velocity and drilling
efficiency as a function of absorbed intensity.12 Chan and
Mazumder13 developed a one-dimensional steady state model
to describe the laser induced damage caused by materials
removal through vaporization and liquid metal expulsion.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 109

Depending on the materials and beam power density, either
vaporization or liquid expulsion was thought to be the
dominant mechanism of material removal. Basu and DebRoy6
examined the conditions for the initiation of liquid metal
expulsion during laser irradiation both experimentally and
theoretically. They proposed that liquid metal expulsion takes
place when the vapor recoil force exceeds the surface tension
force of the liquid metal at the periphery of the weld pool.
In this paper, the temperature fields used to simulate the
loss of materials were obtained from a well-tested
comprehensive three-dimensional transient heat transfer and
fluid flow model. Using the computed temperature fields,
vaporization rate, composition change and total mass loss due
to vaporization of various alloying elements resulting from
both concentration and pressure driven transport were
calculated. The calculated fusion zone geometry and
composition change produced by laser microjoining of
stainless steel under various welding conditions were
compared with the corresponding experimental results. The
conditions necessary for the initiation of liquid metal
expulsion were determined by balancing the vapor recoil force
with the surface tension force at the periphery of the liquid
pool. In addition, the influences of laser power density and
pulse duration on liquid metal expulsion were analyzed.
Experimental procedure
Several 304 stainless steel welds were fabricated at the
Sandia National Laboratories. The steel had the following
composition: 1 wt% Mn, 18.1 wt% Cr, 8.6 wt% Ni, 0.69 wt%
Si, 0.046 wt% C, 0.012 wt% P, 0.003 wt% S, and balance Fe.
A Raytheon SS 525 pulsed Nd:YAG laser was used for laser
spot welding with pulse energies of 2.1 J, 3.2 J and 5.9 J and
pulse durations of 4.0 ms and 3.0 ms. Individual spot welds
from a pulsed laser beam were made on 3 by 10 by 17 mm
EDM wire cut samples. Up to 15 individual spot welds were
made on each of the samples, using a single pulse for each
individual spot weld.
Laser spot size was measured with 50 μm Kapton film
using the method described elsewhere.14 Longitudinal
metallographic cross-section measurements through several
collinear welds for each plate were averaged to determine
weld pool size. The mass loss was experimentally determined
by weighing each specimen before and after welding with a
Metler MT5 micro-balance. To increase the accuracy of the
weight loss measurements, the reported weight loss per pulse
is the average of the fifteen spot welds made on each sample.
During welding experiments, an open ended quartz tube,
25 mm in length, having a 6 mm inner diameter and a 1 mm
wall thickness, was placed co-axial to the laser beam and right
above the 304 stainless steel samples. A portion of the
vaporized elements and ejected metal droplets were collected
on the interior surface of the tube. The deposit and the
particles were examined from each experiment. The SEM
micrographs and EDS (Energy-Dispersive x-ray
110
Spectroscopy) analysis were taken for the interior surface of
the quartz tube for every experiment.
Mathematical modeling
Transient temperature profiles. The temperature profile
was calculated using a well tested three-dimensional
comprehensive transient heat transfer and fluid flow model.
The weld metal was assumed to be an incompressible,
Newtonian fluid. Constant thermophysical properties, such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity and specific heat, were used
for simplicity. The variation of absorption coefficient of the
laser energy by the stainless steel at different temperatures was
ignored. The driving forces for the liquid flow in the weld
pool considered in the present model were the Marangoni
force and the buoyancy force. The boundary condition, model
framework and the solution procedure have been described in
details elsewhere.15,16 The computed temperature fields as a
function of time were then used to calculate the vapor pressure
and vaporization rates of alloying elements. The data used for
calculations14,17-20 are presented in Table I.
Table I Data used for calculations.14,17-20
Property/Parameter Value
Density of liquid metal (kg/m3) 7.2 × 103
Absorption coefficient 0.27
Effective viscosity (kg/m sec) 0.1
Solidus temperature (K) 1697
Liquidus temperature (K) 1727
Enthalpy of solid at melting point (J/kg) 1.20 × 106
Enthalpy of liquid at melting point (J/kg) 1.26 × 106
Specific heat of solid (J/kg K) 711.8
Specific heat of liquid (J/kg K) 837.4
Thermal conductivity of solid (J/m sec K) 19.26
Effective thermal conductivity of liquid (J/m sec K) 209.3
Temperature coefficient of surface tension (N/m K) -0.43 × 10-3
Coefficient of thermal expansion 1.96 × 10-5
Surface tension coefficient (N/m) 1.872
Vaporization due to concentration gradient. At the
weld pool surface, the concentrations of the alloying elements
in the vapor are higher than those in the bulk shielding gas.
The vaporization flux of element i, Jci, can be defined as:
(
J ci = K gi M i ai Pi 0 RTl − Cib ) (1)
where Kgi is the mass transfer coefficient of element i, Mi is
the molecular weight of the element i, ai is the activity of
0
element i in the liquid metal, Pi is the equilibrium vapor
pressure of element i over its pure liquid, R is the gas constant,
Tl is the temperature at the weld pool surface, Cib is the
concentration of element i in the shielding gas which is
significantly lower than the concentration at the weld pool
surface. The mass transfer coefficient between the weld pool
surface and the shielding gas is calculated from the graphical
results of Schlunder and Gniclinski21 for a jet impinging on a temperature, the distribution patterns of vapor fluxes are
flat surface and is given by: similar to the surface temperature profiles. From Fig. 3(a), the
( (
K gi = 2 Pr 0.42 Re 0.5 (Di d ) 1 + Re 0.55 200 )) 0. 5
×
peak temperature near the weld center of the beam-workpiece
interaction zone exceeds the boiling point of the alloy. As a
[0.483 − 0.108(r d ) + 7.71 × 10 −3
(r d ) 2
] (2) result, the vaporization is predominantly driven by the
pressure gradient. Most of the vaporization from the weld pool
where Pr is Prandtl number, Re is the Reynolds number at the surface occurs from this active region. The diameter of this
nozzle exit, Di is the average diffusivity of element i in the region is approximately 0.2 mm as can be observed from Fig.
shielding gas at average temperature Tav, d is the diameter of 3(b). This dimension is comparable but somewhat smaller than
the nozzle, and r is the radial distance on weld pool surface. the laser beam diameter of 0.52 mm. The vaporization flux
Vaporization due to pressure gradient. During laser outside this region is much lower. The vaporization flux is
microjoining, the peak temperature reached on the weld pool driven mainly by the concentration gradient.
surface often exceeds the boiling point of the alloy. As a
result, the vapor pressure at the weld pool surface can be
higher than the ambient pressure, and the excess pressure
provides a driving force for the vapor to move away from the
surface. Therefore, the convective flux of the vaporized
elements, driven by the excess pressure is an important
contributor to the overall vaporization flux.
The velocity distribution functions of the vapor
molecules, f1, f2, and f3, escaping from the weld pool surface
at various locations are shown schematically in Fig. 1. On the
weld pool surface, the molecules cannot travel in the negative Fig. 1 A schematic diagram of the velocity distribution
direction, and as a consequence, the velocity distribution is functions in the Knudsen layer and in adjacent regions.
half-Maxwellian. Close to the weld pool, there exists a space
-0.5 0 0.5
of several mean free paths length, known as the Knudsen 1.5 1.5
layer, at the outer edge of which the velocity distribution just 1.4 1.4
z (mm)

reaches the equilibrium distribution. Considering the velocity K

1.3 97 1.3
distribution functions, the rate of vaporization and 16
condensation were calculated based on the works of 1.2 600 mm/s 1.2
Anisimov9 and Knight10 by solving the equations of 1.1 1.1
conservation of mass, momentum and kinetic energy. The -0.5 0 0.5
detailed procedure for the calculation of vaporization flux due x (mm)
to pressure gradient, Jpi, is available in a recent paper22 and is Fig. 2 Experimental and calculated weld pool cross section.
not presented here. Laser power: 1507 W, pulse duration: 4 ms, and spot radius:
0.389 mm.
Results and discussion 0.2
Temperature in K (a)
Validity of heat transfer and fluid flow model. The 0.15
2800
experimentally determined weld pool cross sections are
y (mm)

0.1 3000
compared with the corresponding computed values in Fig. 2. It 3150
is observed that the calculated weld pool geometry and 0.05 3250
dimensions agree well with the experimental results. Since the
0
temperature coefficient of surface tension is negative, the -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
molten metal on the surface flows from the center to the x (mm)
0.2
periphery of the pool. As a result, the convection in the weld Total vapor flux in kg/m2 -s (b)
pool aids in the transport of heat from the middle to the 0.15
0.4
y (mm)

periphery. The fair agreement indicates validity of the

0.1 10
transient heat transfer and fluid flow model. The temperatures 50
calculated from this model are reliable and can be used in the 0.05 100
calculation of vaporization and liquid metal expulsion. 0
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
Vaporization rate and composition change. Fig. 3 x (mm)
shows the computed temperature distribution and total vapor Fig. 3 Calculated distribution of temperature and the total
fluxes on weld pool surface after 3.0 ms. Because vapor vapor flux on the weld pool surface after 3 ms. Laser power:
pressures of all the alloying elements are strong functions of 1067 W, pulse duration: 3 ms, and spot radius: 0.26 mm.

111
 For the laser spot welding, vaporization is time-
dependent. Fig. 4 shows the variation of calculated
vaporization rates with time. It can be seen that the
vaporization rates of the constituent alloying elements increase
properties of alloys, the successful prediction of composition
change by the model is helpful to understand how these
properties are affected by laser microjoining.
0.6

Concentration Change (wt %)

with time. At the end of the pulse cycle, vaporization rates
Calculated value
y
decrease suddenly and the vaporization of alloying elements 0.4
Experimental value
y
stops. It can be also seen that iron is the main vaporizing 0.2
species, followed by chromium and manganese. Although
manganese has the highest vapor pressure over its pure 0

liquid,23 its low equilibrium vapor pressure over the alloy -0.2
results in the lower vaporization rate than iron and chromium.
-0.4
As a result of vaporization of constituent alloying
elements, the concentrations of alloying elements in the weld -0.6
Fe Mn Cr Ni
metal will change after laser microjoining. The fair agreement
between experimental and computed concentration changes of Fig. 5 Comparison between the calculated and the
four alloying elements is shown in Fig. 5. It is shown that the experimentally determined composition change of 304
concentrations of manganese and chromium decrease while stainless steel. Laser power: 1067 W, pulse duration: 3 ms,
those of iron and nickel increase after laser microjoining. and spot radius: 0.225 mm.
Although the total mass of iron and nickel in the weld pool is

Composition Change of Mn (wt %)

lower than that before the welding, the total mass of the weld 0

pool has decreased because of the loss of manganese,

-0.2
chromium, iron and nickel. As a result, the concentrations of
iron and nickel in the fusion zone are higher than those in the -0.4
base metal because of the pronounced loss of manganese and
chromium. -0.6
Experimental values
2 -0.8
Calculated values
Vaporization Rate (mg/s)

-1
total 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
1.5
Power Density (W/mm2)

Fig. 6 Experimental and calculated concentration change of

1 Fe Mn as a function of power density. Pulse duration: 3 ms.
Liquid metal expulsion. The total weight loss of 304
0.5 Cr stainless steel after laser microjoining at various laser power
densities, obtained from the calculated and experimental
Mn results, are shown in Fig. 7. As the laser power density
0 Ni increases, the temperature at the weld pool surface exceeds the
0 1 2 3 4
Time (ms) 50
Fig. 4 Change of vaporization rates of the four alloying
Total Weight Loss ( μ g)

elements with time. Laser power: 1067 W, pulse duration: 3 40 Calculated value
ms, and spot radius: 0.26 mm. Experimental value
30
The fair agreement between the experimental and the
computed concentration change of manganese as a function of 20
power density can be seen in Fig. 6. In experiments, several
electron microprobe traces were made for every sample. The 10
final concentration is effected by two factors: volume of weld
pool and total weight loss. As laser power density increases, 0
both the volume and total weight loss increase. As a result, the 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
change of concentration with laser power density is not Power Density (W/mm2)
monotonous. Depending on how the rates of volume and total Fig. 7 The calculated vaporization loss is compared with
weight loss change with power density, the concentration measured mass loss for different power densities. Laser
change either increases or decreases. Because the composition power: 1067 W, pulse duration: 3.0 ms.
change of alloys has effects on the mechanical or corrosion

112
boiling point of the steel. As a result, the total vaporization
loss increases significantly due to pressure driven
vaporization. However, it is observed that the experimental
weight loss is always higher than the computed weight loss
due to vaporization. A possible reason for the observed
discrepancy between the experimental weight loss and the
calculated vaporization loss is that only a portion of the weight
loss occurs due to vaporization and the remainder of the loss
must be attributed to some other mechanism. Therefore, the
possibility of ejection of the tiny metal droplets from the weld
pool owing to the recoil force exerted by the metal vapors was
examined both experimentally and theoretically.
Expulsion of metal drops takes place when the vapor
recoil force exceeds the surface tension force of the liquid
metal at the periphery of the weld pool.6. The vapor recoil
occurrence of intermittent or heavy expulsion. If laser power
density keeps constant, for example, keeping it at 7 kW/mm2,
no vapor deposit were observed on the inner surface of quartz
tube under the pulse duration of 2 ms. When the pulse
duration increases to 3 ms, metal vapor was found on the inner
wall of quartz tube. When the pulse duration is equal or higher
than 4 ms, it is possible for intermittent even heavy expulsion
to take place. It can be expected that longer pulse duration
results in a lower critical laser power density for the
occurrence of liquid metal expulsion, which was also
successfully predicted from calculation results, as shown by
the solid line in the figure.
600
(a)

Force (gm-cm/sec2)
force, Fr , and the surface tension force at the periphery, Fs , 400
Surface tension
can be expressed by:
rB
Fr = 2π
∫ rΔP(r )dr
200
(3)
Recoil force
0

FS = 2πr0σ (4) 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
where rB is the radial distance at which the surface temperature Time (ms)
reaches the boiling point, ΔP(r) is the difference between the
local equilibrium vapor pressure and the atmosphere pressure
and is the function of radial distance from the beam axis, r0 is
the radial distance at which the temperature is equal to the
solidus temperature of the alloy and σ is the surface tension
coefficient at that temperature. Fig. 8(a) shows the computed
values of these two forces during laser microjoining. At the
start of the pulse, the surface tension force is higher than the (b) 0.5 mm
recoil force. As the temperature increases with time, both the
surface tension force and recoil force increase. However, the Fig. 8 (a) Calculated recoil force and surface tension force at
recoil force increases faster than the surface tension force. At the periphery of the liquid pool as a function of time. (b)
about 2.6 ms after the start of the pulse, the two forces are Vaporized elements and tiny droplets ejected from the weld
roughly equal. Further heating results in the recoil force pool of 304 stainless steel were captured on the inner surface
surpassing the surface tension force, at which point, ejection of a both end open quartz tube placed co-axial with the laser
of metal droplets is anticipated. The liquid metal expulsion has beam during laser microjoining. Laser power: 1067 W, pulse
been verified during experiments, as shown in Fig. 8(b). duration: 3 ms, spot diameter: 0.405 mm.
Clearly, mass loss is contributed by both vaporization of
1
alloying elements as well as the liquid metal expulsion.
The combinations of laser power and spot diameter that
0.8
lead to liquid metal expulsion are shown in Fig. 9. The points
Spot Diameter (mm)

on the same curve have same laser power density, defined by 3.0 kW/mm2
0.6
laser power per unit area. It is observed that the liquid
4.0
expulsion occurs above a critical laser power density, which is
7.0
about 7 kW/mm2 in Fig. 9. The recoil and surface tension 0.4
10.0
forces were compared to predict the critical beam diameter Heavy expulsion
0.2 Intermittent expulsion
under different laser powers, as shown by the solid line. It is Vapor
close to that obtained from experiments. No vapor
0
Beside laser power density, pulse duration also has 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

important effects on liquid metal expulsion. Fig. 10 shows the Laser Power (kW)
extent of liquid metal expulsion under different laser power Fig. 9 Liquid metal expulsion data under different laser power
densities and pulse durations. At constant pulse duration, densities for laser microjoining of 304 stainless steel. Pulse
higher laser power density increases the tendency of the duration: 3 ms.

113
 20
Power Density (kW/mm2)
16
12
8
4
0
1 3 5 7
Pulse Duration (ms)
Fig. 10 Analysis of liquid metal expulsion under different
laser power densities and pulse durations for laser spot
welding of 304 stainless steel.
Summary and conclusions
A comprehensive model to calculate temperature,
vaporization rates of alloying elements and weld metal
composition change during laser microjoining of 304 stainless
steel, taking into account both vaporization and condensation,
was developed. The calculated fusion zone geometry and
composition change produced by laser microjoining under
various welding conditions showed fair agreement with the
corresponding experimental results. The vaporization rate
increased with time. The expulsion of metal droplets was
predicted by computations and verified by experiments. The
conditions necessary for the initiation of liquid metal
expulsion were determined by balancing the vapor recoil force
with the surface tension force at the periphery of the liquid
pool. Higher power density and longer pulse duration
increased the tendency of liquid metal expulsion during laser
microjoining.
Acknowledgements
The work was supported by a grant from the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences,
Division of Materials Sciences, under grant number DE-
FGO2-01ER45900. Portions of this work, performed at Sandia
National Laboratories, were supported by United States
Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security
Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. The
authors would like to thank Paul Hlava for his help with the
experimental measurements.
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Intermittent expulsion 5086, Metall. Trans. B, 19B, 319-29 (1988)
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6. S. Basu and T. DebRoy, Liquid-metal expulsion during
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11. M. von Allmen and A. Blatter, Laser-Beam Interactions
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12. M. von Allmen, Laser drilling velocity in metals, J. Appl.
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13 C. L. Chan and J. Mazumder, One-dimensional steady-
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62, 4579-86 (1987)
14. P. W. Fuerschbach and G. R. Eisler, Effect of laser spot
weld energy and duration on melting and absorption, Sci.
Technol. Weld. Joining, 7, 241-46 (2002)
15. X. He, P. W. Fuerschbach and T. DebRoy, Heat transfer
and fluid flow during laser spot welding of 304 stainless
steel, J. Phy. D: Appl. Phys., 36, 1388-98 (2003)
16. W. Zhang, G. Roy, J. Elmer and T. DebRoy, Modeling of
heat transfer and fluid flow during gas tungsten arc spot
welding of low carbon steel, J. Appl. Phys., 93, 3022-33
(2003)
17. D. Peckner and I. M. Bernstein, Handbook of Stainless
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18. J. R. Davis, Metals Handbook, ASM International,
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114
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Numerical Analysis for Optimization of Aluminum Tube Welding
J. Menke, D. F. Farson, M.H. Cho
Ohio State University, Columbus OH
B. Green, L. Brown
EWI, Columbus OH
Abstract
A computer model of the GTAW process is presented. The
model includes a moving, gaussian heat source, deposited
filler wire and temperature dependent material properties. The
arc was represented by heat input and pressure distributions
imposed on the metal surface. The model was used to predict
the location of liquidus and solidus isotherms and the weld
face and root surface reinforcement height and width around
the circumference of a weld made with the pipe in a fixed
(5G) position. When the arc heat input was calibrated from
calorimetric measurements, the model roughly predicted the
weld pool solidified face and root widths (maximum error was
about 21%) and the temperature in the material away from the
weld pool.
Introduction
In construction of certain chemical plants, thousands of
aluminum pipe welds are required and welding, inspection and
repair costs comprise a significant cost of construction.
A key factor in welding costs is meeting the stringent
requirements on the weld smoothness on the inner diameter of
the header piping.
The objectives for this project are as follows:
1. To develop an accurate numerical process model of
GTAW that incorporates the most important physical
phenomena.
2. Experimentally measured process heat inputs for
incorporation in the model.
3. Use model predictions of process parameters that
optimize heat input around the weld for consistent
penetration.
Background
Taylor, et al.1 developed a unified model that was primarily
concerned with the prediction of distortion, residual stress and
the size of the heat affected zone. Their paper presented the
computational modeling of welding phenomena within a
framework embracing models from both the fields of
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Computational
Solid Mechanics (CSM). With regard to the CFD modeling of
the weld pool fluid dynamics, heat transfer and phase change,
cell-centered Finite Volume (FV) methods were employed.
Vertex-based FV methods were employed with regard to the
elasto-plastic deformation associated with the CSM.
PHYSICA software was employed. Velocity profiles were
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
presented and the effects of the heat source shape in the
modeling of laser welds as well as the Marangoni effect
(magnetohydrodynamics) were discussed. Jönsson, et.al.2
presented a very nice comprehensive survey of research on
transport phenomena associated with arc welding. It is, of
course, valid only up until the time it was written in 1993.
However it does provide an illustration of the history of 1-, 2-
and 3-dimensional weld modeling, both coupled and
uncoupled. For more than 20 years, the most extensive and
influential work on welding process has been done by a group
at PSU; a few of the most recent relevant works are noted.3,4,5
The primary contribution of the present work in comparison is
to the body of prior research is the use of a simulation
technique that allows prediction of the time-varying shape of
the weld pool surface and the solidified weld bead around the
circumference of a fixed aluminum pipe in the horizontal
position.
Modeling
The simulation deals with Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW) of 6061-T6 aluminum pipe with 4043 aluminum
filler wire. In the orbital welding process considered in this
simulation, the pipe axis is horizontal and the butt-weld joint
is vertically-oriented It is also important to model the weld as
it completes a 360° rotation about the cylinder in order to
measure the temperature effects from the beginning of the
weld.
A key desired model predictions were the width and height of
the solidified weld root penetration. The idea is to make welds
where the extension into the pipe interior of the weld bead
does not exceed a maximum value and is relatively consistent
around the entire weld circumference. Other features that were
desired to predict accurately were weld bead front width and
reinforcement/concavity.
The following affects were considered to be important to
evaluate for inclusion in a numerical model for accurate
prediction of the weld pool flow and solidified shape 6: surface
tension gradient (Marangoni affect), buoyancy (densitometric
gradient), magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) , gravity force,
viscosity, convection heat loss and filler wire addition.
The arc is represented by heat input and pressure boundary
conditions on the fluid rather than being simulated from first
principals. Based on previous research7, the arc heat input
distribution is assumed to be Gaussian. The magnitude of the
heat input is calculated as the product of arc current and
115
voltage, multiplied by an empirical arc efficiency term
(measured by calorimetry). The radius of the arc heat input
distribution at the surface is taken from previous
measurements published in the literature.
3Q  − 3r 2 
q (r ) = exp 2  ,
πa 2  a 
where q(r) = heat flux at the material surface, r = radial
distance from center of arc,
Q = heat input magnitude and a = effective arc heat input
radius

Despite that fact a cylindrical geometry would seem to be Figure 2. Simulation domain dimensions
necessary to simulate welding of pipe, it happens that a
simulation based on a flat or “linear” material geometry can
also be made to accurately represent pipe welding and actually
has some advantages over the more obvious choice. By
“unwinding” the pipe, starting at top dead center, a ‘linear’
model with a length equal to the circumference of the pipe
could be used to simulate the process. This transformation is
shown in Figure 1. The use of the linear model meant that
certain physical effects, such as the direction of the gravity
vector and convection to the surroundings, would have to be
varied with position along the length of the material. The
simulation results also require a certain amount of visual
interpretation to match the weld arc travel along the linear part
to the circumferential travel of a weld arc around a pipe. In the Figure 3. Simulation boundary conditions
linear model the x-axis was chosen as the direction of arc
travel along the weld, the y-axis was chosen as the direction To transform the model from the round pipe to the linear
normal to the weld and the z-axis was the direction through geometry, the gravity vector and convection heat transfer
the thickness of the material, with dimensions shown in Figure needed to be varied sinusoidally as a function of distance
2. along the weld. This model uses a single heat source that
begins centered over the beginning face of the material at x=0,
y=0. In this simulation the beginning and end faces of the
domain at x = 0 and x = 2πr are defined to have periodic
boundary conditions (Fig. 3). In this model, the heat source is
initially “split” by the beginning boundary at the weld start.
Therefore, one half of the Gaussian heat input distribution is
located on the right side of the domain.

The input power endpoint and slope values were obtained by

inserting the data from the weld process controller into an
Excel spreadsheet and applying a linear fit to the segments of
the weld cycle. This is shown graphically in Figure 4 below.

Figure 1. Conversion of cylindrical to linear geometry

116
 80%
1600
y = -16.667(t) + 1242
1400 70%

1200 60%
Power, watts

1000

Arc Efficiency
50%
800
40%

-4
c
se

19
c
se
600 y = 134.244(t) + 771.181

10

p
Am
20

p
Am
p

0
Am
30%

15
0
400

10

VP
0
10

P
y = -58.317(t) + 2286.7

S
SP
200 20%

0 10%
RP 50 Amp
0 10 20 30 40
Time, seconds 0%

Figure 4. Pulsed power input and straight line fits used for Figure 5. Arc efficiencies measured by calorimetry.
model

Simulations done using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) numerical
technique (implemented in commercial Flow-3D software8)
and were run in on a dual Xeon processor computer with 2 GB
of RAM and a 32 GB SCSI hard drive, using the Windows XP
operating system. The time required for simulation of a weld
around a 1”-diameter pipe was approximately 12 hours.
Arc Efficiency Measurements
The arc efficiency of the welding process to be modeled must
be determined in order to know what percent of the power
input to the arc is transferred as heat to the part. The arc
efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy transferred to a
sample part from a weld arc to the total energy input to the arc
(integral of current x voltage). The procedure used was liquid
nitrogen calorimetry9 whereby a heated sample part is
immersed into a bath of liquid nitrogen and the amount of
gaseous nitrogen released is measured as the part is cooled to
the equilibrium temperature of -196° C (77 K). By multiplying
the mass of nitrogen released by the heat of transformation
one can calculate the amount of heat energy removed from the
welded sample. By measuring the heat energy in a room
temperature part and subtracting that from the heat energy of a
welded part you get the heat energy transferred to the part
from the weld arc. This is then compared to the energy input
to the weld head to compute the arc efficiency.
The results of the arc efficiency testing are summarized in
Figure 5. The measured efficiencies are comparable but
somewhat less that similar values in the literature.7-1010111213
The arc efficiency of the reverse polarity process is much less
than straight polarity, which is to be expected. The variable
polarity process yielded results that were essentially the same
as the straight polarity process which indicates that it is not
simply a linear combination of the proportion of time spent on
each cycle of the waveform times the efficiency for that cycle.
Further work would be required to see if the efficiency of the
reverse polarity process is increased once a molten weld pool
is established.
Model Results and Discussion
The temperature distribution sequence depicted in Figures 6(a-
c) show progression of the top surface temperature of a weld
from beginning to end. Figure 6(a) shows the temperature
distribution on the pipe surface shortly after the weld has
begun. The solidus temperature of aluminum is taken as 875 K
and is represented as pure red. Therefore, the boundaries of
the weld pool are clearly visible. The temperature distribution
shown in Figure 6(b) represents the weld as the heat source
nears the right side of the simulation domain. All material
within the simulation domain has reached a temperature above
400 K (about 260°F). The temperature distribution shown in
Figure 6(c) represents the weld after the heat source has made
one complete revolution around the pipe and is in the
“overlap” region near the end of the weld where the heat input
is being decreased and the weld pool size is decreasing. All
material within the simulation domain has then reached a
temperature above 500K (about 440°).
Figures 6(a-c) also provide a clear illustration of the affect of
the periodic boundary condition applied on the left and right
sides of the material. When using this boundary condition, the
heat source is bisected by the left and right boundaries at the
beginning of the simulation time, so heat is deposited on both
the far left and far right of the material region. As the heat
source travels to the right, the heat input distribution becomes
entirely contained within the left side of the material region,
although the heat that it deposited on the far right side of the
region is still visible. This residual heat captures the
“preheating affect” that causes the weld size to increase as the
heat source approaches the right side of the material region.
Thus, the periodic boundary condition is seen to one key to
realistically simulating a cylindrical geometry within a
rectangular simulation domain.

117
 (c)

Figure 6. Temperature distributions a) top, 3.6 s; b) bottom 18

s; c) bottom 32 s.

Another view of the temperature distribution along the weld

centerline predicted by the model is shown in Figure 7. In this
“cut-away view”, the isotherm colors have been adjusted to
reveal the locations of the liquidus and solidus isotherms, so
the weld pool fusion boundary shape is clearly visible. The
length of the weld pool on the top and bottom surfaces of the
weld can be easily estimated from these figures.

(a)

Figure 7. Cut-away view of temperature distribution along the

weld centerline showing weld pool fusion boundary shape.

Figure 8 shows the temperature history at a single distance of

3.5 in. along the weld seam from the start point and various
positions from the weld centerline on the top face of the pipe.
Similarly, Figure 9 shows the predicted temperature history at
a distance of 5 mm from the weld centerline but at various
locations along the weld joint. In both plots, the overall
heating of the pipe is evidenced by the general upward trend
of the temperature histories.
Temperature vs Time, x= 5.3 cm
1600

1400
(b) y=0.0 cm
1200 y=0.5 cm
Temperature, K

1000 y=0.25
cm y=1.0 cm
800

600

400

200 y=2.5 cm
y=5.0 cm
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time, sec

Figure 8. Top face temperature vs. time at a fixed location

along the weld seam and at various distances from the
centerline

118
 3. Another cause may be in the way that the wire feed is
Temperature vs. Time, y= 0.5 cm
modeled as an integral part of the solid base material. This
900 technique entails simply apply a rectangular block of
800 aluminum material equal in swept volume to the wire feed
700 speed times cross-sectional area. Although this makes more
efficient use of computer resources, the arc heat input is
Temperature, K

600
500
applied to a surface that is a slightly above the material
x=0.0 cm

400
surface. This may contribute to the lack of penetration seen,
x=2.0 cm
particularly at the beginning of the weld cycle when the
300 x=4.0 cm
molten pool is just getting established.
200 x=6.0 cm

100 x=8.0 cm
4. Another issue is with the measurement of the welds,
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
themselves. Weld bead widths were estimated by visual
Time, seconds inspection of the face and root surfaces under a low
magnification binocular microscope. Because the distance
Figure 9. Top face temperature vs. time at a fixed distances between the liquidus and solidus isotherms is relatively wide,
from the centerline and at various locations along the weld the weld bead width measurements varied somewhat because
seam. of the difficulty to identify precisely where the fusion
boundary in the weld zone. and part of this is variation due to
the fact that different observations measuring the weld widths
As can be seen from the weld pool width results displayed in of the same welds determined values. Because This due to the.
Tables 1 and 2, the model predicted a greater outside fusion
zone width and also less root width than that which was seen 5. Identical parts welded with the same process and variable
on welded parts. Probable causes of this are as follows: settings have varying values for weld width and
reinforcement. This variation makes up most of the standard
1. The model and parts used for this comparison were two- deviation magnitude seen in the measurements.
inch diameter pieces. This required a very long material
domain. Issues of runtime vs. model accuracy were Table 1. Root Width, mm
encountered due to the high aspect ratio of length to material
thickness seen in these models. Flow-3D requires that the Measurement Prediction,
computational cells have aspect ratios no greater than 1.5, mm mm Error, %
which means that there are limits to how many cells there can
Pos deg 90 270 90 270 90 270
be through the thickness of the part. Increasing the number of
average 5.0 4.6 4.0 4.5 -20% -2%
cells in the z-direction (material thickness) from seven to, say,
ten requires a proportional increase in the number of cells in std dev 1.37 1.47
the x- and y-directions. This results in 1.33 = 220% increase in
model size. This can seriously slow the pace of development Table 2. Outside width
from a 4 hour model to an 18 hour model runtime. Also,
increasing the number of cells to ten is not really a substantial Measurement Prediction,
increase. Twenty cells are required before noticeable increases mm mm Error, %
in model accuracy seen. All this boils down to is that the lack Pos deg 90 270 90 270 90 270
of penetration seen in the computer model may be due to not average 6.9 6.7 8.0 8.1 16% 21%
enough computational divisions in the z-direction through the std dev 1.19 1.43
material thickness. Extreme gradients in temperature are not
handled well, in general, by digital simulations. The usual fix
is to increase the number of computational cells. Model-based Weld Optimization
2. It was discovered late in the model development that two The goal of this work was to produce a model that can be used
complete and empty computational cells are required above to assist in optimizing the welding of aluminum pipes. One
and below the material for proper solving of the model. The possible useful function would be to modify a baseline
cells above the material have met this condition throughout the welding procedure to have a faster or slower travel speed
development of the model due to the increased height of the while adjusting arc power to maintain a uniform back bead
wire on the top surface. This was not always the case below width.
the material. This may have affected the heat transfer to the
void below z = 0, causing an artificial cooling affect on the
bottom of the part and reducing the penetration and weld pool
width seen there.

119
 1800 the semi-empirical simulation approach illustrated in this
1.4x TRAVEL SPEED
1600 work, Gaussian heat input parameters can be calibrated to
1400
1.2x TRAVEL SPEED determine the effects of welding energy, heat flow and gravity
1200 on weld bead shape around the entire weld joint, including the
Power, watts

1000
overlap area at the end of the weld. The model approximately
800 1.0x TRAVEL SPEED
predicts of weld pool shape as it varies around the pipe
600
(DATA FROM AMET) circumference. The model can be executed to provide
400 0.8x TRAVEL SPEED numerical modeling data to help develop and optimize
200
welding procedures.
0.6x TRAVEL SPEED
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 References
Rotational Position, degrees
1
Gareth A. Taylor, Michael Hughes, Nadia Strusevich, and
Koulis Pericleous, “Finite Volume Methods Applied To The
Figure 10. Arc Power input profiles that produce a constant Computational Modeling Of Welding Phenomena” in
weld back bead width along the entire weld, plotted for 5 Proceedings of the Second International Conference on CFD
different travel speeds. in the Minerals and Process Industries, Melbourne,
Australia, 6-8 December, 1999. (CSIRO, 1999)
The results plotted in Figure 10 show arc power profiles 2
P. G. Jönsson, J. Szekely, R. T. C. Choo, and T. P. Quinn.
corresponding to various travel speeds that all are predicted to
“Mathematical Models Of Transport Phenomena Associated
yield the same back bead penetration. The curves are based on
With Arc Welding Processes: A Survey.” Modeling and
an initial heat input profile that was taken from a optimized
Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering, 2(5)
process (labeled as 1.0x travel speed). The travel speed was
1994: 995-1016.
increased and decreased from this initial value and the heat 3
input required to produce consistent back bead width was S Mishra, T DebRoy, A heat-transfer and fluid-flow-based
determined by iteratively executing the simulation to arrive at model to obtain a specific weld geometry using various
the correct heat input. The same data is re-plotted in Figure 11 combinations of welding variables, J. Appl. Phys. 98(4):
to show the relationship in a different way. Generally, the Art. No. 044902 (2005).
4
increase in travel speed required to maintain a constant weld TA Palmer, T DebRoy, Numerical modelling of enhanced
back bead width increased with travel speed with a rate that nitrogen dissolution during gas tungsten arc welding, Met
was higher-order than linear. Mat. Trans B 31(6):1371-1385 (2000).
5
W Zhang, GG Roy, JW Elmer, T DebRoy, Modeling of heat
transfer and fluid flow during gas tungsten arc spot welding
Heat Input vs Travel Speed of low carbon steel, J Appl Phys 93(5):3022-3033 (2003).
6
Sindo Kou 1996. Transport Phenomena And Material
180%
Processing, 1st Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
7
160% Sindo Kou 2003. Welding Metallurgy, 2nd Edition. New
Heat Input Change, %

140% York: Wiley-Interscience.

8
Flow-3D, Flow Science Inc, 683 Harkle Rd Suite A, Santa
120%
Fe, NM 87505. 2004.
9
100% Joseph, D. Harwig, D. Farson, R. Richardson 2003
80%
Measurement and Calculation of GMAW-P Arc Power and
Heat Transfer Efficiency, Science and Technology of
60% Welding and Joining, 8 (6): 400-406.
40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160% 10
Travel Speed Change, %
J. N. DuPont, and A. R. Marder 1995. “Thermal Efficiency
of Arc Welding Processes”, Welding Journal, 74 (12): 406-s
to 416-s.
11
Figure 11. General trend of heat input variation that was J. B. Wilkinson, and D. R. Milner 1960. “Heat Transfer
required for a fixed weld back bead width at various travel From Arcs”, British Welding Journal, 7 (2): 115 to 128.
12
speeds. R. W. Niles, and C. E. Jackson 1975. Weld Thermal
Efficiency of the GTAW Process, Welding Journal, 54
(1): 25-s to 32-s.
Conclusions 13
W. H. Giedt, L. N. Tallerico, and P. W. Fuerschback 1989.
“GTA Welding Efficiency: Calorimetric and Temperature
Field Measurements”, Welding Journal, 68 (1): 28-s to 32-s
This work demonstrated that a modified commercial VOF
code can, with some degree of accuracy, predict the weld pool
shape with input data taken from actual welds. By adopting

120
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Laser Plasma Powder Hybrid Welding
in Vertical-Up and Vertical-Down Positions
K. Stelling, Th. Boellinghaus, M. Lammers, H. Schobbert
Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany
Abstract
Laser arc hybrid welding processes are increasingly applied to
industrial fabrication welding, but are still restricted to
horizontal welding positions associated with complicated
component and assembly part movement. Out-of-position
hybrid welding has not yet been reported in the open literature.
Based on a preliminary study with the austenitic stainless steel
1.4565 (AISI S34565) to adopt the LPPAW (Laser Plasma
Powder Arc Welding) to the PF and PG position, similar
experiments have been carried out by variation of the joint
inclination angle. In order to widen also the material
application range, a Nickel base alloy and an austenitic
stainless steel with a remarkably lower content of the alloying
elements Cr und Ni have been investigated. With the present
contribution, the process proved to be generally applicable to
vertical up and down welding of of such CRAs (Corrosion
Resistant Alloys) and thus, the perspectives for out-of-
position laser arc hybrid welding have evidently become
wider. As a particular item with respect to corrosion resistance
and safer operation of welded stainless steel components,
more tightly focusing of the powder feeding in the plasma
torch avoids powder deposits alongside the weld seem and
improves the shielding of the process zone during welding.
Introduction
Considering fabrication welding efficiency as welded
longitudinal section per unit time, modern laser welding
techniques have become increasingly attractive in nearly all
industrial fabrication branches over the last two decades. In
most cases, the high investment and operation costs have
successfully been counterbalanced by production factors
related to the high welding speeds.
In the last decade, further laser application limits were
overcome by the introduction of hybrid laser arc welding
techniques. Such coupling of the laser to a respective arc
welding process in a common process zone particularly
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
improved the gap bridging and misalignment leveling
capacities. Such improvements drastically reduced the weld
preparation costs and, together with the achievement of deeper
penetration, made such hybrid welding techniques most
attractive for ship building and pipe manufacturing at even
somewhat higher investment costs and lower welding speeds
as compared to sole laser processes.
Laser arc hybrid techniques can generally be categorized into
process coupling the laser to GMAW (Gas Metal Arc
Welding) and those coupling the laser to PAW (Plasma Arc
Welding). During the recent years, there is a tendency of
LGMAW (Laser Gas Metal Arc Welding) towards better gap
bridging capacities as compared to LPAW (Laser Plasma Arc
Welding). But, although meanwhile improved by pulsing and
further arc control, LGMAW appears as a less stable process,
in particular, if the droplet transfer is extinguishing part time
the laser keyhole. In such cases, decoupling the energy input
from the filler material transfer appears as very effective for a
better weld process control and particularly LPPAW (Laser
Plasma Powder Arc Welding) has been proven as a very stable
hybrid welding procedure [1] and utilizes applications needing
the fine dispersed filler material transferred deeply into the
weld root to avoid hot cracking by alloying additions, for
instance. A comparison of such multi parameter hybrid
techniques appears to be difficult and is further complicated
by the fact that both arc welding types have meanwhile been
coupled to various laser types, in particular to Nd:YAG as
well as to CO2 lasers. It can only be emphasized that
LGMAW (Laser Gas Metal Arc Welding) and LPAW (Laser
Plasma Arc Welding) should not be regarded as concurrent
processes, but increase the general application range of laser
arc hybrid welding by their specialties. However, up to the
present laser arc hybrid welding has predominantly been
carried out in position PA [2], in order to avoid weld metal
fall-through and lack of fusion. Circumferential pipeline
hybrid welding is performed in the PA or PC position [2],
moving the tubular underneath the static hybrid welding
system [3]. To avoid such complicated and cost extensive
fabrication procedures and to overcome the important
121
industrial application restriction to in-position (PA) welding, Table 4: Chemical composition of the austenitic powder filler
laser arc hybrid techniques have to be utilized for out-of- metal 316 L, wt.%, bal. Fe
position welding. As a first step towards this direction, it has C Cr Ni Mo Ti Nb
been shown in a previous preliminary study [4] that LPPAW 0.014 16.3 10.6 2.15 n.s. n.s.
of a high nitrogen austenitic stainless steel 1.4565 (AISI Si Mn P S N Cu
S34565) is feasible in the vertical-up and vertical-down 0.52 1.18 <.01 0.004 n.s. n.s.
welding position, PF and PG [2], respectively. In order to n.s. not specified
widen the application range first towards other CRAs
(Corrosion Resistant Alloys) with respectively high surface Welding Process
quality requirements, similar welding experiments have been For the welding experiments, a diode pumped Nd:YAG-laser
carried out with an austenitic stainless steel lower alloyed in with a maximum power of 4.4 kW, a focal length of 200 mm
Nickel and with a Nickel base alloy. and a beam parameter product of 23.4 mm⋅mrad was used.
The laser beam was transmitted to the work station by an
Experimental optical fiber with a diameter of 600 µm. The laser focusing
optics together with the plasma powder torch were mounted
Materials on the arm of a six-axis robot.
The alloying composition of the Nickel base alloy 2.4463 In all experiments, the plasma powder process was coupled
(Nicrofer 5520Co) and the austenitic stainless steel 1.4828 into a common process zone behind the leading laser keyhole
(comparable to AISI 309) are listed in Table 1 and Table 2, in a trailing position, because previous studies showed that the
respectively. hybrid process can be controlled in such configuration in a
wider range of parameters. For the investigated CRAs it
Table 1: Chemical composition of the Ni-base alloy 2.4463 turned out that an additional protective gas trailer preserved
(Nicrofer 5520Co), wt.% the hot weld seam from oxidization.
C Cr Ni Mo Ti Al The plasma powder process was carried out in a non-keyhole
0.050 22.10 54.90 8.70 0.390 1.170 mode, due to high welding speeds and undesirable interaction
Si Mn P S Co Fe with the laser keyhole. Fig. 1 shows the construction principle
0.010 0.080 0.003 0.002 11.50 0.910 of the plasma powder torch. Welding was started by a pilot arc
between electrode and plasma nozzle which was ignited by a
Table 2: Chemical composition of the austenitic stainless steel high-frequency.
1.4828 (AISI 309), wt.%, bal. Fe
C Cr Ni Mo Ti Nb
0.043 19.2 10.88 0.170 0.019 -
Si Mn P S N Cu
1.957 1.058 0.022 0.003 0.053 0.099

The Nickel base alloy was welded with a powder filler metal
of the same composition (Table 3).

Table 3: Chemical composition of the nickel-based filler, wt.%

(nominal values)
C Cr Ni Mo Ti Al
0.05-0.1 20-23 bal. 8.0-10.0 0.20- 0.60-
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of the plasma powder hybrid
0.60 1.50
torch design (Type I)
Si Mn P S Co Fe
up to up to 0.012 0.008 10.0- k.A.
The powder filler metal was added into the weld pool from
0.70 0.70 13.0
behind the plasma arc.
Three different torch types were designed with various powder
The steel 1.4828 was welded with a powder of an alloying feeding nozzles
content similar to the steel AISI 316L. The particle size of the
vacuum evaporated powder types was approximately between Type I:
40 and 80 µm. The powder feeding is arranged via a nozzle, which forms a
concentric gap around the plasma nozzle. Focusing of the
The plate thickness of the 2.4663 plates was 5 mm and the powder into the weld pool is achieved by an additional
1.4828 steel plates had 6 mm thickness. The edge preparation focusing gas stream (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a).
type was carried out as a square edge butt joint and before
welding the plates have been tacked.

122
Type II:
A groove is milled into the outer part of the plasma nozzle.
The powder nozzle encloses the plasma nozzle very tight and
thus, a passage for the powder is formed by assembling the
plasma into the powder nozzle (Fig. 2b).
Type III:
Plasma and powder nozzle are made of one piece. A powder
passage is drilled into the massive plasma torch adjacent to the
hole for the plasma arc (Fig. 2c).
Figure 2: Different types of plasma powder torches
The most continuous powder flow was achieved by
application of the focusing gas type, i. e. torch Type I. But, as
a disadvantage of this type, the focusing gas represents an
additional process parameter which has to be carefully
adjusted for the welding process. In contrast, a slightly pulsed
powder stream is observed at the plasma powder torches Type
II and Type III which was caused by friction of the powder in
the powder passage.
The highest powder deposition rate was achieved by the
massive plasma powder torch, Type III (Fig. 2c). At a slightly
decreased powder feeding rate of 21 g/min as compared to
previous experiments [1], depositions up to 90% were be
measured for the AISI 316L powder used to weld the steel
1.4828. As shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b, an additional
shielding gas outlet for protection of the process zone was
integrated into the torches Type I and II. Due to limited
assembly space, such an outlet could not be integrated into
the torch Type III. For this reason an additional gas nozzle
123
was installed in front of the torch providing a shielding gas
stream into which the laser could enter.
Geometric Parameters
As other laser arc hybrid welding processes, LPPAW provides
numerous geometric parameters to arrange the plasma powder
torch to the laser (Fig. 3). The most relevant to this study are:
∆z , the focal point position of the laser; ∆xB and ∆zB, the
electrode position in relation to the origin of the coordinates
which is represented by the point of laser beam impingement
on the metal plate in this case.
Figure 3: Geometric parameters of the laser plasma process
For most of the welding experiments with the austenitic
stainless steels the focus was set into the plate in a way, that
∆z amounts to one third of the thickness. However, the
experiments showed that positioning the laser focus even a
little lower in the plate (∆z = -3 mm) has positive effects on
the stability of the process and thus, on the weld quality. The
distance between the electrode tip and the laser beam axis ∆xB
was selected as small as possible, i. e. around 7.5 mm which
was also the case for the distance between the electrode tip
and the plate surface surface ∆zB.
Similar to previous experiments [2], an angle βB of 34°
between the laser beam and the axis of the plasma torch was
also found to be suitable for a stable hybrid process.
Welding Experiments
In order to achieve the final vertical-up and -down welding
positions PF and PG, respectively, the welds were carried out
by gradually increasing the angle from the flat position PA, 0°,
to 30°, 60° and finally, to 90° for the vertical positions. As a
first approach, the welding parameters of the experiments in
the horizontal position revealing acceptable weld qualities
could be transferred also to out-of-position welding with no
changes. Two different welding speeds, i. e. 1 m/min and
2 m/min with adjusted laser and arc power, have been
selected. Fig. 4 shows the complete test set up.
Out-of position welding with the Nickel base alloy was
predominantly carried out with the torch Type II, but also with
the torch Type III, in particular in the 90° positions PG and
PF. Due to the positive reducing effect and a better burn-in, a
mixture of Argon with 2 vol.-% Hydrogen was used as
shielding as well as plasma gas for this material.
With the austenitic steel AISI 309, welding experiments were
carried out using the Type III plasma torch and only Argon
was used as shielding and plasma gas.
Weld quality was investigated by visual inspection and by
respective weld cross sections. High speed video records were
compared to actual welding results and helped to improve the
plasma torch design.

Figure 4: Experimental setup for welding in PF (vertical-up)

position at an inclination angle of 60°
Figure 5: Cross sections of Ni-base alloy 2.4663, welded in
Results position PA (a, b), downhill welded with different inclination
angles of 30° (c,d), 60° (e,f) and in the position PG, (g,h)
During the first out-of-position welding of the Nickel base using the plasma powder torch Type II (welding parameters
alloy 2.4463 it turned out that powder feeding using torch for a linear heat input of 2.9, and 4.7 kJ/cm, respectively: βB =
Type I did not provide a satisfying deposition rate, even 34°, ∆z = -3 mm, PL = 4.4 / 3.0 kW, I =220 / 200 A, vs = 2 /
though it could be enhanced compared to the former plasma 1 m/min)
powder torch design and thus, more concentrated powder
feeding as provided by the other two torch designs appeared as
more convenient to achieve acceptable weld qualities. Fig. 5
shows the cross sections for vertical-down welding of the
Nickel base alloy using the torch Type II. Acceptable results
were achieved for the lower heat input of 2.9 kJ/cm. At an
increased heat input of 4.7 kJ/cm, an increasing undercut is
exhibited at the weld top side, showing also a very flat weld
bead stretched to both sides. One-sided undercut was exhibited
during vertical up welding of this material, as shown in Fig. 6.
Already at the low heat input a remarkable undercut notch can
be observed near the fusion line at the top side at an
inclination angle of 60°. Welding with high heat input in this Figure 6: Weld cross sections of the Ni-base alloy 2.4663,
position increases this undercut towards non-acceptable uphill welded at an inclination angle of 30° using the plasma
dimensions. Gravitational effects have to be addressed as the powder torch Type II (welding parameters see Figure 5)

124
reason for such undercut. During vertical-up welding, liquid
weld metal piled up in the rear weld pool and led to a lack of
material in front of the process zone. Thus, minor
misalignments between the laser and the plasma process as
well as irregularities of powder feeding caused one-sided
undercut which became worse with increasing inclination
angle. By rearrangement of the powder feeding through the
hole underneath the plasma nozzle, as designed for the torch
Type III (Fig. 2c), powder feeding was acting against the
gravity caused melt flow out of the pool. Thus, the total hybrid
welding process was more stabilized. As shown by the cross
sections in Fig. 7, even during uphill welding at the high heat
input in the vertical position, no undercut was observed. In
contrast, nearly all welds exhibited a reinforcement at the top
side which can be controlled more easier than weld metal
undercut.
Figure 7: Weld cross sections of the Ni-base alloy 2.4663,
uphill welded with different slope angles using the plasma
powder torch Type III (welding parameters for a linear heat
input of 2.9, and 4.7 kJ/cm, respectively: βB = 34°, ∆z = -
3 mm, PL = 4.4 / 3.0 kW, I =220 / 200 A, vs = 2 / 1 m/min)
The steel 1.4828 (AISI 309) was welded with similar
parameters as the Nickel base alloy at the same welding speed
125
material can be welded with such conditions in the vertical of
vS = 1.5 m/min resulting in a total heat input of 3.9 kJ/cm. As
shown by the respective cross sections in Fig. 8, this down as
well as in the vertical up position, PG and PF, respectively.
For these experiments, also the plasma powder torch Type III
was used avoiding undercut as compared to the torch Type II,
but exhibiting a similar reinforcement on the top side of the
welds during uphill welding as already observed with the
Nickel base alloy.
Figure 8: Weld cross sections of the stainless steel type AISI
309 welded in PG- (a) and PF-Position (b) using the plasma
powder torch Type III (βB = 34°, ∆z = -3 mm, PL = 4.4 kW, I
=220 A, vs = 1.5 m/min)
These results generally show that LPPAW uphill welding with
a trailing plasma powder torch appears as more complicated
than downhill welding. By respective high speed video
records, the gravitationally piled-up liquid in the rear of the
weld pool was identified as the predominant reason for the
poor weld shape. During downhill welding, the liquid metal
does not pile up due to the proceeding laser keyhole. More
plane welds on the top side can certainly be achieved by
stabilization of the liquid pool by a more precise adjustment of
the plasma gas stream and the powder feeding rate acting
against gravity on the liquid weld pool. Such parameter
variations for further weld pool stabilization are currently
continued and, at the present state, the torch Type III turned
out as the most convenient design to achieve this.
As with other Nickel base alloys [5], liquation cracking has
been detected in nearly all welds of the Ni base alloy 2.4463
which was found to be independent of the welding position.
As shown by Fig. 9, the number of micro cracks at the fusion
line in the weld cross sections is reduced with increasing heat
input. Such liquation cracking might be prevented by
adjustment of the filler material and/or shielding gas
composition. In this context, it is an important requirement for
laser arc hybrid welding that the filler material can be
transported deeply towards the weld root not only for hot
cracking avoidance, but also to improve corrosion resistance.

Figure 9: Number of microcracks at the fusion line of a weld
made of 2.4663
Figure. 10: Cross section of a laser weld with 2.4663 (βL = 0°,
PL = 3.8 kW, vS = 1.5 m/min, ∆z = -3 mm)
Figure 11: Variation of the EDX analyzed Molybdenum
content from the top side towards the root of a 1.4828 weld;
weld cross section (a) and high speed video sequence of the
regarded welding process (b)
126
A comparison of the cross section of the sole laser weld in the
position PG in Fig. 10 to that of the hybrid weld shown in Fig.
6g shows that a much wider root is established during LPPAW
and thus, the hybrid welding process actually affects the weld
root formation. As a control that the alloying elements of the
filler material are sufficiently transported into the weld depth
and thus, could be used for hot cracking avoidance, in Fig. 11
the EDX analyzed Molybdenum content in a LPPAW weld of
the steel 1.4828 is plotted versus the distance from the weld
top side. By the average line it can be seen that the
Molybdenum enriched powder of the 316 L type (Table 4) is
transported at least to a depth of half the thickness of the lower
Molybdenum alloyed base material (Table 3).
Conclusions
From the present state of out-of-position laser arc hybrid
welding the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. LPPAW of various CRAs is possible with a trailing plasma
torch in the positions PF and PG at a total heat input of 2.9 and
4.7 kJ/cm, respectively.
2. Since both positions could be welded with the same
parameter set as for the horizontal position, the process
generally appears as quite tolerant to out-of-position welding.
3. The plasma torch should be designed with a powder outlet
that stabilizes the liquid weld pool against gravitational effects
in the position PF.
4. Liquation cracking in the Nickel base alloy welds is
independent of the welding position, but dependent on heat
input and might be avoided by respective adjustment of the
filler powder composition.
5. The current results represent a significant step towards an
enormous widening of the industrial application limits for high
energy laser hybrid welding processes with the perspective to
avoid complicated and cost extensive handling of components
underneath the hybrid system during fabrication.
References
[1] H. Schobbert and Th. Boellinghaus, Nd:YAG Laser Plasma
Powder Hybrid Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels, Proc.
Trends in Welding Research, ASM 2002, pp 453-458 (2002)
[2] ISO 6947: Welds, Working Positions – Definitions of
Angles and Rotation
[3] S. Booth, D.S. Howse, A.C. Woloszyn and R.D. Howard,
Performance and Applications of Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding,
IIW-Doc. No. IV 808-02
[4] K. Holler, Th. Boellinghaus, M. Lammers and H.
Schobbert: Vertical-Up and –Down Laser Plasma Powder
Hybrid Welding of a High Nitrogen Austenitic Stainless Steel,
IIW-Doc. No. IX-H 580-03
[5] K. A. Yushenko et al., Character of Hot Crack Formation
During Welding of Cast Heat-Resistant Nickel Alloys, pp 71–
83, in: Th. Boellinghaus, H. Herold (Eds.), Hot Cracking
Phenomena in Welds, Springer, Berlin (2005)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Experimental differences between aluminium welding of Tee and

lap joints by a cw/Nd:YAG laser
L. Dubourg
Aluminium Technology Centre, National Research Council Canada, (Quebec) Canada

Abstract recommended. In this study, DOE was conducted

The effect of laser welding parameters such as laser
power, out-of-focus length, welding speed and wire
feeding speed on weld properties was studied in tee
and lap joint configurations. Two and three-
millimetre thick plates of AA6061 were welded in tee
configuration using a cw/Nd:YAG laser and AA5356
wire as the filler metal. The same set-up and wire
feeding were used for the lap joining of 2.5 -
millimetre thick square extruded tubes and 2
millimetre plates of AA6061. A combination of
Taguchi and EM designs of experiment was carried
out to explore efficiently the multidimensional
variations of welding parameters, to optimise these
parameters and to compare the experimental
differences between the two joint configurations. This
combination defines promptly the feasibility domain
and builds dynamically of this feasibility domain
throughout the data collection. Weld samples were
characterized by optical microscopy and hardness
measurements. The weld characteristics of interest
were weld fillet size, penetration depth, concavity
size and heat affected zone dimensions measured by
the hardness mapping. The process parameters and
their respective and interactive effects on the final
responses have been investigated. The results indicate
the interlateral relationship between laser process
parameters and responses and fundamental
differences between the tee and lap laser welding,
highlighting the difference of cooling flows of the
two set-up types.
using both Taguchi and EM (define Taguchi/EM)
methods. The Taguchi method is based on an
orthogonal array system and leads to a design where
the effect of every parameters can be evaluated in far
fewer runs [6-8]. The EM technique is based on
building an Euclidian domain and modifying it in an
interactive way, varying all the parameters at the
same time [9-11]. The combination of Taguchi and
EM methods has already been used in aluminium
laser welding [12]. This allows the investigation of
the process parameters and their respective and
interactive effects on the final responses (weld fillet
size, penetration depth, concavity size). The results
indicate the interlateral relationship between laser
process parameters and responses and fundamental
differences between the tee and lap laser welding.
2. Experimental procedure
A Nd:YAG laser of 1.064-µm wavelength and an
optical fibre of 600-µm diameter were used in
continuous wave mode. A lens of 200-mm focal
length focussed the beam to a diameter of 0.6 mm. In
tee configuration, AA6061-T6 plates of 2-mm thick
were welded on AA6061-T6 sheets of 3-mm thick
(Fig. 1.a). In lap configuration, AA6061-T6 plates of
2-mm thick were welded on AA6061-T6 square tubes
of 2.5-mm thick wall (Fig. 1.b).

1. Introduction
Many studies conducted on aluminium laser welding
have shown that a number of process parameters
could affect weld properties. Effects of composition
as well as volumetric flow rate of the shielding gas [1,
2], laser power [1, 2], welding speed [1-4] and out-of-
focus length [4, 5] on one or more of the properties
such as porosity, keyhole stability, weld geometry,
hot cracking, penetration depth, loss of alloying
a)
elements due to vaporization and the HAZ size have
been investigated. Most studies are based on butt joint
or bead-on-plate welding without using any filler. In
instances where a large number of parameters is
considered, the use of design of experiment (DOE) is

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 127


b)
Figure 1: samples after welding: a) Tee joint welding,
b) lap joint welding.
The work angle between the laser beam and the
horizontal plate is set at 45°. Afterwards, the laser
beam is tilted with an angle of 15º as shown in Fig. 2.
The normal incidence was avoided to minimize beam
reflections, which could damage the optical fibre.
Argon was used as the shielding gas and was injected
through a copper nozzle using a volumetric flow rate
of 25 l.min-1. AA5356 filler wire of 1.2-mm diameter
was fed at a 60° angle relative to laser axis. The plate
surface was degreased with acetone to minimize
hydrogen compounds, which could cause porosity[5].
Figure 2: experimental set-up.
Figure 3: a) Example of Taguchi method: L9 design for 2 factors at 3 level each, b) Example of E.M. method:
feasibility domain of the process (blue zone), c) Example of Taguchi/EM method („: point obtained with Taguchi,
§: point obtained with EM, blue zone: feasibility domain, orange zone: domain explored with the Taguchi method).
128
The influence of the laser welding parameters (laser
power, out-of-focus length, welding speed and wire
feeding speed) on weld properties was studied. In this
study, a combination of Tagushi and EM methods
was used to optimise the welding parameters in the
two joint configurations. The Taguchi method relies
on a normalized orthogonal matrix. Each set of matrix
assures that the space will be investigated in a way
that the effect of every variable can be clearly
detected. This could be done by varying many
parameters at the same time along the orthogonal
border of the orthogonal domain. For example, Fig.
3.a shows a L9 matrix for 2 factors with 3 levels. In
this case, it is equivalent to a traditional factorial
design with 32 trials. Alternatively, E.M. technique is
based on building a Euclidian domain and modifying
it in an interactive way, varying all the parameters at
the same time. The process feasibility domain is then
defined by a multidimensional volume that best
discriminates the accepted tests inside this volume
and the rejected tests outside it. Fig. 3.b illustrates
this feasibility domain (blue zone). This method
allows a more interactive approach through dynamic
construction of the feasibility domain throughout the
data collection. In the present study, a combination of
Taguchi and EM methods called Taguchi/EM were
used as shown in Fig. 3.c. As the first step, a L18
Taguchi matrix was used to promptly define the
feasibility domain and to explore efficiently the
multidimensional volume. Subsequently, the EM
method was used to refine the domain, to find the key
indictors that could explain the response variations
and to optimise the welding process. In the case of
laser welding, this hybrid Tagushi/EM method has
provided equivalent prediction models than one
provided by classic methods but required less
experimental tests [12].
The weld geometry was evaluated using an optical
microscope. Four dimensions were measured for each
sample as shown in Fig. 4. (H) and (L) are the vertical
and horizontal leg sizes respectively of the fillet weld
and the average size is defined as (H+L)/2. The
distance from the junction of the two joint members
to the most distant weld point in the substrate is
defined as the penetration depth (P). For this work the
effective throat of the weld was not measured.
Finally, a triangle of height (H) and width (L) was
drawn. The hypotenuse of this triangle represents a
flat weld of same dimension as the actual weld. The
concavity of the weld is C, the maximum distance (C)
the gap between the hypotenuse and the weld surface.
Hardness measurements were used to determine the
HAZ size in the two joint configurations. To this end,
the hardness mapping was conducted through the
thickness of both joint members for an 8 mm length
about the root of the weld, with a sampling step of
250 µm in the two directions. These measurements
were performed with a load of 50g applied for 15s.
Figure 4: Dimensions measured for weld
characterization.
3. Results and discussion
With the Taguchi/EM method, two steps were
considered. A L18 matrix was used in the first step,
combining 4 input parameters with 4 levels each, for
a total of 18 trials. These input parameters were the
laser power (ranging from 2500 to 3500 W), the out-
of-focus length (ranging from -1 to 1 mm, negative
length meaning a focal point within the substrate), the
wire filler speed (from 2 to 6 m.min-1) and the
welding speed (between 2 and 4 m.min-1). This
exercise promptly defined the feasibility domain and
explored efficiently the multidimensional volume. In
the second step, the interactive EM technique was
used, i.e. varying all the parameters at the same time.
The domain was refined test after test and each
subsequent test was selected in such way to maximize
the gain in new information. This method takes a
more interactive approach leading to the dynamic
129
construction of the feasibility domain throughout the
data collection. After these two steps, the feasibility
domain was well known and the prediction equations
were stable [12]. All regression equations modelling
the different responses as function of the input
parameters showed R2 regression coefficients above
70%, indicating a good fit.
Fig. 5 and 6 show the Pareto charts for the weld
average size and penetration depth as a function of
the welding parameters. The Pareto chart is an
illustration of the estimated effects of the input
parameters. The length of each bar on the chart is
proportional to the positive or negative standardized
effect. According to Fig. 5, weld average size is
correctly predicted by the laser power (P) and the
welding speed (Vlaser) for the two joint configurations.
This leads to the following conclusions. (i) The weld
size is mainly proportional to the linear energy input,
i.e. the laser power divided by the welding speed. (ii)
Wire feeding speed (Vwire), i.e. the quantity of filler
material, does not influence the weld size. This
observation led to the conclusion that, for each couple
(P - Vlaser), it exists a single value (Vwire), which can
lead to a correct weld. (iii) The square of the out-of-
focus length, i.e. the area of the laser beam spot
linked to power density, does not influence the weld
size. (iv) The welding behaviour is not influenced by
the different joint configurations and cooling flows,
(P) and (Vlaser) being the main predictors.
Nevertheless, the weld size of tee joint welding is
mainly predicted by the welding speed with a
standardized effect of -0.17, while the weld size of
lap joining is predominated by the laser power
(standardized effect of 0.19).
 a) b)
Figure 5: Pareto charts of weld average size (H+L)/2: a) tee joint set-up, and (b) lap joint set-up. Input parameters:
laser power (P), welding speed (Vlaser), square of the out-of-focus length (Ldef2), Wire feeding speed (Vwire).

The laser power and the wire feeding speed can
predict the penetration depth of tee and lap joints as
shown in Fig. 6. A higher laser power leads to a
deeper penetration. On the other hand, a higher wire
speed leads to a higher laser beam masking to the
sample surface, causing a power input reduction and
therefore a shallower penetration depth. We can see
in the Fig. 6 that the main predictor of the penetration
depth is the laser power (P) in the case tee joint with
a standardized effect of 0.42. In contrast with this, the
lap joint welding is dominated by the wire feeding
speed with a standardized effect of -0.18.

a) b)
Figure 6: Pareto charts of penetration depth (p): a) tee joint set-up, and (b) lap joint set-up. Input parameters: laser
power (P), welding speed (Vlaser), square of the out-of-focus length (Ldef2), wire feeding speed (Vwire).

The previous process modelling was used to find the
welding parameters most optimised and robust for the
both joint configurations. The optimisation criteria
were defined as follows: the welding speed was
maximized in order to minimize the HAZ size, the
weld average size was targeted of 1.9 mm, concavity
size was targeted of 0 mm and penetration depth was
minimized to 0.3 mm. Fig. 7 shows the optimised
welding parameters obtained by the Taguchi/EM
method for the tee and lap joint configurations. The
weld cross-sections observed with these optimised
parameters are also presented. As shown in Fig. 7, the
targeted weld specifications were met with these
parameters. Moreover, the welding speed for lap
joining (Vlaser = 3.9 m.min-1) is about 2 times higher
than one observed for tee joining (Vlaser = 2.2
m.min-1). This difference can be explained by the
difference of cooling flows between the two types of
set-up. In the case of tee joint, the horizontal plate is
clamped onto an aluminium table. This set-up
increases the cooling flow through the horizontal
plate. Consequently, in order to obtain the targeted
weld, the heat input must be higher; the welding
speed is then reduced. Paradoxically, this

130
 phenomenon cannot be balanced by an increase of
laser power: a laser power increase leads to a higher
penetration depth as shown in the Pareto chart of the
Fig. 6.a. In order to obtain the same material feeding
and consequently the same weld size at higher
welding speed, the wire speed of tee joint welding
(Vwire = 3.1 m.min-1) is raised to 4.8 m.min-1 for lap
joint welding. For both sets-up, the same out-of-focus
length (Ldef = -1.3 mm) is observed. With respect to
a)
∅wire = 1.2 mm
Plaser = 2500 W
Vwire = 3.1m.min-1
Vlaser = 2.2m.min-1
Ldef = -1.3 mm
Figure 7: Optimised welding parameters and weld cross-sections for: a) tee joint, b) lap joint.
Fig. 8 presents the hardness mapping in the two
cross-sections of the optimised welds. The HAZ sizes
are equivalent in both configurations. The HAZ size
of tee joint is about 1.3 mm around the weld while the
lap joint one is about 1.3 mm in the tube and 1.8 mm
in the sheet. The isotherms of the tee weld are more
uniform than in the case of the lap joint. The non-
uniformity of the isotherms in the latter case is
probably due to intermittent contact between the plate
and the extrusion. The incomplete contact creates a
Figure 8: Hardness mapping for: a) Tee joint configuration, b) lap joint configuration. Welds were obtained with the
optimised welding parameters.
4. Conclusions
(i) The present work studied the influence of various
laser welding parameters such as power, out-of-
focus length, welding speed and wire feeding
speed on weld properties.
131
lap weld quality, fusion (i.e. adequate depth of fusion)
to the hollow extruded tube was achieved with
minimal risk of a microfissuring occurring on the
underside of the weld. For gauges of the order of 2.5
mm, this is difficult to achieve with the GMAW
process. It does appear easier to control depth of
fusion of laser welds than GMA welds.
b)
∅wire = 1.2 mm
Plaser = 2900 W
Vwire = 4.8m.min-1
Vlaser = 3.9m.min-1
Ldef = -1.3 mm
thermal barrier causing more heat to enter the plate.
Normally, the HAZ size of tee joint must be higher
than the one of the lap joint. The linear energy input
of the tee weld (68.1 J.mm-1) is indeed 50% higher
than the one of the lap welding (44.6 J.mm-1). This
phenomenon can be explained by the higher cooling
flow of the tee set-up. This balances the higher
energy input involved and leads to the similar HAZ
sizes of the two welds.
(ii) Plates of AA6061 were welded in tee
configuration using a cw/Nd:YAG laser and
AA5356 wire as the filler metal. The same set-up
and wire feeding were used for the lap joining of
extruded square hollow tubes and plates of
AA6061.
(iii) This study used a combination of Taguchi and
EM designs-of-experiment in order to define the
feasibility domain, explore efficiently the
multidimensional volume and to optimise the
welding processes.
(iv) For the two joint configurations, weld size is
correctly predicted by the laser power and the
welding speed, i.e. the linear energy input.
Moreover, for each couple power – welding
speed, it exists a single value of the wire feeding
speed, which can lead to a correct weld.
Similarly, the laser power and the wire feeding
speed can predict the penetration depth of tee and
lap joints.
(v) The welding speed of lap joining is about 2 times
higher than one observed for tee joining.
Nevertheless, the HAZ sizes are similar in both
configurations.
(vi) Laser welding of intermediate gauges of
aluminium can achieve good depth of fusion with
minimal risk of melt-through, especially for a
tubular section, in contrast to GMA welding.
[8] S. Subramaniam, D. R. White, J. E. Jones, D. W.
Lyons, Welding Journal, 78 (1999) pp. 166-172.
[9] M. Galopin, T. M. Dao, J. P. Boillot, The EM-
2000 welding modelling system, in: 4th International
Conference of Computer Technology in Welding,
Cambridge, UK 3-4 June (1992) Vol. 1 28,
[10] M. Galopin, S. Hansquine, T. M. Dao, C. Q.
Zheng, Optimisation and variation reduction in
welding - the EM method, in: High-Productivity
Joining Processes, International Conference
Advances in Welding Technology, Columbus 17-19
Sept. (1997) Vol. 1
[11] M. Galopin, J. P. Boillot, G. Begin, Arc welding
procedure optimisation, in: Recent Trends in Welding
Science and Technology, Gatlinburg, TN 14-18 May
(1989) Vol.
[12] L. Dubourg, B. Des Roches, A. Couture, D.
Bouchard, H. R. Shakeri, Optimization of aluminium
laser welding using Tagushi and EM methods, in:
23rd International Congress on Applications of
Lasers and Electro-Optics, San-Francisco, CA, USA
Oct. 4-7 (2004) Vol. LMP

5. Acknowledgements
The author thanks D. Rasmussen, M. Larouche and F.
O. Gagnon for laser welding, A. Boily and H.
Grégoire for metallography and hardness
measurements and B. Altshuller for his assistance.

6. References
[1] G. Casalino, L. A. C. De Filippis, A. D. Ludovico,
On CO2 laser welding of Al2024-T3 and Al8090-T3
aluminium alloys butt joints, in: 20th International
Congress on Applications of Lasers and Electro-
Optics, Jacksonville, FL (2001) Vol. LMP
[2] C. Mayer, F. Fouquet, M. Robin, Materials
Science Forum, (1996) pp. 217-222.
[3] M. Kutsuna, Q. Yan, Welding International, 13
(1999) pp. 597-611.
[4] M. Pastor, H. Zhao, T. Debroy, Welding
International, 15 (2001) pp. 275-281.
[5] A. Haboudou, P. Peyre, A. B. Vannes, G. Peix,
Materials Science and Engineering A, 363 (2003) pp.
40-52.
[6] Y. S. Tarng, W. H. Yang, International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 14 (1998) pp.
549-554.
[7] K. A. Kloss, Use of design of experiments in
welding applications, in: Advances in Welding
Technology, 11th Annual North American Welding
Research Conference, Columbus OH 7-9 Nov 1995
(1996) Vol. 389-409,

132
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Hybrid laser-GMAW welding of aluminum alloys: a review
D. Rasmussen, L. Dubourg
Aluminum Technology Centre, National Research Council Canada, (Quebec) Canada
Abstract
The combination of laser welding with Gas Metal Arc
Welding (GMAW) forms laser-GMAW hybrid
welding. This process is an attractive tool with a high
potential in welding lightweight structure, especially
for aluminum alloys. For five years, this technology
has increasingly attracted interest in both, industry
(aeronautics, automobile, metal industries producing
large structures) and academia (universities and
research centers). Laser-GMAW hybrid welding
process is generally accepted for its robustness,
efficiency and flexibility. Coupling of a deep-
penetrating laser beam with the heat and molten metal
feeding of GMAW significantly expands the original
welding application range of lasers. Its main
advantages compared to two individual components
are deep and stable weld penetration, gap-bridging
ability improvement, low distortion and easy filler
metal addition. Hybrid welding allows indeed much
wider groove tolerance compared to laser welding,
especially for aluminum welding. Moreover, the
reduction in distortion decreases the post-welding
rectification needed and makes the assembly easier
since the hybrid welded parts are more dimensionally
accurate. In addition, if metallurgical factors are
critical, the weld composition can be balanced with
filler metal, decreasing the hot cracking susceptibility
of some aluminum alloys. The combination of these
two welding processes can also improve the weld
bead shape quality (including the elimination of
undercut), possibly reduce the porosity and increase
welding speed. This article reviews the recent works
about the laser-GMAW hybrid welding of aluminum
alloys. After a brief presentation on the interaction
mechanisms between a laser beam and an electric arc,
the paper depicts the typical welding processes and
experimental methods along with their characteristics.
1. Introduction
The automotive industry is always searching new
ways to reduce weight on their products. To achieve
that goal, the use of light alloys like aluminum, has
greatly increased in the last few years. Aluminum
intensive structures are now being produced for the
mass consumption [1]. Staufer et al. showed a
reduction of up to 43% of the weight of a steel car
body by using an aluminum space frame instead [2].
The biggest issues for the vehicle makers are the
robustness and the profits that can be realized with
such an innovation. Presently Gas Metal Arc Welding
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
(GMAW) and Laser Beam Welding (LBW) are the
most common welding processes for mass production
because of their high speed and their possibility of
complete automation [3]. Comparing the welding of
common automotive steels and aluminum alloys with
any of the two welding processes, the major issues
are the large differences between the properties of the
two metals [4, 5]. These differences are: (i) the higher
thermal conductivity of aluminum that removes heat
from the weld zone increasing the possibility of
creating the defects incomplete joint penetration and
incomplete fusion [4, 6, 7], (ii) its higher thermal
expansion coefficient that increases distortion [6],
(iii) its lower solubility of hydrogen in the solid state
than the liquid state creating weld porosity [6-8], (iv)
its larger solidification range that promotes hot short
cracking [7] and (v) its greater possible evaporation
losses of important alloying components such as
magnesium and zinc resulting in the loss of weld
strength [8]. All of the above weld imperfections are
discussed in references [3, 6, 7, 9, 10]. In addition,
heat applied to the parent aluminum alloys cause a
loss of strength whereas in the case of steel there can
be a gain of strength. This loss of strength of
aluminum alloys due to welding means that strength
of these welds are less tolerant of weld imperfections
than in the case of steel [10]. The use of a high energy
density welding can overcome some of the defects by
increasing the welding speed and thus decreasing the
energy input in the components. The combination of
both processes (LBW and GMAW) in one hybrid
process is known since the 70’s and can lead to the
advantages of the two processes without their
drawbacks [11]. Fig. 1.a illustrates the hybrid laser
arc welding principle. It was used for the first time on
aluminum only in 1984 [12]. The main goals of
hybrid welding are to increase the welding speed, to
allow weld bead composition adjustment to enhance
weldability, to improve the gap tolerance, to assure
high reliability of the process and to produce good
seam quality [1, 13]. This paper proposes a state of
the art about the coupling of LBW with GMAW on
aluminum and its alloys.
2. Fundamentals of Hybrid Laser-Arc
Welding
2.1. Interactions between LBW and GMAW
Since the overall process is function of two welding
technologies, the hybrid laser-arc welding (HLAW)
133
apparatus is influenced by the contribution of each of
the two welding processes. In fact, the HLAW weld
geometry is controlled by the energy input of each
process as shown in Fig.1.b. An increase in GMAW
power leads to an increase in the width to depth ratio
of the weld [6, 14-18]. However, the HLAW weld is
in most cases more laser-like at the bottom and more
arc-like on the top due to the two process
contributions.
a)
b)
Fig. 1: a) HLAW principle, b) cross section schemes of
GMAW, LBW and HLAW.
Since high density laser beam is involved, the HLAW
process is characterized in most cases by a keyhole
formation. However, a conduction-like process
without keyhole formation is achieved when the laser
is used out-of-focus or has insufficient power. At the
start point of LBW, the laser beam absorption by the
aluminum surface can be as low as 10% when using a
Nd:YAG laser [14, 16]. When the metal is molten,
absorption greatly increases. Afterwards, when the
keyhole state is achieved, the laser power is used at
almost 100% for the melting process due to the multi
reflection phenomenon inside the keyhole. It has been
confirmed that GMAW arc stability is increased when
it combines with a laser beam [11, 17]. To acheive
this enhancement, the arc must be close enough to the
laser beam so they share the same fusion pool. As the
liquid aluminum has a lower electrical resistance than
the solid state or the oxide layer, the electric arc
would favored the less resistant path, therefore the arc
is stabilized in the same fusion zone as the laser
process [11, 17]. Moreover, an interaction occurs
between the keyhole plasma and the arc plasma that
increases also the arc stability. In fact, the energy
from the laser keyhole generates a metal plasma,
which ionizes the gas from the GMAW process and
makes it easier to strike and stabilize the arc via this
plasma [6, 17, 19]. The HLAW arc has then a higher
electrical conductivity, a finer geometry and an
increase in the current density up to five times for a
134
lower arc burning voltage compared to the GMAW
arc [6]. On the other hand, as the metal plasma comes
from the base metal and from the filler in HLAW,
there is more metal vapor than in LBW. This
subsequently facilitates the keyhole appearance, the
laser irradiation input and prevents process dropout
[14, 16]. The penetration is subsequently increased
compared to LBW due to the facts that higher plasma
pressure is available and that laser power is not used
to melt the filler wire. As for the larger molten pool
of the arc process, the seam is in the liquid state for a
longer time in comparison with LBW. This is an
advantage compared to LBW because of the high
solubility of hydrogen in liquid aluminum. Therefore,
the lower solidification rate of the seam gives
hydrogen bubbles more time to escape from the
molten pool, which can result in a reduction of the
porosities [8]. The Fig. 2 illustrates this porosity
difference between LBW and HLAW. The filler
addition in HLAW has the same effects as in
conventional welding processes. For aluminum alloy
welding, the filler is mainly used to prevent hot
cracking by adjusting the weld bead composition to
be outside the high crack sensitivity region [6, 20].
Nevertheless, the mixing of the filler metal with the
base metal is different to the GMAW process. As
shown in Fig 1.a and 1.b, HLAW molten pool can be
simplified by the sum of a deep and narrow laser-like
molten pool and a wide and superficial arc-like
molten pool. The understanding of mixing
phenomenon between the two molten pools is then
important to prevent hot cracking. In this way, Zhou
et al. showed that larger droplets increase the heat
input into the molten zone, increasing the
solidification time and hence the mixing of the filler
metal and the base metal. However, because of the
high kinetic energy of the large droplets, a deep hole
can be formed [20]. Zhou et al. also found that an
increase in droplet frequency and a decrease in
droplet size lead to an increase in the transversal
mixing and a decrease in longitudinal mixing of the
filler. Moreover, the impingement points of the laser
and the arc should be separated by a maximum of
0.6mm in order to assure a correct weld homogeneity
[20]. Nevertheless, changing to GMAW leading
process instead of laser leading could increase the
distance.

Fig. 2: porosity difference between LBW and HLAW.
As it was generally adopted in the literature, HLAW
is characterized by a synergy of the two processes. As
discussed previously, interactions take place between
the two processes leading to combine effects greater
than the sum each process alone [6, 17, 19, 21-23].
The linear energy input for GMAW is between 200
and 300 kJ.mm-1. The linear energy input of HLAW
can be as low as 100 kJ.mm-1, which means a
reduction of 2 to 3 times of energy needed [6].
Moreover, depending on the welding parameters that
will be discussed later, Lee and Park have found that
average volumetric energy of molten aluminum is
15.7 J.mm-3 for LBW, 17.7 J.mm-3 for GMAW, and
13.35 J/mm3 for HLAW [24]. This means hybrid
welding needs less input energy to melt the same
metal volume than GMAW or LBW, showing a
higher efficiency.
2.2. Advantages and drawbacks
Because of the synergy occurring between the two
welding processes, there is more advantages then
drawbacks. Advantages can vary depending on the
welding parameters used, the aluminum alloy and the
joint type. First of all, an increase in the welding
speed is reported by the majority of the authors [6,
11, 13-18, 23, 25-30]. For example, butt joint welding
speed of 2-mm thick extrusions of A6063-T5 alloy
can be increase from 0.95 m.min-1 (GMAW) or 3 m
min-1 (LBW) to 5 m min-1 by using HLAW [9].
Hybrid welding improves also the penetration of the
weld seam [6, 14-16, 25, 26, 28, 31-33]: typical
increases are 10-20% compared to LBW [15] and 20-
50% compared to GMAW [32]. Moreover, many
studies recognize an enhancement of aluminum
welding stability in comparison to LBW or GMAW,
due to the useful interactions of the two processes
[15-17, 19, 23, 26, 29, 32, 34]. Furthermore, heat
input applied on the piece is lower due to high energy
density and high speed of HLAW [6, 16, 18, 19, 21,
26]. Lowering the heat input directly decreases the
distortion of the welded components. Since GMAW
produces a large welding seam, HLAW increases the
gap bridging in comparison with LBW [6, 13, 14, 16-
18, 24-26, 28, 35]. In some cases, HLAW can
135
increase the GMAW gap bridging by 0.14 mm
increasing from 1.05 to 1.19 mm [24], while
autogenous laser welding has a maximum gap
tolerance of around 0.3 mm (Fig. 3). Another
advantage of the combine process is the better wire
feed misalignment tolerance in comparison with
LBW [16, 23, 25, 28, 34]. Since HLAW uses the wire
welding by the arc and wire does not have to intersect
the fine laser spot size and the small weld pool, the
addition of filler material is easier than with cold wire
fed LBW [6, 13, 15, 17]. The component distortion
reduction, the gap bridging enhancement, the wire
misalignment tolerance increase and filler application
are four important aspects when automation of the
welding is done. As a matter of fact, these four
advantages increase the robustness of HLAW for
industrial applications compared to LBW or GMAW.
From the economical point of view, the HLAW use
can lower the capital investment through the
reduction of the laser power. By coupling the GMAW
apparatus with the Nd:YAG laser beam, it is possible
to reduce the laser power by at least 1 kW [16], and
as much as 2 kW [2, 9, 14]. In terms of cost, this
could result in a reduction of $130 000 USD to $260
000 USD on the initial investment of the laser system.
The investment for the GMAW apparatus is around
$40 000 USD, consequently, the overall investment
reduction can reach up to $220 000 USD. The
operation costs are reduced too. With the hybrid
apparatus, the electric energy consumption can be
reduced by approximately 35kW per kW of laser
power in comparison with LBW [14, 16, 17]. In fact,
the electrical efficiency of the GMAW system can
reach 80% [13, 36] while the Nd:YAG lasers
efficiency are as low as 3% [16]. Moreover, in some
cases, the higher welding speed of HLAW reduces
production time, hence, the cost of each component
[6, 26]. Another advantage is the space reduction. To
attain the same productivity with alternative welding
techniques, it would require more machines and a
large number of welding heads [27]. Also, a product
of greater quality can achieve economical advantages.
From the metallurgical point of view, the high energy
density and high speed, thus low heat input increases
considerably the metallurgical properties of the
welded components. The most significant increases in
the Al alloy properties are the higher seam toughness
[18, 23, 26, 29], higher seam hardness [23, 29], lower
residual stresses and distortion of the components [6,
16, 17, 19, 27], lower porosity content [23, 29] and
greater ductility [14] than laser weldment.

HLAW (laser leading)
HLAW (arc leading)
LBW
GMAW (backhand)
GMAW (forehand)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Gap bridging ability (mm)
Fig 3: Gap bridging capacities of LBW, GMAW and HLAW
(A6061-T6, 2 mm thickness, butt joint, welding speed of 3
m.min-1 and welding current of 48A) [24]
Even though the advantages outnumber the
drawbacks, there are still issues to overcome. First of
all, since the molten zone on the weld top is increased
by the arc process, the molten zone and heat-affected
zone are greater in HLAW than in LBW [32].
Secondly, as the molten zone is increased, it is more
difficult to shield the weld surface effectively and
coupled to the high temperature reached by HLAW
leads to higher hydrogen absorption. Third, in some
cases, the bead appearance was poorer than the one
made by GMAW only, mainly because of a rougher
bead waves as a result of weld pool instability [33].
Fourth, some of volatile alloying elements e.g. Mg
can be vaporized because of the high heat in the
keyhole and lower weld strength. This can be
partially compensated by suitable filler adding [37].
Fifth, aluminum and its alloys have a poor ability to
support the liquid metal due to its low surface
tension. Consequently, the large amount of liquid
metal in HLAW compared to LBW can involve
difficulties during the full penetration welding of butt
joint [21]. Finally, the number of welding parameters
in HLAW increases compared to GMAW or LBW
and makes the hybrid welding a more complex
process to operate. The success of HLAW
necessitates an understanding of the interactions of
the two processes in order to attain adequate
capabilities and reproducibility, i.e. to make the
process robust.
3. Study of hybrid laser-GMAW welding
3.1. Study of laser parameters in hybrid laser-arc
welding
LBW is a high density power welding that requires
precise adjustments and edge preparation [3, 13, 38,
39]. The main advantages of LBW are the high
welding speed [3, 20, 40] and the low heat input on
the components that result in a narrow heat affected
zone and a low distortion of the parts [6, 11, 13, 20,
35]. However, LBW is characterized by difficulties of
alignment and gap of components to weld and
deviation of the laser beam itself, mainly with the
robot use. The filler wire used for aluminum welding
can overcome these drawbacks, improving the seam
appearance and the resistance to hot cracking [39].
Nevertheless, a great problem is the melting of 0.9 to
1.2 mm diameter filler wire with a laser beam focus
of for example 0.6 mm diameter (case of a Nd:YAG
laser beam carried by a 0.6 mm optical fibre and
focusing with a 1-ratio focus). Consequently, the wire
1.2
filler use with LBW needs great and rigid
adjustments. Moreover, the use of laser power to melt
the wire can lead to a decrease in the welding speed
in the range of 20% [35]. HLAW is therefore a great
interest for the melting of the wire metal and,
consequently, the laser power can be totally used for
the welding at high speed. HLAW has a large amount
of variables to consider and one of them is the type of
laser used.
3.1.1. Type of laser
The type of laser used in HLAW can greatly affect
the process. Keyhole condition is preferred for laser
welding except for very thin parts. However,
conduction condition can be useful in certain cases,
event for larger section components [37]. The two
major laser types used for aluminum welding are
Nd:YAG solid state and CO2 gaseous state laser.
Two other types are Nd:fiber and high power diode
laser (HPDL). The first three laser devices will be
discussed in the following paragraphs, while the last
one (HPDL) will be discussed in section 3.1.2. The
main difference between Nd:YAG and CO2 laser is
their respective beam wavelengths; 10.6 µm for the
CO2 laser and 1.06 µm for the Nd:YAG laser [41].
Aluminum absorptivity is around 2-4% for a 10.6-µm
wavelength beam and it is twice at 1.06 µm [12].
Consequently, the laser irradiation intensity needed
for keyhole initiation is approximately twice for a
CO2 laser than a Nd:YAG laser [37]. Moreover, the
10.6-µm wavelength beam is larger absorbed in great
proportion by the plasma created by the keyhole [11,
42, 43]. Therefore, the CO2 laser beam is partially
blocked by the plasma. In order to minimize this
effect, the use of high potential ionization gas like
helium has been tried with limited success [42-44]. In
the case of Nd:YAG laser, the beam is not influenced
by the plume. Even if, CO2 laser has a greater
electrical efficiency and lower operating cost at same
laser power, the Nd:YAG laser has a greater
processing efficiency mainly due to this enhanced
coupling to reflective metals [37]. Nd:YAG laser
beam radiations can be also propagated over long
distances through optical fiber with minimal losses
[2, 37, 45]. Therefore, the CO2 laser requires
expensive CNC device with rigid arms that guide the
laser beam with optical mirrors [45]. Nevertheless,
136
CO2 laser can be scale to higher powers (e.g. 8kW),
while Nd:YAG laser is limited to 4 kW [46]. For all
these reasons, Nd:YAG laser is preferred over CO2
laser for the welding of aluminum and its alloys with
an HLAW apparatus. Different ways exist to generate
a Nd:YAG high energy beam. This can either be
generated by flash lamp or diode laser pumping. The
diode pumping can be applied to rod (diode pumped
Nd:YAG) or to fiber (fiber laser or Nd:fiber). Both
diode pumped laser sources have a comparable beam
quality, which is significantly better than
conventional flash lamp pumped laser source [15]. A
better beam quality leads to a lower heat input that
directly minimizes the thermal distortion [37]. For
example, comparison of the welding speeds for a
given penetration was done by Vollersten et al. with
an autogeneous welding at 4 kW [15]. To obtain a 4-
mm penetration, the lamp pumped laser welding
speed is 1 m min-1 whereas the diode pumped laser
can weld at a speed of approximately 2.5 m.min-1. In
the last case, high power diode laser (HPDL) implies
a lower investment cost [3], a higher electrical-optical
conversion efficiency (around 50%) [37], an average
power extending to 4kW and a strong space
reduction. However, the major drawback of HPDL is
the thick beam waist and hence cannot be used other
than for aluminum conduction welding. HPDL can
therefore have great utility for aluminum welding
when coupled with GMAW and will be discuss in the
section 3.1.2.
3.1.2. Out of focus length of the laser beam and spot
size
Most of the studies about aluminum HLAW
concentrated their efforts on keyhole formation, the
laser beam focus point being directly on the surface
[25, 31] or slightly inside the material (about 1 mm)
[41]. Other studies had purposely increased the beam
spot diameter from 1.09 mm to 6.92 mm to study the
hybrid welding in conduction mode with a Nd:YAG
laser [1, 3]. Thong et al. showed that even with 1.09
mm beam spot diameter, keyhole formation was not
observed and bead appearance was reasonable.
Hence, keyhole mode is not essential in aluminum
and its alloys welding [3]. Tong et al. also reported
that with an increase of the beam spot diameter
resulted in an increase in the torch aiming deviation
as shown in Fig. 4 [3]. This improvement can be
explained by the increase of deposit metal wettability
with the increase spot diameter. Moreover, as the
laser radiations do not penetrate inside the material in
conduction mode, less perturbation were observed,
and therefore conduction welding is less susceptible
to gas entrapment. Indeed, porosities in the keyhole
regime can result from the sporadic closure of the
keyhole [37]. Even with a large beam diameter of
137
6.92 mm, a synergetic phenomenon was found: the
HLAW heat input was 16-20% superior than the sum
of LBW and GMAW. Thong et al. stated that laser
beam diameter had only little effect on the heat input
in conduction condition [3]. Jokinen et al. also found
that a smoother weld bead was achieved when the
power density is decreased. However, the welding
speed decreases as well [31]. Due to the speed
reduction, laser beam with large focus point as well
as HPDL can be utilized when it is coupled with
appropriate GMAW apparatus for the welding of thin
aluminum alloys plates (i.e. below 2 mm) [1]. In fact,
the laser beam is used to preheat the thin aluminum
surface and thus stabilizes the AC pulsed GMAW
process at high speed (4 m.min-1) which is discussed
in section 3.2.1 [1, 3].
a)
b)
Fig. 4: Gap bridging and aiming deviation vs. beam
diameter for: a) lap joint configuration and b) flare bevel
joint configuration. Courtesy of Thong et al. [3]
3.1.3. Welding speed
HLAW tends to increase the welding speed with
increasing gap, which is opposite to LBW. In fact, the
welding speed is significantly increased when the gap
size is 0.6 mm or larger, which lowers the heat input
in the components. HLAW with 0.6-mm gap or larger
compared with autogenous laser welding showed a
welding speed increase of 200% for AA5083 (Al
Mg4.5 Mn0.7), in 5-mm butt joint configuration. The
welding speed at 0.0-mm gap was 1 m.min-1 whereas
it reaches 3 m.min-1 for a gap of 0.6 mm [25]. The
gap imposition should be done very precisely and
should not be oversized, which can cause the laser to
go through the gap.

3.2. Study of gas metal arc welding parameters in
hybrid laser-arc welding
Compared with LBW, GMAW has an inferior energy
density, around 104 W.cm-2, which is lower by two
orders of magnitude [14, 47]. However, GMAW is
still an attractive welding process, mainly due to its
low investment cost, high electric efficiency of
around 80% [13, 36], great ability to gap bridging,
misalignment capabilities and the relative ease of
filler metal application [16, 21]. Nevertheless, for the
welding of aluminum thin sheet, DC GMAW
encounters difficulties such as burn through,
formation of holes and low gap tolerance. On the
other side, AC GMAW can solve these problems with
fine regulation of the electrode negative (EN) ratio
[3]. However, insufficient penetration problem arises
at welding speeds higher than 2 m.min-1 [1, 3]. Since
the energy density of the GMAW is lower than LBW
on, the seam width tends to increase, which
introduces a great amount of heat into the pieces,
causing a weld distortion that has to be rectified [13].
The majority of the difficulties in both LBW and
GMAW can be overcome with coupling the two
processes in one HLAW process. The arc process
compensates the difficulties of wire feeding in LBW,
while laser beam compensates the low penetration
and welding speed in GMAW. However, since two
processes are implied, the numbers of parameters are
greatly increased. Hence a better knowledge of
HLAW is required.
3.2.1. Polarity and power of GMAW
Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is the most
employed setting for aluminum GMAW. Positive
polarity is useful to remove the non-conductive oxide
film on aluminum alloys [48, 49]. The arc is more
stable and axial spray transfer is easier to obtain,
compared with direct current electrode negative
(DCEN) [8, 48, 49]. DCEP can be pulsed, which can
lower the average power, hence the heat input in the
components. GMAW can be used in alternative
current mode (AC), which changes polarity each half
cycle and therefore, lowers the heat input in the
pieces because the arc is extinguished and reinitiated
each half cycle. Each of the two modes, DCEP
(pulsed or not) and AC has its advantages and is
complementary when coupled with a laser beam. In
fact, the DCEP mode is more efficient in HLAW for
the welding of 3-mm thickness and higher [1, 3],
while the AC mode can improve the welding of
thicknesses below 3 mm [1, 3, 50]. Jokinen et al.
found that the keyhole is disturbed when an excessive
arc voltage is used. In fact, the authors obtained the
deepest penetration using the arc voltage suggested
by the GMAW machine with synergy control [31].
138
The study was performed on Al Mg3 alloy of 4-mm
thickness with a butt joint configuration including a
0.8-mm gap and with a 3 kW Nd:YAG laser leading.
Diebold et al. reported that the arc intensity in
HLAW affects significantly the weld seam: sensitive
response of the pulsed arc happened with small
variation in laser parameters [13]. Moreover, the
increase of current decreases the porosity in the weld
[28]. These experimentations were performed on 3-
mm and 4-mm thickness A5052 alloy plate, with
Nd:YAG laser of 3.1 kW and varying speeds. The X-
ray inspection reveals a decrease in the porosity level
with a GMAW current varying from 0 to 240A for
plates of 3 mm and 4 mm with speeds of 2.4 and 4.8
mm.min-1. As a matter of fact, for both thicknesses
and speeds, porosity was not found at 240 A.
Uchiumi et al. explained that the molten pool could
be easily depressed with increasing the GMAW
current because the molten pool becomes larger and
longer [28]. For components thinner than 3 mm,
DCEP can lead to burn through [3]. However, AC
mode can solve this problem with HLAW. For this
purpose, the laser beam leads the arc and preheats the
joint before the AC GMAW welds the components
[1]. When adjusting the electrode negative ratio, it
becomes possible to melt enough filler metal with
relatively low arc force [1, 3]. The lower arc force
also helps to increase the stability of the arc [3]. Since
the laser beam only acts as a preheating source, it is
not necessary to use a high power nor a small focus
diameter. In fact, Tueyama et al. used a defocused
laser beam coupled with an AC GMAW device to
weld A5052 sheets of 1.2-mm on 1.5-mm thickness
in lap joint configuration at speed of 4 m.min-1 [1].
These authors obtained also good results up to 1-mm
gap. The defocused beam could be a HPDL, which is
cheaper and extremely smaller than Nd:YAG laser.
3.2.2. Shielding gas of GMAW
The gas used influences the beam-aluminum
interaction in LBW and influences the arc voltage and
stability in GMAW [6, 48]. Therefore, the gas has a
great influence in HLAW. As it is reported in the
section 3.1.1, the absorption of the beam irradiation
by the plasma can be neglected for a Nd:YAG laser,
while the beam of a CO2 laser is blocked partially by
the plasma. As aluminum is a very reactive metal,
inert gas is required: even small amount of reactive
gases such as oxygen can lead to smutting problems
[8]. The most commonly used shielding gases are
argon and helium. The main differences between
these two gases are the ionization potential, the
density and the cost. Helium has higher ionization
potential than argon, respectively 24.46 eV and 15.68
eV [41]. However, argon is denser than helium and
thus needs lower flow rate for the same shielding. In
addition, argon is less expensive than helium, which
again lowers the operation costs. Nonetheless, helium
is used with a CO2 laser because of its high ionization
potential, minimizing the absorption of the laser beam
by the plasma. On the other hand, when the welding
is done with a Nd:YAG laser, argon is advised as it is
less expensive and the plasma does not affect the
Nd:YAG beam. The gas used greatly affects the arc
behavior in HLAW. The use of helium can increase
the arc voltage by 20%, which increase the heat input
on the components, hence the penetration [8, 51]. On
the other hand, the use of argon stabilizes the arc in
comparison with helium. Hu reported that helium has
a higher breakdown voltage than argon for both
electrode polarities, which could be related to the heat
conductivity of the gases [52]. However, a
preliminary mixture of the two gases can be used to
accommodate the laser beam and the electrical arc for
different needs.
3.2.3. Set-up of HLAW
The setup of the two processes are greatly influenced
by the material properties and the joint configuration
[23, 29]. Fig. 5 shows the schematic set-up of the
hybrid system.
Fig. 5: Schematic set-up of HLAW.
The high reflectivity of the aluminum surface implies
an angle (β ) between the beam and the normal to the
surface to avoid the direct beam reflection inside the
laser head that can damage the optical fiber [42].
Nevertheless, the laser beam must be as perpendicular
to the surface as possible to assure a deep penetration.
Moreover, the angle (α) between the arc and the
normal to the surface and the angle (β) must not be
equal so that the beam reflection does not interfere
with the GMAW process [1]. Ueyama et al. showed
the best results with an opening angle of 45o between
the laser and the arc. They used an angle (β) of 30o
while the angle (α) is 15o [1]. However, many studies
did not take into account the damage risk of the
optical components and thus, utilized the laser beam
perpendicular to the surface. These studies found
different optimum angles (α) that vary from 15 to 30o
[23] and from 20 to 30o [13, 28, 29]. The distance (d)
139
between the impingement points is an important
parameter and affects strongly the HLAW synergy
(see Fig 6.a and 6.b).
a)
b)
Fig. 6: Weld size as function of the impingement distance
(d). Welding parameters: butt joint configuration, A5052
sheets of 3-mm thickness, welding speed of 2.7 m.min-1,
laser power of 3.1 kW (Nd:YAG). The arc current was
respectively 120A and 180A for Fig. 6.a and 6.b. Courtesy
of Uchiumi et al. [28].
In fact, too close coupling results in keyhole
disturbance by the arc that decreases the penetration
[21, 28, 31, 42, 43]. On the other hand, if the distance
increases so that each process has its own molten
pool, the penetration decreases also due to the
synergic loss [21, 28, 31, 42, 43]. These last
phenomena are true for both the arc leading and the
laser leading. Depending on the welding parameters,
the optimum distance between the two processes is
around 2 to 3 mm [25, 42]. Fig 6.a shows the
influence of the distance (d) on the penetration in
comparison with LBW and GMAW [28]. When the
laser and the arc are too close (d < 1 mm), the
penetration becomes the same as LBW due to the
keyhole disturbance. Alternatively, when the distance
is too large (d > 4 mm), the HLAW penetration
becomes almost the same as the LBW. The small
difference of penetration observed for the values (d)
higher than 4 mm can be explained by the arc heating
due to the low power density of GMAW and the high
heat conductivity of aluminum. However, Uchiumi et
al. found a correlation between the distance (d) and
the arc current: the distance (d) needed for the highest
synergy (deeper penetration) increases with the
current increase [28]. When the welding is done at
120A, 180A and 240A, the respective optimal
distances were 2, 3 and 4 mm. In the same way, Fig.
6.b shows the influence of the distance (d) on the
penetration and the bead width [28]. The bead width
is increased when (d) is lower than 3 mm and the
laser and the arc share the same molten pool.
The welding direction or the process leading (laser or
arc, see Fig. 5) does not greatly affect the HLAW. In
fact, the studies prove the synergy in both case and
only a small difference on the penetration can be
observed [28, 42, 49]. At constant arc current, the
penetration increases for arc leading as shown in Fig.
7.a [43]. However, when the distance (d) is constant,
the welding direction giving the highest penetration
evolved with the arc current (see Fig. 7.b). Uchiumi
et al. [28] found, like Hu [52], that penetration
increases with arc leading for low arc current (I <
120A), while penetration increases with laser leading
for high arc current (I > 120A).
5 A6061-T6 sheets of 2-mm thickness, welding speed of 3
Penetration depth (mm)
3 5. Conclusions
2
1
Laser leading Arc leading
0
-4 -2 0 2
a) Impingement distance (mm)
b)
Fig. 7: Penetration depth (mm) vs.: a) the impingement
distance and the process leading, laser power of 3kW, arc
intensity of 140A, arc voltage of 24V and welding speed of
1m.min-1 [43], b) the arc current and the process leading,
courtesy of Uchiumi et al. [28].
On the other hand, Zhou et al. found a poor mixing of
the filler/base metal when the distance (d) is 1 mm or
more. They state that the droplet must impinge where
a lot of liquid metal is present, hence at
approximately 0.6 mm from the laser beam [20].
However, this study has been done with laser leading.
Therefore the element mixing can be improved by arc
leading as the laser imports the filler all around the
keyhole as shown by Lee et al. [24]. Fig. 8 shows the
input energy per volume of molten material for LBW,
GMAW (backhand and forehand) and HLAW (arc
and laser leading). The arc leading allows a slightly
higher energy efficiency (13.1 J.mm-3) than laser
leading (13.6 J.mm-3). The same authors also found
that porosity level was decreased in the case of arc
leading [24]. This enhancement can be explained by
the arc cleaning.
HLAW (laser leading)
HLAW (arc leading)
LBW
GMAW (backhand)
GMAW (forehand)
0 5 10 15
Input energy per volume of
20
-3
molten material (J.mm )
Fig 8: input energy per volume of molten material for LBW,
GMAW (backhand and forehand) and HLAW (arc and laser
leading). Welding parameters: butt joint configuration,
m.min-1 and welding current of 48A [24]
(i) Because of the synergy phenomena, aluminum
HLAW can attain the advantages of LBW and
GMAW without their drawbacks. Moreover, the
welding speed, the component distortion and
4 mechanical properties can be enhanced. However, the
higher number of parameters increases the
complexity of the process.
(ii) For aluminum welding, Nd:YAG laser is
advantageous because the beam can be propagated
through optical fiber and weld plume does not
interfere with the beam. The welding of thin sheets
(thicknesses below 3 mm) can be done with a large
laser beam (defocused Nd:YAG laser beam or HPDL
beam) and alternating current power source, while the
welding of sheets thicknesses of 3 mm and higher
have better results with the use of DCEN (pulsed or
not) with small focus laser beam.
(iii) Gap bridging can be augmented compared to
autogeneous laser welding and can, sometimes be
higher than GMAW.
(iv) Arc leading process increases the penetration for
small arc current while laser leading increases the
penetration for higher arc current. Gas used can be
adapted to any needs; while argon stabilizes the arc,
helium increases the arc voltage and therefore a
mixture of the two can be made to attain the
protection and arc voltage needed.
(v) Laser welding plan can easily upgrade to hybrid
and thus increase the production time and
metallurgical properties.
(vi) Future research should be focused on better
control of the process and better understanding of the
physical phenomenon occurring in HLAW, such as
140
the mixing of the filler wire, angle of the heads and
solidification rates of the weldment.
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142
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Laser-GMA Hybrid Welding:
Process Monitoring and Thermal Modeling
E.W. Reutzel, S.M. Kelly, R.P. Martukanitz
Applied Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
M.M. Bugarewicz, P. Michaleris
Dept. of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Abstract
Laser-Gas Metal Arc (GMA) hybrid welding is an
increasingly accepted technology for a variety of commercial
applications, from industries as diverse as shipbuilding to
automobile manufacture. As applications become more
widespread, there is a growing need to understand the
relationship between the numerous process parameters and
the process results, including weld quality and distortion.
To build upon the body of knowledge supporting this, two
separate experiments are performed.
In the first, hybrid welds are performed with a 2.6 kW
Nd:YAG laser and sensors are used to monitor GMA voltage
and current, as well as the arc-plasma electromagnetic
emissions in both the ultraviolet and infrared regions.
Process perturbations, such as fluctuations in GMAW
voltage and wire speed, laser angle of incidence, and
laser/GMAW torch head separation distance, are introduced
to study their effect on sensor output.
Finally, thermal finite element models are developed and
used to quantify the varying heat input per unit length
when compared with conventional GMAW and laser welding
processes, particularly as applied to joining of thin steel
structures. The onset of buckling during weld fabrication
has been shown to be strongly dependent upon the heat
input used to produce the weld. A thermal model of the
laser-GMA hybrid welding process is developed to serve as
a representation of this complex process.
Introduction
It has been nearly a quarter of a century since researchers
first conceived of combining a conventional welding arc with
a laser beam in a hybrid process [1, 2], but only recently has
laser-GMA hybrid welding begun to be utilized in industrial
applications.
Laser beam welding offers relatively high welding speed
compared to conventional processes and high penetration
that is achieved due to the keyhole effect. Unfortunately,
due to the small spot size of the laser, it has limited success
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 143
in some welding applications because of insufficient gap
bridging capabilities, requiring high precision during edge
preparation and setup. Additionally, the focussed energy
of the laser beam results in a narrow heat affected zone
(HAZ) that can lead to steep spatial and temporal thermal
gradients that sometimes result in brittle microstructures.
In contrast, conventional GMAW offers the ability to
easily bridge gaps in the joint by introducing filler metal
to the process. The composition of the filler materials can
be customized to produce improved material properties. The
additional heat results in reduced cooling rates, often leading
to improved ductility. However, the high heat can result in
undesirable distortion or buckling, and the physics of the
process result in an inability to produce deep penetration
welds. As a result, thick sections are often welded with
multiple weld passes.
These shortcomings can be overcome by combining the
laser with an arc welding technique such as GMAW. Not only
is this helpful in accommodating gaps and reducing weld-
head positioner tolerance requirements while maintaining
deep penetration [3], but it has also been known to produce
even greater welding speeds and to provide an improved weld
microstructure upon cooling [4].
This document outlines recent results of various
investigations into both practical and theoretical aspects of
laser-GMA hybrid welding. The first section discusses how
various sensors can provide information regarding the state
of the hybrid welding process. The next section presents
results of experiments to introduce a single-pass hybrid weld
as a substitute for a multi-pass conventional weld for thick
substrates. The final section discusses initial attempts to
define a theoretical thermal model of the hybrid welding
process that will be used to quantify distortion and buckling
for comparison of the laser, gas metal arc, and hybrid
welding processes.
Process Monitoring
Detection of weld defects using real time monitoring
methods is of significant concern in industry. This is
largely due to the increased production and liability costs to observe variations in sensor output. A variety of different
that result when weld defects are not identified early in voltage set-points were tested. The arc currents obtained
the production cycle. Weld monitoring systems must be during these experiments are shown in Figure2. For a
reliable, flexible and cost effective in non-clean, high-volume given wire feed speed (WFS), at lower voltages there was
production environments. Various sensors in the field of real a dramatic increase in current when the laser was removed
time weld monitoring have shown promise in detecting weld from the system. At 18 V it can be seen that there is an
process conditions. These include acoustic, plasma-based, increase in current of approximately 30 A upon deactivation
optical (infrared, ultraviolet and x-ray) and electromagnetic of the laser. In all cases, WFS was 76 mm/s (180 ipm), gas
sensors. In the laser welding process alone, the range of (Ar-25% O2 ) flow rate was 35 CFH, and the laser was applied
signal emissions from the weld zone has led to a wide range for the first half of the weld, then deactivated for the second
of techniques being applied to sensing of the process [5, 6, 7]. half. With increasing arc voltage, these effects became much
In conventional arc welding, parameters such as voltage and less pronounced.
current have been monitored to determine characteristics
and health of the weld process [8, 9]. 18 V
When the laser welding process is combined with
conventional GMAW, it is clear that the processes will
interact and necessarily affect one another (See Figure 1).
With a constant voltage welding power supply, the resistance 21 V
of the wire stick-out and arc are inversely proportional to
the output current of the power supply. It is reasonable
to expect that the additional heat deposited by the laser 24 V
beam, and the additional metal vapor and ions that are
expelled from the keyhole during welding will affect the arc
resistance, and therefore the arc current. It is relatively 33 V
simple to measure the arc current using a Hall-effect probe,
and experiments revealed that the arc current correlates
closely with changes in many process variables. It is Laser + GMAW GMAW Only
believed monitoring of this single parameter could enable
determination of a variety of process variables that are Figure 2: Affect of laser at different voltage set-points on
difficult to monitor otherwise. A few examples are discussed arc current.
below. Laser-Gas Metal Arc Hybrid Welding Process
(Laser Leading Arc)

A possible explanation for this behavior can be developed

Focused Laser Beam by considering that as arc length increases, resistance also
increases since the electrons have a greater distance to
travel. An increase in arc length can be caused by increasing
Keyhole Gas Metal Arc
Welding Torch
penetration depth, therefore the value of the current can
Inert Shielding Gas
be strongly correlated to penetration. The constant voltage
power supply used during the experiments exhibits a positive
Electric Arc slope for the voltage and current characteristics in order to
Work-piece
maintain Ohm’s Law, V = IR (where V is voltage, I is
Molten Pool
current, and R is resistance). Therefore, penetration and
welding current are directly proportional. As penetration
decreases when the laser is deactivated, the arc length is
reduced and current must increase.
In GMA welding, the penetration has been shown to
increase as the voltage is increased. At lower voltage set-
Figure 1: Schematic of the hybrid welding process. points, such as 18 V, the difference between the penetration
of the hybrid and the GMAW process is more pronounced.
This could explain the relatively large increase in current
when deactivating the laser. As voltage is increased and
arc force increases, one can expect less of a difference in
Affect of laser on arc current
penetration when the laser is deactivated and therefore
To investigate the affect of laser on the arc current, a hybrid a smaller increase in current. However, other hybrid
laser-GMA bead-on-plate weld was performed, and the laser experiments involving an increase of laser power, and
was terminated halfway through the weld length, in order therefore penetration, did not demonstrate this same

144
decrease in current, and therefore raises questions with this
theory. Other explanations are discussed in Travis et al
[10, 11].
Affect of laser-to-arc spacing on arc current
It has been reported that varying the laser position relative
to the GMAW torch affects the welding process [12, 13]. To
evaluate this effect, this distance was varied using 22 V and
91 mm/sec (215 ipm) WFS as constant process parameters.
The arc current was measured during the weld when the
laser was positioned to interact at various positions along
the weld direction relative to the GMAW torch, including
laser leading, lagging, and coincident with the GMAW torch.
The positional measurements were obtained between the
position at which the GMAW electrode extends to the
surface, and the point laser beam focus spot. The results
of the experiments are shown in Figure 3.
GMAW leading Laser 4 mm
GMAW leading Laser 2 mm
Meet at same spot
Laser leading GMAW 2 mm
Laser leading GMAW 4 mm
Figure 3: Affect of laser-to-arc spacing on arc current.
Note that although the positional measurements are taken
between the point at which the extended wire would meet
the work-piece, the arc will tend to take the path of least
resistance to the work-piece, i.e. nearly straight down from
the end of the electrode. This is an important fact to
consider when evaluating the results. When the laser trailed
the GMAW torch by the greatest amount, the current signal
was at its maximum. It is likely the laser did not strongly
interact with the arc in this case. When the laser led the
electrode, it is conceivable that the increased penetration
caused by the laser led to an increase in arc resistance
resulting in the reduced current, as shown. The additional
penetration associated with this condition may be the cause
of the decrease in current. Additional explanations are
presented in Travis et al [10, 11].
145
Thermal Modeling of Hybrid
Welding
Objective
This portion of the paper focuses on the development
of a thermal model for hybrid welding to calculate the
temperature history of the part during the weld process.
In the next phase of research, this temperature history will
be used as input to an elasto-plastic finite element model
in order to predict the effect of stress and the degree of
distortion in structures that are welded by this method.
The heat source model outlined by Goldak et al is used
to determine the effects of the thermal load in the laser-
GMA Hybrid welding process [14]. First, a GMA welding
model and a laser welding model are individually generated,
and a Finite Element Model (FEM) simulation is executed
to compare the effects of each process. Next a heat source
model is generated for the Laser-GMA Hybrid process by
directly combining the laser and arc heat source models
through the concept of superposition.
The thermal model results are compared to experimental
bead-on-plate fusion zone measurements for each welding
process. The GMA welds were created using a constant
voltage power supply set at 20 V, a wire feed rate of
84.7 mm/s (200 ipm), and using Ar-10% CO2 shield gas
flowing at 0.47 L/s (60 cfh). Note that the addition of metal
via the weld wire to the weld plate was not considered
in the thermal model; instead, a pre-placed bead cap was
included in the model geometry. Autogenous laser welds
were performed using a 14 kW CO2 continuous wave laser
operating at a nominal power of 4 kW, with helium shield
gas flowing at 1.57 L/s (200 cfh). The hybrid (GMA + laser)
welds were performed using a direct combination of the
aforementioned parameters.
Description-Modeling Approach
A reliable finite element model can serve as a useful tool
in design and manufacture. The proposed model involves a
three-dimensional transient thermal heat source model with
free convection; however, no fluid flow or mass transfer is
currently considered. The analysis is performed on half of a
symetric 150 × 150 × 5 mm plate possessing the material
properties of ASTM 131 grade EH-36 steel. Thermal
properties are assumed to be comparable to typical mild
steel, having a melting point of approximately 1504◦ C [15].
The latent heat of fusion is a necessary parameter to account
for the energy used to melt material in the fusion zone [16].
In order to achieve model convergence, a large range of
latent heat was used as described by Sun et al [17]. Twenty
node, hexagonal brick type elements were utilized to ensure
reliable results, with six elements through the thickness of
the material. Additional elements were added to the heat
source zone to represent the crown of the weld. To achieve
accurate results, setting the value for the time step duration
required careful attention. According to Goldak et al, in a front and rear quadrants of the weld respectively. A
standard three dimensional model sufficient results can be relationship exists between ff and fr , as seen in Equation 4
achieved by allowing the heat source to move half of the weld described by Goldak [14].
pool length in one time step [18]. Due to the comparatively
large weld velocity employed in hybrid welding (16.93 mm/s ff + fr = 2. (4)
or 40 ipm), for these experiments the heat source was only
For our analysis ff was given a value of 0.6, leaving fr equal
permitted to move one fifth of the weld pool length to ensure
to 1.4.
satisfactory results. The heat source was applied in the
A lag factor, τ , is used to describe the position of the
x direction along the back edge of the sectioned plate, as
source at time, t. The moving coordinate system is described
depicted in Figure 4.
by Equation 5.

² = z + v(τ − t). (5)


   
The quantity v is simply the welding velocity.
The geometry of the heat flux is set by the parameters a,
b, and c1 (or c2 ) in Equation 1 and Equation 2 above. These
parameters are weld specific, therefore they are dependent
on the type of welding and welding conditions such as weld
speed, current, voltage, and material properties.

Results
Z The equations described above were used to simulate the
Y GMA, laser, and hybrid (GMA + Laser) welding processes.
X
All models were applied to the EH-36 steel plate described
above.
Figure 4: Depiction of thermal analysis plate. Figure 5 shows a GMA bead-on-plate weld made using
the conditions in the Arc Only column of Table 1. The
A heat source having a double ellipsoidal power density measured fusion zone width and depth are 2.9 mm and
distribution was used in the thermal model [14]. The heat 0.5 mm, respectively. The fusion zone dimensions are used
source model is calibrated by adjusting the shape of the to verify the accuracy of the GMA thermal model results,
double ellipsoid through the semi-axes coefficients, a, b, and shown in Figure 6. The fusion zone is taken to be the
c1 (or c2 ), which correspond to the x, y, and z dimensions location of the liquidus isotherm (T = 1504◦ C) at the center
of the ellipses. Equation 1 and Equation 2 describe the of the heat source. The modeled fusion zone width and depth
distribution of heat over the front and rear quadrant. are 2.7 mm and 0.55 mm, respectively. This result differs
from experiment by 3% for the depth and 6% for the width
of the fusion zone.
√ h 2 3y 2 3[z+v(τ −t)]2
i
6 3 ff Q −3x
a2 − b2 − c1 2
q(x, y, z, t) = √ e (1)
abc π π


√ h
3y 2 2
i th = 0.56
−3x2 3[z+v(τ −t)]
6 3 fr Q
{
a2 − b2 − c2 2
q(x, y, z, t) = √ e (2)
abc π π
{
The GMAW heat source power, Q, is calculated from the     ! "$##
constant voltage set point, V , and current, I, measured
from a Hall-Effect probe, as shown in Equation 3.
Laser heat source power was determined through direct
measurement. The process efficiency value, η, is determined
from calorimetry experiments performed on GMA, laser, and
GMA+laser hybrid welds [19].
Figure 5: Micrograph of Arc Weld.
Q = V Iη (3)
The entities ff and fr , in Equation 1 and Equation 2, Figure 7 and Figure 8 compare the experimental and
determine the fractions of the heat source applied to the modeled cross sections for a laser beam weld. The model and

146
 )+* , -. / - 0 1 2 34 5 6 7+7 1.69+03
<$=;> ?A@B;?C DEGFIH J KML$L

{
1.58+03

{
1.47+03

%'& ( 1.36+03
th
}= 0.55 mm 1.25+03

1.13+03

1.02+03

89;:
9.12+02

8.01+02
th = 4.9 mm
6.90+02

5.79+02

4.68+02

3.57+02

2.46+02
Z
1.35+02

X Y
2.43+01

Figure 6: Cross Section of Arc Weld FEM.

Figure 7: Micrograph of Laser Weld.
Arc Only / Laser Laser
Arc Hybrid Only Hybrid WX Y Z\['] Z'^ _'` a$b c b d d 2.81+03

2.62+03

{
a 2.87 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm
b
c1
c2
Power
Voltage
Current
η
Velocity
0.56 mm
2.87 mm
11.48 mm
—
20 V
165 A
73%
16.9 mm/s
7.6 mm
0.5 mm
2.0 mm
4,000 W
—
—
76%
16.9 mm/s
18.6 mm
0.5 mm
2.0 mm
4,000 W
—
—
76%
16.9 mm/s
{ NGO;PRQ SMTAU;V
m
2.44+03

2.25+03

2.06+03

1.88+03

1.69+03

1.51+03

1.32+03

1.14+03

9.52+02

7.66+02

5.81+02

Table 1: Modeled and Experimental Weld Parameters Z

3.95+02

2.10+02

X Y
2.45+01

experimental parameters are shown in the Laser Only column
of Table 1. In the experimental laser weld, full penetration
of the 5 mm thick plate was achieved. The calibrated model
results are in agreement; however, the fusion zone width in
the modeled result is 35% greater than in the experiment.
The direct combination of the model parameters for
the arc and laser did not yield acceptable results, and
so the parameter, b, required slight modification. With
the reformulated hybrid model, the predicted welding
penetration depth was quite near the measured value,
resulting in an error of only 1%. Similarly for the weld
radius, an error of 9% can be seen in Figure 9 and Figure 10
below. The heat source model parameters used can be seen
in the Arc Hybrid and Laser Hybrid columns of Table 1.
Future Work
Additional refinements will be made to the models above.
Fluid flow and mass transfer are two areas to be explored
in the future to improve the 3-D results. The models in the
future also plan to use the calculated temperature history to
investigate the stress and distortion associated with Laser-
GMA Hybrid welding processes.
Figure 8: Cross Section of Laser Weld.
Summary
A variety of experiments have been undertaken to help
better understand hybrid laser-GMA welding. Monitoring
of arc current is strong to strongly correlate to variations
in many process parameters. Special joint parameters
enable single-pass hybrid welding of thick sections normally
requiring multiple passes. A finite element model was
generated to accurately display the temperature history in
a hybrid welding process.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Mr. Jay Tressler for
his patience, dedication, and laser welding experience in
performing these numerous welds under difficult schedule
constraints. We would also like to thank Dr. Geoffrey
Dearden and Mr. Daniel Travis from the Laser Group at the
University of Liverpool for their contributions to this work.
A portion of this material is based upon work supported
by the Office of Naval Research through the Naval Sea

147
 Proceedings of the 2001 International Congress on Lasers
hjik l$m nRlo p q\rjst uwvxv and Electro-Optics (ICALEO 2001), number 305, 2001.
[5] W.W. Duley. Laser Welding. John Wiley, New York, 1999.

} }
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{ y z {}| ~ G€  ‚ €+ƒƒ
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[19] S.M. Kelly. Unpublished research. 2005.
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148
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Double-sided Arc Welding Process

Y. M. Zhang, A. T. Male, B. Losch
University of Kentucky Center for Manufacturing, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
L. Kvidahl
Northrop Grumman Ship Systems, Pascagoula, Mississippi, USA
M. Ludwig
General Dynamics Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, USA
J. Emmerson
Magnatech Limited Partnership, East Granby, Connecticut, USA

Abstract To understand the principle of DSAW, first consider the

Double-sided arc welding (DSAW) is a novel process
invented and developed at the University of Kentucky. The
uniqueness of this process lies in its strong penetration
capability and its symmetric hour glass-shaped welds. The
early work on DSAW was done using the tungsten of a gas
tungsten arc welding torch as the second electrode. Later work
showed that a metal backing bar can act in the same capacity.
The applicability and robustness of the modified system has
been verified by making welds under different positions and
different fit-up gaps. With the addition of filler metal, positive
reinforcement has been achieved on the both sides of the weld
and thus made it feasible to make welds on plates up to 12.7
mm (½ inch) thick in a single pass without bevels. Further,
various tests have confirmed that the welds made using
DSAW on DH 36 steel satisfy all the requirements of
mechanical properties, including hardness, toughness (both
weld metal and HAZ), tensile, bend, etc.
Introduction
A novel arc welding process, referred to as double-sided
arc welding (DSAW), has been developed at the University of
Kentucky (UK) [1]. This arc welding process can achieve
deep narrow penetration and symmetric hour glass-shaped
welds to reduce distortion and improve welding throughput.
Using this process, a number of butt welded joints on a ship
can be completed by welding with minimal distortion.
Power
Supply Electrode
Electrode Torch
One
Torch
Current
Arc
Work
Arc
Work
Plasma Jet
and Keyhole
(A)
Figure 1: Schematic Diagrams of Welding Systems.(A) Regular
welding system; (B) Double-sided arc welding system.
regular arc welding system shown in Figure 1(A). As can be
seen, it uses an electrical connection (ground cable) between
the workpiece and power supply to allow the welding current
to complete the loop. The electric arc is established between
the workpiece and the torch. In DSAW system, the workpiece
is disconnected from the power supply and a second torch is
placed on the opposite side of the workpiece to complete the
current loop (Figure 1(B)). As a result, electric arcs are
simultaneously established between the workpiece and each of
two torches.
Process Analysis and Advantages
The special configuration makes DSAW possess several
unique characteristics, not found in other arc welding
processes, which are desirable for distortion minimization:
• In DSAW process, the current must flow through the
thickness of the workpiece. This direction of current is
referred to as through-the-thickness (TTT) direction.
However, in regular arc welding, the TTT direction is not
found because the majority of the welding current flows
from the arc into the surface of the workpiece [2].
• The unique TTT direction results in the presence of the
current in the keyhole. The DSAW system typically
employs a plasma arc welding (PAW) torch as the
primary torch which makes it possible to produce a
keyhole. With the establishment of the keyhole, the
current may take the keyhole and/or its surrounding metal
as its TTT path to flow from one torch to the other. If the
surrounding metal is the path, the electrons must enter the
Power
Supply metal and re-emit from the metal. An additional cathode-
anode pair will be generated (Figure 2(A)). The TTT path
of the current thus adds approximately an additional 10 V
Arc voltage drop. If the keyhole is the path, the current will
travel through the keyhole without adding an additional
Torch
Two cathode-anode pair. The TTT path of the current thus only
adds a voltage drop associated with the arc column along
(B)
the keyhole (Figure 2(B)). For 12.7 mm(0.5 in.) or thinner
plates, the voltage drop along the keyhole is much lower
than that of the additional cathode and anode pair. The
current thus tends to take the keyhole as its TTT path.
However, in regular keyhole PAW, the current does not

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 149

 flow through-the-thickness and the keyhole is filled with component to further increase the total divergent force. In
the electrically neutral mix of ions and electrons. DSAW, the weld pool surface does not serve as an
electrode to force the current to approach it at the shortest
path. The deformed surface caused- arc divergence is thus
eliminated. As a result, the arc on the plasma torch
becomes much more concentrated than the plasma arc in
regular PAW [3].
• The most pronounced characteristic of DSAW process is
its symmetric hour glass shaped weld. This unique
characteristic, together with the deep narrow penetration
capability due to the heat compensation mechanism and
arc concentration, is highly desirable for reducing angular
distortion and thermal stress.
Hence, DSAW process has significant advantages in
welding thick plates and reducing distortion.

(A)
DSAW System
The use of the second torch, GTAW torch, is a major
factor which differentiates DSAW from conventional arc
welding. If the second torch can be eliminated such that the
requirement of the simultaneous motion is eliminated, DSAW
will be able to operate similar to a conventional single torch
operation welding.

(B)

Figure 2: Voltage Decomposition in DSAW.

• The presence of the current in the keyhole generates a

unique TTT heat generation mechanism. Because of the
presence of the arc in the keyhole, an arc column is (A)
established along the keyhole. In regular keyhole PAW,
the plasma jet, as an electrically neutral mix of ions and
electrons, only consumes its initial energy, gained before
entering the keyhole, when it travels along the keyhole
through-the-thickness. In keyhole DSAW, the current in
the keyhole establishes an arc column through-the-
thickness. This TTT arc column results in a mechanism to
generate heat to compensate the heat lost to melt the (B)
workpiece. Such a TTT heat generation and compensation
mechanism makes it possible to achieve deep narrow Figure 3: Experimental set-up for verification of modified
penetration. DSAW system. (A) System photograph; (B) System diagram.
• In addition to the TTT heat generation mechanism, the
unique TTT current direction plays an important role in
concentrating the arc. In regular PAW, the surface of the To explore this possibility, consider the welding system
shown in Figure 3. The difference between this system and the
weld pool, which is severely deformed by the arc
pressure, serves as an electrode. The voltage minimum DSAW system in Figure 2 is that the GTAW torch is replaced
principle makes the current find the shortest path between by a water-cooled copper plate which is 1 in. thick, 4 in. wide,
and 4 in. long. During welding, the water-cooled copper plate
the electrodes, i.e., the tungsten electrode and the weld
pool surface. Because of the severe deformation of the is shielded and moves simultaneously with the PAW torch. It
weld pool surface, it is likely that the current flow must is evident that the arc can also be established between the
copper plate and the workpiece. Hence, the copper plate may
diverge in order to approach the weld pool surface at the
shortest path. The divergence of the current flow will be used as a replacement for the GTAW torch to operate
make the electromagnetic force produce a divergence DSAW process. The question is whether the arc between the
copper plate and the workpiece will be established between

150
two arbitrary points (regions) on the copper plate and the easily formed using two conventional constant-current power
workpiece. Or, can these two points (regions) be controlled supplies without using high-current switches.
such that the arcs on the two sides of the workpiece be aligned
as in the case of a GTAW torch? Or will the arcs on the two
sides become much broader such that the deep narrow
penetration capability associated with DSAW is weakened?
It was found that if the non-keyhole process is used, the
arc between the copper plate and the workpiece may not be
aligned with the plasma arc. However, when the keyhole
process is used, the arc is aligned as shown in Figure 4. The
desired deep penetration and symmetric weld shape both
remain. In fact, when the keyhole is established, the efflux
plasma exit from the workpiece provides an ideal condition to
maintain the arc between the copper plate and the workpiece.
Hence, when the plasma torch travels, the arc between the (A)
I
copper plate and the workpiece follows the plasma arc because
of the efflux. This has been referred to as the arc-following Plasma torch

phenomenon.
The arc-following phenomenon enables a large stationary
bar or plate to replace the GTAW torch as the second
electrode to perform DSAW. This makes it possible to operate Power
DSAW like a regular arc welding process without the Switch 1 Is 1 supply

Switch 2
Is
R Is 2
Workpiece

GTAW torch

Current
(B) sensor

Figure 4: Arc Behavior during DASW Using Stationary Bar.

necessity of simultaneous torch motion. Further, the stationary

bar can be water-cooled such that the amperage limit is solely
determined by the PAW torch. Hence, it was proposed
replacing the GTAW torch with a stationary bar to eliminate
the simultaneous motion requirement and a modified system
has been designed, manufactured and assembled which uses a
stationary water-cooled copper pipe as the second electrode
(Figure 5(A)). In this system, the shielding gas is provided
from the bottom of the enclosure formed by the workpiece (for
the front) and a back-side cover (for the back and two sides).
The copper pipe is placed in the enclosure (Figure 5(A)).
Figure 5(B) shows the control principle. When both
switches are open, the system is in the DSAW mode. If Switch
1 is closed, the arc is only established on the plasma torch
side. The process will be plasma arc welding (PAW). When
Switch 1 is open and 2 is closed, part of current flows between
the two electrodes (DSAW current) and rest between the
plasma electrode and the base metal (PAW current). This
mode of operation is referred to as PAW-aided-DSAW.
Hence, the process can switch from DSAW to PAW and to
PAW-aided-DSAW. (As will be seen later, this switching
capability makes the control of the process easy.) In the
experimental studies, a two power supply system shown in
Figure 5(C) is used to implement the proposed control
principle illustrated in Figure 5(B) because this system can be
(C)
Figure 5: Stationary-bar Based DSAW Experimental System.
(A) Experimental system (B) Principle of control method
(C) An implementation of proposed control method
The basic procedure for controlling the DSAW process is
as follows: (1) First, a PAW process is applied to establish the
keyhole (PAW cycle). (2) Once the keyhole is established, the
efflux plasma can establish an electrical passage so that the
DSAW process can be established; the process can thus enter
DSAW cycle. (3) After the DSAW cycle runs for 200 ms
(TDSAW,max), the DSAW current is adjusted to zero. As a result,
the keyhole will close to minimize the heat input and prevent
burn-through. (4) After a 5ms delay, the PAW current is
reapplied to reestablish the keyhole. After the keyhole is
established, because of the efflux plasma, the double-sided arc
automatically resumes and starts a new cycle. Once the
DSAW arc is established, the output of the current sensor will
become non-zero. The control system will adjust the PAW

151
current to zero after a non-zero output of the current sensor is period should also be adjusted if the manufacturing conditions
confirmed. change or fluctuate. As a result, it is further proposed that an
adaptive control algorithm is introduced to select the staring
IPAW to reduce the effective heat input to the system by
Process Control attempting to minimize the time required to establish the
keyhole. This is accomplished by choosing the starting IPAW
In the current experimental system, the current of the value to be a weighted average of the maximum IPAW values
DSAW power supply can only be adjusted at two pre- from the previous 4 weld cycles. Once the keyhole is
programmed levels. This is because the DSAW process established, the PID control is applied to stabilize the keyhole.
requires higher voltage (up to 50 V) and most commercially Hence, the improved control scheme includes: an auxiliary
available power supplies do not provide such a high voltage. PAW being determined by a PID controller and an adjustable
The Lincoln PowerWave 450 can provide such a high voltage staring IPAW determined by an adaptive algorithm.
with capability for the current to be switched at two pre-
programmed levels but not for real-time arbitrary adjustment
by an external computer/controller. To be adaptive, the heat
input of the DSAW must be adjusted in real-time.
The modified DSAW system (Figure 5(C)) allows an
auxiliary PAW current, which is real-time adjustable and is
applied simultaneously with the DSAW current, to be
applied/adjusted to control the process’s heat input. Hence, in
the present DSAW system, the auxiliary PAW current is on-
line adjusted to change the heat input needed to stabilize the
process when the manufacturing conditions fluctuate.
We propose that the actual DSAW current (not the DSAW
current command) be used as the process feedback to reflect
the process stability. As analyzed earlier, when the keyhole is
established, most of the DSAW current flows directly through
the keyhole from one electrode to another. In this case, only
one pair of anode and cathode exists for this part of current. If Figure 6: Cross-section of Single Pass DSAW. 10 mm (3/8
no keyhole is present, the current will have to flow through the in.) DH36; 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) Gap, ER-70S Filler, Vertical-
workpiece in order to complete the current loop. Two pairs of down, IDSAW=105A, Travel speed = 90mm/min (3.54 in./min).
anode and cathodes will thus be established. As a result,
because of the V-A characteristic of the power supply, the
actual DSAW current will reduce. In this way, the actual Experimental Results
DSAW current can be used as a measurement of the state of
the keyhole. If the keyhole is reducing, the actual DSAW DH-36 plates of 10 mm (3/8 in.) thickness are butt joined
current reduces. If the keyhole increases, the actual DSAW without groove in a single pass. Initial studies used ER-70S
current will increase. Hence, controlling the actual DSAW at filler metal which is designed for GMAW of DH-36. Figure 6
its desired level stabilizes the DSAW process and maintains shows the weld cross section. It is found that use of ER-70S
the keyhole open at a desired diameter. can achieve all desired mechanical properties except for the
In the system, the auxiliary plasma arc current I plasma is toughness. ER-70S can obtain all the desired mechanical
determined using a PID feedback control algorithm: properties when the weld metal is primarily from the filler
t metal as in conventional GMAW of thick plates where the
1
I plasma (t ) = K [( I DSAW
*
− I DSAW (t )) + ∫ ( I DSAW
*
− I DSAW (τ ))dτ groove is filled by ER-70 in multiple passes. However, in
Ti 0 DSAW, no groove is used and the majority of the weld metal
d * is from the base metal. Hence, other filler metals should be
+ Td
( I DSAW − I DSAW (t ))] considered.
dt
All welds using the INCONEL® 625 filler metal (61 % Ni,
where I DSAW is the actual DSAW current; I DSAW
*
the desired
22% Cr, 9% Mo, 4% Nb, 3% Fe) demonstrated toughness
DSAW current which has been set for the DSAW power values at least 3 times greater than the minimum value
supply; ( K , Ti , Td ) are the parameters of the PID controller required by the specifications which is 2.35 meter-kg (17 ft-lb)
and are referred to as the proportional gain, integral time in both the weld metal and HAZ (Table 1). The welding
constant, and differential time constant respectively. The parameters used are listed Table 2.
essence is to maintain the process stability via controlling the
Table 1 Weld Metal and HAZ Toughness Test Results (ft-lb)
actual DSAW current at its desired (nominal) level which has
Sample # 1 2 3 4 5
been set for the DSAW power supply. The resultant PID
Weld Metal at -4F degree 52 58 50 55 59
controller parameters are K = 5 , K i = 3s, K d = 3s .
HAZ at -4F degree 63 74 56
In addition to the adjustment of the auxiliary plasma arc HAZ at -20F degree 46 68 47
current, the plasma current during the keyhole establishment

152
Table 2 Welding Parameters speed is 90 mm/min (3.54 in/min). The heat input per 25.4
Welding Flat Vertical Down mm (1 in.) weld is thus between 50 KJ to 55 KJ. In addition,
Position during the keyhole establishment period, the plasma current
IDSAW 65 A 60 A increases to 140 A to 240 A. However, the DSAW current is
IPAW 180A-270A 140A-240A zero during this period. Further, the keyhole establishment
AuxiliaryPlasma 30A-40A 30A-40A period is very brief. Hence, the addition of the heat input due
Travel speed 90 mm/min 90 mm/min to the use of higher PAW current for keyhole establishment is
Gap Up to 3.2 mm (1/8”) Up to 3.2 mm limited. As a result, one can safely estimate that the heat input
Wire INCONEL® 625 INCONEL® 625 is 60 KJ or lower for each 25.4 mm (one inch) weld produced.
Wire Diameter 1.15 mm (0.045”) 1.15 mm
Wire Feed Rate 40.6mm/sec (96”/min) 40.6mm/sec. This heat input is higher than 40 KJ/inch, the heat input in one
pass during conventional GMAW. This is because
Microhardness Traverse Across Butt Joint of DSAW Weld. Base
Metal - DH-36. Filler Metal - INCONEL 625
For GMAW process, in each pass, the arc input is
350A x 30V x 60 s/min / 15 in/min = 42 KJ/in.
300
Because the arc efficiency in GMAW process is
K n o o p H a rd n e s s , 5 0 0 g

250
WM nearly 1, the heat input into the workpiece should be
200
BM close to 40 KJ/inch.
HAZ
150 F.L. However, the heat input of 60 KJ/min in DSAW it is still
100
within the range permitted for DH 36 which is 10 KJ/inch to
100 KJ/inch. Hence, the toughness of the HAZ is well above
50
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 the minimum values for toughness tests.
Relative Distance from Weld Metal, inch
For 12.7 mm (3/8 in.) thick plate, a 10 kW laser beam can
achieve full penetration at the travel speed of 80 in./min [5].
The heat input is thus 10000Wx60s/80in./min=7.5 KJ/in. The
Figure 7: Micro-hardness test results heat input is lower than the minimal level for appropriate
cooling rate.
Table 3 Tensile and Bending Testing Results On other hand, for 12.7 mm (3/8 in.) thick plate, GMAW
Specimen Reading Failure and Location requires multiple passes and each pass has approximately 2/3
Tensile #1 78,633 psi Ductile failure, base metal of the heat input of DSAW. The total heat input into the
Tensile #2 78,705 psi Brittle failure, base metal workpiece is thus much more than that of DSAW. Further, the
Bending #1 Bend to 19mm No Failure heat input is asymmetrical in each pass in GMAW. The
(0.75 in.) radius distortion thus accumulates. For DSAW, the heat input is
Bending #2 Bend to 19mm No Failure symmetrical and the total heat input is approximately 1/4 of
(0.75 in.) radius that of GMAW. The distortion is thus not observable.

The micro-hardness, tensile, and bending tests have been

done by Warren Mayott [4] at Electric Boat previously and all
met the requirements. To verify that those results are also
valid for the welds made using INCONEL® 625 filler metal,
those tests have repeated again. The micro-hardness test result
is shown in Figure 7 and the tensile and bending test results
are given in Table 3. It is found that all the new testing results
meet the requirements and are similar to those of previous
study at Electric Boat [4].
(A) (B)
Analysis
Heat Input
It is estimated that the heat input of the DSAW process is 2.36
KJ per millimeter weld or 60 KJ per inch weld. This figure is
obtained based on the following calculation: Assume that the
effective voltage for DSAW current and plasma stabilizing
current (30 A to 40 A) are 35 V (the anode voltage on the (C)
water-cooled copper and the cathode voltage on the electrode Figure 8: Microstructures of DH36 Base Metal, GMAW
in PAW torch must be subtracted in order to calculate the Weld Metal, and DSAW Weld Metal. (A) Base Metal (B)
effective voltage) and 28 V. The heat input per minute will be GMAW Weld Metal with ER-70S filler metal (C) DSAW Weld
between (60X35+30X28)X60=176 KJ to 193 KJ. The travel Metal with ER-70S filler metal

153
Metallurgy
A. Weld Metal
The use of INCONEL® 625 filler metal makes it difficult
to observe the grain structures in the weld metal. However,
studies have been conducted on two high strength steels, A514
and Domex 100XF [6]. Unique feature of microstructure of
weld metal was observed in all test DSAW weldments. That
is, the columnar structure in weld metal, which is typical in
conventional arc welding process, was not well developed.
Instead, a great fraction of fine equiaxed grains are present in
weld metal. In Figure 8, the microstructures of the base metal
(DH 36), GMAW weld metal with ER-70S filler metal, and
DSAW weld metal with ER-70S filler metal are given. While
the columnar structure is obvious in GMAW weld metal, it is
not clearly observable in the DSAW weld metal.
(A) GMAW HAZ (B) DSAW HAZ
Figure 9: HAZ Microstructures on DH-36 Plates
B. HAZ
Figure 9 shows that microstructure of HAZ in GMAW and
DSAW on DH 36. The microstructures exhibit similarities.
This is due to the similar level of heat input. Hence, although
the cooling rate in DSAW is lower because of the slower
speed, the cooling rate in GMAW and DSAW should be in the
same range. Since the microstructures in HAZ are primarily
determined by the cooling rate, two types of welds should
have similar microstructures in HAZ. This also explains why
both DSAW and GMAW can pass the HAZ toughness testing.
Conclusion and Future Work
Experiments have been conducted to prove that the
double-sided arc welding process is capable of welding 10 mm
(3/8 in.) thick plates in a single pass. The symmetrical heating
and the reduced heat input can help reduce the distortion.
Mechanical properties can meet all the requirements when
using INCONEL® 625 filler metal. Recent studies found that
the desired toughness can also be achieved by using MIL-100
filler metal which was recommended by shipyards.
The DSAW process is currently being commercialized.
The commercial system uses a single power supply as shown
in Figure 5(B) and a power supply whose voltage is
sufficiently high for DSAW with capability of real-time
current adjustment. This system still uses the PAW to
establish the keyhole but does not use the auxiliary PAW
154
current to stabilize the keyhole. Instead, the DSAW current is
adjusted in real-time to maintain the keyhole for a certain
period. If the keyhole closes earlier than the desired, the
DSAW current is increased in the next pulse cycle. Otherwise
if the keyhole does not close when the desired keyhole
opening period is reached, the DSAW current will be
decreased in the next pulse cycle. Future work will focus on
the continued development of the commercial system,
development of the control algorithm for using the DSAW
current as the control variable, further studies on using MIL-
100 filler metal, and demonstration of the process for ship
building applications.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the National Science
Foundation under grant DMI-9812981, National Shipbuilding
Research Program, and Office of Naval Research Small
Business Innovative Research (SBIR) Program. This paper is
dedicated to the late Mr. Warren Mayott who was with
Electric Boat Corporation and introduced the DSAW process
to US shipyards. The authors also thank Dr. Paul Xu (Material
Manager at Linkbelt Construction Company) for assistance on
materials properties tests and all post-doctoral fellows and
graduate students who worked on this process at the
University of Kentucky Welding Research Laboratory and
significantly contributed to the development of this process
including Dr. Shaobin Zhang and Dr. Chuanxu Pan.
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5. Welding Handbook. 8th edition, Vol. 2: Welding Processes,
AWS.
6. Y.M. Zhang, P. Xu, A.T. Male, M. Jiang, and S. B. Zhang,
Metallurgical characteristics of double-sided arc welding in
high strength structural steels. Trends in Welding Research,
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference, pp. 500-505,
15-19 April 2002, Gallaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain,
Georgia, USA, ASM International (2002).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Thin Plate Gap Bridging Study for Nd:YAG Pulsed Laser Lap Welds
J. Norris, R. Roach, P. Fuerschbach, J. Bernal
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
Abstract
Gap bridging of thin plate pulsed Nd:YAG lap welds is
optimized by focused welding at low peak powers without gas
shielding. High speed images reveal effects of varying
welding parameters and weld pool and laser beam interactions.
Improved bridging with out gas shielding is attributed to
changes in Marangoni convective flow. Development and
verification of finite element models for weld pool physics is
being conducted.
1. Introduction
Welding of thin plate (<0.005”) material is difficult regardless
of joint geometry but is more so when using a process which
provides no filler material. Given the demand for smaller and
lighter manufactured components, welding of thin sheet
material becomes essential but does not lend itself to an edge
or butt joint geometry: a lap joint then becomes the
predominate joint design. Edge and butt joints require precise
part fit up in order to avoid gapping which leads to shine
through or insufficient melting. In a lap joint design, gapping
is only dependent upon the flatness of the top plate therefore
lighter machining tolerances become an inherent benefit. In
this study, a thin Kovar plate 0.004” thick is welded to a
0.020” thick bottom plate. A constant gap of 0.002, 0.003, or
0.004” is fixed between the two plates. Although these gaps
are small in magnitude, given the amount of material provided
by the top plate’s thickness these gaps become relatively large.
2. Experimental Setup & Thermal Fluid
Modeling:
2.1 Experimental Setup: Precise fixturing and
thorough laser beam characterization were required to ensure
experimental accuracy. Pulse energy for each process
parameter was measured prior to the experiment along with a
measure of the laser beam’s spot size and waist location. A
Scientech Vectra S310 meter with an AC50HD detector
measured the laser pulse energy. Beam spot size and waist
location were determined by characterizing the beam with
0.002” Kapton film (Ref. 1). A Lasag SLS C16 pulsed
Nd:YAG with a 400µm fiber delivery, real time pulse energy
compensation and a 100 mm focusing lens was used. Process
parameters for this study included pulse energies of 0.6 – 3.3
J, pulse lengths of 1.5 – 8.0 ms, and spot diameters of .30 –
1.0 mm; spot diameter was varied systematically by
defocusing the beam, both diverging and converging. Process
variables were limited to not exceeding penetration beyond the
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
base plate’s thickness and unless otherwise stated, all
experiments were conducted at sharp focus with a
perpendicular beam angle.
Figure 1: Schematic showing plate orientation with respect to
focused beam, illuminating source and high speed imager.
Three lap weld fixtures were used in this study with 0.002”,
0.003”, and 0.004” fixed gap. Each fixture was designed to
hold a 0.004” top plate and a 0.020” bottom plate while
maintaining the desired gap (Figure 1). To ensure flatness and
sharp edges, Kovar samples were wire EDM cut, 1”X 0.5”X
0.004” and 1”X0.5”X 0.020”, etched with a bright dip solution
of acetic, nitric, and hydrofluoric acids, and stress relieved.
Stress relieving of the thin plates required loading the samples
(1420 g) with aluminum plates in a dry hydrogen furnace at
950°C for 60 minutes with a standard furnace cool down.
Prior to welding, each sample was visually inspected under a
20X microscope. Although random testing of fixtured
samples measured a flatness ±3 µm (measurements made with
a Wyko laser profilometer), visual inspection insured a
damaged sample was not used. Spot welds not adequately
spaced reduced the fixed gap allowing sequential spots to
bridge better yielding misleading gap bridging results. A 5
mm distance between each spot is necessary to negate this
effect. Overall, each sample received no more then 5 weld
spots.
The effect of gas shielding was also evaluated. Both UHP
argon and nitrogen with a flow rate of 30CFH were used along
with tests run only in air – without shielding gas. The effect
of joint/beam alignment was studied. These tests required that
the beam be aligned off-center favoring the 0.004” top plate
by approximately 25% of the beam’s diameter (Figure 2).
155
Incident beam angle was also tested perpendicular (normal) to
the sample’s surface, and at 15° from normal into the lap joint.
Figure 2: Schematic showing weld joint orientation to beam
angle, φ, and 25% beam diameter offset.
Visualization experiments were conducted for computer
model verification and to aid in our general understanding of
weld pool physics. A Roper-Scientific HG-TX color CCD
imager with a Navitar zoom lens was positioned in line with
the weld joint at a 45° angle to the sample surface to provide
imaging ~25X of that of the original spot (Figure 1). A 99%
Nd:YAG reflecting mirror, #03 neutral density filter and a 540
nm notch filter were used to control the wavelength and
amount of light entering into the CCD. These filters were
attached at the end of the Navitar lens. A Schott-Fostec 8 mm
fiber bundle light with a 150 W tungsten halogen lamp was
used for surface illumination. Lighting was supplied directly
opposite to that of the CCD imager as to reflect the light off
the sample directly into the CCD array. Imaging capability
and resolution were limited by the camera settings: 512 X 144
pixels at 2000 fps with an exposure time of 483 µs.
2.2 Thermal-Fluid Model: The finite element code
(Ref. 2) modified for simulation of the laser weld process is a
two- and three-dimensional finite element program which
excels in analyses of multiphysical processes, particularly
those involving the major branches of mechanics such as fluid/
solid mechanics, energy transport and chemical species
transport. It is based on a full-Newton-coupled algorithm
which allows for simultaneous solution of the governing
principles, making the code ideally suited for problems
involving closely coupled bulk mechanics and interfacial
phenomena. For this effort, the motions of the keyhole
boundaries are tracked with either an Arbitrary
Lagrangian/Eulerian (ALE) formulation or the level set
method for tracking moving interfaces. The level set method is
well suited for the simulation of a spot or continuous weld
(Ref. 3).
The boundary conditions for the momentum equation on the
weld pool free surface consist of a balance of the vapor recoil
force, pressure, viscous stress, and surface tension. Vapor
recoil is created by the vaporization of the liquid metal after
156
the surface of the liquid exceeds the boiling temperature of the
metal. Both convective and radiative heat losses are included
in the thermal boundary condition for the weld surface. The
laser heat flux distribution on the material surface can be
varied temporally and spatially based on the laser weld
process. Latent heat release is handled by using the enthalpy
method. Material properties for all materials are input as
functions of temperature.
3. Results & Discussion:
3.1 Measure of Gap Bridging Ability: Weld joint
strength is primarily defined by the cross-sectional area of the
attaching ligament between the top and bottom plates. The
material making up the ligament between the two plates is
drawn from the molten material created by the intersecting of
the top plate and the beam. For a joint centered beam, this
creates a cut out of a semi-circle. The semi-circle creates an
arced edge in which to bridge between the two plates (Figure.
3). The ratio of joining ligament’s arc length to the total arc
length created by the circular beam is the “percent gap
bridged”. This is approximated using a Zeiss stereoscope
under 30X magnification. Since percent gap bridged does not
relate to changes in cross-sectional ligament areas, weld
strength will also be considered when determining optimal
process parameters and weld setup.
Figure 3: Ligament arc length and Total arc length are used
to determine “Percent gap bridged”.
3.2 Effect of Gas Shielding: Gas shielding impacted
gap bridging ability the most. Argon and nitrogen shielded
spot welds were unable to bridge gaps consistently over the
range of parameters chosen for this study. Surface tension
dominated flow resulting in a molten ball clinging to the top
plate inhibited the flow of material (figure 4). For higher
energy welds providing more molten material, flow to the base
plate only occurred once the mass of the ball was greater than
the surface tension force. This sudden flow of material would
leave the bridge either unsuccessful or only slightly (<30%)
attached. This is in part due to melt back phenomenon which
occurs while the ball is still attached to the top plate. This is
discussed further in § 3.7. Gap bridging with argon shielding
was only achieved when welding at a 15° angle into the joint.
§ 3.6 addresses this further.
Welding in air provided the best and most consistent results.
A change in surface tension as a result of oxidation enabled a
consistent flow of material to the base plate to form a
ligament. The clinging of the molten ball and melt back of the
top plate was not seen for welds made in air. The high
repeatability for “in air” welds allowed for good correlation
between bridging ability and process variables. All following
results, unless otherwise stated, are responses or behaviors of
welds made in air (no cover gas).
either focused for a minimum spot size or defocused to
achieve larger spot sizes. At constant peak power, gap
bridging ability decreased when welding outside of the waist
of the beam. This response was studied under four peak
power conditions (Figure 6). For a fixed peak power, welding
other than the minimum waist decreases irradiance in turn,
bridging ability was reduced. At a constant irradiance such as
1500 W/mm2, the bridging response differs for dissimilar peak
powers: 525 and a 1000 W. Conflicting results such as these
are believed to be due to a sudden change in weld pool physics
as a result of beam and weld pool interaction disrupting the
bridged ligament. This phenomenon was observed through
high speed imaging.

100
8 ms, 2.0 J
8 ms, 3.3 J
6 ms, 3.0 J
80

Percent Gap Bridged

1.5 ms, 0.6 J
1.5 ms, 0.8 J
1.5 ms, 1.1 J
1.5 ms, 1.5 J
3 ms, 2.6 J
60

40

20

0
Figure 4: An unsuccessful fillet spot weld as a result of a 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

negative surface tension gradient resulting in melt-back of the Peak Power (W)
top plate. 3.0 J, 4 ms.
Figure 5: Effect of pulse energy and duration on gap bridging
ability. 75 µm gap, sharp focus, no gas shielding
3.3 Effect of Pulse Energy and Duration: Pulse
length and energy were systematically varied to determine
their effect of gap bridging. Bridging of a gap is believed to 100
be driven by the rate of melting controlled by peak power 6 ms, 3 J
4 ms, 2.1 J
balanced by the ‘dominate’ weld pool force largely influenced 3 ms, 3 J
Percent Gap Bridged

80
by shielding gas type or weld pool and beam interactions. 2 ms, 3 J

Peak power, defined as pulse energy (E) divided by pulse time 500-525 W
60
(tp), was found to be a good predictor of bridging ability
1000 W
(Figure 5). For a 0.004” thick top plate and a 290 µm beam
diameter, percent gap bridged is optimized with peak powers 40 1500 W

between 300 – 700 W. Below 200 W insufficient melting

inhibits bridging while above 700 W, penetration starts to 20
approach the depth of the plate.
Spatter
0
Peak power, by definition, allows for numerous combinations
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
of pulse energy and time that may optimize bridging ability.
Irradiance (W/mm^2)
Since weld pool size is dependent upon energy absorbed (Ref.
4), longer pulse times provide more energy to form larger spot
welds and yield a larger ligament. The increased cross- Figure 6: Effect of heat flux when holding peak power
sectional area of the larger ligament provides greater weld constant. 50 µm gap, varied focus, no gas shielding.
joint strength. Although the percent gap bridged for long
pulse times is no greater than that of a shorter time, long–pulse The effect of weld spatter is also shown in Figure 6. When
low–energy welds at optimized peak power’s produce larger welding at too high of an irradiance, 1500 W constant peak
ligaments in turn are stronger and preferable for bridging gaps. power and sharp focus, molten material is thrown from the
weld pool reducing the amount of material available to form a
3.4 Effect of Spot Diameter: For this study, a 100 ligament making gap bridging unlikely.
mm focusing lens was used. To control spot size, the lens was

157
 3.5 Effects of Beam Location: It was observed 100
when welding thin plate fillet lap joints that improved bridging Normal beam
15 deg angled beam
could be achieved when welding off-center from the joint

Percent Gap Bridged

80
moving towards the top plate (Figure 2). An off-centered
distance of approximately 25% of the beam’s diameter was
60
tested (Figure 7). Approximately 30 % better bridging was
seen throughout the range of process variables studied.
40
Bridging ability with respect to peak power followed a similar
trend to that seen with a centered beam. Bridging cannot be
20
achieved with peak powers below 200 W and starts dropping
off after ~700 W. The improved bridging is attributed to the
0
increased availability of filler material. By moving over ~25%
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
of the beam’s diameter, 61% more material is made available.
Peak Power (W)
Figure 8: 15° angle reduces bridging ability and increases
100
variability. 75 µm gap, sharp focus
Centered
Off-centered
Percent Gap Bridged

80
100
No shielding
60 Ar - 30 CFH

Percent Gap Bridged

80

40
60

20
40

0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 20
Peak Power (W)
0
Figure 7: Welding off-center (25% of the beam’s diameter to
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
the top plate) increases gap bridging ability. 75 µm gap, sharp
focus, no gas shielding. Peak Power (W)

3.6 Effect of Incident Beam Angle: The propensity
for improved bridging of a 15° angled beam welding into the
joint was investigated. For welds made in air, bridging ability
did not follow the same trends as those of a perpendicular
beam (Figure. 8). A region of high gap bridging ability over a
range of peak powers was not found. A nominal 60% gap
bridging was obtained at 250 W but as peak power was
increased, gap bridging steadily dropped off. Variation in
percent gap bridged substantially increased with the induced
angle. It is expected that visualization experiments will
provide more insight into this behavior.
Of the process variables tested and changes made in welding
conditions, an angled beam was the only condition that lead to
consistent bridging with argon gas (Figure 9). Successful
bridging was seen at high peak powers just prior to burn
through of the base plate. Bridging was optimized at 850 W
but quickly decreased at higher and lower peak powers.
Bridging variation was still very large compared to that of “in
air” perpendicular welds. It is speculated from high speed
imaging that an increase in vapor pressure along with the
induced beam angle drives fluid instabilities allowing for
material from both the top and base plate to flow. Further
visualization experiments may lend more understanding.
Figure 9: Effect of 15° incident beam angle for “in air” and
argon shielded welds. 75 µm gap, Sharp focus.
3.7 Effect of Fluid Forces: Ligament formation
between the top and bottom plate of a gapped fillet lap weld is
dependent upon molten material flowing between the two
plates. For this reason, fluid forces such as surface tension
and vapor recoil force largely impact bridging ability. Since
vapor recoil is small at low peak powers, its influence is
assumed minimal for most tested parameters (Ref. 5). Surface
tension however varies depending upon material, temperature,
and the presence of surface acting agents such as oxides (ref.
6). As mentioned in § 3.2, a negative surface tension slope
with increased temperature causes a convective flow of
material outward creating a molten droplet (ball) to form
which clings to the top plate. The molten ball inhibits the
steady flow of material and as a result, the bridge is typically
unsuccessful with either the ligament material remaining on
the top plate or deposited entirely on the plate below. This
behavior is observed for argon or nitrogen shielded welds. “In
air” welds have the opposite effect. Surface tension increasing
with increased temperature creates an inward convective flow
resulting in a weld pool which joints quickly and is more
stable. Surface tension gradient driving different convective

158
flows is what enables vastly different results. For the case of
nitrogen shielded welds, although surface reactive agents are
present, their influence is not sufficient to increase the surface
tension with temperature gradient to a magnitude adequate for
improved fluid flow.
3.8 Effect of “In Air” Welds: “In air” welds,
although offer improved bridging ability, suffer from
unsightly oxidation and a shift in material chemistry which
may impact the mechanical properties of the weld metal. The
extent at which this can occur is specific to the type of
material being used and process in which it is welded. High
solidification rate processes minimize these effects. A
comparative hardness test between argon, nitrogen and “in air”
welds on 304L showed no discernable difference in weld
metal hardness. This would imply that ultimate strength of the
material was unchanged. Impacts to ductility, yield strength,
or its specific effect to Kovar have not yet been determined.
3.9 Mechanical Effects Observed Through High
Speed Imaging: Visualization experiments allow a
qualitative analysis of the phenomena associated with a
forming and solidifying weld pool. Higher peak power shows
increased weld pool instability due to the increased rate of
melting and the increasing effect of vapor recoil. Lower peak
powers provide a smooth flow of material to the plate below
maintaining a constant undisturbed ligament increasing the
likeliness for bridging.
Figure 11: Weld ligament instability associated with laser
beam size relative to weld pool size. 8 ms, ~825 W/mm2.
Effects of laser beam and weld pool interaction has also been
observed (Figure 11). This was previously mentioned in § 3.4
159
as in the case of inconsistent bridging for similar irradiances.
When the beam is larger than the weld pool (figure 11-
defocused), the point at which the beam extinguishes, the weld
pool is disrupted breaking the attaching ligament or leaving it
greatly reduced. Just prior to the beam being turned off, the
attaching ligament is fully bridged. 0.5 ms later, the ligament
is reduced to 20% of its original size. For focused welds
(figure 11-focused), the beam does not appear to greatly
impact the ligament. In this case, the ligament extends beyond
the diameter of the beam and upon its turning off, no
disruption to the weld pool is evident. Changes in weld pool
physics occurring for these two conditions are not currently
known.
3.10 Finite Element Modeling: Simulations were
completed for both the lap joint design used in the
experimental effort and a double-standing edge weld
configuration. For these 2D finite element simulations, the
orientation used for both geometries consisted of a slice plane
normal to the face of the weld joint and thru the centerline of
the beam.
Results from the simulations of the lap weld joint are
contained in Figure 12 and 13. Temperature scale for Figures
12 and 13 were set so molten material is shown in red and
room temperature is shown in blue. The ALE formulation was
utilized to track the free surface of the molten metal for the 2D
lap weld simulations. As a result, the joining of the two molten
pools cannot be completed due to limitations in using the ALE
formulation. A successful lap weld is shown in Figure 13 for a
1000 W peak power weld with a 0.004 ms pulse using a 200
μm thick top plate. The melt-back of the top plate and the two
distinct molten pools in the top and bottom plates are clearly
shown in Figure 12. Joining of the plates is shown to occur at
0.0036 seconds.
Figure 12: 2D Simulation of a successful weld using a 200 μm
thick top plate. Process conditions include a 100 μm gap,
laser power of 1000 W, and pulse time of 0.004 sec.
An unsuccessful lap weld is shown in Figure 13 with the same
weld conditions as the successful weld but a lower peak power
of 700 W. For the lower peak power weld, the melt-back of
the top plate is the dominant effect. These simulations match
well with the results shown in Figure 3.
Figure 13: 2D Simulation of an unsuccessful weld using a 200
μm thick top plate. Process conditions include a 100 μm gap,
laser power of 700 W, and pulse time of 0.004 sec.
Simulations of the joining process for a double-standing edge
weld joint were also completed using the level set method to
track the free surface of the weld pool. With the level set
method the actual joining process of the two molten pools can
be simulated to gain basic understanding of the dominant
joining physics. Marangoni forces have a strong influence on
the development of the molten pool. The Marangoni forces for
a surface tension variation with temperature with a positive
slope result in molten material being drawn to the center of the
weld joint. This results in a faster joining deeper weld pool
with a smaller surface diameter. In addition, the weld pool
maintains a more symmetric cross-section using a variable
surface tension increasing with temperature. The cumulative
effect of the deeper weld pool and increased symmetry result
in a more stable pool development and a reduction in
magnitude of the free surface velocities.
4. Conclusions
In an on going study of gap bridging for thin plate Nd:YAG
laser lap welds, empirical data, high speed imaging, and
computer modeling were utilized to better understand surface
physics attributed to the formation and solidification of a weld
pool. Experimental data indicates better gap bridging can be
achieved through optimized laser parameters such as pulse
length, duration, and energy. Long pulse durations at low
energies generating low peak powers were found to create the
highest percent of gap bridging ability. At constant peak
power, gap-bridging ability was further improved by using a
smaller spot diameter resulting in higher irradiances. Hence,
welding in focus is preferable for bridging gaps. Gas
shielding was also found to greatly impact gap-bridging
ability. Gapped lap welds that could not be bridged with UHP
Argon gas shielding, were easily bridged when left unshielded
and exposed to only air. Incident weld angle and joint offset
were also investigated for their ability to improve gap
bridging. Optical filters and bright-light surface illumination
enabled high-speed imaging to capture the fluid dynamics of a
160
forming and solidifying weld pool. The effects of various laser
parameters and the weld pool’s interaction with the laser beam
could also be observed utilizing the high-speed imaging. The
work described is used to develop and validate a computer
model with improved weld pool physics. Finite element
models have been used to derive insight into the physics of
gap bridging. The dynamics of the fluid motion within the
weld pool in conjunction with the free surface physics have
been the primary focus of the modeling efforts. Surface
tension has been found to be a more significant factor in
determining final weld pool shape than expected.
5. Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express there appreciation to Gary Pressly
and Pierrette Gorman for their continued support and council
through the duration of this project, David Noble and Tom
Baer for their works related to the development of the FEM
model and to Danny MacCallum for his careful review of this
manuscript. This work was performed at Sandia National
Laboratories, which is a multiprogram laboratory operated by
Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the
United States Department of Energy under contract DE-AC04-
94AL85000.
References
1. P. W. Fuerschbach, J. T. Norris, R. C. Dykhizen, and
A. R. Mahoney, “Development and Evaluation of an
In-Situ Beam Measurement for Spot Welding
Lasers,” Welding Journal, Vol. 83, pp 154-159
(2004)
2. Schunk, P. R., Sackinger, P. A., Rao, R. R., Chen, K.
S., Cairncross, R. A., Baer, T. A., Labreche, D. A.,
GOMA 2.0- A Full-Newton Finite Element Program
for Free and Moving Boundary Problems with
Coupled Fluid/Solid Momentum, Energy, Mass, and
Chemical Species Transport: User's Guide, Sandia
Report, SAND97-2404, Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, September 1998.
3. Ki, H., Mohanty, P.S., and Mazumder, J., Metall.
Mater. Trans. A 33A, 1817-1842 (2002).
4. P. W. Fuerschbach and G. R. Eisler, ”Effects of Spot
Weld Energy and Duration on Melting and
Absorption,” Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining, Vol. 7, pp 241-246 (2002)
5. G. A. Knorovsky, D. O. MacCallum, “Recoil Force
Measurements during Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser Spot
Welds,” Proceedings ICALEO, Vol. 95, Paper I.D.
1008, (2003).
6. R. W. Messler, Jr, Principals of Welding Processes,
Physics, Chemistry, and Metallurgy, pp 295-297, A
Wiley-Interscience Publishing, Troy, NY (1999)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Gravitational Effects on the Weld Pool Shape and Surface Deformation
during GTAW and LBW
Namhyun Kang, Jeonghan Kim, Junki Kim, Chulhee Kim
Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon, S. Korea
Jogender Singh, Anil K. Kulkarni
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
Abstract
An analytical and experimental study was conducted to
investigate the effects of gravitational orientation on the weld
pool shape during gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and laser
beam welding (LBW) for 304 stainless steel. Welding was
conducted by varying scan velocity and gravitational
orientation, e.g., welding upward opposing gravity (parallel-up
or vertical-up weld), welding downward with gravity (parallel-
down or vertical-down weld), and welding perpendicular to
gravity (perpendicular weld). The behavior of the weld pool
shape associated with degree of convection was analyzed in
light of the weld surface deformation. As the translational
velocity (Va) decreased and the weld pool size increased under
the constant arc power, more significant effects of
gravitational orientation were observed on both weld pool
shape and surface deformation. The ll-D weld displayed
maximum mass accumulating ahead of the arc due to gravity
and the ll-U weld showed deepest surface depression. This
will cause a smaller arc diameter (da) for ll-D as compared
with the ll-U case, resulting in a more hemispherical shape of
the weld pool in the ll-D case. As Va increased to 4 mm s-1, the
weld pool shape did not vary significantly as a function of
gravitational orientation. At 8 mm s-1, the weld pool shape for
the ll-D showed more convexity in the weld pool bottom than
the ll-U case. For 1.6-2.6 kW laser beam welding (LBW),
however, insignificant effect of gravitational orientation was
observed because beam diameter was mostly constant within a
range of weld surface deformation.
Introduction
Effects of gravitational level on the welding process have been
studied for the last two decades because it is expected to play
a significant role in space construction. In the terrestrial
environment, gravitational orientation influences the
performance on circumferential pipe welding. Although
several micro- and multi-gravity studies have been conducted
experimentally [1-8] and numerically [9, 10], there is a lack of
studies that can combine various results of the weld pool
shape with respect to the gravitational level.
Considerable research has been conducted to understand the
convection in the liquid weld pool. The surface tension-driven
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 161
flow was determined to be dominant and the gravity-driven
buoyancy flow to be minimal in driving convection under
earth’s gravity [11, 12]. However, the authors' experiments
showed that gravity played an influential role in weld surface
deformation under certain welding conditions, which in turn
affected weld pool shape [13]. Previous experiments also
showed a considerable effect of gravitational orientation on
the laser/electron beam keyhole welding [14-16]. For better
understanding of gravitational effects, it is necessary to
consider the orientation and the level of gravity independently.
Then the weld pool shape can be studied more systematically
as a function of gravity, which is associated with the weld
surface deformation.
Effects of weld surface deformation have been investigated on
the weld pool shape [17-20]. In arc welding, the molten pool
surface becomes deformed. Arc pressure and hydrodynamic
vortex due to electromagnetic force have been acknowledged
as the primary factors affecting the weld surface deformation
[17]. A deformed pool changes the current density distribution
following the heat flux distribution of the arc [18]. The
variation in the current density distribution, in turn, modifies
the surface tension-driven convection flow and consequently
changes the weld pool shape [19]. The varied surface
deformation and correspondingly modified convection has
been used to explain the formation of several weld defects
such as humped beads, finger penetration and undercutting
[20].
The focus of this paper is to explore the effects of gravitational
orientation on the convection flow and weld pool shape. The
role of gravity will be studied through an experimental
investigation involving the GTAW and LBW of 304 stainless
steel, in which welding orientation will be varied to assign
gravitational orientation under the same power. For various
welding orientation, the behavior of the weld pool shape is
associated with weld surface deformation and correspondingly
the degree of Peclet number. The results of this combined
analytical and experimental investigation are relevant for the
potential welding applications such as circumferential pipe
welding and basic understanding of gravity during space
welding.
 Methods
To examine the effects of gravitational orientation on the weld
pool shape, experiments were designed such that the relation
between the gravity vector and the arc translation direction
could be varied. Figure 1 depicts the welding orientation used
to simulate different gravitational conditions, e.g., welding
upward in a direction opposing gravity (parallel-up or ll-U
weld), welding downward in the direction of gravity (parallel-
down or ll-D weld), and welding perpendicular to the direction
of gravity (perpendicular or ⊥ weld).

Figure 2: Welding setup for the LBW at perpendicular

welding orientation; (a) 15o beam direction from the welding
front, which is called ”parallel LB”; (b) 15o beam direction
from the side, which is called ”side LB”; (c) focused and 7
mm-unfocused beam position on the sample.

Figure 1: Welding direction; (a) perpendicular orientation to Table 1: Process parameters for the gas tungsten arc welding
gravity and (b) parallel-up and parallel-down orientation to (GTAW) process.
gravity
Parameters GTAW
Bead-on-plate welds were produced on 304 stainless steel at Welding current (amperes, A) 165
2.4 kW (165 amperes and 14.5 volts). For a better Arc voltage (volts, V) 14.5 ± 0.4
understanding of gravitational effects on different types of Welding power (kilo-watts, kW) 2.4
heat source, Nd-YAG laser beam welding (LBW) was also Translation velocity (mm s-1) 1 - 10
conducted on the 304 stainless steel plate. Bead-on-plate Diameter of the electrode (mm) 2.4
welds were produced by varying the focus diameter: fully Shielding gas / flow rate (CFH) Ar / 25 CFH
focused beam and 7 mm-unfocused beam. A schematic
diagram on the LBW setup is illustrated in Figure 2. More
details on the GTAW and LBW are shown in Table 1 and Table 2: Process parameters for the laser beam welding
Table 2, respectively. The laser was directed 15o inclined from (LBW) process.
the perpendicular orientation on the sample surface for the
purpose of the prevention of burning the lenses. This is why Parameters ”parallel-LB” ”side-LB”
two directions of laser beam were employed such as “parallel
Welding power (kW) 2.6 1.6
LB” and “side LB”, as indicated in Figures 2a and 2b,
respectively. Argon shielding gas flowed through a 9.4 mm ID Velocity (mm s-1) 8 - 42 0.5 - 7
copper nozzle leading the beam. The beam diameter was Beam diameter (mm) 0.65 1.6
measured by focus analyzer in the z-direction (Figure 2c). Beam direction 15o from the front 15o from the side
The beam diameter is mostly independent of z-direction for a Beam mode TEM00 TEM00
fully focused laser. Shielding gas (CFH) Ar / 70 CFH Ar / 70 CFH

162
 Weld Pool Shape and Surface Deformation
Behavior during GTAW
Effects of arc translational velocity (Va) on the weld pool
shape
The weld pool shape on 304 stainless steel was investigated to
determine the effects of welding orientation. Figure 3 shows
the resultant weld pool shape: weld width, deepest penetration,
depth in the weld pool center, and cross-sectional area as a
function of Va and welding orientation. The arc power was
approximately 2.4 kW (165A and 14.5V). The error bars are
based on measurement scatter.
Figure 3: Measured weld pool shape: (a) width, (b) deepest
penetration, (c) depth in the weld pool center, and (d) cross-
sectional area for 165 A GTAW.
The lowest Va region (I) in Figure 3 is the unstable region,
which means that the gravitational orientation is expected to
influence the weld pool width and depth significantly. The
stable weld indicates that the weld pool shape is independent
of the gravitational orientation, while the unstable weld
exhibits a variation of the weld pool shape as a function of the
gravitational orientation. The highest Va region (III) is the
high convexity region, in which convection dominates the
weld pool shape as a function of gravitational orientation.
However, the weld pool shape in this region is relatively stable
compared with the weld shape variation in region (I). Between
these extremes, region (II) represents the stable region
showing the constant weld pool shape regardless of the
gravitational orientation. A hatched region near 3 mm s-1
163
represents a transition boundary from the unstable weld pool
in region (I) to the stable one in region (II) and (III). Another
hatched region near 6 mm s-1 indicates a transition boundary
from the low convexity weld pool in region (I) and (II) to the
severe convexity one in region (III). Based on two transition
boundaries of Va, more detailed behavior of the weld pool
shape is discussed further.
In region (III), in which Va is between 8 and 10 mm s-1, the
weld pool appears to have a high Pe 〉〉 1 due to high Va.
Significant convection dominates the heat transport in the
weld pool. More heat is carried to the pool edge resulting in
flat or convex pool bottom. That is why the deepest
penetration and the depth in the weld pool center show
different values as shown in Figures 3b and 3c, respectively.
Limmaneevichitr et al [21] studied effects of convection,
which were investigated from the resultant weld pool shape by
using a Peclet number and Marangoni number. The Peclet
number (Pe) is defined as follows:
heat transport by convection LVmax
Pe = = Eq. (1)
heat transport by conduction α
where L is the radius of the weld bead, Vmax the maximum
outward velocity on the weld surface, and α the thermal
diffusivity. In high Pe regime (Pe 〉〉 1), heat transport in the
weld pool is controlled by convection as indicated in Eq. (1).
Because the surface tension-driven flow dominates in driving
convection flows without a surface-active element [11, 12],
the effect of Marangoni (surface tension gradient-driven)
convection mostly determines the weld pool shape. The
Marangoni number (Ma), which indicates the extent of
Marangoni convection, is defined as
∂γ
− (∆T )L
Ma = ∂T Eq. (2)
µα
where ∂γ/∂T is the temperature gradient of surface tension, ∆T
is the temperature difference between the center and edge of
the weld surface, and µ is the dynamic viscosity.
As the laser beam diameter decreased under the same power,
Marangoni convection became much faster [21]. This
stronger Marangoni convection influenced the return flow to
penetrate deeper near the pool edge and carry heat downward
to the pool bottom, resulting in a convex pool bottom.
Figure 4 shows the weld pool shape for various translational
velocities and two extreme welding orientations (ll-U and ll-
D). For the ll-U weld, less convexity produced significantly
larger depth (30-40%) in the weld pool center than that in the
ll-D weld. Therefore, the ll-U weld shows almost flat pool
bottom, while the ll-D weld indicates clearly dual penetrations
away from the center (convex shape). The ⊥ weld lies between
two extreme welding orientations, i.e., ll-U and ll-D, although
it is not included in Figure 4. In comparing the weld pool
shape between the ll-U and ll-D, the ll-D weld must have
stronger outward convection flows (i.e., higher Pe and Ma) on
the weld surface than the ll-U case. More detailed discussion
on high Pe and Ma for ll-D configuration will be followed
with a measurement of the surface deformation. However, in
region (III), there were no apparent effects of gravitational
orientation on the weld width, deepest penetration, and cross-
sectional area, as shown in Figures 3a, 3b, and 3d,
respectively.
Figure 4: Effects of gravitational orientation on the weld pool
convexity for the extreme welding orientation (ll-U and ll-D).
In region (II), convexity mostly disappeared in the weld pool
bottom and it transformed to a flat or concave shape. The
deepest penetration in the weld corresponds to the depth in the
weld pool center below 5 mm s-1. The ll-U weld showed a
narrower width than that in the ⊥ and ll-D welds. However,
there were no apparent effects of gravitational orientation on
the penetration and weld area. In region (II) and (III), minor
effects of gravitational orientation were observed on the weld
pool shape; narrower width in the ll-U or more convexity in
the ll-D weld, respectively. Despite this abnormal behavior,
the weld pool shape was mostly independent of the
gravitational orientation within the Va range of 4 - 10 mm s-1.
In region (I), in contrast, the gravitational orientation changed
the weld pool shape significantly at 2 mm s-1 and it became
more obvious at the slowest Va (1 mm s-1) studied. At 1 mm s-
1
, the ll-D weld showed 28% narrower width but 31% deeper
penetration than the ⊥ and ll-U welds, while the weld pool
area and arc power remained constant (± 3%) with respect to
the welding orientation. In this region (I), the weld pool may
have a low Pe 〈〈 1 due to low Va. Low Pe indicates the
dominating heat transport by conduction in the weld pool,
164
resulting in concave or hemispherical weld pool shape. As the
beam radius decreased, the weld pool shape approached more
hemispherical shape [21]. Based on the weld pool shape
during the present study, the ll-D weld demonstrated more
hemispherical shape than the ll-U weld pool. That is why it is
speculated that the ll-D weld must have smaller da than that in
the ll-U. For the present study, da stands for the diameter of
the electric arc. In spite of providing the same welding heat
input, it is now important to understand the cause of the weld
pool shape variation as a function of gravitational orientation,
which is believed to be associated with weld surface
deformation and correspondingly the degree of Pe.
Effects of surface deformation on the weld pool shape
Relation between the degree of the Peclet number and the
weld pool shape needs to be confirmed by analyzing Pe as a
function of the gravitational orientation. For the Pe analysis on
the weld pool shape, it is necessary to understand the
convection flow in the molten pool. In 304 stainless steel,
convection flows in the liquid weld pool are considered to
move radially outward on the surface in the absence of a
surface-active agent [11]. Marangoni (surface tension-driven)
convection can be considered to dominate convection flows in
the present study. In Eq. (1) and previous experiment [21], Pe
was based on the maximum outward surface velocity (Vmax)
and the pool surface radius (L). The weld pool shape could be
explained qualitatively in this study as a result of the degree of
convection (or Pe), which is associated with the weld surface
morphology.
Considering the knowledge of the convection and Pe,
qualitative analysis of arc diameter (da) and the resultant Pe on
the weld pool shape was conducted as a result of the surface
morphology. The weld pool surface was measured at the end
of welded track after the welding arc was extinguished.
Figure 5 shows surface deformation plotted in the axial
directions for various translational velocities (Va). Although
the measured free surfaces may not be exactly in situ surfaces
below the arc, it is likely that the surfaces are representative;
especially if the solidification front is relatively fast and free
surface retrieval is minimal once the arc is extinguished [13].
The free surfaces display sharp features such as Figure 5b,
supporting the claim of high cooling rates. The authors
explained that the measured surface deformation was
successfully used to reproduce the weld pool shape by
numerical modeling [13].
Regardless of the translational velocity (Va), the ll-U weld
showed deepest surface depression and the ll-D weld
displayed maximum mass accumulating ahead of the arc due
to gravity. The results for ⊥ weld surface are between that in
the ll-U and ll-D welds. Based on the degree of surface
depression, it is fairly certain that the ll-U weld will have
longer gap between the electrode tip and the weld piece during
welding. Correspondingly, the ll-U weld will have a larger arc
diameter (da), compared with the ll-D weld because the
electric arc produces a divergent current distribution. The
larger da, however, will contribute to the weld pool shape
differently depending on Va and resultant Pe. In the case of Pe
〉〉 1 that is associated with high Va, convection dominates the
weld pool shape. The larger da in the ll-U weld produces
smaller Vmax resulting in smaller Pe as indicated in Eq. (1).
Therefore, the ll-U weld will have lower Pe than the ll-D weld
in regime (III). And, the ll-U weld showed less convexity due
to its lower Pe and Ma, compared with the ll-D weld pool
shape. In contrast, for Pe 〈〈 1 that is associated with low Va,
conduction dominates the weld pool shape. The ll-U weld
showed less hemispherical shape due to its larger da than the
shape in the ll-D weld in region (I). Between these regimes,
i.e., medium Va with Pe ≈ 1 in region (II), both conduction
and convection contribute to the weld pool shape that is
independent of the gravitational orientation.
Figure 5: Weld pool surface morphology along the weld
centerline at various translational velocities: (a) 10 mm
s-1, (b) 4 mm s-1, and (c) 1 mm s-1.
165
For this reason, the surface morphology was determined to be
a significant factor on the weld pool shape as a function of the
gravitational orientation. As the translation velocity decreases,
the difference in the surface morphology is more evident
between the ll-U and ll-D welds (Figure 5c). This result
implies that the gravitational effects are more significant on
the weld pool surface as the weld pool size increases. The
magnitude of the Peclet number (Pe) and convexity associated
with the weld surface morphology clearly explain the behavior
of the weld pool shape as a function of gravitational
orientation.
Weld Pool Shape Behavior during Laser Beam
Welding (LBW)
Effects of the heat source were investigated on the weld pool
shape by using laser beam instead of gas tungsten arc. More
significant influence of gravity was observed as weld pool size
increased in the previous section, so maximum laser power
and focused beam was used for LBW to magnify gravitational
effects on the weld pool shape. For fully focused 2.6 kW
LBW, weld pool shape was studied more specifically by weld
pool width (W1 and W2), penetration, and cross-sectional area
as a function of gravitational orientation. Fully focused LBW
showed a nail-shaped weld composed of weld bead and weld
root. The weld root was caused from the keyhole formation by
the intense laser beam. W1 indicates the width of the weld
bead, which is normally known as the weld pool width for
GTAW. W2 is the width of the weld root. No variation on the
weld pool shape (W1, W2, penetration, and cross-sectional
area) was observed as a function of gravitational orientation.
Detailed results on the weld pool shape for LBW were
indicated in reference [22]. The weld pool shape remained
stable regardless of the gravitational orientation throughout the
translational velocity (8-42 mm s-1).
To reduce or avoid the keyhole formation during LBW, the
laser power was reduced to 1.6 kW and the laser beam was
unfocused 7 mm below the work piece. In the case of “parallel
LB”, the laser beam direction for the ll-U is opposite to the
gravity vector, while ll-D weld has the same direction of laser
beam with the gravity vector. To study effects of gravitational
orientation without the influence of laser beam direction, “side
LB” was used to have the constant relation between the laser
beam direction and gravity vector. The objective of reducing
keyhole formation is to produce the weld pool governed by the
convection flows. Convection flows within the weld pool has
been changed by varying the gravitational condition, as
discussed in the previous section. The weld pool for 1.6 kW
and 7 mm unfocused LBW showed two classes of shape: (i) a
hemispherical shape at 0.5-1 mm s-1 and (ii) a nail shape at 3-7
mm s-1. Although slight increases (~10%) of W1 were
observed for the ⊥ weld between 3 and 7 mm s-1, mostly there
were insignificant effects of gravitational orientation on the
weld pool shape such as stable regions (II) and (III) in Figure
4. Regardless of the laser beam direction (“parallel LB” or
“side LB”), laser power (2.6 or 1.6 kW), and the degree of
laser focusing (fully focused or 7 mm unfocused), weld pool
shape was mostly constant with respect to the gravitational
orientation.
Conclusion
Various aspects of the weld pool shape were examined by
varying the welding direction with respect to gravity vector.
For the 165A GTAW, the weld pool shape was mostly
independent of the gravitational orientation within the Va
range of 4 - 10 mm s-1. As the weld pool dimensions
increased, i.e., the translational velocity decreased below 2
mm s-1, the gravitational orientation produced significant
effects on the weld pool shape: deeper penetration and
narrower width in the ll-D as compared to the ll-U weld pool
shape. In the ll-D weld, the accumulated liquid piled up at the
surface, resulting in a smaller gap between the welding
electrode and the welding piece. Correspondingly, the arc
diameter (da) became smaller than that in the ll-U weld, which
caused the weld pool in the ll-D to become more
hemispherical in shape. LBW on 304 stainless steel did not
produce significant variations of weld pool shape as a function
of gravitational orientation. This is because the keyhole
formation dominates in determining the weld pool shape
during LBW and laser beam diameter is mostly constant with
respect to the z-direction, as compared with the arc diameter
during GTAW.
References
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PA, USA, 355-362 (1976)
3. G. Wang and K. N. Tandon, Compositional changes in the
weld during laser-stainless steel interaction under varying
gravity conditions-experiments aboard KC-135,
Microgravity science and technology, VIII(2), 131-133
(1995)
4. G. L. Workman and W. F. Kaukler, Laser welding in
reduced gravity, Conference ICALEO '90, vol. 71: Laser
Materials Processing, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, 430-
440 (1990)
5. C. R. McKowen, M. H. McCay, and C. M. Sharp, The effect
of enhanced gravity on laser spot welding of Inconel 718,
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gravity on weld fusion zone, Welding Journal, 79(6), 145s-
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of Al-Li alloy, Acta Astronautica, 48(2-3), 153-156 (2001)
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8. N. Kang, J. Singh, and A. K. Kulkarni, Gravitational effects
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Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 18(4), 549-561
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9. R. G. Keanini and B. Rubinsky, Plasma arc welding under
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(1990)
10. J. Domey, D. K. Aidun, G. Ahmadi, L. L. Regel, and W.
R. Wilcox, Numerical simulation of the effect of gravity on
weld pool shape, Welding Journal, 74(8), 263s- 268s (1995)
11. S. Kou and D. K. Sun, Flud flow and weld penetration in
stationary arc welds, Metallurgical Transactions, 16A, 203-
213 (1985)
12. C. Chan, J. Mazumder, and M. M. Chen, A two-
dimensional transient model for convection in laser melted
pool, Metallurgical Transactions, 15A, 2175-2184 (1984)
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Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 18(2), 169-180
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positions, Automatic Welding, 25(6), 1-4 (1972)
15. J. S. Foley and C. M. Banas, Laser welding stability limits,
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Cored Wires for MIG-Welding of Aluminum
S. Baumgartner
Materials Center Leoben, Austria
Institute for Material Sciences, Welding and Forming, Graz University of Technology, Austria
G. Posch
Böhler Schweißtechnik Austria GmbH, Kapfenberg, Austria
H. Cerjak
Institute for Material Sciences, Welding and Forming, Graz University of Technology, Austria
Abstract
Since Aluminum is getting more and more important even for
welding applications and metal inert gas (MIG) welding (also
known as Gas Metal Arc Welding, GMAW) is one of the main
processes for joining aluminum and aluminum alloys, efficient
welding consumables are necessary. Cored wires for GMAW
of Fe-based and Ni-based materials offer several advantages
over solid wires such as higher deposition rates as well as
improved penetration behavior, less porosity and a reduced
risk of lack of fusion defects. It is aimed to transfer these
advantages also to welding aluminum.
To investigate the mechanical properties of the cored wire
welds, tensile tests of joint welds were performed. This paper
presents the results of the tensile tests as well as the results of
bead-on-plate welds performed with aluminum cored wires in
comparison to solid wire welds. The droplet transfer is
recorded with a high-speed camera and the electrical signals
are measured simultaneously. Cross sections of the welded
samples with cored wires show improved weld bead geometry
and a lower tendency for porosity.
Introduction
The use of aluminum and its alloys for welded applications is
increasing due to their low weight, good corrosion resistance
and high toughness even at low temperature. However, the
special characteristics of welding aluminum have to be taken
into account. For instance, one has to avoid hydrogen input,
which is introduced during the welding operation through
contaminations or moisture. The oxide layer, which usually
provides corrosion resistance, can cause problems during
welding. Al2O3 has a melting point over 2000°C, which is
much higher than that of aluminum of 660°C. Furthermore it
is porous and can absorb moisture, and it is electrically
isolating. Usually, the oxide layer has to be removed before
welding, either mechanically or chemically. During MIG and
TIG welding, the cleaning effect of the arc supports the break
up of the oxide layer. For MMAW, flux is added to the
covering of stick electrodes [1, 2].
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 167
MIG welding is one of the most important processes for
joining aluminum. Filler materials are available as solid wires
for example of the types Al, AlSi, AlMg and AlMn, but no
cored wires are available until now.
Filler metal of the type 1xxx are used for joining base metal of
the series 1000, which are selected primarily for superior
corrosion resistance applications such as specialized chemical
tanks and piping or for applications where excellent electrical
conductivity is needed [3]. This paper deals with the welding
behavior of cored aluminum wires of the type 1xxx and the
mechanical properties of these cored wire welds.
Advantages of cored wires
Cored wires are available for joining or cladding unalloyed
and low alloyed, high-alloyed, high tensile and high
temperature steels as well as for Ni-base materials. Even
though they are more expensive than solid wires, they offer
more cost effectiveness due to higher productivity.
Cored wires consist of a metal sheath and the filling powder,
which contains alloying elements, arc stabilizers and slag
forming ingredients comparable to the covering of a stick
electrode. Their cross-section is either seamless or seamed,
such as butt closed or overlap closed. They offer several
advantages compared to solid wires: The cross section of the
metal sheath through which the welding current is conducted
is much smaller compared to that of a solid wire of the same
diameter. This leads to a higher current density with
circumferential distribution and higher resistance heating
which contributes to higher deposition rates as well as
improved penetration behavior and a reduced risk of lack of
fusion defects. Arc stabilizers enhance the arc characteristics
and minimize spatter level. Microalloying elements can be
added to improve the solidification behavior. The composition
of the core can be varied easily and also the fabrication of
small batches is economic. Thus, it is possible to produce
various welding consumables aligned to the different base
metals and such alloys which are difficult to produce as solid
wires. [4-7].
 Experimental procedure
For the welding experiments, pure aluminum cored wires of
the butt closed type (see Figure 1) with a diameter of 1.2 were
used.
Three prototypes of aluminum cored wires of the type 1xxx
were used. Wire A is pure aluminum, wire B has an increased
Ti-content and wire C an increased Mn-content.
Tensile tests
For the cross tension test, flat tensile test specimens according
to EN 895 were used. The dimensions of the specimens are
shown in Figure 3 and the sampling can be seen in Figure 4.
To determine the strength of the weld metal, circular tensile
test specimens according to EN 10002-1 were prepared (see
Figure 5), the sampling point is shown in Figure 6.

500 µm

Figure 1: Cross section of an aluminum cored wire of

diameter 1.2mm.

As base metal, Al99.5 (EN-AW 1050A F10) plates with

dimensions 200 x 100 x 10 mm were used for all welding Figure 3: Dimensions of the cross tension test specimens.
experiments.

Joint welds
To examine the mechanical properties of the aluminum cored
wire welds, joint welds were performed manually with a
conventional inverter power source and tensile specimens
were prepared. The edge preparation is shown in Figure 2, a
ceramic backing strip was used. The welding parameters are
listed in
Table 1. In our experiments, voltage and wire feed rate were
Figure 4: Sampling points for the cross tension test.
fixed, the current is determined by the characteristic of the
power source. Since there is no characteristic for an aluminum
cored wire available so far, and as the solid wire characteristic
for pulsed current does not work satisfactorily for the cored
wire, the standard characteristic for an aluminum solid wire
Al99.5 (ML 1050) was used.

Figure 5: Dimensions of the circular tensile test specimens.

Figure 2: Edge preparation for joint welds [according 8].

Table 1: Welding parameters for joint welds.

root pass final pass

Voltage 21 V 25 V
Figure 6: Sampling point for the longitudinal specimen of the
Wire feed rate 9 m/min 10 m/min
weld metal.
Shielding gas I1, 18 l/min

168
Bead-on-plate welds
The bead-on-plate welds were performed using an inverter
power source and a welding torch with push-pull drive on a
semi-automated welding device. The torch was fixed and the
welding speed was realized by the computer controlled
movement of the table. A pure aluminum cored wire of the
1000 series of diameter 1.2 was compared to an aluminum
solid wire Al99.5 (EN-AW 1050A) of diameter 1.2 mm.

Voltage and wire feed rate were varied, the parameters, which
were kept constant for all bead-to-plate experiments, are listed
in Table 2. For recording the droplet transfer, a high speed
camera was used with a recording frequency of 2250
pictures/s. The droplets transferred in 200 pictures were
counted and extrapolated to one second. The electrical signals
were measured simultaneously. The macro images of the cross
sections show the weld bead geometry, where a tendency of Figure 8: Result of the cross tension test of wire A .-
porosity can be observed. magnification of the area where the fraction occurred.

Table 2: Welding parameters for bead-on-plate welding.

Welding speed 50 cm/min

Shielding gas I1, 18 l/min
Characteristic 1050, standard

Results of the tensile tests

Cross tension test
To get an overview on the strength of a joint weld performed
with a pure aluminum cored wire, a cross tension test for wire
A was carried out with 2 specimens Both. results are very
similar. The fracture occurred in the HAZ (see Figure 7 and
Figure 8), the tensile strength was 68 MPa (see Figure 9).

Figure 9: Results of the cross tension test of wire A – stress-

displacement-diagram

Figure 7: Results of the cross tension test of the joint welds

with wire A.

Figure 10 shows the cross section of a pure aluminum cored

wire joint weld with the hardness distribution curve of the root
pass. The hardness of the HAZ is well below the hardness of
the base metal. The hardness of the weld metal is slightly Figure 10: Cross section of the joint weld with hardness
higher. distribution curve of the root pass.

169
Tensile test of longitudinal specimens of the weld metal
Figure 11 shows a circular tensile test specimen of the weld
metal of wire A:
Reducing the voltage to 24 V decreases the arc length of the
cored wire as well as the droplet frequency, but it is still
higher than that of the solid wire. The weld penetration of the
cored wire weld is still deeper than that of the solid wire weld
and the cross section shows less porosity again (see Figure
13).

Figure 11: Circular tensile test specimen of the weld metal.

The yield strength of all cored wire welds is in the range of

45-55 MPa. The tensile strength of the weld metal of wire A
and B is in the range of 75-80 MPa, the tensile strength of the
weld metal of wire C is with about 100-105 MPa only slightly
below the base metal with 110 MPa.

Results of bead-on-plate welds

With a voltage of 25 V and a wire feed rate of 9 m/min, the
cored wire and the solid wire show a quite different welding
behavior. The resulting current of the cored wire is only
slightly higher but the arc is longer and the droplet frequency
is higher although the droplets of the cored wire are larger
than those of the solid wire. For the cored wire, the droplet Figure 13: Cross section and droplet transfer of cored wire
transfer occurs in spray arc even without pulsed welding. The and solid wire welds 24 V, wire feed rate 9 m/min.
cross section of the weld from the solid wire shows more
porosity. The cross sections of the weld using the cored wire is
deeper and rounder (see Figure 12.

Figure 14: Cross section and droplet transfer of the cored

wire at low wire feed rates.

A further reduction of the wire feed rate is possible for the

Figure 12: Cross section and droplet transfer of cored wire cored wire but decreases the resulting current. The arc
and solid wire welds 25 V, wire feed rate 9 m/min. becomes shorter, the droplet size is growing and the droplet

170
frequency is decreasing dramatically. Simultaneously, the
penetration depth is reduced. But even with less energy, the
porosity level of the cored wire welds is still quite low (see
Figure 14) hereas the spatter level is getting higher as short-
circuits occur more frequently.

Summary and Conclusions

This investigation shows that aluminum can be welded with
cored wires with good results with a relatively wide range of
welding parameters. At low energy input, the droplets are very
large and the droplet frequency is quite low. Therefore, the
separation of the droplets takes long time and short-circuits
occur more frequently, which leads to a higher spatter level.
At higher voltage and wire feed rates, the droplet transfer
occurs in spray mode even without pulsed welding. The
penetration of cored wire welds is deeper and rounder than
that of the solid wire welds. The porosity level of welds using
cored wires is lower than that of solid wires.

The tensile strength of the weld metal of the aluminum cored

wire prototypes of the 1000 series is higher than that of the
HAZ. The tensile strength of the cored wire weld with
increased Mn-content nearly achieves the strength of the base
metal Al99.5 (EN-AW 1050A F10).

Acknowledgement

The current research has been carried out in the framework of

the project J6 of the Materials Center Leoben. Financial
support of the Kplus program of the Austrian Government is
gratefully acknowledged.

References

1. F. Ostermann, Anwendungstechnologie Aluminium,

p. 436, Springer, Berlin (1998)
2. F. Venier, Schweißen von Aluminium, p. 4, DVS,
Düsseldorf (1997)
3. T. Anderson, Understanding Aluminum Alloys,
Welding Journal 81, 77- 80 (2002)
4. Merkblatt DVS 0941 Teil1, Fülldrahtelektroden für
das Verbindungs- und Auftragsschweißen.
Grundlagen und Begriffsbestimmung, DVS,
Düsseldorf (1991)
5. R. Rosert, A. Holzner and F. Tessin, Schweißen mit
Fülldraht – Entwicklung und Perspektiven,
Schweißen und Schneiden 2003. Beiträge der
gleichnamigen Tagung in Berlin, DVS-Berichte 225,
Düsseldorf 2003, p. 99 – 104
6. E. Engindeniz, MAG-Schweißen mit Fülldrah-
telektrode, Schweißtechnik 50, 51 – 55 (1996)
7. D. Myers, Metal Cored Wires: Advantages and
Disadvantages, Welding Journal 81, 39–42 (2002)
8. Aluminiumtaschenbuch 3, p. 150, Aluminium-Verlag,
Düsseldorf (2003)

171
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Tool design in friction stir processing: dynamic forces and material flow
D. E. Clark, K. S. Miller, C. R. Tolle
Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho, USA
Abstract
Friction stir processing involves severe plastic flow within the
material; the nature of this flow determines the final
morphology of the weld, the resulting microstructures, and the
presence or absence of defects such as internal cavities or
"wormholes." The forces causing this plastic flow are a
function of process parameters, including spindle speed, travel
speed, and tool design and angle. Some of these forces are
directly applied or a result of the mechanical constraints and
compliance of the apparatus, while others are resolved forces
resulting from an interaction of these applied forces and tool
forces governed by processing parameters, and can be
diminished or even reversed in sign with appropriate choices
of process parameters.
The present investigation is concerned mostly with the friction
stir processing of 6061-T6 aluminum plates in a low-cost
apparatus built from a commercial milling machine. A rotating
dynamometer allows in-process measurement of actual spindle
speed, torque, and forces in the x-, y-, and z-directions, as well
as force control on these axes.
Two main types of tool, both unthreaded, were used. The first
had a pin about 4 mm in diameter and 4 mm in length, with a
shoulder about 10 mm in diameter, and produced wormhole
defects; the second, with a tapered pin about 5 mm long, a
base diameter of about 6 mm, a tip diameter of about 4 mm,
and a shoulder diameter (flat or dished) of about 19 mm,
produced sound welds over a wide range of parameters.
Keywords: friction stir processing, tool design, forces,
rotating dynamometer, 6061 aluminum
Introduction
Friction stir processing, or FSP (the more general field
including friction stir welding) has received intensive
developmental work since its relatively recent invention. The
equipment involved needs to deliver modest rotary power to
the rotating tool, but also quite substantial, tightly controllable
forces, sometimes up to tens of KN (several thousand pounds),
and purpose-built machines can be quite expensive, making
the process capital intensive. Tool design is a critical
parameter, and the technology of tool materials is quite
demanding for the processing of higher temperature materials
such as titanium and steels. The situation is complicated by the
proprietary nature of the process, so that even in open
literature publications tool designs are typically not revealed.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Quantifying the magnitude of the forces developed during FSP
could lead to several avenues for process improvement:
• The application of robotic manipulators for placing
the FSP tool in the workpiece;
• Improved baselines for the extensive modeling work
being done to understand the process;
• Improved understanding of tool designs and the
phenomenology of material flow around the tool;
• The identification of actual requirements for machine
compliance and part fixturing, that might lead to less
expensive equipment;
• The correlation of measured forces with weld quality,
mechanical properties, and other aspects of making
the process more adaptively controlled.
The present work has involved the upgrading of a medium-
duty milling machine with sensors, controls, and actuators that
allow high-quality FSP and give some insight into the nature
of the control variables that are necessary to advance these
desirable improvements.
Equipment
Machinery
A medium-duty vertical milling machine made by Willis was
obtained and converted to dedicated FSP work (Figure 1). A
number of its mechanical parts needed to be upgraded; this
was done based partly on previous experience using other
milling machines for the initial work, and occurred over the
time the work was being done, based on funding and
perceived needs as the processing work progressed.
The modifications are described in more detail in a companion
paper1, but, to summarize briefly:
• The AC motors supplied with the mill for moving x-,
y-, and z- axes were imprecise and incapable of
holding the anticipated forces. They were replaced
with stepper motors with high holding torques.
• The spindle drive motor (3 HP AC) proved to be
inadequate in some interesting corners of the FSP
parameter space, dropping from the desired RPM and
causing mid-process freezing; it was replaced with a
DC servomotor of approximately 17 HP.
173
 • The lead screw in the common processing direction
(x-axis, left to right as seen from the front of the
machine) was replaced with a preloaded ball screw
mechanism to eliminate backlash and reduce screw
friction.
• Motion control was incorporated into a Parker 6K
unit that controls the stepper motor drivers (and can
also control the spindle motor), based on control
software implemented on a PC using the LabView
programming environment2.
• A rotating dynamometer (Kistler 9124B) was
obtained; it attaches to the mill’s spindle and in turn
supports the tool (Figure 2). An RF carrier signal
reports stresses experienced by the tool (forces in x-,
y-, and z- directions, torque, and an independent
measure of angular velocity), which are gathered into
the LabView data acquisition environment. The
dynamometer is robust, but is also expensive, and is
sometimes not used in cases where the anticipated
FSP forces might overload it (Fx or Fy > 24 KN).
• A FLIR infrared camera is pointed at the tool area
during processing; it is used semi-quantitatively to
evaluate progress and anticipate freeze-ups at the
cooler edges of the FSP parameter space.

Tool Design
Two basic tool designs (Designs A and B) were used, as
shown in Figure 3. Their operational characteristics will be
further described below in connection with the reported
measurements, but are summarized here.

Design A was used in the early stages of the work, and

consistently produced wormhole-type defects. A fairly large
experimental matrix was developed using this tool, and defect Figure 1: Milling machine at the Idaho National Laboratory,
size and placement was correlated with parameters in an adapted for Friction Stir Processing.
attempt to find an area of parameter space where the defects
would be closed. It became apparent from published literature
however, that, particularly running with a zero lead angle, this
tool’s effective shoulder diameter was too narrow to
adequately heat and confine the plastically deforming
material. Design B was modified from a tool previously used
to investigate (unsuccessfully) an hourglass-shaped pin, falling
within a range of pin and shoulder sizes successfully used for
lap welding3. It differed, however, in having a tapered pin, a
fortuitous result of the previous hourglass shape. This tool was
further modified by filing a small flat on one side of the pin in
an attempt to increase the shearing effect, but the results of
this change have not been fully evaluated. Tool materials were
heat treated tool steels.

Rotating Dynamometer Adaptation

The rotating dynamometer (Kistler 9124B) was designed to
measure the forces on cutting tools; it maintains an internal
coordinate system that is used to determine the effects of
parameters of interest in machining: rake angle, number of Figure 2: Rotating dynamometer measures tool forces, reports
cutting teeth, wear, etc. For FSP analysis, the coordinates with via RF link to data acquisition and control system.

174

Figure 3: Tool design A (left) and B (right).
Figure 5: Proving ring used to calibrate rotating
dynamometer; ball bearing replaces FSP tool for this
operation.
respect to the workpiece are of more interest: for example,
these are what dynamometers fixed to the workpiece measure
as well, and these are what a robotic application will have to
contend with. Thus software was developed to transform tool
coordinates to workpiece coordinates in real time, and these
transformations were checked and calibrated with a proving
ring (Figure 5).
Experimental
Materials
All FSP reported here was done on 6061-T6 aluminum,
9.5 mm (0.375 in.) thick. Typical coupons were 75 x 175 mm
(3 x 7 in.) in size, and were clamped with hold-downs at three
points along their sides to a steel fixture approximately 50 mm
(2 in.) thick, which was in turn clamped to the bed of the mill.
Two independent runs were typically made on each coupon.
175
Procedures
The earlier runs, using Tool Design A, were made by
presetting the tool depth, running the tool into the end of the
coupon at full spindle speed but a reduced travel speed, and
accelerating to the desired travel speed one the tool was fully
in the material. More recent runs (Tool Design B) were made
by plunging the tool into the coupon 1-2 cm from the starting
end at a relatively high spindle speed (1500-2000 RPM) to
ease the entry into the material, pausing for about 5 s while
reducing spindle speed to the desired processing value, and
proceeding with travel.
During the run, temperature values indicated by the IR camera
were noted, along with pertinent characteristics such as noise,
chatter, or irregular tool motions. Immediately after the run,
force values were available from the data acquisition software.
Results were archived, and new directions or further steps in
the matrix were determined.
Results and Discussion
Tool Designs
As shown in Figure 7, many of the early runs with Tool
Design A showed severe wormhole defects. In an effort to
quantify and remedy this, the forces were analyzed across the
matrix; the Fx results are also shown in Figure 7. It is apparent
that moving to faster spindle speeds and slower travel speeds
seems to reduce the wormhole, although it was not eliminated
even at parameters further in this direction. An examination of
the force curves shows the expected trends of increasing Fx
with increasing travel speed and decreasing spindle speed,
including (e.g., 2500 RPM, 16 in./min.) a sign reversal so that
Fx aided tool movement through the coupon rather than
opposing it. It may be noted that each of the plots consists of
duplicate runs; it was typical of these experiments that
duplicate runs produced nearly duplicate force curves as well.
Runs using Tool Design B were more successful in
minimizing or eliminating the wormhole defect, and some
apparently defect free welds have been made (although the
holes, when they do exist, are so small that extensive
metallography is needed to be sure they are not present;
further, even in the absence of a hole, a poor or “kissing” bond
may exist). The improvement appears to stem from the wider
shoulder (in some variations, dished by about 5°), possibly
from flow differences due to the pin taper, from the lead angel
of the mill head (3°), and from different choices of tool
depth—this tool was not run in axial force control mode.
Force Measurements
Figure 8 illustrates Fx, Fy, and Fz for runs at a constant travel
speed (3.4 mm/s, 8 in./min.) using various spindle speeds;
Figure 9 shows the corresponding data for a constant spindle
speed (1000 RPM) and a range of travel speeds. Figures 10
and 11 show torque and power values. A number of trends of
interest from a robotic or machine design standpoint can be
seen here.
The sign convention for the forces discussed here include a
tool rotating clockwise as viewed axially from above the
workpiece; Fx is positive in the welding direction, i.e.,
pushing a nonrotating tool through the workpiece would
produce a negative force, and Fy and Fz follow a right-hand-
rule convention.

Trends revealed by force measurements:

• With increasing spindle speed or decreasing travel
speed, there is a regular decrease in the magnitude of
Fx (it remains in a negative, or “tool retarding,”
direction over the parameter range shown here);
• There is a corresponding increase in Fy, quite regular
in the case of spindle speed although not so much so
in the case of travel speed, which can be understood
as a tradeoff among the resolved forces on the tool;
• Except at very low spindle speeds or high travel
speeds, the magnitude of Fx or Fy is typically less
than 1 KN (~200 lbf);
• Fz varies over a smaller range for both varied travel
speed and varied spindle speed, and the correlation
with these parameters is less obvious, ranging from
about 6 to 9 KN over the travel speed range and
7 to 10 KN over the spindle speed range;
• Torque and power trends for these same welds are
similar to those for Fz. The torque for these runs is
20-30 N•m for the travel speeds and 15-30 N•m for
spindle speeds; power for most welds is 3-4 HP or
2-3 KW.

The major force operating here is the axial force, Fz, and this
is the main hurdle that robotic or other machine designs must
deal with. To some extent, Fx and Fy can be optimized by
adjusting spindle and travel speeds, but Fz remains high if the
plastic zone is to be confined and produce sound deposits.
Figure 11 summarizes some of the axial force data from Tool
Design B and adds them to prior published data4 for Tool Figure 7: Matrix of travel and spindle speeds using tool
Design A. Design A, showing (top) parameter effect on wormhole shape
and location, and (bottom) corresponding plots of Fx for each
weld.
Conclusions
(1) Fx, and, somewhat less reliably, Fy: (4) Wormhole defects decrease with increasing spindle speed
• decrease with increasing spindle speed and and decreasing travel speed; tool design and spindle angle
decreasing travel speed changes are required to eliminate them, though threaded tools
• are typically < 1.0 KN may not be.
• Fx typically resists tool motion but can change sign
and assist it Acknowledgments
(2) Fz’s relationship to spindle and travel speed, when it is not
This work was supported by the US Department of Energy,
used as a control variable, is similar but more complex
Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences and by
• 3-6 KN for the smaller tools used here
Laboratory Directed Research and Development under DOE
• 7-10 KN for the larger tools Idaho Operations Office under Contract DE-AC07-
05ID14517.
(3) Required spindle power increases with both spindle speed
and travel speed, typically using 3-4 hp (2-3 KW).

176
Figure 8: Effect of spindle speed in RPM on tool forces in the Figure 9: Effect of travel speed on tool forces in the workpiece
workpiece reference frame. reference frame.

177
Figure 10: Effect of spindle speed on torque and power. Figure 11: Effect of travel speed on torque and power.

References
1. Miller, K. S., R. D. Bitsoi, E. D. Larsen and H. B.
Smartt (2005). “Design and Testing of a Friction Stir
Processing Machine for Laboratory Research.” 7th
International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA, in press.
2. LabView Software, National Instruments, Austin,
TX.
3. Cederqvist, L. and A. P. Reynolds (2001). "Factors
Affecting the Properties of Friction Stir Welded
Aluminum Lap Joints." Welding Journal 80(12):
281s-287s.
4. Cook, G. E., R. Crawford, D. E. Clark, and A. M.
Strauss et al. (2004). "Robotic Friction Stir
Welding." Industrial Robot 31(1): 55-63.
Figure 12: Summary of axial force (Fz) for FSP using tool
Design A at various spindle speeds, indicated in RPM.

178
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Experimental Characterization of Tool Heating
During Friction Stir Welding
J.L. Covington, W. Robison, B.W. Webb
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
Abstract
The heat input to the tool has been characterized at a variety
of operating parameters for bead-on-plate friction stir
welding (FSW) of AL 7075-T7351. In a statistical Design of
Experiments (DOE) fashion, 54 welds were performed at 27
parameter combinations. During each of the welds the heat
flow through the tool was calculated based on infrared
imaging temperature measurements. The percentage of the
total mechanical power required for FSW that enters the tool
was also determined. For the range of operating parameters
and the tool used, the heat input to the tool ranged from 155
W to 200 W, comprising 2.8% to 5.1% of the total
mechanical power. Regression equations developed for the
two values show that each is a function of the process
operating parameters.
Keywords: friction stir welding, tool heat transfer
Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process
by which an interface-free union of two workpieces is
formed [1]. A non-consumable, rotating tool consisting of a
smaller, protruding cylinder (pin) and a larger, concentric,
outer cylinder (shoulder) is forced into the joint line of the
workpieces until the shoulder is in intimate contact with the
top of the workpieces. The tool and the workpieces are then
moved relative to each other such that the tool traces the
joint line. Heat produced at the tool/workpiece interface
from friction and interfacial shear is sufficient to locally
soften the workpieces. The rotation of the tool aids in
‘stirring’ the thermally softened material to form a
potentially defect-free bond. The joining process is solid-
state in nature, meaning that the workpiece material is not
actually melted, but only softened, during the process.
Researchers have attempted to quantify the heat generated
during FSW using a combined approach of mathematical
modeling and experimental observation. However, few have
taken into account the heat that enters the tool or noted
variation in this value that may occur with respect to
operating parameters.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Some have acknowledged that heat enters the tool by
reducing the heat input to numerical models of the
workpiece. Russell and Shercliff concluded that
approximately 17% of the total heat input entered the tool
[2]. It was assumed arbitrarily that 25% and 10% entered the
tool by Schmidt and Hattel in two independent studies [3,4].
Shi et al. initially assumed that 8% entered the tool, and then
adjusted the value for model correlation [5]. Others, such as
Colegrove [6], Song and Kovacevic [7], Hyoe et al. [8],
Colegrove and Shercliff [9], and Ulysse [10] all accounted
for energy entering the tool, but no magnitudes were
presented.
Others have used experimental tool temperature
measurements in conjunction with numerical models of the
tool to better quantify the portion of the heat that enters the
tool. Chao et al. used numerical tool models and
experimental weld data at two different sets of weld process
parameters, and calculated that 85 W and 86 W entered the
tool, which equated to 3.9% and 3.4% of the measured
mechanical power input [11]. Dickerson et al. also used
numerical tool models combined with experiments and
calculated that 10% of the heat input enters the tool [12].
Some researchers have used experimental methods as their
only source for the determination of the tool heat input.
Lienert et al. utilized measurements from two
thermocouples attached to the outer surface of the tool at
different positions above the tool shoulder in conjunction
with infrared imaging of the tool surface to approximate
temperature gradients and heat flow through the tool when
welding mild steel [13]. A similar two-thermocouple system
was again used by Lienert et al. when welding AL 6082
from which the tool heat flow and energy losses by radiation
and convection were approximated to be 13% of the power
input calculated from torque measurements [14]. Simar et
al. measured tool temperatures at two axial locations above
the shoulder and reported that 5% of the total energy input
flowed through the tool [15]. It was reported that there was
little variation detected in this value when welding at three
different spindle speed values in the range of 500-1000 rpm.
The objective of the current research was to experimentally
investigate the steady-state heat input to the tool over a wide
range of process operating parameters for friction stir
welding of aluminum alloy AL 7075-T7351.
179
 Experimental method
Equipment
Plates of 9.53 mm (0.375 in.) thick AL 7075-T7351 were
friction stir welded (bead on plate) on a retrofitted Kearney
& Trecker knee mill with PLC/PC control and data
acquisition system. Force measurement in all three
coordinate directions is available from a dynamometer
mounted to the bed of the mill. Fixtures for clamping the
anvil and workpiece are mounted to the upper surface of the
dynamometer. Z-load and Z-depth control (Z is direction
normal to workpiece) are available and use feedback control
to adjust the tool depth during a weld such that a constant Z-
force or tool depth is maintained. The latter was used in the
current experiments. It should be noted that the thickness of
the plate was predetermined so that only partial penetration
welds would be run, eliminating any possible interaction
that could exist between the tool and the anvil.
A liquid-cooled tool holder was used to control heat flow
into the machine head. The coolant flow rate is
approximately 1.9 L/min (0.5 gal./min) and is such that
while welding there is typically less than 1°C rise in coolant
temperature from the inlet of the tool holder to the outlet.
Coolant enters the tool holder at approximately 10°C.
Mounted to the tool holder is an electronic digital indicator
for tool depth measurement. It has a range of 25.4 mm (1.0
in.) and a resolution of 0.002 mm (0.0001 in.). An extension
adapter is connected to the indicator so that weld depth is
measured as close to the tool as possible to account for any
local changes in tool depth. Readout error associated with
attaching such an adapter is estimated to be 0.025 mm
(0.001 in.) or less. The indicator readings are transferred to
the data acquisition system throughout the weld.
The tool used for this study was manufactured from heat-
treated H13 tool steel. Tool dimensions consisted of a
shoulder diameter of 25.4 mm (1.0 in.), shoulder concavity
angle of 6 degrees, and a pin length (not including the
portion that extended into the concave shoulder cavity) of
4.76 mm (0.1875 in.). The pin was threaded with a pitch of
1.1 threads/mm (28 threads/in.) and had a major diameter of
7.87 mm (0.31 in.). The tool was used at a tilt angle of 2.5
degrees.
The external surface temperature of the tool was
continuously monitored during welding using infrared (IR)
imaging temperature measurement techniques. A FLIR SC
500 infrared camera system was used with a calibrated
accuracy of ±2% of the reading, or ±2°C. When equipped
with the optional zoom lens (12° x 9° field of view) the
actual field of view is reduced by a factor of 2, which
greatly increases the image resolution at larger distances and
allows for the camera to be located a safe distance from
moving machinery. The camera interfaces to a laptop
computer, on which data are recorded and subsequently
analyzed.
180
The IR camera was thus placed 1.3 m (51 in.) from the tool
and was placed in such a manner that, for the experimental
setup used, what would be considered as the front of the tool
during a weld would be imaged. The emissivity of the tool
surface was controlled by coating the surface with a high-
temperature, flat-black spray paint to establish a tool
emissivity of unity, which was confirmed by validation
experiments in a high-temperature furnace (range tested:
200- 500°C).
Experimental design
A statistical Design of Experiments (DOE) was formulated
to permit analysis of the effect of operating parameters on
steady-state heat input to the tool for a variety of process
operating conditions. With a known process parameter
window and a knowledge that variations would exist in the
data, it was determined that a 33 factorial DOE with two
repetitions would be both feasible and yield satisfactory
results. This required 33 x 2 = 54 welds at 33 = 27 different
parameter combinations. This DOE not only revealed the
relationship between inputs and outputs, but provided
information on process repeatability.
The three input parameters and their corresponding three
levels each are shown in Table 1. While Spindle Speed and
Feed Rate are self-explanatory, the input parameter listed as
Shoulder Depth may need some additional clarification.
Shoulder Depth is a measure of how far the shoulder
penetrates the top surface of the workpiece. The Low factor
level (0.24 mm) corresponds to a shallow weld and the High
factor level (-0.06 mm) corresponds to a deep weld. The
Shoulder Depth value for each weld can be calculated by
subtracting the tool Pin Length from the desired weld depth.
Table 1: Input parameters and corresponding factor levels.
L M H
Spindle Speed [rpm] 200 350 500
Feed Rate [mm/min.] 51 178 305
Shoulder Depth [mm] 0.24 0.09 -0.06
Welding procedure
For each weld, a plate was affixed at a predetermined
location on the anvil and clamped into place. This same
location was used for all plates in the study. The tool was
then positioned directly over the plunge location and the pin
was brought into contact with the top surface of the
workpiece. The tool position was then zeroed. Contact
between the pin and workpiece was known by a registered
force of 44 N (10 lbf.) or less on the dynamometer. Weld
parameters were then adjusted to the values dictated by the
DOE and the weld was performed. If the paint coating on
the tool was damaged in any way during the weld, a light
coating of paint would be reapplied to the damaged surface.
Process parameters of interest were recorded at 2 Hz. during
all phases of the weld (plunge, traverse, etc.). Additionally,
IR image sequences were recorded for each weld at a
frequency of 1 Hz. These IR sequences included all aspects
of the weld, including the plunge and extract sequences.
Data processing
Upon completion of the welds, the Motor Power data, or the
power required by the spindle motor during a weld, were
analyzed using a spreadsheet. A steady-state region was
identified for each weld and the Motor Power was averaged
for this time period. In a separate experiment, the free-wheel
power required by the spindle motor at various spindle
speeds was measured. The losses recorded for the three
Spindle Speed values of 200, 350, and 500 rpm were 0.25,
0.53, and 1.05 kW, respectively. The appropriate value was
then subtracted from the Motor Power data, giving a Total
Energy Input for each weld. Since it is likely that the losses
which occur while welding are higher than at a free-wheel
state due to the increased strain on the gears and bearings, it
is recognized that the free-wheel power measurements may
be a lower limit for the losses that actually occur during a
weld.
The IR data was analyzed by extracting the tool surface
temperature profile for each second of each weld. A steady-
state region for the surface temperatures was then identified
and the temperature data were averaged over this period.
Although the steady-state temperature profile for each weld
would be useful for model comparisons, it was desired that
the data be used to calculate the heat flow through the tool.
The heat transferred by conduction through the tool can be
calculated from Fourier’s Law in the axial direction of the
tool:
q = − kAc dT (1)
dZ
where k [W/m-K] is the thermal conductivity of the tool (28
W/m-K), Ac is the cross-sectional area of the tool, and dT/dZ
is the temperature gradient along the tool axis. Thus, for
each weld, an axial temperature gradient was identified. The
location for the gradient was chosen for each weld by taking
the 5 or 6 most linear points of the tool surface temperature
profile (maximum R2 value for a linear fit) and determining
the slope of the linear fit to be the temperature gradient. The
location of this gradient with respect to the shoulder was
quite consistent for all welds and was located approximately
15 - 20 mm (0.6 - 0.8 in.) above the shoulder. The heat flow
through the tool was then calculated for each weld using
Equation 1. It is recognized that calculating the tool heat
flow in this manner assumes negligible variation in the
temperature profile with respect to radial position at
locations away from the shoulder. This assumption was
verified using numerical modeling of the tool.
It can be noted that only a portion of the temperature profile
is used for the heat flow calculation. In some cases the
surface was so marred from the weld flash that temperature
data near the shoulder was not available. However, the heat
transfer physics of the process dictate that near the shoulder,
where the temperatures are higher, the energy losses to the
181
environment from convection and radiation are much
greater. Thus, the temperature gradient along the entire
surface is not expected to be linear, and a smaller region is
used. Noting that the area over which the heat flow was
calculated was some distance from the shoulder, convective
and radiative losses from the tool surface below the IR
measurement region were accounted for by integrating the
appropriate rate equation over the tool surface area. The
convective heat transfer coefficient was taken from the work
of Kendoush, yielding values of 11, 15, and 18 W/m2-K for
the three Spindle Speed values of 200, 350, and 500 rpm,
respectively [16]. Conservation of energy dictates that the
sum of the energy leaving the tool equals the Tool Heat
Input.
The percentage of the total mechanical power that entered
the tool for each weld was another value of interest. This
value, known as the Percent Energy, was determined by
dividing the Tool Heat Input by the Total Energy Input for
each weld as derived from the corrected Motor Power
values.
Statistical analysis
A statistical analysis of the data was performed in Minitab, a
commercially available statistical analysis software
package, to develop regression equations for both the Tool
Heat Input and Percent Energy values, known as the
responses in the DOE.
Results and discussion
Experimental data
A representative steady-state IR image of one of the welds
performed at the LLL parameter combination is shown in
Fig. 1. The color palette on the right side of the figure
indicates the approximate surface temperature of the objects
in the field of view of the camera in degrees Celsius.
Digital
Indicator
Lower
Edge of
Tool
Holder
Tool/workpiece Interface
Figure 1: Representative IR image of the tool exterior for a
weld performed at the LLL parameter combination.
The steady-state tool surface temperature profile extracted
from the sequence of images from which the image in Fig. 1
was taken is shown in Fig. 2. The surface temperature is
plotted versus distance from the shoulder. The temperature
 6% to 10% of the Tool Heat Input, making the losses
400
significant to the current study.
350
Temperature [C]

300 By analyzing the absolute difference between the Tool Heat

250
200 13.9 °C/mm
150 Temperature
100 Gradient
50
0 difference in the Percent Energy values ranged between
0 5 10 15 20
Distance from Shoulder [mm]
Figure 2: Steady-state surface temperature profile and
temperature gradient used to calculate tool heat flow for a
weld performed at the LLL parameter combination.
gradient from which the heat flow through the tool was
calculated is indicated on the figure.
The maximum temperature in the plot is 376.8°C. Note that
this is a steady-state average, so some fluctuation about the
average is expected. The profile is quite linear, but only the
most linear portion of the profile was used to calculate the
tool heat flow, and the location of the gradient is located
between 15 mm and 20 mm. This temperature profile is
representative of the majority of the welds, although some
welds, especially those with a significant amount of flash,
had poor temperature data near the shoulder. However, the
location and nature of the temperature gradient in Fig. 2 are
very representative of all 54 welds.
Input and Percent Energy values calculated for the two
welds performed at the same parameter combination, some
idea of process variation and reproducibility of the data can
be seen. This difference for the Tool Heat Input ranged
between 0 W and 15 W, with an average of 6 W, while the
25 30 0.01% and 0.4%, with an average difference of 0.1%.
Statistical analysis
The regression equation generated for the Tool Heat Input
(Qtool [W]) and Percent Energy (ηtool [%]) responses are as
follows:
Qtool = 123.62 + 0.26*SS + 0.09*FR - 0.37*FR*D +
9.05e-4*SS*FR*D - 2.78e-4*SS*SS - 2.19e-4*FR*FR
ηtool = 3.66 + 5.95e-3*SS - 7.56e-3*FR - 8.31e-6*SS*FR +
6.47e-3*FR*D - 6.17e-6*SS*SS + 1.48e-5*FR*FR +
6.69*D*D
where SS is the value of the Spindle Speed in rpm, FR is the
value of the Feed Rate in mm/min., and D is the value of the
Shoulder Depth in mm. Thus, the Tool Heat Input can be
calculated at the LLL parameter combination as Qtool(200,
51, 0.24) = 166 W. The Percent Energy can be calculated in
a similar manner. The terms included in each equation are
those that were revealed to be significant by the statistical
analysis.

A summary table of experimental maximum and minimum
measured and calculated response data is presented in Table
2. The Total Energy Input varies between 3.60 kW and 7.54
kW, which, again, is the approximate mechanical power that
is required for a weld. The Tool Heat Input varies between
155 W and 200 W, and the Percent Energy, or percent of the
total mechanical power that enters the tool, varies from
2.8% to 5.1%. However, it should be noted that the
minimum and maximum Tool Heat Input and Total Energy
Input values occur at different welding parameters, and thus
cannot be used to calculate the minimum and maximum
Percent Energy. It is also interesting to note that the heat
losses to the environment below the axial conduction
measurement location imaged by the IR camera comprised
Table 2: Experimental maximum and minimum values.
MIN
SS Motor Power [kW] 3.86
Total Energy Input [kW] 3.60
Temperature Gradient [C/mm] 10.06
Convective Losses [W] 3.1
Radiative Losses [W] 6.3
Tool Heat Input [W] 155.4
Percent Energy [%] 2.8
From the terms in the equations it can be seen that the Tool
Heat Input is a non-linear function of Spindle Speed and
Feed Rate, and the Percent Energy is a non-linear function
of all three input parameters. It should be noted that the
magnitude of the coefficients do not necessarily indicate a
greater or smaller effect of a given parameter or
combination of parameters. The equation was generated in
uncoded units, meaning that, as described above, the input
factors are in their original units. An equation would need to
be generated in coded units, or with the coefficients
properly scaled, for a direct quantitative comparison of
effect.
By plotting the regression equations, trends with respect to
the input parameters can be noted. Since plotting the
equations would require a four-dimensional space, a
sequence of plots must be used to show the progression
through levels of one of the factors. Sequences of plots for
MAX both the Tool Heat Input and Percent Energy are presented
7.58 in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, respectively. In Fig. 3, the dependent
7.54 variable Tool Heat Input is plotted as a function of Spindle
12.71 Speed and Feed Rate, and the two plots in the sequence
6.6 represent two factor levels for Shoulder Depth, where a
11.6 Shoulder Depth value of 0.24 mm is a shallow weld (Fig.
200.2 3(a)), or a weld performed at the Low factor level, and a
5.1 Shoulder Depth value of -0.06 mm represents a deep weld

182
 200 5.5
Spindle
195 Speed at
Depth at
5.0
0.24 mm 190 200 rpm
(L) 185 (L)
4.5
180

Tool Heat Input [W] 175

Percent Energy [%] 4.0
170

165 3.5
160

155 3.0
0.18
150

305
254.2
0.06
500

Feed Rate 2.5 Depth

440

203.4
380

[mm]

152.6
[mm/min.] 51
320
101.8 152.6 -0.06
260

101.8
Spindle Speed 203.4 254.2
(a) (a)
200
305

51
[rpm] Feed Rate
[mm/min.]

200 5.5
Spindle
Depth at 195 Speed at
5.0
-0.06 mm 190 500 rpm
(H) 185 (H)
4.5
180

Tool Heat Input [W] 175

Percent Energy [%] 4.0
170

165
3.5
160

155 3.0
0.18
150
305

Depth
254.2
500

Feed Rate 0.06

440

203.4

2.5 [mm]
380

[mm/min.]
152.6
320

51 101.8 -0.06
260

101.8

Spindle Speed 152.6 203.4

200

(b) (b) 254.2

51

[rpm] Feed Rate 305

[mm/min.]

Figure 3: Tool Heat Input regression equation plotted Figure 4: Percent Energy regression equation plotted
versus Spindle Speed and Feed Rate at two factor levels of versus Feed Rate and Shoulder Depth at two factor levels of
Shoulder Depth: (a) 0.24 mm (L); (b) -0.06 mm (H). Spindle Speed: (a) 200 rpm (L); (b) 500 rpm (H).

performed at the High factor level (Fig. 3(b)). In Fig. 4, the generated and a heat generation limit is approached. As a
dependent variable Percent Energy is plotted as a function heat generation limit is approached, the Tool Heat Input is
of Feed Rate and Depth, and the two plots in the sequence similarly limited, and the asymptotic nature is observed.
represent two Spindle Speed levels (Figs. 4(a) and 4(b)).
The independent variables in the two figures differ so that The surface plotted in Fig. 3(a) at the Low Shoulder Depth
the most revealing trends with respect to the input factor level is unique compared to the plot in Fig. 3(b). The
parameters are visible. surface is quite steep and is not as asymptotic in nature. It is
also observed that the surface stretches between both the
The Tool Heat Input is clearly a function of the input minimum and maximum values of the Tool Heat Input. It is
parameters. In general, the second-order dependence on further interesting to note that the surfaces become less
both Spindle Speed and Feed Rate can be seen, and it is steep when the Shoulder Depth factor levels range from
apparent that the Tool Heat Input is quite asymptotic in Low to High.
nature at higher Spindle Speed values. There is also a
dependence on Shoulder Depth that can be seen as the In Fig. 4, a similar second-order dependence of the Percent
surface shifts between the plots. Although not apparent in Energy on the input parameters is seen. Although there is
the data shown, the effect of the Shoulder Depth is linear. also a second-order dependence on Spindle Speed, the effect
This can also be deduced from the regression equation, is quite small when compared to the other two variables.
since the D*D term is not included, the statistical analysis The dependence on Spindle Speed is noted here as the
revealing the dependence on D*D to be insignificant. surface shifts between the plots. Of note is that at the High
Spindle Speed factor level, both the minimum and
The asymptotic nature of the Tool Heat Input is suggestive maximum values for the Percent Energy are achieved. It is
of the behavior of the heat generation in FSW. The also interesting that, in both of the plots, the second-order
workpiece near the tool is softened to such an extent at the dependence on Shoulder Depth varies with the Feed Rate
higher Spindle Speed values that heat can no longer be value. Although the actual range of values may seem quite

183
small (2.8 - 5.0%), there is clearly variation with respect to
welding parameters in the Percent Energy values.
Summary and conclusions
The heat input to the tool (Tool Heat Input) and portion of
the mechanical energy that enters the tool (Percent Energy)
at a variety of process operating parameters has been
characterized for FSW of AL 7075-T7351. 54 welds were
performed in a statistical Design of Experiments fashion at
27 different process parameter combinations. The external
surface of the tool was monitored using infrared imaging
temperature measurement techniques for each weld and a
tool heat input was calculated. The Percent Energy values
were also calculated. The range for the Tool Heat Input was
155 - 200 W and the range of the Percent Energy was 2.8 -
5.1% for the process operating parameter window and tool
used. Regression equations were constructed and showed
that both the Tool Heat Input and Percent Energy values are
second-order functions of process operating parameters.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support for this work
from the Office of Naval Research, contract No. N00014-
03-1-0792, and Dr. Julie Christodoulou, Program Manager.
References
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Murch, P. Temple-Smith, and C.J. Dawes, U.S.
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Modelling of Friction Stir Welding, Papers
presented at the Seventh International Conference
Joints in Aluminum- INALCO98, 15-17 April 1998,
Cambridge, UK, 197-207
3. H. Schmidt and J. Hattel, Heat Source Models in
Simulation of Heat Flow in Friction Stir Welding,
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mechanical Conditions at the Tool/matrix Interface
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5. Q. Shi, T. Dickerson, and H.R. Shercliff, Thermo-
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Thermal and Microstructure Modelling in Thick
Plate Aluminium Alloy 7075 Friction Stir Welds,
Friction Stir Welding and Processing II, 33-42
(2003)
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and Numerical Analysis of Aluminium Alloy 7075-
T7351 Friction Stir Welds, Sci. Technol. Weld.
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Friction Stir-welding Process, Int. J. Mach. Tool.
Manuf., 42, 1549-57 (2002)
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13. T.J. Lienert, W.L. Stellwag, Jr., B.B. Grimmett,
and R.W. Warke, Friction Stir Welding Studies on
Mild Steel, Weld. J., 82, 1S-9S (2003)
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15. A. Simar, T. Pardoen, and B. de Meester, Influence
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Friction Skew-Stir

Welded Lap Joints in 5083-0 Aluminium
G. M. D Cantin
CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

S. A David, E. Lara-Curzio, S. S. Babu

Oak Ridge National laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA

W. M. Thomas
TWI, Great Abington, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Abstract this ratio results in a reduction in the formation of voids in the

welds and allows the surface oxide to be more effectively
The Skew-stirTM process, a variant of the friction stir welding disrupted and dispersed within the microstructure.2, 3 The Skew-
(FSW) technique developed at TWI, was used for the stir technique is particularly advantageous in cases where a
production of lap joints in aluminium alloy AA5083-0. This wide weld region is required, for example in lap and ‘T’ joints
process differs from the conventional method in that the axis of where the interface is perpendicular to the machine axis.
the tool is given a slight inclination, or skew, to that of the
machine spindle. It is particularly advantageous in cases where
a wide weld region is required, such as lap joints where the
interface is perpendicular to the machine axis. The
microstructures and tensile properties of welds made using both
a conventional pin-type probe and the rotary Skew-stir
technique with an A-SkewTM probe were studied.

Keywords: aluminium, friction stir welding, skew-stir,

microstructure, tensile properties, fatigue properties, hardness

Introduction
Friction stir welding (FSW) is solid state joining process
invented and patented by TWI Ltd., UK, in 1991. The
continuing development of the FSW process at TWI has led to a
variant called the Skew-stirTM technique. This technique differs
from the conventional method in that the axis of the tool is
given a slight inclination, or skew, to that of the machine
spindle. The basic principle of the Skew-stir technique is
illustrated in Fig. 1.1 The arrangement results in the shoulder
being oblique to the axis of the skew tool and square to the axis
of the machine spindle. The shoulder face remains in a fixed
relationship with respect to the top surface of the plate. The
focal length affects the amplitude of the orbit of the shoulder
and probe of the skew tool. The type of probe used in
conjunction with the Skew-stir technique has been termed the
A-SkewTM probe by TWI.2
The friction Skew-stir technique with the use of the A-SkewTM
probe is capable of further increasing the dynamic volume
(volume swept by the probe during rotation) to static volume
(volume of the probe itself) ratio, above that provided by the re-
entrant features of conventional probes, by extending the
volume of plasticised material surrounding the probe. Increasing
This paper is based on a paper entitled “Friction Skew-Stir Welding
of Lap Joints in 5083-0 Aluminium”, Cantin et al., STWJ, 2005,
10, (3), 268-280, © Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
Figure 1 Diagram showing basic principle of Skew-stirTM
welding, in a the focal point is at the top surface of the work
piece, in b the focal point is above the top surface of the work
piece (after Ref 1)
In this study lap joints were produced in using both a
conventional pin-type probe and the rotary Skew-stir technique
with an A-SkewTM probe. Two types of lap joints, right-hand
and left-hand, were produced by changing the position of the
top plate with respect to the bottom one as illustrated in Fig. 2.
The travel direction and direction of tool rotation remained
unchanged. The microstructures of these lap joints were
characterised and compared using optical microscopy, scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray wavelength dispersive
spectroscopy (WDS). The tensile properties of the weldments
were tested, and hardness maps of the entire weld region were
produced to assess any variations in the properties of the
different zones. In this initial study of the Skew-stir process the
conditions used to produce the welds were not optimized.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 185

 Travel direction − Right-hand (RH) conventional friction stir weld (made using
a conventional pin-type probe)
− Left-hand (LH) conventional friction stir weld (made using a
Direction of
Plate rolling tool rotation
direction conventional pin-type probe)
Probe

Characterisation of weld microstructures

The specimens for optical microscopy and SEM were prepared
Advancing side Retreating side using standard metallographic techniques. Transverse sections
of weld of weld were etched using Keller’s reagent in order to observe the
a microstructure of the weld zone using the optical microscope.
Travel direction
The grain structure was observed by optical microscopy under
polarised light. The transverse sections were first
Direction of
electrolytically etched in Barker’s reagent at 30 V for 2 minutes.
Plate rolling tool rotation SEM was conducted on as-polished transverse sections.
direction
Elemental maps for the major alloying elements and oxygen
Probe
were obtained using X-ray WDS at 15 kV.

Determination of hardness and tensile properties

Advancing side Retreating side
b of weld of weld
Figure 2 Schematic diagrams showing the joint configurations
for a right-hand and b left-hand welds.
Experimental method
Welding procedures and materials
The friction stir welds were made in 6 mm thick plates of
aluminium alloy AA5083-0. The composition is given in Table
1. The joint configurations, direction of travel and tool rotation
and the rolling direction have been indicated in the schematic
diagrams in Figs. 2a and b for the right-hand and left-hand
joints, respectively. These parameters apply both to the joints
made using the conventional pin-type probe and to the ones
made using the Skew-stir technique with the A-SkewTM probe.
Table 1: Chemical composition of aluminium alloy AA5083-0
(wt. %)
For each of the four types of welds a hardness survey of the
entire weld region, including the central nugget,
thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and heat affected
zone (HAZ), was done. A load of 50 g was used to produce
between 1550 and 1740 indentations, with a spacing of 400 μm,
on transverse sections of each of the welds. The region surveyed
for each of the welds corresponds approximately to the area
where the top and bottom plates overlap. Five indentations were
also made within regions of the parent material. The data were
used to produce maps of the hardness distributions within the
welds.
Two tensile test specimens were obtained from each of the four
welded test plates. The test specimens were excised from the
weldments transverse to the welding direction with the
dimensions 19 mm wide and 178 mm long. Due to the
asymmetrical geometry of the lap joints, 6 mm thick packers
were used to grip the specimens. Tensile testing was conducted
at a constant cross-head speed of 0.0254 mm/s. The maximum
load was noted for each specimen.

Al Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Results and discussion

Bal. 0.22 0.32 0.05 0.43 4.34 0.11
The welds made with a conventional pin-type probe were
produced at a travel speed of 2 mm/s and the ones made using
the Skew-stir technique with an A-Skew™ probe were
produced at 4 mm/s, both at a rotational speed of 584 rpm. The
maximum travel speed that could be achieved when using the
conventional pin-type probe was 2 mm/s. Immediately prior to
welding the faying surfaces of the lap joints were cleaned by
lightly abrading with a “Scotch-brite” scouring pad.
The experiments resulted in the production of four types of
welds with the following designations, which have been used in
this paper:
− Right-hand (RH) Skew-stir weld (made using the Skew-stir
technique and an A-SkewTM probe)
− Left-hand (LH) Skew-stir weld (made using the Skew-stir
technique and an A-SkewTM probe)
0.03 0.03
Microstructure of weldments made using the Skew-stir and
conventional pin-type probe
The macrographs in Figs. 3a-d show transverse sections of
right-hand and left-hand Skew-stir and conventional friction stir
welds, and are representative of the microstructure observed
along the entire length of the welds. The macrographs show that
the welds consist of a central nugget zone with the characteristic
‘onion-ring’ features, and a TMAZ surrounding the central
nugget. Flow contours are evident in the microstructure of the
TMAZ, especially near the sides and the top region of the
central nugget. The macrographs also highlight some of the
differences in the macrostructure of the welds made using the
Skew-stir technique and the conventional pin-type probe. In
particular, the lap joints made using the conventional pin-type
probe are visibly distorted, as evident by the lifting of the top
parent plate that results in a wider gap between itself and the
bottom plate.

186

a Skew-stir weld, the interfaces on both advancing and retreating
b and left-hand Skew-stir welds the interface on the retreating
Figure 3 Transverse sections (optical) of the a right-hand Skew-
stir, b left-hand Skew-stir, c right-hand conventional friction
stir, and d left-hand conventional friction stir weldments. The
interfaces are remnants of the original faying surfaces (etched
in Keller’s reagent)
In terms of weld quality, although the central nugget of all
welds contains film-like flaws, the ones observed in the
conventional friction stir welds are longer, more continuous and
are associated with large voids. Large voids can be seen towards
the advancing side of the central nugget of the weld in Fig. 3d.
The film-like flaws in the central nugget of the Skew-stir welds
are relatively small, have an irregular morphology, and can in
some cases be aligned with the flow contours within the nugget.
It is possible that these films were formed as a result of
fragmentation by the friction stir tool of the oxide present on the
faying surfaces prior to welding.
Characterisation of interfaces surrounding central nugget
On both sides of all the welds, the original faying surfaces
between the top and bottom plates can be observed (arrowed in
Figs. 3a-d). During the welding process the action of the friction
stir tool deforms and compresses part of the original faying
surfaces, which then remains in the weld to form interfaces
between the TMAZ and the central weld nugget. These
remnants of the original faying surfaces tend to be mostly
continuous near the edges of the welds and become increasingly
more broken up and dispersed toward the centre of the welds. In
Figs. 3a-d they can be seen as dark lines that partially surround
the periphery of the central nugget. This paper has described in
detail these interfaces that constitute the remnant of the original
faying surfaces, and, for simplicity, will be referred to as
‘interface’ only.
187
In the case of the right-hand Skew-stir weld, the interface on the
advancing side extends in the upward direction (towards the top
of the weld) while the interface on the retreating side (Fig. 4a)
extends upwards a short distance then curves around the bottom
periphery of the central nugget. In the case of the left-hand
sides are seen to curve upward initially then abruptly change
direction to extend around the bottom periphery of the central
nugget, in a similar manner as that seen in Fig. 4a. The abrupt
change in direction results in a sharp discontinuity along the
interfaces, which could be deleterious to the mechanical
properties of the weldment (see Fig. 4b). For both right-hand
side is significantly longer than the one on the advancing side
(as indicated in Fig. 3), and extends around the majority of the
bottom periphery of the central nugget.
a
b
Figure 4 Optical micrographs showing a the path of the
interface on the retreating side of the right-hand skew-stir weld
and b the change in direction of the interface on the retreating
side of the left-hand skew-stir weld at higher magnification
(etched in Keller’s reagent)
For the right-hand and left-hand conventional friction stir welds,
the interfaces on both the advancing and retreating sides are
observed to curve around the central nugget towards the top of
the weld. The interfaces on the retreating sides are longer than
the ones on the advancing sides, and follow a more complex
path.
A more detailed examination of the interfaces was carried out in
the scanning electron microscope. The interfaces were found to
consist of an intermittent collection of small voids and very fine
particles. The voids along the interfaces of the conventional
friction stir weld appeared to be slightly larger.
It may be assumed that any oxide films present on the faying
surfaces before welding would still be present along the
interfaces, since the heat generated by the tool would not be
sufficient to destroy them.4 Oxidation of the surface of the voids
along the interface during and after welding may also have
occurred.4 The presence of oxide at the interfaces, which is
likely to affect bonding and thus create a region of weakness
that can affect the mechanical properties of the weldments, was
verified using X-ray WDS analysis. Figure 5 shows a back-
scattered SEM micrograph of the microstructure of a Skew-stir
weld (the interface is aligned vertically near the centre of the
micrograph) and X-ray maps for Al, Mg and O in this region of
the microstructure. Traces that indicate the change in the levels
of each of these elements have been superimposed on the maps.
The black areas in the back-scattered electron image are regions
where second phase particles have been pulled out as a result of
polishing. Some of these areas correspond to O-rich regions in
the O X-ray map possibly as a result of entrapped polishing
compound residue.
A decrease in the level of Al and an increase in the levels of Mg
and O are observed at the interface. This suggests that the oxide
present at the interface is rich in Mg. In addition, the trace
superimposed on the Mg map indicates that the level of Mg
decreases gradually toward the interface before increasing
rapidly at the interface itself. This implies the diffusion of Mg to
the interface, which would result in an interface enriched in Mg
adjacent to regions depleted in Mg.
Figure 5 Back-scattered SEM image showing the interface and
elemental X-ray maps showing the levels of Al, Mg and O at
and adjacent to the interface. Al-rich regions: red, Al-depleted
regions: yellow, Mg-rich regions: blue, richer regions: paler
blue, Mg-depleted regions: black, O-rich regions: blue, O-
depleted regions: black.
In order to relate these results to the composition of the oxide on
the parent plate, the as-received surface of two aluminium
samples were analysed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
(XPS). One sample was obtained from the 5083 alloy parent
plate used in the experiments and one from a 1350 alloy. The
latter comprises 99.8 wt. % Al, 0.11 wt. % Fe, 0.03 wt. % Si,
0.01 wt. % Ti and 0.01 wt. % Ni. The samples were cut using a
hand saw without the use of lubricants and the surfaces were
188
sputtered with an argon beam in order to minimise C
contamination. XPS analyses the composition from
approximately the top 50 atomic layers from a surface (in the
order of 10 nm). The thickness of the oxide layer on aluminium
alloys has been reported to be in the range of 50 – 100 nm.4 The
purpose of this study was to complement the results from the
WDS analyses by comparing the composition of the oxide on
the surface of the 5083 alloy, which contains about 4 wt. % Mg,
with that of the oxide on the surface of a commercially pure
1350 alloy sample. The results in Table 2 show that the oxide
on the surface of the 5083 alloy parent plate contains Al, O and
about 10 at. % Mg, while the oxide on the surface of the 1350
alloy consists principally of Al and O.
Table 2 Chemical composition of oxide on the surface of
aluminium alloys AA5083-0 and 1350 (at. %)
Aluminium alloy O Al Mg
5083 60.7 22.8 9.8
1350 60.4 36.6 -
The detection of Mg in the surface oxide of the parent plate
suggests that some of the oxide at the interfaces could have
originated from residual oxide on the faying surfaces. Research
by Okamura et al. on the characteristics of oxide films in
friction stir welds found that traces of oxide films substantially
decreased when the abutting surfaces were mechanically
polished, but were not completely eliminated.4 The authors
suggested that the oxide films were likely to comprise of Al2O3
and MgO from the faying surfaces as well as new oxides
formed during welding. A recent transmission electron
microscopy study of the oxide films in the microstructure of
friction stir welds in an Al-2.46Mg alloy describes the
morphology of the fine oxide particles found in these regions.5
The oxide particles were analysed to be Al2O3 with an
amorphous structure and were determined to have originated
from the initial oxide layer on the faying surfaces. The results
from this latter study do not agree with the WDS and XPS data
obtained in this study. The oxide formed at room temperature
on the surface of an Al-Mg alloy has been reported to be
amorphous Al2O3.6, 7 The heat treating of Al-Mg alloys above
450oC, however, will promote the growth of spinel MgAl2O4 or
MgO (or both depending on the conditions and other alloying
elements).6, 7 Since the temperatures experienced by this
aluminium alloy during processing into plate form can approach
480oC, there is a likelihood of forming a Mg-rich surface
oxide.8
In addition, thermodynamic calculations were performed using
ThermoCalc9 (Version P which includes a solid solution and
substance database) to understand further the formation of Mg-
rich oxides at the interfaces during the friction stir welding
process. Simple thermodynamic calculations were performed
which showed that, under atmospheric conditions, Al2O3 and
small amounts of MgO will readily form, but when assuming
the presence of only a limited supply of oxygen at the interface,
Al2O3 is not stable and only MgO will form. This suggests that
the formation of MgO may be the result of differences in
oxidation conditions present at the interfaces. These
thermodynamic calculations in conjunction with the XPS results
elucidate in part the presence of Mg-rich oxides at the interfaces
of the friction stir welds.
Grain structure of weldments
The microstructure of the parent material consists of grains with
an average size of about 19 μm. The grains within the TMAZ,
in a region close to the side of the central nugget, are elongated
and appear to be aligned with the flow contours observed in the
macrograph in Fig. 3b. No significant differences in the grain
structure in the TMAZ on the advancing and retreating sides
have been observed. The region of the TMAZ directly above the
central nugget and close to the weld centreline was observed to
contain a grain structure that is more equiaxed than that
observed on the sides of the nugget, possibly due to partial
recrystallisation.10 The average grain size in this region is
approximately 15 μm, which is intermediate between that of the
parent material and the central nugget. The average grain size in
the central nugget is about 9 μm, a similar value to that reported
in the literature for friction stir welds made in 5083-0.10, 11, 12
The onion-ring structure is apparent under polarised light as
alternate bands with different contrasts. No noticeable
difference was detected in the size of the grains within bands
with a different contrast, as also observed by other
researchers.13, 14
Tensile properties
The maximum load attained by the specimens and the location
of fracture have been recorded for each specimen in Table 4.
Two tensile specimens were obtained from each of the four
welded test plates, these are indicated in Table 4 by the numbers
1 and 2 in parenthesis. The macrographs of transverse sections
of right-hand and left-hand Skew-stir and conventional friction
stir welds in Figs. 3a-d show the fracture path for the tensile
specimens (white lines). Overall the weldments made using the
Skew-stir technique sustained significantly higher loads than the
weldments made using the conventional pin-type probe. While
the right-hand Skew-stir joint performed better than the left-
hand one (achieving a maximum load approximately 5kN
higher), there was no significant difference in the maximum
loads reached by the right-hand and left-hand conventional
joints. The cross-sectional area that sustained the tensile load
was estimated for each joint configuration from SEM images of
the fracture surfaces (Table 4). The measured areas correspond
to the regions where material bonding was determined to have
occurred from the presence of a dimpled structure on the
fracture surface. The areas corresponding to the interfaces,
where minimal bonding would have been present due to the
oxide layer, were excluded from the measurements.
Table 4: Results of tensile tests

The grain structures of the conventional friction stir weld are Joint type Max. Location of Area sustaining
load, kN fracture load, mm2
similar to those of the Skew-stir welds. The central nugget RH Skew-stir Retreating side,
consists of equiaxed grains with an average size of 10 μm. (1) 24.7 top plate 114
RH Skew-stir Retreating side,
(2) 25.7 top plate 114
Hardness distribution
LH Skew-stir Retreating side,
The average hardness of the weld region was calculated from (1) 20.9 bottom plate 105
the entire data set for each weld (Table 3). The data show that LH Skew-stir Retreating side,
for all joint types the average hardness of the weld region is (2) 20.8 bottom plate 105
similar to that of the parent material. The maps obtained from RH conv. FS Retreating side,
(1) 9.94 top plate 50
the data sets have indicated that the hardness within the weld
RH conv. FS Retreating side,
region is relatively uniform with an average of about 70 HV. (2) 10.7 top plate 50
LH conv. FS Advancing side,
11.1 80
The maps also revealed an area that approximately corresponds (1) top plate
to the central nugget zone with hardness values slightly higher LH conv. FS Advancing side,
(2) 10.6 top plate 70
than average, about 80 HV. Although a precise explanation for
this was not sought in this study, the finer grain size in the
central nugget zone may be partly responsible for increasing the The right-hand Skew-stir weld specimens achieved the highest
hardness in this region. Microhardness measurements made tensile load of approximately 25 kN. Fracture initiated near the
across friction stir welds in 5454-0 aluminium alloy showed bottom of the top plate and propagated through the TMAZ to
similar increase in hardness at the centre of the welds, and a the top of the weld (see Fig. 3a). It is possible that the sharp
possible correlation with grain refining in the central nugget discontinuity along the interface on the retreating side, created
was made.15 Generally, hardness profiles across friction stir by the change in direction of the interface, acted as an initiation
welds made in 5083-0 have been found to be more or less site for fracture. The interface on the advancing side changes
constant and range from 60 to 80 HV.10-12 direction in a more gradual manner. The fracture surface was
examined in the SEM. The central part of the fracture surface
Table 3: Hardness data has a dimpled structure resulting from ductile tensile failure.
The fracture surface near the bottom part of the top plate (Fig.
Joint type Average hardness, HV (50 gf) 6), where fracture initiated, shows a structure with shallow and
Right-hand Skew-stir 69 poorly defined dimples, as well as flat areas without dimples.
Left-hand Skew-stir 68 These characteristics suggest that fracture initiated in a region
Right-hand conventional FS 71 with only partial bonding, as is observed at the interfaces.
Left-hand conventional FS 72
Parent material 71

189

Figure 6 Secondary electron micrograph of the fracture surface
from the right-hand Skew-stir weld tensile specimen in the
region near the bottom of the top plate.
The left-hand Skew-stir weld specimens attained tensile loads
approximately 5 kN less than that reached by the right-hand
Skew-stir weldment. The fracture path, shown in Fig. 3b, is
partially along the interface and through the bottom plate.
Fracture through the bottom plate produced a dimpled structure
that is typical of ductile tensile failure. The portion of the
fracture surface that coincides with the interface consists of
shallow dimples partially covered by an oxide layer. This is
consistent with the observations made from weld cross-sections
in the SEM and from X-ray WDS analyses that have revealed
that the interfaces consist of small, intermittent voids and oxide.
The data in Table 4 show that the cross-sectional area that
sustained the tensile load is lower for the left-hand Skew-stir
weld specimens due to partial bonding at the interface.
Both right-hand and left-hand conventional friction stir weld
specimens achieved maximum tensile loads approximately 50%
less than those obtained for the Skew-stir weldments. Failure of
the conventional friction stir weld specimens occurred
principally along the interface (Figs. 3c and d). A small portion
of the fracture path is through the TMAZ at the top of the weld,
which produced a dimpled structure on the fracture surface. The
part fracture surface that corresponds to the region along the
interface was found to be covered by a thick layer of oxide. This
suggests that the welding process has not disrupted the oxide
layer on the original faying surfaces and consequently has
resulted in minimal bonding of material across the interface.
The measured cross sectional area that sustained the tensile load
is substantially lower for these specimens (Table 4). The load
bearing capacity of the joints made using the conventional pin-
type probe is thus significantly reduced.
Conclusions
A variant of the friction stir welding process called Skew-stir
welding was used to produce lap joints in aluminium alloy
5083-0. Interfaces, made up of intermittent voids and Mg-rich
oxide, were observed to surround parts of the central nugget of
all welds. The FSW technique influenced the location and the
extent of the interfaces around the central nugget of the lap
joints. The composition of the oxide on the surface of the 5083
parent material was analysed and found to be rich in Mg.
190
These interfaces were found to have a significant effect on the
tensile properties of the lap joints. The experimental results
indicate that the Skew-stir variant significantly improves the
tensile properties of friction stir welded lap joints, especially in
the right-hand configuration. An examination of the interfaces
from weld cross-sections and from fracture surfaces revealed
that the extent of bonding was greater across the interfaces
present in the Skew-stir welds. This characteristic together with
the more favourable location of the interfaces with respect to the
flow stresses in the welds accounts for the improved
performance of the Skew-stir welded joints.
Acknowledgements
This work was undertaken at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in
collaboration with TWI. The microstructure characterization
research was sponsored by Division of Materials Sciences and
Engineering, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, and mechanical
property measurements by Assistant Secretary for Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of FreedomCAR and
Vehicle Technologies, part of the Automotive Lightweighting
Materials Program, U.S. Department of Energy, contract DE-
AC05-00OR22725 with ORNL operated by UT/Batelle, LLC.
References
1. W. M. Thomas, D. G. Staines, I. M Norris and R. de Frias,
Friction Stir Welding Seminar, Porto, Portugal, December,
Instituto de Soldadura e Qualidade, (2002).
2. W. M. Thomas, A. B. M. Braithwaite and R. John, Proc. 3rd
Int. Symp. on Friction Stir Welding, Kobe, Japan (2001).
3. W. M. Thomas, R. Dolby and K. Johnson, Weld. Me. Fabr.,
September, 20-22, (2001).
4. H. Okamura, K. Aota, M.Sakamoto, M. Ezumi and K.
Ikeuchi, Weld. Int., 16, 4, 266-275, (2002).
5. Y. S. Sato, F. Yamashita, Y. Sugiura, S. H. C. Park and H.
Kokawa, Scr. Mat., 50, 365-369, (2004).
6. B. Goldstein and J. Dresner, Surf. Sci., 71, 15-26, (1978).
7. G. M. Scamans and E. P. Butler, Metall. Trans., November,
6A, 2055-2063, (1975).
8. H. Chandler ed., Heat treater’s guide Practices and
procedures for nonferrous alloys, p 189, Materials Park, OH,
ASM International, (1996).
9. J. O. Andersson, T. Helander, L. Hoglund and B. Sundman,
Calphad, 26; 273-312, (2002).
10. P. L. Threadgill, TWI Bull., 38, 30-33, (1997).
11. L. Karlsson, L. E. Svensson and H. Larsson, Proc. 5th Int.
Conf. Trends in Welding Research, Pine Mountain, GA,
Materials Park, OH, ASM International, 574-579, (1998).
12. L. E. Svensson, L. Karlsson, H. Larsson, B. Karlsson, M.
Fazzini and J. Karlsson, Sci. Technol. Weld. Joining, 5, (5),
285-296, (2000).
13. M. Peel, A. Steuwer, M. Preuss and P. J. Withers, Acta
Mater., 51, 4791-4801, (2003).
14. H. Larsson, L. Karlsson and L. E. Svensson, Svetsaren, 2, 6-
10, (2000).
15. A. P. Reynolds, Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Trends in Welding
Research, Pine Mountain, GA, Materials Park, OH, ASM
International, 563-567, (1998).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Recent Advances in Welding of Aluminum Alloys using a Self Reacting Pin Tool
(SRPT) Approach with Application Examples
R. Edwards, G. Sylva
MTS Systems Corp., Eden Prairie, Minnesota, USA

Abstract the potential to reduce the cost and weight of assembled

Since its invention in 1991 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) [1]
has undergone an incredibly rapid development when
compared historically to other joining technologies. The
Traditional Fixed-Pin Tool (FPT) welding mode is the most
common application of the process. However, FPT FSW has
some production limitations including high tooling costs and
limitations on joint designs. In contrast, the Self-Reacting Pin
Tool (SRPT) [2] welding mode give the designer new joint
design options and can greatly reduce fixture costs.
This paper will discuss the recent advances in SRPT FSW
including application examples. These advances include
welding aluminum alloys as thin at 1.8mm and as thick as
30mm. This paper will also include a comparison of SRPT to
FPT friction stir welding and explaination of why SRPT is
advantageous over FPT.
Introduction
The specific area of technology to be covered in this paper is
associated with SRPT Welding. First, a brief description of
SRPT will be given along with the important advantages
SRPT has over the conventional FPT Welding. Discussion
then takes place on the limitations FPT approach has in
production due to its requirement for heavier tooling to
support the welding operation and increase costs. Finally, the
recent advances using SRPT will be displayed which include
welding aluminum alloys as thin as 1.8mm and as thick as
30mm. In addition, application examples will be given.
structures.
FSW is a solid state process. A solid state process means that
the material (in this case aluminum) never reaches the melting
point (it never melts) but is worked in a plasticized state
during the welding process.
FSW provides better joint properties than other joining
methods. Static strengths have been as much as 2+ times
greater with joint efficiencies between 60 to 100% stronger.
FSW joints also exhibit higher ductility.
The disadvantages of FPT as compared to SRPT include the
requirement for rigid clamping to prevent part movement due
to process loads and the requirement for a rigid backing plate
or anvil to react process loads into the fixture.
The SRPT process eliminates or minimizes the disadvantages
by providing a bottom shoulder in place of an anvil often
referred to as a “bobbin tool”. These improvements include
reduction of process loads, an increase in welding speed, and
elimination of the “kissing bond”. There are some limitations
however for SRPT and these are: Welding speeds moderately
slower than some fusion weld processes, clamping can be
somewhat complex on hollow extrusions (see Fig. 1), and
there may be a keyhole left at the end of the weld. Also SRPT
requires a three piece tool and additional control capabilities to
control each upper and lower shoulder independently. The pin
tool is connected to and moves with the lower shoulder.

Self-Reacting Pin Tool (SRPT) VS. Fixed Pin

Tool (FPT) Welding
Conventional FPT is a maturing process that is currently being
used in maritime, automotive and aerospace fabrication. The
benefits of conventional FSW which includes both SRPT and
FPT as applied to aluminum alloys, are well known and
include joints that demonstrate excellent mechanical
properties with low distortion, a highly repeatable process
with low defect rates, good energy efficiency, no required
consumables, reduced safety concerns due to elimination of
weld fumes, a process that is not sensitive to weld position and Figure 1: Clamping of an Extrusion

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 191


Figure 2: Cross-section of SRPT
The SRPT concept utilizes a tool with a bottom shoulder on
the backside of the part as can be seen in Fig. 2. The bottom
shoulder is mechanically attached to the probe that penetrates
through the part. The probe is linked to an actuator that
provides the capability to adjust both the load and position of
the bottom shoulder. A separate axis is used to control the load
that the top shoulder induces on the part. This combination of
independently controlled top and bottom shoulders results in a
“self-reacting” system in which the forging force on the
topside of the part is equal to the forging load on the backside
of the part. Therefore, the net force applied to the part (normal
to the weld surface) is essentially zero.
Through the implementation of the SRPT process, many of the
limitations of conventional FPT welding have been
eliminated. The advantages SRPT provides include the
following:
• Elimination of the anvil-side tooling – this makes
SRPT an effective method for joining extruded
(hollow) cross-sections and tank structures
• Increased travel speeds due to increased heat
production from the two shoulders
• Elimination of the possibility of lack of penetration
defect
• Reduction in process loads
• A 5-10% improvement in joint efficiency compared
to FPT welding.
The fundamental innovation of the process is the ability to
eliminate the large stiff structure – the anvil – behind the parts
to be welded. The AdAPT ™ weld head [2] pushes against the
top of the part with the same load as it pulls against the bottom
of the part resulting in a zero net force. With the need for the
anvil eliminated, the cost and complexity of the part fixture is
reduced. An innovation of the welding head is the integration
of a spinning actuator with position feedback in the weld head
assembly. The overall result of this design is the ability to
weld thicker materials than is practical with a system that
192
relies on an anvil. A conventional FPT FSW system structure
would need to react the loads generated from a conventional
tool. When welding a 25mm thick plate, these loads can
exceed 53.4 kN (12,000 lbs). The self-reacting technology
eliminates this load and the pinching reacted by the process is
below 22.2 kN (5000 lbs). This reduction in load occurs
because the bottom shoulder adds extra heat to the weld and
eliminates a path for heat to escape from the weld. These two
changes increase the efficiency of the heating process in the
weld, thereby reducing the power input required for welding.
Another benefit is having a bottom shoulder to eliminate the
possibility of lack of penetration (LOP) defect on the root side
of the weld. The LOP defect is introduced when the plunge
depth on a conventional pin tool is not maintained in the
proper location. The LOP defect is especially detrimental in
FPT welding because it is difficult to detect with conventional
non-destructive evaluation processes.
Self-Reacting (SRPT) on Thin Gage Aluminum
Partnering with Nippon Sharyo LTD of Japan, a study [3] was
performed to see the feasibility of welding thinner than 4mm
aluminum. Up to this point in time, surveys showed that the
thinnest aluminum alloy welded was 4mm and the thickest
being 24.5mm using the SRPT approach. This program
included five major phases which included: Tool
Development, Joint Evaluation and Development, Strength
Optimization, Prototype Welding and Machine Performance
and Evaluation. The welds were conducted on Al-6061-T6
and the goal was to weld 3mm and thinner extrusions using
the SRPT Technique.
Tool Development and Joint Evaluation
Proper pin development was crucial because to make a good
weld the weld material must be able to completely fill the void
created by the drilling of the start up hole and back fill the
void as the pin initiates travel down the weld seam. Due to the
thin gage of the target material there is not much material to
fill this void. Consequently, pin and shoulder diameters, as
well as initial weld parameters, were seen as an extremely
critical factor in the level of precision that would be required.
Pin and shoulder diameters are also an important factor in
weld strength. These diameters influence the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) and resultant weld strengths. As a rule, smaller
diameter pins and shoulders will produce higher strength
welds because the width and extent of the HAZ is reduced.
However, pin life decreases with decreasing pin diameter.
Additionally, a larger shoulder diameter can improve the
ability to fill the void behind the pin, but this improvement can
also be at the expense of weld strength. Thus a balance of
these conditions was sought and two pin designs with
diameters of 4.8 and 6.8mm were selected for this project.
The overall design focused on minimum size, even though
shortened pin life could result. This decision was based on the
understanding that more testing would eventually be
performed to validate the production conditions.
Once the pin tools were designed, work proceeded with the
joint thickness testing. The initial goal, as stated, was to weld
thinner than 3mm with an ultimate goal of “thinnest possible”
weld joint solely to explore the possibilities. The testing was
performed on Al-6061-T6 sheet, since it was readily available
and it was believed to weld similar to other extrusion
materials.
Initial testing began at Lockheed-Martin, Michoud Assembly
Facility, which has several MTS I-STIR Systems with the
AdAPT ™ weld head. The first attempts included welding the
3mm thick material using the larger diameter pin tool. The
initial weld parameters were estimated, and subsequent welds
were performed using parameters based on the results of the
previous weld attempts. The result of these first weld attempts
is pictured in Fig. 3. For these attempts, a tapered start-up or
run-on tab was used with a starting thickness of 3.5mm
tapering down to the 3mm thick test material. MTS reasoned
that starting the weld in thicker material increased the
potential for success because once a weld reached steady state
weld failure was less likely to occur. However, the use of the
thicker start-up tab was subsequently eliminated. Continued
testing demonstrated that it was possible to weld the target
2mm material and weld material as thin as 1.8mm while
starting on the parent sheet material. The welds are shown in
figs. 4 and 5.
Figure 3: (3.5mm tapered Start-Up tab)
Figure 4: (Weld start on nominal 2mm thickness)
193
Figure 5: (SRPT weld on nominal 1.8mm thickness)
After welding the 1.8mm material, the testing returned to the
3mm material in order to determine the repeatability and
robustness of the process. The 4.8mm pin was used for these
tests. During the repeatability tests process parameters were
modified to better understand how parameter variations
affected visual weld quality, how tool life was impacted and
how defects might develop. In general, it was determined that
the pin response was good and produced repeatable and robust
results. When conservative, “hot”, weld parameters were used
pin breakage was not observed however bending of the central
pin was seen after repeated welds at travel rates as high as 2.3
M/min.
Strength Optimization
The purpose of the strength optimization phase was to
determine weld strength. However, given the short duration of
this program, it was not intended to experiment with all
possible alternatives to determine the highest possible
strength.
First, a DOE was employed to determine how various weld
parameters affect weld strength. This DOE was performed in
Al-6061-T6, and two material thicknesses were selected, 2 and
2.5mm. The DOE was designed so the entire weld
producibility envelope was examined.
A DOE employing widely varying weld conditions intended
that some welds would be excessively hot and some very cold.
The cold conditions were intended to significantly increase the
likelihood of tool failure. Table 1 contains the minimum and
maximum weld conditions used for the weld tests.
Table 1: (6061 DOE Weld Parameters)
Parameter Minimum Maximum Value
Value
Spindle Speed 1000 rpm 2000 rpm
Pinching Load 0.89 kN 1.78 kN
Travel Speed 1 m/min 2.3 m/min
Pin Diameter 4.6 mm 6.25 mm
Of the seventeen welds tested for strength, four of the welds
exhibited a weld efficiency (Welded UTS compared to
published UTS of parent material) higher than 80% with two
other results higher than 78%. Table 2 contains the
distribution of the various joint efficiencies.
Table 2: Distribution of Joint Efficiencies
Joint Efficiency (%) # of Welds
> 80 4
70 < X < 80 8
60 < X < 70 4 Figure 7: Cross section of welded extrusion
< 60 1
After the Al-6061 strength results were analyzed, identical
testing was performed on Al-6N01 material. In order to
minimize the possibility of pin failure, a weld speed of
1M/min was selected.
Based on an analysis of alloying elements, it was anticipated
that Al-6061-T6 would be approximately the same as the Al-
6N01 material. However, the two different alloys exhibited
significantly different weld responses. The Al-6N01 extrusion
appeared to be much different comparing its behavior
response to travel speeds and load settings.
Extrusion Welding
The extrusion welding portion of the program was performed
at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology that
utilizes the MTS I-STIR 10 with the AdAPT ™ weld head
technology. Through the results of the earlier weld testing, the
need was seen to modify weld parameters in order to
maximize the chances of success.
One of the changes was to make the weld “hotter”, which
makes it easier for the weld material to fill the void behind the
pin. This was done by slowing down the travel parameters at
the start of the weld. It is anticipated that even faster travel
speeds will be possible with adequate development. Figures 6
& 7 show pictures of the welded prototype extrusion.
Figure 6: Welded Prototype Cross Section
194
Difficulties were also encountered with the prototype welding
due to the tooling interaction with the extrusion design. The
extrusions are relatively flexible with respect to the allowable
clamping load when compared to flat plate. When clamped, it
was seen that the extrusion could deflect significantly. This
clamp loading resulted in two challenges. First, if the
clamping load on each extrusion was not equal then the
extrusion surfaces would locate at different heights causing a
mismatch error. The edge of the extrusion is essentially a
cantilever beam supported by an internal stiffener. Placing the
clamp load on the same side as the stiffener causes the weld
edge to deflect downwards. Whereas, placing the load on the
opposite side of the stiffener causes the inverse effect.
Second, peaking can cause several problems such as mismatch
and improper forge loading. Peaking is when the material is
not flat at the butted joint (Fig. 8).
Peaking
Clamps
OR
Peaking
Clamps Clamps
Figure 8: Illustration of “Peaking”
The condition could easily be addressed and corrected in a
straightforward manner. However, it required a good deal of
“tuning” of the clamps and a fair amount of time to arrive at
an optimal alignment.
In addition, the heat transfer differences between the flat plate
and extrusion may also affect weld performance. When
welding flat plate, there is little thermal resistance to the heat
generated during the welding process. However, the design of
the extrusion greatly reduces the ability of heat to leave the
weld zone. Therefore, the extrusions were seen to be more
sensitive to process heat input. This issue is considered to
have only a slight impact on the overall weldability of the
extrusions. Subsequent testing did show however that other
factors such as support of the weld edge could have a much
larger impact.
The extrusion contains internal stiffeners that lay diagonally to
the weld surface. When the two extrusions are butted
together, these diagonals create a trapezoidal space under the
weld. This trapezoid means that one side of the extrusion has
more support during welding from the stiffeners than the
other.
In order to improve the weldability of the extrusions Nippon
Sharyo, LTD is looking into the possibility of modifying the
extrusion design. This program is a good example of working
together to modify what can be done in order to facilitate
production conditions for the FSW process so that full
advantage can be taken of the potential that FSW brings to
manufacturing.
Conclusions on thin gage SRPT welding
9 A weld thickness of 1.8mm has been demonstrated
and thinner cross sections appear to be within reach
using the SRPT approach with the AdAPT ™ weld
head.
9 SRPT welding at greater than 1M/min has been
demonstrated.
9 It has been possible to achieve repeatable weld
efficiencies in Al-6061 at 88% in 2.0mm material.
9 Initial property development of an Al-6N01 extrusion
has proven feasible and a prototype extrusion was
successfully welded.
9 Achieved 70-80% weld efficiencies in Al-6N01
extrusion; the values that were achieved are
significantly higher than competing weld processes
yield. With more effort greater weld efficiencies may
be achievable.
9 A successful self-reacting weld in 2.5mm thick Al-
6N01 material and 25M in length was completed at
Nippon Sharyo, LTD. See Fig. 10 & 11.

Machine Performance
At the time of this study there were no purpose built FSW
machine tailored to thin gage SRPT welding. The testing
requirements were satisfied with existing weld systems to
prove feasibility and remained a major question throughout
the program. In the course of this testing it was revealed that
the weld system performance requirements for material in this
thickness range are extremely critical. The AdAPT ™ weld
head showed the ability to control parameters as precisely as
was needed for this task with additional performance margin.
Figure 10: SRPT 2.5mm thick weld
The AdAPT ™ weld head is designed for a maximum load of
89 kN (20,000 lbf). The loads imparted on the thin gage work
piece were near the bottom 1% of this work envelope.
Command versus Response weld parameter values (Fig. 9)
were seen to hold as closely together at this edge of the
performance envelope as they are at mid-range.

Figure 9: Command Versus Response Performance

Figure 11: SRPT 2.5mm thick weld 25 Meters long completed

at Nippon Sharyo LTD. of Japan in Al-6N01 material.

195
Recommendations for thin gage SRPT welding
Based on the acceptance criteria the program was successful.
The questions generated by the results pertain to exactly how
thin a cross section might be welded and how the process may
be applied to various product forms.
It has been shown that existing weld equipment performs
adequately. However, further advantages may be gained using
the new I-STIR BR4 FSW System [4] which will be discussed
at the end of this paper.
It is recommended that additional welds be produced to better
define process requirements and evolve the thin gage SRPT
process.
Self-Reacting (SRPT) on Thick Gage Aluminum
External Tank Gore Panel Program
Lockheed has demonstrated complex curvature self-reacting
friction stir welding using the UWS (Universal Weld System).
This program has been on-going since June 2002 when
Lockheed first started using their system. They started off with
tapered weld joints from 8 to 16mm and continued on to
complete successful complex curvature welds on a 6.71 meter
(22ft) diameter panel. The UWS (Fig.12) utilizes the AdAPT
™ weld head (Fig.13).
Figure 12: Universal Weld System – Seven axis system
196
Figure 13: The AdAPT ™ weld head
Specifications of the UWS at Lockheed:
¾ Horizontal (5 m)
¾ Vertical (6 m)
¾ Reach (3 m)
¾ Pitch (-5 to + 95 degrees)
¾ Roll (+/- 15 degrees)
¾ 9 Meter Diameter Turntable Table
Self-Reacting weld trials have been completed at MTS for
Lockheed Martin since 2002. Tapered welds as previously
described, going from thick to thin and thin to thick
configuration have been welded. Also, dissimilar alloys have
been welded successfully together such as Al-2219 and Al-
2195 with both being welded either on the advancing or
retreating sides of the weld joint. Weld trials were completed
from 4mm all the way up to 25.4mm in various types of
aluminum.
The latest advancement Lockheed completed on the UWS was
a circular (spherical, more like) dome to cap weld in 2XXX
material 6mm thick. The weld was 11.4 meters (448.8in) in
length on a 3.63 meter (11.9ft) diameter. See Fig. 14. After
this great success Lockheed has also welded 7.11mm thick
material on a 1.43 meter (4.7ft) diameter.
Wesley Martin of Lockheed Martin Michoud stated, “since the
self-reacting process does not require nearly as rigid fixturing
requirements as our other processes, we have been able to
demonstrate large scale tank welding capability with a fraction
of the fixturing cost. Chances are very good that our next
major production manufacturing application will take
advantage of these benefits”.

Figure 14: Dome to Cap weld for the External Tank at
Lockheed, Michoud facility. Courtesy of Lockheed Martin
Self-Reacting (SRPT) on 30mm thick Al-7020 material
As stated previously the thickest welding prior to this last
achievement was on 25.4mm thick material. At the Institute of
Soudure, a successful 30mm SRPT weld was completed on
Al-7020 material using the I-STIR 10x (Fig. 16).
Figure 15: SRPT Successful 30mm weld on Al-7020 material
Mechanical testing results have been very promising as well.
Very early data shows some great results. The highest value
achieved in the preliminary testing has revealed ultimate
tensile strength (Rm) to be as high as 382 MPa with the
average value being 373.5 Mpa. The highest yield strength (Re
0.2%) was found at 267 Mpa with the average being 261 MPa.
Percent elongation averaged at 8.15% with the peak being
8.4%. Once again these are only preliminary test results,
however, this gives great confidence in future progress at
Soudure.
197
Figure 16: I-STIR 10x at Institute of SOUDURE (20 Meters X
travel)
This FSW system also utilizes the MTS AdAPT ™ welding
head. Based on the capabilities of this weld head, thicker
materials could also be welded. Welds thicker than 30mm
have not yet been attempted at MTS but surely this will be
accomplished in the not so distant future.
Conclusions
It can be concluded from this paper that self-reacting
technology has come along way and is superior in technology
to conventional fixed pin tool welding. The many advantages
outweight the disadvantages.
Discussion took place on extremely thin and moderatly thick
aluminum materials. Self-reacting was demonstrated on
materials as thin as 1.8mm and as thick as 30mm.
9 A successful 25 meter weld in 2.5mm thick Al-6N01
was completed at Nippon Sharyo.
o Weld efficiencies > 80% repeatabily
9 A successful 30mm thick Al-7020 was completed at
the Institute of Soudure.
Not only flat welds were accomplished but complex curvature
welds were a big success as well.
9 A spherical weld 1.43 meters in diameter and
7.11mm thick Al 2XXX was completed at Lockheed
Martin Michoud.
It is believed that with continuing R&D, more applications
will become apparent and will want to adapt this new evolving
technology. For example, thick gage self-reacting could
replace current fix pin welding on thick plates or extrusions
like on the Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAAV)
or other armored vehicle applications.
From these accomplishments, even thinner welding looks
feasible especially with the newly designed MRH weld head
with more specific capabalities.
I-STIR BR4 Friction Stir Welding System • Machine frame -- based upon a standard milling
machine design that has been proven in hundreds of
industrial applications and tens of thousands of hours
of operation and can sit on any standard factory floor
• Electric vs. Hydraulic – employs the use of electric
servomotors for positioning control in place of
hydraulic drives

Figure 17: I-STIR BR4 Gantry

The new I-STIR (Intelligent Stir Welding for Industry and

Research) BR4 system from MTS [4] is the latest solution for
performing lower force, medium to thin gage FSW
applications. The new BR4 system provides load and position Figure 18: The New State-of-the-art MRH Weld Head
control accuracy for research and development, prototyping,
and 2-D production welding. Optimized for FSW applications The MRH is meant for material (most alloys) < 10mm.
on materials less than 10mm thick, the three axis I-STIR BR4 • Forge Load = 35.6 kN (8,000 lbf)
system features the functionality of leading-edge MTS weld • Radial Load = 12.0 kN (2,700 lbf)
head technology, advanced process controls, and a reliable • RPM = 4000
milling machine platform with a large work envelope and a • Torque = 180.8 Nm at 1000 rpm
servo electric drive. • Load Accuracy < +/- 1% FS

System Features Acknowledgments

¾ Advanced mid-range weld head (MRH)
¾ Precision I-STIR FSW control technology The authors would like to thank Takamitsu Sassa and Nippon
¾ Reliable milling machine platform design Sharyo, LTD of Japan for partnering with MTS in the welding
¾ Large 2.5 by 1.3 meter work envelope of thin gage aluminum and allowing us to share successful
¾ Low force 35 kN (7.8 kip) load capacity weld results. We would also like to thank Casey Allen and
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology as well as
Recent BR4 Technology Randy Brown and Lockheed Martin Michoud for providing
The new mid-range (MRH) weld head (fig. 18) is optimized process assistance and machine time for obtaining valuable
for material less than 10mm thick (low force applications), weld results. Thanks also go to Jean-Claude Goussain and
and leverages the MTS AdAPT ™ weld head innovations such Institute of Soudure for allowing us to show their great weld
as the retractable pin tool, the self-reacting (SRPT) tool, and progress as well as Wesley Martin with Lockheed Martin who
the independent forge actuator. The I-STIR BR4 system also provided great progress and photos.
includes the advanced control software modes that come
standard on all the I-STIR systems. The MRH includes the
proven features of the original AdAPT ™ head with notable
advancements.
• Flexible mounting – attach to an existing mill head or
use an electric servomotor
• Off-the-shelf collet design – reduced tool costs
because the tool holder is sized to fit the pin tool, not
vice-a-versa
• Bellows-sealed forge actuator – low friction
movement with virtually no risk of oil leakage
• Appropriate capacity – load capacity specifically
chosen for a wide range of applications

198
 References

1. W. M. Thomas et al. “Friction Stir Welding”

United States Patent No. 5,460,317 Oct. 1995
2. C.L. Campbell et al., “AdAPT Welding Head” U.S.
Patent No. 6,199,745 and EU Patent Pending Mar.
2001
3. G.D. Sylva and R.L. Edwards “A Feasibility Study
for Self Reacting Pin Tool Welding of Thin Section
Aluminum”
5th International Friction Stir Welding Symposium,
Metz Congres, Metz, France – Sept. 2004
4. M.J. Hansen et al., “Friction Stir Welding Spindle
with Axially Displacement Shaft” U.S. Patent No.
6,732,900 May 2004

199
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
A Novel Tool Design for Friction Stir Spot Welding
M. Valant, E. Yarrapareddy, and R. Kovacevic
Research Center for Advanced Manufacturing
Southern Methodist University
Richardson, Texas 75081, USA
Abstract
This paper investigates the influence of various welding
parameters on the properties of welds created using a proposed
friction stir spot welding (FSSW) tool, and compares the
performance of the proposed tool with the performance of a
conventional tool. Spot welds are made in AA6022-T4 sheet
aluminum of 1.9mm thickness. The pin rotational speed, the
plunging speed, and the plunge depth are varied to determine
the effect of the different parameters on the ultimate load as
measured through tensile-shear testing of spot-welded
coupons. It is found that the proposed tool generates the
strongest welds at 1200RPM, 25mm/min plunging speed, and
1.8mm plunge depth, as these parameters produce the
strongest plastic flow of material under the tool. It is also
found that the proposed tool produces strong welds in
AA6022-T4 for a wide range of operating conditions. The
proposed tool produces spot welds with nearly twice the
ultimate load in a tensile-shear test than that of a spot weld
created using a conventional tool. Spot welds are also
produced using dissimilar aluminum alloys.
Introduction
In order to achieve greater weight reduction in the automotive
industry, light weight materials such as aluminum, magnesium
and plastics are becoming a greater part of the vehicle content.
Lighter materials such as these conbtribute to an increase in
fuel efficiecy without comprimising the safety of the vehicle.
For steels, resistance spot welding (RSW) is widely used for
joining sheet metal parts together. In particular, RSW is used
in the automotive industry, since a typical car receives
approximately 5000 steel spot welds during the assembly
process [1]. RSW is difficult to use for joining aluminum,
because it requires a much greater amount of input power
combined with a very precise control of the electrode pressure
when compared to RSW of steel.
Friction stir welding (FSW), invented by The Welding
Institute (Cambridge, UK) in 1991, [2] provides advantages
over conventional fusion welding processes such as gas metal
arc welding (GMAW), plasma arc welding (PAW), laser beam
welding (LBW) and resistance spot welding (RSW).
Recently, a few preliminary studies on friction stir spot
welding (FSSW) process have been reported on the static
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 201
strength of the welds [3], a refined spot FSW robotic
articulated system with its cost effectiveness [4] for
automobile body members, the characteristics of the process
and suitability of various FSW tool designs for FSSW [5], and
a retractable pin tool motion approach for 2024 aluminum
alloy [6]. FSSW has also been reported with a fixed pin
approach [7] for advanced high strength steels (AHSS).
The automotive industry has already started using FSSW for
body assemblies as an alternative to the conventional welding
processes. Mazda [8] is currently using this process for the
rear doors and hood of its four door Mazda RX-8 sports car.
Mazda has reported a cost saving of 40 % on investment
capital, and has also reported that the FSSW process used in
their assembly plant consumes only about 1% of the electricity
needed to achieve a RSW in the same aluminum sheets, and
about 20% of the electricity needed for the equivalent steel
assemblies. They have also noted that the work environment is
greatly enhanced by the lack of sparks and smoke in the
FSSW process. Mazda is also introducing this technology for
the rear doors and bonnets of the same vehicle soon,
underlining their successful implementation of FSSW.
Friction Stir Link, Inc. [9] also described this process as a
lean, mean and green process for high production rates, for
lowering production costs and for improving quality for
various applications.
The objectives of this study are to create and characterize a
friction stir spot welding process, to explore the influence of
various welding parameters on the properties of the weld, and
to compare the performance of the proposed tool design with
the performance of a conventional tool.
Experimental Procedures and Materials
Sheets of 2-3 mm thickness of AA 6022-T4 and AA 6061-T6
alloys are used for all experiments. All the sheets are in a
dimension of 100 mm length and 25 mm width. The chemical
compositions of these alloys are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical Compositions of AA 6022-T4 and AA 6061-T6.
Alloy Mg Si Cu Fe Mn Ti Al
AA 6022 0.46 1.21 0.08 0.01 0.26 <0.1 bal
AA 6061 0.92 0.57 0.21 0.17 0.60 <0.1 bal

The newly developed FSSW experimental set-up at the
Research Center for Advanced Manufacturing (RCAM)
consists of a vertical CNC milling machine which has been
retrofitted with a new PC-based controller and new, more
powerful servo motors, a new welding head, and a welding
tool with a unique geometry as shown in Fig. 1 (a,b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 1 The RCAM FSSW Welding Head (a) and pin tool (b).
A number of FSSW experiments are carried out to explore the
effect of the operating parameters on the resulting weld
strengths and microstructures. Rotating speed of the tool is
varied from 600 to 4000 RPM, plunging speed into the
workpiece is varied from 75 to 150 mm/min, and depth of
penetration is varied from 0.8 to 1.8 mm.
The sequence of events which occurs when a weld is made is
shown in Fig. 2. Initially, the welding head is above the area
to be welded (position A). Rotation of the tool is initiated, and
the welding head is brought into contact with the workpiece
(position B). The tool is then pressed into the workpiece
while the welding head is held in place (position C). The tool
is then retracted (position D), and finally the welding head is
moved away from the workpiece (position E).
PIN AND SHOULDER TOOL
WELDING HEAD
A B C D E found to be at 1200 RPM, but the peak ultimate load is 3.42
Fig. 2 Sequence of operations for the FSSW welding head
and for the tool.
A typical friction stir spot weld as created using the RCAM
FSSW welding head is shown in Fig. 3. The welded area is 10
202
mm in diameter, and the affected area of the workpiece is 13
mm in diameter. The welds have a very low profile and also
have very little flash protruding from the weld.
Fig. 3 A typical FSSW weld created by the RCAM FSSW
welding head.
Several welded samples are created by varying one input
condition and holding all other parameters constant. These
welds are then tested in the tensile shear mode to failure using
a tensile test machine.
Spot welded samples are also created using a conventional
tool, with a pin diameter of 5 mm and a shoulder diameter of
12.6 mm. The RCAM FSSW welding head is not used for
these welds. These samples are also tested in the tensile-shear
mode to be compared with the proposed FSSW process.
Samples are cross-sectioned from the selected welds for
metallographic studies. The samples are prepared according to
the standard metallographic procedures. The prepared samples
are etched with Kroll’s reagent ( 120 ml water + 60 ml HNO3
+ 20 ml HF). The etched samples are examined under an
optical microscope.
Results and Discussion
Mechanical Testing
For the first series of experiments, the rotating speed of the
tool is varied from 500 to 4000 rpm, while the plunging speed
and programmed plunge depth are kept constant. The results
of the tensile-shear tests are shown in Fig. 4. Welds using a
conventional tool, with the same plunging speed of 75
mm/min., are included in the same figure for comparison. It
could be seen from Fig. 4 that the RCAM FSSW process
produces a very strong weld for rotational speeds from 500 to
3000 RPM, with a peak ultimate load of 6.67 kN at 1200
RPM. For the conventional tool, the peak ultimate load is also
kN. In this case, the RCAM FSSW process produces a spot
weld with nearly twice the ultimate load in a tensile-shear test
than that of a spot weld created using the conventional tool. It
should be noted that, for higher RPM welds, the aluminum
underneath the tool yielded more easily during the welding.
Because the machine Z-axis has a finite stiffness, the tool
penetration into the workpiece depends not only on the Fig. 5 Ultimate Load vs. Plunging Speed for a 10mm spot
position of the Z-axis servomotor, but also on the axial load on weld in AA 6022-T4, two sheets 1.9 mm thick each, with a
the Z-axis spindle, and on the sum of the stiffnesses of the rotating speed of 1200 RPM.
spindle, the axis cantelever, the ballnut and ballscrew, and the
thrust bearing. The penetration into the workpiece is therefore
found to be less for lower rotational speeds, and more for For the third series of experiments, the plunging depth of the
higher rotational speeds, for a given programmed plunge depth tool is varied from 0.8mm to 1.8mm, while the rotating speed
and plunging speed. and plunging speed are kept constant. In this case, because the
machine Z-axis has a finite stiffness, the actual penetration
Ultimate Load vs. RPM into the workpiece is measured by first making a cross-section
For FSSW 10mm Spot, AA6022-T4, 1.9mm Thick (X2), 75mm/min
of the weld and then measuring the depth of penetration.
8
Adjustments are then made in the CNC program to
7 compensate for the error between the movement of the Z-axis
6
servomotor and the actual displacement of the Z-axis. The
results of the tensile shear tests are shown in Fig. 6
5
Ultimate Load (kN)

RCAM FSSW
4 Ultimate Load vs. Plunge Depth
Conventional FSSW
For FSSW 10mm Spot, AA6022-T4, 1.9mm Thick (X2), 1200 RPM, 75mm/min

3
7

2
6

1
5

Ultimate Load (kN)

400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
4
RPM

Fig. 4 Ultimate Load vs. RPM for a 10 mm spot weld in AA 3

6022-T4, two sheets 1.9 mm thick each, with a plunging speed

2
of 75 mm/min.
1

For the second series of experiments, the plunging speed of 0

0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

the tool is varied from 25 to 150 mm/min, while the rotating Plunge Depth (mm)

speed and programmed plunge depth are kept constant. The

results of the tensile-shear tests are shown in Fig. 5. It could Fig. 6 Ultimate Load vs. Plunge Depth for a 10mm spot weld
be seen from Fig. 5 that the RCAM FSSW process produces in AA 6022-T4, two sheets 1.9 mm thick each, with a rotating
stronger welds at lower plunging speeds, with a peak ultimate speed of 1200 RPM.
load of 7.96 kN at 25mm/min. However, it could also be noted
that the process produces welds much stronger than the welds
made with the conventional tool even at plunging speeds as From Fig. 6 it could be seen that for these tests, the ultimate
high as 150 mm/min. load achieved by the FSSW process reaches a maximum of
6.41kN at a depth of 1.5mm. The ultimate load is fairly
Ultimate Load vs. Plunging Speed consistent for plunge depths from 1.4 to 1.9mm. It should be
For FSSW 10mm Spot, AA6022-T4, 1.9mm Thick (X2), 1200 RPM
noted that, because the aluminum substrates used for these
9
experiments have a thickness of 1.9mm, the bottom plate is
8 not touched by the tool pin. Attempts to weld at plunge
7 depths less than 0.7mm, however, did not result in a joint
6
being created between the top and bottom sheets.
Ultimate Load (kN)

5
Optical Microscopy
4
Fig. 7 shows the cross-sectional view of friction stir spot
3 welds created by the RCAM FSSW process at different
2
rotating speeds and plunging speeds for 1.9 mm thickness AA
1
6022-T4 sheets. The cross-sections do not reveal any major
voids or porosity. The vertical motion of material across the
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 faying surfaces of the workpiece is clearly seen in the
Plunging Speed (mm/min)
macrographs. This vertical motion of the interface is attributed
to the shape of the pin tool used as shown in Fig. 1(b), and to
the displacement of material as the tool is forced down into the

203
workpiece. At a high rotational speed (3000 RPM) there is a
void interface formed at the inner edge of the nugget location E
as shown in Fig. 7 (E), and an enlarged view is shown in Fig.
8. Because this area of the weld is not part of the load-bearing
area, the crack itself may not lead to early failure and low 1 mm
weld strength during mechanical testing, but the appearance of
3000/75
this void suggests that sufficient filling of the space under the Fig. 7 Representative examples of macrographs of friction stir
tool during the formation of the weld is not complete. Also, at spot welds for AA 6022-T4 with the change of rotational
high rotational speeds the depth of penetration is high (about speed and plunging speed.
2 mm) as shown in Fig. 7(E). This is an indication that the
material could be flowing plastically upward out of the weld at
very high welding speeds, leaving insufficient material behind
and, thus, leading to low weld strength.

Fig. 9 shows the macrograph of a weld created with a plunge

depth of 0.9mm, while Fig. 10 shows the macrograph of a
weld created with a plunge depth of 1.8mm. Comparing Fig. 9
and Fig. 10, it can be seen that, while the material flows
plastically under the tool for both of the welds, the deeper
weld penetration produces far more plastic flow of material
near the faying surfaces. It is also evident that the material
near the faying surfaces has been displaced much farther
vertically in the weld with deeper penetration. This could be 200 µm
the primary reason that increased tool penetration into the
workpiece creates a stronger weld. Fig. 8 The enlarged view of the Fig. 6 (E) micrograph showing
the void-interface formed between the two sheets at high
rotational speed and plunging speed.

A
0. 9 mm

700/75 1 mm

1 mm
B
Fig. 9 A macrograph of a weld in AA6022-T4 with a plunge
depth of 0.9mm. Material flow around and underneath the tool
1200/25 1 mm pins creates a bond between the top and bottom sheets, though
the tool pins does not penetrate the bottom sheet.

1200/75 1 mm
1.8 mm

D
1 mm

1200/125 Fig. 10 A macrograph of a weld in AA6022-T4 with a plunge

1 mm depth of 1.8mm. Material flow around and underneath the tool

204
pins creates a bond between the top and bottom sheets, though
the tool pins does not penetrate the bottom sheet.
Fig. 11 shows the macrograph of a weld created using a
conventional tool. The weld is created with a rotational speed
of 1200 RPM and a plunging speed of 75mm/min. It could be
seen from Fig. 11 that the volume of plastic flow around the
pin could be fairly small, so that the welded area between the
top and bottom plates, could also be small. This could be one
reason for the lower performance of the welds created with a
conventional tool as compared to the proposed tool.
1 mm
Fig. 11 Macrograph showing a FSSW of AA 6022-T4 using
a conventional tool.
200 µm
Fig. 12 The enlarged view of the Fig. 11 micrograph showing
the pull-up void-interface near the faying surfaces at the edge
of the pin penetration area for a conventional tool.
An enlargement of Fig. 11 is shown in Fig. 12, in which the
pull-up void-interface near the faying surfaces at the edge of
the pin penetration area could be noted. This type of void is
205
common for spot welds created with a conventional tool [5],
and it could be a second reason for the lower performance of
the welds created with a conventional tool as compared to the
proposed tool.
Fig. 13 shows the macrograph of the friction spot welded for
sheets AA 6022-T4 on the top and AA 6061-T6 on the bottom
with the thicknesses of 2 mm and 3 mm respectively joined
with the proposed FSSW tool. It could be seen that a sound
weld is created without cracks or voids, demonstrating the
feasibility of spot welding of dissimilar alloys with the
proposed FSSW tool.
1 mm
Fig. 13 Macrograph showing a FSSW of dissimilar alloys,
with AA 6022-T4 on the top and AA 6061-T6 on the bottom.
Conclusions
(1) The RCAM FSSW process produces spot welds in
AL6022-T4 which withstand up to twice the ultimate
load of spot welds made with a conventional tool of
equal size.
(2) The peak ultimate load in a tensile-shear test for a
weld coupon created with the RCAM FSSW process
with a 10mm spot size is found to be 7.96 kN with a
rotational speed of 1200 RPM and and plunging
speed of 25 mm/min. In comparison, the peak
ultimate load in a tensile-shear test for a weld coupon
created using a conventional tool is found to be
3.42kN.
(3) The RCAM FSSW process is found to generate
strong welds with a wide range of welding parameter
values.
(4) The proposed spot welding process generates welds
with no cracks, voids, or porosity.
(5) High depth of penetrations combined with void
formation and incomplete filling of the space
underneath the tool could be the possible reason for
the reduction of weld strength at high welding
rotational speeds.
(6) The feasibility of welding dissimilar alloys is
demonstrated.
 Acknowledgments

This work was financially supported by the Brown

Foundation, Houston, TX, and by the Research Center for
Advanced Manufacturing (RCAM) at SMU.

References

1. C.M. Calva, T.W. Eagar, ‘Enhancement of the

Weldability in Resistance Spot Welding’, AWS
Detroit Section Sheet Metal Welding Conference IV,
Southfield, MI, 2000.
2. W.M. Thomas, et.al., ‘Friction Stir Butt Welding’,
International Patent Appl. No. PCT/GB92/02203 and
GB Patent Appl. No. 9125978.8, Dec 1991, U.S.
Patent No. 5,460,317.
3. C. Schilling et.al., ‘A Preliminary Investigation on
the Static Properties of Friction Stir Spot Welds’, 2nd
International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding,
27-29 June 2000, Gothenburg, Sweden.
4. R. Sakano et. al., ‘Development of Spot FSW Robot
System for Automobile Members’, 3rd International
Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, 27-28
September, 2001, Kobe, Japan.
5. A.C. Addison, A.J. Robelou, ‘Friction Stir Spot
Welding: Principal Parameters and their Effects’, 5th
International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding,
14-16 September 2004, Metz, France.
6. C.D. Allen, W.J. Arbegast, ‘Evaluation of Friction
Stir Spot Welds in 2024 Aluminum’, SAE Technical
Paper no. 2005-01-1252, Society of Automotive
Engineers.
7. Z. Feng et. al., ‘Friction Stir Spot Welding for
Advanced High-Strength Steels- A Feasibility
Study’, SAE Technical Paper No. 2005-01-1248,
Society of Automotive Engineers.
8. ‘Mazda Develops World’s First Aluminum Joining
Technology Using Friction Heat’, Mazda News,
February27,2003,
http://www.mazda.com/publicity/release/200303/022
7e.html.
9. C.B. Smith, J.F. Hinrichs, P.C. Ruehl, ‘Friction Stir
and Friction Stir Spot Welding – Lean, Mean and
Green’, AWS Detroit Section Sheet Metal Welding
Conference XI, Detroit, MI, 2004.

206
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Friction Stir Spot Welding of Automotive Lightweight Alloys
S. Lathabai, M.J. Painter, G.M.D. Cantin, V.K. Tyagi
CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Woodville, South Australia, Australia
Abstract
This paper examines the application of the recently introduced
friction stir spot welding (FSSW) process to make lap joints in
thin sections of aluminium alloys 6060-T5 and 5182-O. High
speed data acquisition of the axial plunge force is used to
provide information on the influences of the main welding
parameters, namely, tool rotational speed, plunge rate and
depth and dwell time prior to tool retraction. A detailed study
of the effect of these parameters on the dimensions of the
annular bonded region surrounding the central hole and on the
tensile shear strength of the resulting joints is carried out. A
direct correlation is observed between the bond area in the
plane of the original interface and the tensile shear strength.
Significant differences are observed in the welding behaviour
of 6060-T5 and 5182-O alloys for the same tool design. The
study enables the identification of an optimum combination of
FSSW process parameters that maximise the strength of the
joints in the two alloys.
Keywords: friction stir spot welding; friction spot joining;
automotive aluminium alloys, tensile shear strength;
microstructure
Introduction
The automotive industry has been exploring ways to reduce
the weight of vehicles in its efforts to lower fuel consumption
and emissions. One of the ways to achieve this is by an
increased use of lightweight alloys based on aluminium and
magnesium. Resistance spot welding, the process widely used
for joining sheet steel, does not work as well for aluminium
alloys. The higher electrical and thermal conductivity of
aluminium relative to steel and the ubiquitous oxide layer on
the surface result in higher energy consumption necessitating
high capacity electrical supply system and infrastructure.
Other disadvantages are the need for frequent electrode
dressing and reduced electrode life. Mechanical fastening
using self piercing rivets introduces an added cost of the steel
rivets which also increase the risk of galvanic corrosion and
recycling costs at vehicle end of life. The joint strength
achieved by clinching can be limited.
Friction stir spot welding (FSSW), also referred to as friction
spot joining, is a recently introduced solid state process for
producing lap joints in aluminium alloys [1-9]. The process
has already been used in commercial automobile production
[1]. The indications are that the process eliminates the need for
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
large currents and cooling water/compressed air systems,
resulting in a significant decrease in energy consumption,
about 99 percent of that used for conventional aluminium
resistance welding [1].
The process is a derivative of the friction stir welding process,
widely used for joining aluminium alloys, with the important
difference that there is no translation of the tool during FSSW.
As shown schematically in Figure 1, the rotating tool with a
pin at its tip is plunged into the overlapping sheets [2-4]. The
frictional heat generated between the rotating tool and the
work piece causes plastic flow of material. A strong
compressive forging pressure is generated when the tool
shoulder contacts the sheet surface and then moves down
further into the overlapping sheets. The tool is retracted after
an optional dwell period. At this point, a solid state bond is
formed at the interface between the two sheets, as shown in
Figure 1.
Plunging Stirring Retraction
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of the FSSW process [2].
The major parameters that influence the FSSW process, when
operated in a displacement control mode, are tool rotational
speed, plunge rate, plunge depth, and dwell, the time prior to
the retraction of the tool.
Although already used in industrial production, information on
the influence of process parameters on weld quality is sparse.
It appears that optimal welding parameters and tool design are
highly dependent on the type of alloy and the sheet thickness
[5-9]. Accordingly, the objective of the present study was to
examine systematically, for a specific tool design, the
influence of the various FSSW process parameters on the bond
dimensions and strength of joints made in aluminium alloys
6060-T5 and automotive grade 5182-O.
Experimental program
Materials and joining procedure
The materials used in this study were extruded 6060-T5 alloy
in the form of strips, 20 mm wide and 1.77 mm thick, and
automotive grade 5182-O alloy in the form of 1.15 mm thick
207
rolled sheet. The chemical composition of the two alloys and specimens were produced. Two of these welds were used for
their tensile properties are presented in Tables 1 and 2. metallographic examination. The other two welds were made
on coupons to produce specimens for tensile shear testing.
Table 1: Chemical composition (wt. %) AWS/SAE D8.9-2002 specifies a coupon dimension of 45 mm
by 105 mm with a 45 mm wide overlap zone where the test
Alloy Al Mg Si Fe Mn Cu Zn Ti spot weld is to be made [10]. Samples of this dimension were
6060 Bal. 0.41 0.47 0.16 0.06 - - 0.01 prepared for the 5182-O alloy. For the 6060-T5 alloy, the
5182 Bal. 4.39 0.08 0.23 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.02 coupon dimensions were 100 mm by 20 mm (the width of the
strip). Here an overlap length of 50 mm was used. The
Table 2: Mechanical Properties specimens were cleaned with ethyl alcohol prior to welding.

Alloy 0.2% PS (MPa) UTS (MPa) % Elongation During the early stages of FSSW procedure development, all
the different welding conditions in the experimental matrix,
6060 180 204 11
including those that produced welds that were clearly
5182 134 275 24
imperfect as evidenced by tearing/shearing of the material
adjacent to the central hole, were examined. Metallographic
The FSSW experiments were carried out using a CNC-
examination and tensile shear testing served to confirm that
controlled milling machine under displacement control. A test
these latter sets of welding parameters resulted in poor
rig incorporating a 100 kN load cell coupled with a data
bonding and hence low strength. The welding procedure was
acquisition system was clamped on the bed of the machine as
then refined by systematically varying welding parameters
shown in Figure 2. The sheet specimens to be welded were
around the set of conditions that produced satisfactory welds
firmly clamped in a lap configuration on the rig such that the
and the quality of the welds produced using this procedure
axial load exerted during FSSW could be continuously
confirmed by tensile shear testing at least 12 specimens.
monitored. Measurements made on high speed video images
of tool movement during welding confirmed that the machine
Metallographic examination and tensile shear testing
delivered the programmed rotational speeds and plunge rates.
The samples for metallographic examination were carefully
Actual plunge depths achieved were determined either by
prepared such that the polished transverse section coincided
measuring the material remaining below the central hole using
with the weld diametrical plane (i.e., passing through the weld
a point micrometer or from micrographs of weld cross-
centre). The samples were cold mounted in epoxy and
sections.
polished using standard metallographic techniques. 6060-T5
alloy sections were etched using a solution comprising 5 mL
HF, 10 mL H2SO4 and 85 mL H2O. 5182-O specimens were
etched using Keller’s reagent. Optical microscopy was used to
examine the microstructures of the welds and to measure the
dimensions of the bond zones.

Tensile shear testing was carried out at a crosshead speed of

Figure 2. FSSW test rig mounted on the bed of the CNC
controlled milling machine. The inset shows the tool tip.
The tool design used in this study had a shoulder diameter of
10 mm and a pin diameter of 4 mm. The pin itself was smooth
with no threads. The pin length (distance between the shoulder
and the pin tip) varied with the thickness of the material being
welded. The tools were machined from H13 tool steel, heat
treated to produce a hardness of 48-50 Rc and subsequently
nitrided to produce a wear-resistant surface coating.
For each material, the effect of varying the four main FSSW
parameters, tool plunge depth, plunge rate, rotational speed
and the dwell prior to tool retraction, was examined. In all
cases, the axial plunge force variation during welding was
recorded. For each welding condition, a minimum of four
0.5 mm/s. Shims of the same thickness as the test specimens
were used when gripping the samples for testing, as required
by AWS/SAE D8.9-2002 [9]. The mode of failure of each
specimen, whether by bond interfacial fracture or nugget
pullout, was noted. The area under the load-displacement
curve was measured to give an indication of the energy
absorbed in failure.
Results and discussion
Axial plunge force-time measurements
Figures 3(a) and (b) present the axial plunge force developed
during FSSW of 6060-T5 strip as a function of time for
variations in tool rotational speed and plunge rate,
respectively. Figures 4(a) and (b) show the corresponding
axial force-time plots for the 5182-O sheet.
We believe that the detailed analysis of these axial force-time
plots will provide valuable insights into the thermally
activated softening and deformation processes occurring

208
during FSSW and how these are influenced by the main Figure 4(a) shows that the 5182-O alloy displayed a different
parameters. Such an analysis is beyond the scope of the axial force response to variation in rotational speed. Here the
present work. At this time, we only make some broad plunge rate and plunge depth were maintained at 5 mm/s and
observations as to the influence of the FSSW parameters on 2.1 mm, respectively. The tool design was the same but the
the axial forces. pin length was 1.85 mm, since the sheet being welded is
20
thinner. The peak axial forces generated were not affected by
an increase in the rotational speed.
1000 RPM (a)
2000 RPM 20
15
Axial Force (kN)

3000 RPM
4000 RPM
(a)
1000 RPM
15 2000 RPM

Axial Force (kN)

10 3000 RPM

5 10

0 5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s)
10 0
(b) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
2 mm/s Time (s)
8 3 mm/s
25
Axial Force (kN)

4 mm/s
5 mm/s (b) 3 mm/s
6 5 mm/s
7.5 mm/s 20
7 mm/s

Axial Force (kN)

10 mm/s
4
15

2
10

0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Time (s)
Figure 3: Axial force-time variations during FSSW of 6060-
T5 for different (a) rotational speeds; (b) plunge rates.
Figure 3(a) shows the variation in axial plunge force outputs
during FSSW of the 6060-T5 material as the tool rotational
speed is increased from 1000 to 4000 RPM. In this set of
experiments, the plunge rate and depth were held constant at 5
mm/s and 2.9 mm from the specimen surface, respectively.
Note that this plunge depth corresponds to ~80% of the
combined thickness of the overlapping sheets. Since the pin
length in this case was 2.6 mm, this means that the tool
shoulder plunged approximately 0.3 mm into the specimen
during welding. No dwell was used: the tool was retracted as
soon as the pin reached the required plunge depth of 2.9 mm.
As seen in Figure 3(a), the variation in axial force with time
showed a similar trend for all four rotational speeds, although
the actual forces measured reduced significantly with
increasing rotational speed. The force increased rapidly and
linearly for a very short period and then more slowly. At the
higher rotational speeds a force plateau was evident. The force
then increased rapidly again when the tool shoulder made
contact with the specimen surface. As the shoulder plunged
into the sample, the force increased further to a peak value and
then dropped gradually until the tool was suddenly retracted.
The peak axial force decreased from ~ 13 kN at 1000 RPM to
~ 5 kN at 4000 RPM.
2.0 5
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (s)
Figure 4: Axial force-time variations during FSSW of 5182-O
for different (a) rotational speeds and (b) plunge rates.
Figures 3(b) and 4(b) show the effect of varying the plunge
rate on the axial force response of the two alloys. In the case
of 6060-T5, the RPM was held constant at 3000, while 1000
RPM was used for 5182-O. The plunge depths were 3.0 mm
and 2.1 mm, respectively. It is again obvious that there is a
significant difference in the responses of the two alloys to
variation in plunge rates. It is also evident that higher plunge
rates result in lower FSSW cycle times for both alloys.
Clearly, there is an advantage to using higher plunge rates
provided satisfactory welds can be produced. However, the
higher axial forces generated in the 6060 alloy could play a
role in decreasing tool life.
Gerlich et al have suggested that given the high loads and
sliding velocities in FSSW, severe wear including localised
melting may occur when thermally activated deformation
processes lead to softening of the sheet material immediately
adjacent to the tool surface [9]. Melt lubrication has been
suggested as a possible reason for the observed decrease in
axial force prior to shoulder contact. Since higher rotational
speeds translate to higher mechanical energy input for a
constant plunge rate and tool design, melt lubrication should

209
occur earlier in the welding cycle and at lower axial loads [9]. experimental scatter, for rotational speeds of 3000 and 4000
Intrinsic differences between the two alloys in the extent of rpm and a plunge depth of 3.2 mm. This suggests that higher
thermally activated softening, strain hardening response and plunge rates may be used to reduce the weld cycle time,
susceptibility to localised melting during severe wear should without affecting the strength of the resulting welds.
all play a role in the observed differences in their axial force 4.000
response during FSSW.

Tensile Shear Strength (kN)

combined
A dwell period prior to tool retraction did not affect the peak 3.000 sheet
axial forces generated in both 6060-T5 and 5182-O, but it did thickness
to the weld cycle time. During this extended time, the axial 2.000
load dropped to a much lower value and stayed at this value
until tool retraction. As we shall see below, this had a
1.000 Dwell: 0 s
beneficial effect both on the weld appearance and on the Dwell: 4 s
strength of the spot welds.
0.000
Effect of FSSW parameters on strength: 6060-T5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
We have noted above that there are four main parameters in Plunge Depth (mm)
FSSW: rotational speed, plunge rate and depth and dwell. Figure 7: Effect of plunge depth and dwell on strength of
FSSW welds in 6060-T5.
2.500
Tensile Shear Strength (kN)

2.000
Figure 7 shows the effect of plunge depth on strength when a
rotational speed of 3000 RPM and a plunge rate of 5 mm/s
1.500 were used. It is evident that plunge depth has a profound
influence on the weld strength: a variation in nominal plunge
1.000 depth from 2.8 mm to 3.4 mm (from 85% to 95% of the
combined thickness of the overlapping sheets) has nearly
0.500 Dwell: 4 s tripled the tensile shear strength.
Dwell: 0 s
4.0 35
0.000

Area under load-displacement

Tensile Shear Strength (kN)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 30

RPM

curve (kN.mm)
Figure 5: Effect of rotational speed and dwell on strength of 3.5 25
welds in 6060-T5. 20
4.000
3.0 15
Tensile Shear Strength (kN)

RPM: 3000
3.500
RPM: 4000 3.32 ± 0.06 kN 10
3.000
2.5 5
2.500 0 1 2 3 4 5
Dwell (s)
2.000 Figure 8: Effect of dwell on strength and energy absorption
1.500
prior to failure of 6060-T5 spot welds.

1.000 Based on the above results, we prepared a final set of FSSW

0 1
Figure 6: Effect of plunge rate on strength of FSSW welds in
6060-T5 for two rotational speeds.
Figure 5 shows the effect of rotational speed and dwell on the
tensile shear strength of spot welds in 6060-T5. In this case,
the plunge rate was 5 mm/s and the nominal plunge depth was
2.9 mm. It is seen that when no dwell was given, higher
rotational speeds of the order of 3000 RPM resulted in higher
strength. It was also apparent that a dwell of 4 s eliminated the
effect of rotational speed. Figure 6 shows that for the 6060-T5
alloy, plunge rate has little or no effect on strength, within
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 specimens using 3000 RPM, a plunge rate of 5 mm/s and a
Plunge Rate (mm/s) plunge depth of 3.3 mm. The dwell was varied from 0 to 4 s.
The results of the tensile shear tests are plotted in Figure 8.
Two distinct modes of failure were observed during the testing
of these specimens: interfacial fracture at the weld joint or
nugget pullout, as shown in Figure 9. Even when the same
failure load was achieved, a pullout failure resulted in
significantly higher energy absorption, due to the large
displacement prior to separation of the sheets. This was
quantified by measuring the area under the load-displacement
curve. The resuts have been plotted in Figure 8.

210
 that the original interface between the two sheets has been
severely disrupted into a wavy, diffuse line within the bond
zone. Examination at higher magnification revealed (see inset
a in Figure 10(b)) that the diffuse line was made up of fine
particles. These were identified as an aluminium-rich oxide by
microchemical analysis in the scanning electron microscope.
We believe the fine distribution of particles derive from the
oxide layers on the original sheet surfaces which were
b disrupted and then distributed along material flow paths
during FSSW. Note that the wavy interface was not visible
Figure 9: Broken tensile shear test specimens of 6060-T5 unless the sample was etched. Fractographic examination of
FSSW welds that failed by (a) fracture and (b) pullout. The broken tensile shear specimens confirmed that failure, whether
photos show from left to right, the bottom and top sheets and by fracture or pullout, was not affected by the presence of this
the under side of the top sheet. array of fine oxide particles.
6.000
Figure 8 shows that increasing the dwell from nil to 1 s caused

Tensile Shear Strength (kN)

(a) Dwell: 1 s
a large improvement in strength but a further increase from 1 s
5.000 Dwell: 0.5 s
to 4 s had little influence. It was concluded that selecting this Dwell: 0 s
set of FSSW parameters with a 1 s dwell should therefore
maximise the strength of the weld while keeping the weld 4.000
cycle time reasonably low (< 2 s). The data from testing 12
specimens for this set of conditions resulted in a tensile shear
strength of 3.32 ± 0.06 kN. This represents the highest 3.000
strength achieved for 6060-T5 welds in this study.
2.000
Effect of FSSW parameters on strength: 5182-O Area under load-displacement 2 4 6 8 10
(b)
12
The response of the 5182-O alloy to variations in the main curve (kN.mm) 8 Plunge Rate (mm/s)
FSSW parameters was remarkably different from that of 6060-
T5. High rotational speeds produced tearing on the top surface 6
of the welds, adjacent to the central hole. A rotational speed of
1000 RPM (and lower) produced satisfactory welds. A set of 4
welds were therefore produced at 1000 RPM; the plunge rate
was varied from 3 to 10 mm/s and dwell from 0 to 1 s. A 2
plunge depth equal to 90% was the target in this set of
experiments. 0
2 4 6 8 10 12
Plunge Rate (mm/s)
Figures 10 (a) and (b) show the effect of these parameters on
strength and energy absorbed prior to failure. Dwell prior to Figure 10: Effect of plunge rate and dwell on (a) strength and
tool retraction again had a profound influence particularly (b) energy absorption prior to failure of 5182-O spot welds.
when increased from 0 to 0.5 s, but less so for further
increases. This effect was observed at all plunge rates. Plunge The bond zone in FSSW welds has been likened to a donut
rate effect differed from that seen in 6060-T5 as a lower [4]. Microscopic examination of transverse sections of the
plunge rate seemed to confer higher strength, but more numerous welds in this study indicates that this is an apt
significantly, higher energy absorption. We have noted above description. The projection of the bond zone in the plane of
that the axial force response of 5182-O was remarkably the original sheet has an annular ring shape. The width of this
different from that of 6060-T5, probably due to intrinsic annular bond was determined on polished and etched cross
differences in their response to thermally activated softening sections as the width of the zone between the central hole and
and plastic flow as well as strain rate sensitivity. These factors the visible original sheet interface. Measurements were made
clearly also influence the observed welding behaviour. This is on both sides of the hole, as shown in Figure 11(b) and the
one of the areas of our current FSSW research. mean value was determined. The calculation of the annular
bond area is then straightforward.
FSSW bond zone measurements
Detailed metallographic examination of the numerous welds Figure 12 is a 3D plot showing the variation in annular bond
revealed some interesting features within the FSSW bond area and tensile shear strength with plunge depth for 6060-T5
zone. Figure 11(a) is a macrograph of an etched transverse welds made at 3000 RPM and 5 mm/s plunge rate. A linear
section through the centre of a FSSW weld in 6060-T5. The relationship was observed between the area of the bond zone
central hole and the bond zone are visible. Figure 11(b) shows and the strength of the welds in both the alloys.

211
 4. 6060-T5 was tolerant to wide variations in the plunge
rate at the optimum rotational speed; 5182-O showed
the highest strength at the lowest plunge rate but was
fairly insensitive to variations at the higher plunge
rates. This suggests that there is scope to reduce weld
(a)
2 mm cycle times without affecting the weld quality.
5. Plunge depth had the greatest effect on both strength
50 µm (b) and energy absorption capability of the welds. For
both alloys, a direct correlation was observed
between plunge depth, bond area and tensile shear
strength.
0.4 mm bond width 6. Monitoring the tool axial plunge forces during
welding can give insights into the dynamic thermally
activated softening and deformation phenomena
Figure 11: (a) Macrograph of a FSSW weld in 6060-T5 (b) occurring during FSSW.
Higher magniifcation of the outlined area in (a). Inset shows
a magnified view of the wavy array of fine oxide particles. Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dietmar Schroeder, Hydro Aluminium, for

supplying the 5182-O alloy; Tan Doan, for setting up the data
3.5 acquisition system; Ernie Murray and Jeremy Stewart, for
rength (kN)

assistance in metallography and CSIRO-MIT for the strategic

3.0 research funding which enabled the work described.
2.5
Tensile Shear St

References
2.0
3.5 1. R. Hancock, Welding Journal, 83, 40 (2004).
m)

1.5 3.4
(m

3.3
3.2 2. R.Sakano, K. Murakami, K. Yamashita, T. Hyoe, M.
th

3.1
p

1.0 Fujimoto, M. Inuzka, y. Nagao and H. Kashiki,

De

3.0
40 35 2.9 Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium of Friction
ge

30 25 20 2.8
Annu
un

lar Bo 15 10 2.7 Stir Welding, September 2001, Kobe, Japan, TWI (2001)
Pl

nd Ar
ea (m 2
m)
Figure 12: 3D plot showing the relationship between plunge
depth, annular bond area and tensile shear strength of FSSW
joints in 6060-T5.
Interestingly, as evident from Figure 12, there was also a
strong correlation between the tool plunge depth and bond
area. Clearly, higher plunge depths result in wider bonded
zones, particularly in the plane of the original sheet interface.
This explains the observed profound influence of this
parameter on tensile shear strength (see Figure 7).
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be made based on the results
obtained in this study:
1. FSSW process is a relatively simple and robust
process for making spot welds in aluminium alloys.
2. The process is alloy specific, even for the same tool
design.
3. The optimum rotational speeds for 6060-T5 and
5182-O were different; the highest tensile shear
strengths were obtained at 3000 RPM for 6060-T5
but 1000 RPM for 5182-O.
3. M. Fujimoto, M. Inuzuka, S. Koga and Y. Seta, IIW Doc.
111-1296-04 (2004).
4. S. Koga, Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd. “ A new
method for light alloy joining: Friction Spot Joining –
Introduction of Joining Process and Production Systems”
(2005).
5. E. Tolf, P. Nerman, Research Report IM-2003-574,
Swedish Institute of Metals Research (2003).
6. T-Y. Pan, A. Joaquin, D.E. Wilkosz, L. Reatherford, J.
Nicholson, Z. Feng and M. Santella, Proceedings of the 5th
International FSW Symposium, September 2004, Metz,
France, TWI (2004).
7. F. Hinrichs, C. B. Smith, B. F. Orsini, R. J. DeGeorge, B.
J. Smale, P. C. Ruehl, Proceedings of the 5th International
FSW Symposium, September 2004, Metz, France, TWI
(2004).
8. A.C.Addison and A.J. Robelou, Proceedings of the 5th
International FSW Symposium, September 2004, Metz,
France, TWI (2004).
9. A. Gerlich, P. Su, T.H.North and G.J. Bendzsak , p 290 in
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on
Advanced Materials Processing, December 2004,
Melbourne, Australia, Institute of Materials Engineering
Australasia Ltd (2004).
10. AWS/SAE D8.9M:2002, American Welding Society,
Florida, USA (2002).

212
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Design and Testing of a Friction Stir Processing Machine for Laboratory

Research
K.S. Miller, R.J. Bitsoi, E.D. Larsen, and H.B. Smartt
Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho, USA

Abstract have made on the requirements for machine frame design.

This presentation describes the design, fabrication and
testing of a friction stir processing machine. The machine is
intended to be a flexible research tool for a broad range of
friction stir processing studies. The machine design also
addresses the need for an affordable, robust design for
general laboratory use.
Specifically, the average in-plane forces during friction stir
processing are relatively low. However, axial loads are high
resulting in high bearing loads that must be considered in
machine design. In addition, the resonance frequencies of
the machine frame components must be considered to
ensure dynamic loads do not result in machine vibrations.

Introduction
Our approach was to select a commercially available bed
mill with a robust frame, Figure 1. The particular mill we
selected was available as both a Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) model and as a manual model with power
drive on the two table drive axes. We selected the manual
model for this work. We converted the mill to computer
control by replacing the table drive motors with stepping
motors and lead screws with ball screws as appropriate. We
replaced the spindle drive motor with a large servo motor
equipped with resolver feedback. We added a real time
motion control system for motor control. We wrote a high
level operating system for the machine in National
Instruments LabView. This operating system is designed to
allow the machine control to be configured at run time. This
provides the capability to make electromechanical changes
to the machine to support specific experimental
requirements without needing to reprogram the operating
system source code. The operating system also incorporates
a graphical user interface and communicates with the real
time motion controller by means of an Ethernet interface
using Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) communications protocol.

The machine also has a three-axis-plus-torque and RPM

dynamometer and an infrared camera. These allow
comprehensive dynamic measurements of processing
conditions to be made as well as providing sensors for
feedback control of machine functions.
Figure 1: Milling machine modified for friction stir
Finally, we present data on forces encountered during processing research.
machine operation. This data is the basis for conclusions we

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 213

214
215
The dynamometer is shown in use in Figure 7; a plot of data The machine has been used to perform research into tool
obtained by the dynamometer is shown in Figure 8. designs, dynamic forces generated during processing [4, 5],
Calibration of the dynamometer forces is accomplished and evaluation of materials behavior during processing of
using a proving ring [3] to measure the actual forces, as various metals and polymers.
shown in Figure 9; a torque wrench is used for torque
calibration. The particular proving ring used incorporates an
analog dial indicator to measure ring deflection for an
accuracy of approximately 2%. Proving rings using digital
strain indicators are also available that give better accuracy.

1.2 1800

1 RPM
1700

0.8
1600
0.6
1500
Mean Fy (KN)
0.4
1400
Force

RPM
0.2
1300
0
75 95 115 135 155 175 195 215 1200
-0.2
1100
-0.4
Mean Fx (KN)
-0.6 1000

-0.8 900

Time (seconds)

Figure 8: Plot of X and Y-axis forces in machine

coordinates obtained by dynamometer.

Machine operation
During operation the first step is to initialize the RTOS
using the control GUI, then the control macro file is
identified and downloaded to the RTOS. The tool drive
spindle is started and dynomometer data acquisition is
started. Machine motion is then started and continues Figure 10: Use of the machine to evaluate tool designs.
through completion of the process. Override controls are Travel speed is 8 in/min at a tool speed of 1000 rpm.
provided for off-normal situation, but are not generally used
during processing. Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy,

Office of Energy Research and by INL Laboratory Directed
Research and Development under DOE/NE Idaho
Operations Office Contract DE-AC07-05ID14517.

References
1. http://www.flir.com/
2. http://www.kistler.com/
3. http://www.mel.nist.gov/div822/proving_ring.htm
4. George E. Cook, Herschel B. Smartt, Jason
Mitchell, Alvin M. Strauss, “Controlling Robotic
Friction Stir Welding”, Welding Journal, June
Figure 9: Calibration of dynamometer forces using
2003, pp. 28-33.
proving ring.

216
5. G. E. Cook, R. Crawford, D. E. Clark, and A. M.
Strauss, “Robotic friction stir welding,” Industrial
Robot, vol. 31, no. 1, 2004, pp.55-63.

217
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
“Complete Inspection of Friction Stir Welds in Aluminum
using Ultrasonic and Eddy Current Arrays”
André Lamarre, Olivier Dupuis and Michael Moles
R/D Tech, Quebec, PQ, Canada G1P 4S9
Abstract
Ultrasonic phased-array offers tremendous advantages for the
inspection of Friction stir welds (FSW), a new method of
joining metals using a solid state bonding process. Phased
array ultrasonics can reliably detect all internal volumetric
defects in FSW, such as cracks, inclusion, porosity and lack-
of-penetration. Spot-focused beams improve detection,
inspection angles can be optimized electronically and
electronic scan of the beam normal to the welds gives rapid
one-line scan inspection to assure full coverage. Furthermore,
a technique using ultrasonic attenuation measurements shows
the presence or absence of conditions for forming kissing
bonds (or entrapped oxide defects). Also, eddy current arrays
can be used for surface inspection, and can help to detect tight
kissing bonds. Using all three approaches, the overall
detection capability of kissing bonds is high.
Introduction to Friction Stir Welding
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is rapidly gaining
acceptance in the aerospace and other industries. FSW is a
new process, only having been commercialized during the
90’s. It is a solid state bonding process, which minimizes
contamination. FSW is a very controllable process, and
produces a very fine microstructure in the deformed region.
This fine microstructure produces a higher tensile strength
than other welding techniques, which permits less structural
conservatism. FSW is highly repeatable, and offers other
advantages like less shrinkage, no porosity, little finishing
required, no gas shielding.
FSW is performed using a milling-type tool, which
fits into a pre-machined slot. The tool is rotated and pushed
along the weld line. The two pieces of metal (usually
aluminium, but possibly steel or titanium) are clamped
together very firmly with a backing plate. As the milling tool
pushes along the weld line, the metal is plasticized and forced
around the pin. Once deformed, it rapidly cools and
recrystallizes [1].
Inspection of Friction Stir Welds
FSW have some unique features, which makes inspections
more challenging. Unlike conventional welding, FSW defects
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
can occur in principle at any orientation and any angle. In
practice, most defects apparently occur along the axial and
transverse axes. However, the wide range of defect
orientations and skews severely complicates any NDE
technique; consequently, inspection procedures are typically
tailored to the actual inspection process, FSW parameters and
expected defects using a Performance Demonstration
approach. In general, volumetric defects like worm holes are
readily detected. (See Figure 1 for a typical friction stir weld
profile).
≈1″
≈ 1 .5
Figure 1: Typical FSW profile and dimensions.
FSW characteristically produces tight defects, called
“kissing bonds” or entrapped oxide defects. These are
inherently difficult to detect by any NDE technique. Besides
pulse echo ultrasonics, R/D Tech has been working with TWI
as part of the Qualistir program to develop alternative
inspection approaches for kissing bonds. In practice,
attenuation measurements offer significant capability for
reliably detecting conditions where kissing bonds may occur,
though not the actual kissing bonds themselves. Additional
inspections using the eddy current array probe show that
kissing bonds may be detectable. However, these results are
limited to one manufacturer only.
From a practical inspection aspect, the FSW process
generates small “lips” along either side of the OD weld line,
where the milling tool deposits excess metal. These lips are
typically less than 1 mm high. However, they are sufficient to
hinder contact ultrasonic testing, and necessitate some form of
immersion like a local water bath. The FSW metal surface
finish is good compared with conventional fusion welding
processes, but not up to the quality of machined surfaces.
This paper describes a comprehensive approach for
detecting all defects, including kissing bonds, using a triple
NDE approach: pulse echo using optimized phased arrays;
219
attenuation measurements (also using phased arrays); and
eddy current arrays.
Inspection Techniques
Initially, a comprehensive review of NDE techniques
was performed. The wide variety of defect orientations
essentially precluded any radiographic inspection techniques.
Eddy current lacks the penetration to detect defects on the
opposite surface, though conductivity measurements have
been used to detect poor process control [2]. However, eddy
current arrays offer major advantages for surface and near
surface inspections, and have the advantage that no couplant is
required. Conventional ultrasonics is limited in detection of
defects with unusual orientations and skew, though most
defects generated to date are axial or transverse. Our primary
solution for NDE of FSW was ultrasonic phased arrays, which
have the ability to change inspection angles and to skew the
beam.
As always with solid state process like diffusion
bonding and electric resistance welding, the main concern was
tight defects where bonding did not in fact occur. This
indicates the need for alternative inspection approaches (in
this case attenuation measurements), and the eddy current
array.
Phased Arrays
Phased arrays use an array of elements to generate an
ultrasonic beam, using different time delays. The beams are
formed by constructive interference [3], and can be skewed
and scanned electronically. Once generated, the ultrasonic
beam from a phased array is nominally identical to one
generated by conventional ultrasonics.
Phased arrays have big advantages over conventional
ultrasonics in pulse echo mode: it is possible to change angle
every pulse (called sectorial or azimuthal scanning).
Electronic (originally called linear) scanning is possible with
linear and matrix arrays, where beams are rapidly scanned in a
fixed pattern over a selected area. Focusing can be optimized
electronically, and repeated with every set-up. With matrix
arrays (or modified linear arrays), lateral scanning is possible
to detect skewed defects. Dynamic depth focusing is another
capability, wherein the receiver is refocused repeatedly during
a single pulse to give the equivalent of multiple conventional
transducers. Overall, phased arrays permit complex scans
using sectorial, linear, lateral techniques; however, industrial
phased arrays are typically customized to the specific
application [4,5]. Phased arrays are described in detail in [6].
220
Ultrasonic Attenuation Measurements for
Detecting Kissing Bonds (Entrapped Oxide
Defects)
Kissing bonds mainly occur because of low penetration of
the tool during the FSW process. This prevents the root region from
being properly stirred (see the micrograph in Figure 2). Typically, the
weld area has much finer grain size than the parent material due to
the plasticizing of this area. Smaller grains mean less
ultrasonic attenuation (i.e. less “noise”), and this is clearly
visible on ultrasonic B-scans (see Figure 3). The principle of
the signal processing is to quantify the attenuation to
determine if proper mixing and FSW has occurred. While this
approach does not actually detect kissing bonds, it does
reliably detect the conditions under which kissing bonds occur
[7].
Weld nugget
Parent metal
Figure 3: Ultrasonic scans of kissing bond. Top view (C-scan
left) and side view (B-scan right) of the phased array
inspection results, showing less noise in the weld (M1) than
the parent material (M2)
Eddy Current Array Probe
The eddy current array probe consists of a series of
individual eddy current coils, closely packed into a pre-
determined array. The coil arrangement typically permits
pitch-catch axially and circumferentially, as well as
multifrequency, absolute and differential operation. R/D Tech
has developed a proprietary multiplexer, which effectively
eliminates crosstalk between the coils. As a result, the EC
array acts as a multitude of individual coils, but permits
unique imaging techniques like C-scans and isometrics. All
the data is saved, and individual Lissajous patterns or strip
charts can be displayed. Figure 4 a) and b) below shows a
typical block and scan result.
 inspected using phased array attenuation measurements and
the eddy current array.

Typical Results

Pulse Echo on Defect Plates

Figure 5 shows a sample scan on a transverse defect.
This particular defect was best detected using a lateral scan at
0o skew and 45o refracted angle.

Figure 4: a) at left – cal block with notches and holes, with EC

array poised at bottom. b) right – scan results showing C-scan,
isometric and two Lissajous patterns.

The EC array probe has major advantages: good

surface and near-surface detection; defect sizing and
characterization; axial vs. circumferential discrimination. Figure 5: Scan of defect using lateral scan at 0o skew and 45o
However, it suffers the same limitations as other refracted angle.
electromagnetic techniques, primarily limited penetration.
Figure 6 below shows a sample scan on an axial
defect, which was a tight defect nominally 0.4 mm deep. This
Equipment and Scanning particular defect was optimally detected using 35-40o shear
waves, in contrast to other axial root cracks, which were best
To determine suitable pulse echo inspection angles, a detected at 65o. The top left B-scan in Figure 6 shows the
selection of FSW plates with embedded defects is requested defect superimposed on the weld profile, which gives a very
from the customer for inspection with appropriate thickness, clear image of the crack.
welding parameters and defects (see Figure 1). This plate is
inspected over a wide range of incident angles (say 35, 40, 45,
50, 55, 60, 65 and 70o) and inspection parameters to optimize
detection. Axial defects can be detected using a transverse
linear array and sectorial scans if requested. Calibration can be
performed on a similar panel containing electro-discharge
machined notches in the usual manner.

For the ultrasonic aspects of this study, an R/D Tech

FOCUS phased array system is used, with TRAKER
manipulator and small water bath. A typical array is a 10 MHz
linear array, with 32 active elements on a 0.31-mm pitch to
give good beam steering.

Since FSW is a relatively high speed process, suitable

scanning speeds must be factored into the inspection process,
including number of inspection angles, beam paths, quantity
of data collected and display rates. Suitable samples Figure 6. B-, D-, A- and C-scans on axial defect C.
containing kissing bonds or possible kissing bonds were also

221
 The results from this plate set can be summarized x 10
4 noise histograms
qualitatively as shown in Table 1 below. Each refracted angle 2.5
is ranked from 0 to 10 for each defect, based on signal-to-
noise ratio. The overall results showed that the FSW’s are
optimally inspected at a combination of angles: 35o for the 2
crown, and both 35o and 65o for the root. For lateral defects,
the recommended inspection is a 45o incident angle, with

number of points
sectorial scanning of + 30o. 1.5

Table 1. Qualitative summary of results on defects A-H

1

Refracted 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
angle
0.5
Defect A 2 2 5 5 10 10 10 8
side 1
0
Defect A 4 4 4 6 8 10 10 8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Signal Amplitude, 0-255
side 2
Figure 7: Illustration of the difference in ultrasonic noise:
Defect B 2 2 2 5 5 8 8 10 histograms of amplitude level for weld nugget volume (red)
side 1
and weld root volume (blue).
Defect B 2 2 2 5 5 8 8 10
side 2 When the root has been properly positioned, the ultrasonic
noise level inside the root should be close to that of the weld
Defect C 10 10 2 2 0 0 0 0 nugget because of its small grain size. By comparing the mean
side with lip level inside the root to that of the weld nugget, the operator
Defect C 10 8 5 5 0
has a powerful tool for estimating the pin penetration and
0 0 0
side therefore the probability of having kissing bonds.
opposite to
the lip Figure 8 below shows a scan of sample T7 containing kissing
bonds (entrapped oxide defects) all along the weld. Only a few
Defects D- 10 10 10 8 8 8 8 7 indications can be observed by pulse echo technique (red
H for root circles).
defects

D1 D2
D3
Results from Ultrasonic Attenuation Measurements
Results from attenuation measurements of samples
with no kissing bonds and with kissing bonds are shown
below. Figure 7 shows the difference in ultrasonic noise for a
normal bond, with the nugget (red) showing lower noise than
the parent material (blue). The nugget has a much narrower
profile, indicating a correctly positioned weld.

Figure 8: C-Scan image of FSW inspection: the plate T7

contains kissing bonds. Lower attenuation is visible all along,
while the kissing bonds only show sporadically from pulse
echo.

Though a few indications can be detected at the weld root (D1

to D3), it is difficult to say whether there is a kissing bond

222
along the full weld or not. This can be achieved by comparing
the ratio M2/M1 of this plate to that of a reference plate Eddy current inspections of Kissing Bond Panels
containing no defect. The graph in Figure 9 compares two Eddy current inspections were done on four 0.8 mm (0.320”)
curves: the red curve represents the ratio M2/M1 of T7 sample thick panels containing no kissing bonds, and kissing bonds of
(containing kissing bonds) and the blue curve represents the prepared depths of 0.75, 1.0 and 1.5 mm (0.030”, 0.040”and
same ratio with sample T1 containing no defect. 0.060”) respectively. The technique used the following
parameters: send/receive; absolute; frequency: 800 kHz;
5
scanning resolution: 0.5 x 3 mm; lift off aligned horizontally;
Good W eld (T1)
median filter.
4.5
D2 Bad W eld (T7)
4
3.5 D1 D3
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
17
33
49
65
81
97
113
129
145
161
177
193
209
225
241
257
273
289

Figure 9: Ratio M2/M1 along with the weld for sample of

reference (blue curve) and defective sample (red curve)
containing a very tight kissing bond observed by
metallography.

The mean value of the ratio M2/M1 is higher when the sample
contains kissing bond defects, or potential kissing bonds. The
difference in mean value between the weld nugget and the Figure 11: EC array scan of panel with no defect.
weld root was consistent for most of the samples containing
kissing bonds. Figure 10 represents the value M1 and M2 for
13 samples. Sample 1 and 2 have no defects while all the other
samples contain kissing bonds. For samples 1 and 2, the
attenuation value of the root weld M2 is approximately equal
to that of the parent metal. The higher M2 values in the other
samples indicates that the root has not been properly stirred
(grain size similar to the parent metal), which increases the
probability of having kissing bonds.

6
mean Amplitude

5
Parent Plate
4 Weld Nugget
Weld Root
3

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Figure 12: EC array scan of panel with 0.75 mm defect,
TWI Weld No. showing discontinuous signal along weld line.

Figure 10: Mean signal inside the nugget and inside the root
for different samples

223

Figure 13: Eddy current array scan of panel containing 1.0 mm
deep kissing bond. Signal is present but not completely along
the weld.
Figure 14: Eddy current array scan of panel with 1.5 mm deep
kissing bond. The flaw is detected easily, but the signal
amplitude is lower around the center of the weld.
Discussion
Pulse echo inspections of FSWs can detect all volumetric-type
defects and kissing bonds intermittently. Phased arrays offer
the advantages of optimizing inspections, e.g. by focusing and
angle selection, as well as offering high speeds. For the critical
kissing bonds, a combination of attenuation methods and eddy
current offer considerable detection reliability. The attenuation
measurements, well grounded in physics, reliably detect the
224
conditions for forming kissing bonds, if not the actual defects,
while eddy current appears capable of reliably detecting
kissing bonds greater than 1 mm deep. However, both the
attenuation measurements and the eddy current results are
based on limited data samples, and need more evaluation.
Overall, with three essentially independent NDE techniques,
the probability of missing a significant kissing bond is very
low.
Conclusions
1. Phased arrays provide a wide range of inspection angles,
and detected all deliberate defects in these Friction Stir
Welds.
2. Suitable angle selection (35o for the crown and 35 & 65o
for the root) maximizes Probability of Detection for these
defects for this parameter set.
3. Transverse defects can be detected using lateral and
sectorial scans.
4. Electronic scanning offers the following advantages:
• It provides the coverage and speed required.
• It compensates for positional errors in the delivery
system.
• It eliminates the need for a second mechanical axis as
scanning is performed electronically.
5. Samples containing different types of defects as well as
very thin kissing bonds were manufactured, and led to the
development of a new processing technique based on the
attenuation differences between the weld root and the
weld nugget signal amplitudes.
6. Preliminary results demonstrated that this noise
attenuation ratio provides a good indication of the
presence of very tight kissing bonds.
7. Based on a limited sample, the eddy current array probe
detects kissing bonds above ~1 mm.
8. Between the three NDE techniques (ultrasonic pulse echo,
ultrasonic attenuation ratios and eddy current array),
detection of all defects including kissing bonds is highly
reliable, though more evaluation needs to be performed.
References
1. See for example, “Friction Stir Welding-Equipment”, The
Welding Institute, UK,
www.twi.co.uk/bestprac/datashts/fswequip/html and
“Application of Friction Stir Welding to Automotive
Lightweight Structures”, The Edison Welding Institute,
Columbus, Ohio, www.ewi.org/ewi/gsp/gspstir/.
2. N. Goldfine, A.P. Washabaugh and W. Arbegast,
“Friction Stir Welding On-Line Process Monitoring and
Post-Weld Quality Assessment with MWM-Eddy Current
Sensor Arrays”, AeroMat ’99, 10th Annual Advanced
Aerospace Materials & Processes, Dayton, Ohio, June 21-
24, 1999.
3. G. Lafontaine and F. Cancre, “Potential of Ultrasonic
Phased Arrays for Faster, Better and Cheaper
Inspections”, NDT.net, vol. 5, no. 10, October 2000,
www.ndt.net/article/v05n10/lafont2/lafont2.html.
4. M. Moles, E. Ginzel and N. Dubé, “Phased arrays for
pipeline girth weld inspections”, Insight, vol. 44, no. 2,
February 2002, p. 86.
5. M. Moles and A. Lamarre, “Phased array ultrasonic
inspection of friction stir welds“, 4th International
Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, Park City, Utah,
USA, May 14-16, 2003.
6. R/D Tech, “Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic
Technology Applications – R/D Tech Guideline”,
published by R/D Tech, August 2004.
7. C. Bird, “Quality Control of friction stir welds by the
application of non-destructive testing“, 4th International
Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, Park City, Utah,
USA, May 14-16, 2003.

Key words: friction stir welds, ultrasonic phased arrays,

attenuation measurements, eddy current arrays, “kissing
bonds”

225
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

MWM®-Array Inspection for Quality Control of Friction Stir Welded Extrusions

David Grundy, Vladimir Zilberstein, and Neil Goldfine
JENTEK Sensors, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA
Phone: (781) 642-9666, Fax: (781) 642-7525; email: jentek@shore.net

Jerrold Green and Israel Stol

Alcoa Technical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Abstract for FSWs need to provide reliable detection of very tight KB,
in addition to detection of LOP and other discontinuities.
For several years, Alcoa as been actively involved in
developing aluminum alloys and joining techniques for the Friction Stir Welding
aerospace industry. As part of its effort to identify and acquire
Friction stir welding of butt joints is performed with a rotating
effective non-destructive inspection techniques for the
pin tool that is thrust into the joint under an axial load. As the
presence of discrepant discontinuities at the back side of
metal around the tool heats up, the resistance to deformation
Friction Stir Welds (FSW), Alcoa has contracted JENTEK
of the material is drastically reduced and plasticized metal is
Sensors Inc. to test and demonstrate JENTEK’s eddy current
readily moved around the tool. This local plastic flow
based methods for detection of such discontinuities. This
combined with the translational movement of the pin tool
paper describes methods for the detection of discrepant
along the interface between the abutting surfaces generates a
conditions, i.e., discontinuities, including lack of penetration
FSW joint. Figure 1 schematically shows the FSW process.
(LOP) and kissing bonds (KB) in Friction Stir Welds (U.S.
Figure 2 is a photomacrograph of a cross-section in a full-
patents issued1 and pending). Results presented here for FSW
penetration FSW, and Figure 3 shows example
joints in aluminum alloy extrusions demonstrate the capability
photomicrographs of (a) a sound FSW, (b) KB and (c) LOP at
of eddy current sensors, such as Meandering Winding
the back side of FSWs.
Magnetometer array sensors (MWM®-Arrays), to inspect the
FSWs for discontinuities and reveal different regions with
distinct microstructures, e.g., dynamically recrystallized zone
(DXZ), thermomechanically-affected zone (TMAZ) and heat-
affected zone (HAZ) in such welds. MWM-Array generated
images of electrical conductivity and feature recognition and
characterization of local transverse variations in electrical
conductivity are used to reveal and detect discontinuities such
as LOP and KB from microstructural variations in the FSW
butt joints. This capability to reveal microstructural variations
in FSWs was used for estimation of the LOP depth in square
butt joints as reported at the 2002 Trends in Welding Research
Conference.2
Introduction Figure 1. A schematic of the FSW process.
The objective of this study was to demonstrate detection of
KB and LOP on the backside of FSW butt joints intended for
use in aircraft structures. The FSW process, invented and
licensed by TWI in Cambridge, UK, in the early nineties3 is
fast becoming a process of choice for a variety of structural
applications. This solid state joining process has numerous
advantages over fusion welding including fewer discrepant
conditions and comparable or better mechanical properties.
Quality requirements for FSW in aircraft structures operating
under cyclical loads are very stringent. It is critical to avoid
any preexisting crack-like discontinuities in these structures, Figure 2. Cross-Sectional macrograph of a full-penetration
as they can become crack initiation sites. Thus, NDE methods FSW.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 227

 (a) Without discrepant conditions

(b) Kissing Bond

(e) LOP
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of etched cross-sections of butt FSWs near the backside: (a) no discrepant conditions; (b) kissing bond;
(c) lack of penetration.

228
MWM-Array Sensor Evaluation of FSWs
This study focused on the use of MWM-Arrays to detect KB
and LOP discontinuities in extrusions joined by the FSW
process, in the as-welded condition and after light machining.
The methods of using eddy current sensors to map electrical
properties of FSWs, were conceived, proven and patented by
Goldfine.1 In particular, Goldfine et al. demonstrated the use
of two-dimensional images of eddy current sensor responses
(corrected for lift-off variations) as a means for detecting
discontinuities relevant to the quality of FSWs and measuring
nugget width, and showed correlation of the measured nugget
width with LOP depth. 1,2 Thus, sufficient weld nugget width
as measured by eddy current sensors at the back side could be
used to ensure a low likelihood of an LOP.
The MWM-Array sensor used in this study (see Figure 4) has
37 sensing elements representing 37 fully parallel channels,
and one rectangular drive winding.
Figure 4. Photograph of the MWM-Array sensor FA57 and
detailed schematic that shows some of the sensing elements,
including 18 central elements used for scanning in this study.
For the study described here, ALCOA produced several panels
with sound FSWs as a control set, and a number of panels with
intentional KBs and LOPs at the back side as a test set. The
exact locations, depths and lengths of these discontinuities,
were carefully established with the help of weld cross-sections
and root-bend tests on representative weldments. The actual
conditions of the test panels were not provided to JENTEK
before MWM-Array scan results were provided to ALCOA.
The discontinuities were produced by selected alteration of
FSW tool geometry in conjunction with corresponding
adjustment of welding parameters. To inspect for KB and
LOP the backside of the FSWs were scanned with the MWM-
Array using three different frequencies: 398 kHz, 2 MHz and
10 MHz. This produced electrical conductivity and lift-off
images. In order to best represent the electrical conductivity
near the back surface of the welds, the MWM-Array
measurements were performed at rather high frequencies,
229
because higher frequencies correspond to shallow penetration
of the eddy current sensor fields into aluminum alloys. Prior
to scanning, the MWM-Array was calibrated in air, without
the use of conductivity standards, as described in ASTM
Standard E2338-044. Interestingly, although the resultant
images are similar to chemical etching, they are more practical
and useful in qualitatively determining the microstructural
distribution of the different regions, e.g., DXZ, TMAZ, and
HAZ in the FSWs at their back surfaces. Because of the
complex geometry of the part, only 18 channels of the
available 37 channels were used during scanning. This
provided a 0.72-in. (18.3-mm) wide scan path; when needed,
either successive scans could be concatenated to form an
image, or a single, significantly wider scan can be
accomplished with a longer array. Figure 5 shows a
photograph of the scanning set-up.
The sensor was scanned in the longitudinal and transverse
directions on the anvil-contacting, back surface of the panels,
i.e., on the side opposite to the FSW tool. Screen captures
from the JENTEK GridStation® software displaying
conductivity images at 2 MHz for the as-welded condition are
shown in Figures 6 through 8. It should be noted that, due to
the linear geometry of the MWM-Array drive, eddy currents
are induced primarily in the direction parallel to the drive
conductors and the resulting MWM conductivity
measurements are in this direction as well. Because of this, in
the longitudinal scan orientation, the conductivity is measured
in the direction perpendicular to the weld, whereas for
transverse scans, the conductivity is measured in the direction
parallel to the weld.
MWM-Array
Probe
Longitudinal
Transverse
MWM-Array
Sensor
Integral
Stiffener
Figure 5. Photograph of the scanning set-up for this study.
Note the complex geometry of the extrusions and the ability to
scan the region of interest , in spite of close proximity of the
tall integral stiffeners.
For transverse scans, the response from the 18 channels is
sufficiently similar, and the average of all responses can be
plotted (see Figure 9 for a representative plot of conductivity).
Repeat scans of the same FSWs were made to verify drop in the MWM-Array measured conductivity in the central
repeatability of the conductivity maps (C-scans) from DXZ region (see Figure 8).
longitudinal scans and conductivity profiles (B-scans).
For all scans, a portion of each scan was acquired on a
separate plate of aluminum alloy 6061-T6511. This provided
a region of uniform conductivity that was used to normalize
the acquired data (removing any channel-to-channel variations
not accounted for perfectly by the air calibration). This is the
dark region on the left hand side of the conductivity images in KB LOP
Figures 6 through 8 and the cause of the sharp transition at the
55-mm position conductivity in the plot of Figure 9.
The primary difference between the panels with the sound
welds (Figure 6) and those containing either or both KB and
LOP discontinuities (Figure 7) is the conductivity of the
central region of the FSW joint. In the case of the sound
welds, this central region represents a wide DXZ that has a Figure 7. MWM-Array measured conductivity acquired
relatively low conductivity and is characteristic of full during a longitudinal scan of a panel containing a FSW with
penetration FSWs. The conductivity increases when a KB is both KB (left hand side) and LOP (right hand side) type
present and is yet higher for a weld with an LOP. This discontinuities, in the as-welded condition. Notice, in
increase in conductivity is readily apparent where the contrast to the sound weld (Figure 6), the DXZ becomes
transition from a KB to an LOP occurs in Figure 7. physically narrower in the KB region and more so in the LOP
region while the conductivity increases. In the lower image,
an expanded view at the FSW central region shows the
transition from KB to LOP occurs at, approximately, 250 mm.

Intermittent Planar Discontinuities

Figure 6. MWM-Array measured conductivity acquired

during a longitudinal scan of a panel with a sound FSW, in the
as-welded condition. The lower image is an expanded view of
the scan showing the FSW central (i.e. mid-width) region
highlighting the DXZ (low conductivity area) and TMZ and
HAZ (high conductivity areas). The scales of both x and y
axes are in millimeters.
The conductivity images capture not only the differences in
the FSW central region, but also variability in the higher
conductivity TMAZ and HAZ on either side of the DXZ. This
latter variability can be caused, for example by changes in the
feed rate or rotational speed of the pin tool.
Another feature that is readily detected by this technique is a
cracklike planar type discontinuity, that may form when the
welding conditions result in a very large LOP. These, often
intermittent discontinuities are indicated readily by a sharp
Figure 8. MWM-Array measured conductivity acquired
during a longitudinal scan of an FSW panel in the as-welded
condition containing an intermittent planar type discontinuity.
The bottom image contains an expanded view of the image at
the FSW central region with a rescaled color range to
highlight the narrow DXZ and the reduction in conductivity
due to the presence of the discontinuity.
This study also investigated the capability of the MWM-Array
to provide reliable results after skim-machining a layer off of
the back surface. The goal is to remove unacceptable
discontinuities, if present, with minimal material removal.
Lift-off images from MWM-Array scans at all three
frequencies for the skim-machined back surface condition

230
revealed, as expected, a significant difference in the measured
lift-off compared to the as-welded condition (see Figure 10).
Note that the GridStation software uses a physics-based model
generated database to convert the MWM-Array response into
conductivity and lift-off images1. These lift-off images are
valuable not only for control of sensor performance but also
for general examination and characterization of surface
conditions (e.g. asperities, pits, etc.). During welding, under
sufficient forging force and welding heat input, the anvil can
imprint its texture onto the backside of the FSWs. As can be
seen in Figure 10, such textures can cause subtle variations in
the conductivity measured at the back sides of these welds.
Comparison of transverse scans of panels in both the as-
welded and skim-machined conditions shows the most
pronounced difference in the conductivity of the HAZ with a
lower HAZ conductivity after skim machining for the KB case
(see Figure 9).
42
41
40
Conductivity, %IACS
39
38
LOP
37
36
35 KB
34
as welded
33
skim machined
Sound Weld
32
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Scan Distance, mm
Figure 9. Plots of conductivity acquired during transverse
scans of panels in the as-welded (solid lines) and skim-
machined (dashed lines) surface conditions. The HAZ peak
conductivity for all the panels decreases with skim-machining.
The conductivity of the FSW central region for sound welds
and welds with LOP change only slightly with machining. The
greatest change was observed in the decrease of the FSW
central region conductivity for welds with the KB
discontinuities.
The data in Figure 9 suggest that the conductivity of the DXZ
for sound welds are generally quite similar prior to and after
light machining. The same is true for welds with large LOP.
However, in the case of panels with KB, a noticeable shift in
conductivity after skim machining was observed. As material
that was poorly welded is removed and the exposed surface
moves towards the weld nugget, the MWM-Array measured
conductivity approaches that of a sound weld. It is expected
that this trend of conductivity change toward the DXZ
conductivity, as the backside is incrementally machined, is
common in the welds with KB and/or LOP discontinuities;
but, that for LOP significantly more material must be removed
before the conductivity will approach that of a sound weld.
AW 666 T1
Figure 10. MWM-Array measured lift-off acquired during
AW 426 T1
AW 551 T1
longitudinal scanning of two different FSW panels. The top
AW 547 1/4 T1
AW 547 3/4 T1
two images are from the same scan of a panel with different
AW 666 T2
AW 426 T2
color scales applied. The bottom two images were acquired
AW 551 T2 from a different panel before and after light machining. In the
AW 547 1/4 T2
AW 547 3/4 T2 top image, the anvil imparts a texture to the back surface
SM 666 T1
SM 426 T1 which results in a slightly higher median lift-off compared to
SM 551 T1
SM 547 1/4 T1 the machined surface on either side of the weld. The center
SM 547 3/4 T1
SM 666 T2 two images show that depressions in the anvil will produce
SM 426 T2
SM 551 T2 similar patterns of asperities in the backside of succesively
SM 547 1/4 T2
SM 547 3/4 T2
welded panels.
The conductivity change with depth from the back surface is
illustrated well by the MWM-Array “cross-sectional” image
shown in Figure 11 where the LOP region conductivity is
higher than in DXZ. The image in Figure 11 was obtained by
scanning an end-face of a FSW butt welded panel. This figure
also shows a visualization of the conductivity/lift-off
Measurement Grid (database) used to produce B-scan
conductivity profiles and C-scan images1.
Conclusions
The MWM-Array, eddy current based, technique evaluated in
this program is very effective in a) detecting KB, LOP and
planar type discontinuities, b) imaging the various
microstructural zones, i.e., DXZ, TMAZ, HAZ, and c)
mapping the back surfaces of FSWs. These capabilities, which
are afforded by imaging of electrical conductivity and lift-off,
can make this technique a very useful tool in controlling the
FSW process and ensuring the quality (soundness) of the
joints. The results clearly show that, for both as-welded and
skim-machined surface conditions, the MWM-Array
generated information provides an effective discrimination
between sound welds and welds that contain discrepant
conditions.
231

Figure 11. Image of electrical conductivity revealing the
nugget, TMZ, HAZ and base metal. The image was generated
by scanning an MWM-Array over an end-face of a FSW plate
sample, and using the conductivity/lift-off Measurement Grid
(precomputed database) to convert the MWM-Array response
to conductivity and lift-off at each point in the image1.
232
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of
their colleagues at JENTEK Sensors, Inc., Kyle L. Williams of
the Alcoa Technical Center Alcoa (ATC) who helped to
produce the FSW samples and ATC’s Alloy-Technology
group that provided the metallographic services.
References
1
N.Goldfine, V.Zilberstein, D.Schlicker, D.Grundy,
A. Washabaugh, I. Shay, High Resolution Inductive Sensor
Arrays for Material and Defect Characterization of Welds,
U.S. Patent No. 6,727,691, Apr. 27, 2004.
2
N. Goldfine, Grundy, D., Zilberstein, V., Kinchen, D.G.,
Friction Stir Weld Inspection through Conductivity Imaging
using Shaped Field MWM®-Arrays, Proceedings of the 6th
International Conference on Trends in Welding, Callaway
Gardens, GA; ASM International, January 2003.
3
W. Thomas, Nicholas, E., Needham, J., Murch, M., Temple-
Smith, P., Dawes, C.: Friction Stir Butt Welding, International
Patent Appl. No. PCT/GB92/02203 and GB Patent Appl. No.
9125978.8, Dec. 1991, U.S. Patent No. 5,460,317.
4
ASTM Standard Practice E2338-04, Characterization of
Coatings Using Conformable Eddy-Current Sensors without
Coating Reference Standards, ASTM International, Book of
Standards, Vol. 03, 2004.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Friction Stir Welding and Processing:

A Sprinter’s Start, A Marathoner’s Finish
Murray W. Mahoney
Rockwell Scientific, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA

Abstract high compressive strength eliminates tool distortion. Fracture

toughness of PCBN is low relative to metals but the
Since the inception of “Friction Stir Welding”, technical polycrystalline nature prevents cleavage and minimizes crack
progress has been rapid and significant. Most new initiation sites. As shown in Figure 1, the tool is a composite
technologies “flame out” within a short time as property where the PCBN itself is housed in a metal locking collar and
limitations, scale-up, cost or other such difficulties are is the only material to come into direct contact with the
realized. This is not the case with Friction Stir Welding workpiece.
(FSW). FSW is here to stay and continues to expand as
researchers and practitioners advance the technology and learn
new and better ways to take advantage of the benefits
associated with FSW. This manuscript will highlight some of
the newest advances in FSW to the higher temperature
materials such as Fe, Ti, and Ni base alloys. Further, the
concept of “Friction Stir Processing” (FSP) as presented will
PCBN
illustrate how FSP can selectively alter and improve properties
for improved structural integrity. Although brief, this
summary illustrates the rapid advance and staying power of
FSW and the associated FSP technology.

Ferrous Alloys Metal locking collar

Initially, FSW was limited to the low melting point metals

such as Pb, Mg, and Al. This was due to limited tool life at
high temperature. For the low temperature metals, standard
heat treatable tool steels such as H-13 or MP-159 were more
than adequate. However, the properties of these metals are
insufficient to survive in the severe environment necessary to
friction stir weld high temperature materials. An estimate of
the temperature range to friction stir weld ferrous alloys is
1000 to 1200°C. For long life during welding of Fe base
alloys, the tool must have high temperature oxidation
resistance and not react with the substrate metal at elevated
temperature. Further, the tool must have high temperature
mechanical properties including compressive and torsional
strength and rotating bending fatigue strength. It is difficult for
a monolithic metal to possess these many properties. The
material showing the most promise for use as a high
temperature friction stir weld tool is polycrystalline cubic
boron nitride (PCBN).[1,2,3] This high temperature tool is
illustrated in Figure 1.
PCBN has mechanical and material properties key to design of
a FSW tool. For example, PCBN’s low coefficient of friction
minimizes material adhesion to the tool surface, reducing
spindle horsepower requirements. The high thermal
conductivity reduces temperature gradients within the pin
during FSW, minimizing temperature gradients. The high
hardness values of PCBN limits tool wear by abrasion, and
Figure 1: PCBN high temperature tools used to friction stir
weld high temperature metals: a) 6 mm featureless pin using
MS 100 and b) 12 mm step spiral pin using MS 80.
Using the early grade of PCBN (MS 100), limited tool design
was necessary to reduce the risk of stress risers. With proper
care, this initial MS 100 grade was sufficient to weld a number
of ferrous alloys up to 6 mm deep with minimal tool wear
depending on the alloy being welded. Recently, a grade
development program has resulted in an improved grade of
PCBN designated MS 80.[4] Without providing
developmental details, the increased fracture toughness of MS
80 has significantly advanced the ability to friction stir weld
ferrous alloys. Using MS 80, the pin can now be made longer,
up to 12 mm, and features can be added to the pin to enhance
material flow around the tool.[2] This not only allows for
deeper penetration but also expands the parameter map to

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 233

higher travel speeds. The MS 80 12 mm FSW tool with step- major issue associated with FSW of Ti alloys is tool life. For
spiral features on the 12 mm long pin is illustrated in Figure this work, FSW tools were fabricated using W-25Re and a tool
1b. designed with both a smooth pin and shoulder.

An additional benefit of FSW is the solid-state nature as

opposed to fusion welding where the metal is first melted and
then solidifies. One of the many advantages of FSW is the
ability to join without creating a liquid, and the anticipated
benefit of very low harmful emissions. Many ferrous alloys
contain Ni, Cr, Mn and other harmful vapors if melted. To
ensure safety of the welder requires costly ventilation and
other protective measures. To prove that there should be no
emissions with the solid-state FSW process, at Rockwell
Scientific, both a tungsten inert gas (TIG) manual weld system
and a FSW system were enclosed and sealed in separate
containments. During welding of a 304 stainless steel, all
emissions were drawn through filters. After equal lengths were
Figure 2: Illustration of uniform superplastic elongation in
welded with each approach, emissions captured in the filters
Ti-6Al-4V following FSW.
were measured. As shown in Table 1, emissions from
potentially harmful elements were below the detectability limit
when using FSW. Emissions are low with TIG but TIG was
used to demonstrate the viability of the measurement
technique. a

Table 1: Airborne emissions associated with welding 304

stainless steel (mg/m3).
Element Cr Cu Mn Hexavalent Cr
TIG 0.25 0.11 1.88 0.02
FSW <0.03 <0.03 <0.02 <0.01

Titanium Alloys

A number of researchers have investigated FSW of Ti alloys

demonstrating considerable success.[5-7] The work of Grant,
b
Sanders and Reynolds is particularly noteworthy where their
results demonstrated post-weld benefits of FSW not available
by conventional fusion welding practices.[7] Briefly,
superplastic forming (SPF) requires a fine grain equiaxed
microstructure, and the trend in SPF is to fabricate large Ti
parts. Unfortunately, Ti sheet is not available in a sufficiently
large size for some components. Thus, a large structure can be
superplastically formed only if two smaller sheets are joined
and if the resultant weld seam maintains superplastic
properties; i.e., a stable, fine grain microstructure.
Conventional fusion welding creates a large grain cast
microstructure with no superplasticity and is not feasible for
post-weld SPF. However, FSW does produce a fine grain fully
Figure 3: a) Friction stir welding of a 76 cm length of Ti-6Al
recrystallized microstructure that should be superplastic.
4V using a W-25Re tool and b) part formed by superplastic
Figure 2 illustrates superplastic elongations for Ti-6Al-4V
forming following FSW.
samples tested transverse to the friction stir weld at a constant
strain rate. With the correct parameter set, very high uniform
elongations can be achieved and the friction stir weld has a Nitinol
response similar to that of the parent metal. Taking this work
to completion, these investigators demonstrated long friction Nitinol is an alloy composed of near equiatomic proportions of
stir welds in thin Ti-6Al-4V sheet (Figure 3a) and nickel and titanium that exhibits extraordinary properties such
subsequently the ability to superplastically form a structure as superelasticity and a shape memory effect [8]. Nitinol
with >245% strain across the friction stir weld (Figure 3b). A undergoes a diffusionless, martensitic phase transformation

234
associated with a specific transformation temperature and a
reversible change in crystal structure. The phase
transformation occurs between a high temperature austenite
phase and a low temperature martensite phase [9]. Nitinol is
used in numerous applications from actuators to eyeglass
frames because of its unique properties [10]. One of the most
common uses of nitinol is in the production of biomedical
devices such as arterial stents. A stent is a wire mesh tube
inserted into an artery of a patient suffering from
cardiovascular disease. The stent permanently props open the
artery after it has undergone angioplasty, or the removal of
plaque from the arterial walls [11]. Stents are machined from
thin-walled nitinol tubes.
a properties following processing. This was confirmed by
joining method, such as diffusion bonding, have been
developed for nitinol. However, the pressure, temperature, and
time parameters used during diffusion bonding must be highly
controlled to ensure that nitinol does not melt during the
process [12]. The lack of melting during friction stir welding
makes it a logical candidate to join nitinol.
London et al. reported results where nitinol was first friction
stir processed (Figure 4) and then rolled at elevated
temperature (850ºC) to thin sheet. This simulated seam
welding of sheet to tube and subsequent tube drawing (Figure
5). Following friction stir processing and rolling, mechanical
properties and phase transformation temperatures were
measured in the processed and rolled material. Results showed
that thin nitinol sheet could be friction stir processed without
defects and retain its shape memory and superelastic
differential scanning calorimetry of processed samples to
determine their austenite and martensite transformation
temperatures.[13]

20 mm
Friction Stir
Processed
a Region

50 mm

Figure 4: a) Macrograph of friction stir processed Nitinol b

(600 rpm at 0.5 in/min) and b) microstructure in the processed
zone.

The current process of producing thin-walled nitinol tubes

involves gun drilling a 13 to 38 mm (0.512 to 1.50 in)
diameter ingot and then tube drawing to the needed outer tube
diameter of 0.5 to 6.4 mm [8]. Gun drilling is wasteful (25%
loss in material) and therefore is a major expense in the cost of
stents and other thin-walled nitinol medical devices. Welding
nitinol sheet into a relatively thick-walled tube that could be
subsequently tube drawn to the proper wall thickness would
eliminate the gun-drilling step in stent manufacture. However,
welding nitinol continues to be a challenge using conventional
joining techniques.
Figure 5: a) Nitinol with a friction stir processed zone
reduced 76% by rolling at 850ºC and b) microstructure of the
Significant research has been done to determine welding
rolled friction stir processed zone.
process parameters to allow nitinol to be successfully welded.
Investigators have used fusion welding to join nitinol;
This work demonstrated that friction stir processing of nitinol
however, the cast microstructure has little ductility. Solid-state
plate is feasible using either a PCBN or tungsten-rhenium tool.

235
A slight amount of grain size refinement in the friction stir
processed zone caused an increase in strength and a decrease a b
in the Af transformation temperature compared to the base
metal. Further, friction stir processed nitinol can be hot rolled
at 850°C without cracking. These results point to a promising
process to fabricate nitinol medical devices.

Friction Stir Processing

c d
Friction-stir processing (FSP) is an emerging surface-
engineering technology that can locally eliminate casting
defects and refine microstructures, thereby improving strength
and ductility; increase resistance to corrosion and fatigue;
enhance formability; and improve other properties. FSP can
also produce fine-grained microstructures through the
thickness to impart superplasticity. Similar to FSW, FSP
involves plunging a rapidly rotating, non-consumable tool, Figure 6: Microstructural morphologies in NiAl bronze a) as-
comprising a profiled pin and larger diameter shoulder, into cast, b) Lamellar, c) fine grain, and d) Widmannstätten
the surface and then traversing the tool across the surface. structures after FSP.
Large surface areas can be traversed rapidly by using the
appropriate tool design accompanied by rastering. FSP zones
can be produced to depths of 0.5 to 50mm, with a gradual Table 2 Hardness and mechanical properties for friction stir
transition from a fine-grained, thermodynamically worked processed NiAl bronze.*
microstructure to the underlying original microstructure. FSP Line NAB Hardness Elong. YS UTS
has been applied to Al, Cu, Fe, and Ni-based alloys with Microstructure RB (%) (MPa) (MPa)
resulting property improvements. Details of the benefits and A As-Cast (1) 68-75 20 214 445
limitations of FSP, along with examples of current and B Lamellar 92 --- 480 756
C Fine Grain 91 23 508 776
potential applications, are presented below.
D Widmannstätten 93 20 572 823
Cast NiAl Bronze *Line A illustrates properties for the as cast NiAl bronze using
One material thoroughly evaluated for property improvements 6mm diameter tensile bars. Lines B, C and D are properties
via FSP is a cast NiAl bronze (NAB) of nominal composition developed with mini-tensile samples with gage area 0.5 mm2
(Cu-4Ni-9Al-4Fe-1.2Mn-0.15Zn).[14-16] The three dominant and illustrate properties in the long transverse direction for
microstructures created in NAB by FSP are illustrated in individual microstructures.
Figures 6b-6d and are in sharp contrast to the coarse as-cast
NAB microstructure illustrated in Figure 6a. Details of these Maximum strength likely would emanate from a single,
FSP microstructures are presented elsewhere and include homogeneous Widmannstätten microstructure. Figure 7
orientation imaging analysis, transmission electron illustrates a 27mm deep FSP zone created from two passes
microscopy, and discussions of the microstructural and second where a homogeneous Widmannstätten microstructure was
phase evolution.[16] Briefly, Figure 6b illustrates a lamellar or created. Using large diameter test bars, the corresponding
banded microstructure. Figure 6c illustrates a recrystallized, properties for this sample include a strain to failure of 24%,
equiaxed fine grain microstructure likely with the same phases yield strength of 591 MPa, and a tensile strength of 824 MPa.
present as with the lamellar structure but as discreet grains as These results are essentially equivalent to the mechanical
opposed to the bands. Figure 6d illustrates a Widmannstätten properties demonstrated with the mini tensile samples for this
or basket-weave microstructure. same microstructure.

Table 2 tabulates hardness and mechanical property results for

the three different FSP microstructures created in NAB. Yield
and tensile strengths for the as-cast NAB are 214 MPa and 445
MPa respectively. In comparison, following FSP, lines B and
C, table 2, yield strength is more than double and tensile
strength increases by 70% to 85% for the lamellar and fine
grain microstructures. Further strength increases are realized
with the Widmannstätten morphology. These dramatic
property increases reflect the refined multi-phase
homogeneous microstructure and the absence of casting
porosity following friction stir processing.

236
 a a
b
Figure 7: Friction stir processed zone in NiAl bronze with a
uniform and refined Widmannstätten microstructure (2-
passes).
Cast Aluminum
Typically, aluminum castings contain porosity, and coarse
inhomogeneous microstructures (Figure 8a). These
undesirable features result in low strength and ductility, poor
corrosion resistance, and limited fatigue life. Following FSP,
casting porosity is eliminated and a relatively homogeneous,
fully recrystallized fine-grain microstructure is created (Figure
8b). Tensile strength is increased to 34MPa (an 18% increase)
and strain to failure increased from 3% to 17% due to
microstructural refinement and the removal of casting
porosity. It is not practical to FSP an entire, complex shaped
casting. However, at selected locations where property
improvements could enhance the service life or performance
of a structure, it would be possible to “locally” FSP. In
aluminum alloys, FSP can be applied to the surface to a depth
as low as 0.5 mm or as deep as 50 mm.
237
b
Figure 8: (a) As-cast A356 Al illustrating casting porosity and
a dendritic microstructure with course primary Si plates, and
(b) FSP A-356 aluminum showing a more refined
microstructure.
Thick Section Bending
Enhanced room temperature bending of 25mm thick 2519 T87
Al has been demonstrated. [17] A different surface
engineering application for FSP is room temperature
formability in thick aluminum plate. For this application of
FSP, a large surface area is friction stir processed. By rastering
the FSP tool forward and back until the surface area that
subsequently experiences high tensile stresses during bending
has been processed. FSP provides two major changes: 1) the
creation of a fine grain microstructure with increased ductility,
and 2) the surface is essentially annealed without significantly
changing properties of the unprocessed metal.
Figure 9 illustrates an example whereby the FSP tool pin
penetrated 6 mm into a 25mm thick 2519 T-87 aluminum
plate (nominal composition Al-6Cu-0.2Mg-.2Zr). Following
FSP, the plate was bent at room temperature to 80º without
cracking. For comparison, as-received plate was bent using the
same procedure and failed after approximately 30º. This
FSP/bending process could replace conventional techniques
where a structure is fabricated by fusion welding thick plates
into a complex shape.
 a

a b c
Figure 11. Cone test specimens:(a) non FSP- formed at 1.03
MPa for 95 minutes; (b) FSP-formed at 1.03 MPa for 18
minutes; and (c) FSP –formed at 0.69 MPa for49 minutes.
b
The significance of this “thick” sheet superplasticity should be
emphasized. The results presented above are for 5 mm thick
7050 Al. In recent work at Rockwell Scientific, FSP enhanced
superplasticity has been demonstrated in 12 mm thick 7050
Al. In this case, uniform elongations over 600% were
achieved in friction stir processed 7050 Al. For reference,
superplasticity in Al alloys is generally limited to a thickness
<3 mm. It would not be practical to friction stir process an
entire sheet, but it can be practical to friction stir process in
selected location only where superplastic properties are
required. This is demonstrated in the part shown in Figure 12
where a friction stir processed “zone” was created in a large 5
Figure 9: a) Room temperature bending of 25 mm thick 2519 mm thick 7475 Al sheet. Following FSP, the locations
T87 aluminum plate to 80º following FSP to a depth of 6 mm, requiring extended superplasticity are fully formed (Figure
and b) fracture of as-received plate at a 30º bend. 13a), as compared to the conventional superplastic material
where the corners and edges are not fully formed (Figure 13b).
Superplasticity
The discussion on Ti alloys illustrated the ability to maintain
superplastic properties following FSW. However, FSP can be
used to “create” superplasticity.[18-20] Mahoney et al.,
demonstrated a high uniform elongation (>800%) in thick
section (5 mm thick) 7050 Al following FSP (Figure 10).
Further, the very fine microstructure (3-5µm) created by FSP
is stable at elevated temperature and is superplastic at both a
lower temperature and higher strain rate than conventionally
processed fine grain 7050 Al. The higher strain rate response
is illustrated in Figure 11 where gas pressure forming was
used to form cones in 5 mm thick 7050 Al. A conventional
superplastic 7050 Al alloy, using a gas pressure of 1.03 MPa
(150 psi), required 95 minutes to completely form the cone. In
comparison, for the friction stir processed 7050 Al at the same
pressure the cone formed in 18 minutes. Conversely, when the
pressure is reduced to 0.69 MPa (100 psi), friction stir
processed 7050 Al formed in 49 minutes; i.e., <half the time
for the conventionally fine grain processed 7050 Al. FSP Zone

Figure 12: Friction stir processing of a selected location in a

Figure 10: Superplastic elongation (>800%) in 5 mm thick
large sheet of 5 mm thick 7475 Al for extended superplasticity.
7050 Al created by friction stir processing.

238
 a
b September 2001, Kobe, Japan
Figure 13: Illustration of (a) complete edge and corner
superplastic forming following FSP versus (b) incomplete
forming without FSP (7475 Al).
Observations
Friction stir welding and processing (FSW/P) has advanced
beyond Al and other low temperature metals to the high
temperature Fe, Ti, and Ni base alloys. FSW/P of high
temperature metals is not just a laboratory demonstration but
has commercial potential. This technology advancement has
been made possible by development of new FSW/P tool
materials and designs. We are just now beginning to realize
additional benefits attributable to FSW/P. Some of the more
recent and significant benefits demonstrated to date include no
harmful emissions, new methods to fabricate components, and
the ability to locally tailor properties such that a structure can
perform better in its environment. This author is convinced
that the potential for further growth in friction stir welding /
processing is considerable.
239
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11. American Heart Association. “Stent Procedure” 2004
online at http://www.americanheart.org
12. Hodgson, D., “Fabrication, Heat Treatment and Joining
of Nitinol Components”, SMST- 2000 Proceedings of the
International Conference on Shape Memory and
Superelastic Technologies, (2001): 11-24.
13. B. London, J. Fino, A. Pelton, C. Fuller, and M.
Mahoney, “Friction Stir Processing of Nitinol”, Friction
Stir Welding and Processing III, Editors K. Jata, M.
Mahoney, R. Mishra, and T. Lienert, Proceedings of the
2005 TMS Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, Feb.
2005, pp.67-74.
14. M. Mahoney, W. Bingel, S. Sharma, and R. Mishra,
“Microstructural Modification and Resultant Properties
of Friction Stir Processed Cast NiAl Bronze”, Materials
 Science Forum, THERMEC’2003, Vols.426-432, pp.
2843-2848.
15. L. Christodoulou, W. Palko, and C. Fuller, “Equipment
and Processing Variables Affecting the Friction Stir
Processing on NiAl Bronze”, Proceedings of the 2005
TMS Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, Feb. 2005,
pp.57-66.
16. K. Oh-ishi, A. Cuevas, D. Swisher, and T. McNelley,
“The Influence of Friction Stir Processing on
Microstructure and Properties of a cast Nickel Aluminum
Bronze Materia”l, Materials Science Forum,
THERMEC’2003, Vols. 426-432, pp. 2885-2890.
17. M. Miles, M. Mahoney, T. Nelson, and R. Mishra, “Finite
Element Simulation of Plane-Strain Thick Plate Bending
of Friction-Stir Processed 2519 Aluminum”, TMS
240
Proceedings Friction Stir Welding and Processing II,
March 2003, pp. 253-258.
18. R. Mishra, M. Mahoney, S. McFadden, N. Mara, and A.
Mukheerjee, “High Strain Rate Superplasticity in a
Friction Stir Processed 7075 Al Alloy”, Scripta Mater. 42
(2000) 163-168.
19. M. Mahoney, R. Mishra, T. Nelson, J. Flintoff, R.
Islamgaliev, and Y Hovansky, “High Strain Rate, Thick
Section Superplasticity Created Via Friction Stir
Processing”, TMS Proceedings, Friction Stir Welding
and Processing, Nov. 2001, pp. 183-194.
20. I. Charit, R. Mishra, and K. Jata, “Superplastic Behaviour
of Friction Stir Processed Aluminum-Lithium Alloy”,
TMS Proceedings, Friction Stir Welding and Processing,
Nov. 2001, pp. 225-234.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
TORQUE AND PLUNGE FORCE DURING
THE PLUNGE PHASE OF FRICTION STIR WELDING
Arthur Nunes
NASA, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
John McClure, Ricardo Ávila
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, The University of Texas at El Paso, TX
Keywords: Friction Stir Welding, Forces, Aluminum Welding, Force Modeling
Abstract
Torque and plunge force during the initial
plunge phase in Friction Stir Welding were measured
for a 0.5 inch diameter pin entering a 2219 aluminum
alloy plate. Weld structures were preserved for
metallographic observation by making emergency
stops at various plunge depths.
The plunging pin tool is seen to be
surrounded by a very fine grained layer of
recrystallized metal extending substantially below the
bottom of the pin, implying a shear interface in the
metal below and not at the tool-metal interface.
Torque and plunge force during the initial
plunge phase in Friction Stir Welding are calculated
from a straightforward model based on a concept to
plastic flow in the vicinity of the plunging tool
compatible with structural observations. The
concept: a disk of weld metal seized to and rotating
with the bottom of the pin is squeezed out laterally by
the plunge force and extruded upwards in a hollow
cylinder around the tool. As the shear surface
separating rotating disk from stationary weld metal
engulfs fresh metal, the fresh metal is subjected to
severe shear deformation, which results in its
recrystallization. Encouraging agreement between
computations and measured torque and plunge force
is obtained.
Introduction
The many advantages of Friction Stir
Welding1 have led to a relatively rapid acceptance in
the often conservative welding community2, 3.
Because the process is so different from traditional
fusion welding, with which most investigators are
most familiar, there remain many aspects of FSW for
which there is no clear consensus.
For example, the well known onion rings4
seen in transverse sections have been variously
interpreted as grain size variations5, variation in
density of second phase particles6 and parts of the
“carousel” of material rotating with the pin that have
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
been shed from the carousel7. Using Orientation
Imaging Microscopy, Schneider8 has recently noted
that the onion rings have a different orientation (and
hence etch differently) than the surrounding material,
and this orientation is consistent with slip plane
orientations at the edge of the carousel.
Likewise, the forces and torque exerted by
the FSW tool on the work piece largely remain
unaccounted for. Although these forces are routinely
measured by investigators with commercial
instrumented welders, they are rarely reported9 or
even qualitatively analyzed.10
This paper will introduce a model based on a
“carousel” or disk of material that rotates with the
tool to estimate the torque and plunge force required
to plunge a tool into the work piece. A stationary
tool is modeled rather than the moving tool because
effects such as thermal transients and metallurgical
changes in the sample (primarily aging in aluminum)
can be more easily accounted for. It is believed,
however, that with some modifications the model
should be applicable to a moving tool also.
Experimental Procedure
Plunging penetrations were made on the
horizontal weld tool at Marshall Space Flight Center
on 2219 aluminum (nominal composition 6.3 % Cu,
.3% Mn balance aluminum). The work piece was
0.40in (1.0 cm) thick. The pin tool was threaded
(20/in or 7.8/cm) and was 0.490 in (1.24cm) in
diameter and .375 in. (0.95cm) long with a flat
bottom. The tool shoulder was 1.20 in. (3.0 cm) in
diameter and slightly concave to the work piece.
Penetrations were made to various plunge
depths, measured from the tip of the pin, of 0.1 in
(0.25 cm) to 0.388 in (0.98cm). The latter plunge
submerged the shoulder and is typical of the plunge
that would have been used to make a weld. After the
desired plunge depth was attained, the welder was
emergency stopped to freeze the pin in the sample.
The sample was then unscrewed from the pin to
preserve the structure.
241
 Plunge speeds were 0.1 in/min or 0.2 in/min
(0.0042 to .0084 cm/sec) and the tool rotational speed
was varied from 200 rpm to 400 rpm with most
plunges made at 300 rpm. Motor torque, plunge
force, and plunge depth were recorded during the
experiment.
Samples were cut, polished, and etched with
Keller’s Solution for metallographic inspection.

Results and Discussion Figure 2 Low magnification cross section

of sample plunged to 0.2 inches. Note light etching
Fig. 1 shows plunge force versus plunge material surrounding pin fossil some of which is
depth for 200 rpm, 300 rpm, and 400 rpm plunges all extruded onto the surface. The thin “tail” of
made at 0.1 in/min (0.042 cm/sec). Also included is metal seen on left side of pin fossil was the first
a plunge at 300 rpm made twice as fast at 0.2 in/min. part extruded. Sample is 0.40 in thick.
(0.0084 cm/min).
The cooler welds (made at 200 rpm and the Fig. 2 shows a low magnification
fast plunge at 300 rpm) require the greatest plunge micrograph of the 400 rpm sample after the pin tool
force because they have undergone the least heating was stopped and removed. It is seen that the pin
and the weld metal has the highest flow stress. The fossil is surrounded by a shiny, fine grained region of
first thin piece of extruded metal (seen on the left recrystallized grains. This is similar to the
side of Fig. 2) does not appear until a plunge depth of carousel7,11 seen on fully plunged welds. Fig. 3
approximately 0.07 in. Beyond this depth, all plunge shows higher magnification micrographs of regions
forces decreased or remained nearly constant (in the around the weld fossil.
case of the 400 rpm sample) as thermal equilibrium The “tail” seen on the left side of Fig. 3
was established and material properties stabilized and bottom is the first material extruded as the tool is
flow stress decreased. Thus, only the 400 rpm plunged and is a record of the thickness of the fine
sample exhibited steady state behavior and will be grained region as plunge advanced. This material is
the focus of this work. easily seen by the welder during plunge and does not
PLUNGE FORCE AND PLUNGE DEPTH rotate with the tool.
10000
Fig. 4 shows the pin tool torque (not motor
9000
torque) as a function of weld depth. Again the 400
8000
rpm sample shows approximately depth independent
torque after 0.07 inches of plunge and appears to be
PLUNGE FORCE LBS

7000

6000 at steady state. The other cooler samples require more

5000 torque, and the slope of their curves decreases as
4000 temperature increases because steady state conditions
3000
SLOW PLUNGE 300 RPM are reached more rapidly by the hotter samples. The
FAST PLUNGE 300 RPM
2000
200 RPM SLOW PLUNGE initial rapid increase
1000 400 RPM SLOW PLUNGE
CALCULATED PLUNGE FORCE
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
PLUNGE DEPTH IN.

Figure 1 Plunge force versus plunge depth for

plunges of 200, 300, and 400 rpm all made at 0.10
in/min. Also shown is a plunge at 300 rpm made
twice as fast at .20 in/min. Note that the 400 rpm
sample has approximately constant plunge force
beyond .08 in. The Calculated Plunge Force is
discussed later and should be compared to the 400
rpm data at plunges greater than 0.08 in.

242
 model presented in this work, all this deformation
takes place in a circular disk of material below the
pin tool. This disk rotates with the pin tool and
accretes material into the disk as the pin tool plunges.
At the same time, material is squeezed out from the
edges of this disk and rises along the sides of the pin
tool. Only the region directly below the pin tool
actually rotates. As mentioned above, material
extruded during weld is seen to remain fixed to the
work piece and does not rotate with the tool.
That there is a shear surface (the plane
dividing the recrystallized and non-recrystallized
material) below the tool is apparent from the sharply
defined onset of recrystallized metal below the tool.
This surface seen in Figure 2 is curved, but for
simplicity will be represented as flat. Note that shear
between rotating disk below the pin takes place
between the rotating disk and the non-recrystallized
material both on the flat surface of the disk and on its
curved outer periphery.
As the tool descends the shear surface
descends, and metal enters the rotating disk to be
recrystallized and squeezed out at the sides and up
along the tool to the free surface. In Figure 2 the
extruded annular cylinder has roughly the same
thickness as the rotating plug of metal and comprises
Figure 3 Higher magnification micrographs of chiefly recrystallized metal. The extruded cylinder
Fig. 2 showing lower corner of fossil (above) and does not rotate, at least at the upper surface, where it
extruded material on left side. Note both can be observed. It is assumed that the lower threads
deformed unrecrystallized grains and fine deflect the upward flow so that contact between
recrystallized grains that have been extruded by metal and tool is limited and negligible on the inside
the tool. The fine grains are equiaxed and about 5 (the side against the pin tool) of the annular cylinder.
microns in size.

in torque (Fig. 4) and plunge force (Fig. 1) below a. Incipient

Phase
0.01in of plunge is thought to be of mechanical origin
as the welder engages the work piece.
TORQUE VERSUS PLUNGE DEPTH

60 Metal Rotating
Shear Surface with Tool
300 RPM SLOW PLUNGE
50 200 RPM SLOW PLUNGE
400 RPM SLOW PLUNGE
300 RPM FAST PLUNGE
b. Penetrating
40 Phase
TORQUE FT-LBS

30
Cylinder of
20 Extruded
Metal
10
(Non-Rotating)

0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 Shear Surface Metal Rotating
PLUNGE DEPTH IN.
with Tool
Figure 4 Measured torque during plunge for Figure 5 Idealization of weld metal flow
various rotational rates and plunge speeds. configuration in the vicinity of the penetrating
The metal flow configuration around the friction stir tool.
initially penetrating friction stir welding tool is
sketched in Figure 5. The fine grained material seen The shear stress τ opposing motion at a
surrounding the pin tool fossil in Fig. 2 is evidence shearing interface is a function of temperature and
that material has undergone a very large deformation strain rate. To simplify the analysis, we will assume
to promote this recrystallization. According to the that the temperature is the same over all the shearing

243
surfaces. The spindle torque M can be or
roughly estimated according to the relation: ⎡ ⎛ R ⎞ ⎤
R
2π R 3 ⎛ h⎞ ⎢ ⎜ 1+ h ⎟ R δ ⎥ (4)
M = ∫ 2π r 2τ dr + 2π R 2 hτ = ⎜1 + 3 ⎟τ (1) P2 = P1 + 2τ = 2τ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
0
3 ⎝ R⎠ ⎢ ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 R ⎟⎟ h R ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ h⎠ ⎥⎦
M is the torque, R is the pin tool radius, h is the
thickness of the rotating disk, and τ is the shear Equilibrium of a ring element of radius r,
stress of the material. height h and thickness dr of the cylindrical plug of
The first term comes from torque due to metal requires:
motion of the flat circular face of the disk and the 2rh dP = −2(2τ ) hdr − 2r (2τdr ) (5)
second term comes from shear between the The first term on the right is the plastic hoop stress;
circumference of the disk and the surrounding the second, shear resistance to flow at the bottom
material. If R is 0.25-inches and h/R is surface of the disk. Hence
approximately 0.3 (from Figure 2) then for the steady R ⎛ r⎞
state torque of 22.5 ft-lbs of the 400 rpm data in Fig. P = P2 + 2τ ln + 2τ ⎜1 − ⎟
4, τ is approximately 4,500 psi. (31 MPa). r ⎝ R⎠
Colder penetrations (lower RPM and faster This pressure must be integrated over the area of the
plunge speeds) show some increase in torque with disk to obtain a force.
penetration depth as well as the anticipated higher ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞⎤
R
R
τ . This is thought to be due to increased friction Fz = ∫ 2πr ⎢ P2 + 2τ ln + 2τ ⎜1 − ⎟⎥ dr
between tool and work piece at the threads. Colder 0 ⎣ r ⎝ R ⎠⎦
and harder material is more difficult to deflect from ⎡ ⎛ R ⎞ ⎤
the threads. In situations where the rise in torque ⎛1 5 ⎞ ⎢11 ⎜ 1 + h ⎟ R δ ⎥ (6)
= 2πR ⎜ P2 + τ ⎟ = 2πR 2τ
2
⎢ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
with penetration is greater, the imprint of the threads ⎝ 2 6 ⎠ ⎢ 6 ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 R ⎟⎟ h R ⎥
in sections such as shown in Figure 2 is more defined ⎣⎢ ⎝ h⎠ ⎥⎦
There are several forces that the pin tool
must overcome in order to penetrate. In particular,
the plunge force must be able to squeeze the material
in the rotating disk below the pin out to the sides. τ
This requires overcoming a radial shear force
between the pin tool and the disk as well as
expanding the disk itself which requires overcoming P1
a hoop force within the disk. An additional force is
required to bend the disk around the corner of the P1
tool so that it can rise. Lastly, the force necessary to P2
push the material upward along the shear surface τ
between the cylindrical annulus of recrystallized
material and the parent metal must be supplied. P
To calculate the plunge force, free body
diagrams with stresses (not forces) are shown in P2
Figure 6 which permits a calculation of the plunge
force Fz . This Vertical equilibrium on the annular
extruded cylinder requires that

[ ]
π (R + h )2 − R 2 P1 = 2π (R + h )δτ (2a)
Figure 6 Free body diagrams for flow elements in
the vicinity of the penetrating friction stir tool.
or If the same value of shear stress calculated from the
⎛ R ⎞ torque (4500 psi) is inserted in (7) a value of plunge
⎜ 1+ ⎟ R δ force in good agreement with experimental results is
P1 = 2 ⎜ h ⎟ τ (2b) obtained. See “Calculated Plunge Force” in Fig. 1.
⎜1+ 2 R ⎟ h R
⎜ ⎟ Note that if h (the thickness of the
⎝ h⎠ recrystallized disk) is very small, the second term in
Eq. 6 can dominate and the plunge force will be
Equilibrium of the corner element requires dependent on the plunge distance, δ . Such
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
P2⎜ ⎟ = P1⎜ ⎟ + 2τ (3) dependence is seen from 0.01 inch plunge to 0.08
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ inch in Fig. 1. The material extruded in the “tail”
seen in Fig. 2 is only 0.001 in. (0.0025 cm) thick and

244
is probably representative of the thickness of the
rotating disk in the early stages of plunge, so the resultant joint properties”. Proceedings of the Symposium
sharp increase at low plunges in Fig. 1 is not on Friction Stir Welding and Processing, 15-23, Eds. K.
unexpected. V. Jata, M. W. Mahoney, R. S. Mishura, S. L. Semiatin,
and D. P. Field, TMS 2001, Indianapolis, Indiana,
November 5-7, 2001.
Conclusions 10
M. Melendez, J.C. McClure, A. Nunes, “Forces During
Friction Stir Welding”, International Materials Conference,
1. The FSW plunge phase torque is that Cancun, Mexico, 2002.
11
required to rotate a disk of material which Coronado, E., “Effect of Pin Tool Shape on Friction Stir
rotates with the pin directly below it. Welds” M.S. Thesis, University of Texas El Paso, 2002.
2. This disk is formed of recrystallized metal
that was deformed by the pin tool abrasion
against the parent metal. As plunge
continue, more material is added to this
layer until an equilibrium thickness sets in
after about .08 in. of plunge.
3. The plunge force required in FSW is the
force needed to deform in an outward
direction this disk so that it can rise along
the pin and eventually be expelled at the
surface of the work piece.
4. The shear stress calculated from torque
measurements and separately from plunge
force measurements agree quite well, and is
typical of metals a few hundred degrees
below their melting point.

Acknowledgements

The authors recognize the generous support

of Marshall Space Flight Center for support during
the summer of 2004. Without the metallographic
skills of Wendell DeWeese of Marshall Space Flight
Center this work would not have been possible.

1
W.M. Thomas, E.D. Nicholas, L.C. Needham, M.G.
Murch, P. Templesmith, and J.C. Dawes: International
Patent Application No. PCT/GB92/02203; G.B. Patent
Appication No. 9125978.8, 1991 and U.S. Patent
No.5,460317,1995.
2
O.T. Midling, J.S.. Kvale, and O. Dahl, Proc. 1st Int.
Symposium on Fricton Stir Welding, Thousand Oaks, CA,
June 1999.
3
The Welding Institute web site keeps a current list of
applications. See
http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/unprotected/band_1/fswapp.htm
l
4
K.N. Krishnan, Mater. Sci. Eng., 2002, Vol. A327, pp.
246-251.
5
H. Jin, S. Saimoto, M. Ball, P.L. Threadgill, Mat. Sci. and
Tech., 2001, vol 17, pp 1605-1614.
6
M.A. Sutton, B. Yang, A.P. Reynolds, Taylor, R., Mat.
Sci. & Engr., Vol. A323, 2002, pp. 160-166.
7
Guerra. M., op cit.
8
J.A. Schneider, A.C. Nunes Characterization of Plastic
Flow and Resulting Micro Textures in Friction Stir Welds,
Mat. & Met. B, April 2004.
9
A. P. Reynolds, Wei Tang, “Alloy, tool geometry, and
process parameter effects on friction stir weld energies and

245
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Development of a Heat Input Model for Friction Stir Welding

J.W. Pew, J.H. Record, T.W. Nelson, C.D. Sorensen
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

Abstract tool then dwells for a short period of time. Frictional heat is
generated between the material and the rotating tool. Third,
For decades, models have been developed for predicting the the tool travels along the joint of the material (Fig. 2). The
size of the weld nugget and heat affected zones in fusion frictional heat softens the material allowing the material to
welding processes. The basis for these models is the welding flow from the leading to the trailing edges of the tool. The stir
heat input, which is fairly well understood for most arc material is then consolidated under the additional heat and
welding processes. However, this traditional approach is not pressure of the shoulder, welding the two pieces of metal. In
as straight forward in Friction Stir Welding (FSW) which has the final stage, the rotating tool is extracted from the material.
proven to be an effective process for joining aluminum and
other materials. During the past decade, some investigators
have proposed that heat input in FSW is proportional to
Pin
rotational speed and the travel speed. Others have suggested
that it is related to the square of the rotational speed. To date,
there is no definitive relationship to quantify the heat input for
FSW. It is essential that these relationships be characterize
such that a process efficiency and heat input can be Shoulder
established. A fundamental study was undertaken to determine
essential process variables and their relationship to process
heat input. Initial investigations indicate that spindle speed,
travel speed and depth of tool are the most important factors
contributing to heat input. Detailed results of this study will be
described.

Introduction
Figure 1: Typical tool geometry showing the key components.
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a novel method of joining
metals patented by The Welding Institute in England in 1991
[1]. The process has proved successful in joining a variety of
materials such as aluminum, copper, steel, stainless steel,
titanium, and nickel-based alloys. Benefits of FSW include
increased weld strength, no harmful gasses, no porosity or
inclusions, and little or no distortion.

A typical FSW tool (Fig. 1) consists of a small cylinder (the a) b) c)

pin) protruding from a larger cylinder (the shoulder). The tool
is made of a material that is harder than the material being
joined and is not consumed during the process.
The process consists of three main steps. First, the rotating
tool is plunged into the interface between two materials until
the shoulder touches the surface of the material. Second, the
Figure 2: a) The plunge sequence b) dwell sequence c)
traverse sequence
Literature Review
There have been a number of papers in the literature that have
attempted, in various ways, to model the heat input of FSW.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 247

The first of these attempted to do so through some welding process [21-22]. Spindle speed, feed rate and tool
modification of the Rosenthal equation, which is used to depth were found to be the most dominate parameters as
predict the heat input in conventional arc welds [2-5]. This determined from previous work.
approach, however, required the use of temperature
independent material properties and did not consider tool
geometry [6]. Pin
A large number of authors have attempted to solve the heat
input problem by using Finite Element Analysis [6-17]. Many Tool
of the first attempts at using FEM analysis required a large Qtool
number of simplifications, were only valid for a narrow range
of parameters, and only considered two dimensional heat flow
[6-8]. Later models [9-11] expanded to include three- Material Qweld
dimensional heat flow, but still were only valid for a specific
range of parameters.
Anvil
Some FEM models included torque as a parameter [12, 15] in Qanvil
order to increase the ability of the program to fit a wider range Figure 3: Cross sectional view of the weld showing energy
of parameters. The problem with this method is that current balance.
research indicates that torque is not a constant function of feed
rate and spindle speed. The latest models include parameters All three factors were assigned different values as shown in
such as the contact interface between the work piece and the Table 1. The high and low values represented the extremes at
anvil as well as the work piece and the tool [13, 14, 16-17]. which the FSW process consistently produced sound welds.
Despite these efforts, many models still assume material The third value was chosen as a middle point between the
properties to be constant over the entire range of the weld prior values. In order to clarify, tool depth refers to how far
thermal cycle. the tip of the pin was from the surface of the material. The tool
used for this test had a pin length of 4.63mm, a pin diameter of
Other approaches [18-20] have attempted to bypass the 7.9mm, a shoulder diameter of 25mm, and a shoulder
complexity of these mathematically based models. These concavity angle of 6 degrees. The pin was threaded with a
models simply measure and quantify the effects that one or pitch of 0.91mm/thread.
several parameters have on the process. For example, several
authors [18-19] have reported that increased spindle speed Table 1: DOE levels used for the first set of tests [21,22].
results in increased forces and temperatures. Other authors
[20-22] have shown that these simplified models only apply to High Medium Low
Factor
a small range of parameters. (level 3) (level 2) (level 1)
Spindle Speed (rpm) 500 350 200
The amount of heat transferred to the material depends on the Feed Rate (mm/min) 305 178 51
efficiency of the power input. The power required to Tool depth (mm) -4.83 -4.67 -4.52
successfully friction stir weld a material is a function of
various parameters that include (but may not be limited to) the
material type and thickness, feed rate, spindle speed, tool In the second set of tests, the spindle speed was continuously
geometry, tool tilt, and depth of the tool. Power losses in FSW varied as the feed rate and tool depth were held constant [23].
occur mainly from loss through the tool and anvil (see Figure In order to confirm that the results were not dependent on the
3). The amount of power loss to the tool and anvil may also way the spindle speed was varied, four welds were ran at each
depend of the same parameters listed above. Once it has been feed rate. In two of these welds, the spindle speed was
quantified how each parameter affects the power input and changed by ramping up from 100 rpm to 550 rpm. In the other
heat loss, the amount of heat input into the weld can be two welds, the spindle speed was ramped down from 550 rpm
calculated. to 100 rpm. Five different feed rates were explored ranging
from 50.8 to 127 mm/min. The order of the welds was
Approach randomized so as to minimize the effect of other uncontrolled
variables.
In order to determine the effect that each welding parameter
has on the energy balance, two sets of preliminary tests were In both sets of tests, the same tool geometry was employed.
performed in aluminum alloy 7075-T7351. In the first set of The tool itself was made from H13 tool steel. Thermocouples
tests, a factorial design of experiments (DOE) was created to placed inside of the tool recorded the tool temperatures. The
specifically look at those factors which most influenced the power input and all of the resulting forces and torques were

248
recorded by a data acquisition system. In addition to this, a greatest difference in power occurs between the nominal and
thermal camera was used in the first set of tests to measure the the shallow depth.
heat loss through the tool.
8

Results and Discussion 7.5

500 RPM
7
Although many researchers have attempted to quantify the 350 RPM
power or heat input in terms of a weld pitch (rev/in or rev/in2), 6 .5

Power (kW)
200 RPM
both sets of test show that power was a quadratic function that
6
depends heavily on spindle speed. Only the power used to
rotate the tool was considered, since the power required to 5.5

feed the tool along the weld joint was found to be an order of 5
magnitude smaller. Figure 4 shows the power as a function of
increasing spindle speed at a constant feed rate. The power 4 .5

decreases as the spindle speed increases from 100 to 200 rpm. 4

Near 200 rpm, the power input reaches a minimum. As the 0 50 10 0 150 200 2 50 300 3 50

spindle speed is increased from 200 to 550 rpm, the power Fe e d Rate (m m /s e c)

input steadily increases. Figure 5: Graph showing the effect of feed rate and spindle
speed on the power input.

7 Table 2: The power input (kW) measured at various spindle

DOE speeds, feed rates, and tool depths.
6.5
51mm/min feed rate
6 Tool Power @ Power @ Power @
127mm/min feed rate
Feed Rate
5.5 Depth 200 RPM 350 RPM 500 RPM
51mm/min 4.83mm 4.5 4.8 5.2
Power (kW)

4.5
4.67mm 4.1 4.4 5.1
4.52mm 3.9 4.1 4.9
4

3.5
178mm/min 4.83mm 5.4 6.0 6.6
3 4.67mm 5.1 5.5 6.3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
4.52mm 4.0 5.2 6.0
Spindle Spe e d (rpm )

Figure 4: Graph showing the effect of spindle speed on power 305mm/min 4.83mm 6.2 6.5 7.5
input. Data from the three other continuously variable spindle 4.67mm 5.5 6.0 7.3
speed tests were omitted for clarity in this graph, but these 4.52mm 3.9 5.2 6.4
follow the same trend.

The scatter in the DOE data at the same spindle speed can be
attributed to the different feed rates used in that study. This
data has been replotted in Figure 5 to show that the slower
feed rates correspond with lower power inputs. In general, the
power input seems to increase linearly with increasing feed
rates.
The effect of pin depth on power input is more difficult to
quantify as there is some interaction with the other parameters
(see Table 2). At high spindle speeds and low feed rates, the
effect of tool depth is small enough to be negligible (see the
bold numbers in Table 2). At these parameters, the difference
in tool depth from the nominal causes a 0.1-0.2kW change in
power. However, at low spindle speeds and high feed rates
(see the italicized numbers in Table 2), the tool depth becomes
very significant. At these parameters the difference in tool
depth from the nominal causes a 0.7-1.6kW change in power.
Also, it is interesting to note at these parameters that the
Tool temperature was used as a means of assessing the
thermal evolution in the weld metal. Both the DOE and
continuously variable spindle speed tests showed that the tool
temperature is strongly dependant on spindle speed. As can be
seen in Figure 6, the temperature dependence on spindle speed
in not linear and demonstrates a more logarithmic shape. In
fact, a logarithmic function fits the data with a R2 value
approximately equal to 0.96.
It is interesting to note that above 240rpm there appears to be
a transition in the slope of the data (Figure 6). This correlates
with the change in slope observed at the same spindle speed in
Figure 4. The rate of temperature rise between 100 and 240
rpm (section I, Figure 7) occurs at the rate of 0.46 °C/RPM. In
contrast, the rate of change between 240 and 500 rpm
(section II, Figure 7) occurs at 0.13 °C/RPM. The temperature
seems to reach an asymptote after 500rpm (section III, Figure
7), although there is not enough data to be certain.

249
 spindle speeds, however, the effect of tool depth is much less.
At these spindle speeds a difference in pin depth of .15mm
from the nominal causes a temperature change of 1-5 °C.
485

465 DOE Table 3: The effect of tool depth on temperature (°C) at

445
51mm/min various spindle speeds and feed rates.
127mm/min
425
Temp (C)

Tool Tool Tool

Tool
405 Feed Rate Temp. @ Temp. @ Temp. @
Depth
200 RPM 350 RPM 500 RPM
385
51mm/min 4.83mm 438 464 469
365 4.67mm 422 455 462
345 4.52mm 415 444 463

325
178mm/min 4.83mm 432 463 477
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Spindle Spe e d (rpm ) 4.67mm 428 459 471
4.52mm 401 458 470
Figure 6: Tool temperature as a function of spindle speed.
305mm/min 4.83mm 419 457 476
4.67mm 415 454 468
4.52mm 379 446 464
485

465
R 2 = 0.9908
445 Based on the data from the thermal camera, the amount of heat
ΔT = 0 °C/RPM that is lost through the tool is not affected by any of
425
R 2 = 0.9973 ΔT = .13 °C/RPM
parameters tested. Regardless of feed rate, tool depth or
Temp (C)

405 spindle speed, the amount of heat being transferred to the tool
385
is between 150 and 200 W. For the purpose of determining
I II III overall heat input into the weld, the tool heat loss can be
365
ΔT = .46 °C/RPM considered as a constant at 4% of the total power input.
345

325 Summary
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
RPM

Figure 7: Tool temperature as a function of spindle speed at
76mm/min. The graph has been divided into three sections
with a logarithmic line modeling section I and a linear line
modeling sections II and III.
One possible explanation is that at low spindle speeds (100 to
200 rpm), the shear energy generated is more closely related to
the tool rotation. In contrast, over the range of 200 to 550 rpm
(with this tool geometry) any increase in shear energy is offset
by competing mechanisms. As temperature continues to rise,
there is an increase in the strain rate sensitivity of the material,
e.g. increasing power requirements. However, flow stress
decreases and recrystallization events increase with increasing
temperature. Although the exact relationship is not known,
increasing tool rotational speed in this range produces smaller
increases in tool temperature.
Significant progress has been made in quantifying the heat
input for FSW based on the input parameters. The power input
can be described as having a quadratic relationship with
spindle speed and increasing linearly with feed rate. The effect
of tool depth on the power input is complex, interacting with
the other input parameters. The tool temperature increases
logarithmically with spindle speed and linearly with feed rate.
At high spindle speeds the tool temperature can be considered
independent of tool depth. At low spindle speeds tool depth
becomes an important factor in determining tool temperature.
The amount of heat being transferred to the tool has been
quantified and can be considered as being 4% of the total
power input. In order to complete the heat input model for this
material and tool geometry, the amount of heat being lost
through the anvil must be determined.

The DOE experiment also showed that the depth of the tool
has a significant effect on the tool temperature. Table 3
indicates that the tool depth is especially significant at lower
spindle speeds where a difference in pin depth of .15mm from
the nominal can cause a temperature rise 10-15 °C. At higher
In the future, this model needs to be expanded to see if the
trends listed above are valid in other materials and with other
tool geometries.

250
 References
1. Thomas, M.W., J. Nicholas, J.C. Needham, M.G.
Murch, P. Templesmith, and C.J. Dawes, “Friction
Stir Butt Welding”, GB Patent Application
9125978.8, Dec. 1991, U.S. Patent 5460317, Oct.
1995
2. Russell, M.J., and H.R. Shercliff, “Analytical
Modelling of Friction Stir Welding”, INALCO ’98,
TWI, Cambridge, U.K., 1998
3. McClure, J.C., W. Tang, L.E. Murr, X. Guo, Z. Feng,
J.E. Gould, “A Thermal Model of Friction Stir
Welding”, Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference on Trends in Welding Research, Pine
Mountain, Georgia, June 1998
4. Gould, J.E. and Z. Feng, “Heat Flow Model for
Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys”, Journal
of Materials Processing and Manufacturing Science,
7, 185-194 (1998)
5. Russel, M.J. and H.R. Shercliff, “Analytical
Modelling of Microstructure Development in friction
Stir Welding”, Proceedings of the 1st International
Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, 14-16 June
1999, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA
6. Chao, Y.J. and X. Qi, “Heat Transfer and Thermo-
Mechanical Analysis of Friction Stir Joints of
AA6061-T6 Plates”, Proceedings of the 1st
International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding,
14-16 June 1999, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA
7. Chao, Y.J. and X. Qi, “Thermal and Thermo-
Mechanical Modeling of Friction Stir Welding of
Aluminum Alloy 6061-T6”, Journal of Materials
Processing and Manufacturing Science, 7, 215-233
(1998)
8. Frigaard, Ø., Ø. Grong, B. Bjørneklett, and O.T.
Midling, “Modelling of the Thermal and
Microstructure Fields during Friction Stir Welding of
Aluminum Alloys”, Proceedings of the 1st
International Symposium on Friction Stir Welding,
14-16 June 1999, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA
9. Dong, P., F. Lu, J.K. Hong, and Z. Cao, “Analysis of
Weld Formation Process in Friction Stir Welding”,
Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on
Friction Stir Welding, 14-16 June 1999, Thousand
Oaks, CA, USA
10. Colegrove, P., “Three Dimensional Flow and
Thermal Modelling of the Friction Stir Welding
Process”, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, 26-28 June
2000, Gothenburg, Sweden
11. Song, M., R. Kovacevic, J. Ouyang, and Mike
Valant, “A Detailed Three-Dimensional Transient
Heat Transfer Model For Friction Stir Welding”, 6th
International Trends in Welding Research
Conference Proceedings, 15-19 April 2002, Pine
Mountain, GA, pp. 212-217
251
12. Zahedul, M., H. Khandkar, J.A. Khan, and Anthony
P. Reynolds, 6th International Trends in Welding
Research Conference Proceedings, 15-19 April 2002,
Pine Mountain, GA, pp. 218-223
13. Song, M. and R. Kovacevic, “Numerical and
Experimental Study of the Heat Transfer Process in
Friction Stir Welding”, Proceedings of the Instn. of
Mechanical Engineer, Part B: Journal of Engineering
Manufacture, 217, 73-85 (2003)
14. Song, M. and R. Kovacevic, “Thermal Modeling of
Friction Stir Welding in a Moving Coordinate System
and Its Validation”, International Journal of Machine
Tools and Manufacture, 43, 605-615 (2003)
15. Khandkar, M.Z.H., J.A. Khan, and A.P. Reynolds,
“Prediction of Temperature Distribution and Thermal
History During Friction Stir Welding: Input Torque
Based Model”, Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining, 8, 165-174 (2003)
16. Schmidt, H., J. Hattel and J. Wert, “An Analytical
Model for the Heat Generation in Friction Stir
Welding”, Modelling and Simulation in Material
Science and Engineering, 12, 143-157 (2004)
17. Schmidt, H.N.B. and J. Hattel, “Heat Source Models
in Simulation of Heat Flow in Friction Stir Welding”,
International Journal of Offshore and Polar
Engineering, 14, 296-304 (2004)
18. Tang, W., X. Guo, J.C. McClure and L.E. Murr,
“Heat Input and Temperature Distribution in Friction
Stir Welding”, Journal of Materials Processing and
Manufacturing Science, 7, 163-172 (1998)
19. Midling, O.T. and G. Rørvik, “Effect of Tool
Shoulder Material on Heat Input During Friction Stir
Welding”, Proceedings of the 1st International
Symposium on Friction Stir Welding, 14-16 June
1999, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA
20. Reynolds, A.P., Z. Khandkar, T. Long, W. Tang, and
J. Khan, “Utility of Relatively Simple Models for
Understanding Process Parameter Effects on Friction
Stir Welding”, Materials Science Forum, Vols. 426-
432, 2959-2694 (2003)
21. J. Record, Statistical Investigation of Friction Stir
Processing Parameter Relationship, Brigham Young
University, Provo, UT (2005)
22. J. Record, J. Covington, B.W. Webb, T.W. Nelson,
Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on
Friction Stir Welding, Metz, FR, September 2004
23. Reynolds, A.P., ONR Workshop on Friction Stir
Welding, February 2004.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Quantifying the material processing conditions for an optimized FSW process

J.A. Schneider
Mississippi State University, Mechanical Engineering Department,
PO Box ME, 210 Carpenter Engineering Bldg,
Mississippi State, MS 39762 USA

A.C. Nunes, Jr.

NASA-Marshall Space Flight Center,
Materials, Processes and Manufacturing of Metallic Materials,
EM33, Huntsville, AL 35812 USA

Abstract
In friction stir welding (FSW), a rotating threaded pin tool is
inserted into a weld seam, literally stirring the edges of the
seam together. This environmentally friendly, solid-state
technique has been successfully used in the joining of
materials that are difficult to fusion weld. To determine
optimal processing parameters for producing a defect free
weld, a better understanding of the resulting metal
deformation flow path or paths is required. In this study, wire
markers are used to trace the streamline flow paths of the
metal. X-ray radiographs are used to record the post weld
segmentation and position of the wire. The post weld position
of markers will be used to evaluate the effect of the weld
parameters on the entrainment of the metal into the different
flow paths.
Introduction
Several FSW flow visualization studies have been reported in
the literature using either dissimilar materials or tracer
techniques. Initial research by Li, et. al., [1, 2] described
patterns observed on differentially etched FSW transverse
sections made between dissimilar Al alloys as a "chaotic-
dynamic mixing". Later Colligan [3] traced the metal flow
path using embedded steel shot (0.38mm dia.) seeded along a
groove in the weld panel joint at various positions. Post-weld
x-ray inspection showed an orderly position of the shot and
indicated that while some of the metal flow was stirred and
forced downward by the pin threads, some of the metal flow
was simply rotated from front to back of the pin tool.
With an eye to Colligan's study [3], a model was proposed to
explain the metal flow invoking three incompressible flow
fields that combine to form two distinct currents [4]. In this
model a rigid body rotation field imposed by the axial rotation
of the pin tool is modified by a superimposed ring vortex field
encircling the pin imposed by the pitch of the weld pin
threads. These two flow fields are then uniformly translated
down the length of the weld panel. Metal not entrained in the
ring vortex flow, simply passes around the pin tool in a
straight through current while metal entrained in the ring
vortex flow experiences a higher degree of thermo-mechanical
processing as it may pass around the pin tool multiple times.
The reported flow marker studies [1-7] have indicated that the
flow field around a FSW tool, although complicated, is orderly
and not chaotic. The weld metal appears to flow along
defined paths or streamlines. Correlation of the streamline
flow with the weld parameters would enable the selection of
FSW parameters to be based on deformation processing
conditions of strain and strain rate at a given temperature.
This study offers an extension of previous marker studies to
correlate the variation in weld parameters with variations in
flow streams in an effort to determine the influence on
optimized FSW joints.
Experimental Procedure
Rolled panels, 610mm (24”) long, of aluminum alloy 2195-
T81 and 2219-T87 were used in this study. A tungsten wire,
0.025mm (0.001") in diameter was positioned in a 0.025mm
(0.001") deep groove scored along the longitudinal seam side
of the panels and the plates were tack welded together.
Multiple panels were welded with the wire placed at various
depths below the surface as summarized in Table 1. Each
sample ID is a separate weld panel that contains one wire.
The pin tool was placed either off-center of the weld joint
containing the wire, or on the center of the weld joint. The

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 253

weld tool consisted of a 1/2-20 UNF LH threaded pin tool positioning of the wire in the weld wake provides information
with either a smooth or scrolled shoulder 30.5mm (1.2”) in on the shape of the rotating metal plug and evidence of the
diameter. All welds were terminated with a travel e-stop and severity of the shear zone.
the pin tool rotated to remove it from the weld panel.
Table 2: Variation of Weld Parameters for 2219 Weld Panels
Table 1: Tracer Wire Positions
Pin Tool
Sample ID Shoulder Wire Wire Distance Travel
type diameter depth from pin Pin Tool Speed, Downward Plunge
(mm) from tool center Series Rotation mm/m Force, kN
shoulder (mm) (rpm) (ipm) (lbs)
(mm) A 200 114 29, 31, 36
TC1 smooth 0.064 1.27 6.35 RS (4.5) (6500, 7000, 8000)
C01, C16, C31 scrolled 0.025 1.27 6.35 RS B 150, 200, 300 114 31
C02, C17, C32 scrolled 0.025 3.18 6.35 RS (4.5) (7000)
C03, C18, C33 scrolled 0.025 5.08 6.35 RS C 200 76, 114, 152 31
C05, C20, C35 scrolled 0.025 3.18 3.18 RS (3, 4.5, 6) (7000)
C06, C21, C36 scrolled 0.025 5.08 3.18 RS
C07, C22, C37 scrolled 0.025 1.27 center Plunge
C08, C23, C38 scrolled 0.025 3.18 center force
C09, C24, C39 scrolled 0.025 5.08 center
C11, C26, C41 scrolled 0.025 3.18 3.18 AS
tool
C12, C27, C42 scrolled 0.025 5.08 3.18 AS travel
LX1 smooth 0.064 5.08 6.35 AS
TX1 smooth 0.064 1.27 6.35 AS
C13, C28, C43 scrolled 0.025 1.27 6.35 AS tracer
C14, C29, C44 scrolled 0.025 3.18 6.35 AS wire
C15, C30, C45 scrolled 0.025 5.08 6.35 AS
Figure 1: Side view of tracer wire shown entering the rotating
plug of weld metal. A shear surface, with a velocity
Weld panels TC1, LX1, and TX1 used 8.13mm (0.322") thick discontinuity, separates the rotating plug from the unaffected
2195 and all other weld panels used 6.35mm (0.25") thick parent material.
2219. To establish nominal conditions for the 2219 and 2195
weld panels, a number of iterative trials were done to establish radial
processing conditions producing adequate weld quality. Off velocity
nominal conditions were then selected. Weld parameters are rotating profile
summarized in Table 2 for the 2219 panels. The effect of metal plug
varied plunge force was studied in Series A. "Hot" or "cold"
thickness
weld variations were studied in Series B and C. A “hot” weld
is one with a higher RPM or slower travel speed. A “cold” tool
weld is one with a lower RPM or higher travel speed. travel
pin
Each nominally 610mm (24”) long weld panel was subjected
tool
to either a systematic variation of travel speed, RPM, or
plunge force while maintaining the other two parameters tracer
constant. A 25.4mm (1") transition region separated each
shear zone
thickness wire
parameter change, resulting in a 165mm (6.5") weld length to
characterize each parameter. Tracer positions were recorded
using standard x-ray radiography equipment. Figure 2: Top view of tracer wire shown entering the rotating
plug. Upon entering the plug the wire is pulled in tension by
Results and Discussion the shear stress from the plug metal moving past it. When the
segment in the plug is long enough for the shear force to
Figure 1 illustrates a side view of the friction stir weld tool separate it from the rest of the wire, the segment is captured
inserted into the metal during welding. As the tool rotates and by the plug and moves with it until abandoned as the plug
moves into the wire, the wire encounters a shear zone where it moves on.
segments as shown in the top view of Fig. 2. The post weld

254
Figures 3-5 show several x-ray radiographs of the wire tracers.
The x-ray sections shown are taken at the end of the weld
panel and show the pin tool exit hole. They document wire
placement ahead of and in the wake of the tool. The wire in
the tool wake is broken into uniform segment lengths. In the
x-rays of the 2219 panels that used the smaller 0.025mm
(0.001") diameter wire, the segments have been traced over to
enhance the contrast.
Pre AS RS
weld
trace
Post
weld
trace
C05
(a) (b)
Post
weld travel weld
direction trace
(c)
Figure 3: (a) Without the influence of the ring vortex flow the
tracer wire entering the rotating metal plug exits the plug
directly opposite of where it entered. (b) An x-ray radiograph
of weld C05 (36 kN (8000 lbs), 200 rpm,114 mm/m (4.5 ipm))
displays minimal lateral wire trace shift. (c) Very little axial
displacement is also observed in the side radiograph of the pin
tool exit hole.
Using a streamline model of the metal flow path, Fig. 3a
illustrates the expected trace of the wire unaffected by radial
velocity components of the ring vortex velocity field.
The planar x-ray radiograph in Fig. 3b shows an
approximation of this situation when the wire is introduced on
the retreating side (RS) of the weld. Radial velocity
components have less time to act on the retreating side. The
segments could not be resolved in the planar x-ray view
around the exit hole of the pin tool. However, viewing the x-
ray radiograph in Fig. 3c of the side view of this area shows
uniformly spaced wire segments that vary slightly in the wire
255
position depth from the shoulder. The resulting segment
spacing occurs at constant time intervals and can be used to
determine radial velocity.
Figure 4a illustrates a shift in the tracer wire due to an inward
radial component of a vortex flow. The planar x-ray
radiograph in Fig. 4b shows such a shift for a wire introduced
on the retreating side (RS) of a weld made at a lower plunge
force and increased pin tool rotation. In this weld, segments
can be seen around the exit hole of the pin tool (Fig. 4b),
however, they cannot be observed in an x-ray radiograph of
the side view of this area (Fig. 4c). The pre- and post- weld
tracer wire placement indicated a more torturous path,
consistent with a ring vortex flow entraining the metal.
AS RS
Pre
weld
trace
radial
velocity
field
trace
shift
C20
(a) (b)
weld travel
direction
(c)
Figure 4: (a) A lateral shift in the affected tracer wire is
brought about by a radial component of the ring vortex flow.
(b) An x-ray radiograph of weld C20, with similar wire
placement as in weld C05, shows a change in the post-weld
wire placement (31 kN (7000 lbs), 300 rpm, 114 mm/m
(4.5 ipm)). (c) An x-ray of the side of the pin tool exit hole
shows substantial displacement
Figure 5 shows x-ray radiographs of the tungsten wire trace
following an off-center weld. Tracer wire introduced into the
advancing (AS) side of the weld, shown in Fig. 5a, displays a
more chaotic behavior in the wake than observed in Fig. 4b.
In contrast, the wire introduced on the retreating side (RS) of
the weld, shown in Fig. 5b, breaks up with the segments
shifted but deposited uniformly behind the tool.
AS RS AS RS
TX1_planar TC1_planar
Figure 5: X-ray radiographic images showing tracer wires
that were introduced into (a) the advancing side (AS) or
(b) the retreating side (RS). Weld parameters are 200 rpm,
152 mm/m (6 ipm), and 45 kN (10,000 lbs) plunge force.
In the tracer wire studies, the wire segments left in the weld
wake display a difference in their placement depending on the
weld parameters and horizontal and vertical displacement with
respect to the pin tool. This data can be used to determine the
effect of weld parameters on velocity configuration at the tool
and the extent to which the proposed model describes this
configuration. As shown in Fig. 5a, the weld metal is more
likely to be affected by ring vortex flow as it sweeps past a
greater arc around the pin tool. The chaotic aspect of the flow
seen in Fig. 5a may be a result of an oscillation in the plug
radius at due to sticking and slipping at the tool-shoulder
interface [8].
Summary and Conclusions
Tracer wire radiographs of friction stir welds can be
qualitatively understood in terms of the rotating-plug-ring-
vortex model [4]. Whether the metal entering the rotating
plug around the pin tool is retained in the plug for a relatively
brief or long time is dependant on the weld parameters and
entrance point. Metal retained in the plug for a longer time is
subjected to a larger thermomechanical effect.
256
Acknowledgements
Funding was provided by NASA-Marshall Space Flight
Center Cooperative Agreement #NNM04AA14A. The
authors wish to thank John Ratliff at the NASA-MSFC for
shooting the x-ray radiographs and the students (Kathryn
Limbaugh at Auburn University and Johnny Sanders at
Mississippi State University) who have labored to process the
x-ray radiographs.
References
1. Y. Li, L.E. Murr, J.C. McClure, Solid-state flow
visualization in the friction-stir welding of 2024 Al to
6061 Al, Scripta Mater., 40, 1041-1046 (1999).
2. Y. Li, L.E. Murr, J.C. McClure, Flow visualization
and residual microstructures associated with the
friction-stir welding of 2024 aluminum to 6061
aluminum, Mat. Sci. & Engr., A271, 213-223 (1999).
3. K. Colligan, Metal flow behavior during friction stir
welding of aluminum, Welding Research, 229s-237s
(1999).
4. J.A. Schneider, A.C. Nunes, Jr., Characterization of
plastic flow and resulting micro textures in a friction
stir weld, Met. Trans. B, 777-783 (2004).
5. T.U. Seidel, A.P. Reynolds, Visualization of the
material flow in AA2195 friction-stir welds using a
marker insert technique, Met. & Mat. Trans., 32A,
2879-2884 (2001).
6. M.A. Sutton, B. Yang, A.P. Reynolds, R. Taylor,
Microstructural studies of friction stir welds in 2024-
T3 Al, Mat. Sci. & Engr., A323, 160-166 (2002).
7. J.A. Schneider and A.C. Nunes, Jr., Thermo-
mechanical processing in friction stir welds, Friction
Stir Welding and Processing II, ed. K.V Jata, M.W.
Mahoney, R.S. Mishra, S.L. Sematin, T. Lienert, 43-
51 (2003).
8. J.A. Schneider, R. Beshears, A.C. Nunes, Jr.,
Computer tomography 3-D imaging of the metal
deformation flow path in friction stir welding,
submitted to Mat'l Sci. & Engr. A. (2005).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Metal Cutting Theory and Friction Stir Welding

Lewis N. Payton, PhD

Industrial and Systems Engineering, 207 Dunstan Hall

Auburn University, Alabama 36849
(payton@auburn.edu)

Abstract
The technique of Friction Stir Welding (FSW) was invented at
The Welding Institute (UK). Although FSW originated in a
machine shop, the practice and theory have diverged from its
origins. This paper applies the fundamental equations of
classic milling theory to the fabrication of FSW tools and
provides a methodology for optimizing the targeted “design
zone” or optimal welding schedule of those tools. The
application of metal cutting practices and theory developed
over the last 300 years permits the tool designer to accurately
predict the forces, cutting temperatures and pressures of FSW
based upon the material properties of the alloys being
machined and the selected tool geometry.
A broad tool with a narrower pin on the end is fabricated. The
tool is then inserted while rotating at a high speed into the
material until the wider “shoulder” of the tool makes contact
with the material being welded. At this point, the tool begins
a traverse of the weld seam, deforming the material in its
passage, leaving behind a formed weld. The material does
not melt during this solid-state deformation. Personnel with
shop experience will recognize similarities with a type of end-
milling referred to as slot-milling. Many rotary machines can
be adapted to this process.

Introduction
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a relatively new industrial
process that was invented at The Welding Institute (TWI,
United Kingdom) and patented in 1992 under research funded
by in part by the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). Often quoted advantages of the
process include good strength and ductility along with
minimization of residual stress and distortion. Less well
advertised are the beneficial effects of this solid state welding
process in the field of occupational and environmental safety.
It produces superior weld products in difficult-to-weld
materials without producing any toxic fumes or solid waste
that must be controlled as hazardous waste. It also reduces
noise pollution in the workspace. The process is robust and
environmentally friendly.
In the early days of FSW, most welding was performed using
modified machine tools, in particular on milling machines
with modified milling cutters. In spite of the obvious milling
heritage of the process, the techniques and lessons learned
from almost 300 years of successful metalworking theory with
milling machines have not been applied in the field of modern
Friction Stir Welding. The goal of the current research at
Auburn University is to parameterize the FSW process using
metal cutting theory in such a way as to accelerate the
development of new welding schedules, tools and
applications.
Basic Process
In order to visualize the fundamentals of the process, consider
Figure 1. The two materials to be welded are placed in contact
via either an overlapping or, in this case, a butt joint fashion.
Figure 1: Basic FSW Process [1]
Literature Review
The majority of the published literature in Friction Stir
Welding consists of post-mortem material property studies
and/or attempts to visualize the flow of material around the
tool. The mechanistic studies have been analytical, post
mortem, tracer studies of various types (e.g., [2-10]). Various
flow models have been discussed with varying degrees of
success and acceptance [11-23]. Parameterization of the
welding process has been couched in terms most frequently
used by welders [18, 22]. Arbegast [24] has published the
most extensive effort to incorporate metal cutting theory,
based upon studies of flow stress in a high temperature
Gleeble testing apparatus. This author’s approach [25] is to
treat the process as a specialized form of slot milling. This
permits the tool designer to design tools that will avoid the
classic defects defined in the literature.
Defects in the Friction Stir Welding Process
The welding criterion which has been established in the
literature is based upon visual screening, metallurgical
screening, and/or process loads. Several of the visual and

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 257

metallurgical screening techniques are illustrated in Figure 2.
Using the metallurgical and visual cues shown in Figure 2 in
conjunction with measured process values such as spindle
torque, plow force or traverse force, NASA’s Marshal Space
Flight Center and other Friction Stir Welding centers (Edison
Welding Institute, The Welding Institute, Naval Research
Center, etc) have pioneered the use of process parameter maps
in optimizing the welding schedule. Figure 3 [25] illustrates a
generic process map based upon traverse speed in inches per
minute and spindle rotational speed. These maps have been
formulated using machining parameters that operators may
control directly. Their goal is simply to establish observed
“stay out” zones based upon the presence of defects. Such
process maps are labor intensive, alloy and tool specific and
are inherently expensive. They do eventually identify the
proper weld schedule, which is simply the “sweet spot” in the
Figure 3. Weld parameters map for generic aluminum alloy
middle where there are no defects. It is possible to predict the
This links process parameters to the observed weld defects.
formation of these defects using classical milling theory in
[25]
terms of the tool design.

Nominal Cross Section Nominal Weld Appearance

Figure 4a. Up-milling and Down-milling [26]

Weld Trenching Weld Flashing

Collapsed Welds with Voids Unconsumed Interface Figure 4b. Leading and Trailing Sides [1]

Figure 2. Examples of visual and metallurgical screening
techniques. Visual Screening includes trenching, excessive
weld flash, and weld surface galling (not shown).
Metallurgical screening includes collapsed welds (above),
unconsumed interfaces (also above), turbulent nugget flow,
voids/wormholes, nugget flow cracks, subsurface cracks from
surface galling, and weld thinning.
Predicting “Stay Out” Regions with Milling Theory
Figure (4a) depicts what machining theory in general refers to
as up milling and down milling. Figure (4b) shows the FSW
terminology for these as Leading (up-milling against the tool)
and Trailing (down-milling with the tool). On the leading
(up-milling side), as the tool enters the work, tool tip velocity
(V) assumes a maximum value, which decreases as the tool
progresses along the tool path. On the trailing side, velocity
(V) has a minimum value when the tooth leaves the work and
a somewhat higher value when the tool enters the work. The
tool edge traces out a looped tracheiod path through the
material, as best explained by Martellotti [27, 28].
Silin [29] developed a methodology based upon dimensional
analysis to accurately predict the temperature at a milling tool
tip, as documented by Milton Shaw [30]. Incorporating the
eccentric geometry and travel features of Figures 4a and 4b,

258
and generating the proper coefficients to use the data in ASM
Handbook of Metals (9th Edition) generates the following
useful expressions for the FSW tool designer:
V *t
Tcutting _ edge = [16,148.58] HPs (1)
k *( pc)
HPs is the specific horsepower for the alloy or workpiece, k is
the coefficient of thermal conductivity for the workpiece, (pc)
is the volume specific heat of the work material, V is the
cutting speed at the tip of the tool (a geometric consideration)
and t is the undeformed/uncut chip thickness, generally given
by the following equation:
Ft * d
tavg = (2)
⎛ d ⎞ F *n
R cos −1 ⎜1 − ⎟ + t D*d − d2
⎝ R ⎠ π *D
where R is the Radius of the cutting edge (specific to shoulder
or pin in this application), d is the depth of the cut (specific to
the design of tool), D is the diameter of the cutter, n is the
number of teeth, and Ft is the feed per tooth. These equations
reproduce the results of thermocouple measurements in the
laboratory very exactly [31, 32]. The equations are especially
precise in predicting the differences between the leading and
trailing edges of the tool.
When equations (1) and (2) are applied to a well known
material (6061-T6), and overlaid onto a generic process map
such as depicted by Figure (3), Figure (5) emerges:
Figure 5. Defects in earlier process map explained by
material properties and the tool design. Each problem
zone/area is easily attributed to the tool design.
This figure, restricted in size as it is, is highly significant.
Equations (1) and (2), derived from metal cutting theory and
259
measurable materials properties, reveal thermo-mechanical
reasons for the empirically observed defects. For example in
the region of excessive trenching up under the shoulder (top
right), the temperature at the tip of the tool (shoulder) is
exceeding the melting point of the alloy. In the region of the
collapsed weld nuggets and voids, the tool pin and shoulder
create temperature differentials of up to 150 degree Celsius in
this particular tool. It is possible to use equations 1 and 2 to
proceed directly to the weld schedule based upon the tool
design and material properties of the base metals being welded
together. Taken together with other equations in the metal
cutting literature, this family of equations offers the
opportunity to optimize the friction stir welding process. If
the welding engineer begins to experience a flaw, he merely
has to call the tool engineer who modifies the geometry of the
tool to change the temperature profiles within the material.
Discussion and Future Work
Historically, metal cutting theory three basic chip types
formed during the machining process, as first denoted by
Ernst [33]. Type 1 is a discontinuous or segmented chip type;
Type 2 is continuous and smooth; Type 3 is continuous with a
build up of chip material between the tool and chip which is
commonly referred to in the literature as “built-up edge” or
BUE. Equations (1) and (2), in conjunction with Figure (5),
illustrate the clear linkages between metal cutting theory and
the development of welding schedules in the Friction Stir
Welding process. Friction Stir Joining or Welding represents
a fourth chip type in the metal cutting process, the contained
and extruded chip.
Figure 6. The three traditional metal cutting chips classified
by Ernst (segmented, continuous and built up edge) [33].
Additional metal cutting theory is now being applied to the
process at Auburn University under a start-up grant from the
National Space Science and Technology Center (NSSTC).
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Dr, Arthur C. Nunes, Jr., as
well as Dr. Kirby Lawless, Jeff Ding, Bob Carter, and Carolyn
Russell for introducing me to Friction Stir Welding at NASA’s
Marshall Space Flight Center. This introduction was made
possible through NASA’s Summer Faculty Fellowship
Program.
The National Space Science and Technology Center (NSSTC)
is funding further research at Auburn University in this area.
References
1. Thomas, W.M. and E.D. Nicholas, Friction Stir Welding
for the Ttransportation Industries. Mat & Des., 18(4-6),
269-273 (1997)
2. Murr, L.E., et al., Fundamental Issues and Industrial
Applications of Friction-stir Welding. Mat Tech, 15(1),
37-48 (2000)
3. Murr, L.E., et al., Microstructures in Friction-stir Welded
Metals. J. Mat Proc, 7(2), 145-161. (1999)
4. Murr, L.E., et al., Friction-stir Welding: Microstructural
Characterization. Mat Res, 1(4), 211-223 (1998)
5. Murr, L.E., et al., Intercalation Vortices and Related
Microstructural Features in the Friction-stir Welding of
Dissimilar Metals. Mat Res, (3), 150-163 (1998)
6. Murr, L.E., G. Liu, and J.C. McClure, Dynamic
Recrystallization in Friction-stir Welding of Aluminum
Alloy 1100. J Mat Sci Ltrs, 16(22), 1801-1803 (1997)
7. Reynolds, A.P. and F. Duvall, Digital Image Correlation
for Determination of Weld and Base Metal Constitutive
Behavior. Welding Journal, 78(10), 355S-360S (1999)
8. Esparza, J.A., W.C. Davis, and L.E. Murr,
Microstructure-property Studies in Friction-stir Welded,
Magnesium Alloy AM60. J Mat Sci, 38(5), p. 941-952
(2003)
9. Field, D.P., et al., Heterogeneity of Crystallographic
Texture in Friction Stir Welds of Aluminum. Met and Mat
Trans A, 32(11), 2869-2877 (2001)
10. Field, D.P. and T.W. Nelson, Tool geometry Dependence
of Local Texture in Friction Stir Welds of 7050 Aluminum
Plate, in Textures of Materials, Pts 1 and 2, Trans Tech
Publications LTD: Zurich-Uetikon, 1507-1512 (2002)
11. Chao, Y.J., X. Qi, and W. Tang, Heat Transfer in Friction
Stir Welding - Experimental And Numerical Studies. J
Man Sci Eng, 125(1), 138-145 (2003)
12. Colligan, K., Material Flow Behavior during Friction Stir
Welding of Aluminum. Welding Journal, 78(7), 229S-
237S (1999)
13. Dong, P., et al., Coupled Thermomechanical Analysis of
Friction Stir Welding Process using Simplified Models.
Sci Tech Weld, 6(5), 281-287 (2001)
14. Frigaard, O., O. Grong, and O.T. Midling, A Process
Model For Friction Stir Welding of Age Hardening
Aluminum Alloys. Met and Mat Trans A, 32(5), 1189-
1200 (2001)
15. Heurtier, P., C. Desrayaud, and F. Montheillet, A
Thermomechanical Analysis of the Friction Stir Welding
Process, Aluminum Alloys 2002: Their Physical and
Mechanical Properties, Trans Tech Publications LTD:
Zurich-Uetikon, 1537-1542 (2002)
16. Khandkar, M.Z.H. and J.A. Khan, Thermal Modeling of
Overlap Friction Stir Welding for Al-alloys. J Mat Proc,
10(2), 91-105 (2001)
17. Khandkar, M.Z.H., J.A. Khan, and A.P. Reynolds,
Prediction Of Temperature Distribution and Thermal
History during Friction Stir Welding: Input Torque Based
Model. Sci Tech Welding & Joining, 8(3), 165-174
(2003)
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18. Nunes, A.C., Wiping Metal Transfer in Friction Stir
Welding, Proceedings of the 2001 TMS Annual
Automotive Alloys and Joining Aluminum Symposia,
TMS (2001)
19. Li, Y., L.E. Murr, and J.C. McClure, Flow Visualization
and Residual Microstructures Associated with the
Friction-Stir Welding of 2024 Aluminum to 6061
Aluminum. Mat Sci Eng A, 271(1-2), 213-223 (1999)
20. Li, Y., L.E. Murr, and J.C. McClure, Solid-State Flow
Visualization in the Friction-Stir Welding of 2024 Al to
6061 Al. Scripta Mat, 40(9), 1041-1046 (1999)
21. Reynolds, A.P., Visualisation of Material Flow in
Autogenous Friction Stir Welds. Sci Tech Welding &
Joining, 5(2), 120-124 (2002)
22. Reynolds, A.P., et al., Utility of Relatively Simple Models
for Understanding Process Parameter Effects on FSW,
Thermec 2003, Pts 1-5, Trans Tech Publications LTD:
Zurich-Uetikon, 2959-2964 (2003)
23. Reynolds, A.P., et al., Structure, Properties, and Residual
Stress of 304L Stainless Steel Friction Stir Welds. Scripta
Mat 48(9), 1289-1294 (2003)
24. Arbegast, W.J., Modeling Friction Stir Welding as a
Metal Working Process. Hot Deformation of Aluminum
Alloys, TMS (2003)
25. Payton, L.N. and A.C. Nunes, Metal Cutting Theory and
Friction Stir Welding Tool Design, NASA Faculty
Fellowship Program, NASA, XXXIV 1-5 (2003)
26. Boothroyd, G., W.A. Knight, and NetLibrary Inc.,
Fundamentals Of Machining And Machine Tools, Marcel
Dekker: New York (1989)
27. Martellotti, M.E., An Analysis of the Milling Process.
Trans ASME, 233 (1941)
28. Martellotti, M.E., An Analysis of the Milling Process,
Part II-Down Milling. Trans ASME, 233 (1945)
29. Silan, S.S., Similarity Methods in Metal Cutting, Moscow,
USSR: Mashinostroenie (1979)
30. Shaw, M.C., Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University
Press, 594 (1984)
31. McClure, J.C., A Thermal Model of Friction Stir Welding.
5th International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research, TMS (2001)
32. Mitchell, J.E., The Experimental Thermo-Mechanics of
Friction Stir Welding, thesis, Mechanical Engineering,
Vanderbilt University (2002)
33. Ernst, H., Physics of Metal Cutting, Machining of Metals,
AMS, 1-34 (1938)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

3D Modelling of Thermofluid Flow in Friction Stir Welding

E. Feulvarch, Y. Gooroochurn, F. Boitout
ESI Group, Le Discover, 84 Bd Vivier MERLE, 69485 Lyon Cedex 03, France
ESI North America, 36800 Woodward Avenue, Suite 200, Bloomfield Hills, MI 48304, USA

J.-M. Bergheau
Laboratoire de Tribologie et Dynamique des Systèmes, 58 rue Jean PAROT, 42023 Saint Etienne Cedex 02, France

Abstract
Friction stir welding is a complex process including
interactions between thermal, metallurgical and mechanical
phenomena. The heating is provided by the mechanical
dissipation due to the strains and the contact conditions
between the tool and the material.
This paper describes a numerical model to simulate the
temperature profile during the steady-state of the process. This
fully coupled model is based on the Finite Element Method
considering an incompressible non-Newtonian fluid. The
stress equilibrium, the energy conservation and the mass
conservation are studied in an Eulerian frame. The objectives
of such a 3D model are, on one hand, the understanding of
physics and, on the other hand, the development of a
predictive tool allowing to reduce the number of experiments
needed to design new tools. An example is presented for an
aluminium alloy 7075.
Keywords: Friction Stir Welding, Finite Element Method,
thermofluid analysis.
Introduction
Friction stir welding is an emerging welding process which
was developed initially for aluminium alloys by the TWI [1].
This process involves strong interactions between thermal,
metallurgical and mechanical phenomena as shown in Fig. 1.
FSW is details in [1]. For this process, the numerical
modelling seems to be extremely valuable for the
understanding of the residual stresses, the distortions and the
microstructure modifications. To model these effects, the
heating needs to be carefully simulated.
Many efforts have been spend both analytically and
numerically [2]. The objectives of the simulation are, on one
hand, the understanding of physics and, on the other hand, the
development of a predictive tool allowing to reduce the
number of experiments needed to design new tools [3,4].
In this paper, a three-dimensional model is presented
accounting for the thermal and the mechanical phenomena in a
fully coupled approach. This model is based on the Finite
Element Method. The thermal interaction between the tool and
the material is neglected. The stress equilibrium problem, the
heat transfer problem and the mass conservation are solved for
the stationary step of the process. The material is assumed to
be as a viscous non-Newtonian fluid [1,2]. Therefore the
problem can be studied in an Eulerian frame where the
mechanical stress are calculated from the velocity field and the
thermal dissipation can be easily deduced.
The first part of the article will detail the thermo-mechanical
problem and the boundary conditions using an Eulerian
approach. The second part deals with the finite element
modelling. Finally, an example is presented.

Thermal Physical coupling

dissipation
Heat transfer Mechanics In the Friction Stir Welding simulation, we are interested in
Temperatures the combined convective and conductive transport of thermal
Latent heats energy in the workpiece material due to the local mechanical
Temperatures Microstuctural
Microstuctural
dissipation. The equilibrium of a continuous medium Ω with
modifications
modifications boundary ∂Ω is governed by three global conservation
Metallurgy principles which are the stress equilibrium, the energy
conservation and the mass conservation.

Figure 1: Coupling between heat transfer, metallurgy and

mechanics.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 261

Stress equilibrium K and m are the consistency and the sensibility of the
The stress equilibrium equation must be obtained for each material, and D is the equivalent strain rate:
material element. Including dynamic and static effects
internally, and gravity as an external body force, the equation
of motion in an homogenous medium Ω can be written as D = 2 D: D (8)
3
follows:

()
div σ + ρ. g = ρ. Dv
Dt
(1) The boundary conditions on the boundary ∂Ω of a medium Ω
can be written as:
where σ is the Cauchy stress tensor, ρ is the density, g is • Dirichlet boundary conditions on surface ∂Ω v :
the acceleration vector due to the gravity, v is the velocity v = vd
D
vector and
Dt
is the material derivative operator • Neumann boundary conditions on surface ∂Ω T :
D = ∂ + v. grad ( ) . σ . n= T
Dt ∂t
with ∂Ω = ∂Ω v ∪ ∂Ω T and ∂Ω v ∩ ∂Ω T = ∅
In this study, the inertial and gravity forces are neglected
(much smaller than the static effects): The friction between the tool and the workpiece is of

()
Neumann boundary conditions. The contact is modelled by the
div σ = 0 (2) Norton law [6]. In this model, the friction stress depends on
the differential velocity Δv between the tool and the
At typically FSW temperatures, it is reasonable to assume that workpiece:
the stresses are perfectly viscous for aluminium alloys [1].
τ = β . K . Δv ψ −1.Δv (9)
Thus, the total stress tensor σ can be decomposed into one
hydrostatic part and one viscous part as for a viscous where τ is the shear stress, β and ψ are the contact
incompressible fluid:
parameters.

σ = S − p. I (3) Conservation of energy

For an incompressible material, the law of conservation of
where p is the hydrostatic pressure, I is the unit tensor and energy (or First Law of Thermodynamics) can be expressed
as:
S is the viscous stress tensor.
()
φ − div q = ρ. C. Dθ
Dt
(10)
The stress equilibrium equation can therefore be written as:
where θ denotes the temperature, q the heat flux density

div ( S ) − grad ( p ) = 0 (4) vector, φ is the viscous dissipation [7] and C is the specific
heat.

The viscous stress tensor S is related to the strain-rate tensor In a stationary Eulerian frame, this expression becomes:

()
D using a Norton-Hoff behaviour law:
φ − div q = ρ. C. v. grad(θ ) (11)
S = 2.μ . D (5)
The non linear isotropic Fourier constitutive relation is used to
where D is the strain-rate tensor defined from the velocity model the heat flux density:
field

q = − λ (θ ) .grad (θ )
() ()
(12)
⎛ T
⎞
D = 1 .⎜ grad v + grad v ⎟ (6) where λ (θ ) is the thermal conductivity.
2⎝ ⎠
μ is an effective viscosity defined as follows [5]:
The boundary conditions on the boundary ∂Ω of a medium Ω
can be written as:
(
μ = K. 3. D ) m −1
(7)

262
 • Dirichlet boundary conditions on surface ∂Ωθ : ∂ρ
α (θ ) = − 1 . (19)
ρ (θ ) ∂θ
θ =θ d
• Neumann boundary conditions on surface ∂Ω q : This equation can be considered as the incompressibility
condition.
q. n =q
with ∂Ω = ∂Ω θ ∪ ∂Ω q and ∂Ω θ ∪ ∂Ω q = ∅ Finite element modelling

q is a prescribed heat flux which is temperature dependent:
q = H ext .(θ ext −θ )
where H ext is a convective heat transfer coefficient and
is the outside temperature.
The thermal contact conditions at the tool shoulder includes
the friction heat dissipation and the heat exchanged between
the tool and the workpiece [8]:
q= E material . β . K . Δv ψ +1
Etool + Ematerial
+ H shoulder .(θ tool −θ material )
where H shoulder is a heat transfer coefficient, θ tool and
θ material are the interface temperatures of the tool and the
This section presents the finite element procedure developed
to obtain an approximated solution of the formulation
presented previously. The stress equilibrium equation and the
(13) mass conservation equation are also called the Stokes
θ ext equations. To approximate the solution of these equations, the
velocity spatial discretization and the pressure spatial
discretization must be properly choosen to satisfy the inf-sup
condition of the mixed method theory [9]. Moreover, it is well
known in the finite element literature that for large mesh-
Peclet number (dominated advection), spurious oscillations are
frequently detected in the numerical approximation of Eq.11
which need to be damped through the use of the SUPG
method [10,11].
(14) To satisfy the inf-sup condition of the mixed method theory,
one possibility is the use of a tetrahedral finite element. The
velocity field is discretized with continuous piecewise linear
functions N 1 , N 2 , N 3 and N 4 associated to nodes 1, 2, 3

workpiece, Ematerial is the fraction of the dissipated and 4 enriched by a bubble function N b associated to a fifth
Etool + Ematerial
node b corresponding to the centroid of the finite element
heat received by the plates calculated by means of the [12] (Fig. 2).
effusivity coefficients E :

E = λ . ρ .C (15)

The thermal interaction between the tool and the workpiece is

assumed to be much smaller than the dissipated heat.
Therefore, the tool does not need to be modelled:

q≈ Ematerial . β . K . Δv ψ +1 (16)
Etool + Ematerial

Conservation of mass
The continuity equation states that mass cannot be lost or Figure 2: Tetrahedral finite element.
gained. It implies that velocity fields must be of the form:
The velocity is expressed in the following way in the
∂ρ finite element:
+ div ( ρ. v ) = 0 (17)
∂t
4
v (ξ,η,ζ) = ∑ Ni (ξ,η,ζ).v i + Nb (ξ,η,ζ).v b (20)
Introducing the thermal dependency of the density for steady- i =1
state conditions in an Eulerian frame, the continuity equation
becomes: where v i is the velocity at each node ( i =1,2,3,4 ) and v b is
div ( v ) −α (θ ). grad(θ ).v = 0 (18) the velocity at node b .
where α is the thermal expansion coefficient:
The pressure and the temperature are approximated as follows:

263
 4 Fig. 5 gives a comparison of the velocity profiles on upper
p (ξ,η,ζ) = ∑ Ni (ξ,η,ζ).p i (21)
surface obtained for two values of the shear stress τ = β . K :
i =1
4 20 Mpa and 40 Mpa. These calculations shows the influence
θ (ξ,η,ζ) = ∑Ni (ξ,η,ζ).θ i (22) of the mechanical contact conditions on the velocity fields [4].
i =1
For τ equal to 20 Mpa, the temperature profile is plotted in
where θ i and p i are the temperature and the pressure at each Fig. 6. In this case, streamlines are shown in Fig. 7. All these
node ( i =1,2,3,4 ) . results are not compared to experimental measurements. It
should be interesting to develop an inverse approach with
experiments to model the tool-material contact conditions as
The Finite Element Method is based on the variational described in the literature [15] to estimate the shear stress in a
formulation of the problem obtained by the weighted residual global approach.
method and the Green-Gauss theorem (integration by parts).
When the Finite Element Method is applied to equations (4),
(11) and (18) in a Galerkin approach, it leads to a non-linear (a)
equation system. An approximated solution is obtained with a
Newton-Raphson iterative procedure but a mathematical
regularization must be introduced in the Norton-Hoff law for
numerical reasons [6].
This model has been developed in the software SYSWELD®
which is dedicated to the simulation of welding and heat
treatment.
Tool
Application rotation

In this section, an example is presented. The temperature are

calculated during the welding of two plates made of
aluminium alloy 7075. The values of the consistency K and
the sensibility m of the Norton-Hoff law comes from [13], and
they are interpolated linearly with temperature as proposed by
[4]. Flow direction
For the mechanical contact between the workpiece and the
tool, the parameters ψ and β are not well defined in the
literature. For this reason, ψ has been taken equal to 0 to (b)
model a constant shear stress τ as proposed in [4].

Table 1. Thermal properties [8].

Tool Material
Mass density ( Kg.m-3 ) -0.2299 θ + 7802 -0.2264 θ + 2816
Specific heat ( J.Kg-1.°C-1) 0.3135 θ + 477.1 0.8509 θ + 825.7
Tool
Conductivity ( W.m-1.°C-1) 0.0489 θ + 22.5 0.1265 θ + 153.4 rotation

The thermal properties are described in Tab. 1. For the

convective heat flux exchanged with air (20°C), Chao and Qi
[14] have proposed to use a convective heat transfer
coefficient H ext equal to 30 W.m-2.K-1 at the top surface of
the workpiece. For the modelling of the contact between the
Flow direction
bottom surface and the backing plate (100°C), this coefficient
has been taken equal to 200 W.m-2.K-1.
In this example, the welding is performed for butt welding of
100mm*8,128mm*400mm plates using a tool having a 25,4 Figure 3: Velocity profiles (mm.s-1) on upper surface for two
mm shoulder diameter, 100mm pin diameter, and 8mm pin values of the shear stress τ: 20 MPa (a) and 40 MPa (b).
length as proposed in [2]. The plates are welded at a welding
speed of 60 mm.min-1 and a rotational speed of 900 rev.min-1.

264
 Conclusion
The future objective of this work is to develop a numerical
model to simulate the residual stresses and the distortions in
Friction Stir Welding. In this paper, a 3D finite element
procedure is presented to model the thermofluid flow in FSW
for the stationary step in SYSWELD®. For each calculation
composed of a mesh containing about 8000 nodes, the CPU
time is less than half an hour on a single PC computer.
Flow direction
Figure 4: Temperature profile (°C) for a shear stress τ of
20MPa.
In the example presented above, there are some physical
considerations which are not carefully taken into account. For
example, the mechanical contact conditions are modelled with
265
a constant shear stress which is most probably temperature
dependent. This should leads to a better prediction of the
temperature profile. Moreover, the thermal field can be
affected by the modelling of the heat dissipated at the interface
between the tool and the material which is modelled without
considering the exchanged heat flux. It should also be
interesting to take account of the thermal contact conditions
between the material and the backing plate in a complete 3D
model [4].
Flow direction
Figure 5: Streamlines for a shear stress of 20 MPa.
 References
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(1984).
13. Zhe Jin, W. A. Cassada, C. M. Cady, G. T. Gray,
Mechanical Response of AA7075 Aluminium Alloy
over a Wide Range of Temperatures and Strain
Rates, Materials Science Forum, Trans. Tech.
Publications (2000).
14. Y. J. Chao, X. Qi, J. Mater. Process. Manuf. Sci., 7,
2, 215-233 (1998).
15. R. W. Fonda and S. G. Lambrakos, Analysis of
friction stir welds using an inverse problem
approach, Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining, 7, 3, 177-181 (2002).

266
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Eulerian Elasto-Plastic Formulations for Residual Stress
Analysis of Friction Stir Welding
J. Song ∗, P. Michaleris
Abstract
Two Eulerian thermo-elasto-plastic formulations are
developed as candidate algorithms to analyze the stress
formation in Friction Stir Welding (FSW): One is based
on the rate equilibrium equation, and the other on the
standard equilibrium equation. Each is implemented using
a mixed formulation with Streamline Upwind Petrov-
Galerikin (SUPG) stabilization for three dimensional
8-node brick elements. Strip drawing examples are
simulated to investigate the validity and convergence of
the two algorithms. A combined thermal-viscoplastic and
thermo-elasto-plastic analysis procedure is proposed for
steady state analysis and a FSW example is simulated to
show the potential of the Eulerian thermo-elasto-plastic
algorithms.
1 Introduction
A fully coupled thermal-mechanical model is more
appropriate in modeling the FSW process because the
plastic dissipation heat generation may be too large to
neglect in the thermal analysis. Heat transfer Finite
Element (FE) formulations in Eulerian frames have been
well developed for laminar flow of materials with a known
velocity field [1]. Therefore, this research is mainly focused
on mechanical analysis of the FSW process.
Various models have been developed in Lagrangian
frames to estimate residual stress during history-
dependent material processes, such as conventional fusion
welding with rate-independent plasticity model [2] or
rate-dependent viscoplastic model [3, 4, 5], or combined
model (rate-independent at lower temperature and rate-
dependent at higher temperature) [6]. Small deformation
and weak thermal-mechanical coupling are assumed in
these models and incremental analysis is performed.
However, these Lagrangian models may not be directly
applied for FSW analysis since the workpiece deforms
severely in the FSW process and Lagrangian elements may
∗ Graduate Student, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 17 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 863-3245
† Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 232 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 863-7273 Fax : (814)
863-4848 Email: pxm32@psu.edu
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
†
be similarly distorted.
Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulations have
been developed by Haber[7] and Koh [8] for history-
independent problems and by Gosh [9] for history-
dependent problems. Although ALE formulations can
resolve element distortion, they still require incremental
analysis for history-dependent problems.
If the coordinate system is selected to move with the
FSW tool, an Eulerian steady-state formulation can be
applied so that the solution field can be obtained in a
steady state analysis. Eulerian formulations have been
used mainly for forming, extrusion, and rolling processes.
Visco-elastic models [10, 11, 12] are appropriate for
polymer melts and viscoplastic models [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]
for metals. However, these formulations cannot predict
residual stress since the elastic strain is neglected. Lee and
Dawson [18] have evaluated residual stress where elasticity
is neglected on loading and recovered after loading is
removed. However, this method sacrifices accuracy since
the plastic evolution is ignored during unloading. Elastic-
viscoplastic models in Eulerian frames have also been
developed assuming incompressible elasticity [19, 20, 21].
Multiplicative elastic and plastic strain decomposition
has also been incorporated into this elastic-viscoplastic
material model in Reference [22]. However, an elastic-
viscoplastic model is reported to be numerically unstable
when the elastic response becomes large [23].
Although extensive research has been published for
Eulerian elastic-viscoplastic (rate-dependent plasticity)
material models, limited publications are available
for Eulerian elasto-plastic (rate-independent plasticity)
models. A displacement-based mixed formulation in
undeformed moving reference frames was first introduced
by Balagangadhar et al. [24] for a laser surfacing
problem with small deformation and rate-independent
elasto-plasticity and has been further developed by
Shanghvi et al. [25] for the analysis of laser forming.
Large deformation formulations with multiplicative
decomposition of the deformation gradient have also been
developed by Balagangadhar et al. [26]. However,
the velocity prescribed boundary condition essential for
FSW cannot be incorporated into this displacement-based
formulation. Thus, a velocity-based Eulerian formulation
with elasto-plastic material model is more appropriate
for modeling FSW. Publications for velocity-based elasto-
plastic material model in Eulerian frames are rare except
267
the one by Thompson et al. [23] in which a Flow Rate where
equilibrium Equation, or FRE method, is proposed.
∂σij ∂vi ∂vk
In this paper, the FRE is investigated and a novel Pij ≡ vk − σkj + σij (4)
thermo-elasto-plastic Eulerian formulation based on the ∂x k ∂x k ∂x k

standard Flow Equilibrium Equation (FEE) is developed. and v is the particle velocity. The weak form of Equation
The performance of the two formulations is explored (3) can be written as,
by simulating strip drawing examples. An application



approach of these algorithms to modeling the FSW process ∂v̂i
Pij dV − v̂j ni Pij dS = 0 (5)
is also discussed. V ∂xj S

2.0.3 Constitutive Equation

2 Analysis Model for FSW
A hypo-elastic, rate-independent associative J2 plastic
Process material with isotropic strain hardening is considered in
The state of a thermo-elastic rate-independent plastic this research. This material model is expressed with
material of FSW can be described by four field variables: material time derivatives for Lagrangian formulations
the temperature T , velocity v, stress σ, and equivalent in most available literatures [27]. All the material
plastic strain
q fields. The temperature field can time derivatives are transformed into steady-state spatial
be determined iteratively from a thermal analysis with expressions for Eulerian formulations. The Jaumann rate
given mechanical fields, which can be determined from of Cauchy stress σ ∇J can be determined from the material
mechanical analysis with given temperature field. Since behavior tensor C, and the elastic rate of deformation De
heat transfer analysis for a given velocity field is well as follows:
established [1] this research focuses on the mechanical ∇J e
analysis. σij = Cijkl Dkl (6)
In mechanical analysis, the temperature field is
where
considered as known, and the velocity, stress, and
equivalent plastic strain fields are determined from the ∇J ∂σij
σij = vk − σik Wkj − σjk Wki (7)
equilibrium or rate equilibrium, stress evolution, and ∂xk
plastic strain evolution equations. The weak form of e
Dij = Dij − Dij p
− Dijth
(8)
each equation is presented using kinematically admissible  
functions, v̂, D̂, σ̂, and
ˆq for velocity, rate of deformation, 1 ∂vj ∂vi
Dij = + (9)
stress, and equivalent plastic strain, respectively. 2 ∂xi ∂xj
 
1 ∂vj ∂vi
Wij = − (10)
2.0.1 Flow Equilibrium Equation (FEE) 2 ∂xi ∂xj
Neglecting inertia and assuming steady state conditions, Cijkl = λδij δkl + µ [δik δjl + δil δjk ] (11)
the linear momentum balance equation becomes the νE
λ = (12)
equilibrium equation. The equilibrium equation with (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
neglecting body force can be written as, E
µ = (13)
2(1 + ν)
∂σij
= 0 (1)
∂xi λ and µ are the Lame’ constants; E and ν are the elastic
where σ is the Cauchy stress. The weak form of Equation moduli; Dp and Dth are the plastic and thermal rate of
(1) is deformation, which can be evaluated as follows:


∂
q
p
D̂ij σij dV − v̂j ni σij dS = 0 (2) D ij = v k aij (14)
∂xk
V S
th ∂T
where V is the control volume and S is the boundary Dij = β vk δij (15)
∂xk
surface.
where
q is the equivalent plastic strain, T is the
2.0.2 Flow Rate Equilibrium Equation (FRE) temperature, and the plastic flow tensor a and thermal
strain strain coefficient β are given as,
Thomson and Yu [23] derived a rate equilibrium equation
from Equation (1). 3 d
aij = σ (16)
  2σ̄ ij
d ∂σij
=
∂Pij
=0 (3) ∂α  
dt ∂xi ∂xi β = T − T ref + α (17)
∂T

268
where α is the thermal expansion coefficient, T ref is the 2.0.4 Boundary Conditions (BC) for FEE and
Reference temperature, and Mises’ stress σ̄ and deviatoric FRE
stress σ d are
 Equations (25) and (26), as commonly used for both FEE
3 d d and FRE, only require that the stress and equivalent
σ̄ = σ σ (18)
2 ij ij plastic strain should be known on the inlet surface
1 where the material enters control volume. The FEE is
d
σij = σij − σkk δij (19)
3 characterized by Equation (2), the FRE by Equation (5),
Since Dp has only deviatoric components, the following and BC for Equations (2) and (5) are applied through their
relationship can be obtained: second terms, which can be rewritten as follows:
∂
q


p
Cijkl Dkl = 2 µ vk aij (20) v̂j ni σij dS = v̂j tj dS (29)
∂xk
S S
The yield function f for isotropic linear hardening
materials can be described as,

 
∂tj ∂vi ∂vk
f = σ̄ − σ Y
= σ̄ − σ Y0
− H

q
(21) v̂j ni Pij dS = v̂j vk − ni σkj + tj dS (30)
S S ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk
Y Y0
where, σ is the yield stress, σ is the initial yield stress,
and H is the linear hardening coefficient. In case of active where t is the traction. Equations (29) and (30) vanish
yielding, the yield function should remain on the yield for the velocity described boundary, thus, no additional
surface, that is, consideration is required. For the traction prescribed
boundary, Equation (30) is still dependent on the field
df
=0 (22) variables, velocity and stress, while Equation (29) simply
dt becomes constant.
From Equations (21) and (22), the plastic evolution
equation can be written as,
  3 Numerical Example
∂
q γ ∂σijd
∂σ Y 0 ∂H q
vk = aij vk − vk − vk
(23)
∂xk H ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk OMP FORTRAN 90 code based computer programs for
both FEE and FRE are developed for 8-noded brick
where
elements. Strip drawing examples are shown to verify
1 if f ≥ 0 and df dt ≥ 0
γ= (24) the validity of FEE formulation and to compare the
0 otherwise performance of the two formulations. An FSW example is
The characteristics of stress and equivalent plastic simulated to show the potential of the programs for FSW
strain evolution equations are hyperbolic and this class analysis.
of equations is susceptible to numerical oscillation.
Therefore, the SUPG stabilizing technique [28, 27] is used 3.1 FSW Analysis
for the weak formulations of stress and equivalent plastic
strain evolution equations: Assuming no slip on the spinning tool contacting

  surface, considerable plastic strain is expected. However,
∂ σ̂ij
σ̂ij + τ ck (25) elasto-plastic analysis algorithms hardly converge for
V ∂xk problems with such large plastic strains. Moreover, high

∂σij temperature is expected in the region around the spinning

vk − Cijkl Dkl − σik Wkj − σjk Wki dV = 0
e
∂xk tool where rate-dependent plasticity is more appropriate
[6]. Fully coupled thermal-mechanical analyses using

 q
 q
∂ˆ
∂
viscoplasticity are relatively well developed and easily

ˆq + τ ck vk (26) incorporate large plastic strain evolution although they
V ∂xk ∂xk
  yield no residual stress. Therefore, we suggest a
d
∂σij Y 0
γ ∂σ ∂H q combined thermal-viscoplastic and thermo-elasto-plastic
− aij vk − vk − vk
dV = 0
H ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk procedure to analyze FSW process. In this analysis
where the stabilization factor τ and the convective velocity procedure, a fully-coupled thermal-viscoplastic analysis
ci are evaluated as follows: is performed first, as in Reference [29]. Then, in
order to analyze residual stress formation, the thermo-
h
τ = (27) elasto-plastic algorithms, either by FRE or FEE, can be
2 performed after high plastic strain evolution region is
vi
ci = √ (28) excluded from the control volume where the boundary
vj vj
conditions for separation surface can be obtained from the
where h is the characteristic element length. viscoplastic analysis.

269
 In this section, proper boundary conditions for FSW .040

analysis are discussed. Although the mechanical analysis .035

of FSW is focused in this research, thermal boundary .030

conditions are also considered for future research. A FSW .025

simulation example is presented to show the potential of .020

the thermo-elasto-plastic formulations for the combined .015

FSW analysis procedure. .010

.005

Outlet Surface
.000

-.005

-.010

-.015

Side Surface -.020

-.025

Spining tool shoulder Z Y

-.030
Material Moving
Spining tool pin Direction
X -.035

Figure 2: x-directional velocity for FSW from FRE

Y
Inlet Surface (Elasto-plastic material and velocity BC): Unit[mm/s]
X
Eulerian Coordinate
Fixed to the tool pin center
Z

-3.960

Figure 1: Eulerian configuration for FSW analysis -3.965

-3.970

-3.975

-3.980

3.1.1 Boundary Conditions for FSW analysis -3.985

-3.990
The control volume moves with uniform velocity and the -3.995

FSW tool rotates with center fixed in Eulerian frames, -4.000

as shown in Figure 1. Boundary conditions for the inlet -4.005

and outlet surfaces should be prescribed as discussed in -4.010

Section 2. The outlet BC can be applied for both side -4.015

surfaces since the material is rigidly constrained during -4.020

FSW process. The bottom plate is supported so as to -4.025

remain vertically stationary. No slip condition for the Z Y

-4.030

surface contacting the tool pin can be applied as, X -4.035

T Figure 3: z-directional velocity for FSW from FRE

v = [zω, 0, −xω] (31)
(Elasto-plastic material and velocity BC): Unit[mm/s]
where x, y, and z are local coordinates with the origin at
the tool center. The tool shoulder surface is also vertically 150.

motionless and traction may be applied from the frictional 140.

load as follows: 130.

 120.

vi ni = 0 110.
r
ti = −κP √ ir r
v (32) 100.

vj vj
90.

80.

3.1.2 FSW Example 70.

60.

The FE model (200 × 1 × 700 mm) is developed with 50.

removed large plastic strain region (radius of 50 mm) 40.

around the spinning tool. The weld speed v weld of −4 30.

mm/s is applied for the outlet and the side surfaces, 20.

and zero stress and equivalent plastic strain for the inlet Z Y
10.

surface. The velocity on the separation surface vs is X 0.

assumed as,
Figure 4: Mises’ stress for FSW (Elasto-plastic material
and velocity BC): Unit[MPa]
vs = [z s ω, 0, −xs ω + v weld ] (33)

270
 .045
.042
.039
.036
.033
.030
.027
.024
.021
.018
.015
.012
.009
.006
Z Y
.003
X .000
Figure 5: Equivalent plastic strain for FSW (Elasto-plastic
material and velocity BC)
where xs , y s , and z s are local coordinates for the
separation surface with the origin at the tool center, and
10−3 rad/s is used for ω. The y-directional velocity is
constrained to be zero everywhere, so that the problem
becomes one of implicit plane strain. The material
properties of the previous strip drawing examples are also
used in this simulation. Figures 2-5 show the velocity,
stress, and equivalent plastic strain fields for this FSW
example from FRE. It should be noted that this FSW
example is presented only to show the potential of FRE
and FEE algorithms for FSW analysis with arbitrary
boundary conditions on the separation boundary, and
thus, the results do not reflect real FSW phenomena.
Since the material flows across the separation boundary,
stress and equivalent boundary conditions should be
prescribed on the material entering boundary in the
combined analysis scheme, as has been stated in Section
2.0.4. The FEE simulation for this example shows
convergence difficulty and no result has been obtained.
The convergence difficulty is attributed to the fact
that the FEE formulation requires equilibrium boundary
conditions more strongly than the FRE formulation. The
FEE formulation may still be applicable to FSW analysis
if boundary conditions satisfy equilibrium.
4 Conclusions and Future Works
Two Eulerian elasto-plastic FE algorithms with SUPG-
mixed formulation technique [11] P. R. Dawson. Viscoplastic finite element analysis of
are developed and investigated to predict residual stress
in FSW process. From strip drawing simulations, it is
concluded that FEE more easily incorporates boundary
conditions and yields more reasonable results than FRE. [12] O. C. Zienkiewicz E. G. Thompson, J. F. T. Pittman.
However, the FEE requires more strict equilibrium BC. A
combined elasto-plastic and viscoplastic analysis scheme
is suggested to analyze FSW process. A FSW example
271
shows the potential usefulness of the FEE and FRE for
FSW analysis in the combined analysis procedure.
For the complete FSW analysis by the combined elasto-
plastic and viscoplastic analysis scheme, a fully-coupled
thermal-mechanical (viscoplastic) algorithm which can
incorporate the FSW boundary conditions described in
Section 3.1.1 is needed. Surface integral capability for FEE
and FRE is necessary to apply boundary conditions on the
separation surface using vicoplastic analysis results.
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272
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Modelling temperature histories in friction stir welding
including material convection effects
A. Simar, T. Pardoen, B. de Meester
Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Abstract
A finite element pseudo-steady state thermal model has
been developed taking the mechanical power as an input
data. The total power input is distributed between surface
and volume heat sources. The material properties have
been measured experimentally. Based on the shape of the
thermomechanically affected zone, a simple model for the
material flow around the tool has been developed in order
to take heat convection into account. Special attention is
given to the type of contact at the tool-workpiece interface
i.e. sliding, sticking or both. A small value of the material
circumferential velocity at the tool interface compared to
the tool rotating velocity is shown to give good prediction
of the temperature difference between the advancing and
retreating sides.
Introduction
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state welding
technique patented by TWI in 1991 [1]. The high quality
of the welds produced and the reproducibility of this fully
automated process have provided the impetus for
industrial implementation. Nevertheless, many aspects of
the process are still badly understood and necessitate
further studies.
The objective of our study is to look at the influence of
material flow due to the rotation of hot material around
the FSW tool on the temperature distribution during
welding. The type of heat source to be introduced in the
model is also studied. The asymmetry of the temperature
distribution is a well-known aspect of the FSW process.
The introduction of material convection in the model
causes an asymmetry in the temperature distribution with
a warmer advancing side.
Background
The heat in friction stir welding is generated by frictional
effect and/or by the plastic deformation associated with
material stirring. No consensus has emerged yet about the
proper partitioning of these effects. It is even not clear
which is the dominant heat generation mechanism. By
using a rather low value of the friction coefficient,
Zahedul et al. [2] conclude that a purely frictional heating
model is probably not adequate. Khandkar et al. [3] took
the measured mechanical power as input to a FSW
thermal model with surface heat sources distributed by
assuming a uniform shear stress at the tool interfaces.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Tang et al. [4] measured the temperatures in the near pin
region. The isothermal plateau near the pin suggests that
heat is generated mainly through plastic deformation
during the friction stir welding process.
More complex models include material flow. Schmidt et
al. [5] proposed a simple distribution of circumferential
material velocity to study the effect of material
convection on the temperature distribution in the sticking
and the sliding cases. Bendzsak et al. [6], Shercliff et al.
[7], Seidel et al. [8], Colegrove et al. ([9], [10]) have
developed computational fluid dynamics models to study
the material flow assuming the heat input to be due to
viscous dissipation. Ulysse [11], Askari et al.[12], Smith
et al. [13], Foument et al. [14] and P. Heurtier [15]
developed coupled thermomechanical models. All these
models give key insight into the material flow during the
process.
Experiments
The experimental results mentioned in this publication
have already been presented elsewhere [16]. Butt welds of
6005A-T6, 6 mm thick, extruded aluminium sheets were
performed. The welds were 550 mm long. The tool had a
20 mm diameter shoulder and a 7 mm diameter threaded
pin. The pin was 5.7 mm long.
The thermocouples closest to the centreline were
embedded 7.2 mm away from the weld centreline at 3.3
mm depth. Two thermocouples were also introduced
inside the tool. A dynamometer allowed force and torque
measurements.
The welding parameters were a rotational speed of
1000rpm and an advancing speed of 1 m/min. The
measured torque was equal to 56.3 Nm. The welding
efficiency η (ratio of the power introduced into the
workpiece and the total mechanical power) was derived
from the tool temperature measurements and found equal
to 95%.
The thermal properties of the material were measured
using a dilatometer, DSC instruments and a Laser-Flash
[17]. A DSC measurement up to fusion was performed to
estimate the solidus temperatures of the alloy. In the
heating phase the solidus was found at 613°C. In the
cooling phase, the solidus was equal to 566°C. Note that
273
the DSC measurements were performed at 10°C min-1.
This heating rate is much lower than the rates measured
during welding which could cause a delay in the
appearance of a new phase.
Description of the model
General assumptions
A finite element model of the pseudo-steady state heat
transfer during welding has been developed using the
general-purpose commercial code ABAQUS [18]. The
mesh is made up of 8 noded hexahedrons with a high
density in the near tool region. The model is sufficiently
long that it does not influence the thermal field in the zone
surrounding the tool. A temperature of 25°C was imposed
upstream. The top and side surfaces were considered as
adiabatic. The convection effect is indeed negligeable at
these surfaces on the temperature distribution. The model
takes into account the heat loss through the backing plate
by modelling a thick steel plate ounder the workpiece. A
temperature of 25°C was imposed at the bottom of the
thick steel plate.
The contact conditions between the workpiece and the
thick steel plate were studied extensively in a previous a
version of the model involving no material convection
[16]. These contact conditions will be applied for the
present model. A contact conductivity of 235 kW/m2K is
set directly under the tool. Contact conductivities of 1.76
kW/m2K and 0 kW/m2K are set respectively behind the
tool and in the regions surrounding the tool.
To ensure continuity in the flow rate, the pin is not
modelled: the material is assumed to flow continuously
even through the pin.
Heat sources, parameter γ
The total power dissipated at the tool/workpiece interface
by friction (surface heat sources) is devided into three
parts corresponding to the different working surfaces of
the tool: the shoulder (with radius ro), the lateral surface
of the pin (with radius ri and height hp) and the surface of
the tool pin tip. The purely sliding friction effect of the
shoulder due to the advancing speed can be neglected
compared to the rotating terms of friction (Shercliff et al.
[7]). Similarly, the heat generated at the tool tip can be
neglected compared to the heat generated along the
shoulder and the pin lateral surface.
Note that for the sake of simplicity, a constant velocity
field opposite to the welding direction is added to the
circumferencial velocity in the entire mesh. Nevertheless,
circumferencial velocities if the workpiece material sticks
to the tool are much higher than the advancing velocity
making this last term almost negligeable. This parasitic
effect is not introduced in the expression of the surface
heat source.
The relative proportions of the friction heat dissipated on
the shoulder and the pin of the tool are 82% and 18%
respectively [16] for the tool geometry of interest in this
work. The densities of surface heat sources (qS [W/m2])
274
are related to the total power input associated with surface
heat sources (QS [W]), [16] along the tool shoulder by:
0.82QS r
qS = with r0 ≤ r ≤ ri and z = 0 (1)
2
3
(
π ro3 − ri3 )
and along the lateral surface of the tool pin:
0.18 QS
qS = with 0 ≤ z ≤ hp and r = ri (2)
2πri h p
Where r is the radial position from the tool center and z is
the vertical position from the top surface.
Heat is also dissipated in the volume of the material by
plastic deformation. It is expected that the deformation of
the material is much larger close to the FWS tool but, due
to heating, the flow stress there is the lowest. Inversely,
further away from the tool, the deformation is lower but
the material flow stress is higher because of lower
temperatures. Therefore, little can be said concerning the
location and the intensity of the heat dissipation through
plastic deformation during FSW, except that it occurs in
the so-called thermo-mechanically heat affected zone
(TMAZ) as is experimentally confirmed and agreed upon
in the literature ([19], [20], [12]).
In the absence of any other relevant information, a
uniform distribution of the volume heat sources resulting
from the plastic deformation in the TMAZ is assumed.
The total heat power dissipated through plastic
deformation was imposed to be :
QV = qV V p (3)
where Vp [m3] is the volume of the TMAZ and QV [W] is
the total power input associated with the volumic heat
sources.
From macrographic observations on a transverse section,
the volume Vp of the TMAZ where plastic deformation
takes place during FSW, has been determined as shown
on the Figure 1. The value of parameter rmin defined on
Figure 1 was measured to be ri + 0.5 mm = 4 mm.
rmin
Figure 1: Shape of the TMAZ
The total power dissipated by friction and plastic
deformation during welding, P, can be calculated from the
measurement of the forces and torque. Almost all that
power is transformed into heat. The fraction of power lost
within the tool is very small.
ηP = Pin = QS + QV . (4)
The relative importance of QV and QS is unknown. In the
present study, a parameter γ is introduced for that
purpose:
QV = γPin , (5)
QS = (1 − γ ) Pin . (6)
Material flow around the tool, parameter δ
To study the effect of material convection around the tool,
a simple model of the flow is proposed.
The scientific literature does not provide a clear
identification of the boundary conditions prevailing in
FSW. Sticking conditions correspond to a material
circumferencial velocity at the tool interface equal to the
tool velocity. Sliding conditions correspond to a material
that does not rotate around the tool but is only extruded by
the pin. The trues probably lies between those two
extreme cases. For modelling purposes, a parameter δ is
introduced. It characterises the velocity at the
tool/workpiece interface and is defined as equal to the
ratio of the material circumferencial velocity at the tool
interface and the tool circumferencial velocity: if δ = 0,
the contact is perfect sliding and if δ = 1, the contact is
perfect sticking.
A very simple model for the velocity field around the tool
is proposed here.Material flow is considered only in the
TMAZ. The local circumferential velocity due to the
shoulder increases with increasing radius and decreases
with increasing depth. The local circumferential velocity
due to the pin is decreasing with increasing radius. Figure
2 represents the assumed velocity field.
The problem with such a simple model for the
circumferential velocity field is that it introduces velocity
discontinuities at the outer radius of the shoulder.
Figure 2: Simple model of the circumferential velocity field
Decoupling of parameters γ and δ
The work by Schmidt et al. [5] does not make a
distinction between parameters γ and δ , which is similar
to the assumption that the two parameters evolve in the
same way. Hence, a sliding interface condition
corresponds to surface heat sources and a sticking
interface condition corresponds to volume heat sources.
The trues could be more complex.
Let us discuss the four extreme cases:
275
• γ = 0 (surface heat source) and δ = 0 (no material
circumferencial velocity): this is the case generally
considered ([2], [3], [21], [22]); the material is not
moving around the tool and all the heat is generated
by friction.
• γ = 1 (volumic heat source) and δ = 0 (no material
circumferencial velocity): there is no circumferential
velocity but the stiring of the material around the pin
generates heat in the TMAZ.
• γ = 0 (surface heat source) and δ = 1 (material
circumferencial velocity = tool circumferential
velocity): the material rotates with the tool but heat is
generated only by material shearing in a thin layer at
the tool - material interface. Dong et al. [19] showed
through his model that such a thin plastic boundary
layer is relevant to the FSW process. This is very
close to a surface heat source generation and can be
modelled as such. Note that in this case the surface
heat source distribution proposed here, based on
friction equations, might not be totally adequate.
Nevertheless with higher circumferential velocities
(like at the edge of the shoulder) more heat is
generated. A linear variation with radius seems to be
reasonable.
• γ = 1 (volume heat source) and δ = 1 (material
circumferencial velocity = tool circumferential
velocity): this is another classical assumption([6], [7],
[12], [13]); the material rotates with the tool and heat
is generated by the deformation of material in the
entire TMAZ.
Results and discussion
Figure 3, 4 and 5 show the evolution of the maximum
temperature. Two major changes are observed as a
consequence of the introduction of material convection
around the tool.
• Firstly, the maximum temperatures around the tool
are lowered due to a better stirring of hot material
around the tool (see Figure 3).
• Secondly, the maximum temperature is relocated: the
advancing side is hotter than the retreating side when
a circumferential velocity is introduced (δ > 0) (see
Figures 4 and 5).
Maximum temperature
The maximum temperatures predicted for the variant
values of γ and δ (Figure 3) are very close to the solidus
temperature of the alloy (about 600°C). Since FSW is a
solid state welding process, it seems reasonable to
conclude that a value of γ =0 (surface heat source only)
and δ = 0 (no material circumferential velocity) is
inadequate. This is an important observation since many
simple models in the literature (e.g. [2], [3], [21], [22])
only take into account surface heat sources and do not
include material convection. A volume heat source (γ = 1)
should be introduced in the models to obtain an adequate
estimation of the temperatures in the near tool region.

Figure 3: Variation of the maximum temperature as a
function of δ for the various values of γ
of δ at 12 mm from the centreline on the advancing side for
Figure 4: Variation of the maximum temperatures at mid-
thickness as a function of the transverse position for γ = 0
Figure 5: Variation of the maximum temperatures at mid-
thickness as a function of the transverse position for γ = 1
Nevertheless, further away from the centreline the
maximum temperature distribution is less influenced by
the choice of the heat source distribution and the
276
presence, or not, of material convection. Figure 6 shows
the maximum temperatures 12 mm from the centreline on
the advancing side. The maximum temperature between
the different cases changes by only 40°C (Figure 6)
compared to a difference equal to 130°C for the maximum
temperature (Figure 3) under the tool. This range drops to
25°C at 20 mm from the centreline.
This last observation is the reason why the maximum
temperature values, far away from the centreline, do not
allow to conclude more precisely which is the best set of
values for γ and δ (see Figures 4 and 5).
Figure 6: Variation of maximum temperature as a function
various values of parameter γ
Asymmetry in the temperature distribution
The observation in Figure 3 and 5 of a hotter advancing
side when δ > 0 is in agreement with our experimental
results. The literature also globally agrees on this point
([23], [12]). But Maeda et al. [23] and Lawrjaniec et al.
[24] concluded from their experimental results that a
slightly hotter retreating side could be observed for some
welding conditions. Tang et al. [4] found no significant
difference in the temperature distribution on the two sides
of the weld.
Figure 8a shows that the temperature field is symmetric
when no material circumferential velocity is introduced.
Figure 8b shows the same temperature field when
introducing a material circumferential velocity which is,
at the tool interface, equal to 5% of the tool
circumferential velocity. An assymmetry in the
temperature field is already noticeable even though the
material circumferential velocity at the tool interface is
only equal to 50rpm. When introducing a material
circumferential velocity at the tool interface equal to the
tool circumferential velocity (see Figure 8c), the
temperature field becomes much more uniform reducing
the assymmetry between the two sides. This effect can
also be seen when looking at Figure 9.
 of parameters γ and δ. Note that the value of γ (the type of
heat source) does not seem to have a major impact on this
Retreating side temperature difference. The experimental values for the
temperature differences between the advancing side and
the retreating side (see Table 1) lead to an optimal value
for δ equal to 0.05. A value of γ = 1 is chosen to limit the
maximal temperature reached by the model as already
mentioned earlier (see also Figure 3).

Advancing side

Figure 8a: Map of the top surface temperatures for the case
γ = 1 and δ = 0

Retreating side

Figure 9 Variation of maximum temperaturedifference

between the advancing side and the retreating side as a
function of δ at 12 mm and 7.2 mm from the centreline for
γ = 0 and γ = 1
Advancing side
Table 1: Temperature differences on the advancing and
retreating side: comparaison between modelling and
experimental results
Figure 8b: Map of the top surface temperatures for the case Distance from centerline [mm] 7.2 9.2 12
γ = 1 and δ = 0.05 Measured Tmax on A side 411°C 397°C 304°C
Measured Tmax on R side 375°C 350°C 300°C
Measured temperature
36°C 47°C 4°C
difference (A-R)
Prediced Tmax on A side with
Retreating side δ = 5%
415°C 337°C 272°C
Predicted Tmax on R side with
370°C 305°C 253°C
δ = 5%
Prediced temperature
45°C 32°C 19°C
difference (A-R) with δ = 5%

Advancing side Figure 10 exhibits the comparison between the prediced

Figure 8c: Map of the top surface temperatures for the case
γ = 1 and δ = 1
Figure 9 shows the maximum temperature difference
between the advancing side and the retreating side at
7.2mm and 12mm from the centreline for various values
and experimental time-temperature evolutions for δ = 5%
at 7.2mm from the centreline. Calculated results, at 7.2
mm, 9.2 mm and 12 mm from the centreline, are
presented in Table 1. The agreement between the
temperature differences are quite good especially close to
the centreline confirming that the material circumferential
velocity should only be (within the limits of the validity
of this model) a small percentage of the tool
circumferential velocity.
The literature agrees on the fact that at least some sliding
should be introduced (δ > 0) since a completely sliding

277
 situation (δ = 0) does not give a good correlation with
experimental results. Xu et al. [25] obtained a good
correlation of their visualisation experiments for a value
of δ equal to about 0.3 to 0.5. Colegrove et al. [9]
concluded from their model that a slip condition has to be
introduced in the modelling of the FSW process otherwise
the power input is over-predicted. Schmidt et al. [13]
concluded from their model that non-uniform contact
conditions close to sticking are present at the majority of
the interface except in the vicinity of the tool shoulder and
at the lower trailing advancing region of the pin -
workpiece interface.
Figure 10: Time - temperature graph at 7.2 mm from the
centreline for the case γ = 1 and δ = 0.05, comparison of the
advancing and retreating side for the experimental and
calculated results
It is important to note that the conclusions of this article
are correct if the hypothesis at the basis of the calculation
are correct. In particular, if the volume heat source
distribution supposed here were to be incorrect, the
conclusions concerning the value of δ should be modified
especially if the exact distribution of the volume heat
source is asymmetric. All these effects could balance the
material convection asymmetry and lead to slightly
different conclusions. Seidel et al. [8] and Colegrove et
al. [9] concluded from their 2-D computational fluid
dynamics model that the width of the deformed region is
smaller on the advancing side than on the retreating side.
Our macrographs lead to the same conclusion but show
that for our welding parameters this effect is limited: the
TMAZ is 15% larger at the retreating side than the
advancing side at mid-thickness.
Conclusions
An asymmetric finite element model of the friction stir
welding process has been developed and validated based
on fully instrumented, reproducible 6005A-T6 welding
experiments.
A simplified model of the material flow around the tool
allowed us to take into account the forced convection
effect around the tool. The experimentally observed
asymmetry of the weld and a warmer advancing side are
well modelled through this simple assumption.
278
The contact conditions between the tool and the
workpiece have been identified as sliding-sticking on the
basis of the temperature difference between the advancing
side and the retreating side.
Acknowledgements
Aude Simar acknowledges financial support from FRIA
and FSR-UCL
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Symp. FSW, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2000
[7] H.R. Shercliff and P.A. Colegrove, Math. Model. Weld
Phenomena 6, p.927-974, Manley Publishing, London (2002)
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France, Sept. 2005
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Mines de Saint-Etienne, France
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Symp. FSW, Metz, France, Sept. 2005
[17] A. Simar, T. Pardoen and B. de Meester, Effect of the
boundary conditions and the heat source repartition on the
temperature distribution in FSW, “to be published”
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Karlsson and Sorensen, Providence, RI
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Joining, 6(5), 281-287 (2001)
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Simulation of HSLA-65 Friction Stir Welding

D. Forrest, J. Nguyen, M. Posada, J. DeLoach
Naval Surface Warfare Center, Carderock Division, West Bethesda, MD USA

D. Boyce, J. Cho, P. Dawson

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY USA

Abstract specimens to achieve the desired thermomechanical

Friction stir welds in steel exhibit a wide range of
microstructural features that result from large gradients in
temperature, strain, and strain rate during the welding process.
HSLA-65 steel friction stir welds contain mixtures of ferrite
and pearlite, acicular ferrite, bainite, and martensite/austenite
constituent, with varying amounts of deformation and grain
refinement. The thermomechanical gradients also affect the
precipitate size distribution and dislocation densities, and
consequently the mechanical properties of the weld, all of
which can vary significantly throughout various regions of the
weld.
In order to better understand the relationships between
processing, structure, and properties we have simulated the
thermomechanical history of different regions of an HSLA-65
friction stir weld. The simulations consisted of both
computational and Gleeble® studies. The computational
modeling was conducted using an Eulerian finite element
formulation for coupled steady-state viscoplastic flow and heat
transfer to determine the velocity field and temperature
distribution in the process zone around the tool. This allowed
us to estimate thermomechanical histories along streamlines of
the velocity field.
The experimental simulations involved taking the
computational results and programming the Gleeble to deform
specimens according to the calculated thermomechanical
histories. We compared the simulated microstructures and
microhardnesses with those in an actual FSW weld to validate
the Gleeble simulation results and the model results.
The key findings of this study are:
• using the Gleeble 1500, we have the capability to
simulate the thermomechanical history characteristic
of the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) in
HSLA-65
• there are nuances in experimental technique that are
critical for uniform deformation of compression
history
• there was anisotropy in the hardness between the
transverse and longitudinal planes; this may be a result
of the directional flow during the compression and
could affect the spatial variation of properties within
an actual weld
• the microstructure of the simulated TMAZ did not
match the microstructure of the actual TMAZ; specific
improvements to the computational model should
improve the thermomechanical history prediction, viz
calculating the heat transfer through the pin tool, using
Hart model parameters appropriate to HSLA-65,
getting the program to converge with the travel speed
and rotation rate of the actual weld, and moving to a
three dimensional representation of the system.
Introduction
The U.S. Navy is using HSLA-65 steel as a higher strength
steel replacement for DH-36 in carrier construction. An
extensive evaluation of the HSLA-65 steel system was
performed and provided sufficient data to initiate efforts to
certify it for non-primary structures. The first implementation
of HSLA-65 is being designed into the CVN-77 island
structure and the hull and island structure for CVN-21. The
DDX ships will incorporate another higher strength DH-36
substitute, HSLA-80, in their superstructures. Both the DDX
class superstructures and CVN decking are fabricated
primarily of welded thin gage plates. Two of the major
problems that can develop during the conventional welding of
thin gage plates are distortion and fume generation.
Distortion results from residual stresses and shrinkage due to
the heat and associated melting during arc welding. In friction
stir welding, the joining zone is heated by the friction of a tool
that plastically deforms and mixes the metal between the two
pieces, and the weld remains below the melting point.
Consequently, the fixturing, tooling, and the friction stir
welding process itself are expected to minimize distortion,
which would reduce flame straightening costs and improve

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 279

radar signature. The potential for cost savings is substantial:
distortion-related rework costs estimated by Ingalls Shipyard
are $50,000 per superstructure, and the DDG-51 Program
Office estimated a total of $1M rework costs for the entire
ship structure. Friction Stir Welding (FSW) has other
characteristics that make it a cost-effective alternative to
conventional arc welding, including the following.
• The process is environmentally-friendly and safe (no
fume, arc, or spatter)
• Low skill level and minimal training required; ease of
operation and low operator error rate
• No need for filler wire or shielding gas
• Little joint preparation required
• Minimal post weld clean up
Our goal is to make friction stir welding a viable process for
steel structures in CVN-21 and DDX platform construction.
The present technological needs are extending the tool life,
improving our understanding and quantifying the effects of
process parameters on weld quality, and development of NDE
and QA procedures.
This effort focuses on understanding the effect of process
parameters on weld quality and establishing an operational
FSW envelope to join HSLA-65 steels up to ½-in. thickness.
In order to gain a full understanding of the effects of process
parameters, we are using a combination of computational
modeling, thermomechanical simulation, and experimental
verification. Computational modeling gives us the ability to
explore temperatures, speeds, and strain rates that may be
difficult to achieve in the laboratory environment, but will
provide deeper understanding of the physical processes. In
past studies, we have successfully used a Gleeble® 1500 to
simulate the thermal behavior of heat-affected and fusion
zones of conventional arc welds, allowing us to rapidly and
less expensively generate a set of specimens that were
processed under more tightly-controlled conditions than in an
actual weld. Because the Gleeble can also deform specimens
in a controlled manner, Gleeble simulation of FSW allows us
to efficiently and precisely evaluate the effects of friction stir
welding conditions on HSLA-65.
Computational Simulation
The Material Model: Simplified Hart's Model
Hickory uses a simplified version of the state variable material
model developed by Hart [1]. Whereas the full model can be
visualized as a spring-dashpot model comprised of two
springs, a nonlinear dashpot and a plastic element, we choose
not to include the spring elements, thereby neglecting the
elastic response and anelastic behavior related to dislocation
accumulation behind barriers. The simplified model includes
two parallel legs: a viscous element representing frictional
forces along slip planes and a plastic element with an isotropic
state variable representing resistance to dislocation motion.
280
Parameters and equations for the simplified Hart's model can
be found in [2].
The Constitutive Model: Hickory
Hickory is a two-dimensional, finite element code for
modeling viscoplastic deformations of metals. It was
developed for research purposes by the Deformation Processes
Simulation Laboratory research group at Cornell. The core
modeling component of Hickory is the selection of
viscoplastic material models. These are all based on the idea
of associating one or more state variables with the material to
quantify the influence of certain aspects of the microstructure
on the mechanical properties. Some of the models are: Hart's
model, Mechanical Threshold Stress (MTS), and the BCJ
(Bammann, Chiesa and Johnson) model. Hickory simulations
can employ either an Eulerian or Lagrangian reference frame
and usually involve coupling of the kinematic, thermal and
state variable behaviors. Sophisticated boundary condition
models are available for friction and convection.
Hickory models friction stir welding as a locally steady
process in an Eulerian reference frame. In this context, the
mesh is spatially fixed and the material flows past the pin tool.
The two lateral sides have zero normal velocity (no lateral
mass flux); the inlet has a prescribed normal velocity (tool
speed) with zero tractions transverse to the flow direction; the
outlet has zero tractions. The pin tool is modeled with friction
boundary conditions. These entail zero normal velocity and a
traction tangent to the pin tool. The traction (T) is
proportional to the difference in tangential velocity between
the workpiece material and the specified pin tool rate of
rotation (344 rpm = 0.09 m/s tangential velocity). The
proportionality coefficient is 1.50 x 1011 N-s/m3.
T (N/m2) = 1.50x1011 N-s/m3 · (vpin - vmaterial) (m/s) ........... (1)
For the thermal problem, the material temperature (preheat)
was specified at the inlet to be 373K (100°C). On the outlet
and the two lateral sides, zero heat flux was specifed. The
heat flux at the pin tool was specified using a simple
convection model similar in nature to the friction model: flux
is proportional to the temperature difference between the
flowing material and the pin tool. The temperature of the pin
tool was set to be 300K (100°C), and the flux coefficient was
1000 W/m2-K. So if the temperature of the material at the
surface is 1300K, the flux would be calculated as:
q = (1000 W/m2-K) * (1300-300 K) = 1 x 106 W/m2 ...... (2)
For Carderock's initial test of Hickory, which is what this
paper describes, we used these settings because of Cornell's
earlier success with convergence of the model with these
values. In the future, we will refine the settings to provide a
better match with the experimental operating parameters.
Modeling Results stainless steel parameters that were available. We are
We used Hickory to estimate the thermomechanical histories currently in the process of developing Hart model parameters
(strain and temperature vs. time) along streamline traces. for HSLA-65 in our ongoing work.
Because this is a 2D model there is no heating or deformation
from the shoulder of the tool, only from the pin itself. The model was capable of providing data along each
streamline so that it was possible to plot the strain and
temperature history of elements of material at various
distances away from the axis of travel. We are particularly
interested in elements that experience strain rates within the
capability of our Gleeble® 1500 thermomechanical simulator
(a) (which has a maximum stroke speed of about 400mm/s in
P in rotates compression; we have tested up to 200mm/s). Streamline
number 65 (counting from the bottom) had just the right
clockw ise amount of strain for our first test on the Gleeble. Because
there was plastic strain along this streamline, we are
classifying this location to be part of the thermomechanically
affected zone (TMAZ) of the weld. Figure 2 shows streamline
65 and the temperature field around the pin tool. Figure 3
shows the calculated temperature and strain histories along
that streamline.

D irection of
m aterial flow

Streamline 65
(b)

Pin Tool,
5mm diameter

Figure 2: Streamline 65 and the temperature field around the

pin tool. Temperature is in Kelvin.

Figure 1: (a) Streamlines showing metal flow around a fixed,

rotating pin tool. The view is from above looking down onto
the plate; the material is traveling from left to right. (b) A
single streamline superimposed on a contour plot of the steady
state temperature field (temperature in Kelvin, size in meters).

Figure 1 shows streamlines and temperature contours

calculated for 304L stainless steel using the Hart model option
in Hickory. The simulation assumed a pin tool diameter of 5
mm, a rotation rate of 344 rpm, and a travel speed of 4 ipm.
This is similar to actual conditions for successful friction stir
welding of HSLA-65 steel except that the simulated rotation
rate is a bit slower than in practice; we had difficulty getting
the model to converge with rotation rates much faster than this
(this will be a focus of future work). Hart model parameters
were not available for HSLA-65, which was why we used the

281
 Strain and Temperature Targets

1.000 800
700
Cumulative Strain

600

Temperature (°C)
0.100
500
(mm/mm)

400
300
0.010
200
100
0.001 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (seconds)

Cumulative Strain (mm/mm) Temperature

Figure 4: Metallographic cross-section of thermocoupled
weld showing a TMAZ peak temperature on the order of
Figure 3: Temperature and strain histories of an element of 930°C. The solid, colored arrows indicate thermocouple
material that follows the path shown by streamline 65. Note locations.
that the strain scale is logarithmic.

Comparison with weld thermocouple data Measured (4mm) vs. Calculated (3.7mm)
We were able to compare the calculated thermal profile with 1000
Temperature
measurements from an actual weld (Figure 4), however due to 900
the previously-mentioned limitations of the convergence with 800
Hickory, the operating conditions of the simulated weld were
Temperature (°C)

700
not the same as those of the actual weld. Streamline 65 600
represented a point 3.7 mm from the center of the pin tool 500
(operating conditions were 344 rpm, 4 ipm = 0.0017 m/s). 400
We compared this with thermocouple data taken at a distance 300
of 4 mm from the center of an HSLA-65 weld (operating 200
conditins were 750 rpm, 6 ipm). 100
0
The peak calculated temperature for this streamline was 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
710°C, which was significantly less than the peak temperature Time (seconds)
of about 930°C measured in the region near the border Measured Temperature Target Temperature
between the inner HAZ and outer TMAZ of an actual weld
(Figure 5). Note that the thermocouple signal was disrupted as
the pin tool passed nearby so the peak of the curve is Figure 5: Graph comparing the calculated thermal history of
reconstructed by the dashed line in Figure 5. streamline 65 with a thermocouple trace from an actual weld.
Measured curve includes an extrapolation (dashed line) of the
It is important to note that we are still refining the estimated true values.
calculations: these calculations were performed using model
parameters that are appropriate for austenitic stainless steel Material
and not ferritic low-carbon steel, and the simulated rotation The material used in this study was taken from ½" thick
rate was slower than would be used in practice to facilitate controlled rolled HSLA-65 plate (ASTM A945, Grade 65).
convergence of the computation. As shown in Table 1, the material (coded HBI) conformed to
ASTM A945 chemistry requirements. The specimens were
Thermomechanical Simulation machined to nominal dimensions of 0.48" diameter x 0.495"
length.
We used the Hickory results as a basis for programming our
Gleeble 1500 thermomechanical simulator [3] to impose the
thermomechanical history shown in Figure 3. Our tests on ½”
diameter HSLA-65 steel compression specimens showed that
we are able to simulate this thermomechanical profile with
good fidelity.

282
 Table 1: Compression specimen chemistry. 2 2
⎡ 1 ⎛ du dv ⎞⎤ ........ (4)
2 ⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞
2

ε& = ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 2 ⋅ ⎢ ⋅ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎥
3 ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dy ⎠ ⎣ 2 ⎝ dy dx ⎠⎦
Compression ASTM
Specimens A 945 Compressive Shear
C 0.076 0.10 max
Mn 1.22 1.10 – 1.65 where u is x-velocity, v is y-velocity, and ε& is strain rate.
P 0.015 0.025 max The incremental strain rates calculated by the model were then
S 0.005 0.010 max multiplied by the timesteps between data points on the
Si 0.26 0.10 – 0.50 streamline to determine incremental strains between each
Ni 0.033 0.40 max timestep. These incremental strains were then programmed
Cr 0.036 0.20 max into the Gleeble, in the form of target total strains vs. time as
Mo 0.001 0.08 max shown in Figure 3. In addition to strain effects, the diameter
Cu 0.016 0.35 max of the specimen also increases due to thermal expansion
V 0.065 0.10 max during the thermomechanical cycle. We compensated for this
Cb 0.035 0.05 max by calculating the amount of thermal expansion expected due
Al 0.030 0.08 max to the temperature increase for each time step, and added this
Ti 0.002 to the desired amount of strain to obtain a corrected target
N 0.0065 diameter.

Procedure
Figure 5 shows the setup of the specimen in the Gleeble
chamber. The tests were run under argon atmosphere in both C-Gauge
C-Gauge control and stroke control modes. C-Gauge (also
called diameteral) control means that the strain imparted to the
specimen is controlled based on feedback from the C-Gauge,
which measures the diameter of the specimen. Strain is Compression
related to diameter according to the following formula: Specimen

⎛ d o ⎞ ............................(3)
ε = 2 ⋅ ln⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ o + Δd ⎠
d

where ε is true strain, do is the initial diameter, and Δd is Thermocouple

change in diameter.
Stroke control applies strain based on linear position of the
anvil (internal LVDT reading). Although we had much better
control with C-Gauge control in these trials, there were
subsequent procedural changes that we made to improve the
results in stroke control (which is now preferred because the
C-Gauge can interfere with the compression, and it is
cumbersome to position both the C-Gauge and thermocouple
in the small working area). Temperature was controlled by
feedback from a thermocouple spot-welded on the surface to
the Gleeble's power supply which heated the specimen by
electrical resistance.
We note that much of the strain predicted by the model was
actually shear strain, but because our Gleeble does not
perform torsion (other models do), we could only apply strain
in compression. In preparing the Hickory results for the
Gleeble program, we therefore converted the shear and
compressive strain rate components to total strain rate
according to the following formula:
Graphite
wire
Sheet
Figure 5: Gleeble specimen setup. The graphite sheets
promote good slippage between the anvils and the specimen
ends.
Simulation Results
The experimental work in this study provided us with three
key findings: (1) using the Gleeble 1500, we have the
capability to simulate the thermomechanical history
characteristic of the thermomechanically affected zone
(TMAZ) in HSLA-65, (2) there are nuances in experimental
technique that are critical to achieving the desired
thermomechanical history, and (3) anisotropic flow behavior
may play a role in the evolution of microstructure and
properties during the friction stir welding of HSLA-65.
The Gleeble exhibited an excellent ability to achieve target
temperatures and strains. Figure 6 shows this comparison for
strain, and Figure 7 shows target vs. actual temperatures.

283
 Actual vs. Target Diameter, TMAZ-F

5.00

4.00
Increase in Diameter (mm)

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00 Figure 8: Specimen H after testing; final thickness=6.32 mm.

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 The material along the faces spread slightly more than in the
Time (seconds)
center (the faces were slightly hotter). The thermocouple spot
weld can be seen on the right side of the sample (arrow).
Actual Diameter Target Diameter
Metallographic and Microhardness Results
Metallographic examination of the specimens showed that, at
Figure 6: The Gleeble was able to follow the target specimen lower magnifications, there was almost no visible distortion of
diameter vs. time with good fidelity. the microstructure, the exception being that the original
banding of the base plate material, though intact, followed the
flow of the deformation. At high magnification (Figure 9) the
ferrite grains showed considerable substructure, with newly
A c t ua l v s . T a rge t T e m pe ra t ure T M A Z - F recrystallized grains (some smaller than 1 micron) forming in
the interior of many grains; the grain boundaries were
800 irregular with many re-entrant angles, indicating that
700 significant movement of the boundaries was occurring. At
Temperature (°C)

600 these magnifications it is not apparent whether the

500 transformation product is pearlite or bainite.
400
300
Due to changes in the control mode of the Gleeble during
these initial trials, not all the samples received the same
200
amount of deformation or achieved the same peak
100
temperatures. Table 2 lists these differences and provides
0
microhardness results for each. The target total strain (Δl / lo)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
in all cases was 45.3%. The poor fidelity in stroke control
Tim e (seconds) may have been due to "slop" in the compression train of the
Gleeble.
Actual Temperature Target Temperature

Table 2: Microhardness results for four samples.

Figure 7: The Gleeble was able to follow the target specimen
temperature vs. time with good fidelity. The discrepancy in
ID Control Orientation Total Max Micro-
the early part of the cycle was a result of heating too rapidly
Mode of Polished Strain Temp. hardness
to the preheat temperature of 100°C, and was corrected in
Face (%) (°C) (HV)
subsequent runs with a slower ramp.
F C-Gauge Transverse 52.0 715 195
H C-Gauge Longitudinal 49.6 728 167
There was some non-uniformity in the deformation, as the I Stroke Transverse 34.7 771 183
faces of the specimens contacting the compression platens J Stroke Longitudinal 26.3 835 167
were hotter the center, causing them to spread out further
(Figure 8). The microhardness results indicate that there was anisotropy
in the properties, which was unexpected. The hardnesses
taken in the plane perpendicular to the direction of spreading
(the longitudinal faces) were lower than the hardnesses taken
in the plane of radial spreading (the transverse plane). There

284
was no significant correlation between the magnitude of either
the strain or peak temperatures and microhardness.
(b)

750 rpm, 6 ipm

Figure 9: Microstructure of specimen F, transverse plane, (c)

sectioned midway between the two compression faces. The
structure consists of ferrite and degenerate pearlite. The
ferrite grains show considerable substructure, with the
appearance of newly recrystallized grains (some smaller than
1 micron) forming in the interior of prior grains; the grain
boundaries are irregular with many re-entrant angles,
indicating that significant movement of the boundaries was
occurring during the test.

(a) 344 rpm, 4 ipm

Figure 10: (a) Macrograph of a portion of an HSLA-65

friction stir weld showing the location from which the
microstructure in figure (b) occurs. (b) Transverse
microstructure of inner HAZ/outer TMAZ region of an actual
weld (TC5), consisting of ferrite, islands of martensite (sepia
tint), pearlite, and intragranular precipitates. This region has
a similar grain size as sample H but a clearly different
thermomechanical history, suggesting higher temperatures
were reached (reaustenitizing small areas which become
martensite upon cooling), and that perhaps also faster cooling
rates were achieved. (c) Microstructure of specimen H,
longitudinal plane. The structure consists of ferrite and
(probably) pearlite, with very few visible precipitates. With a
maximum temperature of 728°C (right at the eutectoid), little
or no reaustenitization occurred. There was less evidence of
substructure than in the transverse view of this area (Figure
9) which may be reflective of the anisotropy in hardness.

285
Discussion
Experiment vs. simulation. The microstructure that resulted
from the Gleeble simulation of the Hickory computational
results did not match the microstructure from the experimental
weld. This may be due to (a) the mismatch between the
simulated vs. actual process conditions (speed and rotation
rate), (b) the use of material model parameters appropriate for
T304 steel instead of low carbon steel, (c) the assumptions
used in the traction and thermal boundary conditions, or (d)
the fact that this was modeled as a two-dimensional system.
The most severe consequence of the latter assumption is
neglecting the deformation and heat generation due to the tool
shoulder.
Microstructure. The differences in constituent phases
between the actual weld and the simulation can be explained
to a large degree by the peak temperatures that were achieved
in relation to the Fe-C equilibrium phase diagram. The peak
temperature of about 930°C in the actual weld is fully within
the austenite phase field. This resulted in the nucleation and
growth of austenite grains during the thermal cycle; these
grains then transformed into martensite islands upon cooling
(Figure 10b). The peak temperature of 728°C in the
simulated TMAZ is approximately the eutectoid temperature,
where virtually no austenite would be able to form—hence the
absence of martensite (Figure 10c). It is not clear why the
simulated structure contained significantly fewer intragranular
precipitates.
One point of interest involves the classification of zones based
upon microstructure and macroetching. We typically classify
regions of a friction stir weld in steel (as shown in Figure 4) to
include an outer HAZ, an inner HAZ, a TMAZ, and the stir
zone. At lower magnifications where the rich substructure is
not evident, the Gleeble TMAZ simulation microstructures
look like those that we have (in the past) classified as HAZ of
friction stir welds. We need to perform more high
magnification comparison work, including going back to the
original welds to determine whether the subgrain structures
are present, but the similarities between HAZ and TMAZ
microstructures gives us pause to rethink our classification
methods. Areas that we had thought were only affected by
temperature may have also seen some significant strain, but
because the microstructure was not obviously distorted it was
classified as being in the HAZ rather than the TMAZ.
Anisotropy of hardness. The anisotropy in hardness between
transverse and longitudinal planes in the Gleeble compression
samples was an unexpected result of this study. We need to
understand the reason for this anisotropy, and determine
whether there is a similar effect in the actual welds.
Experimental technique. When a compression specimen is
deformed, we want to achieve the same amount of
deformation at all points in the sample, otherwise we lose our
basis for comparison with the actual weld. If the sample
temperature is non-uniform, or if there is excessive sticking at
286
the interface between the anvil and the sample, deformation
will not be uniform. This was the case in the subject
experimental work—that non-uniform temperature resulted in
non-uniform deformation of the samples—so one focus of our
subsequent activities has been to improve our technique to
achieve uniform deformation.
Conclusions
The key findings of this study are:
• using the Gleeble 1500, we have the capability to
simulate the thermomechanical history characteristic
of the thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) in
HSLA-65
• there are nuances in experimental technique that are
critical for uniform deformation of compression
specimens to achieve the desired thermomechanical
history
• there was anisotropy in the hardness between the
transverse and longitudinal planes; this may be a result
of the directional flow during the compression and
could affect the spatial variation of properties within
an actual weld
• the microstructure of the simulated TMAZ did not
match the microstructure of the actual TMAZ; specific
improvements to the computational model should
improve the thermomechanical history prediction, viz
calculating the heat transfer through the pin tool, using
Hart model parameters appropriate to HSLA-65,
getting the program to converge with the travel speed
and rotation rate of the actual weld, and moving to a
three dimensional representation of the system.
References
1. E.W. Hart, Constitutive relations for the nonelastic
deformation of metals, J. Engrg Mater. Technol., 98,
193-202 (1976)
2. G.M. Eggert and P.R. Dawson, On the use of internal
variable constitutive equations in transient forming
processes, Int. J. Mech. Sci., 29, 95-113, 1987.
3. www.gleeble.com
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this research was provided by the Office
of Naval Research under sponsor order numbers WX20391,
WX20548 and WX20503. We thank Dr. Julie Christodoulou
for her steadfast support and thoughtful guidance. David
Meldrom (NSWCCD) provided valuable contributions to the
development of new procedures for the Gleeble, and Matt
Paloski (DSI) offered excellent suggestions and technical
support. We also thank Mr. Blake Owen (BYU) for sharing
his expertise on the Hickory simulations.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Simulation of Friction Stir Weld Microstructures in Steel:
Preliminary Studies
S.J. Norton and J.C. Lippold
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Abstract
The Gleeble® Hot Torsion system has been modified to
simulate the dynamically recrytallized zone that forms during
friction stir welding of steel. A tubular specimen and inert
cooling gas provide for cooling rates similar to those measured
by thermocouples in actual friction stir welds. Friction stir
weld and hot torsion test microstructures in commercially pure
iron were compared to determine the applicability of the
modified test to friction stir weld simulation. Good correlation
between the resultant microstructures indicates that the hot
torsion system may be used to investigate the effect of
temperature, strain, and strain rate on microstructure evolution
in the stir zone.
Keywords: Gleeble, hot torsion, physical simulation, friction
stir welding, steel
Introduction
Since it was first described and patented by TWI in 19911,
friction stir welding (FSW) has emerged as an effective means
of joining materials in the solid state. A rotating, non-
consumable tool is used to generate frictional heat and
produce a bond between abutting faces of the joint. Reduced
distortion compared to fusion welds and the absence of
welding fume are two characteristics of the process which
make it appealing for use in manufacturing.
A FSW weld microstructure normally consists of three
regions: the stir zone (SZ), which is normally characterized by
a fine, dynamically recrystallized grain structure; the
thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ), which is heat
affected and deformed; and the heat affected zone (HAZ),
similar to the HAZ found in fusion welds.2 Initially the
process was limited to soft, low melting point materials such
as aluminum, copper, and zinc.2 Advances in tool materials
have made the joining of harder metals with higher melting
temperatures possible.3-5
There has been very little work on physical simulation of the
FSW process. Compression tests performed in the Gleeble®
have been used to quantify flow stress in both aluminum6 and
steel.7 These same tests have been used to simulate the
TMAZ. Recently, researchers have simulated the dynamically
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
recrystallized stir zone of an aluminum weld using a hot
torsion testing machine.8
A fairly new addition to the Gleeble® thermo-mechanical
simulator is the hot torsion mobile conversion unit (MCU),
which is capable of transforming the 3500 and 3800 models
into hot torsion testing machines.9 The system software allows
control of temperature, rate of revolution, and number of
revolutions. The built in acquisition system is capable of
recording data for torque, axial thrust, temperature, and
rotation.
Load and
torque Sample
cells
Furnace
strips
Figure 1. The hot torsion MCU testing chamber. Large arrows show
ram motion for tension and compression loading and motor rotation
for torsion loading.
While originally designed with rolling simulations in mind,
this MCU would seem to be an ideal candidate for simulation
of ferrous friction stir welds. The objective of this work is to
utilize the hot torsion MCU to simulate the regions of a
friction stir weld, much as Nippes and Savage10 did for the
HAZ of fusion welds with the original Gleeble®. A successful
simulation technique would greatly aid the development and
refinement of mathematical models of the FSW process.
Experimental Procedure
Materials
The material chosen for this work was high purity ingot iron.
Iron was chosen for its lack of alloying elements and low
carbon content, which prevents transformation to bainite or
martensite, as has been reported during FSW of steels.2 The
compositions of the materials used are listed in Table 1.
Microhardness measurements were taken for each of the
materials in the as received condition. The iron bar and ingot
iron had average hardness measurements of 160HV and
122HV, respectively.
287
Table 1. Chemical composition (wt%) of iron.

Element 14mm iron bar Ingot iron

C 0.020 0.020
Mn 0.300 0.320
Si 0.050 0.010
S 0.018 0.013
P 0.007 0.010

Initial Hot Torsion Testing

The first tests of the hot torsion MCU were carried out with
the standard fixturing supplied by the manufacturer. Samples
with a 1 inch gage length were machined from an 14mm
Figure 3. Microstructure of 14mm iron bar after heating to 1200°C
diameter iron bar with composition listed in Table 1. A central
and 20 revolutions at 1000 rpm (hardness 106Hv).
composite experiment with test temperatures ranging from
1000 to 1360°C, rotation speeds from 700 to 1500rpm, and
rotation of 6 to 34 revolutions was designed. After the
experiment had been run, it was noted that there was no Gleeble Torsion Test (Armco)

statistical difference in the grain size of the samples. 1400

Microhardness measurements were taken near the edge and 1200

Hot Torsion Data
along the centerline of each sample. All the samples exhibited 1000

Temp (°C)
the same hardness (106HV) and had a larger grain size than the 800

as received bar. The as received and post torsion 600

microstructures are shown in Figures 2 and 3. 400

Weld Data
200

Comparison of the sample cooling rate to actual data from 0

0 50 100 150 200 250 300
thermocouples placed in the TMAZ and HAZ of a friction stir Time (s)
weld in steel showed that the free cooling rate of the samples
after the torque was applied was much slower than the actual Figure 4. Comparison of preliminary hot torsion tests and weld
weld. Data provided by the Naval Surface Warfare Center cooling rates
showed that the region adjacent to the stir zone in a friction
stir weld made in ½” HSLA-65 plate cooled from 800°C to Modification of Hot Torsion Test
500°C (Δt8-5 )in 17 seconds. Data from the hot torsion samples A series of tests were conducted in an attempt to obtain a
coud not be recorded below 700°C, but extrapolation of the cooling rate similar to the weld thermal data provided. A gas
curve from one of the central composite experiemnts showed a (helium) quench on the standard hot torsion samples showed
significant improvement in cooling rate. Ultimately, an
Δt8-5 of roughly 200 seconds. Figure 4 shows a comparison of
annular sample of smaller external diameter provided the best
the two cooling curves. The slow cooling rate of the hot
cooling rate of the tests performed. A schematic of the
torsion test allowed significant growth of the ferrite grains
modified sample is shown in Figure 5.
after the transformation from austenite to ferrite.

O .188 THRU 16
_ 0.002 A .375
_ 0.002 A

A R .040 .800
2 PLS 2 PLS

1.000
2.750
O .475 REF
_ 0.002 A
5.500

Figure 5. Schematic of modified hot torsion sample with reduced

diameter and hole through center.

The standard hot torsion collets for holding samples were

Figure 2. As received microstructure of 14mm iron bar (hardness replaced with modified collets. The new collets have a hole
160Hv). which aligns with the hole through the modified samples. A
second hole in each collet provides for a threaded hose fitting

288
on the non-rotating collet and an exhaust port on the rotating stroke control to effectively lock the distance between the
collet (see Figure 6). collets. When rotation was completed, helium was delivered at
40 CFH to both the chamber external quench heads and the
internal cooling inlet.

Friction Stir Weld Procedure

Helium inlet A friction stir weld was made in ¼”-thick plate machined from
the ingot iron. A tungsten-rhenium tool with a featureless pin
of ¼” diameter and a ¾” shoulder diameter was used to make
the welds. Tool rotation was 350 rpm and the travel speed was
set to 6 inches per minute. Argon gas was used for shielding at
External
quench heads
the tool and as a trailing shield for the length of the weld.

Helium exhaust Metallographic Preparation

Figure 6. Modified hot torsion collets for gas quench with sample
removed.
Cooling gas passed through the sample and was blown on the
outer surface of the sample to produce a Δt8-5 of 14 seconds in
the cooling rate tests. Figure 7 shows the thermocouple data
with the standard and modified curves highlighted in the Δt8-5
region.
A transverse section of the friction stir weld and longitudinal
section of the torsion sample were mounted in bakelite.
Samples were mechanically polished using standard
metallographic procedures to a final polish with 0.05μm
coloidal silica. Etching was performed by submersion in 2%
nital for 25 seconds. After optical metallography was
completed, microhardness testing was conducted. Hardness
traverses in torsion samples were made 1mm from the outer
diameter and in friction stir welds the traverses were made
across the weld along the center of the plate.
Results

Torsion Sample Cooling

Microstructure
Photomicrographs of the microstructures from the weld and
1400 the hot torsion specimen were taken for comparison. Pictures
1200
were taken of the area that included the SZ, TMAZ, and HAZ.
1000
Figure 8 shows the regions of interest in both the stir welds
Temperature (°C)

and the torsion specimens.

800
81 sec (standard sample)
600
14 sec
400
(modified
200 sample w/quench)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s)
Figure 7. Thermal data acquired from tests to improve cooling rate
in the hot torsion test. Standard sample Δt8-5 = 81 seconds. Modified
sample with gas quench Δt8-5 = 14 seconds.
Modified Hot Torsion Test Procedure
A modified sample was machined from the ingot iron. After
clamping the sample into the modified collets, the MCU test
chamber was evacuated to 5x10-6 torr. The sample was heated
by setting the power angle until the optical pyrometer
registered a temperature of 750°C. Control of the power was
then switched to the pyrometer feedback loop and the heating
rate set to 100°C/s. Thrust control was used throughout the
heating phase of the test to accommodate thermal expansion of
the sample. After reaching 1200°C the temperature was held
constant for 10 seconds. Following the 10 second hold the
current through the sample was interrupted and the hydraulic
motor rotated 10 revolutions at 1000rpm. Before torque was
applied, the control of the hydraulic ram was switched to
120 140 160 180 200
Figure 8. Schematic representation of areas selected for
photomicrographs. Friction stir weld schematic at left and hot
torsion schematic at right.
In both the iron friction stir weld and the iron hot torsion
sample, there was a noticeable difference in microstructure
across these areas (See Figures 9 and 10). In both samples
there was a refined ferrite grain structure in the center of the
specimen (Figures 11 and 12). The achievement of this refined
structure in the hot torsion test sample suggests that the
cooling rate of the modified test was suffcient. There was a
transition from this region to one with a combination of ferrite
grains somewhat larger than those in the stir zone mixed with
refined ferrite grains (Figures 13 and 14). Finally, before
transitioning to the base metal microstructure, there was a
region in the friction stir weld which exhibited a network of
subgrain boundaries (Figure 15). In the hot torsion sample, a
similar region was observed. However, this region in the hot
torsion sample was considerably wider (Figures 16 and 17).

289
 Figure 11

Figure 13 Figure 15

Figure 9. Photomicrograph of friction stir weld showing SZ, TMAZ, Figure 12. Refined ferrite microstructure near center of hot torsion
and base metal. (SZ in upper left, advancing side) sample.

Figure 14
Figure 17 Figure 16 Figure 12

Figure 10. Photomicrograph showing varied microstructure in hot Figure 13. Mixed ferrite grain size region observed in friction stir
torsion sample (Simulated SZ to righ, base metal at far left) weld.

Figure 11. Refined ferrite stir zone microstructure in friction stir Figure 14. Mixed ferrite grain size observed in hot torsion sample.
weld.

290
 stir weld microstructure was uniform across the stir zone,
dropped slightly in the mixed grain size structure, and then
increased in the narrow band of subgrain networks before
dropping to the hardness of the base metal. The hot torsion
specimen showed a great increase in hardness compared to the
as received hardness at the sample center.

180
Recrystallized
ferrite
160

140

120

Hardness (Hv)
100
Bimodal Base
Refined ferrite
80 ferrite metal
Figure 15. Narrow region of subgrain boundary networks in friction
60
stir weld (arrow points along approximate center of region).Inset
shows magnified view of region. 40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
180
Recrystallized
170 ferrite

160
Refined ferrite
150
Hardness (Hv)

Bimodal
ferrite
140

130
Base
120
metal

110

100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Distance from center (mm)

Figure 16. Beginning of transition from mixed ferrite grain region

(right) to subgrain boundary network structure (left) in hot torsion Figure 20. Microhardness traverses taken from friction stir weld and
sample. hot torsion sample.

Figure 17. Transition from subgrain boundary structure to larger
ferrite grains of base metal in hot torsion sample.
Discussion
In the ingot iron hot torsion test, the strain appeared to be
concentrated in the center ½” of the 1” gage section. This is
most likely due to a non-uniform termperature profile across
this section. While the use of a slow heating rate and furnace
strips could create a more uniform temperature distribution,
the cooling rate needed to achieve the stir zone microstructure
would not be possible. In fact, the temperature gradient and
non-uniform strain distribution allow the development of all
the structures across the different regions of a friction stir
weld. The observation that the regions of similar
microstructure in the iron torsion samples were wider than
those found in the friction stir welds suggests that the
temperature gradient, from the SZ to the base metal, in the
FSW process is much steeper than that developed in the hot
torsion sample.

The temperature profile of a resistively heated sample is

Microhardness normally parabolic, with the peak temperature at the sample
The microhardness traverses described in the procedure
section are reported in Figure 20. The hardness of the friction

291
center. The strain profile in the hot torsion sample varies with
radius, as described in the following equation.
rθ
γ =
L time-temperature-strain
Where γ is shear strain at the outer surface, r is the sample
radius, θ is the rotation in radians, and L is the length of the
gage section. In Figure 10 it can be seen that the change in
microstructure across the sample can be separated by planes
perpendicular to the axis of the sample. In particular the thin
region in the friction stir weld and the corresponding wider
region in the hot torsion specimen which appear to have a
dense dislocation subgrain structure (Figures 15, 16, and 17)
are indicators of dynamic recrystallization in ferrite as
reported by Glover and Sellars.11 It would seem the
temperature profile across the gage section of the torsion
sample may have been below the Ac1 temperature near the
end, allowing ferrite to remain and undergo deformation when
torque was applied. However, until actual profiles are
measured this can not be conclusively stated, since it has been
reported that high temperature deformation of steel in the
austenitic temperature range may induce transformation to
ferrite by effectively raising the Ar3 temperature.12 The region
closer to the center, which has the bimodal ferrite grain size
microstructure has apparently undergone static
recrystallization during cooling.11, 13 Due to the temperature
gradient in the sample, this region was most likely in the
intercritical region (both austenite and ferrite present) when
torque was applied. Because it cooled from a higher
temperature than the region below the Ac1, the ferrite grains
had time to undergo static recrystallization. The small ferrite
grains probably resulted from the transformation from
austenite in this two-phase region. After nucleating many
ferrite grains in the austenite, the rapid cooling during the test
prevented further grain growth.
The hardness increase in the center of the torsion sample
confirms the observation that the strain was concentrated in
the center over a length of about ½”. The fact that the hardness
in the center of the torsion sample is so much higher than the
stir zone hardness, suggests that the strain in the stir weld was
less than that developed in the hot torsion sample center. The
challenge of quantifying the temperature and strain histories
for each of the regions observed remains.
Conclusion
There are two major conclusions which can be drawn from
this preliminary work.
1. The Gleeble Hot torsion MCU, with some
modifications to the fixturing and sample geometry,
can be used to simulate the microstructures
developed in ferrous alloys during friction stir
welding.
2. The temperature distribution in ferrous friction stir
welds plays a significant role in strain localization
and microstructure development.
292
Future Work
Initial results have been promising, but there are a number of
things which will greatly improve the understanding of the
relationships associated with
microstructure development in ferrous friction stir welds.
Future tests need to be conducted over a range of temperatures
which include some below the Ac1 as well as between the Ac1
and Ac3. The temperature profile of the hot torsion test
samples must be measured. Also, the non-uniform strain
distribution across the gage section of the hot torsion samples
needs to be quantified. Once the methods to accomplish these
are developed, conventional steels (including HSLA-65) will
be added to the study.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dr. Julie Christodoulou of the
Office of Naval Research for providing funding this work.
Thanks also to the Naval Surface Warfare Center for
providing some of their friction stir weld thermal cycle data.
The authors also acknowledge Tim Li from Edison Welding
Institute for his assistance in making friction stir welds.
Finally, thanks to DSI, Inc. manufacturers of the Gleeble®
3800 for providing schematics and specifications for the hot
torsion grips.
References
1. Thomas, W.M., et al., U.S. Patent 5,460,317
2. Fenn, R., Thomas, W.M., Light Metal Age, 59(9-10), 28,
30, 32-33. (2001)
3. Konkol, P.J., et al., Friction Stir Welding. Proceedings,
3rd International Symposium. 2001. Kobe, Japan
4. Lienert, T.J., et al., Welding J., 82(1), 1s-9s (2003)
5. Sorensen, C.D., et al., Friction Stir Welding. Proceedings,
4th International Symposium. 2003. Park City, UT, USA
6. Arbegast, W.J., Third Symposium on Hot Deformation of
Aluminum Alloys III as held at the 2003 TMS Annual
Meeting. 2003. San Diego, CA; USA
7. Forrest, D.R., et al., 7th International Conference on
Trends in Welding Research. 2005. Pine Mountain, GA,
USA
8. Hassan, K.A.A., et al., Friction Stir Welding.
Proceedings, 4th International Symposium. 2003. Park
City, UT, USA
9. Dynamic Systems Inc. Product Guide, CD-ROM.
10. Nippes, E.F., Savage, W.F., Welding J., 28(11), 534s-
545s (1949)
11. Glover, G., Sellars, C.M., Met. Trans., 4(3), 765-775
(1973)
12. Jonas, J.J., et al., Iron Steel Inst. Japan Int., 38(3), 300-
309 (1998)
13. Glover, G., Sellars, C.M., Met. Trans., 3(8), 2271-2280
(1972)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Repair Weldability of Service-exposed, Heat-resisting Alloys-

Austenitic Stainless Steel Castings: HP45Nb, HP50Nb and 20-32Nb
Shu Shi, John C. Lippold
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio USA

Jose Ramirez
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio USA

Abstract rapid cooling is generally impractical when dealing with large

Metallurgical degradation of cast austenitic stainless steels
can occur when they are exposed at elevated temperature for
long periods of time, typically many years. When this
degradation occurs, normally in the form of embrittlement,
repair welding is often used to either repair cracks or replace
components. In the present work, cracking mechanisms
during repair welding of service-exposed alloys including
HP45Nb, HP50Nb, and 20-32Nb were studied with the aid of
Gleeble® simulation. For the HP alloys, despite the long
service exposure and environment, these alloys maintained
good metallurgical stability and repair weldability. In
contrast, the service-exposed 20-32Nb alloys exhibited a
severe susceptibility to liquation cracking and significant loss
in on-cooling ductility. The morphology and distribution of
the microconstituents developed during service exposure play
an important role in the repair weldability of these alloys.
Keywords: Heat-resistant castings; Microstructure; Repair
weldability; Gleeble hot ductility tests
Introduction
components. Cracking during shut-down or repair welding
due to service embrittlement of heat-resistant materials
remains a great practical concern in the power generation,
refinery, and petrochemical industries. The present work
provides insight into the repair weld cracking mechanisms
associated with these embrittlement phenomena through a
comprehensive investigation of microstructure evolution and
weldability testing of the materials after service exposure.
Experimental Procedure
Materials
Single heats of HP45Nb and HP50Nb, and three heats of 20-
32Nb were evaluated in this investigation. Compositions and
service conditions of the alloys are provided in Table 1. The
HP alloys were centrifugally cast in tubes, 116.8mm (4.6 in.)
external diameter with a 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) wall thickness.
The 20-32Nb alloys were cut from different locations of a
steam reformer with varied thicknesses, ranging from 22 mm
to 51 mm. The 3-year and 7-year service-exposed alloys were
manufactured by static casting, and 15-year alloy was a
centrifugal casting.

Austenitic stainless steel heat-resistant castings have higher Table 1: Chemical composition (wt%) and service conditions
carbon content as compared to their counterpart wrought of studied alloys.
alloys. When these alloys are in service at elevated
temperatures, they tend to “age” by forming secondary HP-Nb Alloys 20-32Nb Alloys
HP45Nb HP50Nb 3Y 7Y 15Y
carbides and other intermetallics. The consequence is an Compositions, wt%
increase in strength but a loss of ductility at ambient C 0.41 0.38 0.085 0.12 0.084
temperature, leading to potential problems during repair or Mn 1.04 1.22 0.92 0.93 0.93
replacement procedures1,2. Si 1.15 1.56 0.94 0.80 0.92
Ni 33.55 33.67 33.5 34.3 31.7
Cr 25.58 25.11 20.8 19.4 21.1
Technically, recovery from all of these forms of degradation Nb 0.9 1.37 0.97 1.01 0.93
is possible by a solution annealing heat treatment in the range Fe Bal Bal Bal Bal Bal
from 1149ºC (2100ºF) to 1232ºC (2250ºF) followed by rapid Service conditions
T, ºC 843 843 843 843 843
cooling. Such a treatment will dissolve the embrittling t, yrs 9 12 3 7 15
species and restore some ductility to the material. Currently,
this method is widely used in actual practice. Recovery is not Heat treatments
permanent, however, and re-exposure to the service The service-exposed HP50Nb alloy was subjected to
conditions will result in continued degradation. Additionally, laboratory aging at 1000ºC for 120 hours. Gleeble coupons of
the use of a solution annealing heat treatment followed by service-exposed 20-32Nb alloys were solution heat treated at

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 2931

1150ºC for 6 hours followed by water quenching to
investigate the effect on microstructure and ductility. To
simulate the as-cast microstructure, the service-exposed alloys
were re-melted using a button melter.
Metallographic analysis
Microstructure characterization was performed with optical
microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The
SEM can be operated in both the secondary electron (SE)
mode to evaluate surface features, or in the back-scattered
electron (BSE) mode to provide phase contrast based on
composition variation. Using this, it is possible both to
differentiate among 1) Cr-rich σ-phase, 2) Nb-, Ni-, Si-rich
intermetallic phases such as η-phase, and 3) carbides and
nitrides. By combining SE and BSE analysis it is possible to
make reasonable estimates of the phases and intermetallics
that are present. A dual-beam (SEM+FIB) technique was
utilized successfully in examining the 3-dimensional
distribution of M23C6 carbide in the service exposed HP alloy.
To selectively reveal sigma phase, the etching per ASTM
standard A9233 was used, consisting of 40g of reagent grade
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and 100g of distilled water.
Microhardness tests were carried out with 500g and 10g
loads. The 10g load was used to distinguish the
microhardness difference between the matrix and the
microconstituents present at dendrite boundaries.
Weldability tests
Bead-on-pipe and modified Y-groove tests were conducted on
the HP alloys. The geometry of the modified Y-groove test is
shown in Figure 1.
Due to the limitation of geometry, only GTAW spot-on-plate
tests were carried out on the 20-32Nb alloys.
Figure 1: Specimen geometry of Y-groove weldability tests
Gleeble hot ductility tests
Gleeble hot ductility tests were performed using standard
specimens with a reduced gage section. Specimens of
101.6mm (4 in.) length and a gage length of 19 mm (0.75 in.)
were machined from the alloys. The tests were conducted
over the range from 500ºC up to nil strength temperature
(NST) to study both ductility-dip cracking (DDC) and heat-
affected zone (HAZ) liquation cracking susceptibility. The
heating rate was 100ºC/ s, and the cooling rate varied from
35ºC/s to 40ºC/s depending on the test temperature.
2942
Results and Discussion
Microstructure characterization
All the service-exposed alloys studied consisted of a cast
austenite matrix with interdendritic and very fine intragranular
precipitates9. In the remelted condition, NbC and M7C3
carbides were detected in HP-Nb alloys, but only NbC was
observed in 20-32Nb alloy8.
In the service-exposed HP alloys, interdendritic Nb-rich
intermetallic η-phase, and Cr-rich M23C6 carbides were
observed (Figure 2), with the former being much finer and
very resistant to coarsening during service4. Chromium has
higher diffusivity than niobium in austenite and tends to
diffuse to dendrite boundaries, leading to significant
coarsening of the M23C6 during elevated temperature
exposure. The coarsened M23C6 is very hard (800 HV), but
does not provide any strengthening effect due to their large
size, which allows dislocations to bow around them5. The
strengthening effect is primarily due to the existence of
interdendritic η-phase and intra-dendritic, ultra-fine
secondary precipitates that have been reported to be M23C6
carbides9. It is believed that NbC transformed to η-phase, and
M7C3 transformed to M23C6 carbides during exposure at
service temperature8,9.
η-phase
M23C6
Figure 2: Microconstituents in service-exposed HP45Nb
alloy, revealed by FIB.
With SEM/BSE, Nb-rich particles appear white and Cr-rich
particles dark (Figure 3). A microstructure comparison of
service-exposed and remelted HP alloys showed two
significant changes in the microconstituents present at
interdendritic sites, 1) the morphology changed from a
skeletal-type under the remelted condition to blocky-type after
service exposure, and 2) Cr-rich carbides coarsened
extensively during service. In addition, NbC and Cr-rich
M7C3 carbides appeared as separated islands under the
remelted condition (Figure 3b) not as co-existing clusters as
in the service-exposed condition (Figure 3a). M23C6 exhibited
a much higher area fraction than η-phase in the service-
exposed condition, but M7C3 was present in equivalent
amounts to NbC in the remelted condition.
Sigma phase was only detected in the HP alloy. After
laboratory aging at 1000ºC for 120 hours, the amount of intra-
dendritic precipitates and σ-phase decreased, as shown in
Figure 4. Sigma phase can cause loss of ductility and
toughness at temperatures below 150ºC (300ºF) but has little
effect on properties in the temperature range where it forms6.
This indicates that the formation of σ-phase has little effect
on the alloy’s repair weldability, as reported previously. .
1 carbon content alloys. As the service exposure time increases,
(a) (b)
Figure 3: SEM/ BSE micrographs of HP45Nb microstructures
(a) service-exposed condition (b) remelted condition
Sigma
Sigma
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Sigma phase formation in HP50Nb, (a) service
exposed, (b) laboratory aged at1000ºC for 120 hours
In the service-exposed 20-32Nb alloys, η phase and M23C6
carbides were also detected. They exhibited a lower area
fraction in these alloys as compared with the HP alloys,
resulting from the lower carbon and chromium content.
However, the ratio between η-phase and M23C6 increased
dramatically. The micrograph in Figure 5, taken with
SEM/BSE, shows that the major microconstituent at dendrite
boundaries is η-phase. Unlike M23C6, η-phase is present as
individual particles, and is not likely to develop a continuous
network along the boundaries. The change in the distribution
of the microconstituent in the 20-32Nb alloys is believed to
have a significant effect on its hot ductility7.
After solution heat treatment at 1150ºC for 6 hours, only NbC
carbides were present in the 20-32Nb alloy. This indicates
that η-phase is more unstable with respect to NbC carbides,
with the latter forming more rapidly at higher temperatures. It
also indicates the upper temperature limit for NbC formation
is higher than that of η-phase. Therefore, the transformation
of η-phase back to NbC occurred at the solution temperature.
2953
Investigation of the area fraction of the microconstituents
among the three 20-32Nb alloys indicated that M23C6
formation depended primarily on carbon content. The slight
increase in carbon content from 0.085wt% to 0.12wt%
increased the area fraction of M23C6 from 1.42% to 2.56%, as
shown in Figure 6. In addition, the M23C6 in the alloy with
0.12wt% carbon is much coarser compared to the lower
Ni and Si tended to diffuse into the NbC carbides, resulting in
the transformation from NbC to η phase8. The amount of η-
phase does not increase once it forms.
The hardness of M23C6 carbides is at an average of 800Hv,
and that of austenitic matrix is at the average of 200Hv. The
η-phase is too small to be measured, but is reported to have a
higher hardness at around 1100Hv9.
Figure 5:SEM/ BSE micrograph of 20-32Nb 3Y sample.
6
5.27 Total volume%
5 4.53
Nb-rich%
Cr-rich%
4 3.44
Area fraction, %
3.11
3 2.71
2.56 2.65
2 1.42
1 0.79 0.65
0.81
0
3 years 7 years 15 years 1150ºC-6h 1150ºC-15h
Figure 6: Area fraction of the microconstituents present in
20-32Nb alloys under various conditions.
Weldability tests
No apparent cracking was observed in the HP alloys using the
Y-groove test. Upon the examination in the SEM, small
fractures were found exclusively along, or within,
interdendritic M23C6 carbides, as shown in the micrograph in
Figure 7. These particles are very brittle, and tend to grow
into large blocky networks along the original dendrite
boundaries of the casting, resulting in high temperature
embrittlement (HTE). HTE occurs in the solid state at
temperatures above approximately 0.5TM. The phenomenon
is, in general, associated with the loss of ductility due to the
formation of brittle intermetallics or carbides. Spot-
varestraint tests by Nishimoto7 found similar fractures which
were reported as ductility-dip cracking. In this study, the term
HTE was adopted since no ductility-dip was found in the HP
alloys using Gleeble hot ductility tests.
M23C6 carbide has an fcc crystal structure, and a coherent
crystal orientation with the austenite matrix, reported as both
[110]M23C6//[110]γ10 and {111}M23C6//{111}γ11. This results in
a strong bond between the austenite matrix and the M23C6
carbide12. The stresses developed during welding apparently
result in local fracture of the M23C6 carbides, rather than at the
interface of the carbide and austenite matrix (Figure 7). Some
fracture is also observed at the interface between the carbide
and η-phase (white constituent) in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Small cracks observed in M23C6 carbide in the HAZ
of modified Y-groove tests of service- exposed HP50Nb.
(a) (b)
Figure 8 Cracking in 20-32Nb, (a) HAZ intergranular
cracking in solutionized sample (b) solidification cracking in
7y sample
For the spot weld testing of 20-32Nb alloys, cracking was
only observed in the HAZ of solutionized samples at some
distance away from the fusion boundary (Figure 8a). Similar
cracking was observed by Haro1. The cracking originated on
the surface opposite from the spot weld, and propagated into
the material along the interface between dendrite boundaries
and the interdendritic NbC carbides. The carbides, however,
were not directly associated with the cracking. Before
welding, only the surface with spot weld was cleaned. The
carburized layer developed during service exposure at the
opposite surface can cause significant differences in thermal
expansion coefficient between unaffected core of material and
carburized zone13. This, together with restraint and shrinkage
2964
stress imposed by welding process, contributes to the
interdendritic cracking. The cracking observed in the 7Y
sample resulted from the pre-existing shrinkage defects from
the original casting process (Figure 8b).
Gleeble hot ductility tests
Alloys with good ductility can be easily deformed plastically
during cooling from peak temperatures in the HAZ,
preventing crack formation. The loss of weldability after
service exposure in heat-resistant alloys has been related to
the loss of ductility due to the formation of embrittling
species, such as M23C6 and nickel silicide1. Gleeble hot
ductility tests conducted on-cooling from the peak HAZ
temperature are of primary interest, since the ductility loss
generally occurs during the cooling cycle.
The 20-32Nb alloys have lower carbon content (~0.1 wt %),
and a lower area fraction of embrittled phases than the HP
alloys (~0.4wt %). It was originally thought (based on carbon
content) that the 20-32Nb alloys would have better ductility
than the HP alloys. The hot ductility tests, however, showed
an opposite result. All the 20-32Nb alloys had negligible on-
cooling ductility. Only the hot ductility curves of 3Y samples
are shown in Figure 10, since all the curves for service-
exposed 20-32Nb were essentially the same. Examination of
on-cooling fracture surfaces with the SEM revealed that the
fracture mode was primarily interdendritic (Figure 9a) with
microconstituents observed at dendrite boundaries (Figure
9b). In contrast, the HP alloys showed much higher on-
cooling ductility. The low ductility points in the HP samples
resulted from pre-existing fabrication defects. The HP alloys
are very resistant to HAZ liquation cracking since the
temperature range between NST and DRT is very small. The
20-32Nb alloys were found to have a much wider temperature
range between NST and DRT, indicating a greater
susceptibility to HAZ liquation cracking. Solution heat
treatment at 1150ºC for 6 hours improved the overall hot
ductility, but increased susceptibility to HAZ liquation
cracking. Both the Gleeble hot ductility test and weldability
tests showed that the HP alloys have much better cracking
resistance than the 20-32Nb alloys, even though microscopic
HTE was observed in HP alloys (Figure 7). A summary of
weldability and microstructure analysis results is presented in
Table 2.
(a) (b)
Figure 9: Fracture surface of 20-32Nb-3Y sample tested at
1050ºC on-cooling (a) interdendritic failure (b)
microconstituents at dendrite boundaries.
 60 40
On heating

Reduction of Area [ %]
50 35 On heating

Reduction of Area [%]

On cooling
30 On cooling
40
25
30 20

20 15

10
10 Low ductility points
5
0 0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Temperature [ºC] Temperature [ºC]

(a) (b)
80 70
3y-heating On heating
70

Reduction of Area, %
Reduction of Area, %

60
3y-cooling On-cooling
60 50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Temperature, ºC Temperature, ºC

(c) (d)
Figure 10: Gleeble hot ductility curves for (a) service- exposed HP45Nb, (b) service-exposed HP50Nb, (c) service-exposed 20-
32Nb-3Y, (d) solutionized 20-32Nb.

Table 2: Summary of microstructure, weldability testing, and Gleeble hot ductility testing results.
HP-Nb Alloys 20-32Nb Alloys
Service-exposed
HP50Nb (lab.-aged) 3y 7y 15 y 1150ºC-6hrs
HP45Nb HP50Nb
Microstructure characterization
M23C6 √ √ √ √ √ √ ----
NbC ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- √
Type of phases
η √ √ √ √ √ √ ----
σ √ √ √ ---- ---- ---- ----
Microconstituents Area [%] 21 21.8 16.8 4.5 5.3 3.4 0.65
Hardness at 500g load [Hv] 205 212 225 162 209 178 194
Grain size [µm] 50 45 50 120 100 120 130
Weldability tests
HAZ cracking ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- √
HTE √ √ √ ---- ---- ---- ----
Solidification cracking ---- ---- ---- ---- √ ---- ----
Gleeble hot ductility tests
NST-DRT 14 14 96 121 209 86 260
HAZ liquation cracking ---- ---- ↑ ↑ ↑↑ ↑ ↑↑
HTE ---- ---- ---- ↑↑ ↑↑ ↑↑ ----
√-- Present ↑-- Susceptible ↑↑-- Highly susceptible

Proposed cracking mechanisms The morphology and distribution of microconstituents

developed during service exposure play an important role in
explaining the cracking mechanism during repair welding.

In the HP alloys, M23C6 carbides have coarsened enough to

envelop the dendrite boundaries. Under an applied force,
Fracture
such as the restraint and shrinkage stress developed during
M23C6 η-phase M23C6 η-phase welding, stress would build up at these large, blocky M23C6
(b) carbides. M23C6 carbides have a semi-coherent crystal
(a)
orientation and bond tightly with the austenite matrix, leading
Figure 11: Morphology and distribution of microconstituents
to fracture within the carbides instead of at the interface
in service-aged HP and 20-32Nb alloys

2975
between the carbides and matrix (Figure 11a). Cracking
propagates until reaching the interface between the matrix and
carbides. At the same time, the applied force exceeds the
yield strength of the austenite matrix and the intra-dendritic
regions are easily deformed resulting in good overall ductility.
In the 20-32Nb alloys, M23C6 carbides are present in a smaller
fraction relative to η phase and tend to be much smaller in
size than in that in the HP alloys. The η phase was present as
smaller individual particles at dendrite boundaries, providing
a locking effect on grain boundary deformation. Since the
microconstituents are not continuously distributed along
dendrite boundaries, the plastic constraint will accumulate
along the boundaries during the cooling cycle. The η phase is
very hard and in small size, providing a strong deterrent to
grain boundary sliding. The dendrite would be very difficult
to be plastically deformed under cooling cycle during
welding. Residual stresses would continuously build up at
dendrite boundaries until failure occurs, resulting in a very
low ductility.
Two factors were believed to affect HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibility in 20-32Nb alloys. The first is the
transformation from η-phase back to NbC carbides at elevated
temperatures. The diffusion of Si and Ni out of the η-phase
created an adjacent area with a low melting temperature,
resulting in liquation cracking around NbC carbides. Both
NbC and η-phase were observed at the fracture surface of 20-
32Nb hot ductility samples. The higher carbon content in 20-
32Nb-7y sample promotes the transformation from η-phase
back to NbC carbides, leading to a higher susceptibility to
liquation cracking. The greater susceptibility to liquation
cracking of solutionized 20-32Nb samples is likely due to the
constitutional liquation mechanism. The second is grain size.
The larger grain size also increases HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibility. Research is ongoing to better identify the
embrittlement mechanisms.
Conclusions
1. The service-exposed, heat-resisting alloys consist of an
austenitic matrix with M23C6 and η-phase at dendrite
boundaries, and ultra-fine intra-dendritic secondary
M23C6 carbides. Sigma phase was only observed in the
HP alloys.
2. In the service-exposed HP alloys M23C6 coarsens
significantly during service exposure, reducing its
strengthening effect. Strengthening is primarily provided
by both interdendritic η-phase and intra-dendritic ultra-
fine secondary carbides. No coarsened of M23C6 was
observed in service-exposed 20-32Nb alloys.
3. The HP alloys showed a better resistance to HAZ
liquation cracking and better on cooling ductility than the
20-32Nb alloys. This suggests good repair weldability of
the service-aged HP alloys.
4. The morphology and distribution of microconstituents
developed during service exposure play an important role
2986
in the potential for cracking during repair. The large
blocky M23C6 carbides in the HP alloys tend to fracture to
release stresses, resulting in overall high ductility on
cooling during Gleeble hot ductility tests. Small
individual η phase in the 20-32Nb alloys provided
significant locking effect on dendrite boundary sliding,
leading to low ductility on cooling during Gleeble hot
ductility tests.
5. Large grain size has a negative effect on the resistance of
20-32Nb alloys to HAZ liquation cracking.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Edison Welding Institute for
financial support of this project, Exxon-Mobil for providing
the HP alloys, and Syncrude, Inc. for providing the 20-32Nb
alloys.
References
1 S. Haro R., D. Lopez L., A. Velasco T. and R. Viramontes B,
Microstructural factors that determine the weldability of a high Cr-high
Si HK40 allo, Materials Cherimstry and Physics, 66, 90-96 (2000)
2 K. Shinozaki, J. Kuroki, Y. Nakao, K. Nishimoto, M. Inui and M.
Takahashi, Deterioration of weldability of long-term aged HP heat-
resistant cast steel containing Nb, Mo, and W, Welding International, 13
(1), 39-48 (1999)
3 ASTM Standard A923 p456
4 Hou Wen-Tai, R. W. K. Honeycombe, Structure of centrifugally cast
austenitic stainless steels: Part 2 Effects of Nb, Ti and Zr, Materials
Science and Technology, 1, 390-397 (1985)
5 R. W. K. Honeycombe, Commemorative lecture-by the twenty-eighth
gold medalist of the Japan institute of metals-Some aspects of micro-
alloying, Transactions of the Japan Institute of Metals, 24 (4), 177-189
(1983)
T6 D. J. Tillack and J. E. Guthrie, Wrought And Cast Heat Resistant
Stainless Steels And Nickel Alloys For The Refining And Petrochemical
Industries, NiDI technical series No. 10071
7 K. Nishimoto, K. Saida, M. Inui and M. Takahashi, Mechanism of hot
cracking in the heat affected zone of repair welds. Repair weld cracking
of service-exposed, HP-modified, heat resisting cast alloys (3rd Report),
Welding international, 18(4), 590-599 (2001)
8 B. M. Patchett, R. W. Skwarok, Welding metallurgy of 20Cr-32Ni-Nb
and HP45 castings, Materials for Resource Recovery and Transport, The
Metallurgical Society of CIM, 379-387 (1998)
9 K. Nishimoto, K. Saida, M. Inui and M. Takahashi, Changes in
microstructure of HP-modified, heat-resisting cast alloys under long-
term aging. Repair weld cracking of service-exposed, HP-modified, heat
resisting cast alloys (2nd Report), Welding international, 15(7), 509-517
(2001)
10 D. J. Powell, F. Pilkington and D. A. Miller, The precipitation
characteristics of 20%Cr/25%Ni-Nb stabilitised stainless steel, Acta
metal, 36(3), 713-724, (1988)
11 M. H. Lewis and B. Hattersley, Precipitation of M23C6 in austenitic
steels, Acta metallurgica, 13 (11), 1159-1168 (1965)
12 J. C. Liu, A. F. Wang, A. W. Pan and B. M. Sun, Effect of carbon, nickel,
and molybdenum on the high temperature strength of Fe-Cr-Ni alloys,
Materials Transactions. JIM. 37(2), 138-141 (1996)
13 P. Elliott, Practical guide to high-temperature alloys, NiDI Technical
Series, No. 10056
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Weldability of boron alloyed high-temperature resistant

9% chromium casting steel COST-CB2A
P. Mayr, A. Schalber, E. Letofsky, H. Cerjak
Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria

Abstract 600°C to be at about 120 MPa for the steel B2. Figure 1 shows
the creep rupture strength of forged material B2 at 600°C and
A basic study on the weldability of two boron alloyed 650°C.
advanced 9% Cr steels was performed applying the so-called
‘Heat Affected Zone Simulation’ technique using a Gleeble 1000

1500 thermomechanical testing machine. The investigations

were carried out on two heats of cast material with different
carbon contents of 0.168 wt% and 0.130 wt%. The goal of this
600°C
study was to characterize the microstructure of the base
material and the different zones of the heat affected zone
Stress [MPa]

650°C

(HAZ) and to examine their mechanical properties. With the 100

HAZ simulation technique, different zones of a ‘real’ HAZ are

created in a testable volume by applying a thermal cycle with
various heat inputs (t8/5) and peak temperatures (TP).
Additionally, the influence of multi-pass welding was
investigated by double-cycle weld simulation. Changes in the
microstructure and in the materials properties of the HAZ 10
100 1000 10000 100000

were examined, before and after a post-weld heat treatment Time [h]

(PWHT) of 730°C for 12 hours by applying light-microscopy,

scanning electron microscopy (SEM), hardness measurements
and Charpy-V notched bar impact tests. Figure 1: Creep rupture strength of forged material B2 at
600°C and 650°C.[3]
Introduction
To transfer the good properties of the forged material to a cast
Increasing demands on the properties of steels in power version, two 100 kg trial melts with similar composition to B2
generating industry have led to the development of several were cast at voestalpine Foundry Linz, Austria. The two heats
kinds of new 9 to 12% chromium steels in the last decades.[1] designated as CB2A differed in carbon content with 0.168%
Materials with ferritic/martensitic microstructures are (heat 145) and 0.130% (heat 146). Table 1 shows the chemical
preferred compared to austenitic materials, because of their composition of the materials investigated.
favourable physical properties, such as good thermal
conductivity and a lower coefficient of thermal expansion
along with higher resistance to thermal shock. Table 1: Chemical composition of materials in wt-%.
Within the framework of the European COST 501 programme
a boron alloyed 9% chromium steel for forgings was produced Material C Cr Mo V Nb B N
by Böhler Edelstahl Kapfenberg. The steel designated as B2 is
a modification of steel grade X10CrMoVNb 9 1 and showed a B2 0.170 9.34 1.55 0.27 0.063 0.0100 0.015
good combination of strength and toughness. [2] Especially CB2A (145) 0.168 8.85 1.54 0.29 0.057 0.0092 0.016
the creep behavior in the range of 600 to 650°C, tested at CB2A (146) 0.130 8.90 1.51 0.23 0.055 0.0090 0.016
Austrian Research Centers Seibersdorf, was superior to other
9-12% chromium steels. The results of creep tests obtained up
to now and the results of the creep rate analysis allow a For a sucessful service application and acceptance in practice,
prediction of the 100.000 hours creep rupture strength at especially the weldability and the long time behavior of the

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 299

newly developed materials are of great interest. Therefore a
basic weldability study was performed at the Instiute of
Materials Science, Welding and Forming (IWS) at Graz
University of Technology.
Experimental
Goal of this investigation was to characterize the changes in
microstructure and mechanical properties in the HAZ caused
by the welding process. The physical simulation of weld
thermal cycles is a powerful method to investigate the HAZ in
a first step.[4]
For simulation, the thermomechanical testing machine Gleeble
1500 was used. The weld thermal cycles, which are input data
for the simulation process, were calculated from Rosenthal´s
solution of Fourier´s heat conduction equation in a simpflified
version derived by Rykalin.[5] These equations allow the
representation of the weld thermal cycle by the cooling time
between two temperatures (respectively the cooling time
between 800°C and 500°C – t8/5), the peak temperature TP, the
preheat temperature, the plate thickness and the physical
properties of the material.
For this investigation, single weld thermal cycles with a
constant peak temperature of Tp=1300°C and varying cooling
times t8/5 ranging from 5 to 160 seconds were applied to
simulate the heat inputs of different welding processes. Figure
2 shows the calculated weld thermal cycles.
Figure 2: Weld thermal cycles calculated for different cooling
times between 800°C and 500°C - t8/5 = 5 to 160 seconds; Tp –
peak temperature=1300°C, T0 – preheat temperature=180°C.
Single weld thermal cycles with constant cooling times of
t8/5=10 and 40 seconds with different peak temperatures from
950°C to 1300°C in steps of 50°C were used to simulate the
different regions of the HAZ.
Additionally double thermal cycles, simulating multi-pass
welding were applied. After a first cylcle with a peak
temperature of 1300°C, a second thermal cycle with a peak
temperature of 1050°C was applied. An interpass temperature
300
of 250°C was maintained. Then, the influence of a post-weld
heat treatment (PWHT) at 730°C for 12 hours was studied.
Following investigations were performed:
• transformation behavior
o time-temperature-austenization diagram
o continuous-cooling-transformation diagram
• microstructural characterization
• hardness measurements
• micro hardness measurements
• ISO-V impact tests
To investigate the transformation behavior and the
microstructural evolution during weld simulation cylindrical
specimens with dimensions Ø 12 x 115 mm were machined
and exposed to the different single weld thermal cycles
described above. Volumetric changes were recorded online
during the weld simulation with a dilatometer. By analyzing
the recorded data, austenitizing temperatures (Ac1, Ac3) and
martensite start (Ms) and finish (Mf) temperature were
determined as a function of heating rate and heat input.
The microstructural characterization was performed on the
two base materials as well as on all simulated specimens. To
study the influence of a post-weld heat treatment on the
microstructure, the simulated specimens were cut apart, one
part was investigated in the “as welded” condition and the
other half was examined after a PWHT of 730°C for 12 hours
To determine the transition temperature of the base materials,
square specimens with dimensions 10 x 10 x 100 mm were
machined and ISO-V impact toughness tests at temperatures
ranging from -80°C to 150°C were performed. To characterize
the toughness of the different parts of the HAZ, impact
specimens were also exposed to the thermal cycles mentioned
above by Gleeble simulation and tested at room temperature.
Transformation behavior
By analyzing the recorded dilatometric data, time-
temperature-austenization (TTA) diagrams and welding
continuous-cooling-transformation (CCT) diagrams were
prepared for the two heats. In comparison to the equilibrium
transformation temperatures (Ae1 at 842°C and Ae3 at 901°C)
calculated with Thermocalc, fast heating-up to 1300°C leads
to a strong increase of Ac1 and Ac3 temperature.[6] Table 2
shows the shift of the Ac-temperatures for weld thermal cycles
with dereasing cooling time, i.e. a higher heating rate.
Table 2: Austenitizing temperature as function of cooling time
for heat 145 (C=0.168%).
Tp=1300°C Thermo
t8/5-time [s] 5 10 20 40 80 160 calc
Ac3 [°C] 1079 1067 1064 1066 1042 1032 901
Ac1 [°C] 992 985 976 979 943 935 842
Martensite start and finish temperatures are shifted to higher the highest peak temperatures, which only partly transformed
values for longer cooling times. (Table 3) back into austenite during cooling. Below Ms the austenite
started to transform to martensite. The higher the heat input,
Table 3: Ms and Mf temperatures for heat 145 (C=0.168%) as the more the cast microstructure disappeared and the
a function of cooling rate. martensite laths tended to coarsen. The network of
precipitates, visible in the “as-received” state, disappeared
Tp=1300°C during the welding cycle and, instead, a network of delta
t8/5-time [s] 5 10 20 40 80 160 ferrite was observed in the “as-welded” condition.
Ms [°C] 365 366 364 372 363 392 After PWHT, precipitates formed again. The precipitates were
mainly identified near the delta ferrite. The martensite lath
Mf [°C] 163 190 157 175 177 191
width tended to decrease.

Single weld thermal cycle with varying peak temperature

The melt with higher carbon content (C=0.168%) shows about
a 15°C lower martensite start and finish temperatures
compared to the lower carbon containing heat 146
(C=0.130%).
Microstructural Characterization
Both, base material and weld simulated specimens were
investigated by light microscopy and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). For light microscopic investigations the
specimens were polished and etched with LBIII. The
specimens for the investigation by scanning electron
microscopy were polished and etched with BI.[7]
Base Materials “as-received”
Both variants of the base material, which differ in carbon
content, showed a tempered martensitic cast microstructure
with precipitates at the prior austenite grain boundaries and
martensite lath boundaries. The major difference between both
heats was the existence of blocky delta ferrite in the lower
carbon heat (heat 146).
For heat 145, the influence of the peak temperature was
studied in detail. Above a peak temperature of 1000°C,
homogenization of the cast microstructure was visible. The
precipitates in the martensite laths started to dissolve at
1000°C. The weld thermal cycles with peak temperatures
higher than 1150°C generated a coarse, newly formed
martensite (virgin martensite) because of a complete
austenitization by these cycles. Delta ferrite occured in a
compact large form in segregated regions as well as in
elongated form between the martensite laths. The compact
form of delta ferrite occured independently of the cooling time
t8/5 at peak temperatures above 1200°C. Ferritic laths in
between the martensite laths first appeared at a peak
temperature of 1100°C and a cooling time of 10s.
After PWHT, the cast microstructure was not visible any
longer. Precipitates formed at the prior-austenite grain
boundaries as well as at the martensite lath boundaries. For
peak temperatures above 1250°C, precipitates were also
identified along and in between the delta ferrite laths.
Specimens simulated with peak temperatures below 1200°C
showed a tempered martensitic microstructure after PWHT.
In many cases, virgin and double tempered martensite could
be distinguished by light microscopy due to clear differences
in the lath size and precipitate microstructure. Figure 4
compares the microstructures of heat 145 simulated with peak
temperatures Tp=1300°C and 1100°C for a cooling time of
t8/5=40s in the “as-welded” and heat treated condition.

Double weld cycle with varying t8/5-time

Figure 3: Base material CB2A heat 145 (0.168% C)
Single weld thermal cycle with varying t8/5-time
Both heats showed a similar behavior. With increasing heat
input, the amount of delta ferrite increased. With cooling times
longer than t8/5=40s, the delta ferrite appeared as a network.
Above 80s the delta ferrite fraction slightly decreased and
appeared in a jagged style. Apparently, ferrite was formed at
Both heats showed similar microstructures after exposure to
weld double cycles. Caused by heating twice above Ac1, the
cast microstructure disappeared completely. The shortest weld
thermal cycle of t8/5=5s already resulted in the appearance of
delta ferrite. For longer cooling times, the delta ferrite
appeared in the earlier described jagged style and the
precipitates in between the martensite laths disappeared and
instead precipitates within the ferrite and at its boundaries
were visible. These precipitates coarsened with increasing t8/5-
time. Compared to the single weld thermal cycles, all
specimens exposed to a double weld cycle showed a much
finer microstructure.
After PWHT precipitates formed again within and along the
martensite and ferrite laths.

301
 Light Microscopy Electron Microscopy

Coarse Grained HAZ

Single weld thermal cycle
TP=1300°C
t8/5=40s

Coarse Grained HAZ

Single weld thermal cycle
+ PWHT
TP=1300°C
t8/5=40s

Heat Treatment
730°C/12 h

Fine Grained HAZ

Single weld thermal cycle
TP=1100°C
t8/5=40s

Fine Grained HAZ

Single weld thermal cycle
+ PWHT
TP=1100°C
t8/5=40s

Heat Treatment
730°C/12 h

Figure 4: Influences of different peak temperatures on the microstructure of heat 145. Fine(Tp=1100°C) and coarse
(Tp=1300°C) grained zone of the simulated HAZ and influence of a post-weld heat treatment (730°C/12 hours).

302
 Mechanical Properties
Hardness
Both base materials showed a similar hardness of about
250HV10 in the “as-received” condition.
The single weld thermal cycles with a constant peak
temperature of 1300°C and cooling times from 5 to 160s
produced a similar hardness characteristics for both heats.
With increasing cooling time, the hardness values dropped
from 470 HV10 to about 430 HV10. (Figure 6) This decrease
in hardness can be related to the increased delta ferrite content
for longer cooling times. Weld double cycles produced a
hardness similar to that of the single weld cycles discussed
above.
Hardness measurements on specimens of heat 145 exposed to
single weld cycles with varying peak temperatures revealed a
strong increase in hardness for samples exposed to peak
temperatures above the Ac1 temperature. The maximum
hardness of 513 HV10 was reached at a peak temperature of
1250°C and a cooling time of 40s. The increase in hardness
can be explained by the new formation of untempered
martensite by these cycles. Above 1250°C, the hardness
dropped to values of 450 HV10, which was a result of the
dissolution of existing precipitates at these temperatures.
PWHT of 730°C for 12 hours reduced the hardness of all
simulated specimens to the level of the base materials or even
lower for specimens simulated with peak temperatures below
Ac1.
Micro hardness
Micro hardness measurements supported the results of the
light microscopical investigations. The phase designated as
delta ferrite showed hardnesses of 130 to 188 HV10p, whereas
the martensite exhibited clearly higher hardness values of 370
to 660HV10p.(Figure 5) The wide range of hardness values
for the martensite can be explained by the existence of virgin
and tempered martensite regions.
Figure 5: Micro hardness measurement on simulated
specimen of heat 145 “as welded” (Tp=1300°C, t8/5=40s, “as
welded)
303
ISO-V impact toughness tests
Both, base materials as well as simulated specimens were
tested. For both base materials, the transition temperature was
determined by notched bar impact toughness tests at
temperatures ranging from -80°C to 150°C. The impact
energies of heat 145 (C=0.168%) were clearly higher than that
of heat 146 (C=0.130%). This can be explained by the
appearance of delta ferrite, whose negative influence on the
toughness has often been reported.[8] Therefore, the
investigations on impact energy of simulated specimens were
concentrated on heat 145.
Because of the well-known inferior impact toughness values
for these materials in the “as welded” condition, all simulated
specimens were exposed to a PWHT of 730°C for 12 hours
before testing at room temperature.
Specimens simulated with a constant peak temperature of
Tp=1300°C and different cooling times showed increasing
impact toughness values with increasing cooling time. All
impact energy values of specimens exposed to weld thermal
cycles were far below that of the base material with 67 Joule.
The impact energy values of the specimens exposed to double
cycles showed slightly lower values compared to the single
cycles. Apparently, a second heating above the Ac1-
temperature before a PWHT does not lead to better toughness
values. (Figure 6)
900 45
Impact Energy at RT [J]
800
40
35
700
30
600 25
500 20
Hardness HV10
15
400
10
300
5
200 0
BM 5 10 20 40 80 160
16
Cooling Time t8/5 [s]
Hardness Base material Hardness Single Cycle Tp=1300°C+PWHT
Hardness Double Cycle Tp=1300°C+PWHT Hardness Single Cycle Tp=1300°C "as welded"
Impact Energy Single Cycle Tp=1300°C+PWHT Impact Energy Double Cycle Tp=1300°C/1050°C+PWHT
Figure 6: Influence of cooling time on impact energy and
hardness for simulated specimens of heat 145.
The impact toughness values of specimens simulated with
cooling times of 10s and 40s and peak temperatures up to
1150°C were in the range of 69 to 103 Joule. The wide range
of the impact energies is a result of the test temperature
(20°C), lying within the zone of the transition temperature.
Above peak temperatures of 1200°C the toughness values
dropped significantly. (Figure 7) The described toughness
characteristics can be ascribed to the appearance of delta
ferrite which appears for the first time in the peak temperature
range of 1150°C to 1200°C whithin the martensite laths and Acknowledgement
whose fraction rises with increasing peak temperature.
This work was part of the European Action COST522 and was
supported by the Austrian Industrial Research Promotion Fund

Impact Energy at RT [J]

100
390
85
(FFF) which is gratefully acknowledged.
365
70

References
340
55
315 40

290 25

10
Hardness HV10

265
-5
1. B. Scarlin, T.U. Kern and M. Staubli, The European
240
-20 efforts in material development for 650°C USC
215
-35 power plants – COST 522, in Proc. Int. Conf. on: 4th
190
BM 95
950 10
1000 10
1050 11
1100 11
1150 12
1200 12
1250 13
1300
-50
International Conference on Advances in Materials
Peak temperature Tp [°C] Technology for Fossil Power Plants, EPRI (2004)
Hardness Base material Heat 145 Hardness Single Cycle t8/5=40sec+PWHT
Hardness Single Cycle t8/5=10sec+PWHT
Impact Energy Single Cycle t8/5=40sec+PWHT
Impact Energy Single Cycle t8/5=10sec+PWHT
2. H. Cerjak, P. Hofer, B. Schaffernak, K. Spiradek and
G. Zeiler, Haupteinflussgrößen auf die
Kriechbeständigkeit von 9- bis 12%igen Cr-Stählen
für Kraftwerke mit erhöhten Dampfparametern, VGB
Figure 7: Influence of peak temperature on impact energy and Kraftwerkstechnik 77, Heft 9, 762-769 (1997)
hardness for simulated specimens of heat 145.
3. Private Communication, Dr. K. Spiradek-Hahn,
Austrian Research Centers GmbH - ARC, 2444
Summary Seibersdorf, (2005)

A basic study on the weldability of two boron alloyed 4. H. Cerjak and B. Buchmayr, The Determination of
advanced 9% Cr steels was performed applying the so-called Weldability by Using Simulation Techniques, in Proc.
‘Heat Affected Zone Simulation’ technique using a Gleeble Int. Conf. on: 7th Inter. Symposium on Physical
1500 thermomechanical testing machine. The investigations Simulation, Tsukuba, Japan (1997)
were carried out on two heats of cast material with different
carbon contents of 0.168 wt% and 0.13 wt%. The goal of this 5. N.N. Rykalin, Berechnung der Wärmevorgänge beim
study was to characterize the microstructure of the base Schweißen, VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin (1957)
material and the different zones of the heat affected zone
(HAZ) and to examine their mechanical properties. With the 6. A. Schalber, Charakterisierung der Schweißeignung
HAZ simulation technique, different zones of a ‘real’ HAZ are des Bor-modifizierten 9% Chrmostahls CB2A,
created in a testable volume by applying a thermal cycle with Diploma Thesis, Graz University of Technology
various heat inputs (t8/5) and peak temperatures (TP). (1998)
Additionally, the influence of multi-pass welding was
investigated by double-cycle weld simulation. Changes in the 7. E. Weck and E. Leistner, Metallographic instructions
materials properties of the HAZ were examined, before and for colour etching by immersion Part II: Beraha
after a post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) (730°C/12h), colour etchants and their different variants, DVS,
applying light-microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, Düsseldorf (1983)
hardness measurement and Charpy-V impact toughness tests.
The toughness tests carried out on base materials at 8. F. Schuster, Untersuchung der Gefüge und
temperatures from -80°C to 150°C revealed a higher mechanischen Eigenschaften der warmfesten
toughness for the alloy with higher carbon content resulting Stahlgusssorte G-X12CrMoWVNbN 10.1.1 und der
from a lower phase-fraction of delta ferrite. Weld simulations Wärmeeinflusszone von Schweißungen, PhD Thesis,
with peak temperatures above 1200°C resulted in the Graz University of Technology (1996)
formation of delta ferrite. Higher heat input generated a
microstructure with more delta ferrite content which appeared
in large blocky shape and in elongated form. After a PWHT, a
reduction of hardness to the level of base material and a rise of
toughness especially for simulations with longer cooling times
were observed.

304
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Weldability of a high strength engineering steel, with high carbon equivalent
L. Hasselrot and P. Olund
Ovako Steel AB, Hofors, Sweden
Abstract
The influence of alloying content and microstructure on
welding properties can be hard to predict, especially if the
alloying content is high. In this paper the weldability of a high
strength steel is discussed. The steel, Ovako 277Q, has a
relatively high hardenability and consequently high carbon
equivalent. However, increased steel cleanliness in
combination with air-hardening capabilities has shown
positive effects on the weladability compared to other similar
steels.
The weldability evaluation involves investigations and tests of
mainly, microstructure, mechanical properties and the
susceptibility for hydrogen cracks. Microstructure and
mechanical properties were tested on several welds with
different levels of heat-input and preheating. The structure was
martensitic in the Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ), and the
maximum hardness was around 430Hv. Despite the relatively
high hardness, the impact and tensile properties in the HAZ
were positive.
The susceptibility to hydrogen cracks was evaluated by a
number of y-grove Tekken tests. The results showed a lower
tendency to hydrogen cracking then expected, given the
relatively high carbon equivalent (~1.0). The tests indicate that
a preheating of only 50°C is sufficient to avoid hydrogen
cracks, compared to the calculated preheating temperature of
170°C.
Introduction
According to the ISO standard, weldability is defined as
follows [1]
A metallic substance is considered to be weldable to a stated
degree by a given process and for a given purpose, when a
continuity can be obtained by welding using a suitable
procedure, so that the joints comply with requirements
specified in regards to both their local properties and their
influence on the construction of which they form part.
I.e. a weld can be considered weldable if it meets the stated
demands. Consequently weldability is always in relation to
how the weld is made. And as a weld is affected by many
parameters it becomes very complex to investigate the
influence of all parameters affecting the weldability. Instead
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
this investigation only focuses on the properties of the steel,
and how they are affected by welding.
The investigated steel grade builds its strength on high
hardenability and a martensitic structure. The alloy content is
high, and consequently, so is the carbon equivalent. This
would according to standard practice make it very hard to
weld, i.e. high preheating temperatures would be necessary to
avoid hydrogen cracks [2].
The grade is also modified to a higher cleanliness level.
Meaning that the amount of sulphides and oxides are reduced,
and that the average inclusion size is smaller and less
elongated. This has shown to have a positive effect on strength
and toughness [3], especially on samples transverse to the
rolling direction. The effects that non-metallic inclusions have
on welding have been widely discussed, manly regarding the
effects that inclusions have on the materials susceptibility for
hydrogen cracks. Several papers have investigated the level of
sulphur in relation to the steel’s susceptibility for hydrogen
cracks [4, 5, 6, 7]. The results showed indications of a slightly
increased risk for hydrogen cracking with decreased sulphur
content. Two effects was said to explain this. That sulphides
(and other non-metallic inclusions) work as nucleation sites
for ferrite transformation. Meaning that the hardenability
decreases with increasing number of sulphides, i.e. martensite
forms less easily in the HAZ [4]. The effect is then only
depends on the number of inclusions, not the content of
inclusion formers. The other effect is based on sulphides
ability to works as hydrogen traps, i.e. inclusion interfaces
entrap diffusible hydrogen. Steel with more inclusions then
resists higher hydrogen concentrations, due to more trap-sites.
The ability for inclusions to entrap hydrogen has been proven
and measured [8]. But it is difficult to determine the actual
effect that inclusions have as hydrogen entrapments.
Other articles [6, 9, 10] show that inclusions have a negative
effect on the materials resistance against hydrogen cracks.
They point out that inclusions works as crack initiation sites
and that cracks tend to propagate through inclusion, especially
trough elongated sulphides. And as Cochrane [10] also pointed
out, the size and shape effects the crack initiation. Larger more
elongated inclusions have a higher probability to initiate
cracks.
305
 The Steel
The tested steel grade, Ovako 277Q is a high strength general 100
277Q
engineering steel with a relatively high carbon equivalent. The 277L
10

Accumulated No/mm3
Q designation indicates that the steel is modified to a higher
cleanliness level. Comparison measurements were also
performed on 277L, a grade with similar chemical 1
composition but not modified to the higher cleanliness level.
0,1
Chemical composition
The steel grade 277 is alloyed to a high harbenablity while the 0,01
carbon level is still fairly low. It will martensiticly through
hardens large sections (slow cooling) to a considerable low 0,001
hardness. Apart from carbon it is alloyed with chromium, 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

manganese, molybdenum, nickel and vanadium. The Equivalent diameter [µm]

combination of chromium, manganese and molybdenum gives
the steel its high hardenability. Nickel is for improved Figure 1: Ultrasonic 80MHz measurements on 277Q
toughness. And the vanadium precipitates into grain growth compared to 277L.
obstructing and strengthening carbides. The chemical
composition of the tested materials is presented in Table 1.
An automated SEM inclusion counting system [12 was used to
investigate the distribution of smaller inclusions. It uses the
Table 1: Alloy composition of the tested 277Q and the 277L SEM’s backscatter detector to detect inclusions (Change in
used in the Tekken tests. atoms composition changes the imaged brightness), and an X-
C Si Mn S Cr Mo Ni V CE CET
ray detector (EDS) gives the chemical composition for each
found inclusion. The results, Figure 2, showed that there were
277Q 0,15 0,27 1,22 0,002 2,14 0,46 0,47 0,16 0,95 0,44 more large and more elongated inclusions in the non-modified
277L 0,15 0,13 1,25 0,020 2,14 0,48 0,47 0,17 0,96 0,45 277L grade.

Inclusion Population Length & Width

Distribution of non-metallic inclusions 10

The higher cleanliness level of 277Q is produced according to 277L length
Accumulated no of inclusion

a well-controlled melting practice that lowers the sulphur 277L witdth

277Q length
content and reduces the average size of sulphides and oxides. 1
277Q width
Measurements on 277Q compared to 277L showed on the
[#/mm2]

effects that the modification has on the distribution of non- 0,1

metallic inclusions. Figure 1 shows results from ultrasonic
measurements done with an 80MHz probe, finding features
down to 25µm [11]. The results indicated fewer large 0,01

inclusions in the modified steel.

0,001
0 20 40 60 80 100
Inclusion Length/Width [µm]

Figure 2: Results from the automated SEM inclusion counting

measurements on 277Q compared to 277L. Showing the
accumulated number of inclusions against their length and
width.

306
Figure 3: Microstructure of the HAZ. At A there starts to be some new-formed martensite at the grain boundaries. In B the whole
structure has transformed to a fine-grained martensite, and the grain size increased up to the solidification line.
Welding samples
A number of different welding samples were made to evaluate
the HAZ microstructure and its mechanical properties. Two V-
groove samples were made longitudinal to a heavy sectioned
tube (D=135mm and d=70mm). They were multi run MMA-
welded with an ESAB OK 75.75 consumable. Sample A had a
heat input of 1,1 KJ/mm and a preheating level at 100°C,
which should correspond to a t8/5 around 7s. Sample B was
welded with a heat input of 2,2KJ/mm and a preheating
temperature at 150°C. Five cylinder samples were also made,
simulating the production of hydraulic cylinders. Each
cylinder was made from one tube [(Ø132-Ø107)*500], one lid
piece (Ø132*80) and one flange piece (Ø40*10), see Figure 4.
The lid was Flux Cored Arc Welded (FCAW) with ESAB
Tuberod OK15.14 consumables and a 2,2kJ/mm heat input.
The flanges were Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welded with
ESAB MMA OK 75.78 consumables and a 1,7 kJ/mm heat
input. Four different preheating levels were used, room
temperature, 50°C, 75°C and 100°C.
Figure 4 Picture of a hydraulic cylinder sample
307
Microstructure in the Heat-Affected Zone
All the evaluated welds showed similar microstructures in the
HAZ, with the only difference being the width of the HAZ.
Even though a wide range of cooling rates (heat inputs and
preheating temperatures) are used the martensitic
microstructure in the HAZ will be almost the same. This is
also indicated by the steels CCT diagram in Figure 5. The
typical HAZ microstructure for 277Q is shown in Figure 3,
where the bulk structure is to the left and the melted zone is to
the right. The HAZ started in point A, where new martensite
was formed at the grain boundaries. Further in the HAZ all
material were transformed into fine-grained martensite,
marked B. Closer to the solidification-line, higher maximum
temperature and longer austenitization time generated larger
grains, marked C.
Figure 5: CCT diagram for 277
 Hardness profiles over the Heat-Affected Zone Sample B
The hardness was evaluated on all samples, which indicates
similar results for all the tested welds independent of 450
preheating and heat input. The hardness quickly increases
from the bulk value up to a maximum value at around 430HV. 400

Hardness [Hv1]
And stays at this level throughout whole the HAZ. To evaluate
the effect of tempering, more detailed measurements were 350
made on the large sectioned V-grove samples. Hardness
profiles on three different distances from the surface were 300
measured, Figure 6. The top measurements were taken 2mm Top
below the upper surface, the middle measurements were taken 250 Middle
in the middle of the cross-section (i.e. 16mm below the Bottom
200
surface) and the bottom measurements were taken 2mm above
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the lower surface. The hardness measurements were made
with Hv1 and 0,4mm between the indents. The measured Distance [mm]
hardness profiles for sample A are shown in Figure 7 and for
sample B in Figure 8. The maximum hardness was slightly Figure 8: Hardness profiles over the HAZ of sample B
higher (440Hv) for sample A then for sample B (420Hv). The
lower hardness in the middle and at the bottom of the weld is a
tempering effect due to the multiple passes. The bottom Impact toughness
measurements on weld B showed on hardness decrees down to Impact toughness was mainly evaluated by taking out a
~340Hv, which still was well over the bulk hardness of number of Charpy-V samples over the lid-weld in the
270Hv. But if the steel is used as untempered or low cylinders. Samples were taken with the Charpy-V notches
temperature tempered it has a higher hardness and strength, orientated both in the lid-weld HAZ and the cylinder-weld
which means that the HAZ tempering could have an HAZ. The samples were taken in accordance with EN 875,
considerable effect. orientated as VHT 1/2, Figure 9. Due to the thin wall section
the samples were half sized, i.e. 55*10*5mm. Meaning that
the results were at least half of what they would be for full
sized samples.

Figure 9: Schematic over the orientation of the Charpy-V

impact samples.
Figure 6: Schematic of the hardness measurements.
Five samples were taken from each cylinder. Three with the
Sample A notch orientated in the tube-weld HAZ, and two with the notch
orientated in the lid-weld HAZ. Three different testing
500 temperatures were used Room Temperature (RT), -20°C and -
450
40°C. The results are shown in Figure 10. If compared to full
sized samples the results would be at least doubled, because
Hardness [Hv1]

400 the fracture areas are halved. The results showed that the HAZ
350
toughness was high even though the steel was fully
martensitic. The large scatter in the results was probably to
300 some degree due to the different preheating temperatures, but
Top
250 Middle
manly due to the mix of microstructures through the tested
Bottom area. All together the results indicated a high HAZ toughness.
200 It was also well over the minimum level stated for the bulk
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 material, which for full sized samples were over 27J at –40°C.
Distance [mm]

Figure 7: Hardness profiles over the HAZ of sample A.

308
 Table 3: Tensile test results over welded 277Q. The cylinder
Charpy-V in the HAZ of welded 277Q samples are marked with corresponding preheating
Half sized samples
temperature
100
Cylinder HAZ Sample RP02 Rm A5% Z
Impact toughness [J]

80 Lid HAZ Nr: (Mpa) (Mpa) (%) (%)

RT - 1 658 733 4 28
60
RT - 2 676 771 13 73
40 50°C - 1 Failure during sample preparation
50°C - 2 657 731 12 73
20 50°C - 3 560 569 2 12
0 50°C - 4 638 742 13 73
-50 -30 -10 10 75°C - 1 693 774 12 69
75°C - 2 676 745 11 74
Testing temperature [°C]
100°C - 1 Machine failure, no value
100°C - 2 649 728 12 69
Figure 10: Charpy-V toughness in the HAZ for 277Q against A.1 850 889 11 65
the testing temperature. A.2 880 922 12 69
B.1 811 879 12 68
The impact toughness was also measured on un-welded 277Q. B.2 777 858 12 68
Samples were fast quenched in water (t8/5 around 1s), to get the
highest possible hardness, measured to be 437HB. The results
in Table 3, showed that the hardest structure of 277Q still have Y-grove Tekken Test
very good impact properties. Which correlates with the above The y-groove Tekken test is a weldability test that evaluates
given impact results. the steels susceptibility for hydrogen cracks in the Heat-
Affected Zone (HAZ). It is a conservative way to set the
minimum preheating temperature that is needed for avoiding
Table 2: Impact toughness tested on water quenched 277Q.
hydrogen cracks for specific welding criteria. The tests made
Full sized samples.
by SSAB in Oxelösund was a slightly modification of the Test
20ºC -20ºC standard, ISO 17642. The standard test is written for plates,
80 67 but as Ovako only manufactures tubes and bars the test had to
77 62 be modified for a tube. Figure 11 shows a drawing of a
79 57 Tekken tube sample.

Tensile strength
Four tensile samples were taken over the V-groove welds and
ten samples were taken over the lid-tube welds in the
hydraulic cylinders. The results are shown in Table 3. All the
hydraulic samples failed from the bulk material were the
hardness is ~230Hv. With the exception of 2.1 and 5.1 which
unfortunately failed due to welding errors, bad bonding of the
root string. The tensile samples over the V-groove weld all
failed in the weld, due to the higher bulk hardness (~270Hv).
Meaning that none of the samples failed in the HAZ, which
means that the HAZ strength were higher than both the weld
and the bulk strength.

Figure 11: Drawing over the y-groove Tekken samples.

Only the root string is welded, because the stress

concentrations are highest around there. Preheating is the
variable parameter while the heat input is set to a fixed level,
in this case 1,7 KJ/mm. Each sample rests at room temperature

309
for at least 48 hours after beeing welded, to ensure the
propagation of any eventual hydrogen cracks. The welded
section is then cut out and annealed one hour at 300-350°C.
This gives the hydrogen cracks (if there are any) a bluish
colour. The sample is cooled down in liquid nitrogen and
fracture from the root section of the weld. If any bluish cracks
are detected the preheating is increased one step (25°C) for the
next test. To accept a preheating level at least three samples
must be accepted and none failed.
Welding set-up and results
The samples were welded and evaluated at SSAB in
Oxelösund. The heat input was 1.7KJ/mm, The tube samples
had a wall thickness of 28mm for 277L and 32mm for 277Q.
277L was welded with a ESAB OK 48.30 (AWS A 5.1:
E7018) consumable, with a measured hydrogen level at
6,6ml/100g. And 277Q was welded with a ESAB OK 75.75
(AWS A5.4:E307-15) with a measured hydrogen level at
4,3ml/100g. The test results are presented in Table 4 for 277L
and in Table 5 for 277Q, which indicates a preheating
temperature at 150°C for 277L and 50°C for 277Q. The
difference in used consumable makes the results not totally
comparable. But the slightly higher hydrogen level for OK
48.30, is probably compensated with the higher yield strength
of OK 75.75 and the larger wall section of the 277Q samples.
The higher hydrogen level increases the amount of hydrogen
going into the HAZ, higher yield strength increases the
internal stresses over the weld and the larger wall section
increases the cooling rate. Which means the big difference in
results between the two grades, still indicates that the
cleanliness modification of 277Q has a positive effect on the
materials resistance against hydrogen cracks.
Table 4: Tekken test results for Ovako 277L welded with ESAB
OK 48.30
Identity of Preheat temp Heat input, Hydrogen
weld To (°C) E*, (kJ/mm) crack
277L-1 175 1,7 No
277L-2 175 1,7 No
277L-3 175 1,7 No
277L-4 150 1,7 Yes
As a comparision the needed preheating temperature was also
calculated with the PC software, WeldCalc [13], provided by
SSAB Oxelösund. It calculates the preheating level using the
CET carbon equivalent and a calculation method similar to
that of CET-method in the EN-1011 standard. The calculated
preheating values were 180°C for 277Q and 190°C for 277L,
when using the input values as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Input values for the WeldCalc calculations.
Tekken CET Wall Hydrogen Heat input
test Thickness level
277Q 0,44 32 mm 3 ml/100g 1,7 kJ/mm
277L 0,45 28 mm 6 ml/100g 1,7 kJ/mm
Summary and conclusions
The high alloy content, and thereby the high carbon
equivalent, means that 277Q easily hardens, even though the
cooling is slow. During welding this means that the parts of
HAZ that have been over A1 (the transformation start
temperature) most likely will transform to hard martensite. But
the maximum hardness will still be fairly low (~430Hv) due to
the low carbon content. (0,15%). A number of welds were
welded under different welding conditions and evaluated
regarding microstructure, hardness, strength and toughness.
The HAZ microstructure was similar for all the evaluated
welds. The HAZ starts with new-formed martensite at the
grain boundaries. Further in the HAZ all material was
transformed into fine-grained martensite. Closer to the
solidification-line, higher maximum temperature and longer
austenitization time generated larger grains.
The measured hardness profiles indicate that the influence of
heat input is barely noticeable. The maximum hardness for
each sample went from 420HV to 440Hv. The effect of
tempering can be observed in multi run welds. Where the
biggest measured effect was near the rot string. The HAZ
hardness went there down to 340Hv. It was still well over the
230-270Hv hardness of the bulk material, but it is a significant
indication on the tempering effect.

Table 5: Tekken test results for Ovako 277Q welded with Both the strength and toughness measurements showed values
ESAB OK 75.75 well over the demands stated for the bulk material. The results
from the Charpy-V measurements were all over 35J for half
Identity Preheat temp Heat input, Hydrogen
sized samples (55*10*5mm). And all the tensile samples
of weld To (°C) E*, (kJ/mm) crack
failed in the bulk material or in the weld.
277Q-1 150 1,7 No
277Q-2 125 1,7 No A number of Y-groove Tekken tests were made to evaluate the
277Q-3 100 1,7 No steel’s susceptibility for hydrogen cracks. Modified 277Q was
277Q-4 75 1,7 No compared to the non-modified 277L. The results pointed out
277Q-5 50 1,7 No that 50°C preheating for the 277Q weld and 150°C for the
277Q-6 RT 1,7 Yes 277L weld. Both values being lower compared to the
277Q-7 50 1,7 No calculated temperatures at 170°C and 180°C. The much lower
277Q-8 50 1,7 No preheating for 277Q, both compared to 277L and the

310
calculated temperature, indicates that the distribution of non-
metallic inclusions have an affects the steel’s susceptibility for susceptibility, IIW technical documents 1992, IX-
hydrogen cracks. 1671-92

Making high strength steels weldable are traditionally based

on micro alloying and fine grain treatment. But as shown, high 11 Conference Article:
strength steel with good welding properties can also be P. Olund, J.Fagerlund, J-E. Andersson, K.Torresvoll,
obtained by well-calculated alloy addition in combination with IMPROVING PRODUCTION, CONTROL AND
a well-controlled distribution of the non-metallic inclusions. PROPERTIES OF STEELS INTENDED FOR
DEMANDING APPLICATIONS, Drives and
Acknowledgments Controls 2001 Exhibition & Conference, 13-15
The SSAB welding centre at Oxelösund and Arcos hydraulics March 2001
in Borlänge are thanked for contributing with sample 12 SEM analyzing software:
preparations. In addition Daniel Stemne (SSAB), Nils Erik Oxford Instruments INCA 4.05
Hannerz (The Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm) 13 PC software:
and Joakim Hedegård (Swedish Institute for Metals Research) WeldCalc 1.0, SSAB Oxelösund, 1999
are thanked for valuable discussions. tel. (+46) 155-25 40 00

References

1 Standard:
Weldability – definition, ISO 581-1980,
2 Standard:
Welding -- Comparison of standardised methods for
the avoidance of cold cracks, ISO/TR 17844:2004
3 Technical report:
J-E Andersson, Ovahyd™ 650 – a high performance steel
for the hydraulic industry, Ovako Steel Technical Report 1
2004
4 Journal article:
N. Yurioka and H. Suzuki, Hydrogen assised
cracking in C-Mn and low alloy steel weldments,
International Materials Reviews 1990 Vol.35 No.4
5 Article:
C. L. M. Cottrell, Improved prediction method for
avoiding HAZ hydrogen cracking, Welding & metal
Fabrication april 1990
6 Technical Report:
G. M. Evans, C.Wwintermark, N. Christensen, Effect
of sulphur on the weldability rolled C:Mn Steels,
SINETEF and Norway technical University, 9/3 1973
7 Article:
M. Okumura, N. Yuroka, T. Kasuya, Effect of
cleanliness of steel on its weldability, march 1987,
IIW IX-1459-97
8 Journal article:
J-Y Lee, S. M. Lee, Hydrogen trapping phnomena in
metals with B.C.C. and F.C.C crystal structures by
disportion thermal analysis technique, Surface and
coating technology, 28 (1986) 301-314
9 Article:
C. Wildash, Dising a microstructure to resist HIC in
HS steel, Welding & metal fabrication, April 200
10 Journal article:
R. C. Cochrane, L. J. Lloyd, The effect of calcium
treatment on HAZ properties and weld cracking

311
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Prediction of Maximum Crack Length in Longitudinal Varestraint Testing

C. V. Robino, M. Reece, G. A. Knorovsky
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

J. N DuPont
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA

Z. Feng
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA

Abstract total crack length, number of cracks, or maximum crack length

High speed, high resolution video observations of
solidification cracking in longitudinal Varestraint tests of
Alloy 718 reveal a number of important features of the test.
For large augmented strains, crack initiation occurs at a liquid
fraction of approximately 0.2, and crack growth proceeds in
both advancing (growth in the torch travel direction) and
retreating (growth away from the trailing edge) directions. For
the advancing crack, the average growth velocity is identical
to the travel speed, indicating that the advancing tip grows at
isothermal temperature and consequently, a fixed liquid
fraction. Termination of the advancing crack tip occurs as the
augmented strain field diminishes. The retreating crack tip
grows in an increasing strain field and decreasing temperature,
and appears to terminate when the crack tip intersects the
solidus. These observations define criteria for the major events
governing the maximum crack length at high augmented
strains. Coupling these criteria with models of strain
development, temperature distribution, and solidification
behavior allows for a priori estimation of the maximum crack
length. In the present work, the maximum crack length for a
variety of Nb-containing Fe and Ni-based superalloys are
estimated by using the above models and criteria, and
compared with experimental results.
are used as the quantitative measure of weldability. A key
(though occasionally overlooked) characteristic of this test is
that in practice straining of the sample cannot occur
instantaneously. Thus, the dynamics of the test are extremely
complex, with time varying augmented and shrinkage strains
superimposed onto a moving temperature field and moving
solidification front. Qualitatively, this complexity has been
addressed by restricting hot cracking susceptibility
comparisons to those determined under identical conditions of
sample geometry, weld size, travel speed, straining rate, etc..
In order to gain a better understanding of the dynamics of hot
cracking and the hot ductility of semi-molten alloys in general,
Matsuda and co-workers [3-6] used high-speed
cinematography to observe crack formation and growth in the
semi-molten region of welds. These studies used tensile
straining transverse to the welding direction, and clearly
demonstrated the utility of high speed photometric methods
for quantifying ductility and cracking behavior. In addition to
developing in-situ strain measurement techniques, semi-
molten hot ductility curves for a wide range of alloys were
constructed. These observations led to a number of proposed
modifications to Borland’s [7] theory of super-solidus
cracking.

Introduction In the present study the techniques developed by Matsuda et.

The longitudinal Varestraint test [1, 2] has long been used to
assess the relative hot cracking susceptibility of alloys. In this
test a gas tungsten arc weld is produced along the longitudinal
centerline on the top side of a rectangular plate or sheet,
beginning at an unsupported end and moving toward a fixed
end mounted over a curved die block. When the welding arc
reaches a predetermined location over the die block, the bar is
rapidly bent to conform to the radius of the block. This
bending induces an augmented strain on the welded side of the
bar, and hot cracks typically form radially adjacent to the
trailing edge of the weld pool. Various die block radii are used
to characterize the strain level at which cracking begins, and
al. [3-6] are applied to the longitudinal Varestraint test in order
to gain understanding of the dynamics of the test. In the first
part of this report, observations made with high-speed
videography are described and interpreted with the aid of
solidification and thermo-mechanical models. From these,
criteria defining the important cracking events (initiation,
growth, and termination) are developed. In the second part of
the report, a simple dynamic model is used in a preliminary
attempt to apply these criteria to predict maximum crack
length at high augmented strains. A wide range of previously
evaluated [8-11] Nb-containing Fe and Ni-based superalloys is
used for comparisons between estimated and measured
maximum crack length.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 313

 Procedures L→γ+NbC solidification were obtained from thermal analysis
data. For the L→γ+Laves reaction (where applicable), the
Experimental reaction start and finish temperatures were obtained from
Imaging experiments were conducted on subsize Varestraint thermodynamic software (ThermoCalc) estimates for liquid
tests of Alloy 718 with the composition shown in Table 1. The compositions corresponding to those calculated at the end of
samples were 165 × 25 × 3.2 mm and welding parameters L→γ+NbC solidification. The fraction liquid during
were 100A electrode negative, 12.5 V, 3.3 mm/sec, and Ar L→γ+Laves solidification was assumed linear with
shielding. All imaging tests were conducted at an augmented temperature.
strain of 3.5%.
A finite element model of the test was constructed to provide
Table 1: Composition of Alloy 718 used for imaging temperature and strain distributions. The model incorporated
experiments. all geometric features, including steel bend bars on the surface
of the sample that are used to facilitate uniform bending.
Element Wt% Element Wt% Temperature dependent thermophysical and elastoplastic
Fe 19.21 Al 0.44 properties for Alloy 718 were used. The model required a
Cr 17.41 C 0.04 geometrically non-linear formulation because of the large
Nb 5.11 P 0.003 deformations and strains associated with the 3.5% augmented
Mo 2.87 S 0.005 tests. For the contact surfaces associated with the test, the die
Ti 0.90 Ni bal. was assumed to be rigid, the contact between test sample and
bend bar was deformable, and friction was ignored.

For the imaging experiments, the welding torch was angled Results and Discussion
relative to the sample to facilitate imaging of the trailing edge
of the weld pool. Video records were generally captured at a Video Observations
rate of 1000 frames/sec using a Speed Vision HGTX 2000 Figure 1 shows several images taken from the video record of
camera fitted with a Navitar Zoom 6000 lens. Longitudinal a Varestraint test. These images correspond to 37, 47, and 77
strain measurements were made by using scribe marks in the msec from the initiation of the augmented strain. The trailing
region adjacent to the weld. Following the method described edge of the weld pool is visible in the first two photos. The
by Matsuda et. al. [3], local strain measurements were made in arrows shown on each image mark the location of the crack
the partially molten zone by using dendritic features visible on initiation at the surface, which occurred at approximately 37
the solidification surface. msec. As shown, the crack grows in both advancing (in the
weld travel direction) and retreating directions. From these
The composition of the alloys and the test procedures used for images, a variety of dimensions can be measured and the
comparison of estimated and measured maximum crack length convention used for these measurements is shown in Fig. 2.
are described in detail elsewhere [8-11]. A total of twenty
alloys were used in the comparison, and contained factorial
variations in Fe (in exchange for Ni), Nb, Si, and C at two
levels. The high and low target levels for these elements were
2 < Nb <5, 0.10 < Si < 0.60, and 0.02 <C <0.15 wt%. Ni/Fe
ratios for the two groups of alloys was roughly 65/10 for the
Ni alloys and 32/45 for the Fe alloys. The Varestraint testing
procedures and equipment used for these alloys were
essentially identical to those used for the imaging experiments,
except that an augmented strain of 2.5% was applied.

Modeling
Solidification path modeling of these alloys has been
described in detail elsewhere [8-11]. In general, the
solidification behavior and microstructural development of
these alloys is dominated by the redistribution behavior of Nb
and C. Thus, solidification paths can be accurately estimated
by using a modification of the solute redistribution equations
originally developed by Mehrabian and Flemings [12]. Using
this approach, the liquid compositions and variation in fraction Figure 1: Selected images taken from video record of
liquid with temperature during primary L→γ and L→γ+NbC Varestraint test. From front to rear, the images correspond to
solidification was estimated. Reaction start temperatures for 37, 47, and 77 msec from the initiation of bending.

314
 solidification front and both the advancing and retreating
cracks are seen to grow sporadically, with some periods of rest
followed by rapid growth. On average, however, the
advancing crack grows essentially linearly with time. The
retreating crack grows somewhat parabolically until reaching
saturation.

-0.2

Distance from Initial S/L Front (mm)

0.0 Advancing Crack Tip

0.2

0.4

0.6

Figure 2: Image showing the measurements taken from each 0.8

image in the video record. Trailing Crack Tip
1.0

The measurements include: longitudinal strain (measured from 1.2

fiducial mark outside of the weld path); local strain (measured 50 100 150 200

approximately perpendicular to the crack from visible image Time Since Application of Strain (msec)
features); advancing crack length; and retreating crack length. Figure 4: Advancing and retreating crack tip positions as a
The horizontal line is referenced to a fiducial mark and was function of time relative to the position of the S/L interface at
used to locate the crack initiation site from image to image. crack initiation.
Both longitudinal and local strain measurements are based on
lengths determined when the trailing edge of the pool crossed The position of the trailing edge of the weld pool during the
(what would become) the crack initiation site. initial part of straining was measured from the video record
and is shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 3 shows the time evolution of strain and total crack
length for the Varestraint tests. The longitudinal strain 1.5
increases only slightly during the first 35 msec, then increases
approximately linearly to 4% at about 140 msec. The local
S/L Interface Position (mm)

strain increases to 10% over a similar time scale, yielding a

strain rate of approximately 1/sec. Cracking initiates at 37 1.0

msec and a local strain level of 1%. Crack growth is roughly

linear with time.
0.5
14.0 1.4
Total Crack Length
12.0 1.2
y = -1.178e-02 + 6.016e-03x
Total Crack Length (mm)

10.0 1.0 0.0

Local Strain
0 50 100 150 200 250
Strain (%)

8.0 0.8 Time (msec)

6.0 0.6
Longitudinal Strain Figure 5: Position of the trailing edge of the weld pool during
4.0 0.4 bending.
2.0 0.2
The measured velocity of the trailing edge, ≈ 6 mm/sec, is a
0.0 0.0 factor of two higher than the nominal travel speed of the torch.
0 50 100 150 200 250 Although it is not clear, it is believed that pool sloshing and
Time (msec) increases in the arc length during bending may contribute to
Figure 3: Local strain, longitudinal strain, and total crack acceleration of the solidification front. It is also conceivable
length for Alloy 718 test at 3.5% augmented strain. that the sample is quenched to some degree as it is pulled into
contact with the die block, but this was not observed in the
The crack growth rates in a fixed frame of reference are shown finite element model. An additional complication is that in
in Fig. 4. Crack initiation occurs about 0.4 mm from the order to capture the video images, the camera had to be

315
triggered after the weld arc start. Because of recording time
limitations, this restricted the length of weld prior to bending,
and thus steady state thermal conditions were not achieved
prior to straining. It is also important to note that over the time
frame in which straining occurs, ≈ 120 msec, the solid/liquid
interface moves over 0.5 mm, which is comparable to the
distances traveled by the advancing and retreating crack tips.
In any case, the velocity measured in Fig. 5, along with the
forward and retreating crack length data, can be used to assess
the crack growth relative to the weld pool. This assessment is
shown in Fig. 6.
0.0
Distance from S/L Interface (mm)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
50 100
Time Since Application of Strain (msec)
Figure 6: Advancing and retreating crack tip positions as a
function of time relative to the trailing edge of the weld pool.
From Fig. 6, several observations are immediately apparent.
As before, growth of the crack in both advancing and
retreating directions is somewhat erratic, with periods of rapid
growth followed by periods of stagnation (which may be
related to the occurrence of neighboring cracks). Second, the
advancing crack tip remains, on average, an essentially
constant distance behind the weld pool. This implies that the
advancing crack is tied to an isotherm within the mushy zone,
and it is the same isotherm in which the crack initiates (in this
case about 0.4 mm from the trailing edge). As shown in Fig. 7,
by combining the solidification model for this alloy
composition with the thermal model for the Varestraint
welding conditions, the fraction liquid at the initiation site can
be determined. For the nominal 718 alloy, crack initiation
occurred at about 0.4 mm from the solid/liquid interface, and
for this composition this value corresponds to a liquid fraction
of about 0.22. Finally, by overlaying an estimate of the solidus
position at the time of retreating crack termination, an estimate
of the temperature associated with retreating crack termination
can be obtained. This estimate is shown in Fig. 8, and it can be
seen that retreating crack termination appears to occur as the
retreating crack tip is intersected by the solidus.
From these observations and model estimates, a general
description of cracking in Varestraint tests in the nominal
1.0
Nominal Alloy 718
0.8
Fraction Liquid
0.6
x = 0.4 mm, f = 0.22, T = 1316 C
L
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Distance from S/L Interface
Figure 7: Fraction liquid as a function of distance from the
Advancing Crack Tip weld pool for nominal Alloy 718 video Varestraint test.
Retreating Crack Tip
150 200
Figure 8: Overlay of solidus isotherm at the time of crack
termination.
Alloy 718 composition can be constructed. Cracking initiates
at a liquid fraction of 0.22 and propagates in both the
advancing and retreating directions. For the conditions
examined, crack initiation occurs at approximately 1% local
strain. The augmented strain, local strain, and crack length all
increase approximately linearly with time after a short delay
(after the initiation of bending). Although growth of both the
advancing and retreating crack tips is somewhat sporadic, the
advancing crack tip appears to move at a velocity equal to the
travel speed, and therefore remains at an approximately
constant distance behind the weld pool. Termination of the
retreating crack growth occurs when the retreating crack tip
intersects the advancing solidus, while termination of the
advancing crack tip occurs when the augmented strain
dissipates. Similar results were observed in a number of video
records, and attempts were also made to capture backfilling by
using a high carbon alloy. The general picture of crack
initiation and growth was supported by these additional
experiments, but a conclusive and quantitative description of
backfilling could not be obtained. Nevertheless, the
observations are interesting and important in that they
316
reinforce the common experience that Varestraint data is, in
large part, highly sensitive to the exact testing conditions.
Moreover, this sensitivity is the result of the interplay of many
time dependent factors, i.e. the varying strain field, changing
liquid composition, and moving temperature contours. During
the time frame over which the augmented strain develops,
both the solid/liquid interface and the solidus boundary move
an appreciable distance, i.e. a distance comparable in
magnitude to the crack lengths observed.

Crack Length Estimation

As a preliminary test of the generality of these observations,
the criteria derived above can be combined with a simple
Figure 9: Illustration of the quantities used in the crack length
dynamic model to estimate crack length as it is affected by
estimates.
alloy composition and test parameters. The alloys selected for
this comparison had been studied in previous work [8-11].
straining. Since the equipment used in the actual test was very
Therefore, maximum crack length data, as well as
similar to that used for the video tests, S/L interface velocity
solidification models describing the liquid composition and
observed in the video images was used for the estimations. It
fraction liquid as a function of temperature were available.
should also be noted that this higher velocity (6 mm/sec) gave
Because of the difficulties in defining criteria for backfilling
predicted crack length that were closer to those observed.
from the video observations, the possible effects of backfilling
are not included in these initial estimates. Moreover, the
The second difficulty associated with the high apparent
dynamic model described here was not intended to be a fully
solidification velocity during straining is that it induces
representative mechanical model of the Varestraint test, or to
uncertainty into estimation of the temperature gradient behind
fully represent the wide range of microstructural response
the weld pool. Here again, because the source of pool
exhibited by these alloys [8-11]. Rather, the estimates were
acceleration could not be identified, and to maintain
made to determine if simple correlations between crack length
consistency in the estimates, temperature gradients for the
and the test dynamics could be drawn. The Varestraint tests on
crack length estimates were calculated by using the 6 mm/sec
these alloys were conducted using essentially identical
velocity observed in the video tests. The time of advancing
experiments and test conditions.
crack growth (tF) was taken as the time observed in the video
images (80 msec), and corresponds to the time frame over
The estimation method is shown in Fig. 9. Crack initiation for
which augmented strain accumulates behind the weld pool.
all alloys is assumed to occur at the same fraction liquid (fL) as
that for the 718 test alloy (fL = 0.22 from Fig. 7). Initial time
Retreating crack tip velocity (VR) was obtained from the video
(ti) is the time of crack initiation and corresponds to the time at
record by fitting the crack tip position data to a parabolic
which approximately 1% strain accumulates behind the weld
equation. This equation was then set equal to the equation
pool.
describing the position of the apparent solidus to determine the
intersection time (tint) and thus the retreating crack length. The
Advancing crack tip velocity (VA) was observed to coincide
apparent solidus was calibrated by finding the isotherm which
with the S/L interface velocity in the video experiments.
yielded the correct total crack length for the video tests, and
However, as discussed above, a difficulty in conducting the
comparing this value to the fL vs T relationship for the 718
video experiments resulted from the need to conduct the
alloy. This occurred at an fL value of 0.06. Thus a value of fL =
imaging experiments at an early time after starting the weld.
0.06 was used for the calculation of solidus position for the
The weld appeared to have just reached its steady state size at
other alloys.
the initiation of straining. Thus the video tests were likely
conducted under transient conditions. This induces an
The results of these estimates are shown in Fig. 10 by plotting
uncertainty into the estimation in two respects. First, it is not
the measured crack lengths [8-11] vs the estimated values.
entirely clear what travel speed to use in the estimates because
Figure 10 also includes estimation error bars that are
the velocity measured in the video experiments was higher
constructed by using solidus criteria of fL = 0.03 and 0.09,
than the nominal velocity in the actual tests. It is important to
respectively. Similar error estimates were also made by
note that transient solidification front velocities would be
assuming a solidus fixed at fL = 0.06 for each alloy, while
expected to be slower than the nominal as the weld pool size is
allowing the fL at initiation to vary between 0.017 and 0.27.
increasing during the transient stage. Thus, although additional
These trials produced uncertainties which were far smaller
characterization is needed, it is believed that pool vibration
than those associated with uncertainty in the solidus position.
and sloshing resulting from actuator motion is the most likely
source of the accelerated solidification velocity during

317
 2.0
Measured Crack Length (mm)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0
Estimated Crack Length (mm)
Figure 10: Measured vs estimated crack length for the Ni and
Fe based superalloys. Error bars represent assumptions of
0.03 and 0.09 fL as the solidus criteria.
This assessment appears reasonable for many of the alloys, but
does not well represent the response of others. Considering the
simplicity of the approach, the underlying assumptions
required in the solidification and thermal models, and the
range of solidification microstructures demonstrated by these
alloys, the agreement is probably as good as can be expected.
Although it is beyond the scope of this article and is discussed
in Refs 8-11, it should be noted that other factors, such as the
substructural morphology (i.e., cellular vs dendritic), the
distribution and morphology of interdendritic liquid, and
backfilling also influence the crack extension. These factors
are not considered in this preliminary assessment. More
important, however, are the inferences which can be drawn
from Fig. 10. Clearly, the cracking sensitivity is strongly
affected by the shape of the fL vs T (fL vs distance) curve for
the alloy as well as the solidification temperature range.
Termination of the retreating crack advance is extremely
sensitive in alloys with shallow, fL vs T curves, and this is
reflected in both the experimental and estimated error. Thus,
earlier interpretations [8-11] regarding some of the differences
between these alloys are supported by these estimates.
Conclusions
The results of this work indicate that the dynamics of the
Varestraint test strongly influence the measured crack lengths.
Cracking in longitudinal Varestraint tests initiates away from
the S/L interface, and propagates in the advancing direction at
a velocity comparable to the velocity of the S/L interface. In
this respect the longitudinal Varestraint test is not overdriven
in terms of strain, and is probably similar to cracking in real
welds. Propagation of the retreating crack is terminated by the
approach of the solidus isotherm, and is thus influenced by the
welding speed and rate of augmented strain application.
Finally, the results of estimates of crack length reinforce
earlier conclusions that the fL vs T behavior of the alloy
strongly influences the crack susceptibility in testing.
Acknowledgements
Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia
Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United
States Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC04-
94AL85000.
References
1. W.F. Savage and C.D. Lundin, The Varestraint Test,
718 Welding Journal., 44(10), 433s-442s (1965).
Ni Alloys
Fe Alloys 2. W.F. Savage and C.D. Lundin, Application of the
Varestraint Technique to the Study of Weldability,
1.5 2.0 Welding Journal., 45(11), 497s-503s (1966).
3. F. Matsuda, H Nakagawa, and K. Sorada, Dynamic
Observation of Solidification and Solidification Cracking
during Welding with Optical Microscope, Transactions of
JWRI, 11(2), 67-77 (1982).
4. F. Matsuda, H Nakagawa, K. Nakata, H. Kohmoto, and
Y. Honda, Quantitative Evaluation of Solidification
Brittleness of Weld Metal during Solidification by Means
of In-Situ Observation and Measurement (Report I),
Transactions of JWRI, 12(1), 65-72 (1983).
5. F. Matsuda, H Nakagawa, H. Kohmoto, Y. Honda, and Y.
Matsubara, Quantitative Evaluation of Solidification
Brittleness of Weld Metal during Solidification by Means
of In-Situ Observation and Measurement (Report II),
Transactions of JWRI, 12(1), 73-80 (1983).
6. F. Matsuda, H Nakagawa, and S. Tomita, Quantitative
Evaluation of Solidification Brittleness of Weld Metal
during Solidification by Means of In-Situ Observation and
Measurement (Report IV), Transactions of JWRI, 16(2),
89-95 (1987).
7. J. C. Borland, Generalized Theory of Super-Solidus
Cracking in Welds (and Castings), British Welding
Journal, 7, 508-512 (1960).
8. J.N. DuPont, Solidification and Welding Metallurgy of
Experimental Ni Base and Fe Base Superalloys
Containing Nb, Si, and C, PhD Thesis, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, PA (1997).
9. J.N. DuPont, C.V. Robino, and A.R. Marder, Modeling
Solute Redistribution and Microstructural Development
in Fusion Welds of Nb-Bearing Superalloys, Acta Mater,
46(13), 4781-4790 (1998).
10. J.N. DuPont, C.V. Robino, and A.R. Marder,
Solidification and Weldability of Nb-Bearing Superalloys,
Welding Journal Res. Supplement, 77(10), 417s-431s
(1998).
11. J.N. DuPont, C.V. Robino, and A.R. Marder, Modeling
Mushy Zones in Welds of Multicomponent Alloys:
Implications for Solidification Cracking, Sci. and Tech. of
Welding and Joining, 4(1), 1-14 (1999).
12. R. Mehrabian and M.C. Flemings,
Macrosegregation in Ternary Alloys, Met. Trans., 1,
455-464 (1970).
318
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
“Linear Inspection of Welds Using Ultrasonic Phased Arrays”
Michael Moles and Simon Labbé
R/D Tech, Quebec, Canada G1P 4S9
Abstract
Phased arrays offer significant technical advantages for weld
inspections over conventional ultrasonics. In particular, linear
(rather than raster) scanning significantly saves inspection
time. The phased array beams can be steered, scanned, swept
and focused electronically. Beam steering permits the selected
beam angles to be optimized ultrasonically by orienting them
perpendicular to the predicted defects, especially Lack of
Fusion. Electronic scanning permits very rapid coverage of
the welds, typically an order of magnitude faster than a single
transducer raster mechanical system. Sectorial scanning is
useful for inspections where only a minimal footprint is
possible. Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam
shape and size at the expected defect location, and also to
optimize Probability of Detection. Overall, the use of phased
arrays permits optimizing defect detection while minimizing
inspection time.
The paper describes the application of phased arrays for
inspecting pressure vessel and other construction welds,
mostly thick section welds in carbon steel. Phased arrays offer
significant practical advantages over conventional automated
inspections. Thick section weld inspections typically use the
established “top, side, end” or “top, side, TOFD” views of the
weld. Other displays can be used, e.g. strip charts for zone
discrimination scanning of narrow gap welds. Phased arrays
permit customizing beam angles and focus to optimize
Probability of Detection. Special inspections can be easily
performed with phased arrays, e.g. additional beams for extra
coverage, multiple angles or inspection set-ups
simultaneously, or special scans such as tandem probes. These
phased array inspections can be tailored to any known code
requirements.
Introduction
Ultrasonic phased arrays are a novel method of generating and
receiving ultrasound. They use multiple ultrasonic elements
and electronic time delays to create beams by constructive and
destructive interference. As such, phased arrays offer
significant technical advantages over conventional single-
probe ultrasonics; the phased array beams can be steered,
scanned, swept and focused electronically.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
• Electronic scanning permits very rapid coverage of
the components, typically an order of magnitude
faster than a single probe mechanical system.
• Beam forming permits the selected beam angles to be
optimized ultrasonically by orienting them
perpendicular to the predicted defects, for example
Lack of Fusion in welds.
• Beam steering (usually called sectorial scanning) can
be used for mapping components at appropriate
angles to optimize Probability of Detection. Sectorial
scanning is also useful for inspections where only a
minimal footprint is possible.
• Electronic focusing permits optimizing the beam
shape and size at the expected defect location, as well
as optimizing Probability of Detection. Focusing
improves signal-to-noise ratio significantly.
Overall, the use of phased arrays permits optimizing defect
detection while minimizing inspection time.
Phased arrays offer significant advantages over traditional
radiography of welds as well:
• No safety hazards
• Inspection as soon as weld is cool
• Better defect detection and sizing
• Great flexibility in parameter range
• Compliant with all known codes
• Many special techniques are possible.
One other advantage of phased arrays is the use of “linear
scanning”. Here, the array is not mechanically rastered back
and forth for coverage, but scanned along the weld using a
single mechanical axis, while the beam is electronically
rastered. Linear scanning has major time and cost
implications, and is described in more detail below. Phased
arrays and scanning techniques are described in detail in (1).
Inspection Techniques
Since they are very flexible, phased arrays can fulfill many
different inspection techniques from standard ASME to zone
discrimination to TOFD to “specials”.
ASME Raster Scans
Figure 1 shows a phased array set-up for standard ASME
raster scans using two separate angles in pulse-echo. The
arrays are angled on wedges to optimize energy as well as
reduce wear and damage. Phased arrays can perform
inspections at multiple angles, plus TOFD.
319
Figure 1: Schematic showing phased arrays performing ASME
raster scans. Figure 3: Schematic of TOFD set-up.

Zone Discrimination
Similarly, phased arrays can perform zone discrimination (2)
as performed in pipeline AUT, similar to conventional
multiprobe systems. However, phased arrays can generate
twice the number of pulses at a given speed. Figure 2 shows a
schematic of an array performing zone discrimination. One
advantage of arrays is that they couple much better than a
multitude of smaller conventional transducers.
Back Diffraction
Phased arrays also work well with back diffraction for
accurate sizing, better than conventional UT since the arrays
do not move and coupling is more constant. Figure 4 shows
the back diffraction technique, and Figure 5 typical results on
an internal defect (4).

Figure 2: Schematic showing phased array performing zone

discrimination.

TOFD
Phased arrays can also perform TOFD (Time-Of-Flight
Diffraction) just like conventional UT (see Figure 3). Often
the same array is used for pulse-echo and for TOFD since this
saves scanning time and cost, and provides a better inspection
using both combined. Normally TOFD frequencies are slightly
higher than pulse-echo, and TOFD transducers are more
highly damped, so there is a small resolution loss. Otherwise,
the technique is the same; the phased arrays use a small
aperture to generate a broad L-wave, and an RF display (3). Figure 4: Schematic showing the back-diffraction concept.

320
Figure 5: Typical back-diffraction scan results. Top left, C-
scan; right, B-scan, bottom left, A-scan.
Figure 6: 3D data reconstruction of defects in nozzle
ASME CC 2235 (Courtesy of Zetec).
Phased arrays can fulfill ASME Code Case 2235 (5) using
pulse-echo, TOFD or a combination of pulse-echo and TOFD. S-scans
This opens the door for pressure vessel inspections. Sectorial scans can be used to calibrate in any position on
ASME-type side drilled holes, but may not be the best
Specials inspection technique since inspection angles will inherently be
With their inherent flexibility, phased arrays are ideal for non-optimum for some defects. This means that under some
special applications. For example, weld roots can be inspected conditions, particularly thicker walled vessels with a single
at multiple positions and angles to optimize defect detection, pass, probability of defect detection is low (7). Figure 7 shows
all with the same array in the same pass at high speed. a typical simulation of an S-scan in a thick weld; the
reflections from the midwall defect are minimal under these
conditions.
Some Do’s And Don’ts With Phased Arrays
Calibration
Unlike conventional transducers, arrays need calibrating along
the entire length for reproducible results. The best solution is
to perform a scan over the calibration reflector, then
“compensate” using a software program. This process is
essential for raster-type inspections.

Weld Overlays
These are extremely useful for determining the location of
defects in the weld. Much recommended.

3D Images
With TomoView software and AutoCAD, it is possible to
project 3D images of defects, rather than the standard “top,
side, end” views. An example is shown in Figure 6 below (6);
these 3D images show very good representation and location
of actual defects. However, 3D images are of limited value in
practice for engineering assessments since the ASME (and
other) codes require a box drawn around the maximum defect Figure 7: Imagine3D simulation of S-scan inspecting 25 mm
dimensions. plate with LOF midwall defect.

It should be noted that it is possible to “pass” the ASME CC

2235 Performance Demonstration using single S-scans and
three defects, provided array position etc. are worked out.

321
However, this does not necessarily mean that defect detection
will be optimal.

Inspection Systems
OmniScan – Portable Phased Array Unit
This system uses 16/128 format, i.e. 16 pulsers and a total of
128 elements. OmniScan is the entry system for phased arrays,
and can perform electronic and sectorial scans, to comply with
ASME CC 2235 and other codes. OmniScan can operate fully
automated scanners and encoders, record all waveform data,
use DAC and TCG. It can perform pulse-echo and TOFD, and
display A-scans, B-scans, S-scans, TOFD scans and
combinations. However, OmniScan is limited in that it can
only perform one type of scan per pass, unless controlled by
TomoView. The instrument is shown in Figure 8 below.
OmniScan uses new user-friendly software.

Figure 9 (left): PV-100 instrumentation. Figure 10 (right):

typical PE-TOFD display.

General Phased Array Systems (PV-200)

Figure 8: OmniScan portable phased array equipment
TOFD and Pulse-Echo (PV-100)
Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) offers great potential for
rapid scans with limited equipment. Essentially, wide angle
longitudinal wave beams fill the whole wall with sound, and
low amplitude diffracted signals from defect tips are collected
and displayed in gray scale waveforms. This technique works
very well for mid-wall defects, but has dead zones at the OD
and ID. For this reason, R/D Tech firmly recommends using
both pulse-echo and TOFD for coverage: pulse-echo for the
near surfaces and TOFD for the midwall. Figure 9 below
shows typical TOFD/pulse-echo equipment, and Figure 10 a
typical display based on combined PE-TOFD. This type of
inspection will fulfill ASME CC 2235. (The PV-100 is not a
phased array system.)
These systems are based on the Tomoscan III (or FOCUS LT),
a high speed, high data transfer rate, phased array instrument
(see Figure 11). In comparison with OmniScan, these
TomoView-based systems can perform multiple scans
simultaneously, including TOFD, electronic and sectorial.
Tomoscan III can perform detailed defect imaging using the
Tomoview software, such as “top, side, end” views or “top,
side, TOFD” views. Weld overlays can be used, and multiple
and 3D cursors for accurate defect analysis (see Figure 12).
The PV-200 system can be configured to pass essentially any
code.

Figure 11 (left): Tomoscan III system.

322
 Mechanics for Linear Scanning
There are multiple options for scanning, ranging from hand-
held encoded devices (semi-automated) to fully robotic
systems.

Hand Held Arrays

The simplest solution is a hand held array with encoder for
linear scanning, which can collect full waveform data using
the correct instrumentation (see Figure 14). However, this
approach has limitations: poor positioning, no TOFD
capability, but can image welds at multiple angles using
Tomoscan III and is very flexible and cost-effective. This
semi-automated approach has been demonstrated to be ASME
code-compliant for plates and pipes up to 25 mm wall.

Figure 12: “Top, side, end” view with weld overlay.

Premium Phased Array Systems (PV-300)

These systems are custom-designed for the application, and
are primarily targeted at Fitness-For-Purpose applications
where defect detection and sizing are critical. In contrast to the
PV-100 and PV-200 systems, the PV-300 systems use
multiple NDE techniques to give 200% coverage of the weld
areas. Depending on the application, this coverage may
include: pulse-echo; multiple TOFD channels; transverse
defect detection using multiple angles and scanning; oblique
defect detection; surface and near-surface defect detection
Figure 14: Typical array on wedge with encoder.
using eddy current arrays. These systems are larger and
heavier (and more expensive) then the PV-100 and PV-200
Handscanners
systems, and require full automation. The PV-300 systems are
Figure 15 below shows a typical handscanner inspecting a
based on the Tomoscan III, but may use an increased number
weld in a large pipe. This type of scanner is cheap and easy to
of elements for improved focusing, signal-to-noise etc. Figure
use, and can hold conventional transducers, phased arrays,
13 shows an example of a scanning head containing multiple
TOFD transducers etc. Provided allowance is made for
phased arrays, TOFD transducers and eddy current arrays.
operator positioning error, the system works faster and better
than hand scans. Normally, water is pumped for the coupling.

Figure 13: Typical PV-300 inspection head.

Figure 15: Handscanner in action.

323
Welding Band
This technique uses a welding band for travel, and is
particularly applicable to pipes. The advantages are quick and
easy to use, as well as accurate. However, there are physical
limitations to the diameter of the vessel to be inspected
(around 1.5 m). Figure 16 shows a scanner on a welding band.
Magnetic Wheel Scanners
These scanners run over a vessel as programmed. Some
scanners simply run in a straight line, while others can be
controlled by a joystick or other device. The TRAKER (shown
in Figure 18 below) follows a magnetic strip so can inspect
almost any shape of vessel, including nozzles.

Figure 16: Pipe scanner on welding band.

Rotate the Vessel

This technique, shown schematically in Figure 17, is the
simplest solution for large vessels. Many fabricators need to
rotate to weld, so rotating is a simple option. This minimizes
the mechanics and cost. The ultrasonics can be performed
rapidly after welding to detect defects without delay, with no
safety hazard. Any position errors can be compensated for
with the scan pattern.

Figure 18: Magnetic wheel TRAKER inspecting vertical weld.

Full Robotics
A full robotic system can be used for complex heads, as
shown in Figure 19 below. Typically, robotics are the most
expensive and flexible solution.

Figure 17: Rotating vessel for automated inspection.

324

Figure 19: Schematic showing robotic scanner on curved head.
Discussion
Linear scanning offers tremendous advantages for inspections,
particularly with phased arrays. There should be significant
time and cost savings, plus potential overall schedule savings.
There should be improved equipment reliability, due to
reduced mechanical components and increased electronics;
electronics is traditionally more reliable than mechanics.
Linear scanning offers benefits for both construction welding,
and in-service scanning for cracking.
Phased arrays themselves offer considerable potential for weld
inspections due to their flexibility and versatility. Scan
patterns can be tailored to the code, the component and the
customer’s requests. Once set-up, the scan can be re-loaded
and used indefinitely. Phased arrays offer other advantages for
weld inspections: no safety hazards, “immediate” inspections,
digital archiving, advanced imaging, better defect detection
and improved sizing.
Not surprisingly, phased arrays can fulfill any known code.
This is fortunate since there is a broad spectrum of welds to be
inspected. For example, pressure vessels range from small to
large, simple to complex with a huge number of weld profiles
that can be used. All in all, the total number of inspection
possibilities is almost unlimited, so flexibility is a major key.
R/D Tech has developed a spectrum of systems, from TOFD
to portable phased arrays, to general phased arrays to premium
systems, with a variety of mechanics: handscanners, welding
bands, vessel rotation, robots, magnetic wheel scanners. All
these systems use linear scanning, either mechanized or
manual, all with encoded data. All these systems can be
configured to fulfill ASME 2235 and other codes. What is
used where will depend on the customer’s specific
requirements (speed, detection capabilities, sizing accuracy),
budget and knowledge.
325
Conclusions
1. Linear scanning of welds offers major benefits in
time and cost savings.
2. Many different systems can be used to fulfill weld
inspection codes and inspection requirements, from
portable phased arrays to TOFD kits to advanced
phased arrays.
3. There are many possibilities for delivery systems:
handscanners, welding bands, magnetic wheel
scanners, rotate the vessel, robotics.
4. The customer’s choice should be dictated by
component requirements, budget and knowledge.
References
1. R/D Tech, “Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic
Technology – R/D Tech Guideline”, publ. by R/D Tech
August 2004.
2. Standard Practice for “Mechanized Ultrasonic Examination
of Girth Welds Using Zonal Discrimination with Focused
Search Units”, ASTM E-1961-98, publ. American Society for
Testing and Materials, September 1998.
3. Standard Practice for the “Use of Ultrasonic Time-Of-Flight
Diffraction (TOFD) Technique”, ASTM E-2373-04, July
2004.
4. F. Jacques, F. Moreau and E. Ginzel, « Ultrasonic
backscatter sizing using phased array – developments in tip
diffraction flaw sizing”, Insight vol. 45, no. 11, November
2003, p. 724.
5. ASME Code Case 2235-4, “Use of Ultrasonic Examination
in Lieu of Radiography: Section I and Section VIII, Divisions
1 and 2”, November 30, 2001, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
6. Private communication – Guy Maes, Zetec, January 2005.
7. M. Moles and J. Zhang, “Construction weld inspection
procedures using ultrasonic phased arrays”, Materials
Evaluation, January 2005, p. 27-33.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Ductility-Dip Cracking Susceptibility of Filler Metal 52 and 52M

Ni-base Filler Metals

N.E. Nissley and J.C. Lippold

The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

Abstract reduced Al and Ti) for increased resistance to DDC, and to

minimize oxide “floaters” and inclusions. Both FM-52 and
The ductility-dip cracking (DDC) susceptibility of two 52M have a high chromium content for greater resistance to
nickel-base filler metals, Inconel® Filler Metal 52 (FM-52) stress-corrosion cracking and are used as a replacement for
and Filler Metal 52M (FM-52M) was evaluated using the Inconel® Filler Metal 82 (FM-82) in stress corrosion
strain-to-fracture (STF) test technique. The STF test is a cracking environments such as in the nuclear primary water
Gleeble® based test that was developed to evaluate environments. To date, no direct comparison of the DDC
susceptibility to intermediate temperature grain boundary susceptibility of these two filler metals has been performed.
embrittlement phenomena, such as DDC.
The STF test was developed at The Ohio State University to
The STF results showed that FM-52 exhibited grain evaluate susceptibility to intermediate temperature grain
boundary sliding and initiated cracking at slightly lower boundary embrittlement, in particular, the susceptibility to
strains compared to FM-52M. At high strains (>8%) FM- DDC. In practice, ductility-dip cracking in FM-52
52M had fewer cracks but tended to have longer and straight commonly occurs during multipass welding of highly
cracks especially in the large grain regions of the weld restrained weldments. This is in agreement with previous
metal. Based on the STF data for the tested heats, the DDC strain-to-fracture (STF) test results for FM-521 which
susceptibility of both FM-52 and FM-52M is nearly predicts a wide and deep ductility-dip trough.
equivalent and higher than Filler Metal 82 tested previously.
Experimental Procedures
Metallographic analysis of both materials revealed relatively
straight migrated grain boundaries that were covered with Weld deposits of FM-52 and FM-52M were tested for
small (<0.5 µm) chromium-rich carbides. Larger (1-2 µm) susceptibility to DDC using STF testing procedures
precipitates were also observed in the interdendritic regions described elsewhere2,3. The compositions of the filler
of the weld metal. These precipitates did not appear to metals tested and FM-82 are presented in Table 1.
affect the migration of the grain boundaries at elevated
temperatures allowing them to form straight boundaries Table 1, Chemical composition (wt %) of filler metals.
which are more susceptible to DDC.
Element FM-52 FM-52M FM-82
Introduction Heat NX9277 Heat EX0A51P Heat YN7355
Ni 60.12 60.37 72.8
Ductility-dip cracking (DDC) is an intermediate temperature Cr 29.09 30.04 20.1
solid-state grain boundary embrittlement phenomenon that Fe 8.88 8.42 0.70
affects a number of alloys, including austenitic stainless C 0.026 0.020 0.040
steels, Ni-base alloys, Cu-base alloys, and titanium alloys. Nb + Ta 0.02 0.85 2.6
Under the conditions of high restraint, these materials may Mn 0.25 0.81 2.75
exhibit a loss of ductility over a temperature range below Ti 0.50 0.21 0.47
the solidus temperature. The precise mechanism for DDC is Al 0.71 0.10 -
unclear, making it a difficult phenomenon to avoid in Si 0.17 0.03 0.07
practice and complicates the quantification of existing DDC Cu 0.011 0.02 0.07
susceptibility using weldability test techniques. Mo 0.05 0.02 -
P 0.0044 0.004 0.01
Inconel® Filler Metal 52 (FM-52) (AWS A5.14, ERNiCrFe- S 0.0037 0.001 0.002
7) is a Ni-base filler metal for nuclear applications used Co - 0.007 0.04
commonly for welding Ni-base alloy 690. Inconel® Filler Zr - 0.015 -
Metal 52M (FM-52M) (AWS A5.14, ERNiCrFe-7A) is a B - 0.004 -
modified version of FM-52 (increased Nb, B, Zr, and

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 327

A 0.25 inch (6.4 mm) thick plate of Alloy 690 had 0.75” (19
mm) wide by 0.083’’ (2.1 mm) deep grooves with 45 degree
beveled edges machined on opposite sides of the plate
(Figure 1). Alternating passes of FM-52 and FM-52M were
made on opposite sides of the plate to fill in the machined
grooves with weld metal. Two to three layers of weld metal
were required to fill the grooves and dilution of the top layer
of weld metal by the Alloy 690 plate was estimated to be
10%. Any weld reinforcement was ground flush and
standard STF sample blanks (Figure 2) were laser cut from
the welded plates so that the FM-52 and FM-52M welds
corresponded with the reduced center section of the STF
sample. (Figure 2)
FM-52
Alloy 690 0.25” (6.3mm)
FM-52M
Figure 1, Cross section view of welded plate with FM-52
and FM-52M filler metals (thickness not to scale).
Reduced center section
19 mm
Figure 2, Face of the STF sample blank with reduced center
section. The cross hatched area indicates the location of the
deposited weld metal.
The sample blanks were fixtured in a set of copper blocks to
ensure uniform heat extraction and spot pre-welds were
made on both the FM-52 and FM-52M sides of the samples.
The faces of the reduced section were surface ground to
produce a smooth finish (equivalent to 320 grit SiC grinding
paper) to allow for crack detection after testing. Samples
were lightly etched with 10% chromic acid at 2.5V for 10 to
20 seconds to reveal the spot weld microstructure. A 4 mm
(0.157 inch) gage spacing was made on the bottom and top
of each sample with two square indentions made with a
modified punch. The initial (and final) gage spacing was
measured at 100x magnification on a stage controlled by a
digital micrometer to allow for actual strain measurement in
the sample after testing. A schematic of the final STF
sample is shown in Figure 3.
Prepared samples were mounted in stainless steel hot jaws
with tool steel grips in the Gleeble with a jaw spacing of 2
inches (50.8 mm). A thermocouple was welded on the
328
bottom of the sample for temperature control during testing.
An Epsilon high temperature L-strain gage was used on the
top of the sample to measure strain during testing. The L-
strain gage ceramic rods were modified to fit into the square
gage marks (made with the square punch). The L-strain
gage was held in place with ceramic fiber cords and springs
to provide sufficient pressure to hold the gage in place. A
rough vacuum (10-2 torr) was applied to the chamber of the
Gleeble and the chamber was back purged with argon. This
was repeated to ensure minimal oxidation.
The Gleeble was programmed to heat the sample to the test
temperature at a rate of 100°C per second and then held at
temperature for 10 seconds. The sample was then strained
at a constant rate of 0.06 cm/sec until the L-strain gage
reached a predetermined value indicating that the sample
had been strained to the desired level. The heating was then
turned off and the sample free cooled to room temperature
under a zero load condition.
A
B
D Front
C
(FM-52)
Surface ground, and etched section
Back
(FM-52M)
E F
Top or Bottom
Figure 3, Final STF sample geometry showing dimensions
and pre-weld location, A = 12.7 cm (5 inches), B = 19 mm
(0.75 inch), C = 15.3 mm (0.6 inch), D = 19 mm (0.75 inch),
E = Nominally 5.6 mm (0.22 inch), F = 6.4 mm (0.25 inch).
The tested samples were then evaluated for cracks using a
stereo microscope at magnifications between 10 and 70X.
The final gage spacing was measured and the strain was
calculated.
Samples to be prepared for optical and electron microscopy
were mounted in Konductomet and ground using SiC
abrasive paper (through 1200 grit), and polished with 9 and
3 µm diamond paste and 0.05 µm colloidal silica. Samples
were electrolytically etched with 10% chromic acid at 1.5-
2V for 30 seconds. Metallographic images were examined
on a Nikon metallograph and micrographs were stored
digitally with a 2 megapixel digital camera. SEM
microscopy and EDS analysis was performed on a Sirion
SEM FEG and Philips XL-30 ESEM FEG at 15kV.
 Results
Temperature-Strain Curves
Test results for FM-52 and FM-52M are shown in Figure 4
and Figure 5 respectively, with each point on the curves
representing a tested sample. Since both filler metals were
tested with each sample, the locations of the points on each
curve are the same, only the amount of cracking varies.
Points labeled with an “X” represent samples in which
cracking was not observed and the points labeled with a
circle represent samples in which cracking was observed.
The number beside each point represents the number of
cracks that broke the surface of the spot weld. A curved line
was drawn between samples that cracked and those that did
not. This curve schematically represents the strain at which
cracking begins. The threshold strain (minimum strain for
cracking in the DTR) was observed to be similar in both
materials at approximately 2% at 950°C. The temperature
range where the threshold strain was observed (900-
1000°C) is consistent with other STF testing1,2, and the
threshold strain is similar to results on the same heat of FM-
52 by Collins.
With the exception of one point (1150°C, 4.1%), FM-52M
was observed to have fewer total cracks that FM-52. There
were two samples tested where cracks were found in FM-52
and no cracks were found in FM-52M (750°C, 4.1% and
1250°C, 3.8%). Grain boundary sliding was observed in
these two samples of FM-52M and based upon experience
would indicate that the strain was within 1% of the
threshold. The difference in the number of cracks between
the two filler metals became less obvious as the strain
increased to higher levels and the number of cracks
increased.
Optical Metallography
The grain size in the spot welds of both materials was found
to be comparable. While it varied across the spot weld and
was largest at the outer edges and smaller closer to the
center (Figure 6 and Figure 7), it was nominally the same
for both alloys. The grain boundaries in both materials were
relatively straight and neither material had tortuous (wavy
or jagged) boundaries that have been associated with
constituents that “pin” the grain boundaries and result in an
increase in the threshold strain4.

16% Consistent with the visual observations, the FM-52

14%
metallographic samples had more cracks that FM-52M. The
FM-82 observed cracking occurred in all areas of the weld and in a
12%
variety of different orientations to the applied load (arrows
10% >100 in Figure 6 and Figure 7). Some cracks that formed in the
Strain (%)

8%
>100 outer edge of the spot (larger grains) in FM-52M (Figure 7)
25
>50 were long and straight when compared to those formed in
6%
17
9 FM-52. No grain size or microstructural differences were
4% 2 19 1 noted in either material to provide an explanation for this
3
2%
7 observation.
FM-52
0%
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Temperature (°C)

No Cracking ○ Cracking

Figure 4, Temperature-strain curve for FM-52 (NX9277)

with results from FM-82 (heat YN7355) for comparison.
16%

14%

FM-82
12%

10% >100
Strain (%)

>100
8%
5
6% >50
2
14 4
4% 2

5
2%

FM-52M Figure 6, FM-52 tested at 950°C and 8.5% strain. The

0%
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 dotted line marks the edge of the spot weld. The arrow
Temperature (°C) indicates the direction of the applied load.
No Cracking ○ Cracking
Figure 5, Temperature-strain curve for FM-52M (heat
EX0A51P) with results from FM-82 (heat YN7355) for
comparison.
329

Figure 7, FM-52M tested at 950°C and 8.5% strain. The
dotted line marks the edge of the spot weld. The arrow
indicates the direction of the applied load.
Electron Microscopy
SEM analysis revealed a fine distribution of precipitates
(<0.5 µm) along the migrated grain boundaries of both FM-
52 and FM-52M (Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively). EDS
analysis revealed these precipitates to be Cr-rich carbides
and previous work on FM-525 has reported these carbides to
be of the M23C6 type. The boundaries of FM-52 typically
had more of these precipitates than FM-52M which was
generally relatively clean.
FM-
Figure 8, Secondary electron image of FM-52 with small
(<0.5 µm) M23C6 along the migrated grain boundaries.
Large (1-2 µm) intragranular particles (Figure 10) were
observed in FM-52 and EDS analysis revealed precipitates
rich in titanium and nitrogen. These have been previously
reported to be TiN4,5, possibly transferred from the welding
wire which may have not completely dissolved in the
molten weld pool. Some niobium was also associated with
330
these particles and may result from Nb-rich carbides that
nucleated on undissolved TiN, or formed as (TiNb)(CN).
Figure 9, Secondary electron image of FM-52M with small
(<0.5 µm) M23C6 along the migrated grain boundaries.
Figure 10, Secondary electron image of large (1-2 µm)
intragranular TiN rich precipitate in FM-52.
Two types of large intragranular particles were observed in
FM-52M (Figure 11). EDS analysis revealed that the first
type of precipitates (a) were niobium- and zirconium-rich
particles with some sulfur, titanium, and boron. The second
type (b) was titanium- and nitrogen-rich particles with some
niobium and zirconium. All of these particles were 1 to 2
µm in size and were associated with the interdendritic
regions of the weld metal microstructure (Figure 12). It is
unclear if these precipitates formed at the end of
solidification or were transferred from the welding wire
without completely dissolving. Like the intragranular
precipitates in FM-52, these also did not appear to have any
significant effect on pinning the migrated grain boundaries
and the boundaries appeared to migrate past these particles
with little effect on the boundary geometry (Figure 13).
a BSE
c
b
Figure 11, Backscattered electron image of large (1-2 µm)
intragranular precipitates found in FM-52M. a) Nb- and Zr-
rich precipitates, b) Ti- and N-rich precipitates, c) M23C6
along MGBs.
Figure 12, SEM secondary electron image showing
precipitates in FM-52M in the interdendritic region with
migrated grain boundaries with M23C6 precipitates “cutting”
through the dendrites.
Discussion
Temperature-strain curves
The STF test results indicate a slight improvement in the
intermediate temperature ductility of the current heat of FM-
52M over FM-52. When comparing the results of FM-82
with FM-52, a general improvement of approximately 2%
strain over most of the central temperature range is
observed. The current testing indicates that an improvement
of 0.25 to 1.5% strain between heats of FM-52 and FM-52M
331
could be observed, however it is not consistent across all
temperatures. It should also be noted that work by Collins
et al found heat-to-heat variations in FM-82 with significant
variations (1-2% strain) and that this observation in FM-
52M may not be representative of all heats.
Figure 13, SEM secondary electron image with imbedded
backscattered electron image (top right) of a Ti- and N-rich
precipitate in FM-52M just under the surface along a MGB.
These particles do not appear to pin grain boundaries.
It is still unclear how the data from the STF should be
analyzed so judgment should be used when applying these
results. Ramirez and Lippold proposed that it is the rate of
change of the severity of cracking after exceeding the
threshold that is critical and not solely the threshold. They
also proposed that only a portion of the ductility trough
might be applicable for interpreting cracking susceptibility
in real weldments as the residual stress and restraint may not
build to sufficient levels until lower temperatures. Direct
observation measurements by Zhang et al.6 on Invar® found
that DDC in multipass welds occurred on-heating near the
peak temperature (approximately 850°C) and propagated
from 600 to 1000°C. Regardless, the cracking susceptibility
is dependant upon the welding procedure and the level of
restraint in the system which will have an effect on how and
when cracks occur. To develop a better understanding of
how these curves should be interpreted, a better fundamental
understanding of DDC is required.
Metallography
The general microstructure of FM-52 and FM-52M were
observed to be similar. Both had straight migrated grain
boundaries which were covered with small (<0.5 µm) Cr-
rich M23C6 carbides with the distribution varying throughout
the weldment. Since these carbides are associated with
migrated grain boundaries which did not correspond to any
solidification microstructure, it can be concluded that they
did not form as a solidification product. Ramirez and
Lippold proposed7 that M23C6 forms after the grain
boundaries have migrated (<1000°C) and have little or no
effect on pinning the boundaries. While the M23C6
precipitates do not appear to affect the grain boundary
tortuosity, they may contribute to grain boundary sliding
and microscopic fracture along the boundary. This effect is
the subject of ongoing research.
The larger (TiNb)(CN) in FM-52 and the TiN-rich and
(NbZr)-rich particles in FM-52M either were transferred
from the wire (did not completely dissolve) or formed in the
interdendritic region at or near the end of solidification
(Figure 12). Regardless of how they form, due to their large
size (1 to 2 µm) size and sparse distribution (5 to 30 µm
apart), they had minimal effect on pinning grain boundaries
especially when compared to the effect of Nb-rich carbides
in FM-82 weld metals.
Comparison with FM-82
Work by Collins et al. with FM-82 found that eutectic NbC
precipitates (Figure 14) which form at the end of
solidification “pin” the grain boundaries and prevent grain
growth. This grain pinning results in grain boundaries that
are “wavy” and “tortuous” and acts to mechanically impede
grain boundary sliding. This pinning effect also prevents
grain boundary migration, minimizing solute pickup such as
sulfur by grain boundary “sweeping”. The higher level of
Nb and C in FM-82 promotes the formation of Nb-rich
carbides at the end of solidification.
The large precipitates observed in the FM-52 and FM-52M
weld metals do not appear to have formed by a similar
mechanism. Rather, it is likely that these particles were
transferred to the molten pool directly from the filler metal
in the GTA cold wire process. No evidence of pinning was
found by any of these particles, suggesting that only
precipitates that form at the end of solidification are
effective in pinning the grain boundaries. Research on the
effect of formation, size, and location of precipitates on
grain boundary pinning is continuing.
Figure 14, NbC eutectic precipitates in FM-82 result in a
boundary that is wavy and tortuous with an increased
resistance to DDC. From Collins et al..
332
Conclusions
1. FM-52 initiated cracking and showed grain boundary
sliding at slightly lower strains compared to FM-52M.
2. FM-52M was found to have fewer total cracks but a
greater number of long and straight cracks at high strains
(> 8%) when compared to FM-52.
3. Grain boundaries of FM-52 and FM-52M were relatively
clean with intermittent M23C6 (< 0.5 µm average size).
4. FM-52 had 1 to 2 µm intragranular Ti-rich (TiNb)(CN).
5. FM-52M had 1 to 2 µm intragranular TiN-rich and Nb- &
Zr-rich precipitates.
6. The size, distribution and location of the FM-52 and FM-
52M intragranular precipitates appear to have had little
effect on grain boundary pinning at elevated temperature.
Consequently, grain boundaries migrated to form straight
boundaries which are more susceptible to DDC.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Sam Kiser of Special
Metals for supplying the FM-52M.
References
1
M.G. Collins and J. C. Lippold, “An investigation of
Ductility Dip Cracking in Nickel-Based Filler Metals –
Part I,” Welding Journal, 82(10), 2003, p.288s-295s.
2
N.E. Nissley and J.C Lippold, in “Ductility-Dip Cracking
Susceptibility of Austenitic Alloys,“ Proceedings of the
6th International Conference, Trends in Welding
Research, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA, April 15-19,
2002, ASM International, 2003, p.64-69.
3
N.E. Nissley and J.C. Lippold, “Development of the
Strain-to-Fracture Test for Evaluation Ductility-Dip
Cracking in Austenitic Alloys,” Welding Journal,
82(12):355s-364s.
4
M.G. Collins, A.J. Ramirez, and J.C. Lippold, “An
Investigation of Ductility-Dip Cracking in Nickel-Based
Weld Metals – Part III,” Welding Journal, 83(2):29s-49s.
5
A.J. Ramirez and J.C. Lippold, “High Temperature
Behavior of Ni-base Weld Metal, Part I, Ductility and
microstructural characterization,” Materials Science and
Engineering A, 380, 2004, p.259-271.
6
Y. Zhang, H. Nakagawa, and F. Matsuda, “Weldability of
Fe-36%Ni Alloy (Report III)”, Transactions of JWRI, 14
(7), 1985, p.107-114.
7
A.J Ramirez and J.C. Lippold, “High Temperature
Behavior of Ni-base weld metal. Part II, Insight into the
mechanism for ductility dip racking,” Materials Science
and Engineering A, 380, 2004, p.245-258.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Cracking Behavior in Nickel-Based Single Crystal Superalloy Welds

J. M. Vitek, S. S. Babu, S. A. David
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U. S. A.

J-W. Park
Samsung Electro-Mechanics Co., Suwon, South Korea

Y. Hu, W. Hehmann
Honeywell Aerospace Services, Greer, South Carolina, U. S. A.

Abstract form stray grains.

The cracking behavior in single crystal nickel-based Experimental Procedure

superalloy welds was studied. A laser powder deposition
process was used with Rene N5 base metal and three different
filler metal alloys: IN625, IN738 and MarM247. Two
different welding configurations were examined. In the first, a
clad layer was deposited on the surface of the base metal. In
the second, a U-groove was machined and filled with one of
the filler metals. The paper details the extent of cracking as a
function of filler metal alloy and weld geometry. Cracking
was minimal in the clad geometry but was significant in the U-
groove geometry. Cracking was worst with the MarM247
filler metal. Cracking was along stray grain high-angle
boundaries and metallography revealed a one-to-one
correlation between the extent of cracking and the propensity
to form stray grains.
Introduction
The outstanding high temperature properties of single crystal
nickel-based superalloys have led to their extensive
application for components in turbine engines. Unfortunately,
components made from these materials are very expensive and
therefore the development of a suitable repair technology is
desirable. Currently, a weld repair procedure that maintains
the single crystal microstructure and the excellent high
temperature properties is not available. A companion paper in
this conference [1] addresses the challenges and cites progress
with respect to the development of a weld repair process that
maintains the single crystal structure. This contribution will
examine the susceptibility of these materials to solidification
cracking during welding. Different weld filler metals were
examined as well as different weld geometries to assess the
sensitivity of crack formation to these variables. As has been
shown before, cracking is closely associated with the
formation of new grains (“stray grains”) during weld
solidification, and the creation of high-angle grain boundaries
around these new grains [2-4]. This study will examine both
the extent of cracking and its relationship to the tendency to
Laser welds (no preheat) using a powder deposition process
[5] were made on a commercial single crystal nickel-based
superalloy, Rene N5. The nominal alloy composition is given
in Table 1. Two different weld geometries were used and they
are shown schematically in Figure 1. In the first geometry (left
in Figure 1), a clad layer was deposited on a plate of Rene N5.
The plate was 2.5 cm wide, 1.6 cm long and 0.63 cm high.
The weld was made on the 2.5 x 1.6 cm face, which was
perpendicular to the original cast direction. Therefore, the clad
was deposited on a face with a crystallographic orientation
close to (100). In the second geometry (right in Figure 1), a U-
groove was machined into a plate specimen approximately 2.5
cm long, 2.5 cm wide, and 0.8 cm thick. The groove was along
the original cast direction so that the weld was made along a
direction close to [100]. The groove was approximately 0.11
cm wide and 0.13 cm deep.
Three different filler metals, in powder form, were used in the
study. Typical compositions are given in Table 1. They were
chosen to represent different classes of filler metals. The first
was IN625 and represented a solid solution strengthened filler
metal. The second was IN738 and represented a γ′
strengthened filler metal with a moderate level of γ′ (~54%).
The third filler metal was MarM247 and represented a filler
metal with a high γ′ strengthening content (~72%), similar to
(but less than) the γ′ content in the Rene N5 base metal.
The welds were examined metallographically to assess the
extent of crack formation. Both longitudinal sections and
transverse sections were examined to identify the presence of
transverse and longitudinal cracks, respectively. Multiple
sections were examined for each sample. The longitudinal
sections were perpendicular to the width of the weld, and the
transverse sections were perpendicular to the length of the
weld. Therefore, the measured “cracks lengths” actually
represented the size of the cracks in the viewed sections. In

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 333

addition, metallographic examination was conducted to
characterize the grain structure, and in particular, to determine
the extent of stray grain formation for the two weld geometries
and three filler metals.

Results – Cracking Behavior

Clad Geometry
The number of cracks, total crack length, and type of cracks
(longitudinal cracks versus transverse cracks) were determined

Table 1: Nominal compositions (wt %) and solidification

temperature ranges for alloys used in this investigation.

Base metal Filler metals (powder) Figure 1: Schematic diagrams of the two geometries used for
Rene N5 IN625 IN738 MarM247 welding. Left represents a clad overlay while right represents
Co 7.5 -- 8.5 10.0 a U-groove geometry.
Cr 7.0 22 16.0 8.25
Fe -- 3 -- -- and the results are presented in Table 2. Cracks were found
Mo 1.5 9 1.75 0.7 only in the welds made with MarM247. The cracks were
W 5.0 -- 2.6 10.0 located within the fusion zone and only longitudinal cracks
Ta 6.5 1.75 3.0 were observed. All cracks were relatively small, with the
Re 3.0 -- -- -- maximum crack size being 0.11 mm.
Al 6.2 0.2 3.4 5.5
Ti -- 0.2 3.4 1.0 U-Groove Geometry
C 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.15 The results of the crack analysis for the U-groove geometry
B 0.004 -- 0.01 0.015 are shown in Table 3. It is clear that many more cracks were
Hf 0.15 -- -- 1.5 found in this geometry than in the clad overlay configuration.
Nb -- 3.5 0.9 -- It was rare for cracks to exists outside the fusion zone. The
Zr -- -- 0.05 0.05 fewest cracks were found with the IN625 filler metal,
ΔTEQ 55 98 66 68 followed by the IN738 filler. Many more cracks were found in
ΔTSch 162 206 209 223 the MarM247 welds than in the other two welds. Most cracks
were transverse cracks although the relatively few longitudinal
cracks were quite large. All of the cracks in the IN625 and
IN738 welds were < 0.25 mm in size. This was not the case
Table 2: Results for number of cracks and total crack length in
for the MarM247 welds. 90% of the transverse cracks were <
clad geometry welds as a function of filler metal alloy.
0.25 mm in size, but 6% were between 0.25 and 0.5 mm in
size and 4% were > 0.5 mm. For the longitudinal cracks with
Transverse Cracks Longitudinal Cracks
MarM247, 63% were < 0.25 mm in size and the remaining
Number of Total crack Number of Total crack
Filler Metal 37% were > 0.5 mm. Typical micrographs of the longitudinal
cracks length (mm) cracks length (mm)
and transverse sections of the MarM247 welds, showing the
IN625 0 0 0 0 transverse and longitudinal cracks, respectively, are presented
IN738 0 0 0 0 in Figure 2.
MarM247 0 0 3 0.177
Results – Grain Structure
Table 3: Results for number of cracks and total crack length in
U-groove welds as a function of filler metal alloy. Clad Geometry
The weld grain structures were studied metallographically. In
particular, the extent of epitaxial growth from the single
Transverse Cracks Longitudinal Cracks
crystal base metal was examined. The single crystal structure
Number of Total crack Number of Total crack
Filler Metal was maintained when growth was epitaxial in nature.
cracks length (mm) cracks length (mm)
However, if stray grains formed then the single crystal
IN625 3 0.171 2 0.127
structure was lost, at least locally. In general, epitaxial growth
IN738 11 0.474 2 0.231 and preservation of the single crystal microstructure was
MarM247 48 6.196 8 4.198 found in most regions for all three weld filler metals in the
clad geometry. Stray grains were found most often near the

334
Figure 2: Transverse (left) and longitudinal (right) sections of U-groove geometry weld with MarM247 filler showing typical
longitudinal and transverse cracks, respectively.

Figure 3: Transverse (top left) and longitudinal (others) sections of clad geometry welds with IN738 (top, left and top. right), IN625
(bottom, left) and MarM247 (bottom, right) filler metals showing typical microstructures. Relatively few stray grains are found, and
they are predominantly located at the top of the clad.

335
Figure 4: Transverse (top) and longitudinal (bottom) sections of U-groove geometry welds with IN625 filler metal. Many more stray
grains are found compared to the clad geometry (Figure 3). The microstructure for the IN738 filler metal U-groove welds were
basically the same.
top of the clad layer. Stray grains near the bottom or middle of
the clad layer were much less common. Typical
microstructures are shown in Figure 3 for all three filler
metals.
U-Groove Geometry
In contrast to the clad geometry welds, the U-groove welds
showed extensive stray grain formation throughout the weld
fusion zone. Figures 4 and 5 show typical microstructures for
the welds with IN625 and MarM247 filler metal additions,
respectively. The welds with IN738 filler metal were similar
to the IN625 welds. Many more stray grains were visible
compared to the clad geometry welds, and they were
distributed throughout the weld cross-section. As noted earlier,
many more cracks were also found in the U-groove geometry
welds, and these cracks normally followed along the high-
angle stray-grain boundaries. This is evident in Figures 4 and
5.
336
Discussion
The results clearly show a strong influence of filler metal
composition and weld geometry on both the cracking behavior
and the stray grain formation tendencies. As one proceeds
from a gamma-prime-free filler alloy (IN625) to a moderate
gamma prime filler alloy (IN738) and then to a high gamma
prime filler alloy (MarM247) the propensity to form both
cracks and stray grains increases. The fact that the trends for
crack formation and stray grain formation are the same is
expected since the high-angle grain boundaries produced when
stray grains form act as easy crack propagation sites. The
effect of weld geometry is also not surprising. A clad
geometry promotes an almost uniform unidirectional heat flow
and it has been shown that solidification under these
conditions is amenable to epitaxial growth and retention of the

Figure 5: Transverse (top) and longitudinal (middle and
bottom) views of U-groove welds made with MarM247 filler.
Numerous cracks and stray grains are found, with crack paths
along stray grain high-angle grain boundaries. See also
Figure 2.
337
single crystal base metal microstructure [6,7]. This is
particularly true when the heat flow direction is approximately
parallel to the preferred [100] growth direction, as is the case
in the current experiments. In contrast, the U-groove geometry
is characterized by a wide range of heat flow directions
relative to the easy growth <100> directions. Therefore, in
some locations the heat flow will be well-aligned with one of
the <100> preferred growth directions but in other locations
the alignment between the active <100> preferred growth
direction variant and the heat flow direction will be poor. This
poor alignment will require higher dendrite growth velocities
and this, in turn, will promote stray grain formation [8-11].
A recent analysis of the distribution of stresses in thin-sheet
autogenous welds on single crystal Rene N5 has shown that
longitudinal stresses, which promote transverse cracks, are
greatest along the fusion line and transverse stresses, which
promote longitudinal cracks, are largest along the weld
centerline [12]. While the conditions in the present study are
not the same (thick substrate and filler metal additions in the
current study), the locations of the transverse and longitudinal
cracks are exactly where the stresses were predicted to be
highest in the earlier work.
The present study indicates that a cladding type operation may
be successful in producing crack-free welds that maintain the
single crystal base metal microstructure. Recent studies have
shown that cladding operations, as applied to single crystal
turbine blade build-up for example, can be successful [7,13].
However, the present work suggests that general weld repair
of cracks, which would be comparable to the U-groove
geometry, will be much more difficult. Such weld repairs will
require optimization of both the welding conditions and the
weld filler metal composition. A recent modeling study has
addressed the effect of welding conditions on the retention of
the single crystal microstructure and optimum conditions were
identified [11]. Based on the parallel nature of stray grain
formation and cracking found in the present study, it is
expected that optimum welding conditions that lead to
minimal stray grain formation will also lead to minimal
cracking.
Finally, the effect of weld filler metal composition is clear in
the present study. The role that composition plays may be two-
fold. First, composition has an influence on the stray grain
formation tendencies [14]. It has been shown that
constitutional supercooling is the mechanism for stray grain
formation during welding [15]. A large solidification
temperature range promotes constitutional supercooling
[14,16,17]. As shown in Table 1, the solidification
temperature range under Scheil solidification conditions
(ΔTSch) parallels the stray grain formation and cracking
tendencies. It is noteworthy that such a correlation does not
exist when considering the equilibrium solidification
temperature range (ΔTEQ). With the addition of a filler metal
of different composition than that of the base metal, the effect
of filler metal composition may be more difficult to identify
due to dilution effects. A possible second role of the weld
metal composition may be related to the strength properties of
the filler metal. In the present study, the filler metal strength is
directly proportional to the gamma prime content. If the
ductility decreases as the strength increases, then the results
suggest that the weld metal is more subject to cracking as the
filler metal ductility decreases and the strength increases.
While the present study implies this relationship, more work
must be done to investigate the variation of weld ductility with
composition.
Summary
The extent of cracking was found to be a strong function of
both weld filler metal composition and weld geometry.
Minimal cracking was found in the clad geometry, and only
with the MarM247 filler metal. In contrast, extensive cracking
was found in the U-groove geometry. Furthermore, cracking
increased as the gamma-prime content of the filler metal
increased. A one-to-one correlation between the extent of
cracking and the tendency to form stray grains was found.
Cracking proceeded along high-angle stray grain boundaries,
since these represent weak links in the microstructure. It is
speculated that if stray grain formation can be avoided,
cracking behavior can be controlled.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the Advanced Turbine
Systems Program, Office of Fossil Energy, U. S. Department
of Energy, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-
Battelle, LLC. The authors would like to thank General
Electric Corporation for providing the Rene N5 alloy.
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Thermomechanical Behavior of Nickel Base Single Crystal Superalloy
Towards Understanding of Weld Hot Cracking
S. S. Babu*, J. M. Vitek, S. A. David
Metals and Ceramics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831
Currently at Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, OH 43221
M. Murugananth
School of Materials Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Abstract
Thermomechanical responses of three single crystal
superalloys were measured in between 600 and 1200°C using
a thermomechanical simulator. On-heating results showed no
softening while testing below 1000°C. In contrast, extensive
softening was observed while testing above 1000°C. This
rapid softening is related to dissolution of γ´ precipitates.
During on-cooling tests from 1300°C, strength recovery of
these samples occurred only below 900°C. The delay in
strength recovery is attributed to the extent of undercooling
required for rapid decomposition of the γ phase into mixture of
γ and γ´ phases.
Introduction
Thermomechanical response of nickel base superalloys during
heating and cooling will affect cracking behavior in the heat-
affected-zone (HAZ) and weld-metal (WM) regions [1–10].
The thermomechanical responses of superalloys depend on
microstructural evolutions that occur during welding. While
heating, fraction of ordered γ´ precipitates in the γ matrix may
decrease. Above the solvus temperature, complete dissolution
of γ´ precipitates is expected. With continued heating, as the
temperature reaches the solidus temperature, liquation may
occur in the interdendritic regions. On cooling, the single-
phase γ matrix will decompose to a mixture of γ and γ´ phases
[11]. This microstructural evolution is applicable for both
polycrystalline, directionally solidified and single crystal
superalloys. This microstructure evolution will lead to
continuous softening of samples during heating and continued
recovery of strength while cooling. However, in some
polycrystalline alloys, reduction in ductility as a function of
temperature has been observed which leads to HAZ cracking.
This has been the focus of extensive research for the past three
decades [1-10].
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 339
The ductility dip in polycrystalline alloys at high temperature
can occur by two mechanisms, i.e., grain boundary liquation
and solid-state ductility dip cracking.
Grain boundary liquation has been attributed to the incipient
melting of either carbides at the grain boundaries or eutectic
microstructure at the original dendritic boundaries. This HAZ
cracking usually occurs at temperatures close to the solidus
temperature. Extensive solutionizing [12] and alloy
modifications have shown to reduce the HAZ cracking due to
liquation mechanism [13].
Another mechanism for the ductility dip in nickel base is
related to solid-state phenomenon and most often leads to
intergranular cracks. The nature of grain boundary
characteristics including the crystallographic misorientations,
boundary plane type, segregation characteristics and presence
of precipitates affect this solid-state cracking [14, 15, 16].
In certain alloys, weld cracking has been observed after post
weld heat-treatment. This is referred as strain-age cracking.
This cracking is related to the interaction between residual
stress and the rapid strengthening due to precipitation of γ´
during post weld heat treatment [6-8].
The present research pertains to the weldability of single
crystal nickel base superalloys [17, 18, 19]. It is important to
note that commercial single crystal superalloys are not perfect
single crystals; they always have some small angle dendrite
boundaries [20]. Earlier research focused on the stray grain
formation and microstructure evolution in single crystal nickel
base superalloys [18, 19]. Recently, Barabash et al [20]
showed the tendency for the formation of sub-grain
boundaries in the HAZ and the effect of such boundaries on
the high-temperature properties are not known. Therefore, the
current research was initiated to understand the effect of
thermal cycling on thermomechanical response of commercial
single crystal alloys while heating to high temperature and
while cooling from a temperature close to solidus temperature.
 6 mm away from the center. This is attributed to the presence
Experimental of the helium gas jet very close to the center of the sample.
These positive and negative temperature gradients are critical
Three single crystal superalloys were used in this experimental for understanding the observed results.
investigation. The nominal compositions of the alloys are
given in Table 1. The samples were subjected to the standard
heat-treatment before the current experimental investigation.
The test sample geometry is shown in Fig. 1. The samples
were extracted from large blocks of single crystals using EDM
method. For on-heating tests, the samples were heated to
different peak temperatures (600 to 1300°C) at a rate of
10°C/s. After reaching the peak temperature, the samples
were deformed at a displacement rate of 13 mm/s.

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of test specimen geometry

Table 1: Chemical composition of the alloys in wt.%.

Alloy C Cr Mo Ti Al Co
N5 0.053 7.11 1.41 0.02 6.25 7.32
PWA1483 0.071 11.94 1.88 4.12 3.52 8.94
CMSX4 0.035 6.34 0.65 1.09 5.64 9.60
Alloy W Ta Re Hf Balance
N5 4.83 6.38 2.88 0.15 Nickel
PWA1483 3.88 5.03 0.0 0.005 Nickel
CMSX4 6.43 6.52 2.94 0.21 Nickel

For on-cooling tests, the samples were heated to 1300°C at a

rate of 10°C/s and then held for 2 seconds before cooling at a
rate of 130°C/s to different temperatures (600 to 1200°C) and
then deformed at a displacement rate of 13 mm/s.
Figure 2: (a) Typical variations of temperature and
All the testing was performed using a Gleeble 3500
displacement during (a) on-heating and (b) on-cooling test.
thermomechanical simulator. During testing, the temperature,
(c) Measured temperature differences between center of the
the displacement, and the load were continuously monitored.
sample (Tcenter) and locations 3 mm (T3mm) and 6 mm (T6mm)
A typical imposed temperature and displacement profiles
away from the center of the sample.
during on-heating and on-cooling tests are shown in Fig. 2a
and 2b, respectively. In addition, the temperature gradients
during heating and cooling were characterized and the results Results and Discussions
are shown in Fig. 2c. The analyses showed that during on-
heating experiments, the center of the sample was always In this section, the details of the measured stress-strain
hotter than the regions at 3 and 6 mm away from the center. characteristics of CMSX4 alloys are presented. The results
This temperature gradient is indeed expected in Gleeble from PWA1483 and Rene N5 are presented in a summary
thermomechanical simulations due to the presence of water- form in later sections.
cooled grips. However, during on-cooling experiments, the
center of the sample was always cooler than the regions 3 and On-heating Results from CMSX4

340
The stress-strain characteristics of the on-heating tests from
CMSX4 are presented in Fig. 3. The strains are calculated
based on the measured displacements between the grips.
Figure 3: Summary of measured engineering stress-strain
characteristics of the CMSX4 samples during on-heating tests
in the (a) temperature range of 600°C to 900°C and (b)
1000°C and 1200°C. The data also shows the stress-strain
characteristics measured at room temperture (annotated by
“RT”) and at 1300°C which has a peak stress lower than 150
MPa.
The results shown in Fig. 3 are surprising due to the fact that
the stress-strain characteristics did not change with the
temperature up to 900°C. However, the peak stress decreased
rapidly when the test temperature increased above 1000°C.
To understand this phenomenon further, the fracture locations
of the samples were evaluated further. The samples tested at
and below 900°C [see Fig. 4] failed at the edge of the gauge
length very close to the location where the sample width
increases from 0.125 inch to 0.375 inch. These samples
tested at and below 900°C showed evidences for twisting of
the samples close to the grips. The fracture of these samples
also exhibited knife-edge features without much necking. The
stress-strain characteristics are consistent with the tensile
deformation mode of the single crystals with the constraints.
341
Figure 4: Photographs of the tested samples during on-
heating tests at different temperature. The arrows point to the
fracture locations.
Figure 5: Summary of thermomechanical responses measured
from CMSX4 alloy during on-heating tests.
The interesting observation is that the while testing below
900°C, even though the center of the sample is at high
temperature, the failures occurred at the edge. This indicates
that the stress concentration and activation of slip systems at
the edge of the samples is enhanced. In addition, the softening
of the samples at and below 900°C appear to be insignificant.
This is in agreement with the engineering stress-strain
characteristics shown in Fig. 5. All the samples tested at and
above 1000°C showed fracture location close to the center of
the sample. In addition, at and above 1100°C, the center of
the sample also showed necking of the sample indicating that
the center of the sample is indeed softer than that of the
samples. This is also reflected in the measured reduction in
area shown in Fig. 5. In accordance with the hypothesis of
softening at the center of the sample, the evidence for twisting
close to grips was absent in all samples tested at and above
1100°C.
The summary of thermomechanical responses from Rene-N5
and PWA-1483 are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The results were
similar to that of CMSX4. On-heating tests showed reduction
of strength above 1000°C, with extensive necking at the center
of the sample. This is evident from the increased magnitude
of reduction in area at 1200°C for both Rene-N5 and PWA-
1483.
Figure 6: Summary of thermomechanical responses measured
from Rene-N5 alloy during on-heating tests.
Figure 7: Summary of thermomechanical responses measured
from PWA-1483 alloy during on-heating tests.
The observed results can be rationalized. It is well known that
the strength of single crystal nickel base alloys is related to the
presence of ordered γ´ precipitates. Since the softening of the
sample occurred above 1000°C, this is attributed to the rapid
dissolution of γ´ precipitates. Interestingly, the samples tested
1100°C and 1200°C also showed some tendency for localized
deformation. This is attributed to the activation of slip
342
systems in many planes due to the reduced fraction of γ´
precipitates [20].
On-Cooling Results from CMSX4
The stress-strian characteristics of the CMSX4 samples during
on-cooling tests are shown in Fig. 8. The data shows the
recovery of strength below 900°C. Similar to the on-heating
tests, the maximum peak stress did not vary much below
800°C. Similar to the on-heating tests all the fractures very
close to the grips [see Fig. 9] for the samples testeed at at
800°C and below. However, the failures at and above 900°C
occurred at a location approximately 3 mm from the center of
the sample. As mentioned earlier the temperature at this
location is higher then the center of the sample during on-
cooling tests [see Fig. 2].
Figure 8: Summary of measured engineering stress-strain
characteristics of the CMSX4 samples during on-cooling tests.
Figure 9: Photograns of the fractured samples from on-
cooling tests.
The summary of the thermoemechanical response during on-
cooling tests are shown in Fig. 10. It is interesting to note that
the on-ccoling tests showed no recovery of reduction in area,
even below 900°C.

Figure 10: Summary of thermomechanical responses
measured from CMSX4 alloy during on-cooling tests.
Figure 11: Summary of thermomechanical responses
measured from Rene-N5 alloy during on-cooling tests.
On-cooling tests showed the full recovery of the strength only
below 900°C for all the samples. Similar to CMSX4, the
Rene-N5 and PWA-1483 alloys [see Figs. 11 and 12] showed
no recovery of reduction in area. Similar to the on-cooling
tests, the results can be rationalized based on microstructure
evolution. As the sample is heated to 1300°C, the complete
dissolution of γ´ precipitates occurs. In addition, some
localized melting may occur along the dendrite boundaries.
As the sample cools to lower temperature, the formation of γ´
precipitates may not be completed at high temperature due to
the reduced driving force for nucleation. However, on cooling
below 900°C, the driving force for γ´ precipitates will increase
rapidly [11] and rapid increase in γ´ precipitates volume
fraction is also expected. The observed strengthening appears
343
to be in agreement with this hypothesis. This phenomena of
rapid softening during heating and delayed strengthening
during cooling has been observed in polycrystalline nickel
base superalloys [2].
Figure 12: Summary of thermomechanical responses
measured from Rene-N5 alloy during on-cooling tests.
The measured reduction in area values at 1200°C during on-
heating for all samples were substanitially higher than the
values measured at 1200°C during on-cooling tests. In
addition, the on-cooling test did not exhibit localized necking
at the center of the sample. It is speculated that the formation
of low-melting liquid at the interdendritic bondaries while
heating to 1300°C might have adversly affected the ability to
sutain the plastic deformation during on-cooling tests.
However, detailed microstructural characterizations are
required to evalaute this hypothesis. In summary, the results
showed that the single crystal nickel base superalloy
thermomechanical response is complicated due to interactions
between single crystal deformation mode, dissolution and
reprecipitation of γ´ precipitates and localized melting in the
interdendritic regions.
Summary and Conclusions
High-temperature thermomechanical responses of CMSX4,
Rene-N5 and PWA-1483 single crystal nickel base superalloys
were tested using Gleeble thermomechanical simulation
during on-heating to different temperatures from room
temperature. The tests at 900°C and below showed typical
knife-like single crystal fractures and showed no temperature
dependence of strength. The tests above 1000°C showed
localized deformation, necking and softening. This is related
to the dissolution of γ´ precipitates.
In addition, on-cooling tests were performed by heating the
samples to 1300°C and cooled to different temperatures. The
tests showed recovery of strength only below 900°C. This
delay in strengthening during on-cooling tests is attributed to 10 . M. J. Cieslak, J. J. Stephens, and M. J.
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S. A. David, Characterization of the
This research was sponsored by the Division of Materials microstructure evolution in a nickel base
Sciences and Engineering, and the Advanced Turbine Systems superalloy during continuous cooling,
Program, Office of Fossil Energy, U. S. Department of Acta Materialia, 49, 4149-4160, (2001)
Energy, under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT- 12. S. A. David, J. M. Vitek and S. S. Babu,
Battelle, LLC. The authors would like to thank General Weldability evaluation of Experimental
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94, 738-742 (2003)
the International symposium on physical
simulation, Delft Technical University, 93-
100 (1992)

344
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Liquation Cracking in Full-Penetration Aluminum Welds: A Necessary Condition
for Crack Susceptibility
C. Huang, G. Cao and S. Kou
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
Abstract
Aluminum alloys are susceptible to liquation cracking in the
partially melted zone (PMZ). In the present study, four
different cases of the weld metal T-fS (temperature vs. fraction
solid) curve relative to the PMZ T-fS curve of full-penetration
aluminum welds are presented and related to their liquation
cracking susceptibility. In case one, the weld-metal fS < PMZ
fS throughout PMZ solidification and there is no liquation
cracking, for instance, alloy 6061 welded with filler metal
4043. In case two, the weld-metal fS > PMZ fS throughout
PMZ solidification and there is severe liquation cracking, for
instance, alloy 2219 welded to alloy 1100 with filler metal
1100. In case three, the weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during PMZ
terminal solidification and there is liquation cracking, for
instance, alloy 6061 welded with filler metal 5356. In case
four, the weld-metal fS > PMZ fS except during PMZ terminal
solidification and there is liquation cracking, for instance,
alloy A357 welded with filler metal 5356. Based on these four
cases, it is proposed that if the weld-metal fS > PMZ fS after
the PMZ has begun to develop some strength, say, after fS >
0.3, liquation cracking is likely to occur in full-penetration
aluminum welds.
Introduction
The partially melted zone (PMZ) is a region immediately
outside the weld metal where liquation and liquation-induced
cracking can occur during welding because of overheating
above the eutectic temperature (or the solidus temperature if
the workpiece is completely solutionized before welding) (1).
Liquation cracking in aluminum welds has been investigated
by many investigators (Refs. 2-24).
The weld-metal composition is determined by the base-metal
composition, the filler-metal composition and the dilution
ratio. The dilution ratio herein refers to the extent the filler
metal is diluted by the base metal that melts and forms the
weld with the filler metal.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 345
Metzger (3) observed liquation cracking in full-penetration,
gas-tungsten arc (GTA) welds of alloy 6061 (essentially Al-
1Mg-0.6Si) made with Al-Mg filler metals at high dilution
ratios, but not in similar welds made with Al-Si filler metals at
any dilution ratios. Gittos and Scott (5) conducted the circular-
patch test (25) on alloy 6082 (essentially Al-0.7Mg-0.9Si).
Full-penetration GTA welds were made with filler metals
NG61 (essentially Al-5.2Mg, close to 5356) and NG21
(essentially Al-5Si, close to 4043). It was reported that
liquation cracking occurred when using NG61 filler metal
with base metal dilutions of ~ 80% and cracking did not occur
when using NG21 filler metal. They proposed that liquation
cracking occurs if the weld metal is greater than the base metal
in solidus temperature (equilibrium). Katoh et al. (7), Kerr et
al. (8) and Miyazaki et al. (9) investigated the effect of weld-
metal composition on liquation cracking in welds of 6000-
series aluminum alloys including alloy 6061, using the
Varestraint test to evaluate the susceptibility to liquation
cracking. Partial-penetration welds were made by GTAW and
GMAW (gas-metal arc welding). Longitudinal liquation
cracking occurred when alloy 6061 was welded with filler
metal 5356 but not with filler metal 4043. Contrary to Gittos
and Scott (5), however, Miyazaki et al. (9) found that the
weld-metal solidus temperature was lower than the base-metal
solidus temperature (597 oC) whether liquation cracking
occurred or not. It was suggested that the alloy 6061 probably
liquated at 559 oC by constitutional liquation induced by the
Al-Mg2Si-Si ternary eutectic. Gutscher and Cross (16) studied
the effect of Cu and Fe content on the solidification cracking
and PMZ liquation in alloy 2519. The circular-patch test was
used.
Huang and Kou (18) studied liquation cracking in partial-
penetration aluminum welds of alloy 2219 made with filler
metals 1100, 2319, 4047, 4145, and 2319 plus extra Cu. It was
discovered that the papillary- (nipple-) type penetration
common in GMAW with spray transfer can oscillate along the
weld and promote liquation cracking near the weld root
regardless of the filler metal used. The resultant weld root was
wavy along the welding direction, and cracking often occurred
in the areas between waves. The deformation of the grains and
cracks in the PMZ near the weld root suggested that the
solidifying and contracting weld metal pulled the liquated
PMZ near the weld root and caused cracking. A mechanism
was proposed to explain the effect of penetration oscillation on
liquation cracking near the weld root. Huang, Cao and Kou
(21) investigated liquation cracking in partial-penetration
aluminum welds of alloys 2024, 6061 and 7075 made with
filler metals 1100 and 4043. Papillary penetration and wavy
weld roots were observed in all welds. With either filler metal,
severe liquation and liquation cracking occurred in alloys
2024 and 7075 but not in alloy 6061, where liquation was light
and no liquation cracking occurred.
Huang and Kou (19) also studied liquation cracking in full-
penetration welds of alloy 2219, which is essentially binary
Al-6.3Cu. Circular-patch welds were made by GMAW with
filler metals of various Cu contents using an apparatus similar
to that used previously by Nelson et al. for testing
solidification cracking in steel welds (26). The curves of
temperature vs. fraction solid (T-fS) were calculated for both
the PMZ and the weld metal from the Scheil equation. They
found that, in the welds that liquation cracked, weld-metal fS >
PMZ fS throughout PMZ solidification. It was observed that
near solidification cracks, liquation cracking either tended to
stop or not to occur at all. Huang and Kou (20) studied
liquation cracking in full-penetration welds of alloy 6061
using the circular-patch test. T-fS curves were calculated based
on the Scheil model for multicomponent alloys and compared
with experimental results in that study and in the studies of
Metzger (3) and Gittos and Scott (5). They found that, in the
welds that liquation cracked, weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during
PMZ terminal solidification. Cao and Kou (23) studied
liquation cracking in full-penetration welds of casting alloy
A357 using the circular-patch test. They found that, in the
welds that liquation cracked, weld-metal fS > PMZ fS except
during PMZ terminal solidification. Cao and Kou (24)
predicted and reduced the liquation cracking susceptibility of
full-penetration 7075 and 2024 welds based on T-fS curves.
Experimental Procedure
The experimental procedure has been described elsewhere (19,
20, 23). In brief, a 3.2 mm-thick cicular patch of 57.2 mm
diameter was welded to an outer piece 102 mm by 102 mm by
3.2 mm with a hole of 57.7 mm diamater at the center to host
the patch, both pieces being tightly restrained to prevent free
contraction during welding. A similar apparatus was used
previously by Nelson et al. (26). The resultant welds were
examined for evidence of liquation cracking.
Results and Discussion
Calculation of T-fS Curves
The fraction solid of a semisolid formed during
nonequilibrium solidification can be calculated by using the
346
multicomponent Scheil model, which is based on the
assumptions of complete diffusion in liquid, no diffusion in
solid, and equilibrium between solid and liquid at the
solid/liquid interface (1). To do this, a computer code Pandat
was used, which is a software package for calculating
multicomponent phase diagrams, solidification paths and
thermodynamic properties (27). A database PanAluminum
was also used, which is a thermodynamic database for
aluminum alloys based on the experimental data of
thermodynamic properties and phase equilibria (28). The
software and the database have been tested extensively against
binary and multicomponent aluminum alloys. All
thermodynamic models are built in Pandat, and all model
parameters are listed in the database. In the computation of the
phase diagram, the compositions of the solid and liquid phases
at each temperature are calculated, based on which the
equilibrium partition ratio (k) and the slope of the liquidus line
(mL) at each temperature are calculated, that is, they are both
temperature dependent.
Various components were selected from PanAluminum: Al,
Cu, Mg, Mn, Si and Zn in the case of alloy 6061 (20), and Al,
Si, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ti, Zr and Zn in the case of alloy
A357 (23). The Scheil model for multicomponent alloys was
used as an approximation, but with temperature-dependent k
and mL. More advanced solidification models can be used to
calculate the fraction solid more accurately than the Scheil
model.
It has been shown that the composition of a single-pass GMA
aluminum weld is essentially uniform (29). The Lorenz force,
surface-tension gradients and droplet impingement help mix
the filler metal with the melted base metal (1). As such, the
concentration of an alloying element E in the weld metal was
calculated from those in the base metals and the filler metal
using the following equation:
% element E in weld metal =
[(% E in base metal A) x a + (% E in base metal B) x b + (% E
in filler metal C) x c] / (a + b + c) [1]
where a, b and c are the areas in the weld transverse cross-
section that represent the contributions to the weld metal from
base metal A (workpiece), base metal B (circular patch) and
filler metal C, respectively.
Table 1 shows the compositions of the alloys and the welds to
be discussed. The dilution ratios of the welds are also
included. For convenience, all welds are identified by three
numbers, the first referring to the workpiece, the second the
circular patch, and the third the filler metal. For instance, weld
2219/1100/1100 refers to alloy 2219 welded to patch 1100
with filler metal 5356.
Weld-metal fS < PMZ fS throughout solidification
The T-fS curves of weld 6061/6061/4043 and PMZ 6061
calculated based on their compositions in Table 1 are shown in
Figure 1, along with a weld micrograph (20). As shown, weld-
metal fS < PMZ fS throughout solidification, and there is no
evidence of liquation cracking.
Weld-metal fS > PMZ fS throughout solidification
The T-fS curves of weld 2219/1100/1100 and PMZ 2219
calculated based on their compositions in Table 1 are shown in
Figure 2 (19). The overall dilution ratio 65.8% consisted of
two parts, 13.6% from workpiece 2219 and 52.3% from patch
1100. The curves show that weld-metal fS > PMZ fS
throughout solidification. Liquation cracking is evident (along
the outer edge of the weld).
Weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during terminal solidification
The T-fS curves of weld 6061/6061/5356 and PMZ 6061
calculated based on their compositions in Table 1 are shown in
Figure 3, along with the transverse micrograph of the weld
(20). As shown, weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during terminal
solidification, and liquation cracking is evident.
Weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during solidification
The T-fS curves of weld A357/A357/5356 and PMZ A357
calculated based on their compositions in Table 1 are shown in
Figure 4 (23). As shown, weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during
solidification until about the last 20oC (570 - 550oC) before
solidification is essentially over at fS = 0.99 (at 550oC), and
liquation cracking is evident.
A necessary condition for crack susceptibility
Experimental data have shown that the strength of a semisolid
aluminum alloy increases with increasing fraction solid (30-
34), such as that shown in Figure 5. Flemings (30) pointed out
that the strength of a semisolid is very low until some given
fraction of solid is reached, usually in the range of 0.2 to 0.4
(approximately 0.3).
The solidification shrinkage of aluminum is as high as 6.6 %
(30), and the thermal expansion coefficient of aluminum is
roughly twice that of iron-base alloys. Therefore, aluminum
alloys have a tendency to contract significantly during
solidification. During welding the solidifying weld metal and
the solidifying PMZ are connected to each other (at the fusion
boundary) and under the tensile strains induced by
solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction. Thus, the one
with a higher fraction solid is likely to be more crack resistant
(stronger) under tension if, as an approximation, the secondary
effect of the microstructure and grain size on the strength or
crack resistance is neglected.
All the above three different types of T-fS curves associated
with liquation cracking can be included in the following
condition for crack susceptibility:
347
Liquation cracking can occur if weld-metal fS > PMZ fS after
the PMZ has begun to develop some strength, say, when fS >
0.3.
This condition is illustrated in Figure 6. If the condition of
weld-metal fS > PMZ fS exists over a significant temperature
range after fS reaches about 0.3, liquation is likely to occur in
full-penetration aluminum welds.
It should be mentioned, however, that the following additional
conditions are also required for liquation cracking to occur: (1)
a significant tendency for the workpiece to contract during
solidification, (2) significant restraint to keep the workpiece
from contracting freely, (3) significant liquation to weaken the
PMZ, and (4) no solidification cracking nearby to relax the
strains in the PMZ (19, 20).
Conclusions
A necessary condition for liquation cracking in full-
penetration aluminum welds is proposed – if the weld-metal fS
> PMZ fS after the PMZ has begun to develop some strength,
say, when fS > 0.3, liquation cracking is likely to occur. This
condition is consistent with the following four different cases
of liquation cracking which have been confirmed
experimentally: (1) liquation cracking unlikely if the weld-
metal fS < PMZ fS throughout PMZ solidification, (2) liquation
cracking likely if the weld-metal fS > PMZ fS throughout PMZ
solidification, (3) liquation cracking likely if the weld-metal fS
> PMZ fS during PMZ terminal solidification, and (4)
liquation cracking likely if the weld-metal fS > PMZ fS except
during PMZ terminal solidification.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Science Foundation
under Grant Nos. DMR-0098776 and DMR-0309468. The
authors are grateful to Mr. Bruce Albrecht and Mr. Todd
Holverson of Miller Electric Manufacturing Company,
Appleton, WI for donating the welding equipment (including
Invision 456P power source, and XR-M wire feeder and gun)
and for their technical assistance during our study. The authors
thank Professor Y. A. Chang of University of Wisconsin-
Madison for providing the database required for calculating
the T-fS curves.
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Table 1. Compositions of workpiece, filler metals and weld metals in wt % (balance: Al)

Mg Si Cu Mn Zn Ti Cr Fe
Workpiece
1100 - - 0.10 0.01 0.01 - - 0.78
2219 - - 6.30 0.33 0.01 0.03 - 0.12
6061 0.91 0.68 0.23 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.19 0.44
A357 0.56 6.92 0.05 0.02 - - - -
Filler Metals
1100 - 0.08 0.08 0.01 0.02 - - 0.52
4043 0.05 5.20 0.30 0.05 0.10 0.20 - 0.8
5356 5.00 - - 0.12 - - - -
Weld Metals
2219/1100/1100 (65.8% dilution) - 0.038 0.93 0.053 0.013 - - -
6061/60614043 (67.6% dilution) 0.631 2.146 0.253 0.064 0.066 - - -
6061/6061/5356 (64.1% dilution) 2.376 0.526 0.183 0.063 0.068 - - -
A357/A357/5356 (59.3% dilution) 2.37 4.10 0.03 0.062 - - - -

660
6061 base
metal (PMZ)
640

620
Temperature, oC

600 weld metal made

no with filler 4043 at
cracking 68% dilution
580 weld
metal
PMZ
560
weld-metal fS < PMZ fS;
540 no cracking
100 µm
520
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fraction Solid, fS

Figure 1 Alloy 6061 welded to alloy 6061 with filler metal 4043. Weld-metal fS < PMZ fS throughout PMZ solidification and no
cracking occurred. T-fS curves calculated using Pandat of CompuTherm LLC (27).

349
 660
weld metal made with filler 1100 at 66% dilution
640
2219 base metal (PMZ)
620
100 µm
Temperature, oC

600 PMZ
liq
ua
580 tio
nc
weld metal fS > PMZ fS;
ra
560 cracked
ck
ing

540
weld
metal
520
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fraction solid, fS

Figure 2 Alloy 2219 welded to alloy 1100 with filler metal 1100. Weld-metal fS > PMZ fS throughout PMZ solidification and liquation
cracking occurred. T-fS curves calculated using Pandat of CompuTherm LLC (27).

660
6061 base
640 metal (PMZ)
weld metal made with
filler 5356 at 64% dilution
620
Temperature, oC

liquation
cracking
600

580 weld
metal weld-metal fS > PMZ fS;
560 cracked

PMZ
540
100 µm
520
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fraction Solid, fS

Figure 3 Alloy 6061 welded to alloy 6061 with filler metal 5356. Weld-metal fS > PMZ fS during PMZ terminal solidification and
liquation cracking occurred. T-fS curves calculated using Pandat of CompuTherm LLC (27).

350
 620
weld metal made with
filler 5356 at 59% dilution
600
A357 base
metal (PMZ)
Temperature, oC

580

560

PMZ
540 weld-metal fS > PMZ fS;
weld cracked
metal liquation
520 cracking

500 200 µm

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fraction Solid, fS

Figure 4 Alloy A357 welded to alloy A357 with filler metal 5356. Weld-metal fS > PMZ fS except during PMZ terminal solidification
and liquation cracking occurred. T-fS curves calculated using Pandat of CompuTherm LLC (27).

50 Al-6.87Si-0.18Mg-
0.05Ti, Dahle et
40 al., 1997
Yield Stress, kPa

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Fraction Solid, fS

Figure 5 Strength vs. fraction solid of an Al-Si alloy during solidification (33).

351
 PMZ likely to be susceptible to liquation cracking
if weld-metal fS > PMZ fS beyond fS = 0.3
fS > 0.3
660

640

620
Temperature, oC

600

580
weld-metal fS > PMZ fS
560

540

660
640
Temperature, oC

620
600
580
560
weld-metal fS > PMZ fS
540
520

620
600
Temperature, oC

580
560
540 weld-metal fS > PMZ fS
520
500

0.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fraction Solid, fS

Figure 6 A proposed condition for liquation-cracking susceptibility: PMZ is likely to be susceptibility to liquation cracking if weld-
metal fS > PMZ fS after PMZ has developed some strength during solidification, say, after fS = 0.3.

352
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Liquation Cracking in Partial-Penetration Aluminum Welds: Effect of Welding
Conditions
C. Huang and S. Kou
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
Abstract
Aluminum alloys are susceptible to liquation cracking in the
partially melted zone (PMZ). The effect of welding conditions
on liquation cracking in partial-penetration aluminum welds
was studied. Alloy 2219 (~ Al-6.3Cu) was welded by GMAW
and GTAW with filler metal 1100 (~ pure Al) and 2319 (~ Al-
6.3Cu) using Ar or He as the shielding gas. It was observed
that welds with essentially identical compositions differed
greatly in the extent of liquation cracking. In GMA welds
made with Ar shielding, a papillary (finger) type penetration
typical of spray transfer occurred and it oscillated along the
weld, resulting in a wavy weld root along the welding
direction and liquation cracking near the weld root. However,
in GMA welds made with He shielding and especially in GTA
welds made with Ar shielding, papillary penetration and
penetration fluctuation were much less clear or absent, and
liquation cracking was no longer observed. Thus, it was
proposed that welding conditions affect the extent of papillary
penetration, which in turn affects the extent of liquation
cracking, and that welding conditions favoring a straight weld
root along the welding direction also favor reduction of
liquation cracking.
Introduction
The partially melted zone (PMZ) is a region immediately
outside the weld metal where liquation occurs during welding
because of overheating above the eutectic temperature (or the
solidus temperature if the workpiece is completely
solutionized before welding) (1).
Liquation cracking in the welds of wrought aluminum alloys,
including 2000- and 6000-series alloys, has been investigated
by many investigators (2-22). Gittos and Scott (5) studied
liquation cracking in full-penetration Al-Mg-Si welds made in
alloy 6082. They proposed that liquation cracking occurs
when the weld metal is greater than the base metal in
equilibrium solidus temperature. Contrary to Gittos and Scott
(5), Miyazaki et al. (9) found that in partial-penetration Al-
Mg-Si welds made in alloy 6061, the weld-metal solidus
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 353
temperature was below the base-metal solidus temperature
whether liquation cracking occurred or not.
Partial-penetration aluminum welds made with GMAW and
Ar shielding often exhibit papillary penetration. Kou and
coworkers (18, 21) found that the weld root is wavy along the
welding direction rather than straight or smooth and liquation
cracking often occurs in the areas between waves. A
mechanism that takes into account the dynamic effect of
penetration oscillation on liquation cracking was proposed.
Huang and Kou (19, 20) and Cao and Kou (22) studied
liquation in full-penetration Al-Cu welds made in alloy 2219,
Al-Mg-Si welds made in alloys 6061 and 6082, and Al-Si
welds in casting alloy A357. It was found that liquation
cracking occurred in welds in which the weld metal was
higher in fraction solid than the PMZ during PMZ
solidification. The solid fractions of the solidifying weld metal
and PMZ were calculated using the Scheil model, which
considers non-equilibrium solidification (1).
Experimental Procedure
2219 aluminum is a commercial high-strength aluminum
alloy. It was selected because it is essentially a binary Al-
6.3Cu alloy and its solidification is thus easy to understand.
The composition of the workpiece used was Al-6.49Cu-
0.32Mn-0.14Fe-0.13Zr-0.10V-0.09Si-0.06Ti-0.03Zn-0.01Mg
by wt%. The workpiece was welded in the as-received
condition of T851 (23).
Both gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas-tungsten arc
welding (GTAW) were carried out perpendicular to the rolling
direction of the workpiece. A 1.2 mm-diameter filler wire of
alloy 2319 was used and the actual composition was Al-
6.3Cu-0.3Mn-0.18Zr-0.15Ti-0.15Fe-0.10V-0.10Si in wt %. A
1.2 mm-diameter filler wire of alloy 1100 was also used and
the actual composition was Al-0.08Si-0.08Cu-0.01Mn-
0.02Zn-0.52Fe in wt%. Table 1 summarizes the welding
conditions.
The dimensions of the workpiece were 200 mm long, 100 mm
wide and 9.5 mm (0.375”) thick. Bead-on-plate welding was
conducted in the length direction. In the case of GTAW with a
filler metal, a round groove 8.3 mm wide at the top and 1.5
mm deep was machined with an end mill of 12.7 mm diameter
along the centerline of the top surface of the workpiece. This
helped reduce the dilution ratio somewhat and brought it close
to that of the GMA welds. The resultant welds were etched
with a solution of 0.5 volume % HF in water for optical
microscopy.
Results
For the purpose of discussion, all welds will be identified with
a series of four names. The first is the welding process, the
second the workpiece, the third the filler wire and the last the
shielding gas. Table 2 summarizes the experimental results
including the dilution ratio, weld metal composition (only Al
and Cu are shown), penetration oscillation, and liquation
cracking in the PMZ.
Figure 1 shows weld GMAW/2219/1100/Ar. The transverse
macrograph (Figure 1A) shows a clear papillary penetration,
which oscillated and resulted in a wavy weld root along the
weld (Figure 1B). Liquation cracks are evident (Figures 1C
and D).
Figure 2 shows weld GMAW/2219/1100/He. No distinct
papillary penetration like that with Ar (Figures 1A) was
observed. Occasional penetration oscillation occurred, but
nothing like the deep, frequent penetration oscillation in the
weld with Ar. No liquation cracking was observed.
Figure 3 shows weld GTAW/2219/1100/Ar. There was no
papillary penetration, and the weld root fluctuated only
occasionally. Liquation cracking did not occur.
Figure 4 shows weld GMAW/2219/2319/Ar, which exhibited
a clear papillary penetration, penetration oscillation and
liquation cracking.
Figure 5 shows weld GTAW/2219/none/Ar, that is, an
autogenous GTA weld. The weld bottom was smooth. There
was no papillary penetration, penetration fluctuation, or
liquation cracking at all.
Discussion
Welding Conditions and Penetration Oscillation
GMAW with Ar shielding is the most widely used welding
process for aluminum alloys. The spray mode of filler metal
transfer often results in a papillary (finger) penetration (24).
As shown schematically in Figure 6A, the pool is deepened
locally by the impinging filler-metal droplets and the pool
bottom oscillates up and down due to fluctuations associated
354
with the impingement action. With He, which has a
significantly higher thermal conductivity and ionization
energy, the arc energy is more uniformly dispersed in the arc.
Consequently, the resultant weld transverse cross-section has a
significantly less clear papillary penetration, as shown
schematically in Figure 6B.
In GTAW the filler wire is not an electrode and spray transfer
of filler metal droplets is not possible. Consequently, as shown
schematically in Figure 6C, there is no papillary penetration or
penetration oscillation as in GMAW with Ar shielding. In
autogenous GTAW, as shown in Figure 6D, there is no metal
transfer at all to cause any papillary penetration or penetration
oscillation.
Penetration Oscillation and Liquation Cracking
In weld GMAW/2219/1100/Ar (Figure 1), the papillary
penetration oscillated and liquation cracking occurred. Here
the dilution ratio was 60.9%, which resulted in a weld metal
composition of Al-4.0Cu based on the compositions of the
base metal and filler metal mentioned previously.
In weld GMAW/2219/1100/He (Figure 2), there was no clear
papillary penetration or penetration oscillation, and liquation
cracking did not occur. Here the dilution ratio was 67.9%, and
the weld metal composition was Al-4.4Cu. In weld
GTAW/2219/1100/Ar (Figure 3), there was no papillary
penetration, penetration oscillation was rather weak, and
liquation cracking did not occur. The dilution ratio was 62.8%,
and the weld metal composition was Al-4.1Cu. These two
welds had compositions very close to that of Al-4.0Cu of weld
GMAW/2219/1100/Ar but no liquation cracking occurred.
This suggests that in partial-penetration welds the weld root
shape, whether it is smooth or wavy due to oscillation of a
papillary penetration, as well as the weld metal composition
can have a significant effect on liquation cracking near the
weld root.
In weld GMAW/2219/2319/Ar (Figure 4), the papillary
penetration oscillated and liquation cracking occurred. The
dilution ratio was 60.6%, and the weld metal composition was
Al-6.4Cu. In weld GTAW/2219/none/Ar (Figure 5), there was
no penetration oscillation and liquation cracking did not occur.
The weld metal composition was 6.5Cu. This composition was
very close to that of Al-6.4Cu of weld GMAW/2219/2319/Ar
but no liquation cracking occurred. Again, this suggests that
the weld root shape as well as the weld-metal composition
may affect liquation cracking in partial-penetration welds.
Penetration Oscillation and Liquation Cracking
Information on the effect of the weld root shape on the
temperature and stress fields around the weld root is difficult
to obtain. Measurements of these fields can be difficult
because of the small size and unpredictable tip location of the
papillary penetration. Computer modeling of these fields can
also be difficult because of the lack of high-temperature, semi-
solid mechanical properties and the 3-dimensional, unsteady-
state nature of the problem. As such, the effect will be
discussed here in light of metallurgy alone (18).
The solidification shrinkage of aluminum is as high as 6.6 %
(25), and the thermal expansion coefficient of aluminum is
roughly twice that of iron-base alloys. Therefore, aluminum
alloys have a tendency to contract significantly during
solidification.
As shown in Figure 7A, in GMAW with spray transfer a
depression is formed at the pool bottom when the jet of
superheated liquid penetrates the weld pool and impinges on
the pool bottom. This impinging warm jet causes the adjacent
grain boundaries (GBs) in the PMZ to liquate, as explained in
the enlarged drawing of the area. However, before this
happens, the weld metal immediately behind the jet is already
rapidly solidifying into the weld pool and contracting, and its
bottom already pulling the adjacent PMZ. The liquid metal in
the papillary penetration is very small in volume and
surrounded by cooler material and thus solidifies rapidly, as
evident from the fine resultant dendrites (21). Consequently,
the PMZ immediately behind the jet can be subjected to GB
liquation and tension simultaneously and hence liquation
cracking.
The less crack-resistant the PMZ is as compared to the
solidifying weld metal, the more likely PMZ cracking can
occur. With a filler metal, such as 1100, that makes the weld
metal higher in fraction solid and hence the crack resistance
than the PMZ during PMZ solidification, PMZ cracking is
more likely to occur. This explains why cracking was most
severe in weld GMAW/2219/1100/Ar.
As shown in Figure 7B, PMZ cracking is not likely to occur if
there is little or no penetration oscillation – even with a filler
metal such as 1100. This explains the absence of PMZ
cracking in welds made with filler metal 1100, including
GMAW/2219/1100/He, GTAW/2219/1100/Ar and
GTAW/2219/none/Ar.
Finally, it should be mentioned that papillary penetration and
penetration oscillation were also observed in partial-
penetration GMA welds of alloys 7075, 2024 and 6061 made
with Ar shielding and filler metals 1100 and 4043 (21).
Liquation cracking was severe in alloys 7075 and 2024, where
liquation was severe. However, there was no cracking in alloy
6061, where liquation was slight. These welds and the GMA
welds of alloy 2219 made with Ar shielding in the present
study and a previous study (19) all suggest that papillary
penetration and penetration oscillation can occur in partial-
penetration GMA welds of aluminum alloys made with Ar
shielding and cause liquation cracking near the weld root if the
PMZ is liquated significantly.
355
Conclusions
The conclusions are as follows:
1. In partial-penetration GMA welds of aluminum alloys made
with Ar shielding the papillary type penetration can exist,
oscillate along the weld, and result in a wavy weld root with
liquation cracking in the PMZ if the PMZ is liquated
significantly during welding.
2. Such liquation cracking can be reduced or eliminated by
switching to He shielding or GTAW, where there is little or no
papillary penetration and penetration oscillation.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the National Science Foundation (Grant
Nos. DMR-0098776 and DMR-0309468) for financial support
and Miller Electric Manufacturing Company, Appleton, WI
for donating the welding equipment used in the present study.
References
1. Kou S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy, 2nd edition. pp.
103-114, 151 and 303-339. New York, N. Y., John
Wiley and Sons.
2. Dudas J. H., and Collins, F. R. 1966. Preventing weld
cracks in high-strength aluminum alloys. Welding
Journal 45(6): 241-s to 249-s.
3. Metzger, G. E. 1967. Some mechanical properties of
welds in 6061 aluminum alloy sheet. Welding
Journal 46(10): 457-s to 469-s.
4. Steenbergen, J. E., and Thornton, H. R. 1970.
Quantitative determination of the conditions for hot
cracking during welding for aluminum alloys.
Welding Journal 49(2): 61-s to 68-s.
5. Gittos, N. F., and Scott, M. H. 1981. Heat-affected
zone cracking of Al-Mg-Si alloys. Welding Journal
60(6): pp. 95-s to 103-s.
6. Ma, T., and Den Ouden, G. 1999. Liquation cracking
susceptibility of Al-Zn-Mg alloys. International
Journal for the Joining of Materials (Denmark)
11(3): 61-67.
7. Katoh, M. and Kerr, H. W. 1987. Investigation of
heat-affected zone cracking of GTA welds of Al-Mg-
Si alloys using the Varestraint test. Welding Journal
66(12): 360-s to 368-s.
8. Kerr, H. W., and Katoh, M. 1987. Investigation of
heat-affected zone cracking of GMA welds of Al-
Mg-Si alloys using the Varestraint test. Welding
Journal 66(9): 251-s to 259-s.
9. Miyazaki, M., Nishio, K., Katoh, M., Mukae, S., and
Kerr, H. W. 1990. Quantitative investigation of heat-
affected zone cracking in aluminum alloy 6061.
Welding Journal 69(9): 362-s to 371-s.
10. Gitter, R., Maier, J., Muller, W., and Schwellinger, P.
1992. Formation and effect of grain boundary
openings in AlMgSi alloys caused by welding.
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on
Aluminum Weldments. P. 4.1.1. Editor: Kosteas, D.,
Ondra, R., and Ostermann, F. Technische Universita
Munchen, Munchen, Germany.
11. Powell, G. L. F., Baughn, K., Ahmed, N., Dalton, J.
W., and Robinson, P. 1995. The cracking of 6000
series aluminum alloys during welding. Proceedings
of International conference on Materials in Welding
and Joining. Institute of Metals and Materials
Australasia, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
12. Ellis, M. B. D., Gittos, M. F., and Hadley, I. 1997.
Significance of liquation cracks in thick section Al-
Mg-Si alloy plate. The Welding Institute Journal
(UK) 6(2): 213-255.
13. Schillinger, D. E., Betz, I. G., Hussey, F. W., and
Markus, H. 1963. Improving weld strength in 2000
series aluminum alloys. Welding Journal 42: 269-s to
275-s.
14. Young, J. G. 1968. BWRA experience in the welding
of aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloys. Welding
Journal 47(10): 451-s to 461-s.
15. Lippold, J. C., Nippes, E. F., and Savage, W. F. 1977.
An investigation of hot cracking in 5083-O aluminum
alloy weldments. Welding Journal 56(6): 171-s to
178-s.
16. Gutscher, D., and Cross, C. E. 2003. Effect of Cu and
Fe on weldability of aluminum 2519. In Trends in
Welding Research, ASM International, Materials
Park, OH, pp. 638-641.
17. Kou, S. 2003. Solidification and liquation cracking
issues in welding,” JOM, June, pp. 37-42.
18. Huang, C., and Kou, S. 2003. Liquation cracking in
partial-penetration aluminum welds: Effect of
penetration oscillation and backfilling. Welding
Journal 82(7): 184s-194s.
19. Huang, C., and Kou, S. Liquation cracking in full-
penetration Al-Cu Welds. Welding Journal, vol. 83,
2004, pp.50s-58s.
20. Huang, C., and Kou, S. Liquation cracking in full-
penetration Al-Mg-Si welds. Welding Journal, vol.
83, 2004, pp. 111s-122s.
21. Huang, C., Cao, G., and Kou, S. Liquation cracking
in partial-penetration aluminum welds: Assessing
tendencies to liquate, crack and backfill. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining, vol. 9, 2004, pp.
1-9.
22. Cao, G., and Kou, S. Liquation cracking in full-
penetration Al-Si welds. Welding Journal, vol. 84,
2005, pp. 63s-71s.
23. The Aluminum Association. 1982. Aluminum
Standards and Data. p. 15, Washington, D. C., The
Aluminum Association.
24. Fact Sheet – Choosing Shielding for GMA Welding:
Welding Journal 79: 18, 2000.
25. Flemings, M. C. 1974. Solidification Processing.
Appendix B. New York, N. Y., McGraw-Hill.

Table 1 Welding conditions.

Welding Filler Shielding Voltage, current, (Voltage x Current) /

Travel speed
process metal gas wire speed (Travel speed)
Ar 30 V, 252 A, 440 ipm 17.5 ipm (7.4 mm/s) 1020 J/mm
2319
He 35 V, 205 A, 440 ipm 17.5 ipm (7.4 mm/s) 970 J/mm
GMAW
Ar 30 V, 258 A, 440 ipm 17.5 ipm (7.4 mm/s) 1045 J/mm
1100
He 35 V, 205 A, 440 ipm 17.5 ipm (7.4 mm/s) 970 J/mm
None Ar 28 V, 300 A, none 5 ipm (2.1 mm/s) 3970 J/mm
GTAW
1100 Ar 29 V, 300 A, 125 ipm 6 ipm (2.54 mm/s) 3425 J/mm

Table 2 Experimental results.

Welding Filler Shielding Dilution Weld metal Penetration Liquation

process metal gas ratio composition (wt %) oscillation cracking
Ar 60.6 % Al-6.4Cu Clear Yes
2319
He 65.2 % Al-6.4Cu Weak No
GMAW
Ar 60.9 % Al-4.0Cu Clear Yes
1100
He 67.9 % Al-4.4Cu Weak No
None Ar 100 % Al-6.5Cu None No
GTAW
1100 Ar 62.8 % Al-4.1Cu Weak No

356
 A D
Weld 3 mm Weld

papillary Weld
penetration
3 mm

cracks

welding direction
B PMZ 100 µm
C
Weld

PMZ
250 µm welding direction

Figure 1 GMA weld of alloy 2219 made with filler 1100 and Ar: (A) transverse macrograph; (B) longitudinal macrograph; (C) (D)
longitudinal micrographs.

C
Weld 3 mm Weld

Weld

3 mm A

PMZ

welding direction
B 100 µm

Figure 2 GMA weld of alloy 2219 made with filler 1100 and He: (A) transverse macrograph; (B) longitudinal macrograph; (C)
longitudinal micrograph.

357
 C
Weld
3 mm Weld

Weld
3 mm A

PMZ
welding direction
B 100 µm

Figure 3 GTA weld of alloy 2219 made with filler 1100 and Ar: (A) transverse macrograph; (B) longitudinal macrograph; (C)
longitudinal micrograph.

Weld C
Weld 3 mm

Weld

3 mm A

cracks

welding direction B 100 µm PMZ

Figure 4 GMA weld of alloy 2219 made with filler 2319 and Ar: (A) transverse macrograph; (B) longitudinal macrograph; (C)
longitudinal micrograph.

B 3 mm C
Weld Weld

Weld

PMZ
welding direction
3 mm A 100 µm

Figure 5 GTA weld of alloy 2219 made without a filler and with Ar: (A) transverse macrograph; (B) longitudinal macrograph; (C)
longitudinal micrograph.

358
 filler wire
welding GMAW/Ar
direction
spray transfer
arc
weld pool fusion zone

oscillation partially melted zone

(A) workpiece

decreasing penetration oscillation and liquation cracking

filler wire
GMAW/He
spray transfer
arc
weld pool fusion zone

oscillation partially melted zone

(B)
fill tungsten
er
wi electrode GTAW with filler wire
re

arc

weld pool fusion zone

partially melted zone

(C)

tungsten
electrode Autogenous GTAW

arc
weld pool fusion zone

partially melted zone

(D)

Figure 6 Effect of welding conditions on weld penetration and susceptibility to liquation cracking near weld bottom: (A) GMAW with
Ar; (B) GMAW with He; (C) GTAW with a filler wire; (D) GTAW without a filler wire (autogenous).

359
Figure 7 Effect of penetration oscillation on liquation cracking: (A) liquation cracking near weld root induced by penetration
oscillation and grain boundary (GB) liquation; (B) no liquation cracking near a smooth weld root (18).

360
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

New approaches to evaluation of weldability of materials

K.A. Yushchenko, V.V. Derlomenko

E.O.Paton Electric Welding Institute,
Kiev, Ukraine

brittle materials as ceramics, glass, high-strength steels and

Abstract alloys, cast irons, composites and single crystals. It means
that the existing notion of weldability (joinability) of
materials requires a revision. Let us consider some of the
The advanced welding processes will be based on new
available documents on weldability.
achievements in the field of materials science, development
and realization of improved methods for energy input into
First of all, let us try and answer the question what
the zone of the parts joined, regulation of weld formation
"weldability is. Is it a “property of a material” or some
conditions and precision control of the processes.
philosophical term used in many documents and defined as
Most advanced materials are considered hard to weld or
the “ability to form a permanent joint”?
unweldable by the fusion welding methods. Weldability as
characteristic of material should be interpreted not as a
There are different official definitions of "weldability". It
philosophical notion but as an absolutely real property,
should be noted here that no generally accepted definition of
which depends upon the material and conditions of its
"joinability" of materials exists as yet. In our opinion, the
joining. Existing approaches to definition of weldability are
definition of "weldability" should allow for the following
analyzed. It is concluded on this basis that weldability or
factors:
joinability can be defined as a degree of degradation of the
ƒ comprehensive data on a material joined (chemical and
material for given welding methods (conditions). Joinability
structural composition, physical-mechanical properties)
is evaluated in terms of an integrated indicator.
ƒ effect of the suggested technology on the material welded
(joined) (structural and thermally stressed state of a
Weldability, evaluation of weldability, joinability, welding
joint, formation of defects, characteristics and
technology, service condition, degradation.
properties)
ƒ environmental effect on the welded (joined) material
The issue of “weldability” of materials has been given much
during its operation in a product (time variations in
consideration during the entire period of existence of welding science
structure and properties caused by the presence of a
[1, 2, 3]. There are dozens of national regulatory documents and
welded joint in product).
international standards, wherein an attempt is made to define and
specify the characteristic of weldability of materials. At the same
Let us analyse them proceeding from the necessity to
time, recent publications [4] merely confirm that study of weldability
evaluate the notion of "weldability" allowing for the above
of materials is still one of the most important and high-priority issues
three factors.
of the world level. Analysis of the publications reveals the fact that
the term "welding" is gradually more and more replaced by the term
ISO 581-1980: "Metallic material is considered to be
"joining" of materials. Sometimes these two terms are used together.
susceptible to welding to an established extent with given
It is likely that these are not just changes in terminology. This
processes and for given purposes when welding provides
wording is of a conceptual character, implying a more general
metal integrity by a corresponding technological process for
understanding of the process of making permanent joints in any
welded parts to meet technical requirements as to their own
materials, where the "weld" can be formed without the stage of
qualities as well as to their influence on a structure they
melting of materials, and may have no clearly defined sizes and
form"
attributes [5].
DIN 8528: "Weldability of parts of a metallic material takes
Study of modern materials used to fabricate welded
place if joining of materials is achieved by using a certain
structures shows that many of them, proceeding from the
welding method and by keeping to a certain technology.
existing concepts of weldability, are regarded as hard to
Herewith the welds should comply with the corresponding
weld or unweldable. Nevertheless, it is a reality now (Table
1) that permanent joints can be made from such absolutely

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 361 1

requirements for properties and influence on a structure a
part of which they are".
TWI, Great Britain: "A perfect weldability is the ability of
material to be welded by any method and using no special
measures to produce a joint with properties allowing a
complete utilisation of the material".
Bratislava Institute of Welding, Slovakia: "Weldability is the
ability of a material that enables welded joints with required
properties to be produced by welding under certain
technological conditions".
American Welding Society, USA: “The capacity of a
material to welded under fabrication conditions imposed into
a specific, suitably designed structure and to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service”.
GOST 2601-84, USSR: "Weldability is the property of metal
or a combination of metals to form a welded joint by an
established technology to meet requirements stipulated by
design and service conditions of a product".
DSTU 3761.1-98, Ukraine: "Metallic material is considered
to be weldable to an established extent by a given method
and for a given purpose if a given welding procedure
provides the integrity of metal that guarantees compliance
with the requirements imposed on welded joints both in
terms of their properties and in terms of their influence on a
structure a part of which they are."
Even a preliminary analysis (detailed analysis is given in [5,
6]) of these documents shows that:
ƒ in the absolute majority of cases "weldability" is
evaluated qualitatively and subjectively, on the "yes" or
"no" principle;
ƒ the term "weldability" of materials in five of the above
seven cases is treated as a philosophical concept,
namely "the ability", "takes place", "considered to be
susceptible to welding to an established extent" etc, thus
implying a subjective evaluation method;
ƒ it is stated in one case that "weldability is the property of
metal to form a welded joint. This definition does not
disclose what this property is. Therefore, it is also a
subjective evaluation.
ƒ almost all of the above definitions of "weldability" note
that it is necessary to use "a corresponding technological
process", or "a certain process and a certain
technology", or "susceptible to welding by any method
and using no special measures" (this refers to the case of
a perfect weldability), or "an established technology", or
"a corresponding welding procedure". That is, there is
just a mere mentioning of the influence of a technology
as it is on weldability. Furthermore, recommendations to
allow for the influence of a technology on weldability
are of a conditional, i.e. "philosophical", character;
ƒ it is also of notice that in all the cases "weldability" is
related in this form or the other to natural "qualities of
welded parts and a structure they form", or "the welds
362
should comply with the corresponding requirements for
properties and influence on a structure a part of which
they are", or "to produce a joint with properties allowing
a complete utilisation of the material", or "a welded
joint should meet requirements stipulated by design and
service conditions of a product".
That is, the above definitions also imply a subjective
evaluation system.
Consider examples from which a conclusion of
"satisfactory" or "unsatisfactory" weldability (joinability)
can be made. It is well-known that many different materials
are regarded as well-weldable in fusion welding or solid
state joining if most of the technologies employed allow
production of sound joints not only in terms of formation of
defects in them (cracks, discontinuities, lacks of fusion,
etc.), but also in terms of a good level of mechanical and
other functional properties. Materials on which sound or
defects-free joints with a level of service and functional
properties characteristic of a material joined cannot be
produced by the most common processes are categorised as
hard to weld materials (Table 1) [5]. These examples are as
follows:
ƒ Welding of high-strength steels causes changes in
properties of the weld or HAZ material [4], such as
impact toughness, sensitivity to brittle fracture, cold
cracking and other defects, to such an extent that a
welded joint cannot be operated and cannot exhibit the
required performance with respect to the base metal.
These materials are categorised as "hard to weld".
ƒ The main difficulty in welding of stable austenitic steels
is an increased sensitivity of the weld and HAZ to
formation of hot cracks. Their presence and difficulty in
eliminating them make these materials "hard to weld" or
"unweldable". This results in a substantial change
(degradation) of properties of metal.
ƒ A change (degradation) of properties, and first of all
embrittlement, occurs in the weld and HAZ of a number
of structures operating in hydrogen environments. This
also transfers these materials into a category of "hard to
weld" ones, as decrease in ductility reduces their service
life.
ƒ In nuclear power engineering, it is a well known fact that
radiation affects materials and their welded joints,
especially the weld and HAZ. This effect leads to
"swelling" and then to a catastrophic fall of functional
properties. That is why, these materials (high-nickel
steels and alloys, some composites) are also regarded as
having a "limited weldability". We can give dozens of
other examples where a change (degradation) of
properties of a welded joint (increased corrosion,
intensive pore formation, cracking, etc.), i.e. deviation
of properties of a welded joint from the initial state of a
material (Fig. 1), transfers it into a category of
"unweldable" or hard to weld".
All of the above cases share the point that the heat and force
effects on a material result in its degradation, which
transfers it from a category of weldable (joinable) materials
into a category of "hard to weld" (hard to join) ones, i.e. the
2
degradation of properties is a qualitative and quantitative
criterion of weldability of materials. On this basis, the
E.O.Paton Electric Welding Institute suggested new
approaches [5, 6] to: definition of weldability (joinability) of
materials; identification of criterion for evaluation of
weldability (joinability) of welded joints; determination of a
relationship between welding (joining) processes and
weldability (joinability) of materials.
The following statements can be formulated on the basis of
many years of the international experience in application of
welding:
ƒ Weldability (joinability) is the property of a material.
ƒ Weldability (joinability) of a material varies depending
upon the welding (joining) technology used for the
fabrication of a given type of structure. A weldable
material can become unweldable with a change in
technology, and vice versa.
ƒ For different technological processes the heat and force
effects on the weld and HAZ exert a different degree
of influence on structural, physical-chemical,
mechanical and other functional properties of
materials. Also, the heat and force effects influence the
value and character of occurrence and fixation of
current and residual stresses and strains in a material
welded (joined) and in a joint as a whole.
ƒ The technological process and accompanying heat and
force effects on a material, as well as the stress-strain
state, determine the level of degradation of the
material. The level of degradation of a joint in different
welding zones is evaluated with respect to the initial
material or critical requirements for permissible values
of functional properties and quality both during the
process of fabrication of a structure and during its
operation.
The above statements allow us to put forward a new
definition of "weldability" (joinability) of materials [5, 7 and
8].
Weldability (joinability) is the property of a material to form
a permanent joint of the required quality and level of
physical-mechanical and functional properties exhibited
both during the process of its production and during
operation of a product. Weldability is determined by the
degree of degradation of properties of the joint as a whole
and its different zones and should be estimated as an integral
indicator.
It is suggested that weldability (joinability) should be
considered to be the property of a material, and should be
evaluated on the basis of the degree of its degradation with
respect to the initial material depending upon the welding
(joining) technology.
This allows the following important conclusions:
Weldability can be controlled through varying the degree of
degradation.
If we follow a basic statement that weldability is the
property of a material, and that this property can be
363
controlled, then we can identify criteria for evaluation of
degradation, i.e. weldability (joinability). That is, in
degradation of such a characteristic of a material as its
impact or fracture toughness, we can estimate the energy
consumed for a change of properties or their restoration to a
level of the initial material.
By analogy, we can estimate the degree of degradation
(indicator of weldability) for conditions of hot or cold
cracking of the weld and HAZ, hydrogen induced
embrittlement, corrosion cracking, etc. Any change of
functional properties with respect to the initial equilibrium
state of a system as a whole can be estimated on the basis of
the energy criterion, i.e. specific energy necessary for such a
change to take place. Again, it should be emphasised that
weldability is the property of a material. Optimal conditions
for the equilibrium existence of a system (material), as well
as energy spent for its change leading to the non-equilibrium
state, both for the joining (welding) process and for the
process of operation of a welded joint, being known, the
generalised indicators of weldability can and should be
determined as a specification characteristics for a given
material. In analogy with such characteristics as yield stress,
tensile strength, etc., they should be used and allowed for
both in design of new structural materials and in their
operation. The physical point of weldability as the property
is explicable and analysable in a generalised way. We mean
development of algorithms for allowance, calculation and
control of weldability on the "degree of degradation"
principle. No doubt that the numerical criteria of weldability
will be established in the near future for any structural
materials.
Through its physical interpretation, energy indicators and
control methods, the degree of degradation can serve as a
key to estimation of reliability of structures and
constructions under different potential and actual types of
loading, i.e. investigation of variations in the equilibrium
conditions of the material – technology – structure –
environment system.
Conclusion
Weldability (joinability) of a material is the property which
should be included into specifications.
Criterion of weldability (joinability) of a material as a
property is the degree of its degradation, which should be
evaluated on the basis of the energy indicator.
REFERENCES
1. J. Mikula: “Analityczne metody oceny spawalnosci
stali”, 207; 2001. Krakow: Politechnika
Krakowska.
2. M. Quian, J. C. Lippold: “The effect of multiple
postweld heat treatment cycles on the weldability
of Wespalloy”. Welding Journal., 2002, 11, 233-
238.
3
3. H. H. Cerjak: Proc. of the 6th Int. Conf. ‘Trends in
Welding Research’, 15-19 April 2002, USA, P.
542-550.
4. J. C. Lippold, D. J. Kotecki: ‘Welding Metallurgy
and Weldability of Stainless Steels’, 309-330;
2005, New Jersey, John Wiley&Sons, Inc.
5. K. A. Yushchenko: “Weldability and advanced
processes for materials welding”. The Paton
Welding Journal., 2004, 9, 39-44.
6. K. A. Yushchenko, V. V. Derlomenko: “Analysis
of modern views on weldability”. The Paton
Welding Journal., 2005, 1, 5-9.
7. K. A. Yushchenko: Seminar dedicated to R. Dolby
on ‘Advances Processes for Materials Welding’,
November 2003, London, Published by TWI office.
8. K. A. Yushchenko: “Welding processes for new
materials” IIW Doc. XII-1834-04.

364 4
Table 1.
Joinability aggregate state
Type of material Weldability Chemic.
Liquid Solid Paro-gase
bonds
High-strength aluminum Limited Limited
good
alloys
High-strength titanium Limited Limited
good
alloys
High-strength steels Hard-to- Hard-to- Limited
weld weld
Nickel superalloys Unweldable Unweldable Limited
Intelligent materials Limited Limited Limited
Granulated high-alloy Limited Limited Limited
powder materials
Amorphous, Limited Limited
?
microcrystalline materials
Nano-textured materials Unweldable Unweldable Limited
Polymeric composite Limited Limited Limited
materials
Intermetallics: Unweldable Unweldable Limited good ?
- on Al (Al+B, Al+SiC) Unweldable Unweldable
nonweldable good
base
- on Ti (Ti3Al (α2-phase), Unweldable Unweldable
TiAl (γ-phase), Ti3Al (γ −γ' good good
phase) base
- on Ni (Ni3Al, NiAl, NiAl- Unweldable Unweldable
hard good
Mo) base
- on Co (CoxAly) base Unweldable Unweldable hard good
Ceramics Unweldable Unweldable nonweldable good
Adaptable composite Unweldable Unweldable Limited
good
materials
Carbon fiber reinforced Unweldable Unweldable Limited
good
plastics (AKM-1U)
Metal-polymeric materials Limited Limited Limited good

365 5
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Peculiarities of A-TIG welding of stainless steel
K.A.Yushchenko, D.V.Kovalenko, I.V.Kovalenko
E.O. Paton Electric Welding Instituteof the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
ABSTRACT
Recent research conducted on A-TIG welding and
examples of its practical application prove the promising
future of this process, possessing wide technological
capabilities for joining different materials, making different
joints and fabricating different-application structures.
Opinions differ concerning phenomena and
mechanisms of increase in the penetration depth in A-TIG
welding, and the existing hypotheses are insufficiently
studied.
As shown by analysis of the A-TIG welding process,
the main factors affecting the penetration increase in the
case of using oxides as the activating fluxes (activators) are
as follows: amount of oxygen in the welding zone, surface
tension and its temperature gradient, as well as intensity and
direction of molten metal flows in the weld pool.
Basic directions of the work performed by the E.O.
Paton Electric Welding Institute of the National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine in the field of research and
development of the technology for A-TIG welding of
different materials are described.
Experimental data on dependence of penetration
upon thickness of a layer of a number of oxides deposited on
workpieces to be welded, amount of evolved molecular
oxygen and temperature of boiling of oxides are given. The
effect of oxides used as the activators on energy and force
parameters of the arc in A-TIG welding has been
investigated. Also the effect of welding parameters on TIG
and A-TIG weld pool shape has been investigated.
Comparative analysis of TIG and A-TIG (over the
layer of the PATIG S-A activator) welding of stainless steel
304H, allowing for the specific surface density of a heat
flow of the arc and its effect on the weld formation, shows
that increase in the welding current is accompanied by
redistribution of the effects exerted by different components
of the A-TIG welding process on its penetrating ability.
Other phenomena take place, in addition to arc contraction.
The latter is especially pronounced in welding at low
currents of up to 100 A. Within a current range of 50 to 150
A, the effect of the arc contraction decreases more than 2
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
times in a general balance, compared with the effect of other
components of this welding process.
Principles of this dependence, requiring another
experimental proof for other oxides to be tried at different
A-TIG welding conditions, have been established and
explained.
Key words: A-TIG welding, activating flux, oxides,
penetration, molecular oxygen, layer thickness of oxydes,
Gibbs energy, arc voltage, current density, concentration
factor and anode spot of the arc, arc force and pressure, weld
pool shape
INTRODUCTION
Increased interest has been expressed in the last years in the
high-productivity technology for tungsten inert gas arc
welding over the layer of an activating flux (A-TIG). The
technology is intended for fabrication of welded structures
of different materials (titanium, aluminium, low- and
medium-alloyed steels), and high-alloyed steels and nickel
and copper-nickel alloys in particular.1
Being a modification of the TIG welding method, A-
TIG welding is characterised by an increased weld
penetration and has a number of peculiarities that have to be
taken into account in development and application of this
welding technology.
Fig. 1 shows a flow diagram of the process of TIG
welding of steel 304L (FeCr-18Ni-10) 6 mm thick and
macrosections made without and with an activator. The
latter case (A-TIG) is characterised by a peculiar weld shape
for this process and by an increased penetration.
Detailed studies conducted during the last years by
the E.O.Paton Electric Welding Institute (PWI), The
Welding Institute (TWI) and a number of welding
institutions and companies in Great Britain, Sweden, France,
USA, Japan, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Australia, China
etc. proved the high efficiency of application of A-TIG
welding.
PWI, which is an inventor of this process 2, has
recently developed a new generation of activating fluxes,
including aerosol activators of the PATIG series, for
367
welding stainless (300 and 400 series), chrome-moly,
carbon-manganese, duplex, heat-resistant and high-
temperature steels, and also nickel alloys. Technological and
economic advantages of manual and mechanised A-TIG
welding of thin and thick metal for fabrication of sheet and
plate structures, as well as production of different types of
welded joints, have been achieved.
Phenomena occurring during A-TIG welding can be
conditionally subdivided into the processes that take place in
the arc (zone A) and the weld pool, both on its surface and
in the bulk (zone B) (Fig. 2).
Zone A is characterised by the energy, heat,
geometry and force parameters of the arc, while
characteristic parameters of zone B are size and profile of
the weld pool, its surface tension and temperature, as well as
chemical composition of the welding pool.
Zone A is characterised by the phenomena and
mechanisms associated with contraction of the arc. Zone B
features the surface phenomena (changes in size, profile,
surface tension and temperature) occurring in the weld pool,
as well as the bulk (in-depth) phenomena (formation and
intensification of molten metal flows in the weld pool),
including the Marangoni flows. Naturally, the processes
occurring in zone A and B are interrelated, and they should
be regarded as a unified system.
It should be noted that, when studying A-TIG
welding it is necessary to allow for the effect of the plasma
flow taking place particularly in the short arc (up to 1.5 mm
long), whereas in practice it is usually identified with the
long arc, and the phenomena observed are usually evaluated
on the basis of the mechanisms valid for the long arcs,
which are not confirmed for the short ones. Moreover, the
A-TIG welding process results in formation of a crater,
which is known to change the situation and processes
occurring on the surface of the weld pool.
While analysing and generalising the results of
investigations of the A-TIG welding process, it is necessary
to use differential approaches to the investigation
procedures, namely to the materials welded (copper, steel,
titanium, etc.), shielding gases (argon, helium and different
mixtures), types of fluxes (oxide, salt), etc. Phenomena and
mechanisms taking place during A-TIG welding under
different conditions and for different materials may be
substantially different.
To analyse basic components of the A-TIG welding
process, consider in more detail the role of the following
factors: oxygen, surface tension and Marangoni flows.
However, the current level of understanding of the
nature of A-TIG welding, available experimental data and
traditional calculation and modelling methods do not allow
an adequate description of the main principles of weld
formation and relationships between welding parameters
and weld geometry for the unified "arc-activator-pool-weld"
system. No concept is available now for selection of
368
compositions of the activating fluxes based on oxides for A-
TIG welding of steels.
In the last years PWI has conducted the A-TIG
welding process studies. The main lines of research include:
• development of the new types of activating fluxes
differing in composition and application methods;
• widening of the range of structural materials which can
be welded using the activating fluxes, and types of
joints;
• investigation of processes occurring in the welding arc
and weld pool under the effect of the activating fluxes,
working out of theoretical principles of the process;
• accumulation of experience in commercial application
of the activating fluxes for the fabrication of actual
welded structures;
• identification of the new fields of application of the
activating fluxes for various welding methods.
•
This paper gives some experimental results on
peculiarities of A-TIG welding of the 304H type stainless
steel using different monoxides:
• Investigation of the role of oxygen in penetration during
A-TIG welding using oxide-containing activators
• Effect of thickness of an activating layer and method
for deposition of this layer on formation (penetration) of
weld
• Force effect and pressure of the arc
• Energy parameters of the arc
- volt-ampere characteristic
- arc concentration factor
- current density
- efficiency
• Effect of welding parameters on TIG and A-TIG weld
pool shape
• Comparative analysis of TIG anad A-TIG welding
EXPERIMENTAL
Experimental rig based on welding machine OB-2279M for
automatic TIG welding was used to conduct welding
experiments. Power supply, i.e. thyristorised rectifier, used
in this case was of the VSVU-400 type. TV-monitoring
systems were employed for remote visual control of the arc,
weld formation process and penetration by fixing the weld
width on the top and bottom sides.
A-TIG welding was performed on base metal
specimens of stainless austenitic steel 304H type (C– 0.048,
Si – 0.44, Mn – 1.35, Cr – 18.28, Ni – 8.6, Mo – 0.35, Ti –
0.003, Co – 0.015, S – 0.006, P – 0.033, O – 0.006 (wt-%).
Specimen sizes: 150x60 mm; 3.2, 5.2 and 7.0 mm thick.
Shielding gas was argon (first grade, 99.987 %). Tungsten
electrode (thoriated - 2 %) (3.2 mm in diameter, pointing
angle –300, tip – 0.5 mm) was used.
 Welding parameters were as follows: welding current
– 50-200 A, arc length – 0.5-5.0 mm, welding speed – 50-
200 mm/min, argon flow rate – 8 l/min (welding torch
nozzle diameter – 16 mm).
The bead-on-plate welding was performed to exclude
the effect of the fit-up quality (gap, edge displacement) on
the welding process. Prior to all the experiments the arc
length between the tungsten electrode tip and plate was set
using a template, and welding at an assigned speed was
carried out. Thickness of the plates was 3.2; 5.2 and 7.0 mm.
The welds were 100 mm long. Welding process parameters,
i.e. current, voltage and speed, were controlled during the
welding process. Each experiment was repeated not less
than three times. After welding the macrosections were cut
from the central part of a sample, and the depth, width and
surface area of the weld were measured.
Standard oxides of the grades of "chemically pure -
CP", "pure - P" and "super pure - SP", the list of which is
given in Table 1, were used for the experiments. These
oxides were preliminarily dried in furnace for 2 h at a
temperature of 200oC, then they were milled to particles of
5μm, and a suspension based on acetone was prepared.
Immediately before welding the suspension was deposited
with a brush on a plate to be welded in a layer of an
assigned thickness (from 10 to 100 μm) and 8 mm wide,
using a mask. Thickness of the layer was controlled with a
special thickness meter MINITEST 2100/4100 device, the
principle of operation of which is based on the use of eddy
currents (accuracy ±2-3 μm).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Determination of the dependence of penetration upon
thickness of the oxide layer in A-TIG welding
No recommendations are currently available for selection of
thickness of a layer of the activating flux to be deposited on
steels for A-TIG welding, while the existing brief reports on
some oxides and fluxes give no ground for any application.
3-7
The experimental study for evaluation of penetration
in A-TIG welding of the 304H type stainless steel samples
(5.2 mm thick) depending upon thickness of the oxide layer
(from 10 to 100 μm thick) was conducted.
Values h and B were estimated as average over the
results of experiments 3 to 4 for each oxide layer thickness.
Monoxides, i.e. activating fluxes SiO2, TiO2, Cr2O3, MgO,
MnO, Al2O3 and HfO2. The used TIG and A-TIG welding
conditions were as follows: current – 100 A, arc length – 1.5
mm, welding speed – 100 mm/min, argon flow rate – 8
l/min.
Dependence of the penetration depth (h) upon the
thickness of the oxide layer (δ) deposited on a sample is
shown in Fig. 3. Analysis of the experimental data shows
that each of 7 oxides has its own curve with a certain
maximum of the penetration depth h (inflection point) lying
within a range of 20-25 μm (40 μm only for TiO2). This
369
being indicative that the amount of oxide is enough to affect
the A-TIG welding process.
Therefore, it can be concluded that amount of the deposited
oxide, i.e. activating flux, has a substantial effect on the
penetration depth, the difference between some oxides
amounting to 100 % and more. It should be noted here that,
to evaluate the effect of the activating fluxes, it is necessary
that thickness of the deposited layer be carefully monitored
during the experiments. Each oxide is characterised by a
specific dependence of h upon δ (see Fig.2), which is
attributable to physical-chemical properties of oxides. For
all monoxides under consideration, increase in the layer
thickness is accompanied by increase in the arc voltage from
0.2 to 1.5 V, depending upon the type of monoxide.
Variations in voltage values with increase in thickness of the
layer to more than 50 μm are of a unstable character (with
deviations of ± 0.5 V).
Effect of the type of oxide, its boiling temperature and
amount of oxygen evolved from oxide on penetration during
A-TIG welding
It is assumed in one of the accepted hypotheses for A-TIG
welding that the main effect is exerted by electronegative
elements 8 (in the case of oxide fluxes the main effect is
exerted by oxygen that contracts the arc and, at the same
time, decreases surface tension of metal). So, it is necessary
to know the amount of oxygen evolved during the welding
process by the activating fluxes or, to be more exact, by
some oxides being the components of these fluxes.
It was assumed that boiling temperature of oxide is
its dissociation temperature, and that components of the gas
or vapour phase (e.g. lower oxides, molecular oxygen) do
not dissociate into elements. Another assumption was that
oxide being on the surface of metal welded dissociates fully
and under a sort of ideal conditions, its interaction with
vapours of molten metal is ignored.
The calculation data are given in Table 1. The Table
1 includes oxides which represent almost all groups of
elements, as well as oxides with low and high boiling
temperature and small and large amount of the evolved
molecular oxygen.
The Table 1 also includes values of boiling
temperatures and densities of oxides required for
calculations. Also, it gives the amount of oxygen evolved
from 0.001 gram-molecule of the oxide, as some researchers
6
think it necessary to point out the amount of oxygen in
molar amounts. The Table 1 also includes variations in the
Gibbs energy 10 required for further analysis.
The experimental study for evaluation of penetration
in A-TIG welding depending upon the type of oxides was
conducted.
Steel of the 304H type was used to make samples 5.2
mm thick. Welding conditions and procedure are given
above, and the list of oxides studied is given in Table 1.
Thickness of the oxide layer δ, allowing for the above
experimental results, was 20-25 μm. Not less than four
weldings were made for each oxide to obtain the mean
values of arc voltage Ua, weld width B and penetration depth
h.
The experimental results are shown in Figures 4 and
4. Figure 4 shows the weld aspect ratio, h/B, versus content
of molecular oxygen O2, cm3, and h/B versus O2 evolved
from 4⋅10-4 cm3 of oxide at a current of 100 A. Figure 5
shows penetration h/B versus boiling temperature of oxide,
Tb, and h/B versus Tb (the amount of O2 was determined at
Tb of oxide). Penetration is expressed in terms of the h/B
ratio, which, as shown above, makes advantages of A-TIG
welding more demonstrational.
Consideration of two plots showing dependence of
h/B upon O2 and h/B upon Tb allows us to explain them as
follows.
In A-TIG welding using purely oxide layers, the
decisive effect on penetration depth h and h/B is exerted by
the amount of molecular oxygen O2 evolved from oxide in
boiling. Boiling temperature of oxide, Tb, has a also
substantial effect on the penetration depth.
The smaller the deviation of Tb of oxide to this or that
side from 3130 K, the smaller the decrease in penetration.
At Tb of oxide below 3130 K, a considerable portion of
oxygen O2 is removed into the atmosphere prior to
occurrence of the A-TIG welding process (molten pool
formation), even in the case where oxide evolves more than
0.126 cm3 of molecular oxygen O2. At Tb of oxide
considerably above 3130 K, the quantity of the evolved
molecular oxygen O2 is insufficient.
For A-TIG welding of stainless steel of the 304H type
at a welding current of 100 A, oxide SiO2 provided the best
penetration h/B out of 16 oxides studied. This oxide evolves
0.126 cm3 of molecular oxygen O2 at a boiling temperature
of 3130 K from a volume of oxide equal to 4⋅10-4 cm3 (or
1.8⋅10-4 g of molecular oxygen from an oxide mass of
9.2⋅10-4 g).
All attempts to establish a precise dependence of
penetration upon variations in the Gibbs energy failed. At
the same time, a good penetration provided by oxides SiO2,
TiO2 and Cr2O3 can be attributed to their close values of
variations in the Gibbs energy, especially within a
temperature range of 2000-3000 K.
Static volt-ampere characteristic of the arc
Static volt-ampere characteristic of the arc (VAC), U = f (I),
is an important parameter determining the energy of the arc
and, indirectly, field strength, current density, temperature
etc.
Increase in arc voltage U (up to 4.7 V, depending
upon the welding parameters and activator type) in A-TIG
welding of different materials was experimentally confirmed
earlier 3, 11, 12 (see also the above Section of this paper). It
should be noted that no data are available on VAC in A-TIG
welding of stainless steels for a wide range of activators
(oxides).
370
Therefore, the purpose of this part of the research
was to generate experimental data on the effect of the oxide
type, welding current and set arc length on the arc voltage in
A-TIG welding of stainless steel of the 304H type.
Thickness of plates of stainless steel of the 304H type
was 3.2, 5.2 and 7.0 mm. The choice was based on the
welding current used.
An oxide was deposited on the plates welded in a
uniform layer 20-25 μm thick using a brush before the
beginning of the experiments. Thickness of the deposited
layer was controlled using a special thickness meter.
Analysis and experimental studies of VAC were
conducted for 32 oxides, such as TiO2, CaO, Al2O3, Cr2O3,
MnO, Fe2O3, CoO, Sm2O3, Yb2O3, TeO2, PbO, ZnO, NiO,
SiO2, Nb2O5, Ta2O5, GeO2, SnO2, V2O5, MoO3, B2O3, BaO,
La2O3, Gd2O3, Lu2O3, Y2O3, Er2O3, HfO2, MgO, ZrO2,
Bi2O3 and Ga2O3.
The range of parameters of the welding process used
in the experiments was as follows: welding current – 20-200
A, set arc length – 0.5-2.5 mm, and welding speed – 50-200
mm/min. The welding speed was selected so that no
complete penetration was achieved in welding (to exclude
formation of a latent component and, therefore, increase in
the arc length), but melting of the base metal and activator
was provided. The set arc length was controlled prior to the
experiments using a probe.
The experiments were conducted by fixing voltage
and current using an oscillograph. The accuracy of
measurements in this case can be characterised by the value
of a relative error equal to ±2 %.
Preliminary studies conducted to evaluate the effect of
the type of oxide and welding current on geometric sizes of
the welds showed changes in the arc voltage in A-TIG
welding, compared with TIG welding, the welding current
and arc length remaining unchanged. Thus, all the
conditions being equal, the arc voltage in A-TIG welding
changed from –0.2 to +1.2 V, depending upon the oxide
used.
The resulting experimental data on dependence of the
arc voltage upon the welding current, U=f(I), at a set arc
length of 1.5 mm are shown in Fig. 6. VAC was plotted for
TIG and A-TIG welding. Three oxides representing each
group, such as BaO, TiO2 and HfO2, were selected for the
investigation of A-TIG welding.
Therefore, it can be concluded that absolute values of the arc
voltage in A-TIG welding using the investigated oxides,
compared with TIG welding, vary from -0.2 to +1.2 V
within a welding current range of 20 to 200 A. Oxides can
be divided into three groups as to the degree of increase in
the arc voltage: 0, 0.7 ±0.1 and 1.1 ±0.1 V. Increase in the
arc length by 1 mm both in TIG and A-TIG welding using
oxides leads to increase in absolute values of the arc voltage
by 0.5-1.2 V, the trends characteristic of the arc lengths
within a range of 0.5-2.5 mm being retained. Increase in the
arc voltage in A-TIG welding and, therefore, increase in
power cannot be the primary cause of increase in
penetration.
Current density, concentration factor and diameter of the
anode spot of the arc
An important parameter characterising the penetrating
power of the arc is distribution of its specific heat flow
(contraction). Increase in maximum jmax and mean jmean
current density, decrease in the anode spot da and increase in
the arc concentration factor a in A-TIG welding were
experimentally confirmed earlier. Also, the above
parameters were proved to depend upon the anode material,
composition of the gas atmosphere and type of the current
(continuous or pulsed) 13, 14.
The purpose of this part of the research was to
evaluate the effect of different oxides and parameters of A-
TIG welding of stainless steel of the 304H type on
variations in the current density, anode spot and arc
concentration factor.
The arc in A-TIG welding is regarded as a normal
circular heat spot. Accordingly, the distribution of the
current density, j(r) can be described by the normal law 15:
j(r)=jmax exp(-ar2),
where jmax is the maximum current density at the centre of
the active (anode) spot of the arc with radius r, and a is the
current density concentration factor or the arc contraction
factor (a=k/da, k is the proportionality factor).
Quantitative dependencies of concentration factor a,
maximum jmax and mean jmean current density and diameter
of the anode spot of the arc, da, upon the type of oxide,
welding current I and arc length La were derived during
these experiments. The investigated arc parameters were as
follows: welding current I = 50, 100 and 150 A, arc length
La = 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5 mm, welding speed W= 100 mm/min.
The oxides investigated included TiO2, Cr2O3, HfO2,
ZrO2, BaO. An oxide was deposited on the 304H type plates
in a uniform layer 20-25 μm thick.
The concentration factor and current density were
studied using an improved procedure by the sectioned anode
method described in 13, 15, 16.
As shown by analysis of the data obtained, each of
the activating oxides introduced into the arc causes its
contraction. Concentration coefficient a depends upon the
oxide composition, arc gap length and welding current.
Fig. 7 shows distribution of the current density and
variations in the diameter of the anode spot of the arc in TIG
and A-TIG welding (using TiO2).
It can be concluded, therefore, that concentration
coefficient a and current density jmax and jmean decrease by
60-80 % with increase in the current and arc length both in
TIG and A-TIG welding . Concentration coefficient a in A-
371
TIG welding is higher than in TIG welding by 10-45 %.
Oxides TiO2, Cr2O3 and SiO2 are most efficient in terms of
increase in concentration coefficient a within a current range
of 50-150 A, which is attributable to the amount of
molecular oxygen they evolve in the arc region during
dissociation, compared with other oxides.
Evaluation of the full force effect and pressure of the arc
during TIG and A-TIG welding of stainless steel. Pressure
and force effect of the arc are the less studied parameters of
the welding process in TIG welding out of many parameters
that influence the weld formation and quality. An attempt to
generalise the available data of many studies showed large
discrepancies between them. This can be explained by the
fact that measurements were conducted using instruments of
different designs and configurations, as well as different
experimental conditions. Theoretical models of the arc and
weld pool suggested earlier, as well as methods of
calculation of the effective forces yield inadequate
description of the processes occurring in the actual arc and
weld pool.
The situation with data on the force and pressure
effect of the arc in A-TIG welding is even more uncertain.
Evaluation of the full force effect and pressure of the
arc in A-TIG welding of stainless steel 304H type was
provided.
The following procedure is suggested for evaluation
of the force effect and mean and maximum pressure of the
arc:
1) measurement of the full force effect of the arc by
the weighing method;
2) measurement of the diameter and surface area of
the anode spot of the arc by the sectioned anode
method;
3) calculation of the concentration coefficient;
4) calculation of the mean and maximum pressure
of the arc.
Measurement of the full force effect of the arc in TIG
and A-TIG welding was performed by the weighing method
using a specially developed and made rig.
The rig comprises (Fig. 8):
- welding robot for TIG welding based on the robot-
manipulator RM-01;
- upgraded instrument of the weighing (pendulum)
type designed by Petrov A.V. 17 for determination of
the full force effect of the arc on molten metal of the
weld pool;
- TV-systems for monitoring and measurement of
deviation of pendulum and geometric sizes of the
welding arc.
The moving arc in a vertical flat position was
studied. 10 mm samples of steel 304H type were used for
welding. The current was varied from 50 to 200 A, and the
arc length – from 1 to 5 mm. The welding speed was kept
constant and amounted to 100 mm/min. Oxide TiO2 was
used as an activator in a uniform layer 35-40 μm thick.
Dependence of the impact of the welding current and arc
length on the force effect of the arc was studied during the
experiments.
As the arc pressure is of an electromagnet nature, it is
necessary to determine diameter and surface area of the
anode spot of the arc to evaluate the full pressure of the arc
on the weld pool.
Measurements of the anode spot diameter were
conducted by the sectioned anode method using procedure
described in 13, 16. The experiments were conducted under
welding conditions used for investigation of the force effect
of the arc.
Calculation of the maximum arc pressure requires
knowledge of the law of distribution of pressure and
concentration coefficient of the arc. The concentration
coefficient is calculated using procedure described in 15.
Mean pressure Pmean was calculated from the
following formula:
Pmean = F/Sa (1)
where Sa is the surface area of the anode spot (Sa = πda2/4).
Maximum pressure Pmax can be calculated from the
following formula:
a . F
Pmax = ------- (2)
р Fem = j⋅B
where a is the concentration coefficient of current density
and the arc pressure, accordding our suggestion.
Formula (2) corresponds also to a commonly
recognised equation of radial distribution of the arc pressure
18
, i.e.:
P(r) = Pmax . exp(-ar2) (3)
It can be seen from the results of the experiments
conducted to determine the full force effect of the arc that
the full force effect of the arc grows both in TIG and A-TIG
welding with increase in the welding current. Dependence of
the full force effect of the arc upon the current is described
by equation
Ffull = K⋅I2 (4)
where K is approximately equal to 0.8⋅10-6 N/A2.
Values of the full force Ffull effect of the arc within a
current range of 50-100 A in TIG and A-TIG welding are
approximately the same, whereas at a current of 150-200 A
in A-TIG welding they are by 10-15 % higher. In absolute
values they are by 0.2-0.4⋅10-2 N higher than in TIG
welding.
The experiments also showed that variation in the arc
length from 1 to 5 mm had no significant impact on the full
force effect of the arc both in TIG and A-TIG welding.
Both in TIG and A-TIG welding an increase in the
welding current I leads to increase in diameter da and
surface area Sa of the anode spot. Increase in the arc length
also leads to increase in the above sizes of the anode spot at
a fixed welding current. In this case sizes of the anode spot
in TIG welding, compared with A-TIG welding, are larger
372
under the fixed conditions: da – by 10-18 % and Sa – by 20-
30 %. Calculation of the concentration coefficient showed
that its value fell both in TIG and A-TIG welding with
increase in the welding current.
Values of the mean Pmean and maximum Pmax
pressure of the arc were calculated from formulae (1) and
(2) on the basis of the data obtained.
Both in TIG and A-TIG welding the values of the
mean and maximum pressure of the arc substantially grow
within a current range of 100-150 A, whereas within a
current range of 150-200 A they increase less intensively. It
is likely that such trends in dependencies are caused by
differences in dynamics of growth of the surface area of the
anode spot, compared with growth of values of the force
effect of the arc. It should be noted that in A-TIG welding
the mean and maximum pressure is 30-50 % higher, which
in absolute values is higher by 1.7-3.9 and 5.4-11.7⋅ 102 Pa
than in TIG welding.
Fig. 9 shows distributions of the are pressure in TIG
and A-TIG welding (using TiO2.).
Increase in the force effect of the arc in A-TIG
welding is promoted by increase in the electromagnetic
component Fem caused by growth of the current density j
according to equation
(5)
where B is the magnetic induction.
It is very likely that the arc pressure is a significant
factor that affects increase in the penetration depth in A-TIG
welding.
Effect of welding parameters on TIG and A-TIG weld pool
shape
It is a well-known fact that weld formation is
characterised by peculiarities of formation and contour of
the weld pool surface directly under the arc.
Analysis of contour of the surface and measurement
of geometric sizes of the weld pool were done on
macrosections. The macrosections were made both across
and along the weld (Fig. 10). Monoxide compounds (grades
KhCh and Ch), TiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3 were used for the
investigations.
Comparative analysis of contours of the surfaces and
sizes of the TIG and A-TIG weld pools showed their
substantial differences (Fig. 10), which seems to be
indicative of different penetration mechanisms.
The investigation results showed the following:
1) In A-TIG welding a crater is formed on the weld
pool surface, whereas no such crater is seen in TIG
welding. Depth of the crater increases with increase
in the welding current for all of the used oxides.
However, depth of the crater is different for
different oxides at the same fixed currents. Oxides
can be ranked as follows as to increase in the crater
 depth: group of oxides Al2O3, BeO, MgO, CaO,
SrO, Cr2O3, MnO, CoO and Fe2O3, and group of
oxides Ga2O3, In2O3, GeO2, SnO2, V2O5, MnO3 and
TiO2. The penetration depth increases with increase
in the depth of the crater.
2) External surface of the weld pool grows in size
in A-TIG welding, and the pool becomes more
rounded.
3) Lower point of the weld pool bottom in A-TIG
welding is more shifted (lags behind) from the
electrode axis by 25-30 %, compared with the
TIG weld pool. The shift grows with growth of
the welding current and depending upon the
type of oxide in the same sequence as increase
in the crater depth.
4) One of the mechanisms of increase in the
penetration depth in A-TIG welding can be
preliminarily described as follows. The arc in
A-TIG welding, unlike TIG welding, is no
longer free and becomes contracted.
Contraction of the arc leads to lower power
density values than those in plasma and,
moreover, laser welding (as the energy is
distributed over the surface within a diameter
of about 2-3 mm, i.e. over much larger size
than size of a typical focal spot), but these
values are sufficient to cause intensive
evaporation of the material welded to form a
crater and keyhole. In view of the above sizes,
the evaporation coefficient is lower than in
plasma and laser welding, while the time
needed for complete formation of the keyhole
is a bit longer (in addition, this keyhole is
wider). So, this can be the explanation why
this method does not allow the same welding
speed to be achieved, although it has a mode of
energy propagation in the bulk of material
which is similar to that of laser welding.
Comparative Analysis of TIG and A-TIG Welding
The comparative analysis of TIG and A-TIG welding (using
aerosol oxide activator PATIG S-A) was conducted with
different and identical parameters of energy and force
effects of the arc to estimate contribution of increase in
energy and force effects of the arc on the weld pool and,
therefore, increase in the penetration depth in A-TIG
welding.
Equal conditions of TIG and A-TIG welding can be
characterised by the specific surface density of a heat flow
of the arc, Kad. Physical point of this coefficient is expressed
as a mean specific thermal power per unit surface of the
anode spot. This parameter can be described by the
following equation:
q η IU
K ad = = a
Sa VSa
(9)
where q is the effective heat input of the arc, q = ηa I U/V,
J/mm; ηa is the net efficiency of the arc; I is the welding
373
current, A; U is the arc voltage, V, V is the welding speed,
mm/s; and Sa is the surface area of the anode spot of the arc,
mm2 (Sa = πda2/4, where da is the anode spot diameter, mm).
It is apparent that the smaller the value of Sa, the
higher the value of Kad, other conditions (welding
parameters) being equal, and the more effective the impact
of the arc.
Parameters of TIG and A-TIG welding can be
reduced to identical conditions through changing the
welding parameters in an integrated manner. For example,
the difference in values of the anode spot diameter da and,
accordingly, arc concentration coefficient a2 and current
density j0 in TIG and A-TIG welding can be compensated
for by changing length of the arc, La, while the difference in
power input q can be compensated for by changing welding
speed V.
With both welding methods, i.e. TIG and A-TIG,
conducted at identical heat and energy input (power input of
the arc, q) (q = 226 J/mm at I = 50 A, q = 435 J/mm at I =
100 A, and q = 653 J/mm at I = 150 A), the welds should be
identical in volume of molten metal. And parameters of the
welds, i.e. B, h, h/B and S, should also be identical with the
reduced identical concentration coefficients a2 (i.e. anode
spots da), unless other factors (e.g. surface tension,
Marangoni flows, etc.), except for the arc contraction, affect
penetration.
Comparative analysis of TIG and A-TIG welding
conducted at different (TIG) and reduced identical (TIG*)
energy (heat) and force affects of the arc showed (Fig. 11)
that the resulting welds were not identical, and that in A-
TIG welding the weld shape h/B changes and penetration h
is larger than in TIG welding:
at I = 50 A: h increased by 11 %, and h/B increased
by 5.4 %;
at I = 100 A: h increased by 15 %, and h/B increased
by 27 %;
at I = 150 A: h increased by 20 %, and h/B increased
by 27 %.
It is interesting to note that h/B remains unchanged at
currents of 100 and 150 A, despite increase in h.
The experiment conducted is indicative of the fact
that change in the weld shape and increase in penetration in
A-TIG welding should be attributed not only to the arc
contraction, i.e. increase in energy input and force effect of
the arc on a smaller anode spot, but also to some other
factors.
Fig. 12 shows graphical interpretation of the
estimation of balance and redistribution of percentage of the
effect of different phenomena (contraction - C and total of
the other effects - X) on the change of penetration in A-TIG
welding depending upon the welding current I.
 Consider percentage of the contribution of arc
contraction (C) in the total balance of the phenomena
causing increase in the penetration depth (h) by the
following example (for current of 100 A):
hTIG* − hTIG 3,4 − 2,0
= = 0,7
h A−TIG − hTIG 4,0 − 2,0
(10)
It is shown that, for the conditions of our experiment,
increase in the welding current from 50 to 150 A is
accompanied by decrease in the contribution of arc
contraction to increase in penetration h and weld shape
factor h/B from 80 to 37,5 % and from 88 to 40 %,
respectively. At a current of 50 A, the contributions of arc
contraction C and other phenomena X in estimation of
variation in h relate to each other as 80 to 20 %, and for h /B
– as 88 to 12 %. At a current of 100 A, the contributions of
C and X for h relate as 70 to 30 %, and for h/B – as 52 to 48
%, i.e. they have approximately the identical proportions.
And at a current of 150 A, the increase in contraction and,
therefore, power and force effect of the arc in A-TIG
welding is no longer a dominating factor determining
increase in both penetration depth h and weld shape factor
h/B.
Convection by the Marangoni effect can also result in
variations in penetration of the weld in zone B. It is likely
that the Marangoni forces are dominant, but they are not the
only forces that affect the weld pool in A-TIG welding. In
our opinion, the situation in practice is much more
complicated. In addition to the Marangoni effect, it is
necessary to consider all other phenomena and mechanisms
taking place both in zone B, such as formation,
intensification and direction of other types molten metal
flows in the weld pool and changes in surface tension, and
in zone A, such as arc contraction, to find explanation to the
phenomena observed.
In conclusion, we have to note the following:
- the investigation results can be useful for modelling
of the A-TIG weld formation.
- To explain behaviour of the weld pool during
interaction of the activators, it is of interest to study
distribution of temperature over the surface of the weld pool
and formation of convective flows within the crater region,
through depth and on the periphery of the weld pool.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
1. Analysis of the A-TIG welding process shows that
the basic factors affecting increase in penetration,
in the case of using oxides as the activating fluxes
(activators), are as follows: amount of oxygen in
the welding zone, values of surface tension and its
temperature gradients, intensity and direction of
molten metal flows in the weld pool.
374
2. The best penetration h/B in A-TIG welding of
stainless steel of the 304H type at welding currents
of 100 A is provided by oxide SiO2.
3. Thickness of the deposited oxide layer exerts a
very significant effect on penetration. According to
the experimental data, the optimal layer thickness
is 20-30 μm, although there may be some
deviations, e.g. 40 μm for TiO2.
4. Variations in energy characteristics of the arc
during A-TIG welding for the majority of oxides,
compared with TIG welding, were experimentally
evaluated :
• increase in arc voltage - 10-12 % (0.6-0.8 V)
• increase in current density and arc
concentration factor –
10-45 % (0.3-4.9 mm-2)
5. As experimentally found, an insignificant increase
in the full force effect of the arc by 10-15 %
during A-TIG welding (using TiO2), compared
with TIG welding, leads to a substantial, i.e. 30-50
%, growth of the mean and maximum pressure of
the arc on the weld pool, respectively.
6. In A-TIG welding a crater is formed on the weld
pool surface, whereas no such crater is seen in TIG
welding.
External surface of the weld pool grows in size in
A-TIG welding, and the pool becomes more
rounded.
Contraction of the A-TIG arc leads to lower power
density values than those in plasma and, moreover,
laser welding, but these values are sufficient to
cause intensive evaporation of the material welded
to form a crater and keyhole.
7. Comparative analysis of TIG and
A-TIG shows that increase in the welding current is
accompanied by redistribution of the effects of
different components of the A-TIG welding
process on its penetrating ability. In addition to the
arc contraction, other phenomena also take place.
8. The investigation results can be useful for
modelling of the A-TIG weld formation.
REFERENCES
1. K.A. Yushchenko, D.V. Kovalenko, I.V. Kovalenko:
The Paton Welding Journal, 2001, 7, 37-43.
2. B.E. Paton, А.М. Makara, B.I. Мedovar et al.:
Avtomaticheskaya Svarka, 1974, 6, 1-4.
3. D.S. Howse, R.L. Jones, K.A. Yushchenko et al. ‘An
evaluation of the A-TIG welding process’, Draft final
report 5663/9/95 for a group of sponsors, TWI,
Abington, 1995.
4. D. Fan, R. Zhang, Y. Gu et al.: Trans. JWRI, 2001, 30,
(1), 35-40.
5. O.E. Ostrovski, V.N. Kryukovski, B.B. Buk et al.:
Svarochnoye proizvodstvo, 1977, 3, 3-4.
6. H. Fujii, H. Sugiyama, S. Lu et al.: Journal of JWRI,
2001, 61, (4), 97-102.
7. M. Tanaka: Journal of JWS, 2002, 71, (2), 25-29.
8. K.K. Khrenov : ‘Electric welding arc’, 1949, Moskow-
Kiev, Mashgiz.
9. I.S. Kulikov: ‘Thermodynamics of oxides’, 1986,
Moscow.
10. J.F. Elliott, M. Gleiser: ‘Thermochemistry for steel
making’, Vol.1, 1960.
11. S.M. Gurevich, V.N. Zamkov: Avtomaticheskaya
Svarka, 1966, 12, 13-16.
12. M. Marya: ‘Theoretical and experimental assessment
of chloride effects in the A-TIG welding of
magnesium’, Doc.IIW-594-02, 2002.
13. V.S. Mechev, V.N. Zamkov, V.P. Prilutsky:
Avtomaticheskaya Svarka, 1971, 8, 7-10.
14. Ì.Ì. Savitsky, V.S. Gvozdetsky, V.I. Skrypnik et al.:
Avtomaticheskaya Svarka, 1979, 7, 17-20.
15. V.S. Gvozdetsky: Avtomaticheskaya Svarka, 1973, 12,
20-24.
16. P.A. Schoeck :‘An investigation of the anode energy
balance of high
intensity arcs in argon’ in ‘Modern problems of heat
exchange’, Moscow-
Leningrad, 1966.
17. A.V. Petrov: Avtomaticheskaya Svarka, 1955, 4, 84-89.
18. А.А. Erochin: Avtomaticheskaya Svarka, 1979, 7, 21-
26.
LIST OF TABLES
Тable 1. Physical characteristics of some investigated oxides
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.1. Schematics and macrosections of TIG (a) and A-TIG
(b) single square
butt welds on 304L stainless steel, 6 mm thick
(Welding parameters: I=200A, U=10V,
W=120mm/min)
Fig.2. Schematic of the process and basic factors determinin
penetration in A-TIG welding
Fig.3. Depth of penetration as function of oxide layer
thickness A-TIG welding of 304H stainless steel, 5.2
mm thick
(Welding parameters: I=100A, La=1.5 mm,
W=100mm/min)
375
Fig.4. Weld ratio as function of O2 amount
(Welding parameters: I=100A, La=1.5 mm,
W=100mm/min)
Fig.5. Weld ratio as function of boiling temperature of
oxides ; amount of molecular oxygen (cm3) evolved
from oxide is given in brackets
(Welding parameters: I=100A, La=1.5 mm,
W=100mm/min)
Fig.6. Arc current-voltage characteristics of TIG and A-TIG
welding of 304H stainless steel (La=1.5 mm)
Fig.7. Distribution of current density in anode spot in TIG
and A-TIG (using TiO2) welding of 304H stainless
steel
(Welding parameters: I=100A, La=1.5 mm,
W=100mm/min)
Fig.8. General view of arc force measuring equipment:
Fig.9. Distribution of arc pressure in TIG and A-TIG TIG
(using TiO2) welding of 304H stainless steel
(Welding parameters: I=100A, La=1.5 mm,
W=100mm/min)
Fig.10. Weld pool shape in TIG and A-TIG TIG (using
TiO2) welding of 304H stainless steel
(Welding parameters: I=150A, La=1.5 mm,
W=100mm/min)
Fig.11.Effect of space (geometry) characteristics of the arc
on formation of
welds in A-TIG and TIG welding at different (TIG)
and reduced identical (TIG*) thermodynamic
effects of the arc for welding current I = 100 A on
stainless steel 304H 7 mm thick
Fig.12.Comparative analysis of distribution of balance of the
effects exerted by
different components (contraction C and total of
other effects X) of the A-TIG and TIG processes at
the reduced identical thermodynamic effect of the
arc, depending upon the welding current I, on depth
h and weld shape factor h/B on stainless steel 304
H 7 mm thick
Тable 1. Physical characteristics of some investigated oxides 9, 10
N Type of Density Melting Boiling Amount of Amount of Variations in
oxide temperature temperature molecular oxygen molecular Gibbs energy of
evolved from oxygen oxide,
4. 10-4 сm3 of evolved kJ/mole
oxide from
0,001 mole of
oxide,
сm3
g/cm3 K K 10-4g см3 298К 3000К
1. MgO 3.65 3100 3388 2.4 0.168 4.5 -605 -100
2. CaO 3.4 2860 3905 0.8 0.06 2,5
3. Al2O3 3.97 2327 3969 1.12 0.072 5.0 -584 -700
4. ZnO 5.6 2000 2200 4.4 0.304 11.0
5. Ga2O3 5.9 2080 2863 4.0 0.28 20.0
6. SiO2 2.32 1996 3130 1,8 0.126 7.8 -824.6 -336
7. SnO2 6.95 1903 2244 3.08 0.22 12.0 -520 0
8. TiO2 4.24 2185 3266 1.76 0.12 5.5 -890.4 -435.3
9. Cr2O3 5.21 2705 3324 1.44 0.1 7.0 -1060 -326.4
10. MnO 5.18 1842 3354 3.0 0.21 7.0
11. CoO 5.68 2083 2968 3.2 0.224 7.0 -215.8 -8.0
12. ZrO2 5.75 2983 4400 0.16 0.012 0.7
13. Bi2O3 9.18 1175 1870 2.0 0.14 18.0
14. TeO2 5.9 1006 1590 1.4 0.096 6.0
15. HfO2 10.0 3050 4849 0.1 0.007 0.36
16. Ta2O5 8.73 2150 3942 0.4 0.029 3.9 -1912 -880
17. B2O3 1.84 723 2347 - - - -1180 -580

376
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Process-Property Relationships and Microstructure Evolution in Friction Stir

Welded Thin Sheet 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy.
Alpesh Khushalchand Shukla
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA

William A Baeslack III

The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA

Abstract the HAZ. In order to utilize the advantages of FSW in thin gage
alloys it is important to understand the effects of welding
Optimum welding parameters, viz. tool rotation, welding speed, parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties,
plunge depth and tool design are established for friction stir particularly in the case of age-hardenable alloys like 2000-series
welding (FSW) 1 mm thick 2024-T3 aluminum alloy by using alloys, which can exhibit a wide range of microstructures
design of experiments and the effects of these parameters on the depending on the thermal cycles experienced during welding.
weld microstructure and mechanical properties are studied.
Hardness profiles indicate the presence of two minima in the
weld heat-affected zone (HAZ), one directly adjacent to the
thermal-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and a second
farther away from the TMAZ/HAZ boundary, separated by a
region of maximum weld hardness. Average hardness in the
HAZ minimum adjacent to the TMAZ decreases with an
increase in heat input. Various regions of the welds are
characterized using transmission-electron microscopy and
changes in the type, size and density of precipitates are related
to the changes in hardness across the weld. The hardness
minima in the HAZ adjacent to the TMAZ, and at the HAZ
location further from the TMAZ, are associated with the
presence of overaged S precipitates and dissolution of GPB
zones, respectively. The hardness peak in the HAZ between
these minima results from the presence of GBP II zones.

Introduction

Since the development of the process, Friction Stir Welding of

aluminum alloys has most widely been studied in plates with
thickness ranging from 6 mm to 25 mm (0.25 to 1 inch).
Friction stir welding of thin sheet (< 2mm) is more difficult and
little published information is available regarding the welding
parameters for thin sheet welding [1, 2]. Recent studies on thin
sheet FSW suggest that as the thickness decreases, the range of
effective welding parameters becomes narrower [2]. Parameters
including the tool design, tool rotation speed, welding speed,
normal force, plunge depth, backing plate material, and dwell
time before traverse must be significantly modified to achieve
high-integrity FS welds. Due to the differences in parameters
and a higher cooling rate, the thermomechanical conditions in
thin sheet FSW are different than those in thick plate FSW, Figure 1: TEM micrographs of base metal (2024-T3)
which can result in different microstructures in the TMAZ and microstructure.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 377

Al-Cu-Mg alloy 2024 is an age-hardenable, high specific
strength commercial alloy. The generally accepted precipitation
sequence for alloys of this type is as follows [4-9]:
Supersaturated Solid Solution  GPBz  (S′′)  S′  S
where GPBz are the Cu-Mg Guinier-Preston-Bagariastkij zones,
S is the stable Al2 CuMg phase, and S′′ and S′ are its metastable
precursors. The alloy used in this study was AA 2024-T3, which
is a naturally-aged alloy with hardening due principally to the
presence of GPB zones. Figure 1 shows the microstructure of
the base metal used in this study. The microstructure shows
dislocation loops in the matrix and surrounding Mn-rich
dispersoids which is typical of this alloy [3]. In addition to a
significant change in microstructure due to formation of the
TMAZ, which includes a central “weld nugget” that exhibits a
fine-grained, dynamically recrystallized structure, the
microstructural response to various regions in the HAZ can also
be complex as a result of the different thermal cycles
experienced in this region.
The purpose of this study was to optimize the welding
parameters for FSW of thin sheet 2024-T3 alloy, to examine the
effect of welding parameters on the microstructure of the welds,
and to understand how these microstructural changes across the
weld influence weld mechanical properties.
Experimental
A Design of Experiments (DOE) approach using Taguchi’s
orthogonal arrays was employed to optimize welding parameters
for the FSW of 1 mm thick 2024-T3 sheet with a nominal
composition of 4.4wt% Cu, 1.5wt% Mg and 0.6wt% Mn. Three
parameters, viz., tool rotation speed, traversing speed and
plunge depth were varied to make bead-on-plates at various
parameter combinations. Defect-free butt welds were also
produced on the material for comparative purposes.
Microhardness measurements were made along the weld center
on the cross-sectioned welds, extending 8 mm on either side of
the weld centerline and extending into the unaffected base
metal. Tensile tests were performed on the specimens cut from
the welds with the tensile axis perpendicular to the tool
traversing direction. After identifying regions of interest from
the hardness profiles, TEM foils were prepared by cutting 3 mm
discs using wire EDM, polishing both sides to isolate the region
corresponding to the center of the weld where hardness
measurements were made, and electropolishing in a 25% Nitric
acid – 75% Methanol solution at -35o C temperature and 20 V.
Foils were examined at 200 kV using a Philips CM200 TEM.
Results and Discussion
Process Optimization
Table 1 summarizes the ranges of parameters used in this study,
which were obtained after a series of design of experiments.
Twenty-one of twenty-five welds were defect free; the four
welds that showed tunnel defects were made at a low plunge
depth of 0.05- 0.06 mm and high welding speeds (240-300
378
mm/min). Normal force, which was controlled by varying the
plunge depth, was the most critical factor for obtaining defect-
free welds. Changing the plunge depth by just 10 microns at the
same welding speed and tool rotation could result in the
formation or absence of tunnel defects in the weld.
Table 1: Range of welding parameters.
Welding Range
Parameter
Tool Rotation Speed 2100 – 2500 RPM (35 -41.66 rev/s)
Traversing Rate 75- 300 mm/min (1.25-5 mm/s)
Plunge Depth 0.05 to 0.09 mm
For the FSW of thicker plates, tool rotation is typically less than
1000 RPM. Tool rotations of as low as 214 RPM [12] can give
sound welds. However, in this study it has been empirically
found that an RPM of at least 1800 was required for
successfully welding 1 mm thick sheets at practical welding
speeds (75 to 300 mm/min). Optimum results were obtained in
the range of 2100 to 2500 RPM.
Tool design is more critical in the case of thin sheet FSW. In
conventional FSW of aluminum alloys, the following rule of
thumb for the shoulder diameter can be used for designing a tool
[10]:
5W W
" rs "
2 2
where W = thickness of the plate and rs = radius of the shoulder.
Typically, the shoulder radius is twice the pin radius and
according to the above formula the shoulder diameter for a 1mm
sheet would be!between 1 and 5 mm. However, it is found in
this study that a shoulder diameter as large as 3 times that of pin
(which was 2.5 mm in the present study) is required for
successfully welding 1 mm thick sheet of 2024-T3 alloy. Thus,
FSW in thin sheet introduces high heat input in the weld owing
to higher tool rotation and larger tool shoulder; however, it is
offset in terms of the weld thermal cycle by the rapid conduction
of heat into the backing plate and fixturing.
Macrostructure
Figure 2 shows macrostructures of low and high heat input
welds. Welds made at a low tool rotation speed, low plunge
depth and high traversing speed had a smaller weld nugget that
showed the presence of faint onion rings. The onion rings
became fainter and disappeared as the heat input was increased.
Such welds were prone to tunnel defects as shown in Fig. 2 (a).
High heat input welds with high tool rotation speed, higher
plunge depth and slower traversing speeds exhibited a larger
nugget owing to higher frictional heat, and were always defect
free.
Hardness Measurements
Figures 3 and 4 show hardness profiles for welds corresponding
to high heat input parameters and low heat input parameters.
From these profiles, three distinct areas in the HAZ can be
identified: 1) a hardness minimum just outside the TMAZ which
decreased with increasing heat input (region A), 2) a hardness
peak in the HAZ (region B) and 3) a second hardness minimum weld corresponding to the hardness variations for a high heat
farther away in the HAZ (region C). input weld (regions A, B and C in Fig. 3). Coarse S precipitates
were observed in region A, corresponding to the lower hardness
in this region.

Figure 2: (a) Macrostructure of a low heat input weld made at

2200 RPM, 300 mm/min and plunge depth of 0.05 mm showing
a tunnel defect. (b) Macrostructure of a high heat input weld
made at 2500 RPM, 75 mm/min and plunge depth of 0.09 mm.

These observations were more pronounced in the case of higher

heat input welds, as can be seen by comparing Figs. 3 and 4. In
many welds, the peak hardness in the HAZ was higher than the
base metal average hardness of 132 HV. The hardness in the
weld nugget was always lower than the base metal hardness, and
it increased towards the center of the nugget. The hardness
values in the center of the nugget were comparable to the
hardness values in the second minimum in the HAZ.
Figure 4: Hardness profiles for low heat input welds.
The SADP clearly shows the characteristic grouping of 8 spots
around the forbidden {110} reflections, consisting of two {112}
and {131} S reflections, and 4 double diffraction spots [4, 5].
These relatively coarse S precipitates are formed due to aging
during welding, in which the smaller GPB zones dissolve in the
solution and larger zones transform to the S phase. Observation
of the S precipitates suggests that the temperature in this region
was approximately 450o C [6, 13]. An increase in heat input
resulted in an increase in the size and a decrease in the density
of these S precipitates, as is evident from Fig. 7. The
morphology of the precipitates in Fig. 7 (b) suggests that at low
heat inputs the HAZ adjacent to the TMAZ may contain both
fine S′ and S precipitates, since time and temperature were not
sufficient for complete transformation to the stable, incoherent S
phase.

Figure 3: Hardness profiles for high heat input welds.

Transmission Electron Microscopy

The weld nugget showed equiaxed, recrystallized grains with
diameters between 0.5 to 1 µm, with some helical dislocations
and a very low dislocation density, as shown in Fig. 5. The
microstructure shows breaking up of the Al20Cu2Mn3
dispersoids into smaller-sized particles. It is expected that the
peak temperatures experienced in this region were sufficiently
high to dissolve GPB zones of all sizes on heating, and that
some GPB zones formed on cooling and through natural aging.
SAD analysis of this region did not reveal any GPB II or S Figure 5: (a) Low magnification BF image of weld nugget
phase. showing breaking up of Al20Cu2Mn3 dispersoids. (b) High
magnification BF image of the weld nugget showing a low
Figure 6 shows bright-field (BF) images and selected-area density of dislocations. The beam was parallel to [001] for both
diffraction patterns (SADP) obtained from various regions in the the images.

379
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 6: TEM BF images and SADP’s for a high heat input weld made at 2500 RPM, 130 mm/min traversing speed and 0.06 mm
plunge depth. (a) BF image showing overaged S precipitates in the HAZ adjacent to the TMAZ. (b) [001] SADP showing S reflections.
(c) BF image of area corresponding to the peak hardness in HAZ showing higher density of dislocations. (d) SADP showing GBP II
reflections and streaks. (e) BF image of the area corresponding to the second minimum in the HAZ showing microstructure similar to
that of the base material. (f) SAD on area in (e). All BF images were taken with beam parallel to [001].

380
In the region B, corresponding to the hardness peak, very faint
reflections and streaks were observed only after long
exposures, which correspond to the GPB II zones [8]. The
terminology of particles corresponding to these reflections has
been a subject of debate [5-9] and some authors [7, 9] have
associated these reflections to S″. The microstructure in region
C of the HAZ was comparable to that of the base metal, and
SAD analysis did not reveal evidence of GPB II or S′. The
slight decrease in hardness in this region relative to the base
material is attributed to dissolution of GPB zones.
Figure 7: Coarsening of S precipitates in (a) high heat input
weld (2500 RPM, 130 mm/min traversing speed and 0.06 mm
plunge depth) and (b) low heat input weld (2100 RPM, 185
mm/min traversing speed and 0.07 mm plunge depth).
The differences of these observations from those in FSW’s in
thicker plates are important to consider. Heurtier et al [11]
observed S phase in the region corresponding to the first
minimum, the hardness peak, as well as the nugget in a 10 mm
friction stir welded 2024-T351 aluminum alloy. These
differences suggest that the thermal cycles in FSW of 1 mm
thin sheet were characterized by higher peak temperatures at
the weld centerline, but more rapid heating and cooling rates
in this region and the adjacent HAZ.
Tensile Strength
The ratio of weld to base material tensile strength (UTS) was
found to be nearly 100 percent in most of the welds. The
381
lowest and highest UTS values observed were 400 and 464
MPa, respectively, compared to the average base material
UTS of 437 MPa. There was a general trend of an increase in
UTS and percentage elongation with a decrease in the heat
input for the defect-free welds. Figure 8 shows stress-strain
curves for a high heat input weld, a low heat input weld and
the base metal. For the high heat input welds, fracture almost
always occurred near the TMAZ/HAZ boundary (HAZ first
hardness minimum) and in low heat input welds, fracture
occurred either near this first HAZ hardness minimum or near
the second HAZ hardness minimum. All of the welded
specimens exhibited a yield point phenomenon, which is more
commonly seen in 5XXX (Al-Mg) alloys.
Figure 8: Stress-strain curve for the (A) base metal, (B) high
heat input weld made at 2500 RPM, 75 mm/min traversing
speed and 0.09 mm plunge depth, and (C) a low heat input
weld made at 2100 RPM, 300 mm/min traversing speed and
0.09 mm plunge depth.
Summary
It has been demonstrated that friction stir welding can be
successfully used to make high integrity welds in 1 mm thin
sheet age hardenable alloy 2024 with weld efficiency (UTSFSW
/UTSparent) of up to 100%. The plunge depth was the most
critical parameter for obtaining defect-free welds. Hardness
profiles across the welds indicated a soft region in the HAZ
adjacent to the TMAZ, a hardness peak in the HAZ, and a
second hardness minimum in the HAZ. These changes in
hardness are attributed to the presence and coarsening of S
phase, the formation of GBP II zones, and the dissolution of
GPB zones, respectively. The hardness minima at the
TMAZ/HAZ boundary, percentage elongation, and the UTS of
the welds generally increased with a decrease in heat input.
However, it should be noted that very low heat input welds
were prone to tunnel defects.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Dr. Babu Viswanathan of OSU for
his assistance with transmission-electron microscopy, and to
Professor Mary Juhas, Mr. Libor Kovarik and Professor Glenn
Daehn of OSU for their useful suggestions. Technical TMS Annual Meeting, March 2-6 2003, p 235-
assistance by TWI is greatly appreciated. 242, edited by K. V. Jata, M. W. Mahoney, R. S.
Mishra, S. L. Semiatin and T. Lienert (2003)
13. V. G. Davydov and L. B. Ber, TTT and TTP
References Ageing Diagrams of Commercial Aluminium
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1. L. Magnusson and L. Kallman, Mechanical Properties Improvement, Materials Science
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Aluminium 2024, 6013, 6013 and 7475, Proceedings,
2nd International Symposium on Friction Stir
Welding, Gothenburg, Sweden, Session 2, Paper 3; p
26-28 (2000)
2. H. Hori and H. Hino, Application of friction stir
welding to the car body, Welding International, 17
(4) 287-292 (2003)
3. Kent R Van Horn, Aluminum Vol. 1. Properties,
Physical Metallurgy and Phase Diagrams, Metals
Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, p 75
(1967)
4. A. K. Gupta, P. Gaunt and M. C. Chaturvedi, The
Crystallography and morphology of the S′-Phase
precipitate in an Al(CuMg) Alloy, Philosophical
Magazine A, 55, (3) 375-387 (1987)
5. H. Shih, N. Ho and J. C. Huang, Precipitation
Behaviors in Al-Cu-Mg and 2024 Aluminum Alloys,
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 27A,
2479-2494 (1996)
6. J. M. Silcock, The Structural Ageing Characteristics
of Al-Cu-Mg Alloys with Copper: Magnesium Weight
Ratios of 7:1 and 2.2:1, Journal of the Institute of
Metals, 89, 203-210 (1961)
7. P. Ratchev, B. Verlinden, P. De Smet and P. Van
Houtte, Precipitation Hardening of an Al-4.2 wt%
Mg-0.6 wt% Cu Alloy, Acta Materialia, 46 (10) 3523-
3533 (1998)
8. L. Kovarik, P. I. Gouma, C. Kisielowski, S. A. Court,
and M. J. Mills, A HRTEM Study of Metastable
Phase formation in Al-Mg-Cu Alloys During
Artificial Aging, Acta Materialia, 52, 2509-2520
(2004)
9. G. Riontino, M. Massazza, D. Negri, S. Abis and P.
Mengucci, Early Decomposition Stages in two Al-Cu-
Mg Alloy, Materials Science Forum, 396-402 771-
776, (2002)
10. Midling O., Morley E.J., Sandvik A., The Welding
Institute, Cambridge, UK, US Patent No. 5813592,
Sep 1998.
11. P. Heurtier, M. J. Jones, C. Desrayaud, J. H. Driver
and F. Montheillet, Thermomechanical Conditions
and Resultant Microstructures in Friction Stir
Welded 2024 Aluminum, Materials Science Forum,
426-432, 2927-2932 (2003)
12. P. R. Subramanian, N V Nirmalan, L. M.
Young, P. Sudkamp, M Larsen, P L Dupree and
A. K. Shukla, Effect of Microstructural
Evolution on Mechanical and Corrosion
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Alloys, Proceedings, Friction Stir Welding II,

382
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Transverse Tensile Properties of AA2524 Friction Stir Welds:
quasi-static and high rate loading
A. P. Reynolds and J. Pohlman
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Abstract
Friction stir welds were produced in AA 2524-T351 6.4 mm
thick plate using two different welding conditions. The
hardness distributions in the two welds were characterized and
are rationalized based on supposed process parameter effects
on weld time-temperature differences. The transverse tensile
properties of the welds are compared to base metal properties
over a wide range of applied strain rates. Digital image
correlation is used to measure full field surface strains which
are reasonably correlated to the weld hardness distributions.
Introduction
As friction stir welding (FSW)[1] becomes a more widely
used manufacturing technique, it is important to understand
how different welding parameters affect joint response to
quasi-static and high rate loading regimes. The primary
parameters in a friction stir weld are travel rate (welding
speed), tool rotational speed, and axial forging force (z-
force).[2] By varying the welding parameters, the joint
properties can be manipulated causing different joint
responses to mechanical loading.[3] In the following,
property distributions obtained by variation of welding
parameters are characterized and the effects of these
distributions on the transverse tensile response are reported.
The use of high speed digital photography coupled with digital
image correlation (DIC)[4] to measure full field surface strain
on FSW’s undergoing quasi-static and high rate tensile
loading is demonstrated and the observed strain patterns are
correlated with the hardness distributions obtained with two
different welding conditions.[5]
Experimental methods
All testing was performed on friction stir welds made in 6.4
mm thick plate of AA2524-T351. AA2524-T351 is a
medium strength, high toughness aerospace alloy in a
naturally aged condition. The nominal composition (weight
percent) of the alloy is 4.2% Copper, 1.4% Magnesium, 0.6%
Manganese, 0.15% Zinc, and 0.1% Titanium with traces of
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Iron and Silicon and the balance aluminum. The alloy is
strengthened by GPB zones in the solution treated and
naturally aged condition: artificially aged tempers are
strengthened primarily by S’ phase. All welds were naturally
aged a minimum of 2 weeks prior to testing.
All welds were made in the square butt configuration with the
weld edges prepared by milling. The welding tool was
fabricated from H13 tool steel and the dimensions are given in
Table 1. All welds were made with a tool inclination of 2.5°.
Two welding conditions were used for all testing: a fast weld
and a slow weld. Parameters for the fast weld were: 480 rpm,
3.4 mm/s and a z-force of 44.5 kN. Parameters for the slow
weld were: 120 rpm, 0.85 mm/s and a z-force of 28.9 kN.
Table 1. Tool Dimensions
Shoulder diameter 20.3 mm
Pin diameter 7.1 mm
Pin length 6.2 mm
Thread pitch 0.794 mm/thread
Three flats at 120°. Flat depth equals thread depth
The Vicker’s hardness was measured on transverse cross
sections using a load of 100gf. The measurements were
performed along the plate midplane. Nugget grain size was
measured using the mean linear intercept (MLI) method on
transverse cross sections etched with Keller’s reagent. Two
tensile testing apparatuses were employed: a servo-hydraulic
test frame was used for quasi-static and intermediate rates and
a drop tower was used for the highest rates. Digital images
were recorded using a Phantom Camera. The maximum frame
rate of the camera is 10,000 frames per second. The mass of
the drop tower impactor is 273 kg and the velocity at impact is
5.9 m/s resulting in 4.8 kJ of kinetic energy at impact. The
energy to fracture a 2524-T351 base metal sample with the
same dimensions as the weld specimens is 430J. Hence, the
velocity of the impactor changes by less than 4% during the
fracture process and the drop tower tests can be considered as
constant displacement rate tests.
383
 Results can be attributed to the higher temperature in the fast weld
resulting in solution heat treatment of the fast weld nugget and
The process response variables for the two types of weld, slow overaging of the slow weld nugget. Also, the relatively lower
and fast, are shown in table 2. As mentioned previously, the value of hardness in the slow weld outer hardness minimum
fast weld is high power and low energy and the slow weld is can be attributed to longer time at temperature in the slow
low power and high energy. Also noteworthy is the difference weld vs. the fast weld.
in torque required for the two welds. The slow weld torque is
more than twice the torque for the fast weld. It is believed that Table 2. Process Response Variables
the torque can be related to the peak weld temperature through X-axis
Power Energy Torque
the flow stress. That is, assuming a predominantly sticking Force
friction condition between the tool and workpiece, the torque Fast 2941
865 J/mm 54 N-m 10.4 kN
required to turn the tool is a direct reflection of the flow stress Weld watts
of the material in contact with the tool. Hence, a lower torque Slow 1479 1781
indicates a lower flow stress and a higher weld temperature. 119 N-m 4.5 kN
Weld watts J/mm

The nugget grain sizes of the welds are quite different as
would be expected from the different required torques. In the
nugget of the fast weld the average grain size is 6 μm;
however the grain size in the slow weld is not resolvable
optically. The high torque and small grain size lead to the
conclusion that the slow weld is relatively cold as compared to
the fast weld.[6,7]
Figure 2 shows engineering stress-strain curves for transverse
tensile tests of the base metal, slow and fast welds. Several
salient features may be observed. The ultimate strength of the
slow weld is less than the yield strength of the base metal.
Hence, all plastic deformation in the slow weld specimen will
be concentrated in the soft region of the weld. In contrast, the
ultimate strength of the fast weld is greater than the base metal
yield strength; therefore, some deformation in the base metal
regions of the fast weld specimens is to be expected (5-6% at
fracture). The strain reported for the weld specimens are
better thought of as elongations. The local strains at fracture,
as measured by digital image correlation or reductionof area
are large in all cases.

The fracture locations, while different for the two welding

Figure 1. Hardness distributions in the fast and

slow welds.
Figure 1 is a graph of the hardness distributions in the two
welds. The hardness distributions of the two welds are
complex and the two distributions have similarities but also
differ substantially from each other. In the fast weld, nugget
hardness is equivalent to the base metal hardness while the
nugget hardness in the slow weld is quite low. The fast weld
exhibits local hardness minima adjacent to the nugget. Both
welds exhibit local maxima at approximately 15 mm from the
weld centerline and then local minima near 20 mm from the Figure 2. Quasi-static engineering stress-strain curves
centerline. Beyond the second local minima, the hardness is for transverse tensile tests of the base metal, slow, and
nearly the same as the basemetal hardness. The likely fast welds.
microstructural genesis of the inner and outer hardness
minima and maxima have been explained by [8]. The conditions, are not affected by loading rate. In slow welds,
difference in nugget hardness between the fast and slow welds deformation is concentrated in the nugget and adjacent HAZ.

384
Fracture of the weld occurs near the boundary of the soft and
hard regions, but within the nugget (Fig. 3a). Fracture of the
fast weld occurs on a plane coincident with the retreating side,
inner HAZ.
Figure 3a
Figure 3b.
Figure 3. Typical fracture locations in transverse tensile
tests of (a) the slow weld and (b) the fast weld. Both
figures show the crown side with the retreating side on the
left.
Figure 4. Tensile strength as a function of strain rate.
As discussed previously, welds and base metal were tested at a
variety of nominal strain rates ranging from less than 10-2s-1 to
more than 102s-1. Figure 4 shows the ultimate strengths of the
base metal and welds as functions of the nominal strain rate.
Only two points are presented for the base metal. Both welds
exhibit decreasing strength with increasing strain rate at
385
nominal strain rates less than 10s-1. At the highest strain
rates, the welds show a positive strain rate sensitivity. The
fast weld has a UTS greater than the base metal at the highest
strain rate testsed.
Shown in figure 5 are the total fracture strains as functions of
the strain rate. The strains in figure 5 are determined from the
reductin in area and as such are local strains at fracture: not
necessarily related to either the elongation or the energy
absorption. As mentioned previously, the strains to fracture
were high in all cases, although the fast weld exhibits
significantly less ductility than either the base metal or the
slow weld. The relatively low local strains in the fast weld are
not mirrored in the elongations shown in figure 2 where the
fast weld exhibits elongation nearly equivalent to the base
metal and substantially more than the slow weld. This is due
to the fact that, because of the relatively flatter hardness
distribution in the fast weld compared to the slow weld, the
strain is more nearly uniform in the fast weld than in the slow.
Anohter way of looking at this is that the deforming region of
the fast weld specimen is greater than the deforming region of
the slow weld.
Figure 5. Maximum strain at fracture as
determined by post test measurement of
reduction in area as a function of strain rate.
The use of Digital Image Correlation to measure full field
surface strain on the welded specimens provides additional
insight regarding the role that the various weld regions play in
the transverse tensile deformation. Figure 6 shows lines
representing the strain as a functin of position along the
midplane of transverse tensile specimens of the base metal,
slow and fast welds. In each case, the specimens were near
fracture. The data were extracted from full-field strain images
of tests performed at a nominal strain rate of 0.1s-1. For
reference, the weld centerlines are approximately at a position
of 250 pixels. The base metal exhibits the highest neck strain
(>50%). The neck is relativley wide and the region of nearly
uniform elongation outside the neck has a strain level of
greater than 20%. The maximum strain in the neck of the
slow weld is near 40% and is located in the retreating side of
the weld nugget. Outside of the necked region, the strain falls
to a local minimum which corresponds to the local hardness
maximum. Oustide of the local hardness maximum, the strain
is quite low. The maximum strain in the fast weld is, as
expected, further to the retreating side than in the slow weld.
In addition, local strain minima are observed in the nugget and
at the locations of the two local hardness maxima. The
advancing side strain maximum (in the inner HAZ hardness
minimum) is substantially less than the retreating side
maximum. However, typical strain values outside of the weld
region are on the order of 7-10%. As discussed previously,
this is because the ultimate strength of theweld region are
greater than the yield strength of the base metal.
Figure 6. Lines of strain data extracted from full
field strain data sets.
Conclusions
1. The Friction stir welding process can be manipulated in
order to produce substantially different hardness distributions.
2. Improved energy for fracture is obtained when strain
localization is postponed to higher strain levels. This is
achieved in alloy 2524 by welding at high speed in order to
minimize the depth of hardness minima and raise the ultimate
strength of the weld above the yield strength of the base metal.
3. The Digital Image Correlation technique can be used in
conjunction with high speed photography to obtain realistic
strain distributions in heterogeneous materials during high rate
loading.
4. The transverse tensile properties of these 2524 friction stir
welds are enhanced at high loading rates (>10s-1).
386
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by DoD EPSCoR award
N00014-03-1-0807, Dr. Julie Christodoulou, ONR, Project
Manager. The authors thank Mr. Daniel Wilhelm for technical
assistance in manufacturing specimens, and Dr. Wei Tang and
Mr. Matthew Hammond for advice and assistance in
performing data collection with digital image correlation
tensile tests.
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Murch, P. Templesmith, and C. J. Dawes: GB Patent
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3. Michael A Sutton, Bangcheng Yang, Anthony P Reynolds,
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6. “Process-Structure-Property Relationships in the Nugget
and HAZ Regions of 2524-T351 FSW Joints” J. Yan, M. A.
Sutton, and A. P. Reynolds, Proceedings of the 5th
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Effect of Microstructure on Postweld Formability

in Friction Stir Welded Al Alloy 5052

Y.S. Sato, Y. Sugiura, Y. Shoji, S.H.C. Park, H. Kokawa, K. Ikeda

Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

Abstract
Friction stir (FS) welded Al alloys could be used as tailor
welded blanks in automotive industries. Tailor welded blanks
must exhibit adequate formability similar to that of the base
material sheet. To evaluate the formability of FS welds in Al
alloys for car body applications, a relationship between the
fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation and the
microstructure was examined in an FS welded thin Al alloy
5052 sheet. The grain size of the stir zone increased with
increasing heat input during FSW. FSW produced a texture
component different from that of the base material in the stir
zone, but all welds produced at several heat inputs had the
roughly same texture component in the stir zone. The fracture
limit strain of plane strain deformation increased with
increasing grain size up to 10 μm, beyond which it decreased.
Both OIM analysis and TEM observation showed that the stir
zones, having grain sizes larger than 10 μm, contained
relatively larger numbers of sub-boundaries. Consequently,
the fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation increased
with increasing subgrain size in the stir zone. The present
study suggests that both large grain size and a low density of
dislocations and sub-boundaries are required as
microstructural features to obtain the excellent plane strain
value in the stir zone of Al alloy 5052.
The objective of the present study is to examine the
formability of FS welded Al alloy thin sheet. Al alloy 5052
sheet, 2 mm in thickness, was used as the base material. Al
alloy 5052 has good corrosion and mechanical properties and
excellent formability, and it is a candidate for car body
applications. When FS welds of Al alloys are practically used
in the automotive industry, they would mostly experience the
bend-forming process which is one of the most typical for
plane strain deformation. The forming limit diagram (FLD)
shows that plane strain deformation leads to a minimum
fracture limit strain in the materials, so that the fracture limit
strain of plane strain deformation can be considered as an
important value representing the formability. The present
study examined the effect of microstructure on the fracture
limit strain of plane strain deformation in a friction stir welded
thin Al alloy 5052 sheet to evaluate formability of friction stir
welds in Al alloys for car body applications.
Table 1: FSW parameters used in this study.

Introduction
The automotive industry is required to produce lightweight,
fuel-efficient vehicles. The development and application of
tailor welded blanks of Al alloys is a logical extension of the
vehicle weight reduction process [1]. Tailor welded blanks
must exhibit adequate formability similar to that of the base Experimental procedures
material sheet [2], but defects and a heterogeneous
microstructure would result in reduction of formability of the The base material used in this study was a commercial Al
welds. Friction stir welding is a favorable joining process for alloy 5052-O, 2 mm in thickness. Two sheets of the base
the production of tailor welded blanks, because it can make material were FS-welded at several welding parameters listed
defect-free welds with a homogeneous microstructure in Al in Table 1. In this study, the FSW parameter leading to the
alloys [3-10]. However, formability in friction stir (FS) welds lowest heat input is expressed as “Parameter 1,” and the larger
of thin sheet Al alloys has not been fully understood. numeric character of the designation means that the weld was

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 387

produced by the FSW parameter leading to a higher heat input.
These designations are used throughout the present paper. All
welding parameters listed in Table 1 resulted in a defect-free
stir zone in Al alloy 5052. A 3 deg tilt was applied to the tool
during FSW. A welding tool with a pin diameter of 3 mm, and
a pin length of 2 mm was used in the present study. The tool
had a standard machine screw type thread on the pin column
surface.
Figure 1: Configuration of the specimens for measurement of
the fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation used in
this study.
Microstructure in the weld was examined by optical
microscopy, orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The sample for
optical microscopy was cut perpendicular to the welding
direction, and then was anodized in Barker’s solution (5 ml
HBF4 + 200 ml H2O) at 15 V for 60 s to observe individual
grains distinctly under polarized light. Grain size was
measured by the mean linear intercept method for distinct
boundaries between grains with large differences in contrast in
optical micrographs. The sample for OIM was prepared by
electrolytical polishing with a 50 ml HClO4 + 200 ml C2H5OH
solution at 20 V for 120 s. Each observation area was 200 x
200 μm. Crystallographic data were expressed as grain
boundary (GB) maps and {111} pole figures. Coordinate axes
of the pole figures are the welding direction (WD), transverse
direction (TD) and normal direction (ND) of the plate. For
TEM, thin-foil disk specimens, 3 mm in diameter, were cut
from the stir zone using an electrical discharge machine and
were prepared by jet eletropolishing in a 100 ml HNO3 + 400
388
ml CH3OH solution at 248 K. These thin foils were observed
at 200kV using a JEOL JEM-2000EXII.
The fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation was
measured parallel to the WD in the stir zone, as shown in Fig.
1. The configuration of the specimens is shown in Fig. 1(b). In
order to only examine the effect of microstructure on the
fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation in the welds,
the inequalities of the upper and lower surfaces were
eliminated from the specimens. After the elimination of both
the surfaces, many circles were printed on the stir zone, as
shown in Fig. 1(b). The circle diameter was 1.5 mm. The
circle changed to ellipse during the tensile tests. In the case of
the specimen shown in Fig. 1(b), the specimen was broken
when its strain reached the strain at which the necking
occurred, so that the minor strain ε2 was almost zero at the
fracture location. Therefore, the strain of the fracture location
can be regarded as the fracture limit strain of plane strain
deformation in the stir zone. However, it was virtually
impossible to measure the strain at the fracture location, so
that in the present study we defined the following value εps as
the fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation in the stir
zone.
εps = ln (l1 / l0) (1)
where l0 is circle diameter before tensile test and l1 is major
diameter of the ellipse closest to the fracture location. Tensile
test was carried out at room temperature at a cross-head speed
of 1.67 x 10-2 mm/s.
Results and discussion
Optical microstructures of the base material and some stir
zones are shown in Fig. 2. The base material has an elongated
coarse grain structure, while the stir zones consisted of
equiaxed grain structures. Grain size in the stir zone increased
with increasing numeric character of the designation, i.e.
increasing heat input during FSW. Average grain sizes of the
stir zones produced by Parameters 1 to 7 were 3.0, 3.9, 8.2,
9.8, 11.5, 15.4 and 16.1 μm, respectively.
The relationship between grain size and fracture limit strain εps
in the stir zone is shown in Fig. 3. The base material has the
largest strain εps. The strain εps of the stir zone increases with
increasing grain size up to about 10 μm, beyond which it
decreases. Yanagawa et al. [11,12] have reported that Al
alloys generally become brittle with an increase in grain size
because intergranular fracture occurs more easily, but Al-Mg
alloys show a different trend which is that larger grain size
leads to larger elongation under uniaxial tension at ambient
temperature. This report suggests that the strain εps also
increases with increasing grain size in the stir zone of Al alloy
5052, but the present weld showed different trends from the
above report when its grain size was larger than 10 μm. This
suggests that the other microstructural factors, except for grain
size, affect strain εps in these stir zones.
 OIM data is presented in Fig. 6. Frequency of LABs increases
with increasing grain size in the stir zone. This result suggests
that the stir zone having the larger grain size contains a higher
density of dislocations and/or sub-boundaries.

Figure 2: Optical micrographs of the base material, and the

stir zones produced by Parameters 2, 4 and 7.

Figure 4: {111} pole figures of the base material, and the stir
zones produced by Parameters 2, 4 and 7.

Figure 3: Effect of grain size on the fracture limit strain of

plane strain deformation in the stir zone.

To examine the other microstructural factors, details of the

microstructure in the stir zone were observed by OIM and
TEM. {111} pole figures of the base material and some stir
zones are shown in Fig. 4. The cube orientation, which is a
typical recrystallized texture in Al alloys, is observed in the
base material. FSW produced a texture component different
from that of the base material in the stir zone, but all welds
produced at several heat inputs had roughly the same texture
component in the stir zone. This figure suggests that effect of
the texture on strain εps in the stir zone is negligible. GB maps
of some stir zones are presented in Fig. 5. In the GB maps, the Figure 5: GB maps of the stir zones produced by Parameters
black and gray lines show high angle boundaries (HABs) 2, 4 and 7.
having misorientations over 180 deg and low angle boundaries
(LABs) having misorientations between 3 and 15 deg, TEM images of the stir zones produced by Parameters 4, 5, 6
respectively. Average grain size increases with an increase in and 7 are shown in Fig. 7. Parameter 4 makes equiaxed grains
numeric character of the designation, which is in good with a low density of dislocations and sub-boundaries. The stir
agreement with the optical microstructure. The relationship zones produced by Parameters 1, 2 and 3 also exhibited a
between grain size and frequency of LABs obtained from the similar microstructure to that produced by Parameter 4. Sizes

389
of the equiaxed grains in TEM were roughly the same as the deformation increased with increasing grain size up to 10 μm,
grain size obtained from optical micrographs in the stir zone beyond which it decreased. Both OIM analysis and TEM
produced by Parameters 1 to 4. On the other hand, grains in observation showed that the stir zones, having grain sizes
TEM images looked smaller than grains in optical larger than 10 μm, contained relatively larger numbers of sub-
micrographs in the stir zones produced by Parameters 5 to 7. boundaries. Consequently, the fracture limit strain of plane
Misorientation calculations using orientation matrices strain deformation increased with increasing subgrain size in
obtained from electron diffraction Kikuchi patterns in the the stir zone. The present study suggests that the excellent
neighboring grains [13-15] proved that the grains in the stir fracture limit strain is attributed to the microstructure having
zone produced by Parameters 5, 6 and 7 contained many sub- both a large grain size and a low density of dislocations and
boundaries. The subgrain size decreases with increasing heat sub-boundaries in the stir zone of Al alloy 5052.
input during FSW. The average subgrain sizes of the stir zones
produced by Parameters 5, 6 and 7, measured by mean linear
intercept method for the distinct sub-boundaries, were about
7.5, 6.4 and 4.8 μm, respectively. Presence of sub-boundaries
is a reason why the higher frequency of LABs is detected by
OIM in the stir zone having the larger grain size, as shown in
Figs. 5 and 6. These results suggest that sub-boundaries in the
stir zone strongly influence strain εps.

Figure 7: TEM images of the stir zones produced by

Parameters 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Figure 6: Relationship between grain size and frequency of

LABs in the stir zone.

Figure 8 shows the effect of subgrain size on the strain εps in

the stir zone. For the stir zone produced by Parameters 1 to 4,
the grain size was used as the subgrain size. This figure
indicates that the values as a function of subgrain size may be
fitted on a line. This result suggests that the strain εps mainly
depends on the subgrain size in the stir zone of Al alloy 5052.
The present study revealed that both larger grain size and
lower density of dislocations and sub-boundaries were the
necessary microstructural features to obtain an excellent
fracture limit strain of plane strain deformation in the stir zone Figure 8: Effect of subgrain size on the fracture limit strain of
of Al alloy 5052. plane strain deformation in the stir zone.

Conclusions Acknowledgements

The effect of microstructure on the fracture limit strain of The authors are grateful to Messrs. A. Honda, A. Ishiyama and
plane strain deformation was examined in the stir zone of Al K. Nishimura for technical assistance and acknowledge Prof.
alloy 5052. The fracture limit strain of plane strain K. Maruyama, Prof. Z.J. Wang, Prof. T.W. Nelson and Mr.

390
C.J. Sterling for their helpful discussions. They wish to thank
Dr. M. Enomoto, Mr. S. Jogan and Dr. T. Hashimoto for
useful advice on FSW. Thanks also go to Showa Denko KK
for providing the FS weld samples. Financial support from the
Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture
with a Grant-in-Aid for Encouragement for Young
Researchers and for the 21st century COE program at the
International Center of Research and Education for Materials
at Tohoku University is gratefully acknowledged.
References
1. R.W. Davies, G.J. Grant, H. Eddie Oliver, M.A. Khaleel
and M.T. Smith, Forming-limit diagrams of aluminum
tailor-welded blank weld material, Metall. Mater. Trans.
A, 32A, 275-83 (2001)
2. S. Vanket, C.E. Albright, S. Ramasamy and J.P. Hurley,
CO2 laser welding of aluminum 5754-O and 6111-T4
alloys,Weld. J., 76, 275s-82s (1997)
3. M.W. Mahoney, C.G. Rhodes, J.G. Flintoff, R.A.
Spurling and W.H. Bampton, Properties of friction-stir-
welded 7075 T651 aluminum, Metall. Mater. Trans. A,
29A, 1955-64 (1998)
4. Y.S. Sato, H. Kokawa, M. Enomoto and S. Jogan,
Microstructural evolution of 6063 aluminum during
friction-stir welding, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 30A,
2429-37 (1999)
5. K.V. Jata, K.K. Sankaran and J.J. Ruschau, Friction-stir
welding effects on microstructure and fatigue of
aluminum alloy 7050-T7451, Metall. Mater. Trans. A,
31A, 2181-92 (2000)
6. Y.S. Sato, H. Kokawa, K. Ikeda, M. Enomoto, S. Jogan
and T. Hashimoto, Microtexture in the friction-stir weld
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of an aluminum alloy,, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 32A,
941-48 (2001)
7. B. Heinz and B. Skrotzki, Characterization of a friction-
stir welded aluminum alloy 6013, Metall. Mater. Trans.
B, 33B, 489-98 (2002)
8. J.-Q. Su, T.W. Nelson, R. Mishra and M. Mahoney,
Microstructural investigation friction stir welded 7050-
T651 aluminum, Acta Mater., 51, 713-29 (2003)
9. D.P. Field, T.W. Nelson, Y. Hovanski and K.V. Jata,
Heterogeneity of crystallographic texture in friction stir
welds of aluminum, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 32A, 2869-
77 (2001)
10. Y.S. Sato, Y. Sugiura, Y. Shoji, S.H.C. Park, H.
Kokawa and K. Ikeda, Post-weld formability of friction
stir welded Al alloy 5052, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 369, 138-
43 (2004)
11. M. Yanagawa, Influence of grain size and Mg content
on the ductility of Al-Mg alloys at low temperatures, J.
Jpn Inst. Light Met., 44, 492 (1994)
12. M. Yanagawa and S. Oie, Controlling factors of the
ductility in Al-Mg alloys, J. Jpn Inst. Light Met., 41, 119-
25 (1991)
13. S. Amelinkx and W. Dekeyser, The structure and
properties of grain boundaries, Solid State Phys., 8, 325-
499 (1959)
14. H. Kokawa, T. Watanabe and S. Karashima,
Reexamination of Deviation Angles from Exact CSL
Misorientations in Early Work on Grain Boundary
Characterization, Scripta Metall., 21, 839-42 (1987)
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Effect of Heat and Plastic Deformation on the Texture of a Friction Stir Processed 6061-T6
Aluminum Alloy: A Neutron Diffraction Study

W. Woo1,2, H. Choo1,2,*, D. W. Brown3, Z. Feng2, P. K. Liaw1, S. A. David2, C. R. Hubbard2, and M. A. M. Bourke3

1
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
2
Metals and Ceramics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
3Materials Science and Technology Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA

Abstract localized grain size refinements and homogenization of

Time-of-flight neutron diffraction was used to
investigate the texture changes in the friction-stir processed
(FSP) 6061-T6 aluminum-alloy plates. Two different
specimens were prepared with a purpose of separating the
effects of frictional heating and severe plastic deformation
on the changes of the preferred orientation in the as-received
rolled plates: (Case 1) a plate processed with both stirring
pin and tool shoulder, i.e., a regular friction-stir welding
plate subjected to both plastic deformation and frictional
heating, and (Case 2) a plate processed only with the tool
shoulder, i.e., subjected mainly to the frictional heating. The
comparison among the reduced intensities of the diffraction
peaks, which is proportional to the number of unit cells that
are preferentially oriented to fulfill Bragg’s law, provides
insights to the texture variations at various locations of the
FSP plates. The results show that, in Case 1, the number of
the unit cells with the (200) plane normal parallel to the
normal direction of the plate (i.e., reduced intensity in the
through-thickness direction) were significantly decreased
while the number of the unit cells with the (111) plane
normal parallel to the normal direction of the plate increased
near the weld center line. On the other hand, the Case 2
does not show changes in the reduced intensities. The
current results clearly show that only the severe plastic
deformation from the stirring pin affects the preferred
orientation during the friction-stir processing, while heating
alone from the tool shoulder has little effects.
Keywords: Neutron diffraction, Friction-stir processing,
Reduced intensity, Texture
Introduction
Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining
process that has many advantages over the traditional
fusion-welding processes, including nearly defect-free
welds with minimized cracking, fine grain structures, and
minimized distortion. FSW uses a rotating tool consisting of
a threaded pin and tool shoulder to apply severe plastic
deformation and frictional heating to the base metal to
produce a strong metallurgical joining [1]. Furthermore, a
number of variations of FSW have been applied to
microstructural modifications, namely friction-stir
processing (FSP) [2,3]. Examples of the FSP include
precipitate particles of various aluminum alloys and
composites. Recently, Ma et al. reported superplasticity in
aluminum alloys subjected to grain size refinements via
FSP[3]. Potential applications of FSP and FSW are
widespread in the transportation and aerospace industry.
During FSW, the preferred orientation (texture) can be
significantly altered from the original rolling texture in
aluminum-alloy [4-7] or magnesium-alloy [8,9] plates. The
understanding of the FSW texture is important because of
the potential changes in the mechanical properties. For
example, Park et al. [9] reported that the distribution of
crystallographic orientations as well as the grain sizes and
dislocation densities can strongly affect the tensile
properties in FSW AZ61 magnesium alloy. Although the
severe plastic deformation is considered as the main source
of texture alteration in FSW, direct experimental evidence
supporting this is not available in the literature to date.
Neutron diffraction is useful for the spatially-resolved
texture measurements from the inside of bulk materials due
to the deep penetration of neutrons into most engineering
materials (e.g., about 7-cm thick aluminum plate can reduce
the transmitted intensity to 50 % of the initial intensity of
neutron) and the capability to distinguish phases and crystal
planes. The investigation of intensity variations in neutron-
diffraction patterns measured at various locations across the
weld line in the FSW plate can provide spatially-resolved
texture information that is useful for constitutive modeling
and understanding the mechanical behavior at the
microscopic level [10]. In this paper, the main cause of
changes in the initial rolling texture in a 6061-T6 Al alloy
plate during FSW will be identified.
Experimental details and data analysis
Commercial 6061-T6 aluminum alloy rolled plates were
solution-heat treated and artificially aged for 6 hours at
185°C. The nominal chemical composition in weight
percent is 1.0 Mg, 0.6 Si, 0.3 Cu, and balance Al. The
dimensions of the specimens prepared at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory were 306 × 306 × 6.5 mm, Fig. 1(a).
The transverse sides (y-direction) of the plates were
clamped using pressing bars to constrain the displacement
of specimen during the processing. The clamping was
removed after the plate was cooled to 25 °C after the

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 393

processing. It should be noted that all samples were
prepared by performing the “bead-on-plate” processing
method to eliminate the complications from the gap
variations.
Two different plates were prepared to separate the
effects of the frictional heating and severe plastic
deformation on the texture. Case 1 (a typical FSW plate)
was processed using both stirring pin and tool shoulder
made of an H-13 tool steel and, hence, was subjected to both
heating and deformation during FSW. The processing
parameters include: 4.7 mm/sec traveling speed; 1,250 rpm
clockwise rotating speed; and 12.4 MPa compressive
pressure; using a tool with 19.05-mm shoulder diameter and
6.35-mm pin diameter with 6.23-mm pin depth for the full
penetration into the plates. Note that the traveling direction
(x-direction) was parallel to the rolling direction of the
original base plate. Case 2 was processed under the same
conditions as Case 1, but utilizing a special tool without the
stirring pin and, hence, was subjected mainly to the
frictional heating from the tool shoulder, Fig. 1(b).
Spatially-resolved neutron-diffraction measurement is a
well-established technique [11]. Two sets of scans were
performed on each FSW plate using the SMARTS
diffractometer [12] at the Los Alamos Neutron Science
Center to measure the diffraction patterns in three principal
orientations. The diffraction patterns with their scattering
vectors parallel to the longitudinal (x) and normal (z)
directions were measured simultaneously at the middle of
the plate length (x) and thickness (z) along the y-direction
using a 2 (x) × 2 (y) × 2 (z) mm scattering volume, Fig. 1(a).
The diffraction patterns with their scattering vectors parallel
to the transverse (y) and normal (z) directions were also
measured using a scattering volume of 20 (x) × 2 (y) × 2 (z)
mm with the long dimension along the x-direction.
Henceforth, LD, TD, and ND denote longitudinal,
transverse, and normal directions.
The principal characteristic of diffraction measurements
at pulsed neutron sources is the use of time-of-flight (TOF)
techniques based on the fact that neutrons, which have
different energies, and hence different wavelength from de
Broglie’s relationship (i.e., λ=h/mv, where λ is the
wavelength, h is the Plank’s constant, m is the neutron
mass, and v is the neutron velocity), travel at different
velocities. By measuring time of arrival of a diffracted
neutron, one can plot the intensities of various hkl
reflections simultaneously as a function of the TOF (time),
which is related to the lattice spacing (d) [13]. The peak
intensities of (111), (200), and (220) reflections were
obtained using the single peak fitting method in the General
Structure Analysis System (GSAS) software [14]. The
intensity of a diffraction peak observed in TOF diffraction
can be related to the texture. Specifically, the reduced
intensity is proportional to the number of unit cells oriented
to satisfy Bragg’s law within the scattering volume. The
integrated intensity (Iτ) of a diffraction peak observed in the
TOF diffraction is [13]:
394
⎛ dσ ⎞
Iτ (δt ) = nL (λ )δλN s ⎜ ⎟∆Ω *
⎝ dΩ ⎠
(1)
where δt is the time channel, nL(λ) is the incident intensity
per unit wavelength range, δλ is the wavelength interval, Ns
is the number of scattering unit cell, and ∆Ω* is the counter
solid angle corresponding to 2πsinθ∆2θf, (2θ is the
scattering angle, ∆2θ is the spread scattering angle, and f is
the fraction of the Debye-Scherrer cone intercepted by the
counter). Finally, (dσ/dΩ) is the differential cross-section
integrated over the reflection of the total cross-section:
⎛ dσ ⎞ 1 λ4Zτ 1
= F (τ )
2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ dΩ ⎠ 32π Vcell sin θ δλ
3
(2)
where λ is the wavelength, Zτ is the multiplicity of the
reflection, Vcell is the volume of scattering unit cell, δλ is the
wavelength interval, and F(τ) is the structure factor.
Combining the equations (1) and (2) yields:
⎛ λ 4 Z τ F(τ)2 ⎞⎛ N s ⎞
Iτ ∝ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ sin θ ⎠⎝ Vcell
2
⎠
(3)
Here, the integrated intensity is proportional to the
number of the scattering unit cells. The reduced intensity
can be obtained for each reflection by using proper terms
(i.e., λ4, Zτ, and F(τ)2) that vary for each reflection. In
summary, the reduced intensities of a specific (hkl)
reflection measured in LD, TD, and ND are proportional to
the number of specific unit cells in the scattering volume
with their (hkl)-plane normal and the scattering vector
parallel to the LD, TD, and ND. The concept of reduced
intensity can be used to analyze the preferred orientation
[10]. When the texture is random, the reduced intensities are
the same for all reflections.
Results and Discussion
Figure 2(a) shows the cross-sectional (y-z plane)
macrostructure of the Case 1. The frictional heating from
the tool shoulder and the severe plastic deformation by the
stirring pin generate characteristic regions: the initial base
material (BM) (at least 30 mm away from the weld center
line); the heat-affected zone (HAZ); the thermo-
mechanically affected zone (TMAZ); and the dynamic
recrystallized zone (DXZ) with refined grain structure near
the weld center line (also known as the nugget) caused by
the severe plastic deformation from the stirring tool pin [7].
Figure 2(b) shows the diffraction patterns (cross
symbols) measured with the scattering vector parallel to the
ND (z-direction) at the BM, HAZ, and DXZ in Case 1. Also
shown in Fig. 2(b) is the line overlapping the measured data.
The line represents the calculated data using Rietveld
refinement [14] without considering the texture. Thus, the
discrepancy between the measured (crosses) and calculated
(lines) data qualitatively indicates the presence of texture in
the specimen. In the BM, the measured (200) peak is much
stronger than the intensity calculated assuming the random
texture, which reveals the original recrystallized rolling
texture in the as-received Al plate. Accordingly, the
measured intensity of (111) reflection is slightly weaker
than the random texture case. The intensities in the HAZ are
similar to those observed in the BM. On the other hand, in
the DXZ, the trend is reversed indicating dramatic changes
in the texture.
Figure 3(a) shows the macrostructure of Case 2. It
shows a dark half-circle region in the upper part of the cross
section where the tool shoulder was compressing. It is
designated as TMAZ since both heating and plastic
deformation affects this region similar to the TMAZ in Case
1. Note that the scattering volume included both TMAZ and
HAZ near the weld centerline as shown in Fig. 3(a). Figure
3(b) shows the diffraction patterns measured at the BM and
TMAZ/HAZ shown in the macrostructure. The two patterns
do not show significant differences in the intensities. In both
regions, the intensity of (200) peak is higher than that
predicted by the Rietveld refinement showing the
preservation of the initial rolling texture.
Figure 4 shows variations of the reduced intensities at
various positions across the weld center line. As the reduced
intensity of a particular (hkl) reflection is proportional to the
number of unit cells in the scattering volume with its [hkl]
parallel to the scattering vector satisfy the Bragg’s law, the
reduced intensity can provide quantitative insights to the
texture. The reduced intensities of the (200), (220), and
(110) reflections are measured with their scattering vector
parallel to LD, TD, and ND. Note that the intensity values
are corrected for the unequal background coefficient
measured at different positions in the specimen and also
corrected for the unequal scattering volume used for the LD
and TD measurements.
Figures 4(a)-(c) show the LD, TD, and ND components
of the reduced intensities of (200), (220), and (110) for Case
1. Firstly, in the BM, the relative ratio of the three
reflections in a given measurement direction is comparable
to the orientation-distribution-function results by Hirsch et
al. [15]. Note that the strong cube (200) or mixed cube
(200)/Goss (220) texture is typical for the recrystallized
aluminum plate [6,15]. More specifically, it was reported
that the recrystallzed pure (99.99%) aluminum plate, which
is achieved by heating for 10 seconds at 500 ºC after cold
rolling with the 95% thickness reduction, is composed of
56% of cube (200) grains and 17% of Goss (220) grains in
the LD. It means that the number of (200) unit cells within
the scattering volume diffracting to the LD are
approximately 3 times more than that of (220) unit cells in
the recrystallzed pure aluminum plate [15]. Similarly, in Fig.
4(a), the BM exhibits the reduced intensities of 2.3 for (200)
and 0.9 for (220), which indicates that there are
approximately 2.5 times more number of (200) unit cells
than (220) unit cells. Furthermore, the reduced intensity of
395
(200) reflections is approximately 8 times higher than that
of (111) reflections at the BM. Secondly, in Case 1, the
reduced intensities of the three reflections in all three
directions show considerable variations near the weld center
line including the DXZ, which experienced severe plastic
deformation during FSW. The reduced intensity of (200)
decreases considerably approaching the DXZ near the weld
center line. The reduction of the volume fraction of the
diffracting (200) unit cells near the weld center line is
accompanied by the increase in the volume fraction of the
diffracting (111) unit cells in all three directions. It is
reported that the pin surface and rotating direction of the
tool are roughly corresponding to the maximum-shear-stress
plane and direction, which are {111} plane along the <110>
direction in the face-centered-cubic materials [4]. Moreover,
Field et al. [6] showed, using electron backscattered
diffraction (EBSD), that the texture differences are
significant in the FSW 1100 aluminum alloy across the
boundary between the TMAZ and HAZ due to macroscopic
rigid-body rotations of the grains by the stirring FSW pin.
The current neutron-diffraction observation is consistent
with the literature [4-7], in that there is a dramatic change in
the texture of the DXZ.
Figures 4(d)-(f) show the variation of the reduced
intensities in Case 2. Overall, the ratio among the reduced
intensities of the three reflections in the BM is similar to
Case 1. More interestingly, however, the reduced intensity
profiles of Case 2 do not show significant variations near
the weld center line (i.e., no texture changes). The
difference between Cases 1 and 2 is that the stirring tool pin
used in Case 1 to create the DXZ is absent in Case 2 [16].
Based on the current results on Case 2, it is evident that the
frictional heating is not directly responsible for the changes
in the texture during FSP.
Conclusion
Time-of-flight neutron diffraction was used to
investigate the texture changes in the FSW plates. Two
friction-stir welding (FSW) specimens were prepared with a
purpose of separating the effects of frictional heating and
severe plastic deformation on the changes of the initial cube
texture in the as-received rolled 6061-T6 aluminum-alloy
plates: (Case 1) a plate processed with both stirring pin and
tool shoulder, i.e., a regular friction-stir welding plate
subjected to both plastic deformation and frictional heating,
and (Case 2) a plate processed only with the tool shoulder,
i.e., subjected mainly to the frictional heating. The reduced
intensity of the diffraction peaks, which is proportional to
the number of unit cells that are preferentially oriented to
fulfill Bragg’s law, is compared between Cases 1 and 2. In
Case 1, the reduced intensity of (200) reflection along the
normal direction of the plate (i.e., the number of the unit
cells in the scattering volume with the (200) plane normal
parallel to the normal direction of the plate) was
significantly decreased near the weld center line, while the
reduced intensity of the (111) reflection was increased. On
the other hand, the Case 2 does not show changes in the
reduced intensities. The current results clearly show that
only the severe plastic deformation due to the stirring pin
affects the preferred orientation during the friction-stir
processing, while heating alone from the tool shoulder has
little effects.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the NSF International
Materials Institutes (IMI) Program under contract DMR-
0231320, with Dr. C. Huber as the program director. This
work has benefited from the use of the Los Alamos Neutron
Science Center at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. This
facility is funded by the US Department of Energy under
Contract W-7405-ENG-36. The research was also sponsored
by the Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, Office of FreedomCAR and Vehicle
Technologies, as part of the High Temperature Materials
Laboratory User Program, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
managed by UT-Battle, LLC, for the U.S. Department of
Energy under contract number DE-AC05-00OR22725. The
authors would like to thank A. Frederick and T. Sisneros for
their help during the friction-stir processing and neutron-
diffraction measurements, respectively.
References
1. M. W. Mahoney, C. G. Rhodes, J. G. Flintoff, R. A.
Spurling, and W. H. Bingle, Properties of friction-stir-
welded 7075 T651 aluminum, Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 29A,
1955-64 (1998)
2. P. B. Berbon, W. H. Bingel, R. S. Mishra, C. C. Bampton,
and M. W. Mahoney, Friction stir processing: a tool to
homogenize nanocomposite aluminum alloys, Scripta
Mater., 44, 61-66 (2001)
3. Z. Y. Ma, R. S Mishra, and M.W. Mahoney, Superplastic
deformation behaviour of friction stir processed 7075Al
alloy, Acta Mater., 50, 4419-30 (2002)
4. Y. S Sato, H. Kokawa, K. Ikeda, M. Enomoto, S. Jogan,
and T. Hashimoto, Microtexture in the friction-stir weld of
an aluminum alloy, Metal. Mater. Trans. A, 32A, 941-48
(2001)
5. R. W. Fonda, J. F. Bingert, and K. J. Colligan,
Development of grain structure during friction stir welding,
Scripta Mat. 51, 243-48 (2004)
6. D. P. Field, T. W. Nelson, Y. Hovanski, and K. Jata,
Heterogeneity of crystallographic texture in friction stir
welds of aluminum, Metal. Mater. Trans. A, 32A, 2869-77
(2001)
7. R. W. Fonda, and J. F. Bingert, Microstructural evolution
in the heat-affected zone of a friction stir weld, Metal.
Mater. Trans. A, 35A, 1487-99 (2004)
8. S. H. C. Park, Y. S. Sato, and H. Kokawa, Basal plane
texture and flow pattern in friction stir weld of a magnesium
alloy, Metal. Mater. Trans. A, 34A, 987-94 (2003)
9. S. H. C. Park, Y. S. Sato, and H. Kokawa, Effect of
micro-texture on fracture location in friction stir weld of Mg
alloy AZ61 during tensile test, Scripta Mat., 49, 161-66
(2003)
396
10. D. G Carr, M. I. Ripley, T. M Holden, D. W. Brown,
and S. C. Vogel, Residual stress measurements in a
zircaloy-4 weld by neutron diffraction, Acta Materialia., 52,
4083-91 (2004)
11. H. J. Stone, P. J. Withers, T. M. Holden, S. M. Roberts,
and R. C. Reed, Metall. Comparison of three different
techniques for measuring the residual stresses in an
electron beam–welded plate of WASPALOY, Mater. Trans.
A, 30A, 1797-1808 (1999)
12. M. A. M. Bourke, D. C. Dunand, and E. Ustundag,
SMARTS – a spectrometer for strain measurement in
engineering materials, Appl. Phys. A, 74, S1707-09 (2002)
13. C. G Windsor, Pulsed neutron scattering. P 288,
London, Taylor and Francis (1981)
14. A. C. Larson and R. B. Von Dreele, General Structure
Analysis System (GSAS), Los Alamos National Laboratory
Report LAUR 86-748 (2004)
15. J. Hirsch, E. Nes, and K. Lücke, Rolling and
recrystallization textures in directionally solidified
aluminum, Acta Metall., 35, 427-38 (1984)
16. W. Woo, H Choo, D. W. Brown, Z. Feng, P. K. Liaw, S.
A. David, C. R. Hubbard, and M. A. M. Bourke, De-
convoluting the influences of heat and plastic deformation
on internal strains generated by friction stir processing,
Appl. Phys. Letters, 86, 231902, (2005)
Figure Captions
Fig. 1. A schematic of (a) the friction-stir processing (FSP)
and (b) the tool shape.
Fig. 2. (a) Microstructure of Case 1 (a typical FSW) and (b)
the diffraction patterns measured with the scattering vector
parallel to the normal direction (z-direction) at various
positions along y-direction: base material (BM), heat-
affected zone (HAZ), and dynamic recrystallized zone
(DXZ). The symbols (crosses) are the measured diffraction
data and the lines overlapping the crosses are the calculated
data using Rietveld refinement without considering the
texture. Thus, the discrepancy between the measured and
calculated data (shown with the arrows for the (111) and
(200) reflections) indicates the texture in the specimen.
Fig. 3. (a) Microstructure of Case 2 (shoulder only) and (b)
the diffraction patterns measured with the scattering vector
parallel to the normal direction at the base material (BM)
and thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ)/heat
affected zone (HAZ). The diamond (white dotted line) in
(a) indicates the size of the scattering area, which includes
both TMAZ and HAZ near the weld centerline.
Fig. 4. The reduced intensities of (200), (220), and (111)
reflections measured along the longitudinal, transverse, and
normal directions as a function of the distance from the
weld center line.
 FIGURE 1

z (Normal)
Compressive force
x (Longitudinal)

Rotating tool y (Transverse)

Advancing side
Weld center line
(b)
Bead

Retreating side m
Shoulder Pin m
6
6.5 mm 30

306 mm
Plane of neutron-diffraction measurements Case1 Case2

397
 FIGURE 2

DXZ TMAZ HAZ BM

(a)

5 mm
Advancing side Retreating side
(b)
BM
4

(200)
3

(111)
2

(311) (220)
Normalized Intensity (count/µsec, x10-2)
1
0

HAZ
4

(200)
3

(111)
2

(311) (220)
1
0

DXZ
4

(111)
3
2

(200)
(311) (220)
1
0

16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time of flight (msec)

398
 FIGURE 3

TMAZ HAZ BM
(a)

5 mm
Advancing side Retreating side
(b)
BM
4
Normalized Intensity (count/µsec, x10-2)

(200)
3

(111)
2

(311) (220)
1
0

TMAZ + HAZ
4

(200)
(111)
3
2

(311) (220)
1
0

16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time of flight (msec)

399
 FIGURE 4

BM HAZ TMAZ DXZ TMAZ HAZ BM BM TMAZ + HAZ BM

3.0
(a) Case 1: Longitudinal (d) Case 2: Longitudinal
Reduced Intensity (arbitrary scale)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
3.0
(b) Case 1: Transverse (e) Case 2: Transverse
Reduced Intensity (arbitrary scale)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
3.0
(c) Case 1: Normal (f) Case 2: Normal
Reduced Intensity (arbitrary scale)

2.5

2.0 Advancing side Retreating side Advancing side Retreating side

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Distance from weld center line (mm) Distance from weld center line (mm)
200 220 111 200 220 111

400
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Investigation of Properties of Friction Stir Welds in Age Hardenable 7xxx
Aluminium Alloys
V M Linton, S Renc, I H Brown
University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Abstract
The effects of friction stir welding (FSW) on a 7xxx series
aluminium alloy, 7075 T651, have been investigated. The
changes in strength and hardness that resulted from FSW were
measured in the nugget, thermo-mechanically affected zone
(TMAZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ), and compared with
the baseline properties for this alloy. Residual stress profiles
were meausred across the weld using neutron diffraction. The
results showed good agreement with previous results
published in the literature.
Introduction
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a relatively new process,
having been invented in 1991 at The Welding Institute (TWI)
in Cambridge, England [1]. Unlike conventional fusion
welding processes friction stir welding is a solid state process.
This means that during FSW no molten weld metal is formed.
Instead a non-consumable tool is used to create frictional
heating of the material. This softens the material and allows it
to be plastically deformed to form the weld at lower
temperatures than would be required to melt the material.
FSW is also different from other friction joining processes
such as rotary friction welding in that it is not instantaneous.
Instead the tool is traversed along the joint line gradually
forming the weld as it goes. The solid state nature of the FSW
process offers several advantages, not least of which is the
ability to weld materials and join dissimilar materials that
could not be welded successfully using conventional
processes. Other advantages of FSW include low distortion
levels in the workpiece, no fume production and no filler
metal is required [2, 3]. These advantages have seen FSW
used to weld a wide range of materials, in a number of joint
geometries, usually in a single pass which can offer significant
production speed increased over conventional welding
techniques.
FSW uses a non-consumable tool, consisting of a shoulder
with a protruding pin, to make the weld. Over the years a large
number of different tool geometries have been produced to
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
make welds in a range of materials in different thicknesses.
The FSW tool is rotated at high speed and slowly plunged into
the workpiece. The frictional heating generated softens the
material in the vicinity of the tool allowing it to be ‘stirred’.
Once a plasticised zone of material is established around the
tool, the tool is traversed along the line on which the weld is to
be made. The material is continuously extruded from the front
to the back of the tool, while the downwards pressure of the
tool forges the material to form a metallurgical bond. The
continuous rotation of the tool leads to it having an advancing
edge and a retreating edge relative to the traverse direction of
the tool. The advancing edge is that which is moving in the
same direction as the tool translation, the retreating edge is
that which is moving in the opposite direction to the traverse
direction. This inherent asymmetry of the process can produce
differences in the microstructure and properties on both sides
of the final weld.
In this paper the properties of a friction stir weld made in 6mm
thick 7075-T651 material are examined. This is a standard
grade of aluminum commonly used in the aircraft industry. In
addition, the residual stresses formed in the material as a result
of welding are investigated.
Experimental
Material and welding details
The material used in this study was a 6mm thick 7075-T651
rolled plate. This alloy has a nominal composition of Al-5.1-
6.1%Zn-2.1-2.9%Mg-1.2-2%Cu-0.18-028%Cr. The material
was in the solution heat treated and artificially aged condition,
with stress relief after heat treatment. A Butler milling
machine that had been modified specifically for use as a FSW
machine was used to make welds in the 7075-T651 material.
Plates 145mm by 300mm and 100mm by 300mm in size with
a square butt weld preparation were welded together to form
full penetration butt welds along their length. The tool
consisted of a 25mm diameter scroll-profile shoulder with an
M8 metric threaded pin. A tool rotational speed of 350 RPM
was used in conjunction with a travel speed of 80 mm/min.
401
The tool was held with a 0o tilt relative to the normal axis of
the plate being welded. The welding direction was transverse
to the rolling direction of the plate.
Microstructural and property determination
Samples were removed from the plates, transverse to the
welding direction, for metallographic examination. Samples
containing the full width of the weld were ground and
polished using standard metallographic techniques. The
samples were not mounted for examination. The samples were
etched in a solution containing 55ml H20, 20ml HNO3, 20ml
HCl and 5ml HF to reveal the microstructure of the weld
region. Images were taken using an optical Olympus
microscope.
Hardness traverse measurements were made using a Vickers
microhardness tester on the same samples that were used for
metallography. The indents were made with a 1kg load.
Hardness profiles across the welds were measured for the
welds in the as-welded condition and after 2 days, 1 week, 2
weeks and 5 months. Hardness measurements were made in
1mm increments from the weld centreline to 30mm from the
weld centreline on each side of the weld.
Tensile test samples were machined from the FSW plates for
testing. The samples had a dumbbell shape, with a gauge
length of 56mm, a gauge section width of 12.5mm and a
thickness of 5mm. The surfaces of the samples each side were
slightly ground to remove the marking produced during the
fabrication of the welds. The weld was oriented transverse to
the tensile test piece and the full width of the weld, along with
parent material each side, was contained within the sample
gauge length. The samples were tested at room temperature
in load-extension tests and the yield and ultimate tensile
stresses were recorded. Tensile testing was conducted for as-
welded samples, 2 week old and two month old samples.
Residual stress measurements
Residual stress measurements were conducted on an intact
weld which had been radiographed to ensure that it did not
contain any defects. The residual stress profile was calculated
using the neutron beam diffraction method. This experimental
work for this was conducted at the Australian Nuclear Science
and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) at Lucas Heights,
NSW, Australia.
Neutron diffraction relies upon the fact that a beam of
neutrons directed at an aluminium crystal will be scattered by
a fixed angle, given by the Bragg equation:
λ = 2d sin θ
where λ is the wavelength of the incoming beam of neutrons,
d is the spacing between crystallographic planes and θ is the
diffraction angle. The diffraction angle can be measured and
if the wavelength of the neutrons is known, then d can be
easily calculated. If a number of cuts are then made in the
sample to relieve any residual stresses, the measurements can
be repeated to find the lattice spacing in the unstressed state,
402
known as d0. With both d and d0, the change in lattice spacing
caused by the residual stresses can be determined. This is the
elastic strain ε and is given by the equation:
d − d0
ε= = − Δθ cot θ
d0
If the measurements are made in the principal stress
directions, the principal stresses can be calculated using the
equation:
σA =
E
[(1 − ν )ε A + ν (ε B + ε C )]
(1 + ν )(1 − 2ν )
where σA, σB and σC are the principal stresses, εA, εB and εC
are the strains measured in the corresponding principal
directions and E and ν are the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s
ratio, respectively [4].
The (113) reflection was used for the measurements. Setup of
the plate was achieved through a combination of alignment by
theodolite and using the neutron beam to find the plate edges.
The plate examined was approximately 300mm x 100mm in
size, with a thickness of 6mm with the full penetration square
butt weld located parallel to the long axis of the plate. The
plate was not treated or machined in any way after welding
and the measurements were made while the weld was less than
a week old. A schematic of the welded plate is shown in
Figure 1. Measurements of residual stress were made on a line
transverse to the welding direction, as shown in Figure 1 and
at the mid thickness location. Measurements were taken at
1.5mm intervals out to 21mm each side from the weld
centreline. Two further measurements were made 25 and
30mm from the weld centreline on both sides of the weld.
Scans were made in the normal, transverse and longitudinal
orientations. A gauge volume of 2mm x 2mm x 3mm was
used for the transverse and normal orientations. For these
directions data was collected from each point for 45 minutes.
In the longitudinal direction a 2mm x 2mm x 20mm gauge
volume was used with the long side in the direction of the
weld because the residual stresses do not vary significantly
along the weld. For this orientation data was collected at each
point for 78 minutes.
The stress free lattice spacing parameter, d0, was measured by
wire cutting the region of the weld that had been used for the
strain measurements into 2mm wide by 2mm long by 6mm
deep segments to relieve the residual stresses in the weld
region. These small pieces were then glued down onto a steel
sheet in their original positions and orientations. Strain
measurements were then made on this sample, at a spacing of
1.5mm from the weld centreline out to 30mm either side of the
weld centreline.
 measurements taken 5mm below the weld surface, i.e. 1mm
from the bottom surface of the plate and in the centre of the
plate. After 2 days the hardness of the nugget had recovered to
120Hv1, 70% of the parent material hardness. The hardness of
the weld nugget continued to harden until after 5 months the
nugget had recovered to a hardness of 140Hv1, which
represents 82% of the parent material hardness.

1mm from Weld Surface

190

170

Hardness, HV 1.0
150

130

110 As-Welded

Figure 1: Schematic of welded plate used for strain scanning 2 Day

90
and the location of the measurement points. Dimensions in 1 Week
mm. 70 2 Week
50 5 Month
Results -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from weld centreline, mm
Microstructural and hardness determination
3 mm from Weld Surface
The macrostructure of a representative cross section of the
welds is shown in Figure 2. The weld has a typical appearance 190
with a central nugget region having an ‘onion ring’ 170
Hardness, HV 1.0

appearance. 150
130
2 Day
110
1 Week
90
70 2 Week
50 5 Month
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from weld centreline, mm

5mm from Weld Surface

190
170
Hardness, HV 1.0

150
130 As-Welded
110 2-Day
Figure 2: Transverse section through the FSW. The advancing
90 1 Week
side is on the right hand side of the figure and the retreating
side is on the left hand side of the figure. Units in mm. 70 2 Week
50 5 Month
The results of the hardness testing are shown in Figure 3, -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
displaying both the difference in hardness with depth through Distance from weld centreline, mm
the plate and with time. It can be seen that in the as-welded
Figure 3: Hardness traverse measurements made at depths of
condition the cross weld hardness profile had a roughly ‘W’
1mm, 3mm and 5mm from the top surface of the weld.
shape with all regions of the weld having a lower hardness
Measurements were made for the weld in the as-welded
than the parent material. The hardness of the weld nugget
condition and after 2days, 1 week, 2 weeks and 5 months.
1mm below the surface of the weld was approximately
110Hv1 in the as welded condition. This corresponded to
Over the same period of time the minimum hardness level in
about 65% of the hardness of the parent material (170Hv1).
the weld zone increased from 95Hv1 to 105Hv1, an increase
The minimum in the hardness profile, 95Hv1, occurred at the
from 56% to 62% of the parent material hardness. The
edge of the shoulder and corresponded to 56% of the hardness
hardness traverses at all depths in the plate gave the same
of the parent material. A similar trend was noted for

403
values. The location of the point of minimum hardness moved 1 Week Old Longitudinal
outwards during the recovery process, from approximately
12.5mm from the weld centreline (the position of the edge of 200

the shoulder) in the as welded condition to 17.5mm from the 150

weld centre line (a position in the heat affected zone) after five

Stress (MPa)
100
months.
50
Tensile testing results
0
The results of the tensile testing are given in Table 1. The
strength of the weld increased with time so that after 2 months -50
the samples had recovered approximately 75% of the ultimate -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
tensile strength of the parent material. Distance from weld centreline (mm)

Examination of the failed samples showed that the as welded 1 Week Old Transverse
and 2 week old samples had a shear fracture located in the
100
HAZ, approximately 12mm from the weld centreline along the 50

Stress (MPa)
top of the weld. This corresponds with the position of 0
minimum hardness in Figure 3. The 2 month old samples -50
broke in the weld region within 1mm of the weld centreline. -100
Closer examination of these latter samples indicated that the -150
-200
fracture was associated with a small area in the root of the
-250
weld where, although a good weld had been made, the
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
penetration ideally would have been higher. Consequently it
may be that after 2 months the ultimate tensile strength of the Distance from weld centreline (mm)
weld would have increased further if it had fractured in the
HAZ.
1 Week Old Normal

Table 1: Results of the tensile testing of cross weld tensile test 150

samples. 100
Stress (MPa)

50
Sample 0.2% proof stress, UTS,
0
MPa MPa
As welded A 321 365 -50
As welded B 331 342 -100
2 weeks old A 379 413 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
2 months old A 344 435 Distance from weld centreline (mm)
2 months old B 345 425
Parent Yield Strength – 503MPa
Parent Ultimate Tensile Strength – 572MPa
Figure 4: Residual stress measurements made on a line
traverse to the welding direction at the mid wall location.
Residual stress measurements
The results of the residual stress measurements made on a Discussion
plate less than a week old are given in Figure 4. All of the
stress profiles display a peak in the value of the residual stress The welding process was seen to soften the weld region with a
in the weld nugget and a minimum in the stress level hardness minimum located either side of the shoulder, in the
corresponding to the heat affected zone. A slightly higher HAZ. In the centre of the weld the hardness profile exhibited a
level of stress was recorded on the advancing side of the weld plateau, coincident with the TMAZ. Other authors have noted
joint; the right hand side of the Figure. the same hardness profile in this alloy and linked the hardness
plateau to the recrystallised region of the TMAZ [5, 6].
The highest levels of stress were recorded in the longitudinal Leonard [5] recorded that the hardness plateau had a hardness
direction with the lowest stresses occurring in the transverse 60% of that of the parent material in the as-welded condition,
direction. similar to the hardness reduction recorded in this study (65%).
The hardness minima, located in the heat affected zone had
hardness values 50% of that of the parent hardness in the as-
welded condition. The softening of the weld zone of this
material after FSW has been attributed to the at least partial
dissolution of precipitates responsible for the strength of the

404
material in the TMAZ and to over ageing (coarsening) of these
precipitates in the HAZ [5, 7].
As with this study, Leonard [5] observed an increase in the
hardness of the weld zone with time as a result of the natural
ageing of the material. This recovery increased the hardness of
the plateau to 80% of the parent hardness and the minima to
57% of the parent hardness after 2 months of natural ageing.
However Leonard did not observe any further increase in the
hardness of the weld after 2 months. These increases in the
measured hardness values are broadly the same as the
hardness recovery seen in this work. However, in this work a
continual improvement in the hardness of the weld zone was
measured up until 5 months after welding (about the time of
writing of this paper). It is unknown whether further increases
in hardness will occur with time and hardness measurements
will continue to be made to determine the point when no
further substantial increase in hardness is measured.
The results of the tensile testing showed the same recovery of
the weld region strength with natural ageing, with the ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) of the weld increasing from 62% to
75% of the UTS of the parent material over 2 months. From
the results of the hardness testing it is possible that some small
further increase in UTS could occur with time.
Mahoney et al [7] also carried out cross weld tensile testing of
FSWs in 6.35mm thick 7075 T651 material. Mahoney et al did
not state how long after welding the tensile testing took place,
but the welds failed by shear fractures in the HAZ,
approximately 12mm from the weld centreline and 7-8mm
from the edge of the weld nugget. This location was noted to
have experienced temperatures between 300 and 350oC during
welding and was a region where the strengthening precipitates
had coarsened. This means that the microstructure was
overaged in this position, reducing its strength relative to that
of the parent material. Although Mahoney et al did not provide
hardness profiles for the welds examined in their work, it is
likely that both their welds and the welds in this work failed in
the same region of the weldment for the same reasons.
The results of the residual stress measurements showed that
for each direction the highest stresses exist in the TMAZ, just
outside the weld nugget. The minimum stress for each
direction was in the HAZ of the weld. The residual stress
profile for each of the directions was slightly asymmetrical,
with higher residual stresses occurring on the advancing edge
side of the weld (right hand side of the weld in Figure 4).
Staron et al [8] measured the residual stresses around a friction
stir weld in a 6.35mm thick 2024 aluminium alloy using
neutron diffraction. The measurements were taken on a line
traverse to the welding direction in the mid thickness of the
plate. The measurements of lattice spacing for the unstrained
lattice, d0, were made on a piece of unwelded parent material.
The results of Staron et al’s testing showed that the residual
stress in the longitudinal direction had the same profile as that
measured in this work, with a peak stress of 60MPa. Staron et
al measured transverse and normal residual stresses and
405
showed them to have a W shape profile across the scan and to
be largely compressive. These latter results differ from the
measurements taken in this work, but the reason for this
difference is not immediately clear. However, it is possible
that the different ways in which the d0 measurements were
made could have had a major impact on the calculated values
of residual stresses and hence resulted in the observed
differences. Staron et al noted that the d0 values could be
different in the weld region compared to those in the parent
material. They suggested that the d0 values should be
measured on a comb (with relaxed residual stresses) cut from
the weld region.
Peel et al [9] measured residual stresses around a friction stir
weld in 3mm thick AA5083 using synchrotron X-ray
diffraction. Their results present very similar profiles to those
measured in this work for residual stress values in both the
longitudinal and transverse direction. They also noted that the
stresses were highest in the longitudinal direction and had the
same asymmetry in the results with higher residual stress
values being measured on the advancing side of the weld. Peel
et al demonstrated that the hardness and residual stress profiles
measured in their work had the same profiles as each other
although the hardness profiles were slightly wider. The same
result is apparent in this work. Peel et al calculated the
unstrained lattice spacing, d0, and showed the values to vary
across the weld region with a dip in the d0 values at the weld
centreline. A similar profile was observed in the d0
measurements made in this work.
Similar residual stress profiles were also measured by Sutton
et al [10] in a 7mm thick 2024-T3 aluminium alloy. The
residual stress values were measured on a section transverse to
the welding direction using neutron diffraction. Values of d0
were measured on combs cut from the welds. Sutton et al
presented their work as stress contour maps rather than
profiles, but as with our work the longitudinal stresses had the
highest magnitude, with the peak stress being measured on the
advancing side of the weld. The asymmetric profile of the
stress fields was attributed to the higher thermal gradients on
the advancing side of the weld.
Summary
In this work the time dependant properties, strength and
hardness, of friction stir welds in 7075-T651 have been
measured and the results show a good recovery of these
properties with time. Although full strength was not recovered
in the weld HAZ, the minimum hardness measure after 5
months was 62% of the parent hardness. It is possible that this
hardness may still recover further, albeit at a slower rate.
The residual stress measurements in this work gave similar
profiles to those measured in other aluminium alloys in
previous work, with the highest values of residual stress
occurring in the longitudinal direction. The level of residual
stress was highest in the TMAZ with the peak residual stress
values being located on the advancing side of the weld.
 Conclusions
1. Friction stir welding of AA7075-T651 resulted in a
decrease in the hardness of the weld zone relative to the
hardness of the parent plate.
2. The hardness of the weld zone improved with time due to
the natural ageing of the material, until the lowest
hardness values in the weld zone were at least 62% of the
hardness of the parent material.
3. The strength of the material in the weld zone was also
degraded as a result of welding, but improved with time,
recovering to approximately 75% of the ultimate tensile
strength of the parent material after two months.
4. Residual stress measurements in the weld zone showed
that the highest residual stresses occurred in the
londitudinal direction, i.e. parallel to the weld direction,
and in the TMAZ.
5. Both the hardness and residual stress measurements had
their highest values on the advancing side of the weld.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to the thank the Cooperative Research
Centre for Welded Structures (CRC-WS) for financial
assistance with this project. The CRC-WS was established,
and is supported under the Australian Government's
Cooperative Research Centres Program.
6. Y.J Chao, Y. Wang and K.W. Miller: Effect of
Friction Stir Welding and Dynamic Properties of
AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T7351, Welding Research
Supplement, 196s-200s, August 2001
7. M.W. Mahoney, C.G. Rhodes, J.G. Flintoff, R.A.
Spurling and W.H. Bingel: Properties of Friction Stir
Welded 7075 T651 Aluminium, Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A, Vol 29A, No 7, p1955-
1964, 1998
8. P. Staron, M Koçak and S. Williams: Residual
Stresses in Friction Stir Welded Al Sheets, Applied
Physics A, 74 (Suppl), S1161-1162, 2002
9. M. Peel, A. Steuwer, M. Preuss and P.J. Withers:
Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Residual
Stresses as a Function of Welding Speed in
Aluminium AA5083 Friction Stir Welds, Acta
Materialia, 51, 4791-4801, 2003
10. M.A. Sutton, A.P. Reynolds, D-Q Wang and C.R.
Hubbard: A Study of Residual Stresses and
Microstructure in 2024-T3 Aluminium Friction Stir
Butt Welds, Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology, Vol 124, p215-221, April 2002

The authors would like to thank the Australian Institute of

Nuclear Science and Engineering for providing fincial
assistance (Award number AINGRA04204) to enable work on
the measurement of residual stresses to be conducted. Thanks
also go to Richard Blevens of ANSTO for assistance with the
residual stress measurements.

References
1. W.M. Thomas, E.D Nicholas, J.C. Needham, M.G.
Murch, P. Temple-Smith, CJ Dawes: Friction Stir
Butt Welding, International Patent Application No
PCT/GB92/02203, GB Patent Application No.
9125978.8 (1991), US Patent No. 5,460,317.1995
2. O. T. Midling, E Morley and A.O. Kluken: Joining of
Aluminium Constructions by Friction Stir Welding,
New and Alternative Materials for the Transportation
Industries, Proceedings of the 27th International
Symposium on Automotive Technology and
Automation, Aachen, Germany, Oct 31-Nov 4 1994
3. C. J. Dawes and M.W. Thomas: Friction Stir Process
Welds Aluminium Alloys, Welding Journal, pp41-45,
March 1996
4. G.A Webster and R.C. Wimpory: Residual Stress in
Weldments, Journal of Neutron Research, Vol 9,
pp281-287, 2001
5. A.J. Leonard: Microstructure and Ageing Behaviour
of FSWs in Aluminium Alloys 2014A-T651 and 7075-
T651, 2nd International Symposium on Friction Stir
Welding, Gothenburg, Sweden, 26-28th June, 2000

406
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Parametric Study on High Speed-Friction Stir Welding

of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys
Gangadhar Bhat K, Dr. George Talia
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita State University,
1845 N Fairmount, Wichita, Kansas 67260, USA

Experimental setup and procedure

Abstract
This study is focused on welding of dissimilar aluminum
alloys at different weld parameters, speed and feed. The
interactions between them were correlated with the hardness
of the weld. The experiment was designed using Stat-Ease
software and was carried out at high speeds ranging from
12000 rpm to 15000 rpm and transverse feed rates of 3
inches/min (75mm/min) to 7 inches/min (175 mm/min). It was
observed that at lower transverse feed, i.e. at 3 ipm* the
hardness values were higher. The hardness value of Al 7075-O
in heat affected zone (HAZ) was increased by 40%. The
tensile test results showed that the weld to parent ratio of the
yield strength with respect to Al6061-T6 was 75% and Al
2024-T3 was 60%. The microstructure of the weld was also
studied. The study showed that the grain refinement had
occurred in the HAZ of Al7075-O during the process which
increased the hardness of the weld in the region.
Introduction
The experiment was conducted using aluminum alloys, 4
inches x 3 inches and 0.08 inches thick. Weld 1 is Al6061-T6
welded with Al 2024-T3 shown in fig.2 and weld 2 is Al
6061-T6 with Al7075-O bare (annealed) shown in fig.3.
Rotational speeds of the welds were varied from 12000 rpm to
15000 rpm and transverse feed rates of the weld were varied
from 3ipm to 7ipm. The experiments were carried out in
FADAL milling machine using special fixtures made to hold
the work piece and mount the high speed spindle. For the tool
high speed steel material was used, with shoulder diameter of
0.37 inches, tool pin diameter of 0.12 inches and pin length of
0.07 inches. The tool was tilted at an angle of 2.5 degree with
the vertical. The shoulder was machined with a concave angle
of 15 degree as shown in fig.4, because the flat surface of the
shoulder will allow the material to escape out of the shoulder-
work piece interface which causes defects and burrs in edges
of the weld.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a new welding technique [1],

invented by The Welding Institute, UK, in 1992. FSW is a
solid state welding which includes extruding and forging of
the metal by the tool and the material is welded without using
the filler material. Figure1 shows the schematic description of
FSW. FSW offers many advantages over fusion welding Figure1: Schematic illustration of HS-FSW
including the absence of fumes, spatter, and porosity as well
as very minimal residual stress and distortion. The technique
is being successfully used to join low temperature metals,
especially aluminum and its alloys [2, 3, 4].

Increase in the use of aluminum in automotive, aerospace and

other related industries has renewed the interests in
weldability of dissimilar aluminum alloys [2, 5]. FSW is now
currently used to weld mainly similar aluminum and its alloys.
However, little is known about the welding of dissimilar
Figure 2: HS-FSW of Al2024-T3 with Al6061-T6
aluminum alloys by FSW. There is also considerable interest
in the industries on researching low speed FSW and determine
the parameters affecting the process [6]. But there has been
very little research done on FSW at higher speeds [7] and
joining dissimilar aluminum alloys at higher speeds. In order
to understand the process better an effort has been made in this
paper to study the tensile, hardness and microstructure of the
welds [8].
Figure 3: HS-FSW of Al6061-T6 with Al7075-O
* ipm=inches/min

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 407

 Results and Discussions

1. Hardness Test

Rockwell hardness at the center of the weld, for both weld 1

Figure 4: Schematic illustration of the shoulder concave angle
The experiment was run according to the design using Stat-
Ease software. Figures 5 and 6 show the experimental matrix
used for both the welds. The response in this experiment, the
hardness values (taken at the center of the welds) were put into
the matrix.
and weld 2 are shown in table 1. Maximum hardness at the
center of the weld is 85.2(HRF) at 12000 rpm and 3
inches/min for weld 1.
Figures 8 and 9 shows the hardness across the weld for weld 1
at 12000 rpm and 15000 rpm respectively. In both the cases it
can observed that, the minimum hardness is in the HAZ of
Al6061-T6. The values decreased from the nugget region
through HAZ and increased to the hardness values of the
parent material as the distance from center of weld
increased[9]. In the nugget zone the value of the hardness
increases due to the fine recrystalization of the grains during
the process. There is very slight variation in the hardness value
on Al 2024-T3 side of the weld.

Table1: Rockwell hardness at the center of the weld

Speed Feed Rockwell Hardness

(rpm) (ipm) (HRF)
Weld 1 Weld 2
12000
3 85.2 80.5
7 82.0 78.0
Figure 5: Experimental matrix for weld 1
3 84.2 78.9
15000
7 80.3 77.2
rpm=revolution per min, ipm= inches/min

100
Rockwell Hardness F Scale

90

80

70
HAZ HAZ
60
Nugget Zone
Feed -3 ipm Feed -7 ipm
50

Figure 6: Experimental matrix for weld 2 40

30
Al 6061-T6 Al2024-T3
The harndess values were tested at the center of the weld and 20

also across the length of the weld perpendicular to the welding 10

directions. Tensile tests of the weld across the specimen are 0

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
also conducted. Figure shows the tensile test specimen used Length across the weld
for the testing.
Figure8: Hardness value for weld 1 at 12000rpm

Hardness values across the weld for weld 2 at speed 12000

Figure7: Tensile test specimen (dimensions in inches)
rpm and 15000 rpm are shown in figs.10 and 11. The hardness
value graph on Al6061-T6 side of the weld is similar to that of
the weld1.
The hardness values increases to maximum in HAZ of
Al7075-O. This is caused due to the grain refinement of
Al7075-O during the FSW process (Al7075-O is a annealed
alloy).

408
 100
It can be observed that at lower feed rates tool is in contact
90
with the material for larger interval of time and sufficeint
Rockwell Hardness F Scale

80
amount of heat is generated to get good quality weld.
HAZ HAZ
70
Hardness at transverse feed rate 3 inches/min is higher than 7
Nugget Zone
60 inches/min at speeds 12000 rpm and 15000 rpm for both the
Feed-3 ipm Feed-7 ipm
50 welds.
40

30
Al 6061-T6 Al2024-T3 Maximum hardness for weld 1 was 93.6 HRF on Al2024-T3
20
side of the weld at 12000 rpm and 3 inches/min and for weld 2
10

0 DESIGN-EXPERT Plot
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Interaction Graph
Rockwell Hardness B: Feed
87.2
Length across the weld X = A: Speed
Y = B: Feed

Design Points 85.45

Figure 9: Hardness value for weld 1 at 15000 rpm

Rockwell Hardness
B- 3.000
B+ 7.000

83.7

100

90 81.95
Rockwell Hardness F Scale

80
HAZ
HAZ 80.2

70
Nugget Zone 12000.00 12750.00 13500.00 14250.00 15000.00

60

50 Figure 12: The interaction between the rotational speed and

40
Feed-7 ipm Feed 3ipm
transverse feed of the weld 1.
30
Al7075-O Al 6061-T6
20
DESIGN-EXPERT Plot Interaction Graph
Hardness B: Feed
10 80.5
Hardness = 79.4

X: A: Speed = 13500
0 Y : B: Feed = 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 79.6024
Run #6
Length across the weld Design Points

Hardness
B- 3.000
B+ 7.000 78.7048

Figure10: Hardness value for weld 1at 12000rpm

77.8072

100

90 76.9097
Rockwell Hardness F Scale

80 HAZ HAZ 12000.00 12750.00 13500.00 14250.00 15000.00

A: Speed
70 Nugget Zone
60

50
Figure 13: The interaction between the rotational speed and
40
Feed 7ipm Feed 3 ipm transverse feed of the weld 2.
30

Al7075-O Al 6061-T6 was 94.3 HRF on Al7075-O side of the weld at 12000 rpm and
20
3 inches/min. The hardness value decreases as the speed
10
increases.
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2.Tensile Test
Length across the weld
From tensile testing we could observe that the tensile strength
Figure 11: Hardness value for weld 1at 15000rpm of the weld to parent ratio with respect to Al2024-T3 was
around 60%, Al6061-T6 was around 75% and Al7075-O was
Hardness values is increased by 40% on the HAZ of Al7075- 195%. Fracture occurred both out side the weld and also at the
O side of the weld. center of the weld. Fracture generally took place on the
weaker side of the two aluminum alloys. Table 2 and 3 shows
Interaction plots of speed and transverse feed of the weld were the tensile test results obtained for weld1 and weld2
obtained from Stat-Ease software, where the experiment was respectively.
run according to the matrix is shown in fig.12 for weld 1 and
fig.13 for weld 2.

409
Table2 Tensile properties of weld 1 Table3 Tensile properties of weld 2

Speed Feed Yield Speed Feed Yield

(rpm) (ipm) strength Failure Location (rpm) (ipm) strength Failure Location
(PSI)** (PSI)
12000 3 26837.5 HAZ Al6061-T6 side 12000 3 28580.5 at the center of the weld
7 28766.4 HAZ Al6061-T6 side 7 28395.1 at the center of the weld

15000 3 28891.1 center of the weld region 15000 3 27512.0 HAZ Al7075-O side
7 24903.3 HAZ Al6061-T6 side 7 25763.7 HAZ Al7075-O side

Al2024-T3 Al6061-T6

D C A
B
a b c

d
e f g

Figure 14:Typical microstructure of weld 1 at different speeds and feed rates; (a) Microstructure of weld at 15000 rpm and 3 ipm;
(b) Microstructure of weld at 12000 rpm and 3 ipm; (c) Microstructure of weld at 15000 rpm and 7ipm;(d)Microstructure of the
weld at at 12000 rpm and 7ipm.(e) HAZ of Al6061-T6 around position A; (f) alternative lamellae formed around position B in the
nuget zone; (g) mixed grains of both the alloys around position C which constitutes much of the region in the nugget zone; (h) HAZ of
Al2024-T3 around postion D.

3. Microstructure
In dissimilar welds the microstructure can be differentiated
into three distinct region. The regions include, the HAZ, the
Mixed Zone (MZ) of two alloys and Alternative Lamellae
Zone (ALZ) of the two alloys [10, 11]. The HAZ consists of
unmixed region of the alloys on the both side of the welds.
Other two regions are observed at the center of the weld which
is in the nugget region. The MZ and ALZ of the alloys are
caused due to the stirring action of the tool pin and the
mechanically applied forging pressure by the shoulder of the
tool.
Figure 14 shows the microstrucutre of weld 1 at different
speeds and feed rates. In fig13e we can see that it consists on
unmixed region of Al6061-T6 in the HAZ. The fig.13f shows
the ALZ of the two aluminum alloys, due to the stirring action
of the rotating pin. This zone is observed on the periphery of
the tool diameter zone. The grain structures are fine and
deformation has taken place. Fig.13g shows mechanically
mixed region of two aluminum alloys due to the stirring action
of the tool and pressure applied by the shoulder of the tool.
The grain structure is fine and uniformly distributed and
maximum hardness is observed in this region.
Figure 15 shows the microstructure of weld 2 at 12000 rpm
and 3 inches/min. It is very similar to that of weld 1. The HAZ
of Al6061-T6 consists of unmixed zones of the alloy. The
center of the weld nugget consists of two regions,
mechanically mixed region and alternative lamellae of the two
alloys as shown in figs.15c and 15d.
**PSI=pounds per square inch.

410
 Al6061-T6 Al7075-O
A C D
B
a b
c d
Figure 15: Microstructure of the weld 2 at 12000 rpm and 3 ipm; (b) HAZ of Al6061-T6 around position A; (c) alternative lamellae
formed around position B in the nuget zone; (d) mixed grains of both the alloys around position C; (e) HAZ of Al7075-O around
postion D.
Grain refinement in HAZ Al7075-O takes place which
increases the hardness of the weld by 40% of that of the parent
material. The grain refinement means producing a uniform
grain structure which is equiaxed, caused due to the high
temperature during the process, which in result improves the
processing and mechanical properties of the material.
Conculsions
From the experimental results and observations following
conclusions can be derived
1) From the experiment it was observed that as the rotational
speed increased the hardness value decreased. Even though as
the speed increases, the heat input also increases but optimum
heat input is required to get a good quality weld.
2) The hardness values were higher at lower transverse feed
rates. We can observe from the hardness table and
experiment that the value of hardness is higher at 3 inches/min
than at 7 inches/min.
3) Hardness incase of HAZ of Al7075-O incresaes by 40 %
during the process due to the grain refinement which is caused
by the heating of the material during welding.
4) Weld to parent ratio of tensile strength of Al2024-T3 was
around 60%, Al6061-T6 was around 75%.
5) Tensile test of dissimilar aluminum alloy welds showed that
the fracture occurred in the HAZ location in most of the
welds. It can be also inferred that fracture always occurred on
the softer material when compared to the two dissimilar
materials.
411
e
6) Microstructure of the weld consists of HAZ and nugget
region. The nugget is made up of mixed zone of two alloys
and alternative lamellae of the two alloys which is caused due
to the stirring action of the tool pin and force applied by the
shoulder during the process.
Acknowledgements
This project was financially suported by Aircraft Design and
Manufacturing Research Center (ADMRC) at Mechanical
Department, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS.
References
1) Friction Stir Butt Welding---- Thomas, W.M. et al., U.S.
Patent No. 5,460,317
2) Wang Deqing, Liu Shuhua, “Study of Friction Stir
Welding of aluminum”, Journal of materials science
39(2004) 1689-1693.
3) Christopher B.Smith, Wade Crusan, Jonathan R.Hootman,
John F. Hinrichs, Robert.J.Heideman and Jeffrey S.Noruk, “
Friction Stir Welding in the automotive industry”,
Aluminum 2001-Proceeding of the TMS 2001, Aluminum
Automotive joining sessions.
4) K.V.Jata, “Friction Stir Welding of high aluminum
alloys”, Materials Science Vols. 331-337 (2000), p 1701-
1712.
5) Maria Posada, Jennifer P.nguyen, David R. Forrest, Johnnie
J. DeLoach, Robert DeNale: “ Friction Stir Welding
advances joining Technology” The AMPTIAC Quarterly,
Vol.7 Number 3, p. 13-20.
6) A.P.Reynolds, W.D.Lockwood and T.U.Seidel,
“Processing-Property correlation in Friction Stir Welds”,
Materials Science Forum, Vols.331-337 (2000), p1719-1724.
7) “A Combined experimental and analytical modeling
approach to understand High Speed-Friction Stir
Welding” by Dr. George E. Talia, Professor, Mechanical
Engineering Department, Wichita State University,
Wichita,KS.
8) I.Shigematsu, Y.-J.Kwon, K.Suzuki, T.Imai, N.Saito:
“Joining of 5083 and 6061 aluminum alloys by Friction
Stir Welding”, Journal of Materials Science Letters 22, 2003,
353-356.
9) 4) Sunggon lim, Sangshik Kim, Chang-Gil Lee, and
Sungjoon Kim: “Tensile behavior of Friction Stir Welded
Al6061-T651”, Metallurgical and materials Transactions, vol.
35A, Sep. 2004 p. 2829-2835
10) J.H Ouyanf and R.Kovacevic: “Material flow and
microstructure in the Friction Stir butt welds of the same
and dissimilar aluminum alloys”, Journal of materials
engineering and performance vol. 11(1) Feb. 2002 p. 51-63.
11) W.B.Lee, Y.M.Yeon, S.B.Jung: “The mechanical
properties related to the dominant microstructure in the
weld zone of dissimilar formed Al alloy joints by Friction
Stir Welding”, Journal of Materials Science, 38(2003),
p.4183-4191.

412
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
A Study on Dissimilar Friction Stir Welds Between Al and Mg Alloys
R. Zettler, J. F. Dos Santos, A. Blanco, A. da Silva
GKSS-Forschungszentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
Abstract
Relationships between mechanical properties and
microstructure were examined for the weld zones of both
similar and dissimilar joint friction stir welded (Al) alloy
6040 and (Mg) alloy AZ31. Light optical metallography
was used to observe and confirm the weld zone
characteristics unique to all welds. Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) in conjunction with energy dispersive
spectroscopy (EDS) analysis was conducted on the
dissimilar Al to Mg weld. The present study confirms that
it is not only possible to successfully join each individual
alloy utilising a common set of friction stir welding
parameters but that the potential exists to successfully join
the dissimilar Mg to Al alloy combination using FSW.
Introduction
In most alloy systems conventional welding processes
can promote liquation of low melting point constituents. It
has even been demonstrated that liquation in the sub-
solidus heat affected zone can occur at temperatures well
below that of the solidus of the bulk material [1-3].
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) unlike fusion welding is a
solid state joining process where no bulk melting of the
base material occurs during joining. The process was
developed and then patented by The Welding Institute
(TWI) of Cambridge England [4]. Essentially workpieces
are joined by means of frictional heating and plastic
deformation typically at temperatures below the absolute
melting temperature of the alloy. This is brought about by
the interaction of a non consumable and rotating tool with
the interfacing surfaces. A schematic of the process can be
found in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic of the FSW process
FSW has been primarily applied for the joining of
nonferrous materials such as aluminium and to a lesser
extent magnesium alloys. Both aluminium and
magnesium have many attractive properties. These
include a low density and high specific strength to weight
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
ratio. Conventional fusion welding of these alloys
however often produces a weld which suffers from defects
such as liquation induced cracking or hot tearing and
porosity developed as a consequence of entrapped
hydrogen gas not being able to escape from the weld pool
during solidification.
A number of papers have recently reported on the
joining of dissimilar alloys by means of friction stir
welding [5-10]. The ability to join dissimilar alloys can
have enormous potential for applications in many major
industries, including aerospace, automotive and ship
building. The potential if realised would not only allow
for new structural and design possibilities but also
contribute to weight reduction thereby increasing the
efficiency as well as the cost of production.
It is often the case when arc welding that welding
parameters (travel speed and arc current) are set in relation
to the alloys composition. Arc welding of dissimilar
aluminium alloys i.e. alloys of different composition
complicates the selection of appropriate parameters,
primarily because of differences in thermal conductivity
between the alloys to be joined [11]. Commercial alloys
often possess large differences in thermal conductivity.
This difference is even more pronounced when one
considers the thermal conductivity of Al alloys in
comparison to Mg alloys.
FSW of dissimilar alloy combinations raise issues which
are similar in nature to those encountered during fusion
welding. For example, the heat produced by either process
will more readily flow in the material with the larger
thermal conductivity. As a consequence this can lead to
incomplete bonding, or may cause excessive heating of the
material possessing the lower thermal conductivity.
FSW of dissimilar alloys however raises some issues
which are not encountered while fusion welding. In FSW
the thermally softened material when cooled and
consolidated does not exhibit an as cast structure. Rather
the material which comprises the weld nugget possesses a
very fine and equiaxed microstructure as a result of
recrystallisation of the parent grains [12-14]. Frictional
heating and deformation cause the thermally softened
material to flow from the front to the back of the tool in
response to the direction of tool rotation and tool travel
[15-18]. Marker material has often been inserted into
welds in an attempt to explain material flow and thereby
weld formation [15-18]. This author [18] has
demonstrated that differences occur in the marker flow not
only as a result of the initial input location i.e. advancing
or retreating side of the weld join, Figure 1, but also as a
consequence of tool pin profile. Hence it can be expected
that the placement of the workpiece material in a
dissimilar alloy friction stir weld and the tool pin form
employed will not only effect temperature fields between
the leading and trailing edges of the tool pin but also on
the processing forces generated during FSW.
413
 The aim of this research has been to better understand Table 2. Summary of the weld parameter investigation
the nature of the problems associated with the FSW of which allowed for the production of defect free welds.
dissimilar alloy combinations and to evaluate the potential
for using the FSW process to join a Mg alloy to an Al Alloy Rot. Travel Down- Tool Tilt
alloy. Advancing Speed Speed force Angle
Retreating (rpm) mm/min (kN) degrees
Experimental procedure Side
The materials used to produce the investigated friction Al-Al 1400 300 2 2.5
stir welds were wrought Al alloy 6040 and wrought Mg Mg-Mg 1400 300 4.5 2.5
alloy AZ31, nominally 2.6mm in thickness. Mechanical
properties of both the Al and Mg alloy as provided for Al-Mg 1400 200 3.2-5.5 2.5
hollow extruded profiles can be found in Table 1. Mg-Al 1400 225 3.2-5.5 2.5

Table 1. Summary of the mechanical properties for both FSW temperatures were measured during joining by
Al and Mg base materials. Note the values for extruded inserting 0.5mm diameter K type thermocouples
hollow profiles are dependant on extrusion direction. embedded in a series of small holes (0.6mm diameter) at a
distance of 10, 15 and 20mm either side of the weld join
Alloy UTS Rp0,2 %A line at mid plate thickness. All thermocouples were
inserted and secured to the bottom of each hole by tape.
(MPa) (MPa) Thermal conducting paste was packed into all holes to seat
Al 6040 T61 175-205 100-150 14-27 the thermocouples. Weld temperatures were then recorded
Mg AZ31 228-238 64-193 11-19 digitally using a National Instruments SCXI-1000
amplifier and Labview. Temperatures were sampled at
FSW was performed on each of the alloys where the 20Hz. Digital smoothing was not found to be necessary to
workpieces measured approximately 110mm in width x remove noise.
300mm in length, the exception being welds produced in Mechanical characterisation of the welds was performed
the Al 6040 alloy whose length measured 400mm. Welds using two tests:
were produced at the GKSS-Forschungszentrum using a • Bend tests (both for weld surface and weld root).
Tricept TR 805 robot, Figure 2. • Uniaxial flat tensile testing.
The Tricept TR 805 robot is essentially a 5 axis CNC Uniaxial flat tensile tests were performed on the friction
controlled robot designed for high speed milling stir welded materials using a Schenk-Trebel Testing
applications where a high degree of stiffness and flexibility Machine powered by a Zwick controller equipped with an
is required. All movements of the robot are controlled by actuator of 200kN load capacity. Tests could not be
a Siemens Sinumeric 840D controller. Axial loads and performed on either of the base materials owing to the
rotation speed are controlled by a separate computer initial size and small quantity of workpieces delivered for
controlled system developed at the GKSS- investigation.
Forschungszentrum. This allows the robot to apply up to Results And Discussion
30kN downforce and develop a rotation speed in excess of
4500rpm. Initial welding trials indicated that although process
parameters such as weld rotation and travel speed were
transferable from the single alloy Al and Mg welds this
was not the case in terms of axial load. Sound i.e. defect
free welds produced in the Mg alloy were observed to
require an axial load more than double that employed
when FSW the Al-Al alloy combination. In the case of
FSW the dissimilar Al-Mg and Mg-Al welds it was found
that both axial load had to be increased and weld travel
speed reduced compared to levels employed when FSW
the Mg alloy, Table 2.
The surface appearance of each weld with the exception
of the dissimilar alloy join i.e. where the Al alloy was
placed on the advancing side possessed a smooth and
bright surface finish, Figure 3.

Figure 2. Tricept TR 805 Robot.

414
Figure 3. Surface appearance of all weld combinations Figure 4. Weld macrographs of the friction stir weld
investigated. nuggets transverse to the weld travel direction. Note
advancing side is on the left of each nugget.
Weld macrographs representative of the friction stir
zones transverse to the weld travel direction, Figure 4 Three point bend tests, both for the face and root of each
indicated that weld nuggets differed markedly between weld combination proved a discerning method for gauging
alloys, but also in response to the placement of each initial weld integrity, Figure 5.
individual alloy for the dissimilar alloy welds. Unlike the
welds produced in the Mg and dissimilar alloy
combinations the friction stir weld produced in the Al
alloy developed a stir zone more than double the size of
the other friction stir welds.

Figure 5. Bend test results for all weld combinations.

Temperatures measured during FSW for both sides of
the join line indicated that the single alloy Al-Al weld
produced the highest processing temperatures, while the

415
Mg-Al dissimilar alloy combination produced the coolest
welding temperatures. A thermal cycle typical of the
friction stir weld conducted for the dissimilar Al-Mg weld
where temperatures where measured in both sides of the
join line can be found in Figure 6.

Figure 6. FSW temperatures as measured 10, 12.5 and

15mm either side of the join line for the Al-Mg weld.

A summary of the peak temperatures for each welding

condition is given in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of peak welding temperatures as

measured 10mm either side of the weld join line.

Alloy Peak Temp. Peak Temp.

Advancing- Advancing Side Retreating Side
Retreating Side (°C) (°C)
Al-Al 270 260
Mg-Mg 170 180
Al-Mg 210 190
Mg-Al 160 160

Four uniaxial flat tensile specimens were extracted from

each weld. The tensile test results representative of the
behaviour of each welded joint can be found in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Tensile test behaviour for all weld combinations.

Note a single plot has been given for clarity being
representative of the behaviour of all tested specimens.

The tensile tests confirmed what had previously been

observed for the three point bend test; that under the
selected processing parameters each single alloy weld
possessed high strength and ductility. In the case of the
dissimilar alloy welds however only the weld in which the
Mg alloy had been placed in the advancing side of the join
line proved capable of achieving an ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) above 80% that obtained for either of the
single alloy friction stir welds. Ductility in the case of this
weld however was restricted to 30% that achieved in
relation to the Mg alloy weld. When the fracture locations
were examined for all welds it could be seen that for the
Al-Al weld fracture had occurred some 20mm removed
from the weld join line. Fracture in the Mg-Mg weld
however was much closer to the weld nugget. Optical
microscopy suggests that the fracture location may have
been initiated due to tooling marks left by the tool shoulder

416
on the surface of the join. In the case of the dissimilar
alloy welds both welds had separated in the weld nugget.
In the case of the Mg-Al weld however this had not
occurred for the most part along the interface between the
magnesium and aluminium alloys, Figure 8.

Figure 8. Tensile failure in the Mg-Al weld. Note the

fracture path develops through both Mg and Al dominated
regions of the weld nugget.
Three point bend tests, Figure 5 had previously
confirmed that a lack of bonding in the region of the weld
root for the Mg-Al friction stir weld had occurred. The
fact that the tensile strength of this join was capable of
achieving 80% that developed by either of the single alloy
welds suggested that if better mixing could be achieved in
this region of the weld nugget perhaps strength and
ductility may also be improved. As such a second weld
was produced to try and improve the goodness of mixing
in the region of the weld root, Figure 9.
Figure 10. 3D view of the dissimilar Mg-Al alloy weld,
indicating material flow behaviour between the darker
coloured Mg alloy and the lighter coloured Al alloy.
Micrographs made in the region between shoulder and
pin induced flow zones of the weld nugget, Figure 11,
using both light optical and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) revealed the extent of interlocking between the Al
and Mg alloys, Figure 11. Upon closer inspection of these
flow induced structures however it could be seen that there
existed a clearly delineated interface between the Mg and
Al alloys, Figure 12.

Figure 9. Macrograph transverse to the weld travel

direction for the Mg-Al weld demonstrating that improved
mixing had occurred in the region of the weld root.

The weld zone macrograph, Figure 9 clearly indicates

that it was possible to enhance the goodness of mixing in
the region of the weld root for the Mg-Al dissimilar alloy
weld. If a comparison is made between the initial Mg-Al
friction stir weld, Figure 4 with that of Figure 9 the bulk of
the material flow behaviour occurring in each weld is
almost identical with the exception that the sharply
delineated interface between the Mg and Al alloys in the
region of the weld root, Figure 4 has been eliminated for
its counterpart weld, Figure 9. Although it was possible to
prevent the sharp transition occurring between alloys in the
region of the weld root the essential flow behaviour from
mid workpiece thickness to the surface of each workpiece
remains the same. Here the material flow behaviour is
essentially induced by the tool shoulder acting
predominantly on the Al alloy. This trait was previously
observed for the weld nugget which formed in the single
alloy Al-Al weld, Figure 4. A 3-D reconstruction of the
Mg-Al weld, Figure 10 reveals that although much of the Figure 11. Optical and SEM images produced of the stir
flow behaviour near the surface of the workpiece is zone between the AZ31/6040 dissimilar friction stir weld.
dominated by the Al alloy there exists a clear transition
zone between the Mg (dark) and Al (light) alloys.

417
Figure 12. Optical image of the clear delineation between Figure 15. EDS analysis central stir zone.
the Mg and Al alloys.
The Al-Mg binary phase diagram, Figure 16 demonstrates
that eutectics exist between Mg and Al12Mg17 at 437°C and
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) was performed Al and Al3Mg2 at 450°C. This comprises of the range
to assess chemical composition between and either side of lying between 40-70 wt.% Mg in Al.
the interfacing Mg and Al regions for the dissimilar Mg-Al
alloy weld. Several locations were examined both in the
shoulder and pin flow induced regions of the weld nugget,
Figures 13-14 and Figure 15 respectively.

Figure 16. The binary Al-Mg phase diagram [ ].

Figure 13. EDS analysis upper half of the stir zone. Results of the measurements conducted using EDS
analysis, Tables 4, 5 and 6 correspond to Figures 13, 14
and 15 respectively.

Table 4. Summary of EDS measurements Figure 13

Position Weight%
I.D. X Y Mg Al
1 363 271 73.79 26.21
2 457 455 80.97 19.03
3 651 204 0.378 99.62
4 197 462 96.53 3.47

Figure 14. EDS analysis lower half of the stir zone.

418
Table 5. Summary of EDS measurements Figure 14 References
Position Weight% 1. Baeslack III WA, Savage G, Thomas WM and
Idx X Y Mg Al Froes FH. J. Mater. Sci. Lett., 1986, pp. 935-939.
1 60 219 54.96 45.04 2. Savage WF, Nippes EF and Miller TW. Weld. J.,
1976, vol. 55, pp. 181s-187s.
2 195 251 73.73 26.26
3. Weiss B, Grotke GE and Sticler; Weld., J., 1970,
3 364 297 68.32 31.68 vol. 49, pp. 471s-487s.
4 535 356 71.47 28.53 4. Nicholas ED, Needham JC, Church MG,
5 690 425 67.10 32.90 Templesmith P, Dawes CJ: International Patent
6 553 176 0.35 99.65 Application No. PCT/GB92/02203 and GB Patent
7 368 496 96.16 3.84 Application No. 9125978.9, 1991
2. Guerra M, McClure JC, Murr LE, Nunes AC.
Table 6. Summary of EDS measurements Figure 15 Proceedings of Symposium, TMS Indianapolis, Indiana,
USA, 2001, pp. 25-33.
Position Weight% 3. Krishnan KN; Materials Science and Engineering
Idx X Y Mg Al A, 2000, vol. 327, pp. 246-251.
4. Steenbergen JE, Thornton HR; Weld. J., 1970,
1 449 226 85.15 14.85
2 614 220 79.51 20.49 vol. 49(2), pp. 61-s to 68s.
3 417 422 55.27 44.73 5. Li, Y, Mur LE and McClure JC: Mat. Sci. and
Eng. A, 1999, vol. 271, pp. 213-23.
4 604 433 55.42 44.58
6. Ouyang JH and Kovacevic R: J. of Mat. Eng. And
5 476 317 94.77 5.228 Perform., 2002, vol 11(1), pp. 51-63.
6 415 81 0.45 99.55 7. Lee W-B, Yeon Y-M and Jung S-B: Scripta
Mater., 2003, vol. 49, pp. 423-28.
EDS analysis, Tables 4-6 suggest that localised regions 8. Srinivasan PB, Dietzel W, Zettler R, dos Santos
and not the entire stir zone experiences liquation during JF and Sivan V: Mater. Sci and Eng. A, 2005, vol. 392, pp.
dissimilar alloy FSW and this explains why the weld was 292-300.
capable of sustaining the tensile loads. 9. Uzun H, Dalle Donne C, Argagnotto A, Ghiaini T
anC: Mater. and Design, 2005, vol 26, pp. 41-46.
Summary and Conclusions 10. Yan J, Xu Z, Li Z and Yang S: Scripta Mater.,
2005, vol. 53, pp.585-89.
FSW of AZ31/6040 has been investigated and the 11. Luijendijk T; J. of Mater. Processing Tech., 2000,
microstructure, chemical composition and tensile strength vol. 103, pp. 29-35.
of the join examined. The welds were performed with the 12. Svensson L.-E, Karlsson L, Larsson H, Karlsson
tool pin placed in the center of the join and with the B, Fazzini M and Karlsson J; Sci. and Tech. of Weld. And
workpieces clamped such as to enhance heat loss from the Join., 2000, vol. 5, pp.285-296.
Mg alloy. The friction stir weld demonstrated a complex 13. Saimoto J.H, Ball M, Threadgill P.L; Mater. Sci.
vortex flow occurred in the lower half of the workpiece and Tech., 2001, vol. 17, pp. 1605-1614.
join. The upper half however could be seen to be 14. Sutton M.A, Yang B, Reynolds A.P and Taylor R;
influenced by tool shoulder induced flow, primarily Mater. Sci. and Eng. A, 2002, vol. 323, pp.160-166.
activating the Al 6040 alloy, a characteristic observed for 15. Colligan K.J; Weld Research Supp. To Weld J.,
the similar alloy Al6040/6040 welds. The results of EDS 1999, pp. 229s-237s.
indicate that the brittle phases of Al3Mg2 and Al12Mg17 16. Reynolds A.P; Sci. and Tech. of Weld. And Join.,
were formed but only for localised regions within the stir 2000, vol. 5, pp. 1362-1718.
zone. This enabled the weld to obtain a tensile strength 17. Guerra M, Schmidt C, McClure J.C, Murr L.E
approximately 80% that of either the Al 6040 and AZ31 and Nunnes A.C; Mater. Charact., 2003, vol. 49, pp.95-
similar alloy friction stir welds. The friction stir weld 101.
investigation indicates that the potential exists to further 18. Zettler R, Lomolino S, dos Santos J.F, Donath T,
enhance the joint strength of Al to Mg welds. Beckmann F, Lippman T and Lohwasser D; Weld. In the
World, 2005, vol. 49, pp.41-46.
Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support obtained

for this study from Erbslöh Aktiengesellschaft, Velbert,
Germany.

419
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

“Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance of Friction Stir Welded

AZ31B-H24 Magnesium Alloy”
M. Pareek, A. Polar, F. Rumiche, and J.E. Indacochea
University of Illinois at Chicago
Materials Engineering
Materials Characterization and Joining Research Laboratory

magnesium alloy AZ31B-H24 alloy and analyze its effect on

Abstract
Friction Stir welding was performed using AZ31-H24
magnesium alloy plates, 0.125 in. (3.175 mm) thick utilizing
different welding parameters, that is, travel and rotation
speeds. Following processing the welds were cross sectioned
and a metallurgical characterization was performed using
optical microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The
evaluation of the weld nugget or “stirred zone” shows
evidence of dynamic recrystallization and the start of grain
growth in some spots of this region in contrast with the parent
metal. Recrystallization phenomenon was also observed in the
thermomechanically affected zone (TAZ) even though this
was not as noticeable as what was seen in the weld nugget.
The mechanical properties of the weld are correlated with the
microstructures present in the weld nugget and the
thermomechanically affected zone. Corrosion resistance of the
weld was assessed using Electrochemical Impedance
Spectroscopy (EIS) techniques, but also by performing
immersion tests in corrosive environments. Their corrosion
performance is being assessed with respect to the processing
parameters used and the type of microstructure developed
during the welding operation.
Introduction
The challenges of significant weight reduction in the
automobile industry in the context of significant fuel savings,
recyclability and emission reduction has promoted focus on
lightweight metals such as aluminum and magnesium.
Conventional fusion welding methods of joining of
magnesium alloys produces defects such as porosity and hot
crack, which deteriorates the mechanical properties. As an
alternative, friction stir welding (FSW) has the potential to
provide defect free welds in materials with poor fusion
weldabiltiy. FSW is a solid state joining technique developed
at the Welding Institute (TWI) in Cambridge [1]. In this
process a rotating tool with a profiled pin is plunged along the
joint line. As it traverses along the joint the frictional heat
generated, plasticizes the material. The tool pin then forges
and extrudes the two pieces together by heat and force. It
provides a constant hot working action that transports the
plasticized material from the leading face of the tool to the
trailing edge, where consolidation produces a continuous joint.
So the aim of the present study is to investigate the
microstructural changes due to friction stir welding of a
mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of the alloy.
Experimental Work
AZ31B-H24 magnesium alloy strain hardened and
partially annealed was used in this investigation. Its chemical
composition, in wt. %, is Al: 2.5-3.5; Zn: 0.6-1.4; Mn: 0.2-1.0;
Si: 0.1 max; Fe: 0.005 max; Cu: 0.04 max; Ni: 0.005 max;
other: 0.3 max; and Mg: balance. Coupons 0.125 in. (3.175
mm) thick were welded using two rotational speeds of 1500
and 2000 rpm at travel speeds of 3, 5, and 8 inches/min. All
samples were friction stir welded using a rotating tool made of
D2 steel. The welds were cross-sectioned, metallographically
prepared and analyzed using a LECO 300 Metallograph.
Tensile tests were carried out in an Instron tensile machine at
the strain rate of 1 in./min. The fractured surfaces of the
tensile specimens were examined in a HITACHI 3000
Scanning Electron Microscope with an EDS attachment.
The electrochemical tests were performed in aerated
corrosive water solution according to ASTM D-1384 (100
ppm of sulfate, chloride and bicarbonate ions; pH=8.4) at
room temperature. A Gamry PCI4/300 potentiostat with a sine
wave generator controlled by a PC was used. Immersion tests
were also performed in corrosive water. Small coupons of as
received material, annealed material, and welds made at 2000
rpm/8 ipm, 1500 rpm/3 ipm were used in the corrosion tests.
The coupons were polished up to 1200 grit size emery paper.
Their dimensions and weight were noted and they were
immersed in corrosive water, after cleaning with ethanol.
After 6 days the samples were taken out and the corrosive
products were removed and corrosion rates were calculated.
Results and Discussion
Microstructural Features
The microstructure of the as-received Mg-alloy consists
of fine grains, as seen in Figure 1. The welds made were
defect free and had no cavities. Onion ring structures were
observed in the welds produced in this investigation, similar to
what we had found when FSW aluminum. The appearance of
the onion ring structure can be attributed to a geometrical
effect of the tool, caused by the rotation of the tool and its
forward movement, which grabs the plasticized metal in front
of the tool, extrudes it around the pin to the retreating side of
the weld and deposits it behind the weld tool. This onion ring
structure has no effect on the mechanical properties of the
weld. Another interesting feature of these welds was a

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 421

segregation of dispersoids on the advancing side compared to
that on the retreating side (Figures 2 and 3). Volume fraction
measurements of the dispersoids were carried out as well as a
chemical analysis; this evaluation was done at each side of the
weld with the sample in the as-polished condition. These
values are reported in Table 1; the EDS analysis of the
particles shows that the small ones are just magnesium oxide
(97.7 wt. % Mg and 2.3 wt. % O), while the larger particles
also contained Mn and Al (68.3 wt. % Mg, 20.5 wt. % Mn, 9.0
wt. % Al, and 2.2 wt % O). These oxides found at the
advancing side could be the result of preexisting oxides or
possibly formed due the oxidation of the Mg and alloying
elements during friction stir welding. The segregation of these
oxides to the advancing side is caused by the material flow
due to the rotating tool in conjunction with the direct extrusion
of the shoulder and the stirring action of the tool pin [2]; as the
material is extruded from the retreating side to the advancing
side, the stirring and forging action of the tool breaks the
oxide particles which collectively flow and entrain into the
nugget zone.
Figure 1: Photomicrograph of the as-received
magnesium alloy normal to the rolling direction.
Figure 2: Dispersoids found in the advancing side
of the weld.
422
Figure 3: Dispersoid concentration at the retreating
side of the weld.
Table 1. Volume Fraction of Dispersoids
% Volume Fraction
Parameter
Advancing side Retreating side
1500 rpm – 3 ipm 1.91 0.60
1500 rpm – 5 ipm 1.68 0.51
1500 rpm – 8 ipm 2.57 1.03
2000 rpm – 3 ipm 1.55 0.56
2000 rpm – 5 ipm 2.51 0.59
2000 rpm – 8 ipm 2.53 1.04
Deformation and Annealing Processes during FSW
The weld metal during friction stir welding experiences
high strains, high strain rates and temperatures greater than 0.5
Tm. The free energy of a crystalline material is raised during
deformation by the presence of dislocations and interfaces. A
material containing these defects is thermodynamically
unstable. The stacking fault energy (SFE) which is a function
of the material, determines the extent to which unit
dislocations dissociate into partial dislocations. Low SFE
promotes dissociation of dislocations and hinders climb and
cross slip of dislocations which are basic mechanisms
responsible for recovery. Mg has low stacking fault energy,
about 60 to 78 mJ/m2 [3].
Tan et al attributed the dynamic recrystallization of Mg-
3Al-1Zn during hot deformation to the constraints imposed by
the lack of easily activated slip systems in HCP Mg [4]. They
explained that the dynamic recrystallization in Mg-3Al-1Zn
can also be attributed to the high angle grain boundary
diffusion rate of Mg compared to Al. Thus, dislocations can be
absorbed by the grain boundaries leading to dynamic
recrystallization [4]. During friction stir welding of AZ31B-
H24 in our study, the large strain applied and the high
temperature of FSW combine for the dynamic recrystallization
and grain growth of the weld. This analysis is carried out by
considering different spots of the FS weld spots marked in the
micrograph presented in Figure 4. Dynamic recrystallization
during friction stir welding has been reported by Esperaza et
al, as well [5].
 A

B E
D

Figure 4: FSW produced at 1500 rpm and 3 ipm. This weld is used to analyze the microstructure
development at different spots: (A) weld nugget top; (B) center of weld nugget; (C) bottom of the
weld nugget; (D) TMAZ at the advancing side; and (E) TMAZ at the retreating side.

Grain Structure and Dimensions in the Weld rpm has to be caused by the higher temperatures expected at
The overall grain size in the weld was coarser than the the faster rotation speed.
average grain diameter measured in the as-received Mg alloy.
Figures 5 and 6 show the grain microstructure at the center of
the weld nugget, (position B in Figure 4). This is the result of
dynamic recrystallization followed by grain growth. The
micrographs in Figures 5 and 6 show reduction in grain size as
the welding parameters changed from 1,500 rpm/3 ipm to
2,000 rpm/8 ipm. Grain size measurements were performed on
the welds produced at these two rotational speeds for the
different travel speeds and the results are presented in Figure
7. It was found that for a fixed rotational speed the increase in
tool travel speed caused a reduction in mean grain diameter.
On the other hand there was a slight increase in grain diameter
as the rotation speed changed from 1,500 rpm to 2,000 rpm.

Figure 6: Grain microstructure from the center of

the weld. FSW produced at 2,000 rpm and 8 ipm.

The critical temperature for dynamic recrystallization

Figure 5: Grain microstructure from the center of
the weld. FSW produced at 1,500 rpm and 3 ipm.
The decrease of the grain diameter with travel speed
could be attributed to the greater straining of the metal which
in turn activates more strain free nucleation sites. The greater
the nucleation rate, the more competitive the grain growth and
hence the finer the final grain diameter. The increase in the
grain size as the tool rotation changes from 1,500 rpm t0 2,000
depends on the deformation temperature (T), the total strain
(ε) and the strain rate (έ). The Zener-Hollomon parameter (Z)
incorporates all these variables in the equation: Z = έ exp
(Q/RT); where, Q is activation energy, which is 135 kJ/mol
for lattice diffusion in Mg; R is the gas constant; and T is the
absolute temperature. Chang et al. [6] established the
relationship between grain size and Z for friction stir
processed (FSP) Mg alloy AZ31B alloy given by: ln d = 9.0 –
0.27 ln Z, where d is the dynamically recrystallized grain size.
Barnett et al [7] also established a relationship between
dynamically recrystallized grain size and Z for AZ31B alloy
tested in tension as dDRX = 77 Z-0.1. Both results indicate that
the average grain size would decrease with decreasing
working temperature and increasing working strain rate. Thus
as the travel speed is increased from 3 ipm to 8 ipm the strain
rate is increased and also the as the rotation speed is increased
from 1500 rpm to 2000 rpm the frictional heat generated is
greater. This explains that grain size in the dynamically

423
recrystallized weld nugget will be reduced as the travel speed Mechanical Properties of the weld
is increased; and at a constant travel speed the grain size The tensile test results are shown in Table 4. The best FS
increases as the rotation speed increases. weld was produced at 2,000 rpm/8 ipm, where a tensile
strength of 75% of the as-received metal was attained, and the
18 yield strength was 51% of that of the parent metal. To assess
the reduction in the tensile properties due to the metallurgical
changes of the as-received Mg alloy during FSW, a sample
was annealed at 350 °C for 30 min; this was done to evaluate
16

the effect of static recrystallization. It was noted earlier during

14 the grain size measurements that the annealed sample
experienced grain growth compared to the as received metal,
implying static recrystallization and grain growth. The tensile
grain size(microns)

12
test data shows reductions in tensile and yield strengths.
Hence the even larger grain sizes and lower strengths obtained
10 for the FSWs suggest that dynamic recrystallization and grain
growth has taken place. The elongation of the annealed sample
(22%) was higher than that of the parent metal (11.0%), while
8
the FSW produced at 2,000 rpm/ 8 ipm was only 2.8%.

16
6
2 0 0 0 atm az

14
4
3 ipm 5 ipm 8 ipm 1 5 0 0 atm az

Travel speed
12 2 0 0 0 rtm az
as received annealed
1500 rpm w eld center 2000 rpm w eld center grain size(microns)
1500 rpm w eld top 2000 rpm w eld top
1500 rpm w eld bottom 2000 rpm w eld bottom 1 5 0 0 rtm az
10

anne aling
Figure 7. Grain size measurements in the weld.
8

The grain size at the top of the weld is finest compared to

that of the center and bottom of the weld nugget (Figure 7). 6
as re c e ive d
The shoulder forges the material at the top of the weld. The
high temperature and the forging action of the tool smash the
4
grains into very fine grains. The grains at the top become finer 3 ip m 5 ip m 8 ip m
T ra v e l s p e e d
as the travel speed is increased however there is no effect of
increase in rotation speed. At higher travel speed of 8 ipm the Figure 8: Grain sizes at both sides of the TMAZ.
material at the top is smashed and also is exposed to higher
temperature for shorter time. Compared to this the weld Table 4: Yield and Tensile Strength Comparisons.
material at lower travel speed experiences forging action as
well as higher temperature for longer time thus the grain size Yield % YS Tensile % TS of
increases as the travel speed is reduced progressively reduced Condition Strength of Base Strength Base
from 8 ipm to 3 ipm. (psi) Metal (psi) Metal
Grain Structure and Dimensions in the TMAZ As received 33,007 100 44,631 100
Similarly to the weld nugget, the overall grain sizes at Annealed 27,476 83.0 38,192 87.0
both sides of the TMAZ were coarser than the grains present 1500 rpm-
14,369 43.5 30,364 69.6
in the as received and the annealed metal. Figure 8 shows the 3 ipm
grain distribution that was seen in the advancing side of the 1500 rpm-
13,765 41.7 28,992 66.4
thermomechanically affected zone (ATMAZ) and in the 5 ipm
retreating side (RTMAZ) as function of travel and rotation 1500 rpm-
14,282 43.3 29,818 68.3
speeds. It appears that the mean grain diameter at the 8 ipm
advancing side is slightly higher than at the retreating side for 2000 rpm-
16,636 50.4 31,366 71.9
each rotation speed, and for travel speeds higher than 3 ipm. 3 ipm
There was no significant change in the mean grain diameter 2000 rpm-
16,096 48.8 31,931 73.3
between the advancing and retreating sides of the TMAZ as 5 ipm
the rotational speed was increased from 1,500 rpm to 2,000 2000 rpm-
16,722 50.7 32,705 75.0
rpm. 8 ipm

424
 All tensile FSW samples failed at the advancing side of
the weld. It was a 45° shear fracture. The fractured surfaces of
the weld tensile specimens were examined and show a
lamellar-like failure mode, as shown in Figure 9. No
dispersoids were observed on the fracture surface.
Figure 9: SEM fractograph of FSW crossweld tensile sample.
The transverse section of the weld shows a sharp
contrasting microstructure at the stirred zone/TMAZ interface
on the advancing side (Figure 10). On the retreating side the
microstructure is more homogeneous and the changes are
more gradual (Figure 11). These resulting microstructures on
either side of the weld are also influenced by the metal flow
characteristics at theses spots. The flow pattern characteristics
of the plasticized material have been investigated by several
investigators, Figure 12 shows the schematic of one of the
models that has been developed [8]. It can be reasoned that the
material at the advancing side experiences straight through
current since the tool rotation is in the same direction as the
travel direction; while the material at the retreating side is said
to experience “maelstrom current” [9] and more turbulent flow
conditions since the direction of the tool rotation is opposite to
the travel direction.
Figure 10: Micrograph showing the microstructure
contrast at the advancing side.
425
Figure 11: Diffused interface at the retreating side.
Figure 11: Micrograph showing a homogeneous
microstructure at the retreating side
Travel
direction
Advancing Retreating
side side
Figure 12: Streamline metal flow around the pin.
Corrosion Tests
The corrosion behavior of the as-received metal, FS weld,
and annealed metal was studied by electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy and immersion tests. Figure 13 shows the plots
exhibit two capacitive loops for all the samples indicating the
same corrosion mechanism. The first loop, at high and
intermediate frequencies, is attributed to the charge transfer
process. The second loop, at lower frequencies is attributed to
mass transfer process. At high and intermediate frequencies
(>5 Hz) the interface electrode/electrolyte can be modeled by
a resistor (charge transfer, Rct) in parallel with a capacitor
(double layer, Cdl). The values of the electrochemical
parameters Rct and Cdl based on a fitted model for the first
loop are shown in Table 5. Both parameters are larger in the
case of the welds, suggesting the formation of corrosion
products and an improvement in the corrosion resistance since
1/Rct is directly proportional to the corrosion rate. The second
loop, at low frequencies, is attributed to the mass transfer in
the oxide and hydroxide layers. Furthermore, an inductive
trend attributed to adsorption processes is observed at lower
frequencies. Immersion test results indicate that corrosion rate
of the welds is lower than the as received material (Table 6).
Also the grain size (Table 6) at the crown surface of the weld
is larger than the as received material. The acceleration of
anodic metal dissolution is caused by a local reduction of
equilibrium potential in the vicinity of dislocations [10]. Thus
due to annealing effect during welding grain growth occurred
and the dislocation density of the weld is lowered which 4. Segregation of dispersoids was observed at the advancing
results in relatively more noble behavior for the welds. side of the weld by the stirred zone/ TMAZ interface. No
dispersoids were observed on the fractured surface of the
weld samples.
IIM P E D A N C E P LO T S 5. Early corrosion tests show that the welds had similar
6.50E+02
corrosion behavior. Some improvement in corrosion
2000-8w e ld resistance was found in the welds compared to the as
5.50E+02
1500-3w e ld
received material.
4.50E+02
annealed References
[1] W.M. Thomas et al. International patent application No.
3.50E+02
PCT/CB92/02202, GB Patent No. 9125978.8, Dec 6,(1991).
-Zimag (ohm)

as re ce ive d
2.50E+02
[2] J.H. Ouyang et al. Visualization of material flow during
friction stir welding (FSW) of the same and dissimilar
aluminum alloys, 229-234, 6th International trends in welding
1.50E+02

Research Conference proceedings (2003).

5.00E+01 Rct

0.00E+00 5.00E+02 1.00E+03 1.50E+03 2.00E+03 [3] Magnesium and magnesium alloy, ASM specialty
- 5.00E+01
handbook, p 274, ASM International.
- 1.50E+02
Zre al (ohm ) [4] J.C. Tan et al. Dynamic continuous recrystallization
characteristics in tow stage deformation of Mg-3Al-1Zn alloy
sheet, 124-132, Material Science and Engineering (2003).
Figure 13: Nyquist plots comparing the corrosion behavior of
FS welds, as-received and annealed metals. [5] J.A. Esparaza et al. Friction-stir welding of magnesium
alloy AZ31B, journal of materials science letters, 917-920
Table 5: Electrochemical parameters derived for first loop (2002).

Condition Rct 1/Rct Cdl [6] C.J.Chang et al. Relationship between grain size and
As received 986 0.001014 12.12 zener-hollomon parameter during friction stir processing in
Annealed 1008 0.000992 15.97 AZ31 Mg alloys, scripta materiallia, 509-514, (2004).
1500 rpm-3ipm 1262 0.000792 13.37
[7] M.R. Barnett et al. Effect of grain size on the deformation
2000 rpm-8ipm 1265 0.000791 14.09
and dynamic recrystallization of Mg-3Al-Zn, materials science
forum vols. 467-470, 435-440, (2004)
Table 6: Corrosion rates and grain sizes (crown surfaces)

Condition Corrosion rates Grain size (μm) [8] T.U. Seidel and A.P. Reynolds. Two-dimensional friction
stir welding process model based on fluid mechanics. Science
As received 18.338 4.65
and Technology of Welding & Joining, June 2003, vol. 8, no.
Annealed 9.394 8.40
3, pp. 175-183(9)
1500 rpm-3ipm 14.165 11.96
2000 rpm-8ipm 13.435 11.38
[9] J.A. Schneider and A.C. Nunez. Characterization of plastic
flow and resulting microtextures in friction stir weld.
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, volume 35B, 777,
Conclusions (2004)
1. Sound FS welds were fabricated from the AZ31B-H24
Mg-alloy. [10] M. Andrei et al. DC and AC polarization study on
magnesium alloys- Influence of the mechanical deformation,
2. Analyses of the weld nugget microstructure and the materials and corrosion 53,455-461, (2002).
results from the mechanical tests suggest that
dynamic recrystallization and grain growth occurred
in these welds.
3. The tensile strength of the best weld is about 75% of the
as-received metal. All weld tensile samples failed in the
advancing side at the stirred zone/TMAZ interface.

426
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Modifying AM60B Magnesium Alloy Die Cast Surfaces by
Friction Stir Processing
Michael Santella, Zhili Feng
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA
Cassandra Degen
South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, South Dakota, USA
Tsung-Yu Pan
Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, Michigan, USA
Abstract
This experiment was done to evaluate the feasibility of locally
modifying the surface properties of magnesium alloy die
castings with friction stir processing. The Mg alloy used for
the study was AM60B, nominally Mg-6Al-0.13Mn, wt%.
Friction stir passes were made with a translation speed of 1.7
mm/s using tool rotation speeds of either 1250 or 2500 rpm.
Stir passes with good appearance were obtained with both
conditions. In some cases up to 5 passes were overlapped on a
single bar to produce stir zones with cross sectional
dimensions of about 1.5 x 10 mm. Metallographic
examination indicated that the stir zones were largely
comprised of equiaxed grains on the order of 5-10 μm in size.
Hardness mapping showed that the stir zones experienced
increases of about 21% compared to the as-cast metal. Room
temperature testing showed that, compared to the cast metal,
the stir zones had about flow stresses nearly 20% higher with
about twice the tensile elongation.
Introduction
Industry statistics show that worldwide shipments of
magnesium totaled about 530,000 metric tons in 2003 with
about 35% of the total being attributed to die casting. [1]. Due
to the ease with which die castings are made, relatively little
Mg is used in wrought products. One important industry
segment where the interest in Mg die casting use is increasing
is automotive. Currently, an average sized 1500 kg vehicle
uses only about 5 kg of Mg, but this amount is growing at an
annual rate of about 12% [1,2].
Magnesium alloys are being used in automotive applications
primarily as substitutes for other lightweight materials
including aluminum alloys and polymer-based materials. For
manufacturing, Mg alloys have some important advantages
over Al alloys. Their latent heat is only about 2/3 that of Al
alloys. They have lower solubility for iron when molten and
higher fluidity. For die casting processes this means that Mg
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 427
alloys have shorter cycle times, they are less reactive with
steels so casting dies last longer, and they can be cast in
thinner sections. Magnesium alloys can develop strength-to-
weight ratios exceeding those of all other alloys found in
automobiles including steels. They also have excellent
damping properties which makes them attractive for
improving noise-vibration-harshness (NVH) characteristics.
The increased use of Mg die castings for automotive
applications is likely to be promoted by welding, joining, and
surfacing technologies. Fusion welding of Mg die castings is
likely to be problematic owing to their tendency to form
excessive gas porosity in weld fusion zones [3,4]. In contrast,
friction stir welding appears capable of producing sound joints
with little or no porosity and good mechanical properties [5,6].
This experiment was meant to assess the possibility of using
the friction stir process to improve the surface properties of
the Mg die casting alloy AM60B.
Experimental
Die cast plates with dimensions of 127 x 25 x 6 mm were
made of the AM60B by a cold chamber casting process under
protective atmosphere. The plates nominally contained (5.4-
6.1) Al + 0.13 Mn wt% and about 5% porosity on average
from gas entrapped during casting. For the friction stir trials
the surfaces were left in the as-cast condition.
The friction stir processing was conducted on an MTS-ISTIR
system in displacement-control mode. The stir tool was made
of H13 steel with a shoulder diameter of 8 mm. The pin was
cylindrical with a hemispherical tip; its dimensions were 3 mm
diameter x 2 mm length. The working surfaces of the stir tool
were smooth. Two tool rotation speeds were used: 1250 rpm
and 2500 rpm. The translation speed was fixed at 1.7 mm/s
throughout the experiments. These conditions were used to
make stir passes with lengths of about 100 mm. Some testing
and analysis was done using single stir passes. Other plates
were processed with 5-6 passes overlapped on intervals of
about 2 mm. Overlapping the passes created relatively
consistent stir processed volumes on the plates with
dimensions of about 1.5-2 mm x 10 mm x 100 mm.

The room temperature properties of the friction stir processed

surfaces were measured by Vickers microhardness testing, and
tensile testing. The microhardness measurements were made
on metallographically prepared specimens taken to view the
surfaces of single stir passes. The indentations were made
under a 50 g load in 200 μm x 200 μm arrays extending from
the stir zones into the base metal.

The bars with the overlapped passes were used to make tensile
specimens. For the tensile specimens, blanks were electrical
discharge machined (EDM) from the stir zones using the
shape specified in ASTM E8 for retangular subsized
specimens. Slices 2-mm-thick were then EDM cut from both
surfaces of the blanks to provide one specimen of base metal
and one specimen where the gage section was entirely within Figure 1: Optical micrograph showing cross section view of
the friction stir processed material. The gage dimensions were single stir pass in AM60B made at 2500 rpm
1 mm thick x 6.2 mm wide x 25 mm long. The nominal strain
rate for the tensile tests was 1 x 10-3/s.

Results and Discussion

A cross-sectional view of a single pass surfacing layer made at
2500 rpm is shown in Fig. 1. Large pores are visible in the
base metal, but none were found in the stir zone. This
behavior was typical of stir passes made for both conditions.
Also, pores were not found in prior stir passes of specimens
where stir passes were overlapped. The microstructure in the
stir zone is shown in Fig. 2. The stir zone consists primarily
of very fine equiaxed grains with size in the range of 5-10 μm.
There is no evidence of solidification structure and the
material in the stir zone appears to contain only relatively
small second phase particles. Examination of this stir zone in
a scanning electron microscope (SEM) confirmed that it was
largely single-phased. The Mg17Al12 compound which is a
major phase in the as-cast material was apparently dissolved in
the Mg matrix during the stir processing. Figure 2: Optical micrograph showing microstructure of
single stir pass in AM60B made at 2500 rpm
An optical micrograph showing a top surface view of single
friction stir pass made at 1250 rpm is shown in Fig. 3. The
grid used for the microhardness is also visible. An image
representation of the hardness distribution is shown below the
micrograph. The average hardness over 1239 indents in the
base AM60B metal was 59.3 ± 8.6 kg/mm2. The average
hardness in the stir zone over 861 indents was 71.7 ± 6.7
kg/mm2 which represents an increase of ~ 21% over that in the
base metal.

Data comparing the room temperature tensile properties of the

AM60B base metal to friction stir processed metal are shown
in Fig. 4 and Table 1. Duplicate specimens were tested at both
tool rotation speeds and the stress-strain plots are
representative of the tensile behavior at each speed. Tabulated
values are averages of two specimens at each condition. The
Figure 3: Optical micrograph showing top view of a friction
stir pass on the surface of an AM60B plate. Microhardness
distribution is shown on the bottom.

428
 300 subjected to similar heat treatments so that the comparison of
tensile properties is still considered valid.
250
Some insight into the effects of friction stir processing on the
Stress, MPa

200 microstructure, increased hardness and improved tensile

150 properties of the AM60B die cast metal can be gained by
Mg alloy AM60B considering the phase equilibria for this alloy. The variations
100 As-cast with temperature of calculated equilibrium phase amounts are
FSP, 1250 rpm, 4 ipm shown in Fig. 5. The predictions indicate that between the
50 solidus temperature of 532°C and room temperature AM60B
0 should contain a small amount, less than 1 wt%, of AlxMny.
The stochiometry of this compound should vary with the Al
0 5 10 15 20 25
concentration increasing as temperature decreases.
Strain, %
Presumably, the second-phase particles that are visible in
300 optical micrographs such as Fig. 2 are these compounds.
Below about 286°C Mg17Al12 should also form in the
250
microstructure, ultimately reaching a total amount near 11
Stress, MPa

200 wt%. The equilibrium with respect to the Mg17Al12 has the
features of a classical precipitation hardening system. During
150 friction stir processing it was observed that good visual
Mg alloy AM60B appearance of the stir passes was usually obtained by allowing
100 As-cast
FSP, 2500 rpm, 4 ipm the temperature in the vicinity of the stir tool to reach near
50 250°C before translation was initiated. Various microscopic
examinations of friction stir processed specimens confirmed
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 100
Strain, %
(Mg) L
Figure 4: Stress-strain plots from room temperature tensile 80
tests done on die cast and friction stir processed AM60B.
Amount (wt%)

Processing parameters are shown on the plots. 60

40
Table 1: Comparison of tensile properties for cast and friction AM60B
stir processed (FSP) AM60B 20

Condition 0.2% Yield Tensile Total 0

Strength Strength Elongation
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
Temperature (°C)
1250 rpm
(a)
Die cast 114 205 9.6
FSP 140 280 22.6
10
AM60B
2500 rpm
8
Amount (wt%)

Die cast 119 192 7.2 Mg17Al12

FSP 141 266 15.7 6

4
friction stir processing increased each of the tensile properties
over those of the die cast metal. Yield strengths were 2 Al4Mn Al11Mn4
increased about 18%; tensile strengths were increased about Al8Mn5
36%; and, ductility more than doubled. It should be noted that 0
the die cast plates were heated by the friction stir processing. 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
As a consequence, the die cast specimens were subjected to Temperature (°C)
multiple undefined thermal excursions. These unintended heat (b)
treatments could influence property values of the cast metal. Figure 5: Variations of phase amounts with temperature for
However, the stir processed material would have been AM60B estimated from equilibrium thermodynamics
calculations (ThermoCalc™ using Mg-DATA database [7])

429
that melting was avoided. Consequently it can be concluded
that the friction stir passes were heated to the range of 250-
532°C during processing. The time exposure in this
temperature range was apparently long enough to permit the
dissolution of most or all of the Mg17Al12 that may have
formed in the original cast structure because it was not
observed in the stir zones. This observation is in agreement
with those from a similar study of thixomolded AM60B [8].
The increased hardness and yield strength in the stir zones can
then be attributed to a combination of solid solution hardening
by Al in the Mg matrix phase, reprecipitation of Mg17Al12 as
fine particles, and refinements to the grain structure. The
increases of tensile strength and ductility imply that areal
fraction of porosity in the stir zones was lower than that of the
as-die-cast metal [9].
Summary
The ability of friction stir processing to produce stir passes of
high integrity on AM60B was demonstrated. Grain structure
in the stir zones was largely equiaxed with grain sizes of 5-10
μm. The grains appeared to be all of a single phase and to
contain a small amount of second-phase particles. Based on
metallographic evidence and thermodynamic considerations
the stir zone microstructures were assumed to consist of a Mg
matrix, possibly supersaturated with Al, and AlxMny particles.
Tensile testing showed that the yield strength in the stir zones
was 18% higher than that of die cast metal. Tensile strength in
the stir zones was in the range of 36% higher than die cast
metal. Friction stir processing doubled the tensile ductility of
the AM60B.
Magnesium AM60 Alloy, Magnesium Technology
2004, edited by A. A. Luo, TMS, pp 19-23
6. J. I. Skar, H. Gjestland, L. D. Oosterkamp, and D. L.
Albright, Friction Stir Welding of Magnesium Die
Castings, Magnesium Technology 2004, edited by A.
A. Luo, TMS, pp 25-30
7. N. Saunders, “Mg-DATA, a database for
thermodynamic calculations for Mg alloys,”
Thermotech Ltd., Surrey Technology Centre, The
Surrey Research Park, Guilford, Surrey GU2 7YG,
U.K.
8. J. A. Esparza, W. C. Davis, and L. E. Murr,
Microstructure-property studies in friction-stir-
welded, Thixomolded magnesium alloy AM60,
Journal of Materials Science, 38, pp 941-952 (2003)
9. J. P. Weiler, J. T. Wood, R. J. Klassen, E. Maire, R.
Berkmortel, and G. Wang, Relationship between
internal porosity and fracture strength of die-cast
magnesium AM60B alloy, Materials Science &
Engineering A, 395, pp 315-322 (2005)

Acknowledgement
Research sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy,
Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, Office of FreedomCAR and Vehicle Technologies, as
part of the High Strength Weight Reduction Materials
Program (VT0502020/VT0602010, CEVT023), under contract
DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC.

References
1. American Metal Market (http://www.amm.com)
2. K. Johnson, Magnesium Automotive Applications,
Advance Materials & Processes, 160(6), pp 62-65
(2002)
3. H. Zhao and T. DebRoy, Pore Formation during
Laser Beam Welding of Die-Cast Magnesium Alloy
AM60B – Mechanism and Remedy, Welding Journal,
80, 204-s-210-s (2001)
4. A. K. Dasgupta and J. Mazumder, Laser Welding of
AM60 Magnesium Alloy, Magnesium Technology
2004, edited by A. A. Luo, TMS, pp 43-48
5. N. Li, T.-Y. Pan, R. P. Cooper, D. Q. Houston, Z.
Feng, and M. L. Santella, Friction Stir Welding of

430
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Friction Stir Welding of Copper: Metallurgical Characterization
and Corrosion Resistance
A. Polar, F. Rumiche, M. Pareek, and J.E. Indacochea
University of Illinois at Chicago
Materials Engineering
ABSTRACT
Friction stir welding of electrolytic tough pitch copper
plates was performed using a conventional CNC milling
machine. A microstructural analysis was performed using
optical and scanning electron microscopes and the mechanical
properties were assessed. It is observed that the processing
temperature, and thus welding parameters, is critical to obtain a
sound joint. The characteristic weld nugget found in the friction
stir welding of other metals was not observed in this material.
Dynamic recrystallization was detected in the welding zone and
the grain size varied depending on the relative location of the
region examined with respect to the tool location. The tensile
strength of the copper weld was determined to be 90% of the
tensile strength of the base plate. Both the tensile and hardness
results are correlated with the weld microstructure. The
corrosion resistance of the weld was assessed in connection with
the grain distribution, using Electrochemical Impedance
Techniques; no significant differences were observed in the
corrosion behavior the weld compare to the unaffected metal.
INTRODUCTION
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state welding
process where the weld is produced by the rotation and stirring
of a viscous mass of the metal workpiece pushed against its cold
walls by the pin rotation of the weld tool and forging by the
shoulder of the tool. Since there is no melting with this process
oxidation is reduced, solidification defects are eliminated, and
residual stresses are lessened. The microstructure consists of a
central stirred zone (SZ), a thermomechanically affected zone
(TMAZ) close to the nugget, and a very small heat affected zone
(HAZ) [1, 2]. The central zone has received the most attention
because true bonding is produced in this region. In FSW of
aluminum alloys it is accepted that the process entails a
continuous dynamic recrystallization of the nugget [2-16],
where the former grains of the parent metal are heavily strained
and then recrystallized as a fine grain structure. This fine grain
structure is the result of large straining and relatively low
temperatures of the process. It has been established that the
grain size of the nugget increases as the temperature of the
process also increases [10]. The TMAZ is also influenced by the
straining caused by the stirring action of the probe; but large
recrystallization is not observed in this region.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Different processes occur during friction stir welding. The
flow of metal around the pin is accomplished by the extrusion of
plasticized metal grabbed from the front of the pin, and moved
clockwise through the space between the threads or the surface
of the pin and the parent metal, to the rear of the tool. In
addition the bottom of the tool pin forges the material against
the backing plate, while the tool shoulder produces a dynamic
rotational forging of the top material.
FSW provides an alternative to joining metals which are
difficult to weld with conventional fusion welding techniques.
Welding of copper, as example, is usually difficult because
copper has high thermal conductivity, which demands higher
heat input which accounts for a larger heat affected zone and
bigger microstructural damage. Electrolytic touch pitch (ETP)
copper is widely used as an engineering material and is
processed into wires, tubes, and shapes. FSW of ETP copper
was studied before [17, 18], particularly to the development of
grains structures compared to the parent metal. However there is
still need to understand grain structure evolution during FSW to
produce sound and reliable welds.
This study focuses on the microstructure development of
FSW tough pitch copper C10100 in connection with the
processing variables and its effect on mechanical properties and
corrosion behavior.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Welds were made on 3.175 mm (0.125 in.) thick plates of
EPT copper (99.99 wt. % Cu and 0.01 wt. % O) using a CNC
machine. The weld tool has a shoulder diameter of 9.52 mm
0.625 in.); the pin is 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) in diameter, 3.17 mm
(0.125 in.) long and it is threaded; the tool is made out of heat
treated D2 tool steel. At the start of the weld, the pin was
plunged into the joint line between the plates and a “pre-
heating” weld 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) long at 0.2 in/min (5.08
mm/min) travel speed was run. Then the regular weld at 3
in/min (76.2 mm/min) was made at a travel speed of 1500 rpm.
Crossweld coupons were extracted from locations at 0.5 in., 1.0
in. and 4.0 in. from the start of the weld, where thermocouples
were also placed to measure the approximate temperatures.
Metallographic, tensile and corrosion samples were obtained
from these coupons. Metallographic samples were polished
following standard procedures and etched with H2O2-NH4OH-
H2O. Tensile tests were carried out in an Instron tensile
431
equipment; the fractured surfaces of the tensile samples were a sound and full friction stir weld. From the top view, no
examined in a Hitachi 3000 SEM. significant differences are found between the advance and
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) was carried retreating regions.
out in non aerated corrosive water solution according to ASTM
D-1384 (100 ppm of sulfate, chloride and bicarbonate ions) with Advancing side Retreating side
the addition of 2 ml of nitric acid per liter of solution, which
c 445 °C
gives a pH = 1.8. A Gamry PCI4/300 potentiostat with a sine
wave generator controlled by a PC was used for the
experiments. A three electrode electrochemical cell was used,
with a saturated calomel electrode as reference electrode and
graphite rods as counter electrodes. The experiments were
conducted at 25oC. The working sample was obtained from the b 327 °C
surface of the FS weld and parent metal. Both samples were
mounted in resin, polished with silicon carbide paper up to 1200
grit, ultrasonically cleaned, rinsed and dried with cold air. a 282 °C
Impedance measurements were carried out at the open circuit
potential with AC amplitude of 10 mV. The scanned frequency
range was 10 mHz to 10 kHz.
Figure 2. Condition of the top surface of the welded
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION plates at start of the fabrication process.
Microstructural Characterization of the Parent Metal As indicated above weld cross section coupons were
The parent metal, ETP copper, shows a fine grain extracted from three locations (Figure 2) and are referred to here
microstructure and slightly elongated grains due to cold rolling, as “cold”, “warm” and ‘hot” welds. The corresponding overall
as seen in Figure 1. Oxide inclusions were observed and the appearances are shown in Figure 3. A microstructural evaluation
mean grain diameter was measured at 20.4 μm. of the three crossweld samples is carried out below.
Microstructure of the Cold Weld
At the start of the weld process the temperature was
measured at 282ºC and no oxidation was detected as seen in
Figure 2. A cavity was observed in the advancing side, but in
the retreating side not only had no cavity but the structure was
continuous from the base metal to the weld nugget or stirred
zone (SZ), as seen in Figure 3(a). The different weld zones are
visible in the micrograph, and the SZ does not show a clear
onion ring structure.
The large cavity found in the weld nugget is most likely
caused by the initial low processing temperature that limits the
plasticity of the copper. This will also reduces the volume of
metal that the tool may remove during the rotation and traveling
Figure 1.-Microstructure of the parent metal, ETP cycle, to be used to fill the weld cavity behind the weld tool.
copper, used in this investigation.
Microstructural Analysis of Weld Advancing side Retreating side
It is known that during FSW most of the heat produced by
the friction of the tool rotation on the plates is localized about (a)
the joint line. One of the aspects in this study is the analysis of
the weld development as the temperature changes from an initial
“cold” start to the “hot” stable temperature. The transition in the
heat concentration can be observed macroscopically by
examining the oxidation film developed on the top surface of (b)
the weld as seen in Figure 2. Note that at first there is no film
present, but then it gradually appears and becomes more visible
and reaches a constant color and width.
Three black spots have been marked in the portion of the
weld sample presented in Figure 2. The approximate peak
temperatures have been measured at these locations. In addition (c)
cross section samples were extracted from these positions to
conduct a detailed microstructure characterization and follow Figure 3. Micrographs of weld cross sections extracted
the development of the weld nugget from an incomplete weld to from early in the FSW process (a) cold weld, (b) warm
weld, and (c) hot weld.

432
 Fine grain microstructures were found at the TMAZ; a
mean grain diameter of 26.2 μm was measured at the advancing
side and 23.5 μm at the retreating side. Yet finer grain structures
were also observed. Figure 4 shows the grain structure seen in
the TMAZ near the SZ at the advancing side. In this
micrograph, very fine grains are found right at the SZ/TMAZ
interface.
TMAZ/SZ interface
advancing side
TMAZ
SZ
Figure 4. Interface between the SZ (small grains)
and the TMAZ at the advancing side (larger grains)
The grains in the SZ near the TMAZ are even smaller; a
mean grain size diameter of 5.3 μm was measured. The fine
grain structure is the result of dynamic recrystallization (DRX)
that the material undergoes at the retreating side; the metal at
this location is highly strained due to the opposing directions of
the tool rotational speed and travel speed, and a relatively low
temperature which would restrict grain coarsening. The finest
grains were located at the edges of the metal flow bands, which
are produced by the threads of the tool probe. Figure 5 shows a
representative microstructure of the fine grain seen in the SZ by
the TMAZ at the advancing side.
Figure 5. Fine grains in the SZ of the cold weld.
Another interesting feature in this crossweld sample was the
differences in microstructures at the SZ/TMAZ interfaces at the
advancing and retreating sides. There is a sharp difference in
microstructure in passing from the SZ to the TMAZ at the
433
advancing side, while the transition is gradual and there is
continuity between these two zones at the retreating side. It
appears as if the plasticized metal has been pushed against the
TMAZ in the advancing side; it is expected that there would be
very little stirring in this region where the rotation of the tool is
in the same direction as the travel speed. On the other hand at
the advancing side, the extruded material is forced to get in
contact with the TMAZ and more stirring of the plasticized
metal is expected due to the opposite directions of the tool
rotation and the weld travel speed.
Microstructure of the Warm Weld
Figure 3(b) presents the condition of the weld produced at
the intermediate temperature (~327ºC) which is more complete
and no cavities were found. However, there is still a sharp
change in microstructure going from the SZ to the TMAZ at the
advancing side despite the higher temperature (Figure 6). A
boundary like interface can be observed in Figure 3(b)
extending all the way to the top of the surface. The retreating
side shows a smooth transition in the microstructure similar to
the cold weld. The finest grains of the SZ in this weld were also
found near the TMAZ interface at the advancing side, the
average grain diameter is 9.3 μm compared to 34 μm for the
adjacent grains at the TMAZ.
Stirred Zone
TMAZ
Figure 6. TMAZ-Stirred Zone interface in a warm
weld. Notice that the finer grains are found just
at the interface
The grains in the stirred zone are also fine and equiaxed
with a mean diameter of 12.0 μm. At the top surface of the weld
nugget, a shallow layer of fine grains was observed followed by
a layer of larger grains.
Microstructure of the Hot Weld
The weld produced at the highest processing temperature is
shown in Figure 3(c); the weld is sound and the sharp
microstructure transition between the SZ and the TMAZ at the
advancing side has practically disappeared. The gradual
microstructure transition from the SZ to the TMAZ looks
similar at both the advancing and retreating sides. A sharp
evident weld nugget is observed; larger and equiaxed grains are
observed in the center of the stirred zone. In the stirred zone the
grains are slightly elongated with a mean diameter of 15.5 μm,

TMAZ
SZ
Figure 7. TMAZ-SZ interface at the advancing side
in the hot weld
while the grains in the TMAZ close to this zone are larger with a
mean diameter of 31.73 μm (Figure 7).
In the stirred zone of a “hot” weld, the grains are smaller
than the TMAZ; however these are larger than those found in
the SZ of the “cold” or the “warm” welds. In the advancing side
as well as in the retreating side the grains are larger, equiaxed,
and some of them twined with a mean grain diameter of 31.7
μm.
Recrystallization Assessment of the Welds
It has been established that materials with low stalking fault
energy can dynamically recrystallize (DRX) during hot work
[20-22]. Large strains at temperatures close to 0.5 Tm should
produced DRX, but if the processing temperatures are
significantly larger than 0.5 Tm after DRX, then grain growth
would also occur. As explained earlier, the material collected by
the tool pin in front of the tool, is rotated around the pin and left
behind the tool in a pattern described as “first collected last
left”. This approach is in agreement with models developed for
the flow of the material around the rotating pin [23]. In this
trajectory the metal is forced to flow through a small space
between the pin and the parent metal in the retreating side in an
“extrusion like” process. The strain of the material is then
affected by the weld pitch (the displacement of the pin in the
travel direction for one rotation of the tool), the number of
threads per inch, and the depth of the threads. According to
Chang [24], the strain rate can be estimated using a torsion type
deformation approach; for the parameters used in the present
investigation the strain rate was estimated to be in the order of
102 sec-1. Based on this strain rate and for the large strains
expected, DRX should be the main mechanism of energy
release, resulting in a fine grain microstructure. A correlation
frequently used between the recrystallized grain size and the
temperature is the Zener-Hollomon parameter (Z):
Z = ε& exp(Q / RT ) (1)
and
D = aZ b (2)
where έ is the strain rate, Q is the activation energy, T is the
absolute temperature and a and b are constants. In the case of
434
DRX the exponent b usually has a negative value, so converting
equation (1) into a logarithmic expression, this linear function
has negative slope.
ln D = ln a + ( − b ) ln ( ε& exp ( Q / RT ) ) (3)
From these equations some observations can be made. The
higher the temperature in which DRX occurs, the smaller the
effect of Z and the larger the grain size. But the larger the strain
rate, the greater the effect of the Z parameter and the smaller the
grain size. Table 1 shows the distribution of the mean grain
diameter for the three samples investigated in this study.
Table 1. Mean grain diameters in μm
Weld
Cold Warm Hot
Position
TMAZ Advance 26.2 31.3 31.7
TMAZ Retreat 23.5 30.8 31.3
SZ 5.3 11.7 15.5
The smallest mean grain size was observed in SZ of the
cold weld (5.3 μm), but finer grain sizes were found in this weld
close to the cavity. Figure 8 shows a TEM micrograph of some
of the smallest grains found close to the cavity. The grain is
fully recrystallized with dislocations absent in the grains.
Despite the expected improvement in mechanical properties
Figure 8. TEM micrograph of a DRX grain in an area
close to the cavity in the SZ of the cold weld.
with a finer grain structure, it was observed that in the case of
FSW the fine grains of the SZ near the TMAZ at the advancing
side of the weld, there was a lack of bonding. Despite DRX
occurring in ETP copper at wide a temperature range (400-950
°C) and strain rate (0.001-100 s-1), it has been observed that for
higher strain rates, the plasticization of the metal decreases[25].
This low metal plastization makes it more difficult to stir and fill
the cavity behind the moving tool. As it is the case of the cold
weld sample shown in Figure 3(a). In the TMAZ the grains are
considerably larger and possibly the mechanism of energy
release is grain coarsening.
In the warm weld sample, the smallest grain size is also
observed at the advancing side of the SZ/TMAZ interface.
According to the model mentioned above [20], the excess
material not pasted to the TMAZ at the retreating side, will then
be translated by the rotating tool probe toward the advancing
side, and these grains could be DRX grains. Once again the
SZ/TMAZ bonding at this side of the weld is not as strong as in
the case of the retreating side where the extrusion took place,
and a smooth microstructure transition is observed. The mean
grain size of the advancing and retreating sides is 31.27 μm and
30.87 μm respectively. These grain sizes for the warm weld are
larger than the corresponding ones found in the cold weld, as
seen in Table 1.
In the case of the hot weld, a smooth transition exists across
the SZ/TMAZ interface at both sides of the weld. Larger
equiaxed grains are found around in the SZ, which are now
confined to the center of the weld displaying even a more
homogeneous microstructure. The mean grain diameter at the
SZ is 15.5 μm, which is smaller to that of the parent metal. The
mean grain size in the SZ increases going from the cold, to the
warm and hot weld samples (5.3 μm, 11.74 μm, and 15.52 μm
respectively); the mean grain diameter of the SZ is seen to
increase as the temperature increases, in agreement with the
Zener-Hollomon relationship described above. The TMAZ
mean grain diameters of the hot weld are similar to those
measured in the warm weld sample, as observed in Table 1.
Mechanical Properties of the Welds
The cold weld sample failed prematurely during the tensile
test because the existent cavity and it is not considered in this
discussion. Figure 9 compares the stress-strain curves of the
parent metal, the warm weld and hot weld. It was observed that
the hot weld tensile sample had slightly a higher yield stress
compared to the parent metal, while its tensile strength (223.5
MPa) is 96.04 % of the UTS of the parent metal (232.7 MPa);
the total elongation was reduced from 48% to 36%. The fracture
(a) (b)
Figure 10. SEM fractographs of the fractured tensile
samples: (a) and parent metal (b) hot weld. The amount of
ductile fracture is larger in the parent metal.
Corrosion Evaluation
Figures 11 and 12 show the impedance spectra obtained for the
as-received sample as well as for the welded sample for
different times immersion. A charge transfer reaction
mechanism is observed for both samples. The value of the
charge transfer resistance can be obtained at the intersection of
the spectra with the Z real axis at low frequency. It is observed
that the charge transfer resistance decreases as the immersion
time increases. The smaller the charge transfer resistance the
more corrosion susceptible the material becomes. Based on the
overall magnitudes of the charge transfer resistance shown in
Figures 11 and 12, it is seen that the FSW sample shows lower
charge transfer resistance, hence greater corrosion susceptibility
compared to the parent metal.
IMPEDANCE CURVES FOR THE AS-RECEIVED SAMPLE
5.00E+03

surfaces of both specimens were examined, as seen in Figure 10; 4.50E+03

30 min
4.00E+03
both samples showed several oxide inclusions, however the 60 min
3.50E+03
parent metal had a larger amount of ductile fracture. The warm
-Z imag (Ohm/cm2)

120 min
3.00E+03
weld tensile specimen had a higher yield strength and lower 2.50E+03
150 min

tensile strength than both the parent metal and hot weld 2.00E+03

specimen. The higher yield is most likely caused by the finer 1.50E+03

grain size found in the warm weld SZ. This last weld sample 1.00E+03

fractured in the advancing side, right by the sharp 5.00E+02

microstructure change at the SZ/TMAZ interface described 0.00E+00

0.00E+00 2.00E+03 4.00E+03 6.00E+03 8.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.20E+04 1.40E+04

above. Z real (Ohm/cm2)

250 Figure 11. Impedance curves for the as received sample.

IMPEDANCE CURVES FOR THE FS WELDED SAMPLE

3.00E+03
200
110 min
2.50E+03
Stress (Kg/mm2)

150
2.00E+03
-Z imag (Ohm/cm2)

180 min

100 1.50E+03

1.00E+03
50

5.00E+02

0 225 min 270 min

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.00E+00
Strain 0.00E+00 1.00E+03 2.00E+03 3.00E+03 4.00E+03 5.00E+03 6.00E+03 7.00E+03 8.00E+03 9.00E+03

Parent metal FSW Hot FSW warm Z Real (Ohm/cm2)

Figure 9. Stress-strain curves for the parent metal and Figure 12. Impedance curves for the friction stir welded
FSW of the ETP copper samples. sample.

435
 CONCLUSIONS
1. Dynamic recrystallization has been found to occur in FSW
of ETP copper, but it is confined to the SZ in all welds
where large strains and strain rates happen.
2. The final grain size in the SZ increases with increasing
processing temperature.
3. Dynamic recovery and grain coarsening most likely occurs
at the TMAZ, where the grain diameter reaches an
equilibrium grain size of about 32.0 μm.
4. The tensile strength of the optimum FSW was 96.0 % of the
UTS of the parent metal.
5. The corrosion experiments conducted so far indicate similar
corrosion mechanism for the FSW and parent metal. The
weld sample shows a lower corrosion resistance.
REFERENCES
1. P. Threadgill, TWI bulletin, March – April, 30-33 (1977).
2. Mahoney, M. W., C.G. Rhodes, et al. Properties of FSW
7075 T651 aluminum. Met. and Mat. Transactions A, vol
29A, July 1955-1964, 1998.
3. Rhodes, CG. Effects of FSW on microstructures of 7075
aluminum. Scripta Materialia vol 36,1 69-75, 1997
4. Liu, G. et al. Microstructural aspects of the FSW of 6061 –
T6 Aluminum .- Scripta Materialia, 37, 3 355-361.
5. Murr, L. E. et al. A TEM study of precipitation and related
microstructures in FS welded Aluminum. Journal of
Materials Science. 33 (1998) 1243-1251
6. Flores, V. et al. Microstructural issues in FS welded
aluminum alloy. Scripta Materialia. 38,5 703-708, 1998.
Elsevier
7. Li Ying et al. Solid state flow visualizationin the FSW of
2024 Al to 6061. Scripta Materialia 40, 9 (1998)1041-1046,
Elsevier.
8. Ying Li et al. Flow visualization and residual
microstructures associated with the FSW of 2024 Al to
6061 Al. Materials Sci. & Eng. A271 (1999) 213-223
9. Murr, L. et al. Microstructures in FS welded metals. Journal
of Materials Processing & Manufacturing Science vol 7 Oct
1998.
10. Benavides, S. et al. Ultrafine grain structure in the FSW of
aluminum alloy 2024 at low temperature. The Minerals,
Metals & Materials Society. 2000
11. Benavides, S. et al. Low temperature FSW of 2024
aluminum. Scripta Materialia, 41, 8 (1999) 809-815.
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12. Sutton, M. A. et al., Microstructural studies of FS welds in
2024-T3 aluminum. Materials Science and Engineering
A323 (2002) 160-166.
13. Heinz Beate et al. Microstructural characterization of a
friction stir welded Al alloy. Materials Science Forum, vols
331-337 (2000), pp 1757-1762.
14. Norman, A. F. et al. High resolution EBSD analysis of the
grain structure in an AA2024 Friction Stir Weld. Materials
Science Forum, vols 331-337 (2000) pp 1731-1718.
15. Yutaka, S. et al. Microstructural evolution of 6063
aluminum during FSW. Met. and Mat. Transactions A, Vol.
30A, pp. 2429-2437 (1999).
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alloys. Materials Science Forum, vols 331-337 (2000), pp
1701-1712.
17. T. Hautala and T. Tiainen Friction Stir Welding of Copper.
6th International Trends in Welding Research Conference
Proceedings. 15-19 April 2002, pine Mountain, GA ASM
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18. W. Lee and S. Jung The joint properties of copper by
friction stir welding Materials Letters 58 (2004) 1041-1046
19. J. H. P. De Bresser, J. H. Ter Heege, C. J. Spiers, Grain size
reduction by dynamic recrystallization: can it result in
major rheological weakening? Int. J. Earth Sciences (2001)
90: 28-45.
20. N. Ravichandran and Y. V. R. K. Prasad Influence of
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Microstructures and performance of welded joints of

red copper and brass by friction stir welding
Xiaowen Liu, Junhui Yan, Ningning Yang
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’ an 710072, China

Abstract cast and processed and thus has a lower price. The weldability
of copper alloy is largely affected by the contaminants, such as
The friction stir welding of red copper and brass were carried oxygen, lead, bismuth, sulfur and phosphor. As a result, it is
out at a serious of welding parameters. The properties and easy to produce many defects when fusion welding. FSW
microstructures of the welded joints were analyzed. Tensile technology can avoid these defects. So it’s necessary to study
and bending test results indicate that the welded joints can the FSW technology of red copper and brass.
achieve good combination of strength and ductility at rotation
speed of 950rpm, welding speed of 60 mm/min and Z-axis Table 1 Compositions of red copper T2 (not more than, %)
force of 2000N. The tensile specimen failed at the base
material of red copper. The weld nugget zone has very fine Bi Te As Fe Ni Pb
dynamic recrystallization microstructure and its Vickers 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.002 0.003
hardness falls in between those of the two base metals. The Sn S Zn O Cu Total impurity
sharp interface between the TMAZ and nugget might result in 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.06 balance 0.1
brittle fracture.

Key words: Friction stir welding, copper alloy
microstructures, performance of the joints
Introduction
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a relatively new solid welding
technology invented by TWI in 1990s, which can be used to
join not only alloys with low melting point but also dissimilar
materials. It can avoid some defects such as cracks, voids and
shrinkages that appear in fusion welding. At the present time,
most of the researches focus on the FSW of aluminum, only
several on the FSW of copper. In this paper, the FSW
technology of red copper and brass was studied, the
microstructures and performance of the welded joints were
analyzed.
Experimental
Friction stir welding were performed on 3mm thick plates of
red copper (pure copper) T2 and brass H62. The chemical
compositions of the two materials are listed in Table 1 and 2.
Both materials have good electronic and thermal
conductivities; their good plasticity makes it easy for them to
be cold processed, therefore they are widely use in the
industry. Compared with red copper, brass has a smaller
specific weight, most importantly, it can be much more easily
Table 2 Compositions of brass H62 (not more than, %)
Total
Cu Fe Pb Sb Bi P Zn
impurity
63.5 0.15 0.03 0.005 0.002 0.01 balance 0.5
The experiments were carried on a modified milling machine.
A cone-shaped pin tool was used in the experiment, which was
made from Ni high-temperature-resistant alloy. The tool
shoulder has a diameter of 10mm. The cone-shaped pin had a
diameter of 5.5mm at the root near the shoulder, and 3.5mm at
the other end. The pin length is 2.5mm. The welding
parameters used in the experiment are listed in Table 3.
Following FSW, samples were cut from the weld joints to
reveal the microstructure and perform mechanical property
tests. Well-polished transversal sections were etched with a
solution of 6g FeCl3 +10ml HCl+90ml H2O to exam the
microstructures across the joints with the help of the
NEOPHOT-1 micro-camera. Vickers hardness profile across
the joint was also obtained on a HX-1000 sclerometer. Dog-
bone shaped tensile specimens with a 6mm×3mm cross-
section and a 100mm gage length were machined along the
transversal direction of the friction stir welds so that the
loading direction is normal to the welding direction. Tensile
tests were carried out on an Omnipotent test machine. For

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 437

joint with best tensile properties, additional 3-point bending
test was carried out on an INSTRON servo dynamic test
system. The bending specimen had a cross-section of
20mm×3mm and a span of 200mm.
Table 3: Welding parameters
T2 due to low stacking fault energy. The impurities distribute
on the structure of T2 in the form of little black spots. Fig.3(a)
shows the microstructure of brass H62. it can be seen that
some black β phases are distributed along the grain boundaries
of α phase matrix.

Rotation Welding Z
Specimen
speed speed force
No
(rpm) (mm/min) (N)
1 1180 60 2500
2 1180 47.5 2000
3 1180 37.5 1500
4 950 60 2000
5 950 47.5 1500
6 950 37.5 2500
7 750 60 1500
8 750 47.5 2500
9 750 37.5 2000

Results and discussion

Microstructures
The macrograph of the front and back views of the FSW
welded joint of red copper and brass is shown in Fig.1. As can
be seen, the material around the weld nugget has different Figure 2: Microstructures at (a) T2 base metal, (b) nugget
color from the base metals. of T2-H62 FSW joint and (c) T2 side TMAZ of T2-H62
FSW joint
Front view

Back view

Figure 1: Macrographs of front and back view of T2-

H62 FSW joint
Figures 2 and 3 present microstructures of the friction stir
welded joint of the T2-H62 at the welding condition of
specimen #4. The microstructure of T2 base material is shown
in Fig.2(a). Deformation twins can be seen in the structure of
Figure 3: Microstructures at (a) H62 base metal, (b)
H62 side TMAZ of T2-H62 FSW joint, (c) root side
interface between the nugget and H62 side TMAZ, and
(d) crown side interface between the nugget and H62
side TMAZ

438
The microstructure of the nugget zone is shown as Fig.2(b). Its
grain size is much finer than those of the base materials. The
impurities are also well distributed into the microstructure.
The deformation twins can’t be seen. It is believed that grain
structures in the nugget zone undergo re-crystallization due to
the severe plastic deformation and thermal effect.

Fig.2(c) shows the microstructure of the red copper side

TMAZ, which includes recrystallized zone, incomplete
recrystallized zone and dynamically recovered zone. The Brass side TMAZ
recrystallized grain size in TMZA is close to that of the nugget
zone. The incomplete recrystallizing zone has grains bigger
than that of the nugget zone but smaller than that of the base
material. In the recovered zone the grain size is close to that of
the base material. The interface between the nugget and
TMAZ isn’t obvious, but the material flow lines can be seen in
this region. Fig.3(b) shows microstructures of the brass side
TMAZ. The grain size isn’t uniform. In general, it’s similar to
that of red copper.
Red copper matrix
Fig.3 (c) and (d) show the transition zone between the TMAZ
and nugget near the root side and the crown side of the joint.
As shown in Fig.3(d), the interface between the TMAZ and Figure 4: Broken tensile specimens showing
nugget near the crown side is obvious and sharp. The sharp different failure locations
interface might result from the segregation of black β phase,
which has not been dissolved in such a short time during the
welding process.

Performances
The tensile test results of FSW joints obtained using different ←T2 H62→
welding parameters are listed in Table 4. Fig.4 show two
typical failure locations in the tensile tests: the brass H62 side
TMAZ (joints 1, 2, 5, 6 and 9) and the base metal of red Distance from weld centerline, mm
copper T2 (joints 3, 4, 7 and 8). Table 4 also shows that the
fracture location in H62 side TMAZ is associated with the low Figure 5: Vickers hardness profile across joint
tensile elongation and the fracture location in the base metal of
red copper T2 corresponds to higher tensile elongation.

Table 4: Tensile test results

Specimen Strength Elongation

Fracture locations
No (MPa) (%)
1 212.93 6.67 TMAZ (brass side)
2 241.26 12.07 TMAZ (brass side )
3 238.29 22.87 red copper BM
4 243.06 22.93 red copper BM
5 218.49 5.07 TMAZ (brass side ) Figure 6: Specimens of T2-H62 FSW
6 225.03 5.67 TMAZ (brass side ) joints before and after bending
7 236.67 22.27 red copper BM
8 243.15 20.00 red copper BM
Tables 3 and 4 show that the welding condition for specimen
9 241.44 9.33 TMAZ (brass side ) #4 can achieve good combination of strength and ductility.
Fig. 5 shows the variation of Vickers hardness along the mid-
thickness line on the vertical-transverse section for joint #4.
The mechanism for specimens to fracture at the brass H62 side As can be seen, the red cooper T2 has lower hardness than the
TMAZ might be related to the sharp interface and segregation brass H62, while the weld nugget’s hardness falls in-between
of β phase between the TMAZ and the nugget, but further those of the two base materials. This can help to explain why
investigation is needed. the tensile fracture location was at the matrix of red cooper
T2. Fig. 6 presents the 3-point bending test result for joint #4.

439
As can be seen, the bending angle of FSW joint of T2-H62 can
reach more than 160º, which is consistent with the tensile test
results.

Conclusions
Red copper T2 and brass H62 can be joined by friction stir
welding. The welded joints can achieve good combination of
strength and ductility at the welding condition of 950rpm
rotation speed, 60 mm/min welding speed and 2000N Z-axis
force. The weld nugget zone has very fine dynamic
recrystallization microstructure and its Vickers hardness falls
in between those of the two base metals. The tensile specimen
failed at the base material of red cooper. The sharp interface
between the TMAZ and nugget might result in brittle fracture
and need further investigation.

Acknowledgements

Supports from Nature Science Foundation of China are

appreciated.

References
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Joining of 5083 and 6061 aluminum alloys by friction
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440
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Sigma Phase Formation in Friction Stirring
of Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys
C.D. Sorensen, T.W. Nelson
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
Abstract
A study of the thermodynamics of σ formation during friction
stirring of austenitic stainless steels was carried out using the
thermodynamic calculation program MTDATA. Isopleths
(planar vertical sections through the Fe-Cr-Ni ternary phase
diagram) were calculated along lines that pass through both
the alloy composition and the σ phase region. Examination of
these isopleths shows that σ formation is thermodynamically
favorable in types 304, 309, 316 and 317 stainless, but not in
type 330 stainless.
The literature has shown that rapid σ formation can be
correlated with static recrystallization in type 310.
Experimental investigation shows σ formation in narrow
region in the shoulder zone of welds in 316L which is
consistent with σ formation during static recrystallization.
Thus, σ formation may serve as a recrystallization marker
during FS.
Introduction
Friction stirring (FS) has demonstrated promise as a
manufacturing process applied to stainless steels. Initially used
in the Friction Stir Welding (FSW) process to join materials,
FS has also been used to refine the microstructure of stainless
steel arc weldments.
One concern when applying the FS process to austenitic
stainless steels is the formation of σ in the stir zone. σ is
undesirable because it reduces toughness and can increase
corrosion rates.
In fusion welding, σ only appears after high-temperature
exposure for long times. Thus, it has been somewhat
surprising to see σ in FS, where the material has an elevated
temperature exposure of no more than a few minutes.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
This paper briefly reviews the literature on σ phase, the
deformation of 304L stainless, and FS of 304 stainless alloys.
Based on calculated phase diagrams, the tendency of different
alloys to form σ during FS is predicted. Mechanisms that
could lead to σ formation are proposed. Preliminary
metallographic analysis on several commercial stainless alloys
Previous Work
Sigma Phase
σ phase is an iron-chrome intermediate phase with a tetragonal
structure and 30 atoms per unit cell 1. It consists of 42.7 to
48.2 wt% chromium, and is thermodynamically stable
between 710 and 1100 K (440 and 830 °C)2. In a binary Fe-Cr
alloy, the composition over which σ is stable ranges from 7
wt% to 88 w% Cr.
σ is typically formed in stainless steels during long-time
exposure (> 100 hours) at temperatures between 840 and 1250
K (565 and 980 °C)1. σ forms most rapidly at a temperature
between 970 and 1080 K (700 and 810 °C). In stainless steels,
addition of ferrite stabilizers such as Mo can greatly increase
both the range and rate of σ formation.
Lena and Curry3 investigated the effects of cold work on σ
formation in 310 stainless. At 5 to 10% strain, cold work had
no effect or retarded σ formation. However, at 20 to 40%
strain, the rate of σ formation was dramatically increased. The
rate of σ formation was shown to directly correlate with the
rate of recrystallization of this alloy.
Deformation of 304L
Venugopal et al.4 reported a deformation map for 304L for
temperatures ranging from (600 to 1200 °C) and strain rates
from 10-3 to 102 s-1, as shown in Figure 1. Note that dynamic
recrystallization was found at temperatures above 1270 K
(1000 °C) and strain rates between 0.01 and 10 s -1. At lower
temperatures or higher strain rates, flow localization was the
dominant deformation mechanism.
441

Friction Stirring of 304L
Park et al.5 explored the formation of σ during friction stirring.
They observed a phase identified as σ through SAD. This
phase was found only on the advancing side of the weld. They
suggest the possibility that the σ is related to formation of
ferrite in the stir zone, but cited only circumstantial evidence
for this ferrite transformation.
Sato et al.6 explored recrystallization in type 304L stainless
steel during friction stirring. They observed a banded structure
in the stir zone, with a variation in grain size from band to
band. They found evidence for both static recrystallization and
dynamic recrystallization. They observed that the static
recrystallization occurred in local areas of high dislocation
density, probably due to spatial variations in deformation.
Figure 1: Deformation map for 304L from reference 4
Exploration of the Fe-Cr-Ni Phase Diagram
To better understand the formation of σ, the Fe-Cr-Ni phase
diagram was explored through the use of MTDATA, a
thermodynamic and phase equilibrium software package7.
Calculations were performed with only the three major
components of Fe, Cr, and Ni. Although other alloying
elements affect the formation of σ, it was felt that the results
obtained from the simpler system would be qualitatively
correct.
Two different types of calculations were performed in
MTDATA. First, isothermal sections of the ternary diagram
were examined between 1373 and 673 K (1100 to 450 °C).
This gave an overview of the various phase regions. Then,
pseudobinary (or isopleth) diagrams were created along lines
containing important commercial alloys and adjacent two-
442
phase regions containing σ. These pseudobinary diagrams
provide clear insight into the thermodynamics of σ formation.
Calculated Ternary Diagrams
Figure 2 shows the calculated ternary Fe-Cr-Ni diagram at
1073 K (800 °C). This figure was chosen because it clearly
shows the presence of the various phase fields. Furthermore,
this is the temperature at which the σ transformation rate is the
highest.
Only the single-phase regions are labeled in Figure 2. Two-
phase regions are indicated by tie lines joining two single-
phase regions. Three-phase regions are indicated by shaded
triangles touching three single-phase regions. In addition to
the phases, the compositions of six commercial stainless alloys
are labeled on the diagram. Also, a line is drawn through each
alloy parallel to the tie lines in the σ+γ two-phase region. Each
of these lines represents the location of a psedobinary or
isopleth diagram which is shown later.
Figure 2: Isothermal section of the Fe-Cr-Ni ternary phase
diagram. Compositions of six commercial stainless alloys are
shown by symbols.
In Figure 2 we can see that types 316, 304, 317, and 309 lie
either within or very close to the boundary of the two-phase
σ+γ region, and are thus susceptible to σ formation. As is
mentioned above, the location of the phase boundary in this
diagram is not exact for the stainless alloys, because alloying
elements other than Cr and Ni are not included in the
calculation.
In contrast to the 30x and 31x alloys, the 409 and 330 are not
close to a region containing σ. 409 is in the center of the (αδ)
field, and 330 is in the γ field, a good distance away from the
two-phase boundary. Thus, we would expect 330 to be less
likely than the 31x and 30x alloys to form σ during FS.
Isopleths
To obtain more information about the thermodynamics of σ
formation, isopleths (vertical planar slices through the ternary
phase diagram, often called pseudobinary diagrams) were
created. Figure 3 shows a calculated isopleth at 71.75 w% Fe,
which corresponds to the typical composition of type 304L
stainless. A pseudobinary diagram similar to this isopleth is
often used to explain the solidification process of 304L during
welding. In contrast with the typical pseudobinary, the
isopleth in Figure 3 explicitly shows three regions containing
σ, althogh the single-phase σ region is not shown on the
isopleth. Note that σ is present in this diagram from about 750
to 1000 K (475 to 725 °C).

Figure 4: Calculated Isopleth through 304L and σ region. Ni-

rich region is at right of diagram

Figure 3: Calculated Isopleth at 71.75 w% Fe, with varying

Ni and Cr. Nickel-rich is at left of diagram, Cr-rich is at right
of diagram..

The 72% Fe isopleth is a valuable diagram for showing how

the fraction of Cr and Ni change during solidification, but it is
less helpful in understanding σ formation, because the single-
phase σ region is not shown. To gain a better picture of how σ
is formed from the solid state, it is helpful to have isopleths
going through the σ region.
Lines A-A’, B-B’, C-C’, D-D’, and E-E’ show the locations of
isopleths chosen for 304, 316, 317, and 309, respectively.
These lines were chosen to pass through the specific alloy
composition and lie parallel to a tie-line in the σ+γ two-phase
region. This is roughly analogous to going down a Gibbs free
energy gradient for σ until we reach the two-phase region.
Figures 4 through 8 show the isopleths corresponding to each
of the lines previously mentioned. Each of the diagrams
shows the composition of the alloy chosen to lie on the line for
that diagram.
Figure 5: Calculated Isopleth through 316 and σ region. Ni-
rich region is at right of diagram
Discussion
The isopleth diagrams are useful because they clearly show
the limits of stability for σ. We note that σ is not stable above
about 1200 K (925 °C). Thus, we would expect no σ to be
formed during dynamic recrystallization of 304L, as the
dynamic recrystallization region of the 304Ldeformation map
is above 1270 K (1000 °C), as shown in Figure 1.
All of the 31x and 30x alloys lie within a two-phase region
where σ is stable between 800 and about 1000 K (525 and 725
K), with some alloys having stable sigma up to about 1200 K
(925 °C). In contrast, type 330 never passes through a region
with stable σ. Hence, we would expect no σ formation in 330.

443
Figure 6: Calculated Isopleth through 317 and σ region. Ni-
rich region is at right of diagram
rich region is at right of diagram
The deformation map of Figure 1 shown that at temperatures
where σ is stable, and at strain rates over about 20 s-1,
deformation is through flow localization. This is consistent
with the banded structure observed in FS, which consists of
bands of small grains (assumed to be highly deformed and
recrystallized) alternating with bands of large grains. Thus, it
is believed that the mechanism for rapid σ formation in the
banded structure of the stir zone in FS is a two-step process.
First, the material is sheared at relatively low temperatures
and/or high strain rates, which produces flow localization and
narrow shear bands. Second, the highly-deformed material in
the shear bands statically recrystallizes, producing σ at a rate
proportional to the recrystallization rate.
Figure 7: Calculated Isopleth through 309 and σ region. Ni-
rich region is at right of diagram
444
Figure 8: Calculated Isopleth through 330 and σ region. Ni-
If this proposed mechanism can be verified, the presence of σ
in the stir zone can be used as a marker for static
recrystallization, and may give microstructural evidence of
temperature and strain rate in the stir zone.
This discussion does not preclude the possibility of dynamic
recrystallization in the stir zone. It merely precludes dynamic
recrystallization as a mechanism for σ formation in 304L.
Park et al.5 hypothesize that the rapid formation of σ is due to
a decomposition from ferrite. At the highest temperatures and
strain rates in Figure 1, ferrite formation is observed. This
provides some evidence that ferrite could be created in the stir
zone.
From the isopleth in Figure 4, one can determine an alloy
similar to 304 that should be free from σ formation. If the X
axis coordinate is changed to 0.7, the alloy composition never
enters a region containing stable σ. This corresponds to an
alloy of 16 w% Cr and 10 w% Ni. Future work will involve
testing this alloy to see if it avoids σ formation.
FSW of Stainless Alloys
In order to explore the formation of σ during the FS process,
6.4 mm thick plates of 309, 317LN, 330, and 409 were
processed by FS. The tool used was a truncated-cone PCBN
tool with three flats at the end of the pin. The pin diameter
was 8 mm at the base and 4.5 mm at the end. The pin length
was 3 mm.
Initial processing parameters were chosen based on a 304
study by Sterling8 No attempt was made in this work to
optimize the parameters. The material was processed under
displacement Z axis control, with spindle speeds of 400 and
600 rpm, and a travel speed of 0.85 mm/s (2 in/min).Some of
the processed plates had small lack-of-consolidation defects
on the advancing side about 1 mm above the end of the pin.

Upon completion of processing, transverse specimens were

removed from the plate, mounted, polished, and etched using
two different methods to reveal σ. The first method was an
electrolytic etch at 3 VDC for 3 s. in a solution of 56g KOH
and 100 mL distilled water. The second method was a
modified Murakami’s reagent etch at 95 °C for a few seconds.
Figure 11: Dark stripe immediately below surface in Figure
10, after repolishing and electrolytic etching. .

Figure 11 shows the shoulder region of the specimen from

Figure 9 at 1000X. The dark line seen in figure 10 runs
through the middle of this micrograph. The dark speckles in
the figure appear to be about half carbides and half sigma. The
dark line extends out to a ripple on the surface at the edge of
the shoulder, indicating the feature was formed in conjunction
with the surface ripple. This could indicate recrystallization
that is happening after the shoulder has passed.
Figure 9:Friction stirred region of 304L. Dark areas are
regions of high sigma content

Figure 9 shows the stir zone for a weld in type 304L. The grey
regions have been demonstrated to have carbide and sigma in
the grain boundaries. The black region at the end of the pin
has been shown to contain sigma in the grain interiors.

Figure 12: The stir zone near the end of the pin in type 309 at
1000X. 600 rpm, 0.85 mm/s, electrolytic etch.

Figure 12 shows the stir zone of material processed at 600 rpm

Figure 10:Friction stirred region of 316L using a step-spiral and a travel speed of 0.85 mm/s. The specimen was etched
PCBN tool. electrolytically to identify sigma. The small dark regions are
half carbides and half sigma. The large dark regions appear to
Figure 10 shows the stirred region of a 316L specimen that be primarily sigma. The sigma phase in the stir zone appears
was made using a stepped-spiral PCBN tool. By analogy with to be concentrated near the end of the pin.
Figure 9, dark regions were assumed to have sigma phase.
This specimen was repolished and etched electrolytically to
identify the sigma phase. No sigma particles were found in the
pin (nugget) region. However, sigma was found in the dark
strip immediately below the shoulder, as shown in Figure 11.

445

Figure 13: Base metal type 330 at 1000X. Electrolytic etch.
Figure 13 shows the type 330 base metal at 1000X. Grain
boundaries are decorated with carbides. Large, roughly
cuboidal precipitates are found throughout the specimen, both
at grain boundaries and at the interior of the grains. The
morphology of these precipitates is consistent with MX
carbonitrides, but the phase has not yet been identified.
Figure 12: The stir zone in type 330 at 1000X. 600 rpm, 0.85
mm/s, electrolytic etch.
Figure 12 shows the stir zone in type 330 at 1000X. As in the
base metal, carbides decorate the grain boundaries. The
cuboidal precipitates remain, and are about the same size and
distribution as those in the base metal. No σ appears to have
formed in the FS process, which is consistent with the results
predicted from the study of the phase diagrams.
Conclusions
A review of calculated phase diagrams for the Fe-Cr-Ni
system has demonstrated that σ is a thermodynamically stable
phase at elevated temperatures for types 304, 309, 316, and
317 stainless steel. However, type 330 stainless steel does not
have a temperature at which σ is a stable phase.
The use of isopleths that lie along a line passing through the
alloy of interest and the σ phase region to analyze sigma
formation has been demonstrated. In accordance with the
446
predictions based on these diagrams, type 330 was found to be
free from σ phase following FS.
The authors believe that the most likely mechanism for rapid
formation of σ in the stir zone is static recrystallization of
material located in high-deformation regions.
Dynamic recrystallization may be present in the FS of
austenitic stainless steels. If so, likely occurs at temperatures
above the maximum stable temperature for σ and hence is
unlikely to be responsible for rapid σ formation.
Future work is planned to definitively identify the σ phase in
the specimens having undergone the FS process.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the Office of Naval
Research, contract No. N00014-03-1-0792, with Dr. Julie
Christodoulou, Program Manager. Welding and
metallography were performed by Ben Nelson, Dave Segrera,
Stirling Anderson, and Chris Reeve.
References
1 ASM International, ASM Handbook Volume 1:
Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-
Performance Alloys, pp 708-710, ASM International,
Metals Park, Ohio (1990)
2 ASM International, ASM Handbook Volume 31:
Alloy Phase Diagrams, p 152, ASM International,
Metals Park, Ohio (1990)
3 A.J. Lena and W.E. Curry, The Effect of Cold Work
and Recrystallization on the Formation of the Sigma
Phase in Highly Stable Austenitic Stainless Steels,
Trans. ASM, 47, 193-210 (1955)
4 S. Venugopal, S.L. Mannan, and P. Rodriguez,
Optimum design of a hot extrusion process for AISI
type 304L stainless steel using a model for the
evolution of microstructure, Modelling Simul. Mater.
Sci. Eng., 10, 253-265 (2002)
5 S.H.C. Park, Y.S. Sato, H. Kokawa, K. Okamoto, S.
Hirano, and M. Inagaki, Rapid formation of the
sigma phase in 304 stainless steel during friction stir
welding, Scripta Mater., 49, 1175 (2003).
6 Y.S. Sato, T.W. Nelson, C.J. Sterling,
Recrystallization in type 304L stainless steel during
friction stirring, Acta Mater, 53, 637-45 (2005)
7 R H Davies, A T Dinsdale, J A Gisby, J A J
Robinson, S M Martin, MTDATA -
Thermodynamics and Phase Equilibrium Software
from the National Physical Laboratory, CALPHAD,
26(2), pp. 229-271 (2002)
8 C.J. Sterling, unpublished research, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Brigham Young University,
Provo, UT 84602.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Trends in Microwelding
G.A. Knorovsky, D.O. MacCallum, E.A. Holm, J.R. Michael
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM
V.V. Semak
Pennsylvania State University, Kittanning, PA
B.M. Nowak-Neely
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM
Abstract
Miniaturization in the electronics industry continues to follow
Moore's "Law", with feature sizes of sub-!m extent becoming the
standard. Further, the palette of technologies available is also
expanding, with MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems),
photonics, and microfluidics joining microelectronics. Systems
employing several of these technologies are beginning to appear,
and issues of material joining, interconnection and packaging are
sure to emerge. This work attempts to develop microscale joining
tools, defined as <100!m part extent. Results obtained on the
feasibility of three approaches: micro-focused laser welding,
electron beam welding using a Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB) chemical vapor deposition
joining, are summarized. Characteristic of these approaches is an
attempt to achieve ever-smaller sources of energy while
maintaining visualization capabilities. In addition to showing
examples, issues of process characterization and energy transport,
limitations and work needed for each will be discussed. Finally,
at these size scales, the force due to surface tension plays an
increased role in the success or failure of joining across gaps, and
indeed prevents drilling where high power density sources are
used. Analyses of the effect of surface tension will be given for
selected topics.
Introduction
Microwelding is a term that has been used, particularly since the
advent of lasers. However, most contemporary microwelding is
actually 'milliwelding'. We define microwelding as welding of
parts of which more than one dimension ∀0.1mm. There are
many challenges involved with such small size parts. 1st, it is
difficult to see parts on the order of a human hair diameter
without optical or electron-optical aid. 2nd, manipulating such
parts without damaging them is difficult, as is assuring intimate
contact. For this reason, butt weld geometries are impractical, as
it is extremely difficult to obtain suitable alignment. 3rd, because
surface tension begins to play a predominant role at high radii of
curvature, assuring coalescence requires very careful
consideration of the material volume, shape and gap to be
bridged, as well as the possibility that surface tension forces will
actually move the parts to be welded if they are not suitably
restrained. 4th, obtaining and bringing a sharply defined high
power density energy source to carefully controlled locations or
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 447
along restricted pathways is non-trivial. Finally, for newly
emerging microtechnologies, unfamiliar specialty materials
such as Kovar, Invar, LIGA-produced (1) Ni or other
electroplated alloys, high Si-content Al alloys, Au-plated Cu,
and semi- or non-metals such as Si, SiO2, glasses and
polymers, will be encountered.
To respond to these challenges we have adapted several
existing technologies including micro-focused lasers, a
modified Scanning Electron Microscope and an adaptation of
Focused-Ion Beam chemical vapor deposition. For each of
these processes we will illustrate the adaptations required,
positive features and some remaining challenges.
Micro-Focused Laser Welds
Small diameter laser beams are readily obtained by combining
a suitably-apertured cavity, a beam expander and high quality
focusing optics. The practical limit for conventional optics is
~15!m diameter, well above the diffraction limit. Micron
resolution CNC-controlled stages, or scanner optics are readily
available for positioning and moving the beam, and though
limits on speed and accuracy are present, they are high. Beam
scanning via galvos, or beam splitting via digital optics or focal
plane mask projection are possible routes to making a serial
process such as laser welding competitive with parallel
processes such as lithography-etching-deposition or molecular
self-assembly.
Another issue is whether welding without drilling is possible
for !m-size pools, given the power density needed. Analysis
requires careful consideration of the beam-induced motion of
the molten pool in addition to the thermal balance. The recoil
force created by evaporation is given (2, 3) as:
pr = 0.54 B0(Ts)-1/2 exp(-U/kTs) (1)
where: B0 = evaporation constant, Ts = surface temperature, U
= latent heat of evaporation/atom, k = Boltzman’s constant.
Values of 1.5 (meas.) - 7kPa (3D calc.) for mm-size keyhole
beam welding conditions have been obtained (4). Typical
values for recoil, Marangoni and capillary-origin surface
forces, viscosity and momentum/inertia terms for mm-size
molten metallic pools are noted in Figure 1.
448
 underestimate the measured values, though the calculated values requires the beam be small, ~1 nm or less, yielding an ~40
are absorbed energies and the measured values are laser output MW/mm2 intensity. However, the beam power is ~30 µW.
energies and do not take into account the energy transfer
efficiency of the laser beam. Energy transfer efficiency in laser Small diameter apertures are used in conjunction with
welds ranges from as low as ~0.2 for conduction welds to ~0.9 electromagnetic focusing lenses in an SEM’s column. These
for keyhole welds (7). reduce the current from the beam source (several hundred µA)
9x105 substantially. By removing the final lens aperture, adjusting the
5
pdyn > pst condenser lens to maximize probe current, and using 2%
8x10
5 pdyn
Drilling
thoriated tungsten hairpin filaments, ~25 µA probe current is
7x10 pst
achievable. The modified SEM’s beam power is 30 kV x 25
2
Pressure, dyn/cm

5 pr begins!
6x10 µA = 750 mW. At such currents, the beam size is much larger
5x105 than in imaging mode, and is discussed below. For the moment
4x105 we assume it is small compared to the raster pattern produced
5
by the scanned beam. By changing the raster area and its
3x10
frequency, power input can be controlled. Rastering a 1W
2x105 beam (for simplicity) over a 10!m square gives an average
1x10
5 power input of 10 kW/mm2, comparable with EB or keyhole
0
mode laser (9) welders. Rastered over a 100 !m square a heat
0
input equivalent to a 10 A gas tungsten arc is achievable.
0.2x10-3 0.4x10-3 0.6x10-3 0.8x10-3 1.0x10-3
Unlike lasers, where energy is surface deposited, an electron
Time, s beam penetrates and spreads to a few !m depth and width. That
Figure 5: Evolution of melt recoil pressure (pr) surface tension is why the imaging mode, with a beam intensity of 40MW/mm2
(pst) and dynamic pressure (pdyn) during 330 mJ, 1 ms, 300 µ m does not melt the specimen. The interaction zone is a function
radius laser pulse on Fe. Drilling begins at 285 mJ. of acceleration voltage and material, and is calculable by
1000 Monte Carlo methods (10), but may be estimated as a
hemisphere of radius ~2.9 µm for 30 keV electrons in Cu. This
is the Kanaya-Okayama range (11); it is slightly larger for Ni
Absorbed laser energy, mJ

and Fe, given their slightly lower atomic numbers, and equals
100
8.2 µm for Al. Taking 2.9 µm as the interaction zone radius
gives an interaction volume of ~5x10-17m3 and an interaction
surface area of ~2.6x10-11m2. The latter value gives an
10 'effective' beam intensity of 1 W/mm2 in imaging and 28
Edr, 1 ms
Edisp, 1 ms kW/mm2 in welding modes. The much higher accelerating
Em, 1 ms
Edr, 0.1 ms voltage in conventional EB welders (50-150 kV) results in a
1 Edisp, 0.1 ms significantly deeper interaction volume, as the K-O range
Em, 0.1 ms increases with the (beam energy)1.67. Relative to a 30 kV SEM
beam, a 120 kV beam has an order of magnitude greater
0.1 penetration and interaction volume (since the beam is less
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 focused, lateral spreading is not important).
Melt pool/ Laser beam radius, m
An effective surface flux of an electron beam relative to a laser
Figure 6: Calculated thresholds for surface melt, melt of the same diameter can be approximated as follows.
displacement and drilling, incorporating surface tension. Assuming both the laser and electron beam exhibit exponential
absorption (I=I0exp[∀µz], where µ = absorption coefficient, z is
the distance traveled), and setting equal the total energy
The conclusion reached is that because of the effects of surface absorbed for both beams found by integrating the intensity over
tension, microwelding should indeed be possible at small pool 0 ∀ z ∀ #, it can be shown that I0L/I0eb = µL/µeb. Ni for visible
sizes except perhaps in materials with very low surface tension. wavelengths has a µl ~50 /µm (12) compared to ~2 for 30keV
electrons (est. from the K-O range). This implies the electron
Micro Electron Beam Welding beam's effective surface intensity is 25 times lower than an
equivalent energy laser beam. For mm-size welds this is not an
See an accompanying paper (8) for greater detail on this topic. important effect; for materials only a few µm thick it is.

Beam Power and Intensity Beam Characterization Procedures

Commercial electron beam (EB) welders operate with ~1mm A Faraday cup is used to measure the SEM probe current. By
diameter beams, at ~25mA and ~150kV, giving a heat input of traversing the beam relative to a beam-opaque sharp edge
~4kW, and an energy intensity of ~5 kW/mm2. A typical SEM above the cup, a signal which may be processed to give the
runs at a few nA probe current at 30kV. High resolution imaging beam intensity distribution is obtained. An example of the

449
450
451
Surface Evolver (SE) (14) simulations of weld ligaments. SE is a
3D, front-tracking model that uses input information about liquid
surface tension and geometry to calculate minimum energy
configurations for the liquid ligament. For the tension test
sample, we assume two long, collinear bars, having a 1x2µm
rectangular section, with a 2µm gap separating them. We assume
an equilibrium contact angle of 10° for the liquid/solid surface;
this is in agreement with atomic scale simulations, a literature
survey, and observation of actual 'match head' droplets in Figure
10. Because a small volume cannot remain molten on a large heat
sink, we constrain the liquid to remain inside a circular beam spot
of diameter d, centered on the initial droplet position. Assuming
the liquid shape equilibrates, SE evolves the weld ligament shape
to minimize surface energy. At large liquid volumes, the ligament
is stable and convex. As volume decreases, the ligament remains
stable but becomes concave (Figure 13 upper left). However,
below a critical volume, which depends on beam spot diameter,
the ligament separates (Figure 13 lower right). The critical
volume increases with spot diameter, as plotted in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Process diagram showing filler volume needed as a
function of beam spot diameter.
SE calculates equilibrated lowest energy surfaces. As such, it is a
useful tool for quiescent pools. However, the pool is often in
dynamic motion, particularly for pulsed welds. To assess whether
pool oscillations can aid coalescence across a gap, this dynamic
motion needs to be investigated. We are presently implementing a
level set algorithm within an in-house code (GOMA) to
accomplish this, as well as obtaining a high-speed video system
of suitable framing rate. Examples of milliwelds have been done
and are being presented at this conference (15), but the high
frequency dynamics of microwelds have until now required
excessively long computational times. Nevertheless, we expect to
have results soon.
Summary
Three different processes have been examined for their feasibility
to produce true microwelds. These include microfocused laser
welding, micro electron beam welding (done in a slightly
modified SEM) and focused ion beam chemical vapor deposition.
Issues concerning power, energy, beam characterization, welding
452
vs drilling and surface tension-related phenomena were treated.
Examples of each process were given and future efforts noted.
Acknowledgements
Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia
Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United
States Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security
Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000. We
would also like to acknowledge the efforts of Koenraad Janssen
in implementing the kinetic Monte Carlo model for FIB
deposition.
References
1. LIthographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung, a method of
producing !m-feature-size electroplated metallic parts
from molds created by X-ray lithographic methods
2. Knight, C.J., "Theoretical Modeling of Rapid Surface
Vaporization with Back Pressure," AIAA J, (1979),
17(#5), pp 519-523.
3. Anisimov, S.I., Sov. Phys. – JETP, Vol 27 (1968), p 168.
4. Knorovsky, G.A., MacCallum, D.O., "Recoil Force
Measurements During Pulsed Nd:YAG Laser Spot
Welds," ICALEO03 Proceedings,
5. Semak, V.V., Knorovsky, G.A., MacCallum, D.O., 'On the
Possibility of Microwelding with Laser Beams,' J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys. Vol 36 (2003), pp 2170-2174.
6. Knorovsky, G.A., Semak, V.V., MacCallum, D.O., 'Fusion
Zone Behavior in Micron-Size Laser Welding,' ICALEO02
Proceedings, 711194.pdf.
7. Fuerschbach, P.W., Eisler, G.R., 'The Effect of Laser
Spot Weld Energy and Duration on Melting and
Absorption,' Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining, Vol 7 (2002), pp 241-246
8. MacCallum, D.O, Knorovsky, G.A., Nowak-Neely, B.M.,
Micro-Welding Using a Modified SEM, this conference.
9. J.F. Ready, Effect of High-Power Laser Radiation,
Academic Press, New York, 1971
10. Gauvin, R., Drouin, D., Couture, A.R., Casino v2.42,
available at www.gel.usherb.ca/casino/
11. Goldstein, J.I., et. al. Scanning Electron Microscopy and
X-Ray Microanalysis, 2nd Ed. Plenum Press, New York,
1992, Chapter 3, p 89
12. L.I.A Handbook of Laser Material Processing, J.F. Ready
Ed., Laser Institute of America, 2001, pg 6
13. Kelley, K.K., "Contributions to the Data on Theoretical
Metallurgy", Bureau of Mines Bulletin 584, United States
Government Printing Office, 1960
14. Brakke, K.E., The Surface Evolver, available from
www.susqu.edu/facstaff/b/brakke/evolver/
15. Norris, J., Roach, R., Fuerschbach, P., Bernal, J., "Thin
Plate Gap Bridging Study for Nd:YAG Pulsed Laser Lap
Welds," this conference.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Microwelding Using a Modified SEM

D. MacCallum, G. Knorovsky
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM

B. Nowak-Neely
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM

Abstract obtain a beam power capable of melting metal, a beam intensity

on the order of several kW/mm2 is needed. Other researchers
Micro-scale welding has been successfully demonstrated using a [1,2] have modified the SEM for microwelding by removing or
Scanning Electron Microscope-based Electron Beam Welding enlarging the column spray apertures and eliminating or
(µEBW) technique. Modifications to a standard SEM to disabling the second condenser lens. In our case, by replacing
increase beam power, beam diagnostics, and Monte Carlo the W filament with W-2%ThO2, withdrawing the final aperture
simulations of energy deposition are used to discuss how the (a standard feature of our SEM) and reducing the condenser
technique may be used in practice. In particular, beam-material lenses' current, an increased probe current of ~25 µA was
sub-surface interaction volumes and energy source location obtained without harming the SEM's function in any way. While
tailoring effects will be discussed. Additional desirable both latter actions result in a larger beam than under imaging
enhancements for the future will be noted. conditions, the intensity obtained was successfully used to melt a
variety of objects.
Introduction
Electron Gun
cathode
Promising new nano- and microtechnologies will become useful Wehnelt gun
cylinder
1st crossover anode
only when assembled into more complex systems that will
interact with the macroworld. Enabling joining techniques on diaphram
similar scales to these technologies will be needed and driven by 1st condenser lens
2nd
increasing production demands. Micro-scale welding or melting crossover

using the µEBW technique (over the approximate range 2–

200µm) has been successfully demonstrated on a variety of 2nd condenser lens
3rd crossover
materials and geometries [1,2,3,4]. Joining of microscale Objective lens
components (defined here as <100µm extent in 2 or more
dimensions) is problematic. First, just seeing microparts is Beam limiting aperture
difficult below about 100 microns in size; second, transporting a Sample
well defined and tightly focused source of energy in a well-
Figure 1: Generic SEM column optics
controlled manner is similarly difficult. Even laser welding,
considered to be the 'gold standard’ process for microjoining,
Interaction Volume
employs beams typically larger than 100 microns in diameter,
Electrons striking a target undergo elastic and inelastic
unless special measures are taken. Finally, manipulation of
collisions. Elastic collisions from the beam generate Back-
small parts is a challenge in itself. Recognition of the inherent
Scattered Electrons (BSE) and target–source Secondary
SEM advantages for micro-packaging suggested a new
Electrons (SE) resulting from inelastic collisions between the
application for this versatile and ubiquitous technological tool if
beam and sample reduce the available energy by about 20%
its beam power could be increased: that of in-situ microwelding.
(Figure 2). The remaining electrons penetrate into the material,
The µEBW technique provides a clean, precise heat source
depositing their energy until they are captured by the lattice or
which combined with the traditional advantage of the SEM’s
eventually pass entirely through the sample. The volume over
exceptional visualization capabilities provides a promising new
which the electron's energy is deposited is called the interaction
tool in the assembly and packaging of micro-scale components
volume. The range of electron travel can be defined in many
and systems.
ways [5, pp 89]. We’ve chosen the Kanaya-Okayama range
(RKO) for this work. The interaction volume is of primary
SEM Microwelding importance for heating the parts. It will be discussed in detail
later as it relates to beam spot size measurements, accelerating
Figure 1 shows a simplified diagram of a working SEM. voltage and energy deposition within the parts to be welded.
Electrons emitted by the gun are focused and collimated by a
series of lenses and apertures before impacting the sample. To

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 453

 During melting Additional examples of welding results are discussed in another
ISC~20 µA paper at this Conference [4].
Primary Electron Beam (IPE)
Secondary Electrons (ISE)
Backscattered Electrons (IBSE)

Specimen Specimen
Current (ISC)

Transmitted Electrons (ITE) m

100µm 100 µm

ISC=IPE-ISE-IBSE-ITE Figure 3a: Welding Fig 3b: Imaging

Figure 2: Electronic balance and specimen current. mode before weld mode after weld
(image quality still
acceptable)
Imaging versus Welding Mode
To switch from imaging to welding mode (Table 1) we opened
the final (objective) aperture to the largest setting and adjusted Boundary Conditions and Surface Tension Effects.
the condenser lenses' currents to obtain the highest specimen Thermal boundary conditions effects at the scales involved in
current possible (handled by our SEM's automatic "spot size" microwelding have been discussed in previous work [3,4]. Gap
feature). To go back was a matter of dialing in a smaller and surface tension effects are of more importance at micro-
aperture and re-adjusting condenser lens currents to imaging welding scales than milli-welding scales [4].
values: a short time and no involved mechanical adjustments
were needed, though re-focusing was needed at each step. Electron Beam Characterization
Table 1: Imaging versus Welding Mode Ablation Method
Parameters Imaging Welding Laser spot size can be measured via ablation of vacuum-
Filament Type 2 % Thoriated W * 2 % Thoriated W * deposited C on a glass slide. Analogously, we deposited C on a
specimen stub. The beam size found was too small, as energy
Filament Current Ifil 2.588 A 2.588A
deposition in the C is low due to low Z, and the Al stub's heat
Accelerating Voltage 5-30 kV 30kV sink. This technique measured a high intensity contour of the
Beam Current, Ibeam(entering 150µA 335µA beam, not FWHM or 1-1/e2. In retrospect a high Z layer on a
optics) low Z low conductivity stub would be better.
Aperture Size 50 µm No aperture

Magnification Any 1000-3500x

Working Distance 10-14 mm
Probe Current, Iprobe (hitting 0.5-20 nA
sample)
* This filament provided longer life and higher primary electron beam current
Figure 3 shows a pin shaft to gear weld in two modes. First (3.a)
the pre-weld view in welding mode followed by (3.b) the post-
weld view in imaging mode. It can be seen that although the
image may not be optimal by SEM imaging standards, it is still
quite acceptable. Typical welding mode parameters used were:
1000µm final aperture, 25 µA probe current, 30kV accelerating
voltage, and ~ 6µm diameter spot.
Faraday Cup Measurements
10-14 mm Beam size measurements were performed using a Faraday cup
25 µA (max)
located at the probe beam-sample point. The probe beam is
scanned across a knife edge over an entrance pupil to the
Faraday Cup (Figure 4a). An assumed Gaussian profile beam is
integrated along one axis and fit to the measured signal by
adjusting the Gaussian radius parameter. The technique
accurately measures the probe current since most BSE and SE’s
are contained in the cup (Figure 4b).
Faraday Cup
ISC~25 µA

Welding Results
Micro-scale welding or melting using the µEBW technique (over
the approximate range 2 – 200µm) has been successfully
demonstrated [3,4] on a variety of materials including poly-
silicon, Ni-based LIGA alloys, alloy steel, Chromel, Alumel and
Figure 4a: Faraday Figure 4b: SE capture and
Tophet C. Geometries investigated included spot-on-plate, bead-
cup with knife edge current measurement
on-plate, crossed wires, gears on hubs, and bar-to-bar butt welds.

454
Plotted along with the measured data (Figure 5) are equivalent
Gaussian profile estimates for 3 and 12 µm radii beams. The
data show that the 12 µm beam is a better fit in the “tails” of the
spatial distribution, while the 3 µm beam better matches the
central data. This indicates the incident beam is more complex
than the simple Gaussian assumption used.
Figure 5: Beam Diameter measurements using a Faraday Cup
and knife edge. 3 & 12 µm Gaussian beam fits included
Faraday Cup and Computed Tomography
Work by others [6] has shown that electron beams can be highly
non-Gaussian (Figure 6), depending on process parameters
(machine settings) used.
Figure 6: Non-Gaussian spatial distributions of electron beams.
A modified Faraday Cup [7] has been used to measure beam
profiles at equal angles and combined with Computed
Tomographic methods using filtered backprojection algorithms
[8,9], to reconstruct the spatial distribution of standard EB
welder electron beams. A modified version of this method will
be employed in future experiments on our SEM micro-welder.
Monte Carlo Simulations
To better understand the interplay of the beam energy in the part,
Monte Carlo simulations using Casino [10] were generated for
455
3000 nm probe diameter, 20,000-electron models. Figure 7
shows an example of electron trajectories and the beam energy
distribution illuminating a 1000 nm thick Ni part. In this work,
we are mainly concerned with the energy distribution within the
part and most of the discussion will refer to these plots.
Figure 7: Trajectories (inset) and power distribution
Effect of Beam Tilt
Beam tilt from normal incidence (Figure 8) causes the energy
distribution to become shortened in two dimensions orthogonal
to the z axis and lengthened in the plane of the surface: ie, the
distribution becomes more spherical and moves towards the
surface. Total energy in this reduced volume is reduced since
more electrons are lost from increased BSE, but more
experiments are necessary to quantify this tilt loss. The
important note is that the distribution contours can be changed
and moved about, depending upon the tilt chosen.
60 º 0º
Figure 8: Tilt effects on energy distribution
Effect of Accelerating Voltage
Figure 9 shows changes in energy distribution with decreasing
accelerating voltage Va. We first supposed that to increase the
melting, higher Va would be required. But it can be seen from
the figure that as Va decreases, the shape of the energy
distribution changes from an internal to more of a surface
source. Of course, the total power available to melt material is
reduced, but again, with appropriate choice of beam current
parameters, there may be an optimal Va that is not necessarily
the highest setting.
30 kV
20 kV
10 kV
5 kV
Figure 9: Changes with changing accelerating voltage. The
energy source changes from a volume to a surface source as
accelerating voltage decreases.
Effect of Material
Figures 10 and 11 show that electron trajectories and energy
distribution is affected by material. Comparisons are shown
between pure Ni (central) and Ni on a Pb substrate (top) and Ni
on an Al (bottom) simulated samples.
Ni
Pb
Ni
Ni
Ni
Al substrate
Figure 10: Material effects on energy localization on 1000 nm
“part” on substrate. 30 keV beam.
Figures 10 and 11 imply that depending on the choice of
material and part or layer thicknesses, a controlled portion of the
interaction energy could be directed to occur at an interface
below the part surface. It’s proposed that SEM brazing could
be done at interfaces, given the correct choice of power density
deposition location.
Choice of substrate, juxtaposition to other parts of different
density, or adiabatic mounting could adjust the welding location.
It is also possible (Figure 11) that most of the energy could be
transmitted through the part if attention to thicknesses, Va and ip
are not considered.
Tailoring the Heat Source Location and Distribution
456
Combining effects of tilt, Va, material density and proximity of
fixtures and other parts could be used to tailor the location and
distribution of the final melting energy. More work must be
done on mapping the energy distributions to appropriate thermal
distributions. This will require a better understanding of the
incident beam distribution, spatial and temporal, and validation
of the simulation predictions concerning titl, Va and stopping
power effects. This understanding will aid modeling efforts to
predict proper process parameters for future work.
Figure 11: Al on Al substrate with energy density located at an
interface below the part surface. 30 keV beam
Modeling Consequences
Figure 12 summarizes the previous topics and proposes thermal
model considerations and inputs. Instead of a Gaussian surface
heat source, there are indications of external non-Gaussian
behavior and internal sub-surface indicators that can vary the
interaction heat source in a complex manner depending on
specimen tilt and co-location or not of non-constant density
layers. Reported work [1] in SEM micro-welding using a
thermal model measured against experiments overestimated
working temperatures by 20 – 30 percent. We believe
incorporation of the effects discussed above should improve the
fit and allow better prediction of results and will be pursuing this
along with validation experiments as discussed below.
Future Directions and Challenges
Higher conductivity samples need more energy to facilitate
melting: large pure Ni LIGA parts (>200 µm) and bulk Si
require careful consideration of boundary conditions Gap at the
micron range can prevent joining especially in MEMS devices
(2-10 µm gap). Fixturing and manipulation of micro-scale parts
is problematic. Beam characterization must be further analyzed
to ensure dependable results (especially for process transfer
across platforms). Beam (path and time) programming needed.
 References

External 1. I. Hwang and S. Na, “A Study on Heat Source

Non-Gaussian Indicators Modeling of Scanning Electron Microscopy Modified
for Material Processing”, Metallurigical and Materials
Trans. B, 36B, 133-139 (Feb 2005)

2. U. Dilthey, A. Brandenburg, M Moller and G Smolka,

“Joining of miniature components”, Welding and
Sub-surface indicators
Cutting, 52 No. 7, E143-E148, (2005)
Tilt and layer-density
Internal Sub-surface heat source
sensitive
3. B. Nowak-Neely, G. Knorovsky, D. MacCallum,
“Micro-to-Nano Electron Beam Welding Via Adapted
Scanning Electron Microscopy”, 85th Annual AWS
Figure 12: Non-Gaussian beam and sub-surface energy Convention and 2004 Welding Show, April 2004
deposition effects for modeling inputs
4. G. Knorovsky, D. MacCallum, B. Nowak-Neely,
Summary and Conclusions “Trends in Microwelding”,7th International Conference
on Treands in Welding, May 2005
Starting work with a higher accelerating voltage capable SEM
(40 kV max. In-situ temperature profiling. 0.001- 0.003 “ 5. J. Goldstein, D. Newbury, et. al., Scanning Electron
thermocouple wire resistance welded to gauge pins of varying Microscopy and X-Ray Analysis, 2nd Edition, Plenum
lengths/materials. Detailed beam spatial profiling with Faraday Press, New York and London (1991) pp 88-89
cup and Computed Tomography. Determine the appropriate
thermal model. Further steering beam via external beam control 6. J. Elmer, A Teruya, and D. O’Brien, “Tomographic
so we can: dwell and trace tool paths. A micro-manipulator will Imaging of Noncircular and Irregular Electron Beam
be used to better position samples. Current Density Distributions”, Welding Research, 72
(11), pp. 493-s, Nov, 1993
Acknowledgements 7. J. Elmer and A. Teruya, “An Enhanced Faraday Cup
for Rapid Determination of Power Density Distribuiton
We would like to acknowledge: Dannelle Sierra, Red Jones, in Electron Beams”, Welding Research, Dec, 2001
Mark Reece, Jim Bailar, Gary Zender, Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM; Alan Randall, John Yorston, 8. A. Kak and M Slaney, Principles of Computerized
Jeff Burkett, LEO Electron Microscopy Ltd.; and John W. Tomography, IEEE Press, New York
Elmer, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories. Sandia is a
multi-program laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a 9. C. Marshall, Ed., The Physical Basis of Computed
Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Tomography, Warren H. Green, Inc., St. Louis, MO
Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration under
contract DE-AC04-94AL85000 10. Gauvin, R., Drouin, D., Couture, A.R., Casino v2.42,
available at www.gel.usherb.ca/casino/

457
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
PREDICTION OF DILUTION IN UNIVERSAL GAS METAL ARC CLADDING USING
RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY
A.S.Shahi
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, Punjab, India
Sunil Pandey
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
Abstract
This paper describes the use of a new variant of GMAW
process named as UGMAW -Universal gas metal arc welding
process, for cladding of low carbon steel with austenitic
stainless steel. Weld-deposited cladding in one layer with
316L filler wire on 12 mm thick low carbon steel (which is
used as general structural steel) was carried out in order to
develop mathematical models for predicting dilution in
conventional GMAW and UGMAW process, since dilution
has a major influence on weld metal quality, such as
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Four factor
five level and one factor two level central composite rotatable
design was used to study the influence of four numeric factors
viz. wire feed rate, welding voltage, welding speed, nozzle –
to-plate distance and one categorical factor preheat current on
dilution. Results are presented in the form of response surfaces
along with their contours. The findings of this study not only
establish the technical superiority of the new process but also
justify its use for low cost surfacing applications.
Key words: UGMAW process, weld cladding, preheated
filler wire, austenitic stainless steel, response surface
methodology, dilution.
Introduction
The term weld cladding usually denotes the application of a
relatively thick layer (approximately 3mm or 1/8th in.) of weld
metal for the purpose of providing a corrosion-resistant
surface [1]. In modern industry, increasing use is being made
of clad materials as a means of achieving the optimum balance
of strength, special surface properties and economy. Some of
the typical base metal components that are weld -cladded
include the internal surfaces of carbon and low-alloy steel
pressure vessels, paper digestors,
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
urea reactors, tube sheets, and nuclear reactor containment
vessels. The cladding material is usually an austenitic stainless
steel. Weld claddings primarily demand low but consistent
dilution but with the assurance of bond integrity at every
point. Producing a defect-free and fully austenitic overlay in
one layer having a smooth as-welded surface profile are the
main objectives of any cladding operation.
Dilution
This is the most important aspect of any cladding procedure
by welding. It is defined as the ratio of the cross section of
weld metal below the original surface to the total area the weld
bead measured on the cross section of the weld deposit [2].
D= (weight of parent metal melted/total weight of fused metal)
×100.
Various combinations of procedural parameters like
primary parameters viz. welding current, voltage, welding
speed and secondary parameters like polarity, electrode size,
wire stickout, welding position/inclination, arc shielding,
electrode oscillation, welding technique ,additional filler metal
etc. which affect dilution can be incorporated into a
procedure[1, 2,3] . Various processes like SAW, GTAW,
PAW, GMAW, ESW, Strip cladding, Explosive welding
[3,4,5] etc. have been used for cladding operation with an aim
of minimizing dilution to as low value as possible without
sacrificing the joint integrity. This requires a thorough
understanding and proper control over a number of variables
which affect dilution. Use of hot filler additions [1, 6] in
various conventional processes like TIG, Laser, Plasma arc
etc. have been reported which affect dilution to a significant
extent.
459
Principle of UGMAW (Universal gas metal arc welding levels of this factor. Hence the reason for taking this factor to
process) be a categorical one. Central composite rotatable design for
four numeric factors and one categorical factor was used and
42 experimental runs were conducted at stipulated conditions
based upon RSM, the procedure for which is outlined in [10].
Fig.2 shows how the variance associated with prediction
changes over the design space.Also seen from this figure is the
ability of central composite design to provide relatively
precise predictions over a broad area around centre points.The
circular contours indicate the statistical property of rotatability
which is one of the desirable features of this design.

0.843255
0.737162
0.631069

Fig. 1. Schematics of the UGMAW process 0.524975

0.418882
Figure 1 shows the working principle of the UGMAW process Std. err of
which employs two contact tips and a secondary power source design
to preheat the filler wire prior to its emergence from the
welding torch, thereby providing an additional and
1.00
independent power source [7]. In this arrangement, the major 1.00
role of welding current is dissipation of sufficient heat to 0.50
0.50
support the arc, to melt the surface of the base plate and to 0.00 0.00
fuse the hot incoming wire. The main difference between Arc voltage -0.50 -0.50
GMAW and UGMAW, in terms of heating is that the Wire feed rate
preheated wire further experiences I²R heating after it leaves -1.00 -1.00
the lower contact tip .UGMAW process breaks the fixed Fig. 2 Standard error plot
relationship between welding current, wire stickout and the
deposition rate which often limits conventional GMAW
process. The use of the independent secondary power source Experimental details
enables the heat content of the filler wire to be independently
controlled, thus providing the ability to weld at a desired Base material and filler used
deposition rate while reducing the welding current ,the wire The popularly used structural steel, which was cut down to
stickout, the arc force and the heat input [8]. suitable sizes of 250mm×150mm ×12 mm plates each, was
used as the substrate material for the present investigation and
Design of experiments the filler wire used was 316L (extra low carbon grade) of
1.14mm diameter, which because of higher molybdenum
Response surface methods are useful for analyzing problems content has a higher corrosion and creep resistance thus
in which several independent variables influence a dependent making it a suitable choice for chemical, pulp handling,
variable or response [9, 10].The important features of response photographic and food equipment.
surface methodology are that it is a sequential approach, casts
the experimental problem in readily understood geometric Table 1: Chemical composition of the base and filler wire
terms and it is applicable for any number of variables. (upper & lower row respectively by weight %age) with Fe as
In the present case wire feed rate, arc voltage, welding speed balance
and nozzle-to-plate distance were taken as numeric factors
C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu S P
since all these parameters could be varied at five levels but 0.295 - 0.18 0.25 - 0.50 - 0.018 0.027
preheat current had to be taken as a categorical factor owing to 0.019 1.61 0.37 19.12 12.47 2.83 0.10 0.014 0.019
the high resitivity of the filler wire. Preheating of the filler
wire over a significant range led to the problems of wire Trial runs
feeding because at higher currents wire used to get softened. Trial runs were conducted for establishing the working range
Thus preheat current given to the filler wire could not be of the input parameters. As per the requirements of the design
varied over a wide range and it was not possible to have five used for this study five levels of input parameters except
460
 preheat current (which was taken as a categorical factor) are as The adequacies of the models so developed were tested by
shown in Table 2. These levels were selected such that they using the analysis of variance technique (ANOVA) which is
could result in beads which were free from various visual given in table 3.
defects like macrocracking, non-uniform ripples on the bead,
excessive convexity and spatter, surface porosity, geometrical Table 3: ANOVA for Response Surface Quadratic
inconsistency etc. Welding was done using the model Power Model[Partial sum of squares]
Wave-355 from Lincoln Electric Co., which facilitated the Source Sum of D.O. Mean F- Prob>F Wheth
variation of wire feed rate and voltage in steps of 0.05m/min squares F square value er
and 0.1volts respectively. signifi
cant ?
Other secondary process parameters used for the final beads
Model 1686.94 19 88.79 60.80 <0.0001 Yes
were: -
Lack 28.05 15 1.87 3.21 0.0625 No
Base plate thickness=12mm
of fit
Torch angle=90º
Shielding gas used = industrially pure Argon
Shielding gas flow rate =22L/min The Model F-value of 60.80 implies the model is significant.
Electrode polarity=Reverse There is only a 0.01% chance that a "Model F-Value" this
Cladding position =Flat large could occur due to noise.

Table 2: Process parameters varied at five levels Table 4 : Model Summary Statistics

Input Units -2 -1 0 1 2 Source Std.deviation R- Adjusted Predicted

parameters squared R- R-
W m/min 6 7 8 9 10 squared squared
V volts 30 32 34 36 38 Quadratic 1.21 0.9813 0.9652 0.9201
S cm/min 20 25 30 35 40
N mm 10 13 16 19 22 The "Pred R-Squared" of 0.9201 is in reasonable agreement
Ip amps Level1 Level2 - - - with the "Adj R-Squared" of 0.9652.
(0 amps) (110 The overall effect of each individual parameter is shown in
amps) Fig.3 and Fig.4 represents the predicted and actual values for
dilution. Fig. 9 shows the scanned images of the cross sections
Final runs of the weld bead profiles, after polishing and etching these
After cleaning the base plates so as to make them free from dirt, specimens, which were cladded by GMAW and UGMAW
grease, oil, etc. beads of austenitic stainless steel were laid on process.
mild steel plates using different set of welding conditions as
given in Table 2. Weld beads were cross-sectioned from the
centre of the plates, and their profiles were taken (at 10 ×
magnification) using an optical profile projector. Area W=wire feed rate
V=arc voltage
measurements were done with the help of planimeter.
S=welding speed
N=nozzle-to-plate distance
Dilution (%)

N W
Results and discussions
Mathematical models S

The response equations (after dropping the insignificant terms

from the models) for dilution obtained in the coded form, from V
the experimental data are given as below: -
Response equation (1) is for conventional GMAW process -2 -1 0 1 2
(i.e. without preheat)
DGMAW=23.324+3.687W+2.502V+0.316S- Deviation from reference point
2.701N+1.433W²+1.664V²+1.782N²+1.643WN--------- (1)
Response equation (2) is for UGMAW process (i.e. when the
Fig.3 Overall effect of each individual parameter on dilution
filler wire is preheated at a current of 110amps)
DUGMAW=14.825+3.374W+2.28V+0.67S-
3.501N+1.433W²+1.664V²+1.782N²+1.643WN------- (2)

461
 increases, thereby spreading the arc over greater area of the
Predicted vs. Actual base metal, thus resulting in more bead width and relatively
35.10 less penetration. Whatever increase in the penetration values,
is due to the fact that heat input is affected directly by arc
voltage.
28.88
Effect of welding speed on dilution
As seen from figure 6, welding speed is the least significant
Predicted

variable affecting dilution. This may be due to the fact that

22.67
any change in welding speed affects all the bead dimensions
proportionately. Moreover melting rate of the filler wire is not
dependent on welding speed which would demand higher
16.45
currents for its fusion and hence the reason for relatively less
influence of this variable on dilution.

10.24

10.24 16.45 22.67 28.88 35.10 19.8472

17.8232
Actual
15.7993

Dilution (%)
13.7753

Fig.4 Plot between predicted and actual values for dilution 11.7514

Effect of wire feed rate on dilution

Figure 5 shows the simultaneous effect of wire feed rate and
arc voltage on dilution and it is found that dilution is affected 1.00
significantly by wire feed rate and hence the welding current 1.00
0.50
because of the reason that due to high welding current, heat 0.50
0.00
input per unit length of the weld bead increases which 0.00
Welding speed -0.50
increases the penetration. Moreover molten droplets at the tip -0.50
Wire feed rate
of the filler wire, which are supposed to become the part of the -1.00 -1.00
weld pool are also overheated, so this extra heat and the
increased momentum of the droplets is responsible for Fig.6 Effect of wire feed rate & welding speed on dilution
increased penetration and hence dilution.

Effect of NPD on dilution

23.7391 From figure 7, it is observed that NPD affects dilution
20.8567 significantly. This may be due to the fact that increase in
17.9744 electrode stickout increases the melting rate of the filler wire
due to I² R heating thus diffusing the energy of the arc upon its
Dilution (%)

15.092
impingement on the base metal. Also increase in NPD reduces
12.2096
penetration and weld width but increases bead height thus
resulting in lesser dilution. Moreover an increase in NPD
decreases the welding current, thus lowering the heat input per
unit length of the weld with a consequent reduction in fusion
1.00 area. Furthermore as the arc is bell shaped, the base plate
1.00 surface cuts this arc envelope at its broader portion at longer
0.50
0.50 NPD than at shorter NPD. Increased NPD causes expansion of
0.00
0.00 current flux distribution and arc pressure resulting in lesser
Arc voltage -0.50 -0.50 melting of the plate fusion area which consequently reduces
Wire feed rate
-1.00 -1.00 dilution.
Fig.5 Effect of wire feed rate & arc voltage on dilution

Effect of arc voltage on dilution

As seen from figure 5 arc voltage also affects dilution, but to a
lesser extent because when arc voltage increases arc cone also

462
 23.2744
19.8362
16.3981
12.9599
Dilution (%)

9.52175

GMAW process
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.00
0.00
Nozzle-to-plate -0.50 -0.50
distance (NPD) Wire feed rate
-1.00 -1.00

Fig.7 Effect of wire feed rate & NPD on dilution

UGMAW process
Effect of preheat current on dilution

As is seen from Fig.8 and evident from the mathematical

models developed from this study that preheating of the filler
wire reduces dilution significantly which is due to the fact that Fig. 9 Bead profiles as obtained using GMAW & UGMAW
at for any given set of welding conditions the heat content of process (observe 63% relative decrease in penetration value
the filler wire is partially controlled by the preheating current in UGMAW, peaky bead appearance and absence of finger
(I² R heating) whereas remaining energy required for melting like penetration).Welding conditions used were W=6m/min,
the wire is provided by the main welding current. Since V=30volts, S=25cm/min, N=16mm, Preheat
reduction in arc force and the heat transmitted to the weld pool current=100amps (Preheating resulted in 36amps of drop in
are directly related to welding current, any decrease in the main welding current)
welding current is bound to result in decreased dilution. Hence
significant reduction in the dilution values due to preheated
filler wire.

Conclusions
34.38 W=8m/min
V=34 volts Based upon the findings of this study the following
S=30cm/min conclusions can be drawn:-
N=16mm
28.345
1. The working ranges of primary and secondary
GMAW parameters for 1.14 mm diameter stainless steel wire
Dilution (%)

316L using UGMAW process were established based on

22.31 bead appearance.
2. Minimum dilution conditions were found to be at lower
levels of wire feed rate, arc voltage and welding speed
16.275 and higher levels of NPD in UGMAW process.
3.Preheating of the filler wire reduces base metal
UGMAW penetration, apart from relatively smaller variations in
other bead geometry parameters, due to significant drop
10.24
in the main welding current, which is the main reason for
Level 1 of E Level 2 of E reduced dilution obtained in UGMAW process
4. Significant reductions (30 to 45% approximately) in
Preheat current (amps) dilution were achieved using UGMAW process.
5. The study undertaken gives qualitative and quantitative
Fig. 8 Effect of preheat current on dilution comparisons of UGMAW and conventional GMAW
463
 process as regards cladding dilution and it is shown that
UGMAW process promises to hold a good potential in
meeting the needs of low cost surfacing applications.

Notation used: W=Wire feed rate, V= Arc voltage, S=Welding

speed, N= NPD (nozzle-to-plate distance), Ip=Preheat current
given to the filler wire-a categorical factor varied at 2 levels,
D.O.F. =degrees of freedom

References
1. ASM, Metals Handbook, Vol.6, Welding, Brazing
and Soldering, p-816 to 820.
2. J.F. Lancaster, The Metallurgy of Welding,
4th Edition, Allen and Unwin, London (1987)
3. U.D. Mallaya and H.S. Srinivas, Effect of Magnetic
Steering of the Arc on Clad Quality in Submerged
Arc Strip Cladding, American Welding Journal, p-
289s-293s (1993)
4. Y.K. Oh, J.H. Devletian and S.J. Chen, Low –
Dilution Electroslag Cladding for Shipbuilding,
American Welding Journal, p-37 to 40 (1990)
5. N. Murugan and R.S. Parmar, Stainless Steel
Cladding Deposited by Automatic Gas Metal Arc
Welding, American Welding Journal, p-391s to 403s
(1997)
6. I.D. Harris, TIG hot wire offers high quality, high
deposition, Metal Construction , p-445 to 449 (1986)
7. I. Stol. , Advanced Gas Metal Arc Welding Process,
First International Conference on Advanced Welding
Systems, Organised by TheWelding Institute, London
(1985)
8. Sunil Pandey., Welding Research at IITD-Current
Issues, National Workshop on Welding Technology-
Present Status and Future Trends, Sant Longowal
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal,
Punjab, India (2003)
9. Robert. O. Kuehl, Design of Experiments: Statistical
Principles of Research design and Analysis, 2nd
Edition, Duxbury Press.
10. G. Cochran and G.M. Cox, Experimental designs, 2nd
edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1957)

464
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Weld Repair of Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tubing

D. Gandy, G. Frederick, K. Coleman
EPRI, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA

Abstract
window-welding device provided the basis for addressing
finned HRSG tubing repair. A prototype window-welding
This report describes two welding repair technologies that are device was conceived, designed, assembled, and patented [1,
being developed to address heat recovery steam generator 2].
(HRSG) tube failures. The first technology addresses tubing
failures along the length of the tube. Damaged sections of the The approach to the design of the device was considerably
tube are severed from the existing tube, and a section is different from any approach currently taken by industry. The
replaced via gas metal arc welding (GMAW) from the inside design used prefabricated 16-in.- (41-cm-) long sections that
of the tube. A welding head specifically designed to perform were prepped on both ends with a reverse bevel and contained
this inside-out window-weld repair has been designed, an access window (see Figure 1). Tube welding was
assembled, and is now available to repair HRSG and boiler performed from the inside diameter (ID) of the tube, as
waterwall tubing. opposed to the conventional outside diameter (OD) welding.
Actual welding was performed remotely using a two-piece
The second technology addresses tube-to-header attachment weld head that could be consistently pre-placed
damage via removal of the existing stub tube from the inside
of a header and then replacement of the tube with a slightly
oversized and tapered stub tube. This repair and the equipment
needed to perform the repair are complex in that the repair
first requires cutting an access window into the header
opposite of the stub tube, inserting the severing equipment,
boring the stub tube, severing the stub tube-to-tube weld,
replacing the stub tube, and rewelding using GMAW. This
repair technology is currently under development and is
scheduled to be available in late 2005.

Introduction

Tube failures in heat recovery steam generators frequently

result from high thermal stresses or thermal shock associated
with cyclic plant operation. Premature failures have been
observed both along the length of finned tubes and at
attachment locations where tubes are joined to the upper or
lower header. Poor welding access and repair practices often
Figure 1: Pre-Fabricated Tube That Includes Weld Preps
result in reoccurrence of the failures with existing welding
(Weld From the Inside Diameter) Along With a Window In the
technology.
Center of theTube.
Finned tube repair in HRSGs requires that the welder “cut
inside the tube at a specified distance from the weld joint
their way” into the tube bundle to gain access to the damaged
location. Figure 2 provides a pictorial view of the insertion of
tube, repair the tube by replacing a short section, and then
the prototype welding device into a tube. The access window
reweld (replace short sections) each tube in the bundle as the
can be completed using gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or
welder moves their way back out to complete the final tube
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
replacement. This effort is time consuming and costly and
normally results in poor-quality replacement welds due to
Concurrent to the development of the prototype welding
poor access. In addition, it is necessary to sever undamaged
device, EPRI began the development of a report, HRSG
tubes in order to gain access to the damaged tube deep in the
Material Selection and Repair Guidelines (1004875) [1].
tube bundle. EPRI was tasked by membership utilities to
During the preparation of this document and in working with
identify an improved repair technology for performing HRSG
several HRSG vendors, tubing repair was identified as an area
tube repairs. Previous efforts under EPRI’s Boiler Life and
that needed better welding equipment to improve the quality
Availability Improvement program to develop an automated

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 465

of installation and repair. Two tubing-type repairs were
identified and are described here.
Figure 2: Photographs Demonstrate the Insertion of the Two
Piece Weld Prototype Into a Tube.
Repairs on tubing away from the upper or lower headers. This
form of repair requires “cutting your way in and welding your
way out” or “plugging and abandoning.” It often results in
poor-quality tube welds due to access limitations on the rear
side of each tube. Mirror welding is commonly used on the
back side of each tube; however, this repair technique requires
high welder skill and often results in poor quality.
Replacement sections—in which at least two OD welds are
required—are commonly used.
Repairs at tubing-to-header attachments. This form of repair
requires a similar approach in “cutting your way in and
welding your way out.” Another approach often used is to
plug the tube from the inside of the header. This reduces plant
efficiency because that particular tube is essentially removed
from service.
As a follow-on to the guidelines, EPRI staff began to
investigate ways to improve the welding technology to address
these two forms of repair. For the tube welding application, it
was thought that the window-welding device could, with a few
slight modifications, be used for HRSG tube-to-tube
(replacement of a tube section) welding applications. During
the first half of 2004, EPRI worked with Aggressive
Equipment to improve the current window-welding device and
to make incremental changes that would enable it to be used
for HRSG tubing applications.
Beginning in April 2004, EPRI also began to conceptualize a
method for the repair of tubing-to-header attachments. A
repair approach was identified, and a welding equipment
vendor (Encompass Machines, Inc.) was selected to develop a
second welding device.
466
Tube- to-Tube Repairs
The prototype window-welding device was forwarded to
Aggressive Equipment, disassembled, and reconfigured from a
two-piece welding head to a single-piece head. The redesign
still made use of the prefabricated replacement tube (including
the preplaced window—see Figure 1) along with the GMAW
process. The weld is completed from the ID of the tube (welds
at top and bottom). By reconfiguring the welding head to a
single-piece design, the prefabricated replacement tube length
was also reduced to 12–14 in. (30–36 cm). As before, an
inverted (inside out) weld prep was used.
The single-piece welding device (referred to as the ID Tube
Welder) shown in Figures 3 and 4 makes use of alignment
collars that are secured within the replacement tube above and
below the window [3]. These alignment collars can be sized
for 1-in. (25.4-mm) ID to 3-in. (76-mm) OD tubes, thus
offering a wide range of capabilities regardless of HRSG or
waterwall tube size. When inserted into the tube window, a
unique handle design enables the bottom collar to be centered
and secured (or retracted) in one single motion. The handle is
spring loaded to allow for easy insertion or retraction. This
feature allows for a reduced working envelope and enabled the
device to be reduced from a two-piece design to a single-piece
device.
Another unique feature of the new ID Tube Welder is the
height adjustment. A digital height indicator enables the user
to determine the vertical position of the weld head, thus
allowing incremental changes when necessary to better
position the weld torch. Height adjustments of up to ±3/8 in.
(±1 cm) can be made for multipass welding applications. Gas
coverage is provided for high-alloy welding applications via
the collet just below the weld head. Gas coverage can be
Figure 3: ID Tube WelderInserted Into a Tube For Welding.
maintained from prepurge to postpurge and throughout the
welding process. Rice paper can be placed within the existing
tube to provide a boundary outboard of the weld region. Weld
backing tape or collars can also be used on the OD when Ni-
alloy or SS materials are being welded.
• The weld head automatically and consistently locks
within the center of the window, thus reducing the need
for alignment by the welder.

Figure 5: The Gas-Metal Arc Welding Process is Used With

the ID Tube Welder.

Figure 4: Another View of the ID Welder After Removal From
the Tube.
Throughout the development process, EPRI and Aggressive
Equipment stressed the need for the ID Tube Welder to be
welder friendly and affordable. The welder-friendly issue was
addressed in several ways. The weight of the overall system
was kept at a minimum using the following:
• A lightweight GMAW power supply that could be placed
within 10 ft (3 m) of the weld region
• A push wire feeder
• A compact pendant board
• A lightweight aluminum-based ID weld head
Single- or multiple-pass welding is readily achievable. For
thicker tubing applications that require multiple-pass welding,
the height adjustment feature of the ID Tube Welder allows
precise placement of weld beads. Repeatable welds are readily
performed using this feature.
The ID Tube Welder was introduced in June 2004 at the EPRI
Welding and Repair Technology for Power Plants conference.
Figure 6 provides a cross-sectional view of a multi-pass weld
performed on a 3-in. (9-cm) OD tube section. [4]

The low weight makes the welding system user friendly and
allows the welder to carry the system directly to the repair
location. In addition, the GMAW process was used and the
prefabricated tube and window were standardized, which
generates repetitive welds with little change by the welder.

Finally, the welding system (see Figure 5) was kept simple by

the following:
• No vision system was used.
• Up-slope and down-slope are used to taper for appropriate
weld conditions (eg., startup and stops)
• Incremental position changes can be made easily using
the height adjustment feature.
Figure 6:Outside Diameter View of a Completed Weld (Root
Reinforcement).
HRSG tube-to-tube weld repairs are somewhat complicated by
the fins around the diameter of the tubing. Repairs are
currently performed with the shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) process wherein a short section of tubing is
removed, fins are removed from the tube ends, the tube is
machine prepped for welding, and then an SMAW weld repair

467
is performed. Limited access to the back side of such tubing industry. Tube-to-tube attachment weld designs used by
weldments often results in poor weld quality. In addition, the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) include:
welder has a small envelope to work in that is encumbered by
finned tubing surrounding the tube being repaired. The
replacement section usually does not use fins; only a straight
section of tube is used in the replacement. [4]

The ID Tube Welder approach still requires removal of the

tubing; however, all welding is performed from the ID of the
tube. In this approach, the new section of tubing, which
contains end preps on either end of the tube, and a machined
access port at the center of the tube are inserted into the
location where the original tube was damaged. Welds are
performed, one at the top location and one at the bottom, to
secure the replacement tube into place. Due to the small
thickness of the existing tube, only one pass welding is
typically used for both welds. [6]

On completion of the two welds, the final seal weld to close

the access port is ready to be performed. A pre-machined oval-
shaped insert (see Figure 1) is used for this replacement. This
weld is performed manually by the welder using the GTAW
process. Because the welder has much better access to the Figure 7: A Failed Heat Recovery Steam Generator Tube at
front of the tube (as compared to welding using a mirror on the Header Attachment Location.
the back side), high-quality welds can consistently be
performed for the closure weld.

One of the goals of this effort is to provide the utility

maintenance crew with a readily deployable welding device
that could be quickly mobilized and used. If each plant owns
an ID Tube Welder and has a welder trained in its use, the
utility can promptly repair tube damage when it occurs. In
addition, each plant that has premachined tube inserts “on-the-
shelf” for addressing tube damage or failures can substantially
reduce the time to perform a repair—and the plant can be
returned to service rapidly.

Header-to-Stub Tube Damage Repair

The second form of repair identified during the preparation of Figure 8: A Photograph That Depicts Close Proximity of
the EPRI report, HRSG Material Selection and Repair Finned Tubes In a HRSG At the Attachment Location.
Guidelines (1004875) [1], was tube-to-header attachment
repair (see Figure 7). This form of repair is often more
difficult to perform than conventional tube repairs due to
limited access. A photograph of several tube-to-header
attachments is shown in Figure 8 to demonstrate the
complexity and limited access of such repairs. As a result,
such failures are often left in place and simply plugged. Figure
9 provides an example plug weld configuration. Plugging
requires removing a window within the header 180° away
from the stub-tube attachment location, machining and
inserting a plug into the damaged tube bore, welding the plug
into place, and then repairing the window in the header.

The selection of a repair methodology is complicated by the

number of different attachment configurations used by
Figure 9: Plug Design.

468
• Partial-penetration welds
• Full-penetration welds
• Forged nipples with full-penetration welds
• Separate nipples and full-penetration welds between
nipple and header and to tube
Examples of each of these weld designs are provided in Figure
10. Advantages and disadvantages for each form of repair are
described in the EPRI report, Delivering High Reliability Heat
Recovery Steam Generators (1004240) [5]. Following several
internal discussions, EPRI identified an approach applicable to
all four designs.
referred to as dog-leg tubing) because the majority of recent
failures have been noted.
Next, a slightly oversized and tapered new stub tube is
inserted into the over-bored location (Figure 12). The purpose
of the taper is to provide a thicker tube-to-header transition
providing improved fatigue strength while allowing the tube to
be rejoined by a normal welding process. The over-bored hole
also accommodates the complete removal of the existing tube
and attachment weldment. Figure 13 provides a schematic of
the new tube-to-header design. The stub tube may also contain
a transition to improve fit-up between it and the existing tube,
thereby improving joining.

Figure 10: Example Heat Recovery Steam Generator Header

Attachment Configurations.
Figure 11: Machining Device for Repair of Header-to-Stub
The EPRI methodology considers a much more radical Tube Attachment Damage.
approach to address HRSG header-to-tube damage than is
currently used by industry today. Repair vendors and OEMs
currently address tube attachment damage from the outside of
the header. This requires cutting your way past a number of
tubes in a tube bundle, performing the weld repair from the
outside of the tube (often requiring partial tube replacement),
and then rewelding all of the tubes that were cut to gain access
to the header-to-tube damage.

The EPRI approach seeks to address the header-to-tube

damage from the inside of the header as opposed to “cutting
your way in and welding your way out.” In this approach, an
access location (hole or window) is machined from a location
180° away from the damaged area. A machining device is
inserted into the inside of the header to sever the tube at a
location approximately 2–4 in. (5–10 cm) away from the OD Figure 12: Stub Tube and Cross- Sectional View of the Stub
surface of the header (see Figure 11). The remaining tube is Tube.
then removed by cutting (boring or electro-discharge
machining [EDM]) the tube away to a dimension slightly The next step is to join the new stub tube to the existing tube
greater than the original diameter of the tube. The repair that has been re-machined (prepped) for welding using reverse
device has been designed to accommodate offset tubing (often prep. This is accomplished by inserting an internal welding
device (GTAW or GMAW) and welding the tube from the

469
inside (Figure 14). This secures the stub tube in place. A
second and final weld is required to secure the stub tube inside
the header. This weld is made at the ID surface of the header
using automatic or manual equipment. The individual steps to
perform this overall inside diameter repair are the following:
1. Mount a saddle-base plate to the header to position the
tooling.
2. Remove the access window from the header opposite
(180°) the damaged location.
3. Insert the machining device (through the header bore) to
sever the tube at the weld joint on the OD of the header
(approximately 2–4 in. [5–10 cm] above).
Figure 13: Schematic of the Header-to-Stub Tube
Configuration.
4. Bore or EDM the header tube bore to the same diameter
of the tube OD. Also remove any remaining weld from
the OD region. Chamfer.
5. Remove the remainder of the severed tube through the ID
of the header.
6. Insert the prep tool to prepare the remaining tube (using a
backwards prep).
7. Insert the preheating device (various options).
8. Insert a new thicker, tapered stub.
9. Insert an alignment device to align the existing tube with
the new PWHT tapered tube.
10. Using the ID weld head, perform the weld between the
existing tube and the new stub tube.
11. Perform a full penetration seal weld at the new stub-tube-
to-header joint.
470
12. Remove the ID weld head and then weld the header
window.
Work was initiated in July 2004 to develop this equipment and
has been separated into individual modules due to the
complexity of this repair process. Specific equipment and
tooling criteria have been identified, and work is underway.
Through March 2005, a majority of the tooling to perform the
machining and removal of the damaged tube and to reinsert
the new stub tube has been completed. The second phase of
the effort is well underway wherein the welding aspects of the
project are being developed. Welding design and development
includes equipment for the tube-to-stub tube weld and for the
stub tube to ID header weld. EPRI plans to deliver the repair
device to the market in late 2005.
Figure 14: Schematic of Internal Welding Device Mounted in
Header Stub Tube.
Summary and Conclusions
Tube damage and attachment damage have resulted in a
considerable number of failures in HRSG equipment. Power
plant owners asked EPRI to assist in developing less obtrusive
and more consistent methodologies to perform these two
forms of repair. Such equipment could be used by power plant
personnel, repair vendors, installers, or OEMs. During 2003
and 2004, equipment design and development have been
underway to address these two forms of damage. The
following provides a brief summary of the results through the
end of 2004:
• A patented ID Tube Welder has been prototyped, further
enhanced, and now commercialized for performing both
waterwall window welds and HRSG tube-to-tube weld
repairs.
• The ID Tube Welder significantly reduces the time
required to perform window welds (or HRSG tube-to-tube
 welds) as compared to conventional SMAW-type repairs.
Furthermore, it provides power plants with a consistent,
rapidly deployable method to perform repairs and
eliminate welder error.
• A tube-to-header attachment repair methodology has been
identified to address all four attachments now offered by
OEMs. Equipment development has been initiated to first
develop a prototype with intentions to commercialize the
technology.
• A majority of the machine tool and equipment
development for the machining aspects of the tube-to-
header repair device have been completed.
• The welding aspects of the tube-to-header repair device
will be addressed during the first half of 2005.
References

1. HRSG Material Selection and Repair

Guidelines, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1004875.
2. U.S. Patent 6,596,957 B2, Method and Apparatus and
Prefabricated Replacement Tube for Localized
Waterwall Repair, July 22, 2003.
3. Aggressive Equipment, Inc. web site photographs:
http://www.aggressive-
equipment.com/new/idtubeweld.html
4. D. Gandy, G. Frederick, and K. Coleman, Repair
Welding Technologies For Heat Recovery Steam
Generators, EPRI Conference on Boiler Tube
Failures and HRSG Tube Failures and Inspection,
San Diego, CA, November, 2004.
5. Delivering High Reliability Heat Recovery Steam
Generators, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2003. 1004240.
6. R. Bryant, Development of A Waterwall Tube Repair
System, EPRI-RRAC Fifth International Conference
on Welding and Repair Technology for Power Plants,
Conference Proceedings, June 2004, San Destin,
Florida.

471
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Design of Process-Material-Shielding Combinations for Hard

Coatings Using Laser Surface Alloying
S. S. Babu
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio formerly at
Metals and Ceramics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6096

S. M. Kelly, R. P. Martukanitz
Applied Research Laboratory, State College, PA 16802

M. Murugananth
School of Materials Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Introduction coupling computational thermodynamic, kinetic and heat

transfer models [13,14,15,16].
Laser surface alloying (LSA) involves localized melting of a
substrate material with a laser beam and addition of alloying
and/or hard second-phase constituents [see Fig. 1]. On cooling
to room temperature, these hard particles are trapped in the
matrix and lead to better properties [1–12]. The properties of
the LSA region also depend on the microstructure that evolves
during melting and cooling.

Figure 2. Overall computational methodology to design new

process paraeters for laser surface alloying.

In a previous study, the stabilities of tungsten carbide (WC)

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of laser surface alloying
process shows different parameters that can be controlled.
Traditionally, LSA processes have been developed by trial and
error approach. As one can see from Fig. 1., the numbers of
independent process parameters are high and often may not
lead to optimum process conditions. As a result, very
expensive and time-consuming experimentation is required to
arrive at optimum process-material-shielding gas
combinations. Recently, work has shown [see Fig. 2] that it is
possible to design laser surface alloying process parameters by
particles were determined in Fe- or Ni-rich liquid melts. This
was performed by evaluating the rate of dissolution and rate of
growth during a typical heating and cooling thermal cycle
[16]. The calculations showed that WC particles can be
retained much more efficiently in a Ni-rich melt. This
prediction was in excellent agreement with the experimental
results. Although this result showed the applicability of
computational thermodynamic and kinetic calculations to the
design of laser surface alloying, the extensive calculations
failed to show condition in which you can stabilize WC
carbides in a Fe-rich liquid melt without significant
dissolution. Therefore, in this work, a new set of experimental
designs were adopted to allow for the stabilization of titanium
carbonitrides in a Fe-rich liquid melt.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 473

 Thermodynamic Modeling
To design the material compositions that allow for the
formation of Ti(CN), the stability diagram of the Fe-Ti-C-N
system was calculated using ThermoCalc software with solid
solution and substance database [17]. The stability diagram
for 1800 K is shown in Fig, 3a.
Figure 3. Thermodynamic calcualtions of MX stability as a
function of carbon and nitrogen for (a) Simple Fe-based and
(b) complex Fe-base alloy. It is important to note these
calcualtions do not consider the formation of gas.
The calculations considered different extents of dissolved
nitrogen as a function of titanium and carbon concentrations in
liquid iron. Since the TiC, TiN and Ti(CN) have face centered
474
cubic (FCC) based crystal structure, in thermodynamic
calculations the three phases are denoted as MX. The first set
of calculations was performed in a simple Fe-C-T-N system
with no dissolved nitrogen. The calculations showed a limited
stability MX phase as shown by the shaded region. However,
with increase in nitrogen concentration to 0.003 wt.%, the
calculations showed increased stability of MX phase
indicating that the MX phase is progressively changing from
TiC to Ti(CN). At high concentrations of nitrogen, the
calculations showed that the MX phase is stable even with
low-carbon concentrations. This showed that by combined
additions of titanium, carbon and nitrogen you can stabilize
the MX particles in the Fe-rich laser melts.
In the next set of calculations, the stability of MX phases in a
martensitic steel composition was considered with a net
addition of 0.03 wt.% N. The calculations showed that the
addition of Si, Mn, Ni and Cr does not lead to any significant
changes in the stability of MX phases and therefore suggested
that we can retain MX phases even in a highly-alloyed iron
liquid melt.
Although, the calculations indicated that addition of nitrogen
promotes the MX phases, the method of adding nitrogen to the
liquid metal needs to be considered. In this work, the addition
of nitrogen to the liquid steel is performed by laser surface
alloying with 100% nitrogen shielding.
Experimental
Nd-YAG Laser Surface Alloying: The laser deposition was
made using a Hobart Model HLP 3000 3.0 kW Nd-YAG laser
with fiber optic beam delivery and f16 focus optics. The beam
diameter was 5 mm and the angle of the laser source was 15°
rear angle. A laser power of 2430 W was used in all
experiments. To allow for different extents of nitrogen
dissolution, different extents of nitrogen gas were mixed with
argon was used for shielding.
Experiment with 431 + TiC +N2 shielding: A commercially
pure 431 steel powder (Sulzer-Metco 42C powder) was used
as the matrix material. The nominal composition of the
431steel was Fe-0.2C-1Si-1Mn-16Cr (wt.%). A TiC powder
of 99% purity was obtained from AEE Corporation. In this
experiment, 80 wt.% 431 steel powder was mixed with 20
wt.% TiC powder and pre-placed to a thickness of 2 mm on a
1020-mild steel substrate having a nominal composition Fe-
0.2C-0.5Mn (wt.%).
Experiment with 431 + FeTi +N2
Since the calculations showed that it is possible to form MX
phases even with low carbon concentrations, additional
experiments were performed with 431 martensitic steel
powders with only addition of 20 wt.% Fe-Ti. The
calculations suggested that the precipitation of TiN must occur
even under this condition.
 Results and Discussions particles are shown in Fig. 5. The distribution of FCC phases
are presented in Fig. 5. Here the FCC phase corresponds to
Results from experiments with 431 + TiC +N2 shielding: Ti(CN) phases. The data clearly shows the presence of coarse
dendrites growing in different directions. Since the plane of
cross section is not along the primitive [001] zone axis, the
Microstructural modifications that result from the use of
shape of these dendrites are not symmetrical. The
different extents of nitrogen content in the shielding gas have
measurements also show the presence of very fine Ti(CN)
been presented earlier [16]. Therefore, in this paper,
approximately at half the distance between the primary coarse
microstructures that are attained with 100% nitrogen shielding
dendritic particles indicating that these are interdendritic
are presented. The scanning electron micrograph from the
particles forming during the late stages of solidification.
laser surface alloyed region showed three kinds of Ti(CN)
particles namely, the un-dissolved coarse particles, the
Corresponding BCC grain misorientation distributions are
dendritic particles that form first from the liquid and the fine
shown in Fig. 6. Here the BCC crystal structure corresponds
interdendritic particles.
to ferrite grains. The different colored lines in Figure 6
delinate the extent of crystallographic misorientations between
The microstructure shows that during laser surface alloying
the ferrite grains. The average fraction of the ferrite grain
the TiC particles that is present in the powder dissolves to a
boundaries that have misorientations greater than 10 degrees is
greater extent. Nevertheless some of these particles do
approximately 73%. This is indeed an interesting observation,
survive and get trapped as large particles. The dissolution
since the sample is in the as-welded condition. In principle,
leads to supersaturation of titanium and carbon in the liquid
as-cast structure of the laser surface alloyed region may not
steel. Further dissolution of nitrogen from the shielding gas
lead to such a fine distribution of grains. This is tentatively
occurred which then lead to copious nucleation of Ti(CN)
attributed to the low-temperature decomposition of the
which subsequently grows into coarse primary dendrites.
austenite that forms during solidification while cooling to
With continued cooling, solidification to austenite is expected
room temperature.
around these primary dendrites [16]. With continued
solidification, the liquid metal continues to enrich in titanium,
carbon and nitrogen which then leads to the formation of
interdendritic Ti(CN).

Figure 4: Scanning electron micrograph images show coarse

original Ti(CN), dendritic Ti(CN) and secondary Ti(CN) in the
interdendritic region.

Further evaluation of the microstructures was performed using

orientational imaging microscopy [see Fig. 5]. The
orientational imaging microscopy was performed in a FEI XL-
30 field emission gun scanning electron microscope (SEM).
In this method, the distribution of both FCC and BCC crystal Figure 5: Orientational imaging microscopy analysis showing
structures were analyzed. The measurements from a region distribution of FCC crystal strucuture. The color codes
containing the primary dendritic and secondary interdendritic correpsond to relative orientation of different grains in a
diffraction trinangle shown in the inset.

475

Figure 6: Orientational imaging microscopy analysis of BCC
grains showing the presence of predominantly fine ferrite
grain size with misorientations above 10 degrees. The grey
regions are the FCC regions where there is absence of BCC
diffraction.
Figure 7. Measured hardness distributions from the laser
surface alloyed samples made with different conditions. The
data shows a base metal hardness region at 200 HV and laser
476
surface alloyed regions that are harder than 400 HV. The
sample with nitrogen shielding showed the highest hardness.
The data in Figures 5 and 6 shows that the laser surface
alloyed region may be benefited by the presence of bimodal
distribution of Ti(CN) particles, as well as, fine ferrite grain
structure. To evaluate this hypothesis, the hardness
distributions in these samples were measured using automated
hardness measurements.
A summary of hardness distributions are presented in Figure
7. The reference hardness of the 431 martensitic steel deposit
without TiC addition was 437 HV. Addition of TiC with
argon shielding increased the hardness to 573 HV. The
hardness of the samples made with 2% nitrogen showed an
average hardness of 621 HV. The hardness of the samples
made with no shielding slightly increased to 637 HV.
Interestingly, the samples made with 100% nitrogen shielding
led to an average hardness of 724 HV. This conclusively
proved that the present experimental design has lead to an
improved laser surface alloy deposit in an iron-base system.
Further analysis of the samples with 100% nitrogen shielding
has been performed with reference to deterioration of hardness
during overlapping laser deposits [16]. These results indicate
the samples made with 100% nitrogen shielding show reduced
softening due to reheating conditions. However, further work
is necessary to understand the extent of varying overlap and
laser power.
Experiments with 431 + 20 wt.% FeTi +N2
In the previous section, the supersaturation of liquid steel was
attained by premixing with 431 martensitic steel powders with
TiC powders and subsequent dissolution of the same during
laser surface alloying. Based on the results from the previous
section, it was hypothesized that the supersaturation of the
liquid can also be attained from their elemental form and
allowing for in-situ reaction during laser surface alloying.
This may be able to reduce the cost of the raw material used
for these processes.
To evaluate the hypothesis, the tendency to form TiN was
considered first. The 431 martensitic steel powders were
mixed with 20 wt.% Ferro-titanium and was pre-placed on a
1020 mild steel block. The laser surface alloying was
performed with 100% nitrogen shielding. The optical
microscopy of the samples made at a scanning speed of 5 ipm
(2.11 mm/s) is shown in Fig. 8. It is important to note that in
the current experiments we cannot delineate the extent of
carbon dilution in these deposits since there is no intentional
addition of carbon except for the residual carbon from 431
martensitic steel powders.
Three distinct microstructural features were observed in Fig.
8. First, large slender elongated dendrites were observed.
These particles were identified as Ti(CN) with FCC structure.
The fraction of these primary Ti(CN) dendrites was less than
that of previous experiments with TiC addition. Secondly, an
equiaxed but dendritic ferrite grain structure was observed.
The average grain size of these ferrite grains were in the order
of 5 to 10 μm. Third, a fine interdendritic dark eutectic
microstructure was observed.
Figure 8: Optical mcirograph of laser surface alloyed region
showing fine TiCN dendrites with a small dendritic ferrite
grain size in the back ground. In addition, dark interdendritic
regions were also observed.
Figure 9: Orientational imaging microscopy maps showing
the distributions of ferrite (BCC) and TiCN (FCC) crystal
structure showing fine inter-twinning microstructure.
Further analysis of the microstructure was performed with
orientational imaging microscopy. The distribution of both
Ti(CN) and Ferrite crystal structure are mapped and are shown
in Fig. 9. The maps clearly show that these two phases are
477
interspersed with each other. The ferrite maps show that the
all the primary ferrite dendrite arms have similar orientation in
space. Interestingly, the ferrite veins in the eutectic regions
appear to be extension of the primary dendrite grain. The
primary coarse dendritic Ti(CN) and the interdendritic Ti(CN)
can also be seen in Fig. 9. It is interesting to note that the
interdendritic Ti(CN) all have similar orientation in space.
This suggests that there may be preferred crystallographic
orientation relationship between Ti(CN) and ferrite. Detailed
study is underway to evaluate the relative orientation between
primary Ti(CN), ferrite and interdendritic Ti(CN).
Preliminary microstructural observations showed that the
hardening (~ 250 HV) is not as extensive as that of previous
experiments. This is partly attributed to a lack of high volume
fraction of primary Ti(CN) in this microstructure. Further
studies are needed to increase the fraction of Ti(CN) in these
alloys. Additional experiments are being conducted currently
with the addition of carbon. Recently, a similar approach of
combining thermodynamic calculation to develop in-situ
carbide coating was demonstrated by Singh and Dahotre [18].
The results so far indicate the following path for
microstructural evolution from liquid during cooling from
high temperature in this experiment: (i) primary dendritic
Ti(CN) formation; (ii) primary dendritic ferrite formation; (iii)
interdendritic eutectic decomposition of liquid to ferrite and
Ti(CN). This microstructural evolution was evaluated with
theoretical calculations. Thermodynamic calculations were
performed for the following alloy composition using Scheil
additivity rule [19]. The composition of the overall steel
composition is taken as Fe - 0.18C - 0.9Si - 0.8Mn - 12.8Cr -
8Ti- 0.047N (wt.%).
Figure 9: Predicted variation of solid fraction versus
temperature during solidification is shown with different
phase regions. The calculations assume Scheil additivity
conditions.
The calculated solid fraction versus temperature is shown in
Fig. 9. The calculations indicate the first phase to form in the
liquid steel at high temperature would be Ti(CN) and as the
deposit cools, the primary ferrite phase will form at a lower
temperature. With continued cooling extensive solidification [3]. G. Ricciardi, M. Cantello, G. Molino, W.
occurs by the formation of ferrite phase. In the final stages of Varani, and E. Carlet, Key Eng. Mater.,
solidification, the calculations predict eutectic decomposition 46, (1990) 415.
of the liquid. These calculations qualitatively support the [4]. G. Dehm, C. Scheu and M. Bamberger,
experimentally observed microstructure results. Proceedings of the Conference on Laser
Materials Processing, LIA, Volume 2,
Summary and Conclusions (1997) F-128
[5]. I. Goldfarb and M. Bamberger Scripta
Application of computational thermodynamic models to Mat., 34, (1996) 1051.
design laser surface alloying process – material - shielding gas [6]. R. Ebner, W. Pitscheneder, R. Benes, T.
combinations was demonstrated. The methodology was used DebRoy, and K. Mundra, Proceedings of
to modify microstructure and therefore the hardness of the the 2nd International Austria-Israel
coatings made by the laser surface alloying process. Technion Symposium and Industrial
Forum, 4-6, June 1997, Graz, Austrian
By combining a mixture of 431 martensitic stainless steel Technion Society, Vienna, 1997, page 79-
powder with 20 wt.% TiC and laser surface alloying process 93.
under 100% nitrogen shielding hard coatings with an average [7]. C. Zhenda, L. L. Chew and Q. Ming,
surface hardness of 724 HV was obtained. The hard Journal of Materials Processing
microstructure is related to the presence of un-dissolved Technology, 62, (1996) 321.
coarse TiC, dendritic Ti(CN), fine interdendritic Ti(CN) and [8]. J. D. Mazumdar, A. Weisheit, B. L.
large fraction of highly misoriented ferrite grain size. Mordike and I. Manna, Mater. Sci. Eng.,
A266, (1999) 123.
The above hypothesis was extended to develop an in-situ [9]. J. D. Mazumdar and I. Manna, Mater. Sci.
precipitation of Ti(CN) during laser surface alloying. The Ti Eng, A268, (1999) 227
addition was achieving by mixing the 431 martensitic steel [10]. J. D. Mazumdar and I. Manna, Mater. Sci.
powders with Ferro-titanium. The dissolution of nitrogen was Eng., A267, (1999) 50
achieved by using 100% nitrogen shielding gas. As expected, [11]. M. Riabkina-Fishman, and J. Zahavi,
the results showed precipitation of primary dendritic TiN, fine Applied Surface Science, 106, (1996) 263.
ferrite grain size, and fine interdendritic eutectic ferrite + [12]. C. Tassin, F. Laroudie, M. Pons and L.
Ti(CN) microstructure. This microstructure was in agreement Lelait, Surface and Coatings Technology,
with thermodynamic calculations. 80, (1996) 207.
[13]. S. S. Babu, S. M. Kelly, M. Murugananth,
Acknowledgements R. P. Martukanitz, “Reactive gas shielding
during laser surface alloying for
Research sponsored by the Division of Materials Sciences and production of hard coatings,” Surface
Engineering and Assistant Secretary for Energy Efficiency and Coating and Technology, in press 2005
Renewable Energy, Industrial Technologies Program, [14]. S. M. Kelly and S. L. Kampe, Metall.
Industrial Materials for Future, U.S. Department of Energy, Mater. Trans. A., 35A (2004) 1861.
under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC. [15]. S. M. Kelly and S. L. Kampe, Metall.
The laser processing experiments were sponsored by the Laser Mater. Trans. A., 35A (2004) 1869.
Processing Consortium and were conducted at the Applied [16]. S. S. Babu, R. P. Martukanitz, K. D. Parks,
Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University. The and S. A. David, Metallurgical and
authors thank Mr. J. Tressler of the Applied Research Materials Transactions A, 33A, (2002)
Laboratory for producing the laser surface deposits. The 1189-1200.
authors also thank Drs. Z. Feng and Q. Han of Oak Ridge 17. J. -O. Andersson et al., “Thermo-Calc and
National Laboratory for helpful discussions on this paper. DICTRA, Computational tools for
materials science,” CALPHAD, 26 (2002)
273 – 312.
References
18. A. Singh and N. B. Dahotre, Metall.
Trans. A., 36A, (2005) 797-803.
[1]. A. Glozman and M. Bamberger Metall. 19. K. C. Hsieh, S. S. Babu, J. M. Vitek, and
and Mater. Trans. A., 28A (1996) 1699. S. A. David, Materials Science and
[2]. J. M. Pelletier, F. Oucherif, P. Sallamand, Engineering, A215, (1996) 84 – 91.
and A. B. Vannes, Mater. Sci. Eng., A202,
(1995) 142.

478
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Influence of procedure variables on C-Mn-Ni-Mo ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E111T5-K3

metal cored wire ferritic all-weld metal
Estela S. Surian
Research Secretary, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Lomas de Zamora/ DEYTEMA Research Center,
Regional Faculty San Nicolás, National Technological University, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Hernán G. Svoboda
Metallurgy Laboratory – Department of Mechanical Engineering – Faculty of Engineering, University of Buenos Aires,
Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Noemí M. Ramini de Rissone
DEYTEMA Research Center, Regional Faculty San Nicolás, National Technological University, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Luis A. de Vedia
Institute of Technology Prof. Jorge A. Sabato, National University of San Martín / National Atomic Energy Commission,
CIC, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Abstract electrodes of a wide variety of weld deposits with different

The objective of this work was to study the effect that the
utilization of different shielding gases (CO2 and a mixture 80%
Ar / 20%CO2), welding position (flat and vertical up), arc
energy and number of passes per layer (2 and 3) have on the all-
weld metal microstructure and mechanical properties from an
ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E111T5-K3/K3M 1.2 mm diameter metal
cored wire. Hardness, tensile and impact tests were used to
assess the mechanical properties and quantitative metallographic
analysis were performed to identify the resulting
microstructures. ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E111T5-K3/K3M tensile
property requirements were satisfied under Ar/CO2 shielding
and E111T5-K3/K3M chemical composition specification was
met in all conditions, except for Mo requirements, with
maximum value exceeding those of the standard. E111T5-
K3/K3M toughness requirements were comfortably satisfied
under both gas types, but significant variations were found with
different welding procedures. These variations have been
rationalized in terms of the microstructure and chemical
composition of the weld deposits. The results obtained in this
work showed that, as in the case of SMAW electrodes of the
type ANSI/AWS A5.5-96 E10018/11018/ 12018-M types,
depositing C-Mn-Ni-Mo or C-Mn-Ni-Mo-Cr alloyed ferritic
weld metal, the main difficulty resides in obtaining adequate
tensile strength values rather than in satisfying toughness
requirements that can be met almost under any welding
condition, within the requirements of the appropriate standard.
1- Introduction
During the last twenty to thirty years, there has been a world-
wide trend towards replacing covered electrodes for manual
welding with other processes allowing a higher deposition rate
and lending better for automation (Ref.1). In spite of the fact
that due to some particular features of the manual metal arc
process (Ref.2) it will not be completely replaced in the
foreseeable future, it is estimated that around 70% of the
deposited weld metal will come from more efficient processes.
Continuous wires are increasingly used and among them, flux
and metal cored wires, due to the versatility of these welding
consumables that allow producing relatively small quantities of
chemical composition exhibiting adequate mechanical properties
for all positional welding (Refs. 3 to 5). Among the different
cored wire types, those used under gas protection, can be
classified in flux cored and metal cored wires. They present
different characteristics, advantages and disadvantages. It is
known that flux cored wires provide improved join penetration,
smooth arc transfer, low spatter level and most important, are
easier to use than solid wires (Refs. 6 and 7); with them it is also
possible to achieve high deposition rates (Refs. 6 and 7). Metal
cored wires present an important technological advantage due to
the practically absence of slag that makes them adequate for
robot welding (Refs. 6 and 8).
On the other hand it is well known that the employment of
different shielding gases as well as changes in the welding
procedure parameters lead to variations in the deposit
characteristics (Refs. 9 to 17). Generally the most frequently
used gas for welding with rutile type flux cored wires is CO2,
but it is also possible to use Ar/CO2 mixtures. This type of
protection results in improved appearance, less spatter, and
better arc stability (Ref. 9). On the other hand, in all arc-welding
processes it is very important the arc energy control to influence
metallurgical transformations and resulting mechanical
properties and microstructure (Refs. 10 to 14). In multi-pass
welding, changes in welding parameters lead to different arc
energies and different number of passes per layer for the same
joint design (Refs. 10 and 11). The welding position is another
important variable (Ref.16).
In particular, the objective of this work was to study the effect of
shielding gas type (CO2 and Ar/CO2 mixture), flat and vertical
up welding positions, arc energy (between 8.8 to 1.9 kJ/mm) and
number of passes per layer (2 and 3) on the all-weld metal
mechanical properties and microstructure, obtained from a metal
cored wire, of the ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E111T5-K3 type.
2- Experimental Procedure
2.1- Weldments
2.1.1- Electrodes
The consumable employed in this work was a commercial

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 479

product that is classified by the manufacturer as ANSI/AWS 2.4- Metallographic study
A5.29-98 (Ref. 18) E111T5-K3 type metal cored wire, in 1.2 Examination of cross sections (etched with Nital 2 %) was
mm diameter. carried out in both the top beads and the Charpy-V notch
location, figure 1, as described previously (Ref. 20). The area
2.1.2- Test specimens fractions of columnar and reheated zones were measured at
With this wire, eight all-weld metal test coupons were made 500X at the Charpy-V notch location. To quantify the
with the weld preparation for flat welding position of microstructural constituents of the columnar zones, in each
ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 standard (Ref. 18), using: weld, 10 fields of 100 points were measured, in the top bead, at
a) Two shielding gasses: pure CO2 and a mixture of 500X by light microscopy.
80% Ar - 20% CO2 (Ar/CO2)
b) Two arc energies: high (two beads per layer), and
low (three beads per layer)
c) Flat and vertical up welding positions
The key to the identification of the weld test specimens is as
follows: C means welding under CO2 and A denotes welding
under Ar/CO2 shielding; 2 or 3 represent the number of passes
per layer; while F and V the flat and vertical up welding
positions respectively. Welding parameters employed are shown
in table 1
Figure 1: Cross section of the all-weld-metal test assembly
Table 1: Test specimen identification and welding parameters
used. 3- Results and Discussion
3.1- All-weld metal chemical composition
W P(1) S G(1) N P(1) N L(1) I(1) T(1) W S(1) H I(1) Table 2 presents the all-weld metal chemical composition
C2F F(2) CO2 2 6 265 27 4.1 1.9 obtained from the mechanical property test coupons.
C3F F(2) CO2 3 6 241 26 6.4 1.1
A2F F(2) Ar/CO2 2 6 260 27 4.0 1.9 Table 2: All weld metal chemical composition
A3F F(2) Ar/CO2 3 6 235 26 5.6 1.2
C2V VU(2) CO2 2 6 136 19 1.8 1.5 AWS
C3V VU(2) CO2 3 6 135 19 2.4 1.2 C2F C3F A2F A3F C2V C3V A2V A3V req.
A2V VU(2) Ar/CO2 2 6 154 19 1.9 1.7 (*)
A3V VU(2) Ar/CO2 3 6 141 19 3.3 0.8 C 0.049 0.047 0.052 0.047 0.058 0.058 0.066 0.061 0.15
(1)
W P: welding position, S G: shielding gas, N P: number of passes, N L: Si 0.38 0.41 0.47 0.45 0.38 0.53 0.48 0.50 0.80
number of layers, I: intensity (A), T: Voltage (V), W S: welding speed (mm/s), 0.75-
H I: heat input (kJ/mm)(2) F: flat , V U: vertical up. Preheating temperature was Mn 1.62 1.66 1.81 1.76 1.62 1.72 1.82 1.81
2.25
150ºC. Interpass temperature was in the range 140-150ºC.
P 0.010 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.011 0.03
2.2- Tensile tests, impact tests and hardness measurements S 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.03
From each all weld metal test coupon, a Minitrac (Ref. 19)
Cr 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.15
tensile specimen (total length = 55 mm, gauge length = 25 mm,
0.25-
reduced section diameter = 5 mm, gauge length to diameter ratio Mo 0.71 0.73 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.69 0.74 0.74
0.65
= 5:1), and enough Charpy-V specimens to construct the Absorbed 1.25-
Ni 2.17 2.17 2.13 2.13 2.16 2.04 2.16 2.18
Energy vs. Test Temperature curve between -80°C and 20°C, 2.60
were machined. A cross section was also obtained from each Al <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 NS
specimen to conduct both a microhardness survey, at the Charpy-
Cu 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 NS
V notch location, using a 1000 g load and the metallographic
analysis. Tensile tests and Charpy-V impact tests were V 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05
performed in the as welded condition. Previous to testing at N 60 70 30 50 50 60 55 50 NS
room temperature, tensile specimens were heat treated for 24 h
at 200°C (328 °F) to let hydrogen to diffuse away. O 690 710 590 650 640 540 550 500 NS
All the elements in wt%, except N and O wich are in ppm
2.3- Chemical composition *to E11XT5-K3/K3M; singles values are maximun
All-weld metal spectrometric chemical analyses were conducted
on a cross section of each weld coupon. Nitrogen and oxygen As an overall trend, a variation in the oxygen levels was
determinations were made with a LECO equipment extracting observed, higher values corresponding to welds made with CO2
the samples from the broken ends of the tensile specimens. shielding. Due to this difference, carbon, manganese and silicon
values were lower for this type of gas. It has been shown (Ref.

480
5) that when using Ar/CO2 gas mixture instead of pure CO2 for 80

the same wire, the O content in the gas mixture, originated from 75
the decomposition of CO2 decreases, and also the O partial

Columnar Zone (%)

70
pressure in the arc. A smaller amount of Mn and Si will be
oxidized under Ar/CO2 than under CO2, leading to a higher 65
recovery of these elements in the weld metal. Mo and Ni
60
contents were insensitive to the O variations.
Nitrogen values were very low as well as residual elements as P, 55

S, Cr, V, Cu and Al, showing a very clean weld deposit. No 50

influences of the heat input (two or three passes per layer) and
45
the welding position were detected on the chemical composition. 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
Heat Input (kJ/mm)
Considering chemical composition under both gas protections, Figure 2: % of Columnar Zone vs. Heat Input
the ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 EXXXT5-K3 requirements were not
completely satisfied (see table 2). The all-weld metal Mo However no systematic variations were identified as a function
content exceeded the maximum value required by the mentioned of the variables studied in this work.
classification.
Table 4: Top bead columnar zone microconstituents and prior
3.2- Metallographic analysis austenite grain width
3.2.1-General
Table 3 shows the percentages of columnar and reheated zones HI AF PF(G) PF(I) FS(NA) FS(A)
corresponding to the Charpy-V notch location. It was seen that C2F 1.9 26 5 18 48 3
the proportion of columnar zones was larger in samples welded C3F 1.1 23 3 14 56 4
with lower arc energy, 3 passes per layer, as previously found A2F 1.9 16 0 9 75 0
(Refs.10, 11, 21, 22 and 23). A3F 1.2 21 1 16 60 2
C2V 1.5 31 0 13 47 9
Table 3 - Vickers hardness measurements and percentages of C3V 1.2 8 0 7 84 1
both columnar and heat affected zones A2V 1.7 21 0 22 53 4
A3V 0.8 19 0 13 65 3
C2F C3F A2F A3F C2V C3V A2V A3V AF:acicular ferrite; PF(G):grain boundary ferrite; PF:polygonal ferrite;
FS(NA):ferrite with second phase, not aligned; FS(A):ferrite with second phase,
HV 274 283 284 293 290 315 281 314 aligned; FS:ferrite with second phase. All the constituents in wt%. HI: (kJ/mm)
HAZ 42 23 42 30 42 30 49 38
In welds performed in flat welding position, [AF] decreased and
CZ 58 77 58 70 58 70 51 62
[FS(NA)] increased with the Mn content increment (this effect
HI 1.9 1.1 1.9 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.7 0.8 can be observed in figure 3). The highest Mn contents were
*HV: Vickers hardness; HAZ: heat affected zone; CZ: columnar zone present in the welds carried out under Ar mixture protection;
those welds presented the highest [FS(NA)] and lowest [AF]
In general, the percentage of columnar zones decreased when
percentages, as a general tendency.
heat input increased, as can be seen in figure 2. This fact would 80
AF FS(NA)
be mainly related to the geometrical distribution of the weld 70
beads with respect to the location of the Charpy-V specimen 60
Microconstituents (%)

notch and to the increase in columnar zone proportion against

50
the reheated zone area when the heat input is reduced (Ref. 23).
40

3.2.2-Columnar zone (as welded) 30

Table 4 shows the percentages of microconstituents present in 20

the columnar zone of the last bead of each weld. 10

0
It can be seen that the preponderant constituent in the 1.6 1.65 1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85
Mn (wt%)
microstructure was ferrite with second phases [FS], acicular
ferrite [AF] with intragranular primary ferrite [PF(I)] been also Figure 3: Percentage of microconstituents vs. Mn contents
present. Grain boundary primary ferrite [PF(G)] content was low
and vanished in the specimens welded in vertical up welding In specimens welded in vertical up welding position this
position. In general, [FS] increased with the decrease of heat relationship between Mn content and microstructural
input. constituents were not found.
PF(I) was between 10 and 20 % in all the welds. PF(G) was low
in all the specimens, in particular, in vertical up wells it was not
present. The average columnar grain widths were not measured

481
due to this fact. In general, microstructural appearance of all the tensile and yield strengths were higher in vertical up welding
specimens was very similar, figure 4. position.

Table 5: All-weld metal tensile property test results

AWS
C2F C3F A2F A3F C2V C3V A2V A3V req.
(*)
760-
TS 812 801 866 815 834 858 861 929
50 Pm 50 Pm 900
YS 594 695 619 739 639 768 809 902 680
A2F C3F E 19 19 17 18 20 18 19 - 15
HI 1.9 1.1 1.9 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.7 0.8 NS
Figure 4. Columnar Zones TS: tensile strength (MPa); YS: yield strength (MPa); E: elongation(%); HI:
(kJ/mm) NS: not specified. (*): to E111 T5-K3 single values are maximum
3.2.3- Reheated zones (HAZ)
It was not possible to measure the fine grain size of the low When welding under both gas protections in the flat position,
temperature reheated zone (HAZ) due to the fact that the well- with 3 passes per layer (lower heat input), E111T5-K3 tensile
defined equiaxed nature of the plain C-Mn system (Ref. 24) was property requirements were satisfied. Elongation values were
progressively modified as the ferrite grains were replaced by high exceeding in all cases the requirements. It must be noted
colonies of ferrite with second phase as previously found by that elongation value corresponding to sample A3V is missing
Evans (Ref. 25). This effect can be seen in figure 5. due to testing problems.

3.3.3- Charpy-V impact properties.

The values of absorbed energy for each test temperature in the
Charpy-V tests are presented in figure 6 showing the absorbed
energy vs. testing temperature for the Charpy-V impact test.

It can be seen that all the curves presented a relatively flat shape
50 Pm 50 Pm without an abrupt ductile-brittle transition. The deposit of this
consumable seemed not to be very sensitive to the process
A2F C3F variables studied since the dispersion of the results were of 25 J
in the entire temperature interval used.
Figure 5: Heat Afected Zones 80

3.3- Mechanical properties 70 C2F

Absorbed Energy (J)

3.3.1- Hardness C3F

Table 3 also presents the microhardness average values. As a 60 A2F
general tendency, deposits welded under Ar/CO2 shielding A3F
presented higher average hardness values than under CO2 C2V
50
protection, as well as in the specimens welded in vertical up C3V
welding position as compared to those obtained in the flat A2V
40
position. A3V
The average hardness values found in all samples welded with
lower heat input (three passes per layer), were higher than those 30
obtained with higher heat input (two passes per layer), as
expected (Ref. 12). 20
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40
3.3.2- Tensile properties Temperature (ºC)
Table 5 shows tensile test results. In accordance with the results
of both chemical composition and hardness measurements, Figure 6: Charpy-V notch impact results
tensile and yield strengths of deposits welded under Ar/CO2,
were higher than those obtained under CO2 shielding. There was In general, the specimens welded with higher heat input (2
not an important effect of the heat input on tensile strength. In passes per layer) showed the best impact behavior. A3F weld
general, yield strength increased with a reduction in heat input in presented the highest absorbed energy and C3V the lowest one,
agreement with what was observed for hardness. In all cases, both in all the temperature range. No systematic effect was

482
found as a function of neither the type of gas protection nor the
welding position.
For any welding condition the ANSI/AWS A5.29-98 E111T5-
K3 requirement of 27 J on average for -51ºC, was comfortably
satisfied, not having presented a single value under the required
minimum. The minimum value measured at -60ºC was 30 J for
C3V and A3V. Due to the fact that the best impact results at
-51ºC (AWS impact test temperature requirement), see table 6,
were achieved with C2F, A3F, C2V and A2F samples, no
important effect of the type of gas shielding, or the number of
passes per layer (heat input) or the welding position was found
at this temperature.
Table 6 - Charpy-V absorbed energy at -51ºC (AWS
requirement: 27 J).
C2F C3F A2F A3F C2V C3V A2V A3V
E* 61 44 52 64 57 37 49 41
* absorbed energy (J)
3.3.4 Presenting a model
The variations in the different welding process parameters
studied affect simultaneously in different ways the
microstructural development. This is finally reflected on the
measured properties of the weld metal that are the resultant of
the interaction of those effects (Refs.16, 21, 22, 23, 26). Because
of this complex interaction, the consideration of an isolated
parameter is generally not effective for the prediction of the final
weld metal properties so that an integrated analysis should be
undertaken giving proper consideration to all the relevant effects
and their interaction.
Several factors were thus considered to identify a controlling
parameter for toughness that incorporates weld metal chemical
composition, proportion of primary and secondary (coarse and
fine) zones, fractions of microconstituents measured in the
columnar region of the last bead and grain size.
Thus a model intended to rationalize the different intervening
microstructural factors at the notch location was developed. An
expression was obtained for both welds made in the flat and in
the vertical up welding positions. Figure 7 shows the result of
the application of such model to estimate the weld metal
toughness tested at –60ºC and a comparison between predicted
and actually measured values is presented. A good correlation
was obtained.
The expression of the model is given by the following equation:
E(-60qC) = (0.007 x %CZ [40+1.6 x %AF-2 x %PF(G)-0.25 x
%FS(NA)-1.2 x %FS(A)]+0.2 x %HAZ+10 x HI-50 (%Mn-
1.6)-0.2 x Pox+15
where E stands for Charpy-V absorbed energy; %CZ is the
percentage of columnar zone, %HAZ is the percentage of heat
483
affected zone, HI stands for heat input in kJ/mm and Pox for the
protection gas oxidation potential (J).
Estimated Absorbed Energy (J) at -60ºC
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Measured Absorbed Energy [J] in CVN at -60ºC
Figure 7: Measured Absorbed Energy vs. Estimated Absorbed
Energy
The model stresses the beneficial effect on toughness of the
volume fraction of AF and the deleterious influence of PF(G),
FS(A) and of FS(NA) present in the columnar zone. Evidence of
these influences are shown by the high toughness values
obtained with welds C2V, A3F and C2F, and the reduced
toughness values corresponding to weld C3V.
4- Conclusions
The results obtained in this work showed that, as in the case of
SMAW electrodes of the type ANSI/AWS A5.5-96
E10018/11018/12018-M types, depositing C-Mn-Ni-Mo or C-
Mn-Ni-Mo-Cr alloyed ferritic weld metal (Refs. 10, 11, 27, 28,
29 and 30), the main difficulty resides in obtaining adequate
tensile strength values rather than in satisfying toughness values
that can be obtained almost in any welding condition, within the
requirements of the appropriate standard.
5- Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Air Liquide
Argentina S.A. for supplying the consumables and the facilities
for the production of the welds, to the Centre Téchnique des
Applications du Soudage, Air Liquide France, for conducting
nitrogen and oxygen determinations and for useful discussions,
to Siderca, Argentina, for oxygen and nitrogen determinations,
to Conarco-ESAB Argentina for carrying out the chemical
analysis and to the Fundación Latinoamericana de Soldadura,
Argentina, for the facilities provided to weld and for machining
and mechanical testing. Authors recognize ANPCyT, Argentina,
for the financial support.
6- References
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12-27, (1980).
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18. ANSI/AWS A5.29-98. “Specification for Low-Alloy Steel
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding”, AWS, Miami,
USA, (1998).
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investigation of the Sharp-Notch Behavior of 60 Steels at
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weld metals”. IIW Doc. IX-1533-88.(1988).
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2001, Detroit, USA. STWJ8 (2), 113-122,(2003).
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E. Surian. “The effect of welding procedure on ANSI/AWS
A5.29-98 E81T1-Ni1 flux cored wire deposits”. IIW-IIS
Doc. II-A-0136-04, Welding Journal 83(11), 301s-307s,
(2004).
23. G.M. Evans, “Effect of heat input on the microstructure and
properties of C-Mn all-weld metal deposits” IIW Doc IIA-
490-79.Welding Journal, 61(4)125s-132s. (1982) Welding
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properties of C-Mn all-weld metal deposits”. Joining
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69(11) 408s-415s. (1990).
27. E. Surian, J. Trotti, A.N. Cassanelli, and L.A. de Vedia,
"Influence of Mn Content on Mechanical Properties and
Microstructure of a High Strength SMA Electrode Weld
Metal" IIW-IIS Doc. II-A-724-87.(1987).
28. E. Surian, J. Trotti, R. Herrera y L.A. de Vedia, "Influence
of C on Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Weld
Metal from a High-Strength SMA Electrode" Welding
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"Influence of Chromium on Mechanical Properties and
Microstructure of Weld Metal from a High Strength SMA
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30. E. Surian, N.M. Ramini de Rissone and L. de Vedia.
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Development of Filler Metals for Super Austenitic Stainless Steels
T.D. Anderson, M.J. Perricone, and J.N. DuPont
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA
Abstract
The Office of Naval Research (ONR) is currently
investigating the use of Super-Austenitic Stainless
Steels (SASS) for Advanced Double Hull (ADH)
surface combatant ships. Unfortunately, fusion
welding processes required for construction of SASS-
ADH ships causes redistribution of critical alloying
elements such that regions of the fusion zone become
susceptible to preferential corrosive attack. The
current approach to welding of SASS alloys employs
over-alloyed nickel base filler metals that are high in
Mo but cost prohibitive for this structural application.
These filler metals are also susceptible to
solidification cracking and can produce a galvanic
couple with the SASS alloy that may further
accelerate localized corrosion. In this research, filler
metals specifically designed for super austenitic
stainless steels are being developed. The major
objective is to identify filler metal compositions that
solidify primarily as ferrite (to minimize
microsegregation and solidification cracking) and
subsequently transform to austenite (to eliminate
magnetic signatures). Candidate compositions have
been identified by calculating multi-component phase
diagrams and a large number of experimental alloys
have been prepared for validation and characterized
using various microscopy techniques. Results to date
have shown that select Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo compositions
can be prepared which are relatively free of
microsegregation and predominately exhibit an
austenitic structure. The influence of various alloying
elements on the transformation sequences and
resultant weld metal microstructures will be
discussed.
Keywords
Superaustenitic stainless steels; CALPHAD; alloy
development; ferrite-to-austenite transformation;
partitioning; microsegregation;
Background
The Office of Naval Research (ONR) has
been involved for many years in researching the use
of new materials for the next generation of surface
combatant ships1. The Advanced Double Hull (ADH)
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
design provides several strategic advantages. Combat
survivability is enhanced not only by the added layer
of protection afforded by the hull-within-a-hull
design, but also by the heightened toughness of the
fully austenitic structure of SASS alloys. This
microstructure has the added benefit of being non-
magnetic, and therefore undetectable by mines. In
addition to excellent mechanical properties, these
materials are also remarkable for their corrosion-
resistance properties, which will result in appreciable
savings from the decreased maintenance costs.
Unfortunately, the incorporation of SASS alloys into
naval warships has been met with difficulty due to
the unique challenges presented by the fusion
welding processes required to manufacture ADH
structures. Central to these difficulties is the
degradation of corrosion-resistance properties in the
fusion zone, caused by the microsegregation of
molybdenum during solidification2-4. Austenitic
solidification results in the depletion of Mo at
dendrite cores, leaving this region of the
microstructure susceptible to preferential corrosive
attack. Current industrial practice employs
overalloyed nickel-based filler metals when joining
SASS alloys. This approach is not cost effective as it
merely circumvents the problem of microsegregation
by raising the minimum Mo-concentration in the
dendrite cores. Nickel-base filler metals present a
host of other problems as well: solidification
cracking3, high material costs, and the possible
creation of a galvanic couple between base metal and
fusion zones, which can accelerate corrosion of the
weld. Hence, research into the development of a
cheaper and more robust alloy to serve as the filler
metal during the arc-welding of SASS alloys is
necessary.
The objective of this work is to develop a
filler metal alloy that will: (1) maintain high
resistance to corrosion and solidification cracking, (2)
possess a composition similar to base metal that does
not produce a magnetic field, (3) preserve properties
under a range of arc welding parameters, and (4)
provide a low-cost alternative to currently available
high-nickel filler metals. Based on work done in the
Fe-Ni-Cr ternary system by other authors, a Mo-
bearing Fe-based filler metal that can be used to
produce fusion zones with specific microstructural
development behavior is being engineered. By
solidifying as primary ferrite, the high substitutional
diffusivity of elements like Mo can eliminate
485
concentration gradients that may form during
solidification5. A subsequent solid state
transformation to austenite will take advantage of the
toughness and non-magnetic character of this phase.
Of the various solidification modes possible for
stainless steels, the FA solidification mode is desired
for this pursuit. The intercellular austenite that forms
at the termination of solidification allows the growth
of austenite to proceed and consume the ferritic cells
with no nucleation required6,7.
The results presented here detail the
combination of thermodynamic simulation and
experimental alloy development used to identify
candidate Mo-bearing Fe-based filler metal
compositions for superaustenitic stainless steels.
ferrite solidification followed by cooling through the
single-phase austenite phase field. It is important to
recognize that while it is necessary for target alloys to
lie in the regime, it is not a sufficient condition to
ensure a full solid state transformation to austenite.
Rather, near-eutectic compositions will enter the
single-phase austenite field at a much higher
temperature than those outside the eutectic triangle
and as such will maximize the kinetics and the
potential to completely transform the parent ferrite.

Selection of Candidate Alloys

The advent of commercially available
computational thermodynamic software makes
possible the development of multi-component phase
diagrams based on free energy minimization
algorithms. While still limited by three-dimensional-
space, the effects of higher order alloying elements
can be described over a range of temperatures and
compositions. Pseudo-binary phase diagrams are
commonly used to describe multi-component
material behavior, particularly when
microstructural development of the material depends
heavily on a solid state transformation after weld
solidification. These diagrams describe phase
stability over a wide range of temperatures but are
severely limited in the range of compositions they
can describe. Tie-lines do not lie in the plane of these
multi-component diagrams, also limiting the amount
of information provided. Liquidus projections can be
used to describe primary solidification mode over a
wide range of compositions, but no post-
solidification phase transformation information is
included within this diagram. However, by
combining these two types of phase diagrams for the
quaternary Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo system, a new model is
created that bounds the target composition range with
the desired solidification mode (ferritic) and solid
state transformation behavior (ferrite-to-austenite).
In order to create these microstructural
development diagrams, a series of Fe-Cr-Ni-Mo
vertical isopleths were calculated using the
computational thermodynamic software Thermo-
Calc8 combined with the Fe-Data database9. These
isoplethal sections varied Ni and Cr contents
inversely for total Ni plus Cr contents of 5, 10, 15,
20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 wt% with constant Mo
additions of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt%. An example of
this approach with a combined Ni and Cr content of
25 wt% is shown in Figure 1 with a 6 wt% Mo
addition. The shaded region of the diagram indicates
the range of compositions that will exhibit primary
the
Figure 1. Vertical isopleth of Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo alloy system. Points
of interest used for the diagrams described in the text are
marked and labeled.
Therefore, there are four special points of
interest shown on this diagram (Figure 1):
A. eutectic point (peak of eutectic triangle)
B. γ-vertex of the eutectic triangle
C. δ-vertex of the eutectic triangle
D. maximum solubility of Cr in austenite
The peak of the eutectic triangle (A) and the
maximum solubility of Cr in austenite (D) can be
used to bound the compositional regime that may
exhibit the desired microstructural development. By
tabulating this information for all 70 of the isopleths
calculated for this study, this data could be plotted on
the appropriate Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo liquidus projection for
each level of Mo content. In essence, the multi-
component liquidus projection becomes transparent;
information about the eutectic triangle and the γ
solvus can be displayed even at lower temperatures
(the temperature axis is normal to the plane of the
diagram). Equivalent points were then connected by
curves in order to highlight several significant
features of the overall phase diagram.

486
 The completed diagram (as seen in Figure 2)
bounds all Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo alloys of equivalent Mo
composition that will experience the FA
solidification sequence. The lines are labeled
according to the equivalent points from Figure 1. In
addition, the nominal compositions for the
constructed experimental alloys have been plotted on
the microstructural development diagram contained
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Microstructural development diagram of the Fe-Cr-
Ni-4Mo alloy system, with the zone of predicted FA
solidification shaded. Constructed nominal alloy compositions
are marked via data points.
Experimental Validation of
Microstructural Development Diagrams
A matrix of alloys was constructed to
simultaneously identify compositions with the target
behavior (ferrite PSM + transformation to austenite)
and verify the microstructural development
sequences predicted by the new diagrams. Sixteen
compositions were selected at each level of Mo-
content (0-10wt%) for a total of 96 alloys. The
compositions were systematically chosen to represent
each of the primary solidification modes (A, AF, FA,
F) depicted by the diagram and described in the
proceeding sections of this paper. The alloys were
produced from virgin elements using the arc button
melting (ABM) process, a modified TIG welding
process that allows the preparation of small heats
(~50g) of experimental compositions in an inert
atmosphere. Wet chemical ICP analysis conducted on
a subset of alloys in this study demonstrated the
ability of the ABM technique to achieve the target
compositions within less than 0.5 wt% error.
Metallographic preparation and subsequent
microstructural analysis were used to
487
morphologically identify the solidification mode and
transformation types experienced by each alloy.
Magnetic measurements of the ferrite content of each
button were conducted using a calibrated detector
that correlates the magnetic properties of an alloy
with its ferrite content. Several alloys were subjected
to Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA) to
quantitatively measure composition (Fe, Ni, Cr, Mo)
as a function of position, in order to compare the
distribution of Mo in austenite for both as-solidified
and transformed conditions.
Observed Morphologies
The results are summarized for the 4 wt%
Mo set of alloys in Figure 3. The observed
solidification mode for each alloy is indicated by the
shape of the icon representing its nominal Cr and Ni
contents. Measured ferrite content (wt% ferrite) is
listed by each nominal composition. Good agreement
is observed between calculation and experiment for
both the solidification mode and ferrite content of
most alloys. Solidification modes were
experimentally determined using the morphological
criteria presented elsewhere. Their respective
microstructures are presented and discussed below
individually. It is important to note that a number of
the buttons, 4 in the case of 4 wt% Mo but ~30
buttons overall, were observed to undergo a
martensitic shear transformation, particularly at the
highest Fe contents. The magnetic nature of
martensite along with its poor fracture toughness
eliminates these compositions from consideration for
the ADH application.
Figure 3. Results for the 4Mo-Fe-Ni-Cr system, with observed
solidification mode indicated by icon shape and weight percent
ferrite listed by each composition.
 Austenitic (A) and Austenitic-Ferritic(AF) via this elevated diffusion, etching techniques were
not capable of highlighting solidification cells. All of
Both A and AF modes are characterized by the F alloys, however, entered the region of the phase
primary austenite solidification and differ only in the diagram in which both γ-austenite and δ-ferrite are
amount of ferrite that forms in the interdendritic stable. However, as cooling continues, γ-austenite
regions at the termination of solidification. A large becomes more thermodynamically stable than δ-
number of alloys were characterized as belonging to ferrite, causing the nucleation and growth of austenite
the AF solidification mode, as represented by orange via two mechanisms. The first of these involved the
triangles in Figure 4a. The intercellular ferrite was nucleation of austenitic allotriomorphs along the
etched away to reveal an array of austenitic cells.
Only the 0Mo-18Cr-17Ni and 4Mo-9Cr-16Ni alloy
buttons were morphologically found to be ferrite-
free, though several alloys lacked a magnetic
signature when measured with the ferrite detector.
Dendrite spacing was shown to increase towards the
upper portion of the button, indicating that the
cooling conditions varied from 10°C/s to 100°C/s
during the ABM process. No transformation products
were observed in this set of alloys.

Ferritic-Austenitic (FA)

The FA solidification mode (Figure 4b) is

morphologically distinguishable from the AF mode
due to the relative location of austenite and ferrite in
the microstructure. Whereas austenite is located at
the dendrite cores in the AF mode, intercellular
austenite forms at the termination of ferrite
solidification in the FA mode. Upon cooling, this
intercellular austenite epitaxially consumes the parent
ferrite, leaving a residual ferrite skeleton located at
what was formerly the dendrite core. Because of this
extensive solid-state transformation, observation of
the initial solidification structure is not possible. The
morphology of the residual ferrite in the final
microstructure of Figure 4b also indicates that the
ferrite solidification proceeded in a manner similar to
that seen in the A and AF solidification mode
structures. Figure 4b displays the skeletal ferrite
morphology, as shown by the long ferrite “backbone”
with the “ribs” extensions at ~90° as a result of the
<111> easy growth directions during dendritic
solidification. At least one alloy from each Mo
content group was found to exhibit the FA
solidification mode. Magnetic measurements proved
that a transformation mechanism of this type was
effective at reducing the ferrite level significantly
(<10wt%).

Ferritic (F)

Alloys on the Cr-rich side of the eutectic and

outside the three-phase eutectic triangle exhibited the
F solidification mode. In these alloys, the cellular
solidification structure was not visible because of the
Figure 4. Representative microstructures for each
elevated substitutional diffusivity of the δ-ferrite solidification mode: a) AF (6Mo-14Cr-16Ni), b) FA (6Mo-
phase afforded by the open nature of the bcc crystal 16Cr-14Ni), c) F (6Mo-22Cr-13Ni).
structure. Due to the homogenization of the structure

488
ferritic grain boundaries, where free energy and
diffusivity is highest. The growth of these γ-austenite
allotriomorphs was eventually slowed as most δ-
ferrite grain boundaries were consumed, at which
time the nucleation and growth of γ-austenite
Widmanstatten platelets into the parent δ-ferrite
grains was observed. The most Cr-rich alloys were
not fully consumed by the transformation, as in the
representative microstructure shown in Figure 4c. It
displays a pair of ferrite grains between which an
austenitic allotriomorph and Widmanstatten platelets
have formed. The ferrite measurements performed
on these alloys revealed the presence of residual
ferrite at a level unacceptable for the ADH
application.

Elemental Distribution Measured by EPMA

A portion of the EPMA linescan results are

shown in Figures 5-7 with the corresponding
microstructures from which the scans were taken.
The results from the 10 wt% Mo alloys showed a
variety of elemental distributions, most dramatically Figure 5. EPMA linescan data for solidified austenite cells
produced by AF solidification mode.
for molybdenum. For the AF mode, Figure 5 shows
the distribution of elements across several γ-austenite
dendrites. The final phase to solidify, the intercellular
ferrite, was shown to contain the greatest amounts of
Mo and the lowest amount of Fe. Chromium
distribution was shown to coincide with that of Mo,
while the Ni content stayed relatively constant.
The distribution of Mo in alloys of FA
solidification mode was shown to differ from those of
AF mode. Figure 6 shows an EPMA linescan across
several transformed-austenite dendrites in the 6Mo-
16Cr-14Ni button along with its corresponding
microstructure. The residual ferrite exhibited the
greatest amounts of Mo and Cr, just as in the AF
structure. However, the Mo distribution stayed
relatively constant across the width of the
transformed austenitic structure. The difference in
elemental segregation between the AF and FA
austenite is also apparent in the Fe linescan.
Figure 7 compares the Mo distribution found
in a single solidified austenite cell versus that found
across the width of a transformed austenite region. It
is obvious that the microsegregation that transpires
during primary austenite solidification reduces the
overall Mo content below the nominal level
throughout the cell. Conversely, the partitioning that
occurs during the ferrite-to-austenite solid-state
transformation creates a more uniform Mo Figure 6. EPMA linescan data for transformed austenite cells
distribution that more closely approaches the nominal produced by FA solidification mode.
10wt % content. In both cases, the ferrite phase
contained the highest amount of Mo.

489

Figure 7. Molybdenum distribution for a single dendrite of
solidified (AF) and transformed austenite (FA), both from the
10wt% Mo regime.
Conclusions
The following conclusions have been
reached through this work:
1. Microstructural development diagrams were
effectively used to predict behavior in the
Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo system as a function of
composition.
2. Several Mo-bearing alloys exhibit the FA
solidification mode with small amounts of
residual δ-ferrite after transformation to γ-
austenite.
3. The distribution of Mo in transformed
austenite is more uniform than in the as-
solidified condition.
Ongoing Work
Multiple avenues for further research are
being pursued in this Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo alloy system.
Having observed the positive effects of transformed
austenite on Mo distribution, corrosion testing will
ensue that will conclusively prove the benefits of the
FA solidification mode in regards to corrosion
resistance properties. More buttons will also be
constructed from within the FA solidification mode
region in order to better characterize the solid-state
transformation of ferrite into austenite and test the
effects of particular elements on the overall
microstructural development of the alloy.
Microstructural development diagrams similar to the
ones introduced here have been generated that
include higher order alloying elements such as
carbon, nitrogen, and manganese. Given the
encouraging modeling results, alloy buttons will soon
be constructed including these elements. In addition,
the aforementioned martensitic transformation has
produced an array of samples which may contribute
to current efforts in the field to include martensite on
490
the WRC-1992 diagram. Finally, when an ultimate
filler metal composition has been selected, GTA
welds will be deposited on SASS alloys in order to
observe the range of welding parameters that will
produce a fully austenitic matrix derived from
primary ferrite solidification.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Office of
Naval Research, under Contract No. N00014-03-1-
0348. The authors would also like to acknowledge
the American Welding Society’s support of this work
through a Graduate Research Fellowship sponsored
by the Navy Joining Center. The authors would also
like to thank IMR Test Labs for their assistance with
bulk chemical analysis.
References
1. J.Sikora and E.Devine. Construction Cost Study of an
Advanced Double Hull DDG-51, NSWCCD Report TR-65-
97/32. 1997.
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2. S. Banovic, J. DuPont, and A. Marder, Dilution and
microsegregation in dissimilar metal welds between super
austenitic stainless steel and nickel base alloys. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining (UK) 7, 374-383 (2002).
3. S. Banovic, J. DuPont, and A. Marder, Microstructural
Evolution and Weldability of Dissimilar Welds between a
Super Austenitic Stainless Steel and Nickel-Based Alloys.
Welding Journal 82, 125-135 (2003).
4. J. DuPont, L. Friedersdorf, A. Marder, and S. Banovic.
Weldability and Corrosion Performance of Welds in AL-
6XN Superaustenitic Stainless Steel. Lehigh University
ATLSS Report No. 01-03. 2001.
Ref Type: Report
5. J. Brooks and A. Thompson, Microstructural Development
and Solidification Cracking Susceptibility of Austenitic
Stainless Steel Welds. International Materials Reviews 36 ,
16-44 (1991).
6. J. Elmer, S. Allen, and T. Eagar, Microstructural
Development During Solidification of Stainless Steel Alloys.
Metallurgical Transactions A 20A, 2117-2131 (1989).
7. J. Brooks, M. Baskes, and F. Greulich, Solidification
Modeling and Solid-State Transformations in High-Energy
Density Stainless Steel Welds. Metallurgical Transactions A
22A, 915-926 (1991).
8. Sundmann, B. Thermo-Calc. [Version N]. 2001. Stockholm,
Sweden, Department of Materials Science and Engineering ,
KTH, 2-100 44. 1996.
9. N. Saunders. Ni-Data Thermodynamic Database. [Version
4.0]. 2000. The Surrey Research Park, Guildford, U.K.,
Thermotech, Ltd.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Effect of Arc Welding Electrode Temperature on Vapor and Fume Composition
N. T. Jenkins, Ph.D.
Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA
P. F. Mendez, Ph.D.
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, USA
T. W. Eagar, Sc.D.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Abstract
Welding fume composition is dependent on the temperature at
the surface of a GMAW electrode. This temperature varies with
welding parameters and affects the amount, composition, and
type of fume. A thermodynamic analysis based on the
superheating expected at the surface of the molten electrode tip
is presented to help understand observed fume composition.
Fume Composition
Efforts to reduce exposure to fume compounds by process
control can be improved by better understanding how welding
parameters affect the elemental composition of fume.
Researchers have measured welding fume chemistry by many
methods, but only a few have tried to predict the composition of
the original vapor from thermodynamic calculations (1). The
results of such modeling have been mixed, primarily because of
incomplete assumptions about surface temperature, which is the
primary factor that determines vapor composition (2).
Most fume researchers have assumed a single value for the gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) droplet temperature to use in their
thermodynamic calculations. Gray, et al., (3) and Podgaetskii, et
al., (4) reported thermodynamic equilibria without explicitly
stating the temperature they used. Hewitt & Hirst (5) considered
fluxes in their calculations and Buki & Feldman (6) included
oxides, but they too did not report the temperature. McAllister
& Bosworth (7) assumed droplet temperatures were 1800–2200
K and were the first to include the effect of various shielding
gases. Eagar, et al. (8) calculated gaseous equilibria for
hexavalent chromium using varied shielding gases, at 2673 K.
None of these researchers considered the change in droplet
temperature with time or how it changes with welding
parameters. They also equated the surface temperature, which
determines the composition of the evolved vapor and the fume
formation rate, to the average temperature of the entire electrode
droplet. They also did not consider that the surface temperature
of the welding droplet during globular transfer was substantially
different from that of a droplet during spray transfer (9). This
can lead to misleading conclusions.
Electrode Temperature
Fume researchers have used simple approximations for the
electrode temperature probably because determining the
temperature of a material while welding is difficult. The
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 491
transitory nature and extreme heat of welding prevents the use
of thermocouples; calorimetric methods are also complicated to
set up in situ and they do not provide an estimation of droplet
surface temperature, but instead an average temperature for the
whole droplet. The use of pyrometric techniques is problematic
because the intense radiation from the arc overwhelms the
infrared emissions of heated surfaces. Therefore many welding
researchers rely on calculations of the weld metal temperatures.
The weld pool temperature is relatively simple to calculate. This
has been performed several times, notably by Block-Bolten &
Eagar (10) who found that because of evaporative heat losses,
an upper limit of 2300K to 2800K exists for the temperature of
the weld pool of steel gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
However, for consumable electrodes in GMAW, the temperature
of the welding droplet is more complicated to determine,
because of an input of higher energy density, because of a more
transitory nature (i.e. droplet detachment), and because
measurements with which to compare the calculations are
harder to obtain. Generally, values for the bulk temperature of
the electrode are reported close to 2900K (11).
For GMAW, it should be noted that fume is dominated by
evaporation from the electrode, which is consistent with how
the temperature of the electrode tip is greater than that of the
weld pool. Heile & Hill (12) and Sreekanthan (13) both
compared the composition of fume collected during GMAW
with an electrode of a different composition than that of the base
plate and both found that the fume composition was determined
almost entirely by the electrode. The authors performed a
similar study considering production of hexavalent chromium,
and found that the electrode is the predominant source of
hexavalent chromium in GMAW fume (1).
Haidar (14–16), using a Cray supercomputer, performed a
fundamental calculation of electrode droplet temperature and
how it changes with time and welding parameters. The use of a
supercomputer can be avoided if the droplet size is measured
and a semi-empirical model created, like those in papers by
Mendez, et al., (17) and Bosworth & Deam (18). A summary of
such models can be seen in Fig. 1.
Although they may have greater bulk temperatures, smaller
droplets, such as those formed during spray or pulsed transfer,
have cooler surface temperatures than do larger droplets, like
those from globular transfer, because there is a smaller barrier to
heat transfer from the arc spot to the liquid-solid interface of the
Figure 1: Heat transfer through GMAW electrodes is controlled by electrode droplet size (17). Shadowgraphs are from
2%O2-Ar shielded GMAW with 1.6 mm mild steel electrode (19).
492
electrode (17). Therefore, conditions that create the smallest
electrode droplet, and lower surface temperature, are the same
as those that create fume containing the greatest fractions of
volatile metals (e.g., manganese). Such conditions also
minimize total fume formation. (Thus efforts to decrease fume
formation rates with welding parameters may also increase the
fraction of Mn in the fume, so Mn emission rates may not vary
much.) The change in fume composition with droplet size can
be extrapolated from how it varies with shielding gas oxidation
potential, because that affects droplet size (15). An experiment
with GMAW of ER308 stainless steel showed that the
composition of fume varied with oxidation potential. (So as to
prevent other possible sources of fume besides vaporization,
such as from microspatter during droplet detachment, only a
single electrode droplet was permitted to form at a time, by use
of a single pulse of 100 amps for 500 ms.) See Fig. 2. Figure 3
contains similar results from another researcher. Previous
researchers (12) have suggested that oxidation-assisted
evaporation is why fume formation rate varies with shielding
gas, but as stated before, the elemental composition of fume is
dependent on the surface temperature of the weld metal, so the
variation in composition with oxidation potential should be due
to how electrode droplet size, and thereby surface temperature,
varies with shielding gas (see Figs. 4 and 5). Current naturally
also affects surface temperature. Figure 6 shows the direct
correlation between fume formation rates and fraction of less
volatile metals in fume; this indicates how surface temperature
varies with current.
Superheat
The calculated energy balance of a GMAW electrode shows that
the surface temperature of the electrode droplet may exceed the
boiling point (17). Haidar (16) also calculated the surface
temperature of a mild steel 1.2 mm GMAW electrode and
compared it with the pyrometric measurement by Villeminot
(23). Both found that the surface temperature at the tip of the
electrode droplet was approximately 3100K. This is very close
to, if not above, the boiling point of pure iron (values in the
literature include 3025K (16), 3273K (24), 3121K (25)); it is
certainly above the vapor-liquid transition for a typical iron
alloy used in welding (Fig. 7).
In metallurgical processing, cooling by non-nucleate surface
evaporation usually prevents superheating (10). However, with
high-energy-density heat sources (i.e. electric arcs or lasers) and
where heat loss is physically limited (like in thin GMAW
electrodes), it is possible to inject energy into the system faster
than it can be removed by evaporation, as calculated by the
Langmuir equation with even the most conservative estimates
(26). The Langmuir rate is for evaporation into a vacuum.
When surrounded by an inert gas at atmospheric pressure, metal
surfaces evaporate more slowly than the Langmuir rate, because
the metal vapor must diffuse away from the evaporating surface.
Thus evaporative cooling during welding is not as great as that
predicted by the Langmuir rate. In any case, if an energy
balance is to be maintained, the surface temperature, which
controls vaporization and thus evaporative cooling, must
increase until the conditions for balance are met. If the surface
temperature exceeds the boiling point, superheating occurs.
493
Like other phase changes, boiling driven by superheat can occur
through nucleation. Vapor bubbles usually form
heterogeneously in crevices of the container that holds the
boiling liquid. (Consider a boiling pot of water on a kitchen
stove; the bubbles form on the bottom of the pot.) For bubbles
to form, superheating must be present in order to overcome the
activation energy required to create new surfaces. Because heat
is usually added at the solid-liquid interface and lost at the gas-
liquid interface, the amount of superheating depends on crevice
size where vapor bubbles heterogeneously nucleate (27).
However, when a particle beam or electromagnetic radiation
(e.g. electron condensation in arc welding) delivers heat, it does
so at the gas-liquid interface. (For an experimental study of
surface superheating, see Craciun & Craciun (28).) The solid-
liquid interface is now where heat is lost and is therefore the
coolest part of liquid. Thus vapor bubbles will not nucleate at
solid crevices. Instead, the vapor phase must form bubbles
completely in the liquid. Another difficulty for forming bubbles
when intense heat is introduced at the liquid surface is that only
a slender boundary layer will be hot enough for bubbles to
nucleate in it. Under globular conditions, a 1.2 mm GMAW
electrode droplet will have a thermal boundary layer
approximately the size of 1/3 of the droplet or approximately
0.5 mm (17). Even if the convective core of the droplet were at
the boiling point, the surface temperature of a steel electrode
droplet would have to be greater than approximately 3200K for
a bubble smaller than 0.5 mm in diameter to form, according to
classical nucleation theory.
Richardson (29) states that classical nucleation predicts
homogeneous superheats much greater than what is observed,
but this is probably because the experimental measurements
were made in liquids heated through the solid-liquid interface
where crevices caused heterogeneous nucleation. This may also
be the case for molten steel where vapor bubbles can
presumably nucleate heterogeneously at defects in the liquid.
Such would include pre-existing bubbles of gas, like carbon
monoxide coming out of solution, which might explain why
lower carbon content in steel electrodes is linked with lower
fume formation rates (30-33). Other possible defects are
miniscule inclusions of refractory impurities, the effect of which
could be evaluated by creating solid GMAW wire containing a
fine dispersion of high melting point particles, such as
magnesia, which might provide more heterogeneous nucleation
sites for more bubbles to form. When vapor bubbles encounter
the liquid surface, they burst, creating spatter, or small droplets
ejected from the metal surface (29). Therefore the amount of
bubble formation could be detected by measuring the amount of
spatter formed during welding.
Spatter small enough to remain airborne, dubbed microspatter,
can contribute to fume. Such particles are similar in
composition to that of the electrode. It has been claimed that
globular fume has a greater portion of these “unfractionated”
particles which would explain why fume formed during
globular transfer has a lower fraction of the more volatile metals
than does fume created during spray transfer at comparable
currents (34). Using a cascade impactor, the authors found that
Figure 2: Oxidation potential effect on composition (ICPMS) of Figure 3: Fume composition (ICPMS) versus shielding gas
fume from single-pulse GMAW of ER308 stainless steel. GTAW oxidation potential in GMAW with 1.2 mm E308 stainless
fume composition from same weld metal also plotted. (Silicon is electrode, at 30V and 300ipm (13).
minutely present, but is not measureable by ICPMS)

Figure 4: Electrode droplet period / droplet size versus Figure 5: Fume formation rate dependence on shielding gas
shielding gas composition in 1.6mm mild steel GMAW for with 1.2 mm mild steel GMAW at 250 amp (12, 21).
various currents (20).

Figure 6a: Fume generation rate and Ni : Mn ratio versus Figure 6b: Fume generation rate and Ni : Mn ratio versus
current for argon shielded GMAW with 1.2 mm AWS ER307 Si current for argon shielded GMAW with 1.2 mm ER308L Si
electrode (22). electrode (22).

494
less than 10% of GMAW fume by mass is microspatter. With
an Aerosizer and SMPS, Zimmer, et al. (35) found that the mass
of microspatter in GMAW fume was two orders of magnitude
less than the mass of fume formed from vapor. The amount of
microspatter is therefore too small to significantly affect the
overall composition of GMAW fume. In addition, although the
total fume formation rate is greater in globular transfer, the
fraction of microspatter found in fume does not greatly change
from spray transfer to globular transfer (1). Thus the variation in
composition between the two modes must be due to a change in
the vapor composition.
Figure 7: Fe-Mn vapor-liquid phase diagram at 0.3 atm.,
showing the effect of superheat on vapor composition (25).
The superheat, or amount by which the boiling point is
exceeded, will determine the chemical composition of a
multicomponent vapor, similar to how supercooling determines
the composition of a condensate of an alloy. See Fig. 7, the Fe-
Mn phase diagram at 0.3 atm., the approximate partial pressure
of metal vapor in a GMAW arc (1). This is naturally a simple
example of what can become complicated if one considers
multicomponent alloys, the effect of halides on metal volatility
(36), the presence of surface active elements (37), the effect of a
plasma on vaporization (38), or mixing of the metal vapor with
an oxidative environment (39). However, it demonstrates that
even a small change in superheat can effect a large change in
vapor composition, given the same initial composition of the
liquid. This also explains how researchers have calculated that
the vapor in a mild steel gas metal arc welding arc may be as
much as half Mn, even though the wire contains less than 2 wt%
Mn (30). In Fig. 7, it is shown how an increase of just 20K
causes the vapor composition over a liquid containing 0.015
mole fraction Mn (typical in mild steel welding wire) to change
from 0.18 mole fraction of Mn to 0.08 (typical amounts of Mn
in welding fume, when reported as cation fraction (1).) The
difference in droplet surface temperature between spray and
globular transfer, or between pulsing and straight current can
easily be greater than 100K (16), so welding process parameters
that change droplet size and droplet surface temperature will
also change fume composition accordingly.
495
Conclusions
1. Fume formation is a complex process and thus it is
important to use correct input variables when predicting the
elemental composition of welding fume.
2. The elemental composition of gas metal arc welding fume
is almost the same as the elemental composition of vapor
coming from the electrode.
3. Vaporization is controlled by surface temperature.
4. The surface temperature of GMAW droplets significantly
varies with time, with mode and size, and with process.
This has been modeled in prior literature, which should be
referenced when selecting the temperature for
thermodynamic calculations of fume composition.
5. This change in droplet surface temperature explains why
welding fume composition changes with welding
parameters that change metal transfer mode or droplet size.
6. Superheating can exist in GMAW electrode droplets.
7. The variation in fume composition with temperature can be
seen in a Fe-Mn vapor-liquid phase diagram. Even a small
temperature change (e.g. 20K) can have noticeable effect.
Acknowledgement
The funding for this project was provided by a grant from the
U.S. Navy, Office of Naval Research.
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Thermoelectric Power Assessment of Weld Microstructure, Phase Stability,

Residual Stress, and Properties

Y.D. Park
Hyundai Motors, Kyunggido, South Korea

D.L. Olson, B. Mishra, and A.N. Lasseigne

Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, USA

Keywords: Thermoelectric power, microstructure, residual stress, phase stability

Abstract Seebeck coefficient (ASC) of the alloy material, Ζa, can be

The thermoelectric power coefficient is introduced as an determined from measurements as:
electronic property that can be measured to assess weld
microstructure, phase stability, interstitital solute content, V
residual strain (stress), and properties. These weld properties Ζa = − ΖCu
can be correlated to the thermoelectric power coefficient using ΔT [2]
a nearly free electron model description of the electronic state
of an alloy. Examples of such correlations are described.
where V is the Seebeck voltage measured between two
Introduction locations of different temperature on the specimen, ZCu, is a
Thermoelectric power (Seebeck) coefficient provides an reference thermoelectric power coefficient for copper, ΔT is
electronic property correlation to material microstructure, the temperature difference between the hot and cold probe.
phase stability, specific solute addition and lattice strain. For most of the results reported here, the temperature
Advanced thermoelectric power sensors have currently been difference was held at 10˚C.
developed for numerous applications to guarantee material
integrity. Thermoelectric power can be used to electronically
sense: (1) phase transformations on cooling, (2) specific
phase contents, (3) hydrogen content, (4) residual strain
(stress), and (5) properties. Examples of electronic property
correlations to microstructural characteristics are given in the
following sections.

Thermoelectric Power
To observe thermoelectricity, it is necessary to have a circuit
composed of two different materials, and the net difference
between their thermoelectric properties can be measured. The
electromotive force (emf) produced under these conditions is
the relative Seebeck emf. The Seebeck effect exists due to a
developed potential between hot and cold ends with the hot Figure 1. A temperature gradient (∆T) gives rise to a
end exhibiting the positive potential for an alloy as illustrated potential difference (∆V), which is the Seebeck effect. Free
in Figure 1. The emf between the two contact metallic probes carriers in the schematic are electrons in metals.1
shown in Figure 2, VAB=ΔVA-ΔVB can be expressed by:
From solid-state electronic models, the thermoelectric power
T T coefficient is a function of the electron concentration, the
VAB = ∫ (Ζ A − Ζ B )dT = ∫Ζ AB dT
[1]
effective mass of the electron, and the electronic scattering
behavior in an alloy, which are all influenced by solute
T0 T0 content, phase content, lattice strain, microstructural defects
and temperature.
where ΖAB = ΖA-ΖB is defined as thermoelectric power
(Seebeck) coefficient for the thermocouple A-B. The absolute

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 497

 and d-bands that are in contact with the Fermi energy level.
ΔV Warm copper probe
The shape of the bands at the contact position offers a
(T>Troom) sensitive indication of changes in alloy composition, phase
content, and lattice strain. With the use of a Keithley nano-
voltmeter with high impedance to measure the potential
difference, the scattering factor, r, makes a small contribution
Thermocouple
as a dependent variable for Zαb. These conditions allow the Zα
Cool copper probe measurement to be very sensitive to the factor of the effective
(T=Troom)
ΔT Thermal gradient mass of the electron.

Sample

d
N(E)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of thermoelectric power
measurement scheme.
s
In metallic alloys, the value and the sign of the thermoelectric
power coefficient depends on the features of the electronic 0 EF Eo E
bands in the vicinity of the Fermi energy level, which can be
seen on a plot of the density of electronic states as shown in
Figure 3. During alloying, the Fermi energy surface in k-space
changes with electronic filling in the conduction band due to
the electron donation by solute atom additions. Also, the
solute atoms may strain the lattice and cause changes in the d-
electron orbital overlap of the transition metal atoms resulting
in decreased action of the Pauli-exclusion principle, which
d
should change the shape of the d-band. Using the example of a
solid solution, with high degeneracy of the free electron gas,
to understand the dependent variables, the resulting N(E)
thermoelectric power coefficient for alloy a, Ζα, is related to
the electron theory through the following expression:2
s

3 ⎞⎛ m ⎞⎛
⎛ 2⎞⎞
⎛ k⎞ ⎛ ⎜− ⎟
Ζ α = ⎜ ± ⎟(27.1)⎜ r + ⎟⎜ 2e ⎟⎜⎜ kTn ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎟⎟ [3]
0 EF Eo E

⎝ e⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h ⎠⎝ ⎠

where r is the electron scattering parameter determined by the
dominating scattering mechanism, h is Planck’s constant, K is
Boltzmann's constant, n is the electron concentration which
can be described by the Fermi-Dirac expression, e is electronic
charge, T is temperature, and me is the effective mass. This
expression considers the contribution of both the phonon drag
and diffusional thermoelectric power.3,4 From the free electron
model, the electron concentration is directly related to the
Fermi energy. The effective mass is dependent on the rate of
filling of the energy states in k-space at the Fermi energy level
with increasing electron concentration. The effective mass can
be described as:
⎛ 2 ⎞−1
2⎜ d E ⎟
me = h ⎜
2 ⎟
⎝ dk ⎠ E= E
F
where k is the wave vector and h is Planck's constant divided
by 2π. The effective mass, me, describes the shape of the s, p,
Figure 3. Schematic plot of density of states as a function of
energy. The s and d bands are indicated on the plot.
Use of the Effective Mass of an Electron
To understand the role of the effective mass of the electron in
interpreting the electronic interactions with the lattice consider
a free electron wave function in a lattice. Figure 4 is an
illustration of the free electron wave function, described by the
dashed line, with local electron interactions of the potentials
associated with the lattice atoms.
If a lattice atom is a solute atom or is situated in a strain field,
the localized potential will be altered and will offer a different
interaction to the nearly-free conduction electron wave
[4] function. In the free electron model, the potential is V=0, the
electron’s energy is given as E = 1/2mv2 = P2/2m, where P is
the electron’s momentum, the deBroglie expression is P = h k,
and the energy is expressed as E = h 2k2/2m, where m is the
mass of an electron. For situations where there are localized

498
lattice potential interactions, the conduction electron’s energy
could be described as E = h 2k2/2m + V, where V is associated
with the potential energy experienced by the conduction
electron in the vicinity of the lattice atom. Now, allowing the
value of the mass of the electron to be altered to quantitatively
incorporate the effect of V, the effective mass, me, is
introduced to describe the total energy as E = h 2k2/2me. In
this manner the free electron formulation can be used to derive Figure 5: Schematic illustration of thermoelectric power set-
the electron properties of an alloy, thus making the effective up for performing thermoelectric power cooling
mass a valuable parameter to assess the microstructure and measurements with the hot probe located in the center of the
alloy stability through electron property measurements. weld bead.
Free Electron Wave
(a) (b)

Influence of Localized Potential

Figure 4: The (augmented plane wave) wave function

produced by a combination of atomic states with a free
electron wave function between the ion cores.5 Figure 6: Thermoelectric power measurements on low carbon
steel (a) temperature as a function of time and (b)
thermoelectric power coefficient as a function of temperature.6
Examples of Thermoelectric Power Assessment
Examples of the use of thermoelectric power for assessment of
(A) Thermoelectric Power Measurements of Retained
weld microstructure, phase stability, diffusible hydrogen
Austenite Volume in Trip Steels
content, residual strain (stress), and properties are discussed
Thermoelectric power measurements were performed on TRIP
below.
steel to assess the retained austenite content. The TEP
coefficient was found to decrease with increasing retained
1. Steel Weld Metal Phase Transformations on Cooling
austenite volume fraction as shown in Figure 7. During the
Through a reduction in temperature during cooling the real
isothermal transformation, some of the austenite transforms
lattice will contract and the reciprocal lattice space will
into carbide-free bainite and the remaining metastable
expand resulting in two changes of the electronic state for
austenite becomes enriched with carbon rejected from newly
transition metal alloys. The first change is the amount of d-
formed bainitic ferrite. Benkirat et al.7 reported that increased
orbital overlap between lattice atoms resulting in changes in
amount of carbon in solid solution decreases the TEP of iron.
the electron concentration, and thus the Fermi energy, in the d-
Thus the scatter in measurement results could be affected by
band as well as a change in the shape of the d-band. The
changes in the carbon content in retained austenite with an
second change in the electron concentration results from the
increasing isothermal transformation time.
contracting real lattice, which also increases the Fermi energy
level.
During the deformation of TRIP steel, martensite nucleates
and grows, and significant lattice defects occur also. TEP
The TEP surface contact probe on an as-deposited weld can be
measurements are particularly powerful for studying
used to characterize the weld metal phase transition as a
microstructural transformations induced by deformation
function of temperature and time on cooling. The arrangement
(strained induced retained austenite transformation in this
illustrated in Figure 5 can be used to make this assessment.
study).
Figure 6 illustrates the resulting signatures of phase changes
on weld metal cooling. The signatures, which characterize the
evolution of weld microstructure, and thus properties, can be
further enhanced by use of a differential circuit function
during data acquisition. These signatures can be used in
quality assurance of specific process parameters to guarantee
that the required properties are being achieved.

499
 hardness profile values, but can be easily correlated into a
1.56 martensite content profile to determine the depth of case
TRIP Steel hardening.
1.54
Thermoelectric power ( μV / oC )

1.52

1.50

1.48

1.46

1.44
( 0.14C, 1.56Mn, 1.2Si )
1.42
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Retained austenite ( vol. pct. )

Figure 7: Thermoelectric power coefficient as a function of

volume percent of retained austenite in TRIP steel.8,9

(B) Thermoelectric Power Measurements of Precipitation

in Aluminum-Copper Alloys Figure 9: Thermoelectric power coefficient as a function of
Similar TEP analysis has been used by Pelletier et al10 to microstructure. The microstructure is achieved from a Jominy
determine the pre-precipitate and precipitate phase transitions quench test of AISI 1090 steel.
in aluminum–copper alloys as seen Figure 8. Notice the
transition from GP zones to θ-phase during aging. 2. Hydrogen Determination in Alloys by Correlation to
Electrical Property Measurements
When hydrogen enters the crystal lattice it acts as either an
electron acceptor or an electron donor, which changes the
Fermi energy (see Figure 10). The elements in solid solution
made up of elements primarily on the periodic table to the left
of manganese are electron acceptors, have a negative heat of
mixing, resulting in the formation of hydrides. The solid
solution made up of primarily elements on the periodic table
to the right of manganese are electron donors with a positive
heat of mixing meaning that hydrogen stays in solution.

Figure 8: Evolution of thermoelectric power coefficient during

aging at 145˚C for four wt. pct. aluminum copper alloys
showing GP zone formation and precipitation.10

(C) Microstructural Characterization of Jominy Quench

Test on AISI 1090 Steel
The Jominy quench test of heat-treated steel is used to assess Figure 10: Electronic behavior of hydrogen in
the steel’s hardenability. An annealed 1 inch. (25 mm) steel transition metal alloys.
cylinder is cooled by water quenching one end of the bar.
Traditionally, a hardness profile is made along the longitudinal (A) Assessment of Metal Hydride in Monel K-500
surface from the quenched end after the specimen has been The thermoelectric power coefficient’s value and sign in
fully cooled. The steel hardness values as a function of metallic alloys depend on the features of the electronic density
distance (related to case depth) from the end can be correlated of states curves in the vicinity of the Fermi energy level, such
to the amount of formed martensite. Notice that as TEP as measured by the effective electron mass. In turn, the Fermi
surface contact probe can achieve the same information as energy value (Fermi surface in k-space) changes with the
seen in Figure 9. The TEP profile values are reciprocal of the change of electronic filling of the conduction band caused by

500
the electron donation by the hydrogen atoms. TEP can detect
the small changes in d-band shape change as the results of (a)
changing of microstructural feature. When hydrogen is
dissolved in many metals, it occupies interstitial sites in the
host lattice causing displacements of the metal atoms from
their regular sites. This displacement also results in changes in
shape of this d-band. The hydrogen in solution begins to pull
the adjacent two host metal atoms apart resulting in fewer d-
electrons overlapping. When there are fewer d-electrons
overlapping, according to Pauli's exclusion principle, the
electron concentration and thus the Fermi energy level of the
d-band is lowered, the strain will also reduce the reciprocal
lattice resulting in the narrowing of the d-band. This results in
a change in the thermoelectric power coefficient.

A pressure-composition-temperature (PCT) diagram,

otherwise known as an activity diagram can be used to
determine the phase stability relative to hydrogen activity. A (b) -17.5
schematic PCT diagram is shown in Figure 10 (a). Notice that
the PCT diagram is divided into three regions: (1) α-region, -18.0 α α+β

Thermoelectric power ( μV / C )
(2) (α+β)-region and (3) β-region. In the first region,

o
hydrogen is in solid solution and is called the alpha phase (α). -18.5
The reaction of hydrogen absorbed in this region is 1/2 H2(g)
Æ H(M). The second region is a two-phase region (α+β), -19.0
which is the so-called plateau region where there is a
coexistence of solid solution and hydride phase. This region -19.5
theoretically represents the point where the chemical potential
of hydrogen in the α- and β- phase are equal. In the third -20.0

region, called the beta phase region (β), hydrogen exists only
as formed metal hydrides. -20.5
0 20 40 60

Hydrogen contents (ppm)

Thermoelectric power can be used to generate an analogy to
the pressure-composition-temperature diagram as shown in
Figure 11 (b) for Monel K-500. It also indicates a plateau Figure 11: (a) Schematic illustration of a pressure-
region, but in this region the plateau should not be flat because composition-temperature (activity) diagram. (b) Correlation
the thermoelectric power coefficient is a measure of the of thermoelectric power measurements with amount of
conduction electron entropy. The entropy of the α- and β- hydrogen in Monel K-500.8,9
phase are different and the thermoelectric power coefficient in
The modified IIW procedure is for thermoelectric power
this two-phase region (α+β) will change by the rule-of-
measurements to be made with TEP surface contact probes as
mixtures. Similar interstitial analysis of nitrogen content in
the specimen heats up to room temperature as illustrated in
nitrogen-strengthened stainless steel using thermoelectric
Figure 12. Figure 12 shows the thermoelectric response on
power has been performed.11
warming for two specimens, one welded with 0 pct. hydrogen
and at 6 pct. hydrogen in the argon shielding gas. There is a
B. Hydrogen Content Determination During Heat-Up of
significant difference in thermoelectric power coefficient
Cryogenic Steel Weld Metal Specimens
values for the different levels of hydrogen being introduced.
Evaluation of the diffusible hydrogen content in welds
Notice how the thermoelectric power coefficient measurement
presently requires 72 hours. The IIW12 procedure has the
is much larger in value at the lower temperatures allowing for
welded test coupons being quenched directly after welding
greater accuracy. Also notice that there must be an inversion
into liquid nitrogen and the diffusible hydrogen (reported as
in the thermoelectric power coefficients with increasing
ml/ 100 g of Fe) is collected on heating up and maintaining the
hydrogen content in the steel.
specimen at room temperature for 72 hours.12

501
 6 5.0

0 ml/100g
0 pct. hydrogen
4.8 ml/100g
6 pct. hydrogen 7.0 ml/100g
4.5
8.9 ml/100g
In Argon Shielding Gas 9.6 ml/100g
5

Thermoelectric power ( μV / oC )
4.0
Thermoelectric power ( μV / oC)

3.5

3.0

2.5
3

H ot P robe C old P robe 2.0

W eld m etal

2 1.5
-140 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

Temperature ( oC )
0 20 40 60

Time (min)
Figure 13: Measured TEP coefficient as function of specimen
temperature for all five welded HSLA steel specimens.8, 9
Figure 12: Change in thermoelectric power coefficient for
welded HSLA steel with additions of hydrogen. Hydrogen
levels change from 0 to 6 vol. pct hydrogen in argon shielding
gas.8,9

The thermoelectric power coefficient was measured on HSLA

steel welds as a function of specimen temperature for various
diffusible hydrogen contents in the weld as shown in Figure
13. Each curve shows an approximately linear relationship
between the TEP coefficient and the sample temperature when
the TEP coefficient is plotted as a function of sample
temperature. This data indicates that each TEP coefficient
curve represents an amount of diffusible hydrogen content in
HSLA steel welds. Therefore, by recording both the TEP
coefficient value and specimen temperature for a diffusible
hydrogen content measurement practice, instantaneous
amounts of diffusible hydrogen for weld metal can be
obtained. The TEP coefficients at a fixed sample temperature, Figure 14: Measured TEP coefficient as a function of
such as -40 oC are taken and are plotted as a function of hydrogen content vol. pct. in shielding gas at specimen
diffusible hydrogen content. The results are shown in Figure temperature of -40 oC.8,9
14. The results indicate that TEP coefficient is relatively linear
with amount of diffusible hydrogen in welded HSLA steel for 3. Electronic Sensing of Residual Strain (Stress)
both sample temperatures of -40 oC. A practice by which the Associated with Welds
thermoelectric power coefficient is measured at -40˚C for a The thermal experience due to welding is often very localized,
steel specimen and the value is compared to the already resulting in strains that cause distortion and residual stresses.
known hydrogen standard for that steel will allow Because the yield strength is a function of temperature, the
determination of the diffusible hydrogen content for a simple weld thermal cycle results in localized plastic flow in the weld
surface probe measurement. region, which on cooling becomes potentially distorted and a
residual stress level approaching the room temperature yield
strength arises. Welding parameters influence the amount and
distribution of residual stress because the extent of the stressed
region and the amount of distortion is directly proportional to
the size of the weld deposit, which in turn is directly related to

502
the heat input. These residual stresses can be important in the
generation and propagation of environmentally enhanced
cracking.
The definition of residual strain, Σ, can be described uni-
axially across the weld as shown in Equation 7.
Σ = (α1 − α 2 )ΔT [7]
where Σ is strain, α1 and α2 is the thermal expansion
coefficient of the base metal and the weld metal, and ∆T is the
temperature difference from the solidification temperature
which established the first solid adhesion across the fusion line
when strain is zero. Equation 7 shows that residual strain is
physically dependent upon the thermal expansion coefficient
difference either from expansion due to the weld thermal
experience or due to compositional gradients.
To make residual stress measurements utilizing thermoelectric
power, welds are performed with identical welding power
parameters with only a change in the welding speed to change
the size of the weld pool, thus the residual stress. The residual
stress is measured by placing the Seebeck probes in the weld
heat-affected zone (HAZ) (within 0.2 mm from the fusion
line) of the weldment.
A. Thermoelectric Power Residual Stress Analysis on
Stainless Steel Alloy 1.4565 Welds
Preliminary residual stress results are shown in Figure 15 (a)
and (b) for stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 welds. Figure 15 (a)
shows the difference in the Seebeck effect caused by a change
in welding speed for GTA welds. Figure 15 (b) shows the
difference in Seebeck effect due to change in welding speed
for plasma welds. Knowing that a change in the size of the
weld bead area affects the residual stress, a schematic change
in weld travel speed was used to determine whether the
Seebeck effect could be used to determine residual stress. In
Figure 15 (a) and (b), the blue bar indicates a travel speed of
0.1 m/min and the red bar indicates 0.2 m/min. A residual
stress measurement is madeby placing the hot copper probe on
one side of the weld deposit and the cold copper probe on the
other side of the weld deposit. An increase in weld travel
speed results in a decrease in the area of the weld bead, hence
changing the amount of residual stress, which results in an
increase in the Seebeck coefficient for both welding
processes.13
These results indicate that the Seebeck coefficient can be used
to determine residual stresses resulting from the welding
process. Thermoelectric power measurements can be
calibrated to strain by making thermoelectric power
measurements on a specimen being flexed by an MOR testing
fixture. The residual stress associated with the welding process
can be determined as a function of the position of the hot
probe. It is anticipated that Seebeck assessment of residual
strain can be used to see if post-weld heat treatment has
503
satisfactorily redistributed the force balance across the weld
region to reduce the residual strain (stress) at specific
locations.
(a)
(b)
Figure 15: Seebeck coefficient as a function of weld travel
speed. (a) Difference in Seebeck coefficient in the HAZ of
GTAW welds for stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 at 0.1 m/min
(blue) and 0.2 m/min (pink). (b) Difference in Seebeck in the
HAZ of Plasma welds for stainless steel Alloy 1.4565
0.1m/min (blue) and 0.2 m/min (pink).13
B. Thermoelectric Power Residual Stress Analysis of
Zirconium Alloys
Similarly, Sun and Northwood14 reported thermoelectric
power assessment of residual micro-strain. Figure 16 shows
the relationship between thermoelectric power as a function of
micro-strain induced from aging specimens of pure zirconium
and a zirconium-chromium-iron alloy. The results of Figure 16
suggest that thermoelectric power can be used for
investigation of both precipitation and aging studies because
precipitation is an occurrence during aging, which results in an
increase in the internal lattice strain. As the micro-strain
increases, the corresponding thermoelectric power coefficient
changes, suggesting that thermoelectric power is capable of
assessing residual stress revealing Oswald ripening or
radiation damage.
4. Electronic Assessment of Weld Properties
Since hardness is a measure of relative resistance of a material
to indentation and can be a quantitative indication of the
strength of a material, hardness testing was chosen to relate
the mechanical property and TEP coefficient. The comparison
of TEP coefficient and Rockwell hardness across the
weldments for the HSLA steel welded specimen is shown in
Figure 17. The TEP measurement result for specimen welded
at 120 Amperes is shown in Figure 17 (a).
 fusion zone
5.0 28

27

Thermoelectric power ( μV / C)
o
4.5
26

Hardness (HRC)
120 Amp 25
4.0

24

3.5
23

22
3.0
Thermoelectric power Air Cooling 21
o
Hardness ΔT = 10 C
2.5 20
-24 -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Position across the weld bead (mm)

5.0 32

Thermoelectric power ( μV / oC)

30
4.5

Figure 16: Dependence of thermoelectric power coefficient

Hardness (HRC)
28

on the microstrain for specimens aged at 350ºC.14 4.0 80 Amp

26

3.5
The result of both hardness and TEP coefficient for base metal 24

was consistent. The sudden change in values for both hardness 3.0 Air Cooling 22
o
Thermoelectric power ΔT = 10 C
and TEP coefficient was observed at the HAZ. More dramatic Hardness

changes occurred in TEP coefficient than in hardness. In 2.5

-24 -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
20

fusion zone, hardness value rose to 28 HRC and was higher in
the base metal because of fast cooling rate after welding. The
TEP coefficients of the steel weld metal were higher than
those values of HAZ, but lower than base metal. A similar
behavior was found in weldments at lower current (80
Ampere) as shown in Figure 17 (b). Overall, separations of
fusion zone, HAZ, and base metal are very apparent for both
types of measurements. The degree of variation of TEP
coefficient does correspond to hardness and the variation in
the profile across the weldment follows the same trends and
can be developed using non-destructive thermoelectric power
surface contact probes to develop to be a very convenient
method to determine acceptable heat-affected zone properties.
Conclusions
In the future, electronic property measurements will be used to
assess weld microstructure, residual stress, mechanical
properties, and phase transformations to increase weld quality
assurance.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge and appreciate the research support
of the DOT Office of Pipeline Safety, and the DOI Mineral
Management Service.
Position across the weld bead (mm)
Figure 17: Comparison of TEP coefficients and Rockwell
hardness across the weldments for HSLA steel welded
specimens with welding current: (a) 120 Amperes (b) 80
Amperes.8, 9
References
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Alloys", Acta Metall. 36 (3), (1998), pp. 613-620.
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Kaydanov, V.I., "The Evaluation of Hydrogen in Monel
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Melville, NY, Vol. 24B, pp. 1308-1315, (2004).
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F., and Borrelly, R., "Precipitation Effects on
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(7), pp. 1068-1078, (1984).
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505
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Hydrogen in Rutile Wire Welds
W. Mazur
CSIRO Division of Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Woodville North, South Australia, Australia
Abstract
This paper reports on the effects of additions of fluorides
(MnF3, CaF2, Na2SiF6, K2SiF6, Na3AlF6, and Li3AlF6) and
metals (Zn, Mg, Ca, Al) to rutile flux cored wires for welding
in CO2 on the diffusible hydrogen content of the deposited
weld metal. It was found that the addition of ≥4% Na2SiF6 can
reduce the weld metal diffusible hydrogen content to 4.5
mL/100g. Additions of the other fluorides were less effective
in reducing hydrogen levels. Zinc was the most effective of
the metals tested, with a 5% addition to the wire flux reducing
the diffusible hydrogen to 5.6 mL/100g. The combined
addition of 4% Na2SiF6 and 5% Zn reduced the hydrogen
content further to less than 3.2 mL/100g. The additions of
fluorides and metal powders contributed to an 8-10 % increase
in fume generation during welding.
Keywords: Gas Metal Arc Welding, rutile flux cored wires,
diffusible hydrogen, fluoride additions, metal powders
additions
Introduction
One of the main factors affecting the wider use of gas shielded
rutile flux-cored wires is the relatively high diffusible
hydrogen content of the welds produced using these wires.
Most commercially available rutile wires deliver ~10 mL/100g
of diffusible hydrogen while very few deliver less than the 5
mL/100g typical of the basic type flux cored wires.
The hydrogen content of the weld metal is a function of many
variables of which the most important are: the atomic
hydrogen concentration in the arc atmosphere, the arc and
metal temperatures, and the reaction time. The hydrogen in the
arc atmosphere comes from sources such as base material
contamination with hydrogen-containing impurities, and
moisture in the shielding gas, flux and the surrounding
atmosphere. Nevertheless, the greatest source of hydrogen in
the arc atmosphere is the consumable itself. Neither the
production of “clean” wires nor the post-production baking
usually integrated in the production process is able to remove
all hydrogen present in the wire. The rate of molten metal
saturation with hydrogen from the arc atmosphere depends on
the availability of atomic hydrogen, the partial pressure of
hydrogen, the temperature of the metal and gas, and the
reaction surface area. As only atomic hydrogen is soluble in
the molten metal, the reduction of its partial pressure becomes
an important factor governing absorption from the arc
atmosphere. This may be achieved by combining it with
oxygen1 or fluorine2 or by increasing the partial pressure of
other gases3 or vapours in the arc atmosphere.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
The option of increasing oxygen concentrations is limited
because this also increases the number of inclusions, which
lower the weld metal impact toughness. On the other hand
increased fluoride concentrations in the slag can influence its
viscosity, contributing to reduced electrode performance in
out-of-position welding. Consequently, the use of fluorine
containing additions must be used carefully in lowering
diffusible hydrogen to maintain a balance between oxygen,
hydrogen, microstructure and the operating characteristics of
the welding consumables like the rutile AWS A5.20 E71T-14
type wire. The aim of this research project was to evaluate the
effects of additions of fluorides and metal powders of high
vapour pressure to the wire flux on weld diffusible hydrogen
content.
Experimental Procedure
All the experimental wire electrodes examined in this work
were produced with the flux-cored wire production facility at
CSIRO-MIT in Adelaide. Simple and complex fluorides,
MnF3, CaF2, Na2SiF6, K2SiF6, Na3AlF6, and Li3AlF6, were
added to the wire flux at concentrations of 2%, 4%, and 6%. A
list of fluorides and their properties is shown in Table 1. Metal
powders, Zn, Mg, Ca, and Al, were added to the wire flux at
concentrations of 3%, 5%, and 7%. The list of metal powders
with their physical properties5 is shown in Table 2. The base
formulation of the core flux of the wire conforming to AWS
A5.20 E71T-1 was modified to accommodate additions of up
to 7% of fluorides, metal powders or their combinations. This
was achieved by replacing 7% of the rutile with iron powder.
This allowed the quantities of other components in the flux to
be kept constant, with the test component added at the expense
of the iron powder. The base flux formulation is a proprietary
formulation and cannot be disclosed.
Wire production
Wire production consisted of the following steps:
- strip cleaning,
- flux preparation,
- wire forming, filling and rolling down to 2.6
mm diameter,
- wire drawing with dry lubricant,
- wire drawing with liquid lubricant down to final
diameter of 1.2 mm.
Flux preparation included sieving, mixing of ingredients
according to the specified formulation and then baking at 130
o
C for one hour prior to transfer to the wire mill filling station.
At the wire mill the strip was formed into a U-shape, filled
507
with flux and closed to form tubular sections with overlapping 3%, 5%, and 7%. The base composition of these wires was not
edges. Rolling reduced the wire diameter to 2.6 mm. The wire changed as they did not contain any fluoride additions.
was then drawn down to 1.2 mm diameter using tungsten The third group contained combined additions of those
carbide and diamond dies with either dry or liquid lubricant. fluorides and metal powders that were found to have the most
significant effect on the reduction of diffusible hydrogen in the
Table 1: Properties of fluorides added to core flux12 first and second group of the experimental wires. Duplicate
batches of selected wires, which delivered the least amount of
Fluorine Melting diffusible hydrogen, were produced to evaluate reproducibility
Mol. H, J/mol
Material content temp, of diffusible hydrogen contents in the resulting weld metal.
weight at 25°C
% K
CaF2 48.67 70.08 1691 1225.912 Wire baking conditions
MnF3 50.92 111.93 1350 1071.104 Most of the experimental wires tested were baked at 350 °C
K2SiF6 51.76 220.252 - 2894.031 for 3 hours to remove residual drawing lubricant and absorbed
Na3AlF6 54.30 209.961 1285 3309.544 moisture in the wire flux. The baking time was based on an
Na2SiF6 60.62 188.054 1120 2912.901 analysis of results relating diffusible hydrogen content and
Li3AlF6 70.46 161.79 1058 3380.505 wire baking time. Some wires, especially those containing
combined additions of fluorides and metal powders, were
baked for 7 hours at 350 °C to comply with the baking
Table 2: Properties of metalpowders added to core flux5 conditions utilised by industry for bulk quantities of the wire.

Material Zn Mg Ca Al Diffusible hydrogen determination

Density, The diffusible hydrogen determination was carried out in
kg/m3
7140 1740 1540 2700 accordance with Australian Standard AS 3752:19966 using 1.2
mm diameter experimental wires. A mechanized system
Melting
692.68 923 1115 933.45 consisting of a constant voltage direct current power source,
temp, K
and a travelling carriage with a welding head and a water-
Boiling
1180 1361 1757 2792 cooled torch, was used to ensure the stability of welding
temp, K
parameters, including contact tip to work distance (CTWD)
Heat of during the tests. The nominal welding parameters were:
Fusion, 6.67 128.7 149.95 10.67
Current: - 300 A
kJ/mol
Voltage: - 30 V
Heat of CTWD: - 20 mm
vaporisation, 115.3 148 178 293.72 Gas: - CO2 (15 L/min flow rate)
kJ/mol Travel Speed: - 345 mm/min.
Temperature
at which The average currents and voltages were calculated from the
vapour instantaneous values recorded by a welding monitor. The
907 1110 1490 2467
pressure is length of the test weld was kept constant for all tests. All tests
equal to 760 for a given group of the wires were carried out on the same
mm Hg, oC day to avoid the influence of variations in atmospheric
humidity. Samples after welding were stored in liquid nitrogen
prior to the determination of diffusible hydrogen. Before
Experimental batches of wire analysis the samples were brought to ambient temperature,
Three groups of the experimental rutile wires for welding with dried and cleaned with a wire brush. They were then placed in
CO2 shielding were produced for testing. These contained: sealed cylinders filled with argon and maintained at 45 oC for
- only fluoride additions, 72 hours to release diffusible hydrogen from the weld metal.
- only metal powder additions, Then the sampler was cooled to ambient temperature and a
- both fluoride and metal powder additions. hydrogen measurement made using a gas chromatography
In the first group, increasing amounts (2%, 4%, and 6%) of procedure with an Oerlikon’s - YANACO analyser.
fluorides were added to the wire flux to evaluate the effect of
the quantity and the type of fluoride on the weld metal
Results and Discussion
diffusible hydrogen content. These wires also contained Mg
additions in the amounts specified in the base formulation.
The effects of fluoride additions on weld metal diffusible
The second group consisted of wires with additions of metals
hydrogen content
producing high vapour pressure at the arc temperatures. Zn,
Additions of various simple and complex fluorides (see Table
Mg, Ca, and Al were added in powder form in quantities of
2) were made to the rutile wire flux to evaluate their effects on

508
the weld metal diffusible hydrogen content. The amount of Fig. 2 On the other hand, increasing additions of CaF2 and
fluorine in one mole of these fluorides varied from 49% in Li3AlF6 to the wire caused a continuous decrease in the
CaF2 to 70% in Li3AlF6. The molecular weights of the diffusible hydrogen content (shown in Fig. 2).
fluorides varied from 78.08 for CaF2 to 220.252 for K2SiF6, as Statistical analysisB (t-test) of the diffusible hydrogen test
shown in Table 1. Equivalent additions of fluorine (as CaF2, results indicated that there was a significant difference (at P =
MnF3, Na2SiF6, K2SiF6, Na3AlF6 and Li3AlF6) were made to 0.05) between the average diffusible hydrogen content of 7.8
the wire flux by substituting a part of the iron powder in the mL/100 of the wire without fluoride (wire F00) and those of
base formulation. For instance, 2% of Na3AlF6 was equivalent the wires containing 4% additions of MnF2, K2SiF6 and
to 2.23% of CaF2, as shown in Table 1, due to the difference Na3AlF6. The addition of Na2SiF6 in the range from 2% to 6%
in the molecular weights of Na3AlF6 (209.961) and CaF2 appeared to be the most effective in reducing the diffusible
(78.08) and the fluorine content in these fluorides. Six hydrogen content, whereas the addition of CaF2 was the least
experimental flux formulations (F11, F21, F31, F42, F51, F61) effective. The diffusible hydrogen contents of the weld
containing the equivalent amount of each fluoride were deposits containing CaF2 were not significantly different from
compared with the base formulation, F00 without fluoride that of the wire without fluoride addition (F00). This could be
additions, to evaluate the effectiveness of the various fluorides due to the differences in the dissociation temperatures of these
in decreasing the weld metal diffusible hydrogen. two fluorides as indicated by Pokhodnya7.

9
HD, mL/100g 8.1
8
Fluorine Content in the wire, % 9
7.6

Diffusible hydrogen content, mL/100g

Diffusible hydrogen content, mL/100g

7.3
7
6.4 6.4 6.3
6 8

4
7
3

2
6
1
0.140 0.142 0.145 0.143 0.144 0.145 MnF3
0 Na2SiF6
K2SiF6
MnF3 Na2SiF6 CaF2 Na3AlF6 Li3AlF6 K2SiF6 5
Fluoride Na3AlF6
CaF2
Li3AlF6
Figure 1: Effect of additions of equivalent amounts of No fluoide
fluorides to the wire flux on weld metal diffusible hydrogen 4
content 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fluoride content in the flux, wt. %
The wires containing MnF3, Na2SiF6 and CaF2, produced weld
deposits containing similar amounts of diffusible hydrogen at Figure 2: Effect of additions of fluorides to the wire flux on
approximately 6.4 mL/100g. This was significantly lower than weld metal diffusible hydrogen content.
7.6 mL/100g, which was achieved by the wire F00 without
any added fluoride. The wires containing K2SiF6, Li3AlF6 and It was also observed that the most effective decrease in weld
Na3AlF6 (all with ~0.143% F in wire) produced weld deposits metal diffusible hydrogen content was achieved for fluorine
with higher diffusible hydrogen contents as shown in Fig. 1. contents in the wire in the range of 0.2% - 0.3%, regardless of
The wires with additions of 4% fluoridesA to their fluxes the source, Fig. 3. Above this range a plateau of about 6
produced the lowest diffusible hydrogen, as seen in Table 3 mL/100g is reached in the diffusible hydrogen content. It can
and Fig. 2. The lowest diffusible hydrogen level, ~4.5 be also observed that of all the fluorides, Na2SiF6 is most
mL/100g, was determined for the wire produced with the flux effective in the reduction of diffusible hydrogen content. The
containing 4% Na2SiF6. A similar trend was observed for rest of the fluorides produced a comparable effect in the
wires containing additions of MnF3, K2SiF6 and Na3AlF6, with reduction of the diffusible hydrogen content
the average hydrogen content being slightly higher, in the
range of 5.5 to 6.4 mL/100 g, (see Fig 2). Additions of 6%
fluoride to the wire flux also caused a reduction in diffusible
hydrogen content but not to the extent observed at 4%, see

A
- Equivalent to approximately 0.3% of fluorine content on
B
average, in the wire. (Fluorine content in wire = Fluoride - Statistical analysis was carried out using the SigmaPlot
content in flux x Fill Ratio x Fluorine content in fluoride/100) package supplied by SPSS Science.

509
The effect of metal powder additions on weld metal The lowest diffusible hydrogen content recorded was 5.4
diffusible hydrogen content mL/100g for the flux containing 5% Zn (0.65% in the wire). A
Metal powders of Zn, Mg, Ca, and Al, were introduced to the similar trend was observed for wires with additions of Mg
rutile wire flux to investigate their effect on weld metal (See Fig 4). However, a statistically significant decrease in the
diffusible hydrogen content. diffusible hydrogen content was found only for the wires with
3 and 5 wt-% additions of Mg to the flux (0.125% and 0.657%
in the wire) and 3% Al (0.372% in wire). Further increases of
Mg to 7% (0.928% in the wire) and Al to 5% or 7% (0.644%
9 or 0.875% in the wire) resulted in an increased diffusible
Diffusible hydrogen content, mL/100g

hydrogen content. This could be due to the moisture

contribution (crystalline water) from the increased additions of
8 these powders as indicated elsewhere8. No significant decrease
in the diffusible hydrogen content was observed for wires with
Ca additions. This could be caused by the almost three times
7
lower Ca content in the wire flux compared to that of the other
MnF3
powders (shown in Fig. 4). However, a maximum content of
Na2SiF6

6 K2SiF6
~0.3% Ca in the wire was close to the minimum content of the
Na3AlF6
other powders and did not cause a similar decrease in the
CaF2 diffusible hydrogen. Reductions in diffusible hydrogen content
5 Li3AlF6 caused by the additions of metal powders to the wire flux
No fluorine
seem to be strongly related to their boiling temperatures and
the vapour pressures developed in the arc atmosphere (see Fig.
4
5). The higher the boiling temperature, the less the decrease in
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
hydrogen content for the same amount of powder added to the
Fluorine contet in the wire, wt. % wire flux (5%), as shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 3: Effect of fluorine content in the wire on weld metal
diffusible hydrogen content.

These metals have differing boiling temperatures, as shown in

25
Table 2. The powders were added at the levels of 3%, 5% and
7% to the rutile wire flux. The flux did not contain any
fluoride additions. As can be seen from Fig. 4, 3% and 5%
20
additions of Zn to the flux (0.40 % and 0.94 % Zn in the wire)
Vapour pressure, atm

significantly decreased diffusible hydrogen content compared

Zn
to the 9.8 mL/100g contained in the weld deposit of the wire 15 Mg
without any powder added. Ca
Al

10
Diffusible hydrogen content, mL/100g

12
5

10
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

8
Temperature, oC
Figure 5: Metal vapour pressure versus temperature in arc5.
Zn

6
Mg Combined additions of fluorides and metal powders
Ca
Al
Combined additions of 4% Na2SiF6 and 5% Zn to the wire
No powder flux resulted in a decrease of the weld metal diffusible
& fluoride
hydrogen content to levels in the range from 2.2 to 3.2
4
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
mL/100g, as shown in Table 3. A similar diffusible hydrogen
content of ~ 3.0 mL/100 g was also recorded for the wire in
Powder content in the wire, wt. %
which the Na2SiF6 was replaced with a similar amount of
Figure 4: Effect of content of metal powder in the wire on K2SiF6 (See Table 3).
weld metal diffusible hydrogen content.

510
The reduction of the Zn content from 5% to 3% (wire M12-B, Partial neutralisation of the hydrogen contained in the wire
Table 3) did not significantly increase the diffusible hydrogen flux may even happen before the wire enters the arc, as
content. The combination of 4% Na2SiF6 with 0.5% to 1% Zn, indicated in Fig. 7. As the wire section between the contact tip
and 4 to 4.5% Mg in the wire flux resulted in an increase of and the tip of the wire is subjected to resistance heating the
diffusible hydrogen to ~4.5 mL/100g, (see Table 3). fluorides present in the core flux may partially decompose and
react with the hydrogen released from the flux ingredients.
This could be the reason that an increased electrode stickout
during welding contributes to a decrease of diffusible
4.5
hydrogen in the weld deposit11.
Reduction in hydrogen content,mL/100g

4.0
Table 3: Diffusible hydrogen content in wires with combined
additions of fluorides and metal powders
3.5

3.0 Diffusible
Ingredient added to the wire
Zn Hydrogen
Wire flux, wt %
2.5 Mg Content
Ca Designation
Na2SiF6 K2SiF6 Zn Mg mL/100 g
2.0 Al (Stdev.)
F23 4 - 4 4.5 (0.4)
1.5
F33 4 - 4 5.4 (0.4)
Duplicate batches of wires
1.0
F23D 4 4 3.9 (0.1)
0.5
F33D 4 - 4 5.1 (0.3)
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 F23D-1 4 - 4 5.5 (07)
Boiling temperature, C o F33D-1 4 - 4 5.5 (1.0)
F23D-2 4 - 4 4.0 (0.5)
Figure 6: Relationship between boiling temperature12 of the
metal added to the wire flux and resulting reduction in F33D-2 4 - 4 5.7 (0.8)
diffusible hydrogen content. M12-A 4 - 5 - 2.8 (0.4)
M12-B 4 - 3 - 3.2 (0.2)
This, however, is still below the target 5 mL/100g set for the M12-C - 4 5 3.0 (0.1)
project, and much less compared to 9.8 mL/100g delivered by 54D 4 - 5 - 2.2 (0.3)
the wire without any additions of fluoride and metal powder 55D 4 - 5 - 2.2 (0.2)
(wire 61, Table 3). 56D 4 - 5 - 2.9 (0.3)
57D 4 - 5 - 3.1 (0.2)
Duplicate batches of wires and retesting 58D 4 - 5 - 2.3 (0.2)
Duplicate batches of the wires were manufactured and tested 59 4 - 1 4 3.5 (0.2)
to evaluate the reproducibility of the hydrogen test results. The 60 4 - 0.5 4.5 3.6 (0.5)
duplicate wires with additions of either 4% Na2SiF6 or 4% 61 - - - - 9.8 (0.3)
K2SiF6 delivered weld metals with similar amounts of 62D 4 - 0.5 4.5 4.0 (0.5)
diffusible hydrogen, ~5% mL/100g, (see wires with additions
63D 4 - 0.5 4.5 4.6 (0.3)
of fluorides in Table 3). The wires with combined additions of
4% fluoride as either Na2SiF6 or K2SiF6, and 3% to 5% Zn, 63/1D 4 - 0.5 4.5 3.6 (0.5)
produced up to 3 mL/100g of diffusible hydrogen in the weld
deposits (as shown in Table3).

It is evident from the hydrogen test results that increasing Conclusions

addition of Zn from 0.5% to 5% in the wire flux with 4%
Na2SiF6 strongly reduced the hydrogen content from 4.5 to 2.5 The following conclusions can be made from the study carried
mL/100g. It is believed that this results from a decrease in out in this project:
hydrogen partial pressure in the arc atmosphere, either due to 1. The diffusible hydrogen content in the weld deposits
binding of hydrogen with fluorine that is delivered by of rutile wires can be reduced to ~3 mL/100g by
fluorides present in the wire flux9,10, or by the increased controlled additions of fluorides and metal powders
vapour pressure from Mg and Zn added to the wire flux (See of high vapour pressure to the wire flux.
Figs 3 and 4).

511
 Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering
kmol File: C:\HSC4\GibbsInNa2Sif6-3H2O.OGI (1998)
3
4.0
B. CHEW, Prediction of Weld Metal Hydrogen Levels
3.5 Obtained under Test Conditions, Weld. J., 52 (9), 386s-391s
HF(g)
H2O(g)
(1973)
3.0 4
H2O AWS A5.20-95, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes
2.5 for Flux Cored Arc Welding, Florida (1995).
5
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, p.D-214-D-215,
2.0 NaF
70TH Edition, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida (1989-
1.5 1990)
6
Na2SiF6 AS/NZS 3752:1996, Welding-Methods for determination of
1.0
SiF4(g)
SiO2
the diffusible hydrogen content of ferritic weld metal
0.5
NaF(g)
produced by arc welding, Standards Australia (1996).
7
Na2F2(g) K. Pokhodnya, A. P. Paltsevich, V. V. Golovko, A. S.
0.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Kotelchouk, Technology and metallurgy methods for
Temperature C
decreasing diffusible hydrogen content, Welding in the World,
vol. 43, No. 4 (1999).
8
Figure 7: Reactions between fluoride and water contained in W. Mazur at al, Development of general purpose low
the wire flux in the wire stickout before melting12. hydrogen rutile flux cored electrode for high toughness
applications, Confidential Technical Report CMST-A-C-2000-
2. The additions of equivalent amounts of fluorides, 14 (2000).
9
MnF3, CaF2, Na2SiF6, K2SiF6, Na3AlF6 and Li3AlF6 M. Matsushita, S Liu, Hydrogen Control in Steel Weld Metal
which give rise to ~0.3% fluorine in the wire, by Means of Fluoride Additions in Welding Flux, Welding
indicate the most efficient reduction of weld metal Journal, ,295-s to 303-s (October 2000)
10
diffusible hydrogen content occurs with Na2SiF6. A. Block-Bolten, T. W. Eagar, Selective evaporation of
3. The lowest hydrogen content for wires with fluoride metals from weld pools, Trends in Welding Research in the
additions was 4.5 mL/100g for the wire containing United States, Proceedings, Conference, New Orleans, LA,
4% Na2SiF6 added to the flux. pp.53-73 (16-18 N0v. 1981).
11
4. Additions of 5% Zn to the rutile wire (without D. White, G. Pollard, R. Gee, The effect of welding
fluoride added) reduced diffusible hydrogen content parameters on diffusible hydrogen levels in cored wire
to less than 6 mL/100g, compared to 9.8 mL/100g welding, Welding & Metal Fabrication, 209-216, (June
produced by the wire without either fluoride or metal 1992).
powder additions. 12
HSC Chemistry ®4.0, Outokumpu HSC Chemistry for
5. Combined additions of 4% Na2SiF6 and 5% Zn Windows (1999)
reduced the diffusible hydrogen content to ~3
mL/100g.

Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to the Cooperative Research Centre for
Welded Structures (CRC WS) and CSIRO MIT for sponsoring
this study. Appreciation is directed also to Jonathan Ayoub
and John Pfennig from CSIRO MIT for their assistance in flux
cored wires production and diffusible hydrogen testing.

References
1
R. M. Mirza, R. Gee, Effects of shielding gases on weld
metal diffusible hydrogen contents using cored wires, Science
and Technology of Welding and Joining, , Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.
104-111 (1999).
2
K. S. Johnson at all, Hydrogen control and microstructural
refinement of structural steel welds using fluoride–containing
FCAW electrodes, Proceedings of the 17th International

512
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Characterization of E6010 and E7018 Welding Fume
J.W. Sowards, J.C. Lippold, and D.W. Dickinson
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
A.J. Ramirez
Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Campinas SP, Brazil
Abstract
The nature of welding fumes has been under increased
scrutiny for reasons regarding health and wellness of workers
in the welding industry, and the potential for more stringent
regulation of exposure limits. Many studies have been
conducted to date that examine the collection methods,
composition and nature of the fume particles, and health
related effects of welding fumes from various processes and
filler materials. In this study an Electrical Low Pressure
Impactor (ELPI) was used to collect welding fume from
E6010 electrodes at two heat inputs and E7018 electrodes at a
nominal heat input. Fume was also collected using a modified
AWS F1.2:1999 hood design to generate bulk fume samples.
Extensive characterization work was conducted using SEM,
TEM, EDS, XRD, and XPS. To obtain a thorough
understanding of the morphology and behavior of fume, all of
these techniques were incorporated into the analytical
procedure to provide a more complete picture of fume particle
morphology by examining crystallography, microstructure,
and chemical composition.
Introduction
Fume generated by arc welding processes is a cause for
concern due to possible health problems experienced by
workers in the welding industry after longterm exposure to
welding fume. Aerosol particles are produced during arc
welding processes that consists of an assortment of metals,
oxides, and other compounds originating from liquid metal
and fluxes associated with arc welding. Metal fume fever and
manganese-related poisoning in particular are of great concern
to the welding industry. Long term, low concentration doses
of Mn have been linked to nervous system disorders1. Some
evidence shows that mild steel fume is relatively harmless and
comparable to ingestion of iron-oxide2. Other evidence shows
that metal-oxides cause metal fume fever followed by
occupational asthma3.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
A fume collection system and procedure was developed
and used to evalaute a number of consumable and process
combinations. This testing included collection of fume and
measurement of fume generation rates (FGR) using an AWS-
type collection system, but with smaller filter pore sizes than
those recommended by the AWS F1.2:1999 standard4.
Fume was also collected using an Electrical Low Pressure
Impactor (ELPI). The ELPI has the capability to separate
particles by size range and measure size distributions in real-
time. This is accomplished through various principles
including particle charging, inertial classification, and
electrical detection of the particles using electrometers5. The
impactor has multiple stages which size particles according to
their aerodynamic diameter in the range of 0.03 – 10µm. Each
stage has the capability to detect the charge on the incoming
particles thus allowing for the real-time monitoring via PC
data acquisition. Weight analyses are commonly used in fume
studies but a few large particles may dominate a percent
weight analysis, thus adequate information is not provided
about how the individual particle sizes relate to toxicity of the
compounds within the fume6. A considerable advantage to
using an ELPI system is its ability to retrieve a particle
number distribution for a given fume collection and then
measure mass collected on each stage of the system following
collection.
Fume formation is of great interest to understand the
varying morphologies of the bulk fume. The ability to collect
total fume generated using the modified fume hood in addition
to the capabilities of the ELPI are necessary to obtain a bulk
composition and better characterize fume generation. Fume
generation rates by SMAW electrodes in particular is
exceeded only by FCAW processes in terms of FGR7.
Formation of varying fume morphologies occurs during
welding, which makes it essential to understand the different
formation mechanisms. When droplets of fume are expulsed
from molten metal they can 1) condense into a metallic
particle, 2) form an oxide shell around the metal core, 3) react
with oxygen to form primary metal oxides, and 4) form
agglomerates8. If a protective flux is used, then the metal
fume particles may pass through the flux and pickup
513
additional compounds, perhaps by a condensation mechanism. a collection run, each stage was weighed again to find the
These varying morphologies may vary across a large size fume mass deposited during testing. Weight differences were
range during SMAW welding, ranging from ultra-fine (<0.1 measured to an accuracy of 10-5 grams with a precision
µm) to fine (0.l – 2.5 µm) to coarse (>2.5 µm) sizes. The fine analytical balance.
and ultra-fine size ranges have been linked to health risks During ELPI operation, fume is drawn in through a
since they are readily aspirable, thus the need for extensive sampling point six inches (152.4 mm) above the arc then
microanalysis to determine crystallographic and chemical travels 32 inches (812.8 mm) to the ELPI system by means of
information in this size region is of utmost importance. low vacuum and clear tygon tubing. The particles are charged
in a field of ions then enter the impactor column where they
are separated by their aerodynamic diameter. As the particles
Procedure
impact the stage, their charge is measured by electrometers
and recorded with data acquisition. There are 13 stages that
E6010 and E7018 (1/8 inch diameter) were used in
particles must pass through. Each successive stage traps
conjunction with an A-36 steel base material. All welding
particles of a certain aerodynamic cross section because they
procedures used were in accordance with the consumable
are unable to make the sharp turn required to reach the next
manufacturer recommendations, i.e., operating current,
stage. Figure 1 illustrates this principle and shows the average
voltage, work angle, and low hydrogen baking (E7018 only).
particle diameters collected by each stage.
All welds were performed in the flat position and the base
material was moved using a linear positioner for ELPI
Aerodynamic
collections. An AVC controller was used in conjunction with Stage
Dpa [µm]
a linear slide table to feed the stick electrodes while 13 10.5
maintaining a constant arc voltage. Automation was used for 12 6.7
feeding electrodes and to control travel speed thereby 11 4
10 2.4
enhancing repeatability of heat input. All weld parameters Jet Plate 9 1.6
were continuously monitored and recorded during testing and 8 0.96
averages of the parameters were used to calculate heat input as 7 0.62
6 0.39
shown in Table 1. 5 0.27
4 0.16
Table 1, Welding Conditions for E6010 and E7018 electrodes. 3 0.095
2 0.059
E6010 Low E6010 High E7018 Nominal Heat Collection Substrate 1 0.03
Welding Parameter
Heat Input Heat Input Input
Figure 1, Schematic of ELPI operation principle and aerodynamic
Current, Amps 93 115 126
particle cutoff diameters for each stage (ref. 5).
Voltage, Volts 27.1 30.8 23.8
Travel Speed, in/min (mm/s) 9.6 (4.1) 11.1 (4.7) 10.75 (4.6)
Heat Input, kJ/in (kJ/mm) 15.8 (0.62) 19.1 (0.75) 16.8 (0.66)
Electrode Diameter, in. (mm) 1/8 (3.2) 1/8 (3.2) 1/8 (3.2)
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) samples were
Coating Type High Cellulose Sodium Basic, Low Hydrogen collected by briefly passing copper TEM grids coated with
carbon films through the fume plume during welding at 3 and
6 inches (76.2, 152.4 mm) above the arc. It was determined
Fume was collected in a sequence of three trials. The first
that the entire size distribution range was collected onto the
consisted of using the fume hood to measure fume generation
grids. During TEM analysis, individual particles of interest
rates and collect a bulk sample for X-Ray Diffraction (XRD).
could then be selected depending on the size and morphology
High flow-rate glass fiber filters were used that sample
of interest.
particles down to 0.3 µm in size with an efficiency of 99.98%.
Filters were weighed before and after collection to find mass
difference. These filters are non-hygroscopic so moisture will Results and Discussion
not affect the filter weights. A precision digital manometer
was used to record the pressure drop across the filter during all FGR and Particle Size/Mass Distribution
fume hood collection. Due to limited physical space in the The results of the fume collection using the modified fume
fume hood chamber, a rotary positioner with a DC stepper collection hood for both the E6010 and the E7018 electrodes
control was used to provide base metal travel. are presented in Table 2. These FGR values are based on an
After FGRs were measured, the ELPI was used to collect average of three runs. The total fume generated for the E7018
particle number and mass distributions, as well as samples for was slightly less than the E6010 electrode at low heat input.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and X-Ray
Table 2, Fume generation rates for E6010, E7018.
Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). Number distributions
were recorded in real-time by the ELPI. Mass distributions E6010 E6010 E7018
were obtained by weighing aluminum collection substrates Heat Input 15.8 kJ/in 19.1 kJ/in 16.8 kJ/in
which were then placed on each stage of the ELPI. Following Average FGR [g/min] 0.387 0.598 0.365

514
 Fume Generation Rates vs Current Fume Generation Rates vs Voltage
0.70 0.70
E6010 High E6010 High
Heat Input Heat Input
0.60 0.60
FGR [g/min]

FGR [g/min]
0.50 0.50
E6010 Low E6010 Low
Heat Input E7018 Heat Input
0.40 0.40

0.30 0.30
85 95 105 115 125 135 20 25 30 35
Current [amps] Voltage [volts]
Figure 2, Fume generation rate of E6010 and E7018 as a function of current. Figure 3, Fume generation rate of E6010 and E7018 as a function of voltage.

E6010 & E7018 Size Distributions E6010 & E7018 Mass Distributions
30 40

E6010 Low HI 35 E6010 Low HI

25
E6010 High HI 30 E6010 High HI
Percentage [%]

20 E7018 Percentage [%] E7018

25

15 20

15
10
10
5
5
0 0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Log Dp [um] Log Dp [um]
Figure 4, Size distribution generated by ELPI for E6010 and E7018 Figure 5, Mass distribution generated by ELPI for E6010 and E7018
electrodes. *HI denotes heat input. electrodes. *HI denotes heat input.

Effects of voltage and current on FGR are shown in Figures 2 The number distribution of E7018 is skewed towards the
and 3. Note that current has the largest effect with E6010 and small aerodynamic diameters of the ELPI size range as are the
voltage had little effect on FGR of E7018. number distributions of E6010, which both exhibited modal
The ELPI was used to generate both size and mass distributions with the majority of the particles falling in the
distributions as described previously, and this data is plotted 0.03-0.3 µm size range. The mass distribution of E7018
versus aerodynamic particle diameter (log Dp) in Figures 4 reaches a maximum at 0.6 µm aerodynamic diameter,
and 5, respectively. Heat input had little effect on size and behaving similarly to E6010.
mass distributions for the E6010 electrode. Particle sizes
between 0.4 and 1.0 µm make up more than 60% of the total Characterization
fume mass. The mass of particles below 0.1 µm is very small XRD was performed on fume removed from the bulk fume
representing less than 2% of the total fume mass. Mass filters obtained in the fume hood for both E6010 and E7018
distribution is virtually insensitive to heat input where both welding fume. This fume was transferred to a zero
conditions have their highest percentage based on weight at background Si-crystal substrate in order that no signal would
approximately 0.6 µm average diameter. The size distribution arise from the filter material. XRD results for E6010 fume
for the E6010 high heat input welds is shifted to slightly larger revealed strong peaks for iron-oxide (magnetite) in the form
particle diameters relative to the low heat input. However, Fe3O4. Slight peak shifts occurred relative to normal peak
both cases exhibit a peak diameter at 0.1 µm aerodynamic locations of Fe3O4, suggesting other elements are present in
diameter. The percentage of particles exceeding 1 µm is small amounts such as manganese and silicon. E7018 fume
extremely low. showed distinct peaks identifying the presence of Fe3O4, CaF2,

515
and NaF compounds. Compared to E6010, the flux agents of particles. The composition was measured using EDS at the
E7018 (Ca, Na, F) have a more profound impact on spot location shown. Figure 7 shows a fume particle
composition of the fume particles by forming fluoride agglomeration observed on Stage 3 of an ELPI collection of
compounds. No effect of heat input was observed on E6010 welding fume. This agglomeration consisted of mostly
compound formation in the E6010 fume particles based on metallic iron as seen by the composition. Manganese, silicon,
XRD analysis. and oxygen were present as well.
SEM microanalysis was performed on all 13 stages of the
ELPI column for E6010 fume to determine particle
morphology. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) was
used to determine the average composition of fume particles
on each stage and to analyze individual particles and EDS
agglomerates greater than 0.3 µm in size. Average
compositions were obtained by acquiring EDS spectra from an
area approximately 100 µm2 near the center of fume piles on
the collection substrate. The average compositions of E6010
stages were quite uniform with the exception that titanium
increased in concentration with particle size. Ti first appeared
on Stage 5 (0.39 wt%) and peaked on Stage 13 (3.43 wt%).
This trend most likely resulted from fluxing agents such as
TiO2 forming in larger size ranges, or from burn-off of the
flux coating. It was decided to analyze only stages 2, 4, 8, and
10 for the E7018 fume since composition appeared
independent of particle size based on the E6010 analyses.
Table 3 lists bulk compositions in weight percent measured Element OK FK Na K Si K KK Ca K Ti K Mn K Fe K
from Stages 4 and 8 of E6010 and E7018 fume collections. Wt% 32.1 12.8 5.1 5.6 3.0 11.7 0.2 4.1 25.5

Note that composition generally varies little more than ten At% 50.1 16.9 5.6 5.0 1.9 7.3 0.1 1.9 11.4

percent when comparing the different stages of the ELPI. Figure 6, SEM micrograph of spherical and agglomerated E7018
particles and EDS spectra measured from the location indicated.
Table 3, Average stage compositions measured with SEM-EDS.
E6010 [wt%] E7018 [wt%]
Element
Stage 4 Stage8 Stage 4 Stage 8
Mn 8.3 8.2 4.6 5.5
Fe 70.3 76.4 32.0 28.8
O 7.6 6.5 23.1 22.1
Si 10.9 6.7 2.9 3.3
Na 2.5 0.9 5.8 6.4
Ti - 1.3 0.4 0.5
Mg 0.3 - 0.1 -
S 0.2 - 0.2 -
F - - 9.7 9.5
Cl - - 0.2 0.1
K - - 7.9 8.1
Ca - - 8.4 9.7
Zn - - 4.9 6.0

SEM evaluation of the fume particles on the various ELPI Element OK Si K Mn K Fe K

stages revealed that three distinct particle morphologies Wt% 8.7 3.7 6.8 80.8
existed. The first type is a spherical particle that varies in At% 24.3 5.8 5.5 64.4
diameter depending on the stage investigated; small particles
Figure 7, SEM micrograph of an agglomerated E6010 particle and
were present on the lower stages, gradually increasing in size corresponding EDS measurement.
with stage number. The second type is also an individual
particle but irregular in shape. Also present were Agglomerates were observed on all ELPI stages for both
agglomerates, which are groupings of spherical and/or electrode types. To verify that fume particle agglomeration
irregular particles; these were observed on all ELPI stages of was not an artifact of the ELPI collection, TEM grids were
both electrode types. Figure 6 shows a 2 µm spherical particle passed though the fume plume at different heights (the closest
from E7018 surrounded by agglomerates of smaller spherical

516
being 3 in.) above the arc then observed in SEM to examine
particle morphology. Agglomerates were observed in all of
these samples and appeared similar to those collected in the
ELPI, suggesting this particle type forms in the plume above
the welding arc. Individual particle analysis showed that
E6010 and E7018 fume particles were generally uniform in
composition for both spherical or agglomerations irrespective
of size. The E7018 electrode showed a trend for higher
fluorine and sodium content in the smaller spherical particles.
Irregular particles had slightly different compositions, usually
consisting of metallic elements, instead of those found in the
fluxes.
TEM results revealed that a core-shell structure was
common in fumes from both electrode types. These particles
tend to have an inner core consisting of iron (and some
manganese) in the form of an Fe3O4 type oxide. Surrounding
the core is a “coating” of lighter elements. An amorphous
silicon-rich oxide was identified as the main constituent in the
E6010 shell while the E7018 shell tended to be much thinner
and enriched in calcium. Selected Area Diffraction (SAD)
identified CaF2 as the shell structure around the E7018 fumes
Note that concentrations of silicon increase slightly and Ca
increases by approximately 60%. All other elements either
decrease slightly or remain fairly constant suggesting that the
shell is Ca enriched. SAD patterns, which were obtained for
both individual particles and agglomerates, generally
corresponded to a Fe3O4 type crystal structure for fumes from
both electrodes.
XPS was used to obtain information about valence states
and for partial depth composition profiling of fume samples
from both electrodes. Since XPS has the ability to “etch” the
sample with Ar+ ions to remove surface layers of the fume, the
system was used to analyze the composition of the shell
structure and then remove it via etching to analyze the core
composition. Stage 3 of the ELPI collections was used for
XPS analysis of both electrodes, providing an aerodynamic
particle size of approximately 0.1 µm.
20000
Pre-Etch
Post-Etch

Counts Per Second (Area

and identified Fe3O4 type oxides in the core. This core-shell 15000

effect occurred in both spherical and agglomerated particles.

Chemical analyses conducted in the TEM using EDS were
10000
consistent with results obtained using SEM for both fume
types. Figure 8 shows two EDS analyses performed on a
spherical E7018 fume particle in the core (EDS1) and the shell
5000
(EDS2).

1s
2p

1s
2p

1s
2p

1s
O
a
Fe

C
n

Si

F
N
M

20000 Pre-Etch
Post-Etch
Counts Per Second (Area

15000

10000

5000

0
1s
2p

1s
2p

1s
2p
2p

2p

1s
a

O
Fe

C
n

Si

F
a
K

N
M

Particle Core Composition Electron Shell

Element Al K Na K Si K KK Ca K Ti K Mn K Fe K Zn K
Wt% 0.3 1.0 2.1 1.5 7.0 0.3 13.1 68.1 6.6 Figure 9, Etching response of E6010 (top) and E7018 (bottom) fume.
At% 0.6 2.3 3.9 2.0 9.2 0.3 12.5 63.9 5.3 Arrows indicate increase or decrease following etching.
Particle Shell Composition
Element Al K Na K Si K KK Ca K Ti K Mn K Fe K Zn K XPS confirmed existence of a core-shell structure in both
Wt% 0.4 0.6 4.2 1.1 11.4 - 12.0 65.3 4.7
At% 0.8 1.2 7.6 1.4 14.4 - 11.1 59.4 3.6
E6010 and E7018 welding fume. E6010 fume responded to
etching with an increase in Fe, Mn, and Si, while
Figure 8, Core-shell particle from E7018 welding fume showing two EDS simultaneously decreasing in Na, O, C, and F. E7018 fume
spot locations. EDS 1 measures core composition and EDS 2 measures
shell composition.
was rich in Ca, K, Na, and F prior to etching and showed only
trace levels of Mn in the outer layers of the fume. Mn, Fe, and

517
Si increased with etching. Iron peak positions correlated with
the Fe3O4 form of iron-oxide, thus confirming TEM
diffraction and X-ray diffraction data. Iron also appeared to
be present in the metallic state after the etching was
completed. Manganese was detected in complex oxides in the
fume from both electrodes but the absolute valence states
could not be determined due to the inability to isolate Mn
compounds within the spectrum generated by the system. It
appears that Mn is present in the form of Mn+2 or Mn+3 in both
E6010 and E7018 electrodes. Figure 9 shows the peak
intensities of elements before and after etching for E6010 and
E7018. Counts per second are plotted against each electron
shell that was observed. Arrows indicate an increase or
decrease in intensity as a function of particle surface depth.
Conclusions
1. Increasing heat input for E6010 increased total fume
generation but had no effect on the compounds formed in
the fume, as observed with XRD.
2. Particles were separated into 13 size ranges from 0.03 to
10 µm using the ELPI. 80% of the E6010 fumes were in
the 0.1 to 1.0 µm size range. Approximately 45% of the
E7018 fume particles were in the 0.1 to 1.0 µm size range
while only 5% of the total mass was in this range. Mass
distributions for both electrodes peaked at approximately
0.8 µm and were Gaussian in nature.
3. Heat input had little effect on size and mass distribution
of the E6010 particles.
4. Examination of particle morphology revealed three basic
morphologies: spherical, irregular, and agglomerated.
Agglomerations usually consisted of many very small (<
0.1µm) spherical particles or a combination of both large
and small spherical particles. The percentage of irregular
type particles was low.
5. XRD and SAD both confirmed that fume particles are
primarily an Fe3O4 type structure with possible
substitutions of Mn. E7018 also showed XRD patterns
for CaF2 and NaF and SAD patterns for CaF2.
6. Average composition of each ELPI stage for both
electrodes showed that particle composition is fairly
uniform with respect to particle size. For E6010
electrodes the composition (wt%) ranges were: 4-10%
Mn, 5-11% Si, with the balance in Fe-rich oxides. For
E7018 electrodes the composition (wt%) ranges were 28-
43 Fe, 22-24 O, 3.3-5.5 Mn, 2.3-3.5 Si, 3.9-6.4 Na, 4.7-
6.1 K, 7.1-9.1 F, 5.1-10.8 Ca, and 3.5-6.0 Zn.
7. TEM revealed a core-shell structure in many of the
particles observed. Both electrodes had Fe-rich oxide
cores with Mn. E6010 particles had amorphous Si-rich
shells and E7018 particles had Ca-rich shells in the form
of CaF2.
8. XPS analysis revealed that etching the fume particles
could remove the shell structure. High concentrations of
Si, Na, and O were observed in the E6010 particle shells
and high concentrations of Na, Ca, Si, K and F in the
518
E7018 shells. Concentrations of these elements decreased
after etching.
9. Based on TEM and XPS results Mn was present in higher
concentrations in particle cores relative to the shell.
10. Based on the various characterization techniques used,
manganese is present as an oxide with Fe and has a
valence state of Mn+2 or Mn+3.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Mr. Matt Gonser of the
Welding & Joining Metallurgy Group at The Ohio State
University for his assistance during this project. This project
was supported by D&L Welding Fume Analysis, LLC under
contract to a group of current and former manufacturers of
welding consumables.
References
1. L. Ashburner, “Some Hazards of Welding Fume,”Joining
and Materials., 2(3), 118-119 (1989)
2. J.M. Antonini, G.G. Krishna Murthy, R.A. Rogers, R.
Albert, T.W. Eager, G.D. Ulrich, J.D. Brian, “How
Welding Fumes Affect the Welder,” The Welding Journal,
77(10), 55-59 (1998)
3. M. El-Zein, J.L. Malo, C. Infante-Rivard, D. Gautrin,
“Prevalence and Association of Welding Related systemic
and Respiratory Symptoms in Welders,” Occup Environ
Med, 60, 655-661 (2003)
4. AWS F1.2:1999, Laboratory Method for Measuring Fume
Generation Rates and Total Fume Emission of Welding
and Allied Processes, American Welding Society, Miami
Fl, (1999)
5. Dekati ELPI User’s Manual, Dekati Ltd., Tampere,
Finland.
6. F.Y. Speight, H.C. Campbell, Editors, Fumes and Gases in
the Welding Environment, American Welding Society,
Miami FL, (1979)
7. R.F. Heile, D.C. Hill, “Particulate Fume Generation in Arc
Welding Processes”, The Welding Journal, July, 201s-210s
(1975)
8. C.N. Gray, P.J. Hewitt, P.R.M. Dare, “New Approach
Would Help Control Fumes at Source Part Two: MIG
Fumes”, Welding and Metal Fabrication, October, 393-
397, (1982)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Root Bead Welding of Duplex Stainless Steel Pipeline Girth Welds without
Backing Gas
M. Boring, N. Ames
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio, USA
M. Collins
ConocoPhillips Alaska, Inc, Anchorage, Alaska, USA
D. Fetzner
BP Alaska, Inc, Anchorage, Alaska, USA
Abstract
The pipeline industry has interest in implementing duplex
stainless steel (DSS) instead of carbon steel for pipeline
expansion projects due to the increase in corrosion resistance
and strength. One disadvantage of using DSS, however, is the
difficulty of producing acceptable root beads. As such, root
bead trials were conducted using several welding processes
and consumable combinations. The root bead trials pointed to
one process/consumable combination as the most promising.
This combination was submitted to BP Alaska and
ConocoPhillips Alaska for procedure qualification using
experienced pipeline welders. The qualification requirements
included ASME Section IX, API 1104, and BP and
ConocoPhillips DSS welding specification requirements for
toughness, hardness and corrosion testing. The weldment
passed all the requirements except the toughness requirement.
The lack of toughness resulted in further development using
different welding processes and consumables. The additional
welds improved toughness but only one process combination,
SMAW/GMAW, exceeded the toughness requirements. The
results indicted SMAW as the best process for root bead
deposition without backing gas and GMAW as the best
process, after the root and hot pass, to fill the joint while
improving toughness. Procedures have been developed that
should pass industry standards, but have not yet been fully
qualified.
Keywords
Duplex Stainless Steel, Pipeline Girth Welding, SMAW, No
Backing Gas, Improved Toughness
Introduction
There is interest within the pipeline industry to integrate
duplex stainless steel (DSS) into newly constructed pipelines,
instead of carbon steel. DSS would dramatically decrease the
tonnage of material used in the pipelines due to increased
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 519
material strength, and would reduce or eliminate service
related pitting corrosion and cavitation induced corrosion.
However, all these advantages come with several
disadvantages. One such disadvantage is the high skill
required by the welder to produce acceptable root beads. Root
beads of DSS girth welds are typically fabricated using gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) with a specialized backing gas
shield, which is a low productivity/high cost welding
procedure. Another disadvantage of DSS is the difficulty
achieving lower temperature toughness of field welds required
by pipeline companies, especially those operating in Arctic
North Slope environments. With the recent, relative reductions
in DSS base material cost along with development of an
alternative root bead welding procedure using shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), or
flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) that do not require backing
gas, the use of DSS could dramatically increase. The
successful deployment of an acceptable welding procedure for
DSS, without the aid of a specialized backing gas, could
promote this alloy to the forefront in materials selection for
Arctic North Slope applications.
Approach
The initial work determined the feasibility of DSS welding
without backing gas. Several welding process and consumable
combinations were used to deposit the root bead on 203mm
(8-in.), 6.4mm (0.25-in.) wall 2205 DSS pipe. The
consumables used in the feasibility trial are listed in Table 1.
The root bead trials were visually inspected to determine the
acceptability of the root bead profile. The root bead trials
produced one (1) acceptable welding process/consumable
combination and this combination was selected as the baseline
welding condition. A girth weld section was then fabricated,
sectioned for visual examination and corrosion tested.
Following the feasibility trial, the baseline welding conditions
were expanded to include 76, 102 and 152mm (3-, 4- and 6-
in.), 6.4mm (0.25-in.) wall 2205 DSS pipes. Entire girth welds
of all four (4) pipe diameters were welded, radiographically
inspected and rated to ASME B31.3 for acceptability.
Table 1: Welding Consumable Details. 203mm (8-in.), 6.4mm (0.25-in.) wall 2205 DSS pipe. The
girth weld sections were located at the 12-6 o’clock position
AWS on the pipe. The two (2) girth weld sections were filled using
Type Size Brand Name Manuf.
Class. two (2) different heat input procedures but the root beads were
2.4mm deposited using the same welding parameters used in the root
SMAW E2209-17 Platinum "P" Sandvik bead trials. The low heat input procedure implemented the
(3/32-in.)
2.4mm Conventional Avesta- same welding parameters as the root bead trials while the high
SMAW E309-17 heat input procedure used the same current and voltage as the
(3/32-in.) Rutile Polarit
3.2mm root bead trials but was deposited half as fast resulting in twice
SMAW E309L-17 Platinum "P" Sandvik the heat input of the low heat input procedure. Figure 1 shows
(1/8-in.)
4mm a cross section of the high heat input procedure. The average
SMAW E2209-17 Platinum "P" Sandvik welding parameters for the girth weld sections are listed in
(5/32-in.)
1.1mm OK Autrod Table 2.
GMAW E309L ESAB
(0.045-in.) 16.51
1.1mm ER309L OK Tubrod Table 2: Welding parameters for the high and low heat input
FCAW ESAB procedures.
(0.045-in.) T0-4 14.32

High HI Low HI
The expanded welding conditions were submitted to BP Passes 3 7
Current (amps) 65 65
Alaska and ConocoPhillips Alaska for validation and
Voltage (volts) 20 20
procedure qualification using welders experienced with
Travel (ipm) 6 6
pipeline girth welding. The procedures were tested in Root Speed (mm/sec) 2.5 2.5
accordance with ASME Section IX and API 1104. In addition Heat (kJ/in.) 13 13
to the standard testing required for procedure qualifications, Input (kJ/mm) 0.5 0.5
BP and ConocoPhillips have additional toughness, hardness, Weld Progression Downhill Downhill
and corrosion testing requirements to assure weldment Current (amps) 65 65
integrity. The additional requirements include a maximum Voltage (volts) 20 20
allowable hardness of 310 Hv for both the weld metal and Travel ipm 3 6
HAZ, an ASTM G48 accelerated corrosion test, and charpy Fill Speed mm/sec 1.3 2.5
impact toughness test requirements of 67.8/54.2 Joules (J) Heat kJ/in. 26 13
(50/40 ft-lbs) (67.8 J(50 ft-lb) average with a minimum of Input kJ/mm 1.0 0.5
54.2 J (40 ft-lb)). Weld Progression Uphill Downhill

Results and discussion

The results and discussion have been separated into several
sections, including initial development, procedure
qualifications, welding issues, and effect on industry.

Initial development
Several variations in joint design, welding technique
(push/drag), and process and consumable combinations were
used during the root bead trials. The root bead trials were
welded downhill starting from the 3 o’clock position of the
pipe progressing to the 6 o’clock position. This positional
quadrant was selected because it is the most difficult position
to produce an acceptable root bead profile. The FCAW
process resulted in an inconsistent root bead profile, the exact
cause of which was not explored. The GMAW process was
unable to produce an acceptable root bead profile that was
‘sugar’ free on the backside. The SMAW process was able to Figure 1: Macrograph of the high heat input weld bead.
produce several acceptable root bead profiles with the most
promising root bead profile produced using DCEP SMAW Deposition of acceptable root beads without the use of a
with 3/32-in. (2.4mm) E2209-17 electrodes. specialized backing gas on 203mm (8-in.), 6.4mm (0.25-in.)
wall 2205 DSS pipe, resulted in expansion into a second phase
The welding conditions utilized during the DCEP SMAW of initial development trials, which included expanding the
with 3/32-in. (2.4mm) E2209-17 electrodes root bead trials current range of the welding process and production of
were employed to produce two (2) girth weld sections on complete girth welds on additional pipe diameters. In addition

520
to the 203mm (8-in.) pipe used initially, complete girth welds
were completed on 76, 102 and 152mm (3-, 4- and 6-in.)
diameter 2205 DSS pipe. The welding conditions of the
DCEP SMAW procedure with 2.4mm (3/32-in.) E2209-17
electrodes were used as a starting point for the other pipe
diameters.
During welding of the additional girth welds, it became
apparent that less heat input was required at the 12 o’clock
position of the pipe than at the 6 o’clock position to produce
acceptable root beads. The decreased heat input on the top of
the pipe was attributed to gravity effects allowing for
increased penetration at lower heat inputs. The current ranges
for the root beads on the top (12 o’clock) and bottom (6
o’clock) of the pipes are listed in Fig. 2. Also shown in Fig. 2
is the combined current range. The combined current range
was selected as the operating conditions for each diameter of
pipe.
Bottom Top Combined
85
80
75
Welding Current, amps
ASME Section IX and API 1104. BP Alaska and
ConocoPhillips Alaska DSS welding specifications contain
testing requirements supplementary to those mandated by
Industry Codes. The supplemental requirements include
maximum allowable hardness, an ASTM G48 accelerated
corrosion test, and a charpy impact test at lower test
temperatures. The qualification weldment passed both the BP
and ConocPhillips maximum-allowable hardness requirement
and the accelerated corrosion testing requirement, but failed to
meet minimum toughness requirements. The toughness values
at the weld centerline were below the minimum requirements
and were attributed to the oxygen content of the weld metal.
The initial field trials reflected the ability to produce
acceptable root beads with the SMAW process without
backing gas, but the weld deposits were unable to achieve the
stringent toughness requirements of BP Alaska and
ConocoPhillips Alaska. In an attempt to increase the
toughness of the weld metal, five (5) additional welds were
made using the baseline procedure as a guideline for the root
bead and hot pass employing other welding
process/consumable combinations for the fill and cap passes.
The additional welding process/consumable combinations
were introduced in an attempt to reduce the weld metal

oxygen content, which is known to be detrimental to weld

70 metal toughness.
65

60 Table 3: Welding parameters for the high and low heat input
55
procedures.
50
Root and Hot Passes Fill and Cap Passes
Weld
45 Process Electrode Process Electrode
3-inch 4-inch 6-inch 8-inch
2.4mm (3/32-in.) 3/32-in.
1 SMAW SMAW
E2209-17B E2209-17B
Figure 2: Root bead operating currents. 2.4mm (3/32-in.) 0.035-in.
2 SMAW GMAW
E2209-17B ER2209
2.4mm (3/32-in.) 0.035-in.
After acceptable root beads were achieved, the girth weld was 3 SMAW GMAW
E2209-17 ER2209
completed. The root beads for each pipe diameter were 2.4mm (3/32-in.) 3/32-in.
deposited downhill. The remaining weld joint on the 76 and 4 SMAW SMAW
E2209-17 E2209-17B
203mm (3- and 8-in.) diameter pipes were welded with an 2.4mm (3/32-in.) 0.045-in.
uphill progression while the 102 and 152mm (4- and 6-in.) 5 SMAW FCAW
E2209-17B E2209T1-4
diameter pipes were completed with a downhill progression.
The travel direction change was done to determine if weld
progression had a noticeable effect on weld quality. The four The welding process/consumable combinations are listed in
(4) welds were radiographically tested and rated accordance Table 3. Two (2) SMAW electrodes were used to fabricate
with ASME B31.3. All the welds were deemed acceptable the root beads. The electrodes have the same AWS
insinuating that weld progression was no effect on the ability classification, but one type of electrode has a more basic flux
of the welder to produce acceptable welds. composition. The more basic flux composition electrodes are
designated with a “B” in Table 3. The five (5) additional
Procedure development welds were radiographically inspected and deemed acceptable
The combined root bead current ranges and SMAW baseline to ASME B31.3 requirements.
welding procedures were transferred to BP and
ConocoPhillips for field validation. After basic welding To determine weldment toughness, 12 charpy impact test
technique instruction, the field welder was able to produce specimens were machined out of each of the five (5)
high quality welds using the baseline welding procedure additional welds. Three (3) specimens were taken from the
within a relatively short time period. Following training, a weld centerline, fusion line, 2.4mm (3/32-in.) from the fusion
welder produced one PQR weldment using the baseline line, and 4.8mm (3/16-in.) from the fusion line. All charpy
welding procedure on 254mm (10-in.), 10mm (0.375-in.) wall impact test specimens were tested at -46°C (-50°F). Since the
2205 DSS pipe. The weldment passed the requirements of wall thickness of the pipes did not allow for full-size charpy

521
impact specimens, sub-size charpy impact specimens were
machined. The results from the sub-size specimens were
multiplied by a correlation factor resulting in full-size
equivalent values. Correlation factors of 0.8 and 0.86 were
used for sub-size charpy specimen sizes of 7 and 8mm (0.27-
and 0.31-in.), respectively. The equation to calculate the full-
size equivalent values is given below.

Full _ Size _ Equivalent =

Actual _ Value
(10mm )(Correlatio n _ Factor )
Actual _ Charpy _ Width

The charpy impact test specimen results showed all five (5)
additional weldments to have adequate toughness except for
the weld centerline. Figure 3 shows the full-size equivalent
average toughness values of the weld centerline for the five
(5) additional welds along side the original procedure
qualification weld. The labels on the figure indicate the
Figure 4: Macrograph of the E2209-17 (SMAW) / ER2209
electrodes utilized during root bead and fill pass fabrication.
(GMAW) weld bead.
All five (5) additional welds revealed a toughness
improvement over the original procedure qualification weld
Figure 3 also shows the weld metal oxygen content of each of
(E2209-17/E2209-17). The highest weld metal toughness
the five (5) additional welds along side the original procedure
charpy impact values were recorded from the ER2209 fill pass
qualification weld. In each case, the weld metal oxygen
welds (GMAW) followed by the E2209-17B fill pass welds
content was decreased from the original procedure
(SMAW), E2209T1-4 fill pass weld (FCAW) and finally the
qualification weld. The lowest weld metal oxygen content
E2209-17 fill pass weld. The E2209-17 / ER2209 weld that
resulted in the highest toughness and the highest weld metal
produced the highest weld metal toughness values of 68.6 J
oxygen content weld produced the lowest toughness.
average and 63.1 J minimum (50.6 ft-lbs average and 46.5 ft-
However, the remaining data did not directly correlate weld
lbs minimum) was the only weld that exceeded BP Alaska and
metal oxygen content directly with toughness. These results
ConocoPhillips Alaska toughness requirements (67.8/54.2
indicate that both the welding process used for the fill pass and
Joules (J) (50/40 ft-lbs) (67.8 J(50 ft-lb) average with a
the weld metal oxygen content has an effect on weld metal
minimum of 54.2 J (40 ft-lb)). A macrograph of the SMAW
toughness.
E2209-17 and GMAW ER2209 weld is shown in Fig. 4.
The results show that SMAW with E2209-17 electrodes
produce the best root beads, of the electrodes used, on DSS
60 0.09

Series3 Charpy Oxygen Series4

pipeline girth welds without backing gas. GMAW was found
0.08 to be the best process to improve the weld centerline
Weld Centerline Charpy Impact Values, ft*lbs

50
0.07
toughness of the weld metal deposit. Though procedures have
not been qualified to date, the results of this work indicate the
Percent Weld Metal Oxygen

40 0.06
SMAW/GMAW procedure combination will produce
0.05 acceptable welds according to ASME Section IX and API
30
0.04
1104, as well as meet the supplemental BP Alaska and
ConocoPhillips Alaska DSS welding specification
20 0.03
requirements.
0.02
10
0.01
Welding issues
During the course of this work several issues arose that would
0 0
help in producing an acceptable root bead and that require
E2209-17B / E2209-17B / E2209-17 / E2209-17 / E2209-17B / E2209-17 /
E2209-17B ER2209 ER2209 E2209-17B E2209T1-4 E2209-17 consideration upon qualifying a DSS welding procedure which
allows SMAW root bead deposition without a backing gas.
The first issue was noted during the feasibility trials and is
Figure 3: Weld centerline charpy impact values and weld
relevant when depositing a SMAW root bead. When employed
metal oxygen content for the procedure qualification welds
in the vertical down welding progression, an extreme drag
and five additional welds.
angle was used by the welder to manipulate the arc to force
the weld pool out of the joint. The use of the extreme drag
angle allowed the arc to completely penetrate the joint,
preventing the molten slag from entering the joint and thus
inhibiting the welding arc penetration.

522
During the procedure qualification stage, several other issues • reduced inspection and maintenance,
were uncovered. First, the electrodes used during the • significantly reduced likelihood of spillage.
procedure qualification were from different manufacturers and
revealed vastly different welding characteristics than the
electrodes used during the feasibility trials. This observation
suggests that the manufacture would need to be designated as
an essential variable during welding procedure qualifications.

Second, the type of the power supply had a dramatic effect on

weldability. The inverter power supply, which was used
during the feasibility trials, yielded the best results for all DSS
electrodes used, whereas a generator power supply, which was
used during the procedure qualification trials, yielded only
moderate results.

Third, since no backing gas was used during welding, it was

important that the slag be left on the backside of the root pass
during hot pass welding. The DSS SMAW electrode slag
adhered to the backside of the root bead so well that the slag
continued to shield the backside of the root during welding of
the hot pass. It is important to note that the flux/slag shielded
the back side of the joint so well that the surrounding DSS
base material remained free of discoloration.

Lastly, the procedure qualification weldment tie-ins made with

the generator power supply required long feathered edges to
allow for complete penetration. This observation was
reinforced during the five (5) additional welds using the
inverter power supply. Since the welding arc of the DSS
electrodes does not have the arc force of standard steel
electrodes, there is a high probability of lack of fusion at Figure 5: Alaska North Slope Production Facility in the
starts/stops if a long feather edge is not used. summer (Top) and winter (Bottom).

Effect on industry As development continues on the Arctic North Slope,

The use of corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs) for oilfield
production service has generally been limited to very severe
corrosive environments because of the high initial costs
associated with purchasing and installing CRA pipelines. DSS
has the advantage of being both internally and externally, in
the absence of chlorides, maintenance/inspection-free.
Therefore, the use of DSS for remote pipeline systems, such as
those experienced on the Arctic North Slope of Alaska, can be
cost-effective if life-cycle economics prove attractive.
Recognizing the advantages of DSS over carbon steel, the
Alaska North Slope Operators are interested in using DSS
material for pipelines, well lines, and other similar
applications, Fig. 5. DSS properties attractive to North Slope
Operators include:
• resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
and pitting,
• resistance to CO2 corrosion,
• resistance to external corrosion under insulation
(CUI),
• high yield strength to reduce wall thickness and
minimize welding time,
• enhanced velocity restrictions,
• one-time purchase and installment costs,
• no inhibitor costs,
breakthroughs such as this DSS welding project lead to
enhanced mechanical integrity solutions for the Arctic North
Slope. Development of such projects leads to overall reduced
risk and a higher quality product for environmentally sensitive
areas such as the numerous tundra lakes and river channel
crossings characteristic of the Arctic North Slope.
Furthermore, below-grade crossings that cannot be confidently
inspected with existing NDE techniques are also excellent
candidate locations for employing DSS. Expansion projects
within existing fields and new development areas such as the
NPR-A may also benefit from the reduced life-cycle costs
gained through use of this welding technology development. It
is anticipated that this work will further decrease the overall
fabrication and construction cost of joining DSS materials and
therefore make the materials more attractive to new projects
throughout Arctic North Slope fields.
Conclusion
A higher productive welding procedure, compared to GTAW,
has been developed which when implemented will reduce the
initial cost of DSS pipelines by increasing productivity and
removing the need for backing gas. The result is a more
attractive alternative for new pipelines projects and pipeline
modification throughout Arctic North Slope.

523
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Investigation of a Possible Health Hazard From

Asbestos Fibers Used in Welding Electrodes
A. A. Johnson, R. J. Storey
Metals Research Inc., Louisville, Kentucky, USA

Abstract The work described in this paper was undertaken at the behest
of a law firm specifically to find out whether free asbestos
Until the early 1980's asbestos was used as a component of fibers are released into the atmosphere when asbestos bearing
many welding electrodes. It is therefore pertinent to enquire electrodes are used in welding. This law firm was representing
whether asbestos escaping from such electrodes could have the plaintiffs in two active cases.
contributed to asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma in
welders exposed both to the electrodes and other sources of Preliminary Considerations
asbestos such as asbestos gloves and curtains.
A computer literature search did not reveal any published
Straightforward theoretical arguments suggest that the coating research on the possible health hazards of asbestos in welding
of an electrode containing cellulose as a major constituent electrodes. In the first phase of the project, therefore, some
should develop a charred “friable zone” when it is being used. purely theoretical ideas on possible asbestos release
This zone, which is about 0.5 cm (0.2 inch) in length extends mechanisms were developed. Let us now consider these.
from the tip to a point on the electrode which has reached about
250°C. Microstructural studies on several types of partially Asbestos was used in electrodes other than those intended for
spent electrodes using metallographic and SEM techniques use with high strength steels. The American Welding Society
have shown that such “friable zones” do in fact exist. (A.W.S.) specifies a range of compositions for each constituent
in an electrode coating thus leaving scope for individual
In the part of the friable zone which is above about 700°C the manufacturers to develop proprietary formulations. The
asbestos decomposes. It first loses water molecules and then A.W.S. specifications for the four types of electrode used in
breaks up into fosterite and silica. As the temperature at a point this investigation are shown in Table 1 (1). These
in the coating reaches about 700°C steam develops at the specifications post-date 1980 and therefore do not include
asbestos/silicate matrix interface. Debonding occurs and if the asbestos.
fiber is near the surface it may be propelled out of the surface
with a blob of silicate attached to it. Examples of this “pop- Table 1: Composition ranges for the coatings on four types of
out” configuration were found in dust found in an open electrode used in shielded metal arc welding.
partially used can of electrodes dating from the 1960's. It is
assumed that the “pop-outs” floated into the open box as some
Constituent E6010 E6013 E7014 E7024
of the electrodes were used.
of coating
Keywords: Asbestos, welding electrodes, “pop-outs” Cellulose 25-40% 2-12% 2-6% 1-5%
Ca carbonate — 0-5% 0-5% 0-5%
Introduction Ti dioxide 10-20% 30-55% 20-35% 20-35%
Feldspar — 0-20% 0-5% —
Until about 1980 asbestos was used as one component of the Mica — 0-15% 0-5% 0-5%
coatings of many electrodes used for shielded metal arc Clay — 0-10% 0-5% —
welding. Since, even today, some professional welders and Iron Powder — — 25-40% 40-45%
retired welders are suffering from asbestosis, lung cancer and Ferrosilicon — — 0-5% 0-5%
mesothelioma, it is appropriate to enquire whether asbestos Ferromanganese 5-10% 5-10% 5-10% 5-10%
which escaped from these coatings could have contributed to Na silicate 20-30% — 0-10% 0-10%
their health problems. Since welders in the pre-1980 era were K silicate — 5-15% 5-10% 0-10%
usually exposed to other asbestos products such as asbestos
gloves and curtains, the asbestos in welding electrodes can at
most be one additional factor in the genesis of these three
diseases.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 525

Let us now consider the temperature at various points in and
near an electrode while it is in service (Fig.1). The arc
temperature is typically around 5,000°C (T1). At the liquid
metal/solid metal interface at the tip of the electrode the
temperature is equal to the melting temperature of steel, which
is about 1500°C (T2). At some small distance from the tip, the
coating is at about 700°C (T3). In the region where the
temperature is between T2 and T3 the asbestos in the coating
has decomposed giving up its water content and, above about
800°C, decomposing into fosterite and silica (2). Another
small distance up the electrode the temperature has reached
250°C (T4). Between the tip and the region where the
temperature is T4 the cellulose in the coating has charred. Figure 2: Pieces of one of the partially spent E6010 electrodes
Cellulose undergoes pyrolysis quite rapidly at and above about mounted for metallographic and SEM examination.
250°C (3). Examination of a partially spent electrode reveals
that T4 is at a distance of about 0.5 cm (.20 inch) from the tip. One metallographic mount from each set of three was selected
The coating is charred over this distance. Thus, these for SEM and coated with carbon by vacuum evaporation. An
considerations lead us to the conclusion that there is a narrow extensive study was made of these four specimens. Their
region adjacent to the tip where both the asbestos and cellulose microstructure was documented and their chemistry studied
have decomposed. Beyond this there is a second region where using energy dispersive analysis by X-rays (EDAX). The
just the cellulose has broken down. instrument used was a Cambridge Stereoscan 90 at the
University of Cincinnati. In this paper we show only one SEM
micrograph showing the structure of the coating remote from
the burnt tip (Fig. 3a) and another showing the structure in a
charred friable region (Fig. 3b).

Figure 1: Typical temperatures in the vicinity of the arc during

shielded metal arc welding.

(a)
Examination of partially spent electrodes
It was decided to check these predictions about the structure of
the coating on a partially spent electrode using metallography
and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Three electrodes of
each of the four kinds shown in Table 1 were burned so that
about one-third of the length of each was consumed making a
weld puddle on a block of steel. These electrodes did not
contain asbestos.. Each rod was cut into 1.9 cm (0.75 inch)
lengths starting at the tip. The first, second and fifth sections
were mounted for examination of longitudinal sections and the
sixth for examination of a transverse section. The mounting
was carried out using a cold setting resin. Rough polishing was
achieved using a belt grinder and three grades of emery paper.
The sections were examined in this condition. The rough (b)
topology of the coating, especially in the charred region, made
examination in a metallograph impractical. It was therefore Figure 3: The microstructure of a partially burnt E6010
decided to go directly to scanning electron microscopy. One of electrode: (a) remote from the burnt tip, and (b) in the charred
the E6010 metallographic mounts is shown in Fig. 2. friable region.

526
The charred region of the E6010 electrode’s coating was
extremely friable. Some material from it was scraped off and
examined separately in the SEM (Fig. 4). Many of the particles
of the scraped material are in the sub-micron range. The
charred regions in the other types of electrode were less friable
but still shed material quite easily.
Figure 4: Particles from the friable zone in a partially spent
E6010 electrode.
A “pop-out” theory of asbestos fiber release
Having established the existence of a friable zone near the tip
of a partially spent electrode it is now necessary to consider
whether respirable asbestos fibers can escape from such a zone
if asbestos fibers were incorporated in the formulation of the
coating. One argument that can be made is that, since the
silicate matrix of the coating is unaltered by temperatures even
beyond 700°C (4), the asbestos fibers remain encapsulated in it
and cannot escape. This argument may, however, not be
correct as will be shown both theoretically and by experiment
below.
Figure 5: The “pop-out” theory of the release of asbestos
fibers from a partially spent welding electrode (see the
accompanying text for details).
Consider the asbestos fiber shown in Fig. 5a. It is near the
surface of the coating of an electrode which is in service in a
region where the temperature is between T3 and T4 (Fig. 1). Its
527
temperature is increasing because the electrode is being
consumed at its tip. There is a radial temperature gradient
because heat is being lost at the coating surface and Joule
heating is occurring in the metal core of the electrode.
The basic chemical formula for chrysotile asbestos is
3MgO.2SiO2.2H2O. Above about 700°C it loses water
molecules irreversibly (2). When this process starts, a layer of
steam develops at the asbestos/silicate interface (Fig. 5b).
Because of the radial temperature gradient this occurs first at
the end of the fiber furthest from the coating surface and
proceeds outwards towards the surface. If the fiber is close to
the surface, as shown in Fig. 5, the steam pressure causes the
fiber to pop out of the surface (Fig. 5c). If the fiber is not near
the surface the “pop-out” mechanism does not operate. Instead,
the fiber remains within the silicate matrix but is no longer
bonded to it. If the tip continues to be consumed by the arc so
that it continues to approach the fiber, the asbestos loses all of
its water content and, eventually, if the temperature increases
by another hundred degrees or so, decomposes into fosterite
and silica (2). If the arc is extinguished, some fibers are left
embedded within the silicate but not bonded to it.
It seems likely that, when the arc is operating, the pop-outs will
be sucked into the plasma jet and destroyed in the arc. When
the arc is extinguished, however, heat continues to be
conducted up the electrode so that the location of T4 moves
upwards slightly thus creating “pop-outs” which are not
destroyed. Thus, these admittedly speculative theoretical
considerations suggest that the use of an electrode containing
asbestos should produce these “pop-outs” with small blobs of
silicate on one end. In addition a small band of material in the
friable zone should contain some asbestos fibers encased in
silicate but not bonded to it.
Dust from a box of E6013 electrodes
An opened and partially used box of E6013 electrodes which
had been in the possession of the family of one of the present
authors (R.J.S.) since the 1960's was obtained for study. It
contained some dust which of course might have been
generated by contact between the electrodes, which were not
wrapped, or may have floated into the box through its opening.
It was decided to examine this dust for asbestos using scanning
transmission electron microscopy (STEM).
The work was carried out at a laboratory affiliated with the
University of Louisville which was set up principally to identify
asbestos according to the requirements of the Asbestos Hazard
Emergency Response Act (AHERA) of 1986. This Act related
to the removal of asbestos from schools. When the work
reported here was carried out the laboratory had dropped its
AHERA accreditation but still had its personnel and
instrumentation. The electron microscope used was a Philips
CM-12. Selected area diffraction was used to identify asbestos
fibers using a Biorad Microscience Division standard chrysotile
fiber. The instrument’s EDAX capability was used to obtain
semi-quantitative chemical compositions of particles studied.
Six samples of the dust were prepared for examination by
STEM using filters used in air sampling. The filter was either
wiped over several electrodes or wiped in the dust at the bottom
of the box after removing the electrodes. Three samples were
prepared using each method. The filters were collapsed in a
collapsing solution, dried, carbon coated and then dissolved in
a solvent. Concurrently they were mounted on microscope
grids. They were then dried. In some cases a gold coating was
added to the carbon coating.
The first sample studied was one of those obtained by wiping.
Early in the examination a fiber with a blob of material
attached to it was found (Fig. 6). The fiber was identified as
chrysotile asbestos using selected area diffraction and EDAX.
The blob gave no diffraction pattern. Its EDAX spectrum
exhibited strong potassium and silicon peaks. Since this
particular EDAX unit does not detect elements as far down the
periodic table as oxygen, it is reasonable to conclude that the
blob consists of the amorphous potassium silicate which is
supposed to be one of the components of the coating of an
E6013 electrode (Table 1).
Figure 6: A chrysotile asbestos fiber with an attached blob of
potassium silicate found in a dust sample from a box of 6013
electrodes.
Nine more particles were chosen for study. They were
documented with micrographs, which will not be presented
here, and attempts were made to obtain a selected area
diffraction pattern and EDAX spectrum for each one. The
results are shown in Table 2. The EDAX results show that
eight of the ten particles contain potassium and silicon. Thus,
they almost certainly are fragments of the potassium silicate
matrix of the electrodes’ coating. The titanium peaks in
particles 3 and 9 no doubt come from the titanium dioxide
which is a component of the coating, and the aluminum,
calcium and magnesium peaks from the mineral components.
We do not know whether the particles and fiber were generated
by contact between electrodes in the box, or whether they
floated into the box as welding was conducted nearby.
The other five specimens were searched for fibers by the
systematic scanning of several grid openings on each. One
fiber with a blob on it was found in each of the other two
528
electrode wipe specimens, and in one of the three wipes from
the bottom of the box. One fiber without a blob was found in
one of the box wipe specimens. Thus, in all, five chrysotile
asbestos fibers were found in these six specimens and four of
these have blobs of potassium silicate attached to them. This
then provides strong confirmation for the “pop-out” theory.
The fibers with blobs are “pop-outs”. Presumably they floated
into the box when welding was in progress near the box.
Table 2: Selected area diffraction and EDAX results for ten
particles from dust in a box of E6013 electrodes.
Particle No. Selected area EDAX results
diffraction result
1a (fiber) chrysotile asbestos Mg, Si
1b (blob) no pattern K, Si
2 no pattern K, Si
3 no pattern K, Si, Ti, Al
4 unidentified K, Si, Ca, Al
5 no pattern K, Si
6 no pattern K, Si, Al
7 (black disc) no pattern no peaks
8 unidentified K, Si, Al
9 too thick Ti, K, Si
10 no pattern Al, Si, Ca
Welding experiments using E6010 electrodes
in an enclosure
An opened and partially used box of E6010 electrodes from the
1960's was obtained as the result of advertising nationally. It
was decided to use some of these to try to determine whether
there is an increase in airborne asbestos in an enclosure in
which welding is being carried out using electrodes containing
asbestos. A company in the air monitoring business was
retained to conduct the air monitoring part of the experiment.
The experiment turned out to be of limited value, but we give a
short account of it here so that others who may decide to pursue
this line of enquiry may avoid some of the pitfalls which we
encountered.
Some space in a warehouse which was claimed to be free of
asbestos was rented for the project. An enclosure roughly 2.5m
in length and width and 1.9m in height was built using new
plastic sheet. While the enclosure was being built a monitor
was used to obtain an asbestos fiber background count. This
gave an airborne concentration of 44 fibers/l based on 9 fibers
found in 9 grid openings. Thus, the first setback was finding
that the warehouse was by no means free of asbestos.
Twelve E6010 electrodes were partially burned inside the
enclosure. About one-third of each was consumed. There were
three monitors inside the enclosure of which one was worn at
face level by the welder. A fourth was placed outside the
entrance in a closed decontamination area. Later examination
of the three filters from the monitors inside the enclosure
showed that they were heavily overloaded with plume from the
welding operation. This was the second setback. A procedure
to deal with this situation was developed. Some of the material
from each filter was digested in hydrochloric acid and
transferred to other filters. A procedure similar to this has been
used to detect asbestos in tiles. In the present case only 1 fiber
was found after examining 15 grid openings from this second
filter from the monitor carried by the welder. One fiber was
found on the second filter from one of the other monitors in the
enclosure after studying 10 grid openings. A similar search of
the other second filter from a monitor inside the enclosure
found no fibers. Also, no fibers were found on the filter from
the decontamination area after examining 10 grid openings.
Thus, all we learned from these results was that the plume is
essentially free of asbestos fibers, which is hardly surprising
since it originated in the arc.
Two monitors were placed in the enclosure after the experiment
had ended so as to determine whether it was safe to take down
the enclosure. The filters from those monitors were examined
immediately using phase contrast microscopy. One gave a
concentration of fibers of about 4 fibers/l based on finding 12
fibers. The other gave a similar concentration based on finding
13 fibers. Thus, the background outside the enclosure was 44
fibers/l before the experiment began and about 4 fibers/l inside
the enclosure after the experiment. One might interpret this to
mean that the welding cleaned up the air in the enclosure.
Alternatively one might conclude that the activity associated
with building the enclosure stirred up some asbestos which
gave rise to the relatively high count of 44 fibers/l. The
maximum permitted in a school is 35 fibers/l.
Conclusions
Although this work does not fully resolve the problem of
determining the role of asbestos in welding electrodes in
causing asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma there are
certain conclusions which can be drawn from it which advance
our understanding of the problem. These may be summarized
as follows:
from its matrix. If the friable zone cools before the
asbestos fiber has completely dissociated from its water
molecules, an embedded fiber is left in the matrix.
(v) If the fiber is near the coating surface when it reaches
about 700°C it may “pop out” of the surface taking a small
blob of silicate with it.
Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to the following for their
contributions to this project:
(i) The late Ernest Clark of the University of Cincinnati for
operating the scanning electron microscope.
(ii) Dr. Alan Dozier, now of the University of Kentucky, for
operating the scanning transmission electron microscope
and interpreting the selected area diffraction results.
(iii) Mr. Daniel Hayes of Hayes Testing Laboratory in
Louisville, Kentucky, for his advice and making available
the welding facilities at his company.
(iv) The personnel of Guardian Laboratories Inc. of Louisville
for carrying out the air monitoring work.
References
1. ASM Metals Handbook (Ninth Edition), Vol. 6, Welding,
Brazing and Soldering, p. 81 (1983).
2. W. C. Streib, “Asbestos”, p. 267, Kirk-Othmer
Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (Third Edition),
Vol. 3, Wiley-Interscience, (1978).
3. F. Shafizadeh, “Pyrolysis and Combustion of Cellulosic
Materials”, p. 419, Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry,
Vol. 23, Academic Press (1968).
4. J. H. Wills, “Soluble Silicates and Synthetic Insoluble
Silicates”, p. 303, Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology, Vol. 12, Interscience Encyclopedia Inc.
(1954).

(i) The plume from using asbestos containing electrodes is

essentially free of asbestos fibers because the plume is
generated at the arc which is hot enough to destroy
asbestos.

(ii) A partially spent electrode has a charred “friable zone” in

its coating which extends about 0.5cm (0.20 inch) from its
tip.

(iii) In the part of the friable zone of a cellulose bearing

electrode which has reached temperatures between 250°
and 700°C there are unaltered asbestos fibers still
embedded in the coating’s silicate matrix.

(iv) In the part of the friable zone of such an electrode which

has reached about 700°C, steam from water molecules lost
by the asbestos may cause separation of an asbestos fiber

529
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Predicting Distortion and Residual Stress
in Complex Welded Structures by Designers
J. Goldak, J. Zhou, S. Tchernov, D. Downey
Goldak Technologies Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada
S. Wang, B. He
Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada,
Abstract:
Since the first `Trends’ conference Computational Weld
Mechanics CWM) has made grown from infancy to a mature
technology. Numerical algorithms can now compute nonlinear
transient temperature, stress and strain near a weld pool.
Microstructure evolution for some alloys has progressed.
While this paper will touch briefly on the development of
more accurate algorithms that capture more physics and
require less computer time, the focus will be on progress
towards the development of `industrial strength’ CWM
software that can be used by designers in industry to analyze
the welding of complex structures and its impact on CWM
research.
For this paper, a structure with more than say ten parts and
more than ten welds is considered complex. The analysis
should be able to compute the transient temperature,
microstructure evolution, distortion and stress for a sequence
of welds including delay times between welds and cool-down
after welding is complete. Multi-pass welds could be present.
Fixtures should be applied and removed as appropriate. Tack
welds are often important. The analysis should run quickly,
preferably in less than a day on an ordinary workstation. The
user should be able to prepare input data quickly, say less than
a day. The most important point is that people who design
welded structures, not CWM specialists, should be able to do
the analysis. Progress towards meeting these challenges will
be presented.
Introduction
The methodology of thermal stress analysis of welds in
welded structures is now reasonably well understood. The
factors that limit the widespread and routine use of CWM in
industry are: a) the time to train a designer or analyst to do the
analysis, b) the time to prepare data for an analysis, c) the
computer time to do the analysis, d) the availability of data to
characterize material properties and welding processes, e) the
availability of experimental data to verify and validate the
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 531
analysis. Of these factors, only d) and e) are essential. The
first two depend only on the software design. The computer
time is a rapidly decreasing product of the performance of
numerical algorithms and the computer speed that decreases
computer time. This product decreases by a factor of about 2x
each year on a single CPU. The cost of a CPU is also
declining.
Many perhaps most published papers do not add filler metal
during welding, do not include tack welds and do not include
general fixtures and often do not sequence welds. Welds in
industry often have such features.
The organization of the paper is as follows: Section 2
summarizes the current state of the art in CWM. Section 3
describes the conceptual or abstract structure of a typical
CWM problem and the representations that we use. Section 4
describes the 3D transient thermal stress analysis of welds of
tee joints with tack welds. Section 5 discusses the interactions
between weld pools. Specifically it presents an example of
distortion in multi-pass welds as a function of weld pool
spacing on a long tee joint. Section 6 shows an analysis of a
microstructure evolution in the fusion zone and HAZ of a girth
weld in X-100 line pipe. Section 7 describes the analysis of a
complex structure with fifty parts and fifty welds. Section 8
presents conclusions and future work.
Computational Weld Mechanics: Current State of the Art
For detailed and rather comprehensive reviews of CWM see
L-E Lindgren and Radaj [1-3]. Here we only summarize the
main points and of course it is done from our point of view.
There are a hierarchy of weld heat source models. Rosenthal-
Rykalin models constrain the weld power and specify the
distribution of power at point, line or plane delta functions.
Distributed power density models such as the double ellipsoid,
also constrain the power but in addition provide more general
distributions of power density. Equilibrium force weld pool
models, such as those of Ohjii, Sudnik and Weiss [4-6],
constrain the balance of static forces but ignore dynamic
forces. Dynamic weld pool models such as those of Szekely,
Matsunawa, Zacharia and DebRoy [7-10] include dynamic
forces such as inertial, Lorentz and Marangoni. Arc models
such as those developed by Lowke, Ushio, Kovacevic, [11-13]
include models of the arc for TIG and in some cases for
GMAW. Most thermal stress analysis published to date use
distributed power density heat source models. Exceptions are
are described in [14-15]. We have started to use the Ohjii,
Sudnik and Weiss heat source models in our work. In the very
near future, we and we expect that others will use holistic
GMAW heat source models in the thermal stress analysis of
welded structures.
A critical pacing issue in CWM is the availability of values of
material properties as functions of temperature, micro-
structure, strain rate, stress and damage. In our work, we have
had to make do with published values. We will return to this
very important point in the discussion.
0.0005
'displaceTemperatureSmallStep1.dat'
'displaceTemperatureMediamStep1.dat'
'displaceTemperatureLargeStep1.dat'
0.0004
0.0003

displacement
0.0002

0.0001

-0.0001
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
temp

Figure 2. The dilation curve for a low alloy steel was

Figure 1. The Weiss weld pool model includes pressure,
thermal flux and current density from an electrode and surface
tension and hydrostatic stress in the weld pool. It ignores
inertial, Lorentz and Marangoni forces. The temperature
distribution is shown.
computed from the specific volume of each phase fraction, not
a thermal expansion coefficient of the material. Phase
fractions were computed by a microstructure evolution model.
(with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
'stressTemperature1.dat'
'stressTemperature2.dat'
4e+08

To date most thermal stress analysis of welded structures has

used rate independent plasticity. This is appropriate for lower 2e+08
temperature deformation, say below 600 to 800 C in low alloy
steels. For the past ten years we have used rate dependent
plasticity based on the work of Simo [16]. This is appropriate
stress

0
for isotropic materials up to the melting point and includes
creep and viscous flow. Next generation plasticity models
promise to use non-convex analysis including more detailed -2e+08
models of microstructure and damage evolution.

Microstructure evolution is very dependent on the thermo- -4e+08

dynamics and kinetics of the alloy system. For low alloy
steels, we use what can be called density models. At each 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
temp
point in space and time (x,y,z,t), the phase fraction per unit
volume of each phase is specified. The evolution of phases is
either modeled with ODEs motivated by the original work of Figure 3. Transformation plasticity in a low alloy steel that is
Kirkaldy [17] or by algebraic equations such as the Koisten- heated and cooled at a constant rate. (with permission of
Marburger equation for martensite evolution as a function of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
temperature. Next generation microstructure models for
CWM are based on phase field theory (Pavlik, Dilthey) [10] or We prefer 3D transient analysis in Lagrangian, Eulerian or
cellular automata. To my knowledge, the next generation ALE frames to 3D steady state analysis or 2D analysis. In
microstructure models have rarely been used in thermal stress some cases, such as microstructure evolution in the HAZ, 2D
analysis of welded structures. See Choi and Mazumder [15] analysis is useful. Certainly 2D visualization is often useful. It
and Shen and Chen [15] for exceptions. should always be remembered that the real solution almost
always lies in 4D space-time and solutions in 2D and ID space

532
are intended to be projections of the 4D solution onto 2D or
1D manifolds.
Until fairly recently, people have tended to think of computing
time for 3D transient analysis of welds in terms of days to
weeks. With modern numerical algorithms computing times
now are in the range of seconds to hours on low cost desktop
computers. With the decrease in the time and cost of
computing, the time and expertise to prepare input data needed
to do a thermal stress analysis of a welded structure has
become a critical issue. This is particularly true for the
analysis of realistic welded structures that include many parts,
many weld joints, tack welds, multi-pass welds and fixtures.
We address that issue in the next section.
Design Space or Abstract Structure of a Welding Problem
The term User-Friendly suggests that a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) enables the user to work directly with the
conceptual structure of the CWM problem. This demands that
the underlying software work directly with the conceptual
structure of the problem. This implies that the GUI enable the
user to work directly with the geometry, not just some specific
representation of the geometry such as a particular mesh. In
addition, the user musts be able to work with concepts of the
welding process such weld joints, weld procedures, weld
processes, material or alloy types, fixtures, welding schedules,
etc.
The distinction between working at a conceptual level, i.e.,
working at higher levels of abstraction and working at the
lower level of a specific representation is critical to software
design and development. For example, if a weld path is
defined by an ordered set of nodes in a specific mesh, then if
the mesh is changed, the set of nodes that define the weld path
must also change. If the weld path is defined independently of
any mesh, then changing a mesh does not require changing the
representation of the weld path.
Designing software is essentially designing a graph that can be
managed, extended, maintained and adapted to fit into a larger
rapidly changing world. One of the most important principles
is that each piece of software should not contain anything that
is not absolutely essential to its operation. This is much harder
to do than it might first appear. WWW succeeded because it
only cares about how a message or file is sent from A to B. It
does not care and has no information at all about what the file
contains other than the file be binary.
The conceptual structure of a welding problem: It is assumed
that a weld problem has a set of parts to be welded. Each part
has geometry including a position in space. Each part has an
alloy type and could have additional state such phase fractions
of microstructure, residual stress, etc. In addition to parts to
be welded, there are parts that are used as fixtures. They too
have geometry and material or alloy type. There are weld
joints. Each weld joint has an oriented path, i.e., it is
associated with an oriented curve in space with a start and end
point. Each weld joint has a weld procedure that specifies the
welding process and state variables for each weld pass such as
533
current, voltage, arc efficiency, welding speed. For GMAW,
wire diameter, wire speed and composition are state variables.
There is also a design for tack welds that could include the
size and spacing of tack welds in each weld joint. There is a
schedule that determines when each weld pass in each weld
joint starts. There is a schedule for fixtures that specifies
when each fixture is applied and removed and the nature of the
constraint. We call this parametric space, the design space for
computational weld mechanics.
Notice that no data has been given. It is as if a blank form has
been given and the user is free to the add data that defines
their specific welding problem which we call a project.
However the user is not free to change the form. Of course,
users often work on very similar problems. So it is desirable
to be able to create a new project by editing an existing project
if the changes are small. It also would be useful if the software
was aware of the changes or differences in the project so that
the user would not have to check all of the input to identify the
changes.
Another rule is that the user should not have to know in detail
how most things are done. The user certainly should know
what is done, with what accuracy, robustness and cost in time
and money. In our view, a designer or welding engineer
should not be required to learn to be an expert in the use of
FEM codes to analyze a welding problem.
How should the user specify the input data? We have devised
the following methodology.
Geometry of Parts:
We assume that the geometry of parts can be specified in any
of the following ways.
1. A parameterized type, e.g., a straight pipe defined by an
inner diameter, wall thickness and coordinates of start and end
point for the axis of the pipe.
2. A stereo-lithographic (STL) file generated by a CAD
system that tessellates the boundary of each part. If the
geometry is not easily specified by a parameterized type, then
it might best be specified in a CAD system and an STL file
exported. An STL file specifies the (x,y,z) coordinates of the
three vertices on a triangle and the outward normal of the
triangle on one line of the file, i.e., twelve real numbers for
each triangle. These files are used by 3D printing machines.
3. A distance function that is zero on the boundary of the part,
negative in the interior and positive in the exterior of the part.
The zero level set of this function is the oriented boundary of
the part.
4. A finite element mesh of each part. The format of the file
must be known so that file can be read and in effect parsed.
Given any of these specifications of the geometry of each part,
the software should as automatically as possible, generate
whatever 3D meshes are appropriate for the analysis.
Weld Procedure:
A weld procedure is a set of parameters that specifies the
welding process for each weld pass. It usually has a list of
variable names and values for each weld pass, e.g., weld
process type, weld speed, weld current, weld voltage and
waveform, preheat temperature and inter-pass temperature.
For GMAW, wire diameter, wire speed and wire composition
are important. It may have a typical cross-section of the weld
joint showing the filler metal or weld pool for each weld pass.

Figure 5. This stringer weld has no tack welds. The maximum

displacement is 64 mm. (with permission of Goldak
Technologies Inc.)
Figure 4. Weld joints usually have filler metal. In this figure
the the filler metal is parameterized by the user specified
Bezier curves that define the weld pool outline for each weld
pass. For each Bezier curve segment, which is shown in a
different color, the user specifies the (x,y) coordinates of four
point. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)

Weld joints
We assume that each weld joint is characterized by a weld
path and a weld procedure. The path is an oriented curve in
space equipped with two distinguishing directions at each
point in space. One distinguished direction is the tangent to the
weld path. The other distinguished direction must be specified
by the user or automatically determined from a cross-section
of the weld joint preparation. When a weld joint is associated
with a sharp edge of some part, as they often are, we prefer to
pick a start, next and end point on this sharp edge and let the
software determine the curve from the geometry.

Tack welds can be specified by specifying the location of each

tack weld in a weld joint or by using rules such as place a tack
at the center of a weld and space tacks at a specified distance
apart.
Fixtures play a significant role in welding. Fixtures constrain
the displacement or movement of the parts being welded.
They may or may not allow sliding or normal motion. They
may be nonlinear, e.g., a platform may prevent penetration but
not restrain the upward motion during buckling.
Figure 6. This stringer weld has tack welds at the start and
end of the weld joint. The maximum displacement is 5 mm.
(with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
Scheduling of Welding
Each weld pass has a start time. The end time is determined by
the welding speed and the length of the weld path. The
designer must specify the start time of each pass. A default is

534

Figure 7. This stringer weld has tack welds at the ends and the
center of the weld path. The maximum displacement is 1.8 mm.
(with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
Figure 8. This stringer weld is pre-welded, i.e., the
displacement difference between the web and flange is
constrained to be zero. The maximum displacement is 1.5 mm.
(with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
to specify the order of weld pass with the option of a delay
time between the end of one weld pass and the start of the next
weld path. Fixtures are also scheduled. A great deal of
distortion often occurs after the end of welding while the parts
are cooling to ambient temperature.
535
Effect of Tack Welds.
Tack weld are a simple form of fixturing. Figures 5-7 show
stringer joint welds made with no tack welds, tack welds at the
ends and tack welds at the ends and at the middle of the weld
joint. In the fourth weld, the mesh of web and flange share
nodes and, in effect, are pre-welded. The flange is 1000 x 6 x
150 mm the web is 1000 x 6 x 150 mm. The left end is fixed
but allowed to rotate about the bottom edge. The right end is
supported but allowed to slide longitudinally. The weld
parameters for each weld pass are (V= 22, I = 200, eff = .08,
speed = 3 mm/s). The material is steel with material
properties are taken from [19].
Figure 5 suggests that without tack welds or other fixturing,
the weld is not feasible. Figure 6 and 7 show that the
maximum deflection decreases from 5 to 1.8 mm as the
number of tacks in this 1 m weld joint is increased from 2 to 3.
If an infinite number of tack welds could be used, figure 8
suggests that the maximum deflection would decrease to 1.5
mm. Clearly the distortion is sensitive to the number and
position of the tack welds.
Interactions Between Weld Pools
Figures 9 shows the final deformation on an edge weld on a 1
meter long rectangular bar. Figure 10-11 show the same bar
but now welded with two interacting weld pools. Both arcs
have the same power, the second bar receives twice as much
heat input as the first bar. In spite of the doubling the heat
input, the second bar has slightly less maximum deflection,
5.21 vs 6.21 mm.
Figure 9. A single pass weld on this rectangular bar resulted in
a maximum deflection of 6.42 mm.

Figure 10 shows deformation of a rectangular beam two weld
passes on the top edge.
Figure 11. The bar welded with two pass with the electrode 30
cm behind the first arc, resulted in a maximum deflection of
5.21 mm.
Multi-pass Girth Weld in X-100 Line Pipe
Figures 12 and 13 show the fraction bainite in first pass of a
three pass line pipe girth weld. The composition of the X-100
pipe is (Fe, bal ) (C,0.051) (Mn, 1.74) (Si, 0.33) (Cr, 0.027)
(Mo, 0.28) (Ni, 0.21) (Cu, 0.017) (V, 0.0043) (B, 0.0008) .
The composition of X-100 Weld Metal is (Fe, bal) (C,0.077)
536
(Mn, 1.52) (Si, 0.43) (S,0.006) (P, 0.007) (Ni,0.75) (Cr,0.03)
(Mo,0.28) (Cu,0.12) (Nb,0.007) (V,0.005) (Ti,0.033)
(B,0.0005).
Figure 12 shows the fraction bainite in a girth weld in an X
-100 pipe 66.5 seconds after the arc passed, which is 112 mm
behind the arc. Because of composition differences and
because the fusion zone is slightly hotter, the HAZ transfers to
bainite earlier than the fusion zone. (with permission of
Goldak Technologies Inc.)
Figure 13. shows the fraction bainite in a girth weld in an X
-100 pipe 68.5 seconds after the arc passed, which is 115 mm
behind the arc. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
The interesting point is the delay in the decomposition of
austenite to bainite in the HAZ and fusion zone. Because of
composition differences and because the fusion zone is
slightly hotter because of the curvature of the temperature
isotherms, the microstructure code predicts that the HAZ
transfers to bainite slightly later than the fusion zone.
 the weld joints are seven pass welds, six are three pass welds
and the remainder are single pass welds. All welds are
GMAW. There are several tack welds. There are ten fixture
parts. The thermal stress analysis of this structure proceeds as
follows:

Import STL files for each part. Assign part types body or
fixture. Assign an alloy type to each part.

For each weld joint pick a start, next and end point and assign
a weld procedure type.

Figure 14. Start, next and end points are shown are
associated with an edge in the imported geometry. Each set of
red, dark blue, light blue and green sets of points (balls)
defines a weld path. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Figure 16. The weld joints with filler metal on this complex
Inc.) welded structure are shown. (with permission of Goldak
Technologies Inc.)

If a weld procedure type does not exist in the weld procedure

library, create the weld procedure type. This specifies weld
heat source power distribution, e.g., as welding current,
voltage and arc efficiency and double ellipsoid parameters,
weld pool temperature distribution, filler metal cross-section
and welding speed for each weld pass.

For each fixture assign appropriate constraints. Often this is a

prescribed displacement constraint but could be a non-linear
contact element or non-linear spring

For each weld pass assign a start time or order the weld passes
and specify a delay time from the end of one weld to the start
of the next weld. Define a cool-down time, i.e., the length of
time for thermal stress analysis after the last weld has been
completed.

Figure 15. Given the weld path and weld procedure, an FEM
mesh for the filler metal mesh is defined automatically for
each weld joint. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)

Analyzing Complex Welded Structures Figure 17. This shows a more detailed view of some of the
Figures 14-19 show several views of a low alloy steel weld joints. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)
structure with 50 parts to be welded by 50 weld joints. Two of

537
To do the analysis, the first step is to mesh parts, fixtures and If the designer wishes to change weld procedures or weld
filler metal fully automatically. Then we do a sequence of sequencing, alloy types, etc., the input is simply edited and a
simple solves to convince ourselves that the problem is new project created and analyzed.
properly setup. We first simply apply filler metal in the welds
to check the visualization to see that the input data is correct.
This is very fast and only requires the time to display results.
If a weld joint has been missed or is in the wrong position or
the sequence is wrong, this is easily detected in the visual-
ization. Next we run a transient thermal analysis on all weld
joints starting at time zero but we do not do the stress analysis
at this time. This too is very fast. We might next do a transient
thermal analysis with the real weld sequence and real weld
start times for each pass. At this point, if we have not detected
any inappropriate input data, we are satisfied with the problem
set up. Next we solve for the transient thermal stress and
displacement for all welds starting at time zero. This can be
almost fifty times fasters than solving for stress and
displacement for fifty sequential welds. Finally we are ready
to solve the full transient thermal stress for sequential welds.
Following the analysis, results are post processed and
visualized. Often animations are made.

Figure 19. For the purposes of illustration, the transient

displacement field is shown while simultaneously welding all
weld joints. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.)

Conclusions and Future Work:

We have presented a brief tour of the design space for
computational weld mechanics. We argued that it is now
feasible for designers to analyze fairly complex welded
structures as part of their routine design process. Indeed even
undergraduate students could to do such analyses as a routine
part of their courses. This capability should do much make the
science of welding more easily understood by everyone with
an interest in welding.

In the near future, we expect progress on the following

critical pacing issues in welding research:
Figure 18. For the purposes of illustration, the transient
temperature field is shown after simultaneously welding all 1. Developing sensor systems that can gather experimental
weld joints. (with permission of Goldak Technologies Inc.) data efficiently and accurately.

It also possible to specify sampling points, e.g., specify a set
of points and gather data such as displacement, temperature,
stress, etc., at each point as a function of time. Then plot
values as functions of time.
The time to prepare data for this problem is the time to pick
the 50 sets of start, next, end points to define the weld joints,
assign a weld procedure to each weld joint and assign a start
time or weld pass order. Once a designer has become familiar
with the software and the STL files have exported from a
CAD system, this data preparation time should be of the order
of a half day.
2. Algorithms that use this sensor data to solve inverse
problems to compute material properties such as yield strength
and viscosity as functions of temperature, time, micro-
structure, strain, strain rate, stress and damage and also the
parameters that characterize the welding process. The
properties are required not only for the alloy but also for each
phase in the microstructure of the alloy.
3. The use of the optimization theory developed by Michelaris
[20] to optimize welding problems in industry. As the cost
and time for data preparation and for computing time
decreases rapidly, the cost of optimization will also decrease

538
rapidly. As industry gathers and archives more data,
optimization will become more attractive.
4. The use of holistic heat source models for processes such as
GMAW that include solidification, fluid flow and arc models
will be developed and coupled to thermal stress analysis of
welded structures.
5. Multi-scale models that couple macroscopic continuum
mechanics to microstructure models and fracture models
coupled to microstructure.
6. The development of real-time control of the welding
process using the mathematics of Kalman filters that
minimizes the errors in both the sensor data and the
computational model. This dynamically validate and calibrate
the computational model.
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and Technology, 100, 356-362, (1978)
20. J. Song, J. Y. Shangvi, P. Michaleris, Sensitivity
Analysis and Optimization of Thermo-Elasto-Plastic
Processes with Applications to Welding Side Heater
Design, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg, 193,
4541-4566, (2004)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Evaluation of A Decoupled Plastic Strain Method for
Welding Distortion Prediction
L. Zhang ∗, P. Michaleris † , J. Sun ‡, P. Marugabandhu
Abstract
Accurate prediction of the welding distortions plays a
significant role in the fabrication of large and complex
structures in many industries such as shipbuilding,
aerospace, transportation and power generation. It is
commonly agreed that to perform the traditional transient
thermo-mechanical analysis on a 3D finite element model
with moving source heat input is computationally costly
and time consuming. In this paper, a 3D to 3D decoupled
applied plastic strain method was developed and evaluated
by analyzing the welding distortion of a large and complex
multi-welded structure. A guideway beam to be used to
support a magnetically levitated train (ie. maglev guideway
beam) is used as a test example. The six components
of the plastic strain fields of each weld are calculated by
performing a 3D moving source analyses on small 3D models
with shorter length. Then the plastic strain components of
the small models are mapped and superposed to a large
3D structural model to obtain the final distortion results.
The effectiveness of the decoupled plastic strain method
was evaluated by comparing to the distortion results from
3D moving source simulations. The numerical results show
that decoupled plastic strain method is only qualitatively
accurate for modeling angular distortion in large welded
structures.
1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Large and complex welded structures are commonly used
in industries such as shipbuilding, aerospace, automotive,
∗ Graduate Student, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 307 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 865-0059, Email:
lxz133@psu.edu
† Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 232 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 863-7273 Fax : (814)
863-4848 Email: pxm32@psu.edu
‡ Graduate Student, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 17 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 863-3245, Email:
jqs112@psu.edu
§ Research & Development Engineer, Maglev Inc., Tech One Office
and Research Center, 2000 Tech Center Drive, Monroeville, PA 15146,
USA Tel : (412) 816-1200 ext. 6091 Fax : (412) 863-1201 Email:
mpr@maglevinc.com
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
§
etc., which have strict dimensional requirements. However,
during welding distortions will be induced, which can
significantly affect the quality of product. Though precision
fabrication may provide high dimensional accuracy, the
cost of production of a large and complex structure
would be much higher without computer aided design and
manufacturing. The numerical modeling of the large welded
structures will not only provide an accurate prediction of
welding distortions, but will also give valuable insights
into the manufacturing process in advance, so that welding
parameters can be chosen to limit the welding distortions
to within the desired tolerance, thus eliminating expensive
rework or product scrap.
To date, developing an efficient and effective model
to accurately predict the welding distortions of large
structures has proven to be a challenge. Although 3D
moving source analysis is expected to be more accurate
in welding distortion prediction, the computational cost is
too high for practical use. Mesh adaptivity and domain
decomposition for parallel processing are the two main
fields which promise to make the 3D moving source method
more computationally efficient. Although efforts have
been made to improve the computational efficiency of
modeling techniques, such as adaptive meshing or parallel
computing, the traditional 3D moving source simulation,
which involves millions of degrees of freedom (DOF) and
thousands of time increments, can still be considered to be
very computationally expensive.
One promising method to solve the large scale problem
is the decoupled plastic strain method, also called applied
plastic (inherent) strain method. Ueda et al. firstly
proposed the concept of decoupled strain and applied the
decoupled inherent strain approach to determining the
residual stresses and distortions of various welded structures
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Tsai et al. developed a plasticity-based
decoupled approach to predict angular welding distortions
in panels and T-Joints [7, 8]. Michaleris et al. developed
a decoupled 2D-3D approach to model welding induced
buckling in large ship panels [9]. The 2D-3D approach
successfully predicted buckling distortion.
The objective of this paper is to develop a 3D-
3D decoupled plastic strain method and evaluate the
effectiveness and computational efficiency of this method for
the prediction of welding distortions in large and complex
structures. In applying this method, a 3D structural model
of a large and complex structure is decomposed into a series
541
 2

of smaller models. A full 3D moving source analysis is

performed on each model to obtain the six components of
the plastic strain, and these plastic strain components are X

mapped and superposed to the large 3D structural model 1

Y X
1
Y
to obtain the final distortion results. A maglev guideway 1
Z
Z1 Local Coordinate
beam is used as an example of large and complex multi-
welded structures for decoupled plastic strain analysis and 0 33
The effectiveness of the decoupled plastic strain method was
evaluated by comparing to the distortion results from 3D
moving source simulations.

2 Summary of 3D to 3D Decoupled
X

Plastic Strain Method Y

Globall Coordinate
Z

2.1 Procedure of the 3D to 3D Decoupled Figure 1: Coordinate Transformation

Strain Method
The procedure of applying the 3D to 3D decoupled strain
2.3 Interpolation Algorithm
method on a large welded structure includes four steps:
Before superposition, the stored plastic strain data may
1. Develop a small 3D model for each weld and perform need to be applied on a different mesh. The plastic strain
a 3D moving source analysis on the small model. at each gauss point in the large structural mesh can be
2. Calculate the six components of the plastic strain at interpolated by the values at the 3 × 3 gauss points in the
the cross section through middle length of the small correspondent element in the small mesh. The interpolation
model. algorithm is implemented as follows:

3. Create local coordinates for each weld on the large
3D structural model and apply the plastic strain
components uniformly through the length of the welds.
Apply interpolation if the mesh density is different
between the large 3D structural model and small
models.
4. Perform coordinate transformation and superpose the
plastic strain from all welds in the global coordinates
2.2 Coordinate Transformation
1. Given a gauss point in the large structural mesh,
determine its correspondent element in the small mesh
2. Calculate the element local coordinates of this gauss
point relative to the correspondent element.
3. Interpolate by the stored plastic strain values at the
3 × 3 gauss points of the correspondent element in the
small mesh.
As illustrated in Figure 2, the element local coordinates
(r1 , r2 ) can be calculated as follows:

To simulate a welding process in an arbitrary direction, 

the plastic strain computed from the 3D small models is −b1 ± b21 − 4a1 c1
r1 = (3)
initially applied on the local coordinates, then rotated to the 2a
 1
global coordinates of the large 3D structural model before −b2 ± b22 − 4a2 c2
superposition. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between r2 =
2a2
the local and the global coordinates. For an arbitrary
rotation, the rotation matrix is Here, r1 and r2 are between [-1, 1], and a1 , b1 , c1 and
  a2 , b2 , c2 are the calculated by the global coordinates of the
cos θ11 cosθ12 cosθ13 interpolated gauss points and the four corner nodes of the
R =  cosθ21 cosθ22 cosθ23  (1) correspondent element as follows:
cosθ31 cosθ32 cosθ33
a1 = v2 u 4 − u 2 v 4 (4)
where θij is the angle between the global axis and local
axis. θij can be calculated by b1 = 4yu2 − 4xv2 + u1 v2 − u2 v1 + u4 v3 − u3 v4
c1 = 4yu3 − 4xv3 + u1 v3 − u3 v1
cos θij = ei · ej (2) a2 = v2 u 3 − u 2 v 3
where ei and ej are the unit vectors along the global axis b2 = 4yu2 − 4xv2 + u1 v2 − u2 v1 + u3 v4 − u4 v3
and local axis, respectively. c2 = 4yu4 − 4xv4 + u1 v4 − u4 v1

542
 3

and Welds Type Number of Elements Number of Nodes

u1 = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
v1 = y1 + y2 + y3 + y4
u2 = x1 − x2 + x3 − x4
v2 = y1 − y2 + y3 − y4
u3 = −x1 − x2 + x3 + x4
v3 = −y1 − y2 + y3 + y4
u4 = −x1 + x2 + x3 − x4
v4 = −y1 + y2 + y3 − y4
where x, y are the interpolated global coordinates of the
new gauss point and x1 to x4 , y1 to y4 are the global and guide rail etc. The only part not included is the cross
coordinates the four corner nodes of the correspondent beam. The 3D finite element model where the plastic strain
element, respectively.
r2 ( Element Local Coordinates )
( x3 , y3 )
(5) 1 5454 26490
2 4224 20509
3 4986 24168
4 4986 24168
5 5250 24670
6 4986 24168
7 4986 24168
Table 1: Models for Welds Types in Maglev Test Beam
fields are applied, is illustrated in Figure 3. The model
has 10,804 hex20 elements and 55,100 nodes. The various
welds required to join the structure are also illustrated in the
figures. The mesh density is high in the transverse direction
of the weld to allow for the application of the welding plastic
strain.

Weld 2
( x4 , y4 )
r1 Weld 4

Weld 6
(x,y)
Weld 3

( x1 , y1 )
( x2 , y2 ) X
Weld 1
Weld 7
Y Y X Weld 5

Z Z

Y ( Global Coordinates )

Curve A

Nodes of small model Curve B

X
Curve D Curve C

Gauss Point of large structrual model

Figure 2: Interpolation between Gauss Point and Nodes Y

Z

Y
X
X

Figure 3: 3D Large Structural Model of the Maglev Test

3 Numerical Example Beam

The maglev guideway beam will be nearly 62 meters long to

accommodate the spans envisioned for final implementation
and Maglev Inc. has constructed a shorter beam (nearly
7 meters) for test and verification. In this paper, the 3.2 Numerical Models of the Welds
maglev test beam is used as an example of large structures
for the verification of the effectiveness of the decoupled Figures 4 illustrates the small 3D moving source models
for all welds and Table 1 lists the numbers of elements
strain method for the prediction of welding distortions. The
and nodes of each finite element model. In this paper,
verification is evaluated by comparing the distortion results
all the numerical models of the welds are 304.8 mm long.
of the decoupled strain analysis to that of a traditional 3D
moving source analysis. Compared to the large structural model, the mesh of the
model of each weld has higher density at the welding zone to
3.1 3D Large Structural Model of the ensure the accurate calculation of plastic strain distribution.
The transient heat transfer analysis and mechanical small
Maglev Test Beam
deformation analysis are performed for each small model to
A 1/8 part of the test beam is modeled including all the obtain the plastic strain distribution of the center plane,
major parts such as the web plate, deck plate, bulkhead, which is to be superposed on the large structural model.

543
 4

The decoupled method is applied on each individual

weld. The plastic strain of the middle cross-section plane
Node B
Center Plane is uniformly applied over the entire length of each small
weld model. For each weld, the distortion results of
decoupled plastic strain method are compared with that
Weld 1 Weld 2 Weld 3 Weld 4
of moving source analysis. Table 2 lists the Y-direction
distortion results for the decoupled and moving source
analyses at node B (See Figure 4) for all small models.
From the table, it can be seen that the distortion values
Y
Weld 5 Weld 6 Weld 7 predicted by the decoupled strain method are generally
X
overestimated compared to the moving source results and
Z
all the differences are within 20%. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the distortion results of the decoupled 3D
Figure 4: Numerical Models for Welds to 3D approach may be qualitatively accurate for modeling
each welds.
4 Verification Welds Decoupled Strain Moving Source Difference
Type Result (mm) Result (mm)
Verification of the decoupled 3D-3D applied plastic strain 1 3.444 3.023 13.927%
is performed by 2 -3.162 -3.041 3.979%
3 1.774 1.660 6.868%
1. Implementing the method on the small model of each 4 0.991 0.840 17.976%
weld using the moving source results as reference. 5 -1.354 -1.254 7.975%
6 0.539 0.526 2.472%
2. Performing a moving source analysis on 1/8 model of 7 0.831 0.931 10.741%
maglev test beam and comparing the results with the
decoupled method. Table 2: Y-direction Distortion Results at Node B for All
Welds
4.1 Comparison with 3D Moving Source
Distortion Results On Small Models
Figure 5 illustrates the plastic strain distribution near 4.2 Comparison with 3D Moving Source
the weld zone, which comes from the center plane of the Distortion Results On Large Structural
small 3D moving source model for weld 1. Note that the Model
plastic strain fields have nonzero values only near the weld,
To provide further evidence on verification of the 3D to 3D
therefore, only the plastic strain components near the weld
decoupled plastic strain method, 3D moving source analysis
are stored. The six components of plastic strain are also
on the large structural model is performed for comparison.
computed for the rest of the welds.
The moving source model has 84,668 hex20 elements and
5.00-02

4.53-02
2.90-02

2.40-02
424,343 nodes, and is computed on a large shared memory
4.07-02

3.60-02

3.13-02
1.90-02

1.40-02

9.00-03
Unisys computer with 16 CPUs.
2.67-02 4.00-03

2.20-02

1.73-02

1.27-02
-1.00-03

-6.00-03

-1.10-02
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the distortion results of the
8.00-03

3.33-03

-1.33-03
-1.60-02

-2.10-02

-2.60-02
decoupled plastic strain method and the 3D moving source
results, respectively. The X and Z distortion results along
-6.00-03 -3.10-02
Y Y
-1.07-02 -3.60-02

Z X Z X
-1.53-02 -4.10-02
p p
xx -2.00-02 yy -4.60-02

0. 7.50-02
curves A to D are illustrated in Figures 8 to 11 respectively.
-6.00-04 6.00-02

-1.20-03

-1.80-03

-2.40-03
4.50-02

3.00-02

1.50-02
It can be seen from these figures that both results are
-3.00-03

-3.60-03

-4.20-03
0.

-1.50-02

-3.00-02
of the same order of magnitude. However, the peak
difference along curve C is up to 5 mm. Therefore, it
-4.80-03 -4.50-02

-5.40-03 -6.00-02

-6.00-03 -7.50-02

-6.60-03 -9.00-02

Z X
p
-7.20-03

-7.80-03

-8.40-03
Y

Z X
p
-1.05-01

-1.20-01

-1.35-01
can be concluded that the the decoupled plastic strain
zz xy

method is only qualitatively accurate for modeling angular

-9.00-03 -1.50-01

1.45-02 2.35-02

1.20-02

9.50-03

7.00-03
2.00-02

1.65-02

1.30-02
distortion of the maglev test beam. The difference between
the decoupled plastic strain results and 3D moving source
4.50-03 9.50-03

2.00-03 6.00-03

-5.00-04 2.50-03

-3.00-03 -1.00-03

-5.50-03

-8.00-03

-1.05-02
-4.50-03

-8.00-03

-1.15-02
results of distortions in some local areas is attributed to the
following:
-1.30-02 -1.50-02

-1.55-02 -1.85-02
Y Y
-1.80-02 -2.20-02

Z X Z X
-2.05-02 -2.55-02
p p
yz -2.30-02 zx -2.90-02

1. The structural restraints may have a primary effect

Figure 5: Plastic Strain Distribution near the Weld (from on the distortion result. Since the whole structure is
the Center Plane of Weld 1) decomposed into many welds in the decoupled strain

544
 5

method, the interaction between the components and 7.00+00

the structural restraints this interaction causes are 6.50+00

neglected in the decoupled method. 6.00+00

5.50+00

2. In the decoupled approach, the plastic strain 5.00+00

components of all welds are applied at once, which 4.50+00

means they start from a condition of decreased 4.00+00

structural stiffness. Therefore, the distortion results of 3.50+00

the decoupled plastic strain method is expected to be 3.00+00

a little larger than that of 3D moving source analysis. 2.50+00

Moreover, the plastic strain distribution is taken at 2.00+00

the room temperature after cooling, whereas in the 1.50+00

Z
moving source analysis, all welds are applied one by Y
1.00+00

5.00-01
one immediately without cooling between them. X

0.

3. The sequencing effects of welds and edge effect are 3D Moving Source Method

neglected in the decoupled plastic strain method,

Figure 7: Moving Source Distortion Results of the Large
whereas these effects are taken into the consideration Structural Model, (From Viewpoint 4, 50X Magnified)
in the 3D moving source analysis.
LEGEND
X-direction distortion, moving source result
X-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result
7.00+00
Z-direction distortion, moving source result
Z-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result
6.50+00

6.00+00

1.25+00
5.50+00

5.00+00
1.00+00

4.50+00

4.00+00 7.50-01
Distortion Results ( mm )

3.50+00
5.00-01
3.00+00

2.50+00 2.50-01

2.00+00

0.
1.50+00

Z
1.00+00
-2.50-01
Y
0. 3.50+02 7.00+02 1.05+03 1.40+03 1.75+03 2.10+03
X 5.00-01
( Free end )
Length of Curve A ( mm )
0.

Decoupled Applied Plastic Strain Method

Figure 8: Distortion along Curve A
Figure 6: Decoupled Distortion Results of the Large Structural
Model, (From Viewpoint 4, 50X Magnified)
5.2 Scope of Application
The decoupled plastic strain method requires less RAM
to compute the distortion compared to a moving source
5 Discussion analysis of the same structure. Moreover, the decoupled
plastic strain method can not only solve a large structural
5.1 Computational Efficiency model in minutes, but can also solve an even larger model.
Although 3D moving source analysis is expected to be more Therefore, it may be the only feasible way to at least
accurate in welding distortion prediction, the computational qualitatively model very large welded structures, such as
cost is too high for practical use. The large structural model the entire maglev beam.
of the maglev test beam for 3D moving source analysis has
nearly up to 1.3 million DOF, which is too large to run
on most computers. It took about two weeks to perform
6 Conclusions
the moving source analysis of the large structural model The following conclusions can be drawn from this paper:
on a Unisys ES7000 system, with 16 processors computing
simultaneously. In the decoupled plastic strain method, it 1. A 3D to 3D decoupled plastic strain method has
only took several hours on a 4CPU IBM RS6000 system been evaluated in terms of predicting the welding
to measure the plastic strain distributions, then it took 5 distortions in a large welded structure. Each weld has
minutes to perform the decoupled plastic strain analysis to been individually modeled to obtain the plastic strain
achieve a qualitatively accurate result. distribution, which is then interpolated and superposed

545
 6

LEGEND LEGEND
X-direction distortion, moving source result X-direction distortion, moving source result
X-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result X-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result
Z-direction distortion, moving source result Z-direction distortion, moving source result
Z-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result Z-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result

1.20+00 1.50+00

8.00-01 0.

4.00-01 -1.50+00
Distortion Results ( mm )

Distortion Results ( mm )
0. -3.00+00

-4.00-01 -4.50+00

-8.00-01 -6.00+00

-1.20+00 -7.50+00
0. 3.50+02 7.00+02 1.05+03 1.40+03 1.75+03 2.10+03 0. 3.50+02 7.00+02 1.05+03 1.40+03 1.75+03 2.10+03
( Free end ) ( Free end )
Length of Curve B ( mm ) Length of Curve D ( mm )

Figure 9: Distortion along Curve B Figure 11: Distortion along Curve D

LEGEND References
X-direction distortion, moving source result
X-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result
Z-direction distortion, moving source result
Z-direction distortion, decoupled plastic strain result
[1] Y. Ueda, Y.C. Kim, and M.G. Yuan. A predictive
method of welding residual stress using source of
7.50+00 residual stress (report 1). Transactions of JWRI,
18(1):135–141, 1989.
6.00+00

4.50+00
[2] Y. Ueda and K. Fukuda. New measuring method
of three-dimensional residual stresses in long weleded
Distortion Results ( mm )

3.00+00 joints using inherent strains as parameters. Journal of

Engineering Materials and Technology, 111:1–8, 1989.
1.50+00

0.
[3] Y. Ueda and M.G. Yuan. Prediction of residual stresses
in butt welded plates using inherent strains. Journal
-1.50+00
0. 3.50+02 7.00+02 1.05+03 1.40+03 1.75+03 2.10+03
of Engineering Materials and Technology, 115:417–423,
( Free end )
Length of Curve C ( mm ) 1993.

Figure 10: Distortion along Curve C [4] H. Murakawa, X.M. Zhong, and Y. Ueda. Buckling
behavior of plates under idealized inherent strain.
Transactions of JWRI, 24(2):87–91, 1995.

on the large structural model. Compared to the [5] H. Murakawa, N.X. Ma, Y. Ueda, and H. Maeda. Fem
results of the moving source simulations, the distortion analysis of 3-d welding residual stresses and angular
results of the decoupled plastic strain method are only distortion in t-type fillet welds. Transactions of JWRI,
qualitatively accurate. 24(2):115–122, 1995.
[6] M.G. Yuan and Y. Ueda. Prediction of residual stresses
in welded t- and i-jonits using inherent strains. Journal
2. Compared to the 3D moving source analysis, the
of Engineering Materials and Technology, 118:229–234,
decoupled 3D to 3D method achieves much higher
1993.
computational efficiency and has a reduced hardware
requirement, whereas the distortion results are in [7] C.L. Tsai, S.C. Park, and W.T. Cheng. Welding
the same order. Moreover, a larger model could be Distortion of a Thin-Plate Panel Structure. A.W.S.
analyzed with the decoupled plastic strain method Welding Journal, Research Supplement, 78:156s–165s,
quickly, whereas a moving source method requires very 1999.
lengthy computational time.
[8] G.H. Jung and C.L. Tsai. Plasticity-based distortion
analysis for fillet welded thin-plate t-joints. Welding
3. Compared to the decoupled 2D to 3D method, the Journal, 83(6):177–187, 2004.
decoupled 3D to 3D method provides insight into the [9] P. Michaleris and A. DeBiccari. Prediction of Welding
effects of angular distortion. Distortion. Welding Journal, 76(4):172–180, 1997.

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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Finite Element Modeling of Vibration Stress Relief after Welding
Y. P. Yang, G. Jung
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio, USA
yyang@ewi.org
R. Yancey
Altair Engineering, Inc., Irvine, CA, USA
Abstract
A finite element model was developed to simulate the
vibratory stress relief after welding. Both resonant and non-
resonant vibrations can relieve residual stresses in welded
structures by creating plastic deformation around the weld
area. For the non-resonant vibration, the stress reduction
strongly depends on the vibration amplitude. For the resonant
vibration, the vibration frequency is the key for stress relief.
The vibration frequency should be close to the structure
natural frequency for the desired vibration mode. Only small
vibration amplitude is needed, which will be amplified during
vibration. Vibration time does not have a major impact on the
vibration stress relief. The larger the amplitude that the
vibratory stress relief has, the better the treatment.
Introduction
Welding processes inevitably induce residual stress into
welded structures. This creates potential problems in terms of
dimensional stability and structural integrity. Traditionally,
post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) was used to relieve residual
stress, which is an effective process, but it suffers from a
number of disadvantages: oxidizing the heating surface and
changing materials mechanical properties. Vibratory stress
relief has been proposed as an alternative to relieve weld
residual stress for many years.
Munsi did very detailed experimental work of vibration stress
relief during welding and after welding [1, 2, 4]. Significant
residual stress reduction was achieved in a laboratory
environment by applying large vibration amplitudes. But the
importance of structure resonance on vibration stress relief
was not paid enough attentions, which is critical for relieving
residual stress for large structures because the required
vibration amplitude is too big.
More recently, a number of industries have used the vibratory
stress relieving methods to reduce the residual stress in large
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 547
welded components [3, 5, 7-9]. Because of a lack of
understanding of the mechanisms of a vibratory stress
relieving, this process was not widely used in industries. If the
vibration applied on a welded structure is not the desired one,
the weld residual stress cannot be reduced. Furthermore, since
the cost of weld residual stress measurement is high and time
consuming, it is difficult to know how much reduction of weld
residual stress is obtained by the vibration stress relief. With
the development of modeling technology, it is possible to
model the process of vibration stress relief. Kuan modeled the
vibration stress relief using a commercial finite element code
ANSYS by assuming a stress distribution without modeling
the development of weld residual stress [6]. So far there are no
any finite-element model that can be used to model both a
welding process and a vibration stress relief process.
In this paper a finite element model was developed to
investigate the mechanisms of the vibratory stress relief
process and the effect of the parameters of the vibratory stress
relief, frequency and amplitude, on the weld residual stress
reduction. A three-dimensional solid model was used to
simulate the weld residual stress development and a two-
dimensional plain strain model was used to simulate the
vibratory stress relief process after welding. Both the non-
resonant vibration and the resonant vibration were studied for
understanding the mechanism of the vibration stress relief.
The results show that the weld residual stress can be reduced
for both resonant and sub-resonant vibrations.
Setup of Vibration Stress Relief
The setup of vibration stress relief is shown in Fig. 1, which is
similar to the experimental setup used in Ref. 1. One end of
the specimen was rigidly clamped into a fixed frame and the
other end of the specimen was inserted into a vibrating device.
This setup can be used to study the vibration stress relief
during welding and after welding. In this paper only vibration
stress relief after welding was studied. Both non-resonant
frequency (25Hz) and resonant frequency vibration was current in the welding process were 25 v and 195 A
studied using this setup. respectively. The travel speed is 5.63 mm/s.

MIG welding torch Weld residual stress was modeled with a developed modeling
procedure, which has been validated through many industrial
and government projects. This procedure has been
Welded specimen Direction successfully used in predicting and control welding-induced
Specimen of vibration distortion [10-12] in industries. In this study, a moving-arc
Clamp solution was used to simulate the welding process with
ABAQUS commercial code. The weld cross section was
accurately modeled as shown in Fig. 4, in which a v-groove
was included in the model as shown in Fig. 4.
Support Vibrator Support

Figure 1: A setup forvVibration stress relief [1]

The weld specimen, as shown in Fig. 2, was produced from

0.18 wt-%C steel flat bar of cross-section 6.35 by 76.2 mm. Weld cross section
The total length of the specimen was 290 mm, which included
the clamping area and the free length for applying a dynamic
load. Weld bead was deposited near the clamping area with a
MIG welding process. The mechanical properties of the
specimen are shown in Fig. 3. The 0.2% offset yield stress is
607 MPa at ambient temperature [1]. Figure 4: A finite element mesh for the weld specimen

Clamping Thermal Analysis

area weld Goldak’s ellipsoid model was implemented into an ABAQUS
subroutine DFLUX to perform a moving-arc thermal analysis
76.2 mm [13]. The heat flux distribution was expressed in Equation 1:
6.35 mm
290 mm 3 x 2 3> y  v (W t ) @2 3 z 2
6 3QK a2 c2 b2
Figure 2: A weld specimen [1] q ( x, y , z , t ) f e e e (1)
abcS S

700.0 where a, b, and c are the semi-axes of the ellipsoid as shown in

600.0 Fig. 5, K is the heat efficiency, and Q is the power (welding
True Stress (MPa)

500.0 current multiplying by voltage).

400.0
300.0
200.0
100.0
0.0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
True Strain

Figure 3: Temperature Dependent materialproperties

Figure 5: A sketch of Goldak’s ellipsoid model

Weld Residual Stress Modeling
Welding was conducted after the specimen was tacked and put
in the setup with a MIG welding process. The voltage and
Fig. 6 shows a predicted temperature distribution when arc is
moving to the middle of the plate. The entire temperature
histories which include heating and cooling were saved into a
database for stress analyses.

548
 strain were inputted as initial conditions in the dynamic
Temperature (qC) analysis. A low frequency, 25 Hz was selected for these
analyses. The effect of vibration time and the effect of
vibration amplitude on weld residual stress reduction were
studied. In the dynamic analysis, displacement load was
applied near the end of the plate with a sin wave as shown in
Fig. 7.

0.5
Figure 6: Temperature distribution (time = 6.75 second)

F o rce
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
-0.5
Weld Stress Analysis
-1
The temperature histories predicted in the thermal analysis Time (second)
load
were inputted to a thermal-mechanical model to perform weld
stress analyses. Proper boundary conditions were included in
the stress model to simulate the clamp of the fixed end. Metal
deposition and melting/remelting effect were considered in the Figure 7: Vibration Stress Relief in a 2D model
thermal-mechanical model. Isotropic hardening was used in
the simulation. Figure 7 shows the predicted transverse and Effect of Vibration Time on Stress Reduction
longitudinal residual stress distribution. To save the Fig. 8 shows the effect of vibration time on the longitudinal
computation time for the vibration stress relief, the residual residual stress reduction. Residual stress was reduced most in
stress was mapped to a two-dimensional (2D) model. the first cycle (0.04 seconds). Small reduction happened in the
second cycle (0.08 seconds) and little reduction was in the
Stress (Pa) third cycle. After the third cycle, it is hardly to see any further
reduction of stress. Munsi observed the similar phenomena
during the experiment of vibration stress relief [1]. This means
that stress reduction depends on the amplitude of the vibration
rather than the vibration time for the non-resonant vibration
3D stress relief.
Map
longitudinal Stress (Pa)

2D

(a) Transverse residual stress

Stress (Pa)

As-welded

3D
Map
One cycle (t = 0.04 second)

2D

(b) Longitudinal residual stress Two cycle (t = 0.08 second)

Figure 6: Weld Residual Stress distribution

Non-Resonant Vibration Stress Relief

Three cycle (t = 0.12 second)
Using the 2D model and loading conditions shown in Fig. 7,
Figure 8: Effect of Vibration Time on longitudinal Residual
non-resonant vibration analysis was performed with ABAQUS
Stress Reduction
dynamic analysis. The residual stress and effective plastic

549
Effect of Vibration Amplitude on Stress Reduction
The frequency of vibration was kept constant (25Hz) and the
amplitude of vibration was varied to investigate the effect of
vibration amplitude on the residual stress reduction. As shown
in Fig. 9, with the increase of the vibration amplitude, both
longitudinal and transverse residual stresses were reduced.
When the vibration amplitude reached to 29mm, the sign of
transverse residual near weld toe was changed from tension to
compression as shown in Fig. 9f.
longitudinal Stress (MPa) Transverse Stress (MPa)
(a) As-welded
(b) Amplitude = 4.58mm
(c) Amplitude = 9.16mm
(d) Amplitude = 13.74mm
(e) Amplitude = 18.3mm
(f) Amplitude = 29.0mm
Figure 9: Effect of Vibration Amplitude on Residual Stress
Reduction
The longitudinal residual stress reduction is in a good
agreement with Munsi’s results [1], but the transverse residual
stress reduction shows a different trend. In Munsi’s results, the
transverse residual stress increased when the vibration
amplitude increased from 0 to10mm, and then decreased when
the vibration amplitude was larger than 10mm. When the
vibration amplitude reached to 29 mm, the transverse residual
stress near the weld toe area became compressive. This is in a
good agreement with the model predicated results.
This study shows that non-resonant vibration stress relief
strongly depends on the amplitude of the vibration. The larger
550
the amplitude of the vibration, the larger reductuon of the
residual stress. At the maximum amplitude of the vibration,
residual stress can not be completely removed from the plate
for this knid of loading methods. There are quite large residual
stresses left in the middle area along the plate thickness
direction. This is the limitation of this kind of loading methods
(bending). If a tension load is applied at the free end of the
plate in the direction perpendicular to the welding direstion,
the residual stress relief could have much better results. But
due to the limitation of the load magnitude, the tension loading
method is not practical in a real application.
The study of the non-resonant vibration stress relief implys
that the reduction of the weld residual stress is induced by the
plastic deformation around weld area. The plastic deformation
is induced by bending load applied to the free end of the plate.
Resonant Vibration Stress Relief
Natural Frequency Analysis
By inputting the weld residual stress as initial conditions and
applying the fixed boundary at one end of the plate, free
natural vibration analysis was performed with the ABAQUS
finite element code. Fig. 10 shows the desired displacement
mode (bending) with a natural frequency 75.928Hz. This is the
mode used for the following study of the resonant vibration
stress relief.
Figure 10: Mode shape of natural frequency
Load-Frequency Effect on Displacement Amplitude
A force, 100 N, was applied at the free end of the plate with
three frequencies: 25 Hz, 74.3 Hz, and 75.928 Hz. Weld
residual stress was not included in the analysis for simplicity.
Fig. 11 shows the displacement induced by this load. The
displacement amplitudes are 0.19 mm for frequency 25 Hz,
0.17 mm for both frequency 74.3 Hz and frequency 75.928 Hz
in the first load cycle. For the case with the frequency 25 Hz,
the displacement amplitude keeps constant in the following
loading cycles, but for the cases with frequency 74.3 Hz and
75.928 Hz, the displacement amplitudes are amplified in the
following cycles. The maximum amplified displacement
amplitude is 1.8 mm for the case with the frequency 74.3 Hz
and 2.7 mm for the case with the frequency 75.928 Hz. This
means that the closer the load frequency to the structure
natural frequency (75.928 Hz), the bigger the amplified
displacement amplitude.
Another interesting phenomenon was observed in Fig. 11. For
the cases with frequency 74.3 Hz and 75.928 Hz, the
displacement amplitude was amplified, and then de-amplified
periodically. The cycle time was different between these two
cases (frequency 74.3 Hz and 75.928 Hz). These phenomena
could be induced by structure damping.
This study implies that the resonant vibration stress relief can
be used in large structures. A small load is applied on the large
structures with sub-resonant frequency or resonant frequency.
Then the load induced displacement is amplified to the
required level so that the weld residual stress can be relieved.
3.0E-03
Displacement (m)
case with a 10,000 N force. Because of weld residual stress,
the cycling curve is shifted up since the top plate surface has a
tension transverse residual stress and the bottom surface has a
compression transverse stress. Note that the amplified
displacement amplitude is no longer decreased for the case
with a 10,000 N force. This could be due to the large load
magnitude overcoming the effect of structure damping. The
amplified ration for the case with a 10,000 force is smaller
than the case with a 1000 N force.

2.0E-03 3.0E-02
1.0E-03 2.0E-02

displacement (m)
0.0E+00 1.0E-02
-1.0E-03 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.0E+00
-2.0E-03 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-1.0E-02
-3.0E-03
-2.0E-02
Time (s)
-3.0E-02
(a) Frequency = 25 Hz
Time (s)
3.0E-03
(a) Force = 1,000 N
2.0E-03
Displacement (m)

1.0E-03
5.0E-02

Displacement (m)
0.0E+00
3.0E-02
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-1.0E-03
1.0E-02
-2.0E-03
-1.0E-02
-3.0E-03
Time (s) -3.0E-02

(b) Frequency = 74.3 Hz -5.0E-02

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
3.0E-03
Time(s)
2.0E-03
displacement (m)

(a) Force = 10,000 N

1.0E-03
Figure 12: Force magnitude effect on displacement amplitude
0.0E+00
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
-1.0E-03
Stress (Pa)
-2.0E-03

-3.0E-03
Time (s)
(c) Frequency = 75.9 Hz
Fig. 11 Load-Frequency Effect on Displacement (a) Longitudinal

Load-Magnitude Effect on Displacement Amplitude

The study on the load-frequency effect on displacement
amplitude shows the maximum displacement achieved is 2.7
mm for resonant frequency 75.928 Hz, which is not enough to (b) Transverse
reduce residual stress based on the previous study. To reduce
Fig. 13 Weld Residual Stress with resonant vibration stress
the weld residual stress, the load is increased by 10 times and
relief
100 times. Fig. 12 shows the load-magnitude effect on
displacement amplitude. The weld residual stress was included
Fig. 13 shows the final weld residual stress after resonant
in the analysis.
vibration stress relief (1000 N and 75.928 Hz). Both
longitudinal and transverse residual stress was reduced. These
Fig. 12 shows the displacement amplitude is amplified to 28
results are very similar to the results in Fig. 9f. This means
mm for the case with a 1,000 N force and 41.2 mm for the
that weld residual stress can be reduced by both non-resonant

551
vibration stress relief and resonant vibration stress relief. To
reduce weld residual stress, the only requirement is that the
displacement amplitude has to be big enough to create plastic
deformation around weld area. The only difference between
non-resonant vibration stress relief and resonant stress relief is
that resonance vibration stress relief has an amplification
effect. This is why the resonant vibration stress relief can be
used in large structures to relieve residual stress.
A application example of vibration stress relief modeling
The developed vibration stress relief model was applied on a
shift to reduce the residual stress around toe to improve the
fatigue life. Using the methods proposed in Ref. 5, a torsional
loading was applied on the shift as shown in Fig. 14. Four
kinds of torsional loading were studied. Fig. 15 shows that the
weld residual stress was reduced by vibration stress relief.
400 No shear stress
Shear Stress = 100 MPa
D=16mm Shear Stress = 200 MPa
Shear Stress = 300 MPa
Shear Stress = 400 MPa
200
Axial stress (MPa)
300
Axial Residual Stress
0 6. L. Kuang, Finite Element Prediction of Residual
Weld Toe
Applied
-200
torque 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from weld center (mm)
Fig. 14 Residual Stress on a shift with and without vibration
stress relief
Conclusion
A vibration stress relief model was developed, which can be
used to better understand the mechanism and optimize the
parameters of vibration stress relief to mitigate weld residual
stress. The major findings from the studies of the non-resonant
vibration stress relief and the resonant stress relief are as
follows:
x Load amplitude is the key parameter for reducing
weld residual stress. For the non-resonant vibration
stress relief, large amplitudes are needed. But for the
resonant vibration stress relief, only a small
excitation load is needed, which will be amplified so
that enough load amplitude can be reached for
relieving weld residual stress.
x The time for vibration stress relief is not critical. For
the non-resonant vibration stress relief, most stress
relief happened in the first loading cycle. For the
resonant residual stress relief, more loading cycles
are needed for load amplification. The time can be
calculated by a vibration analysis.
552
x To reduce weld residual stress, a proper vibration
mode must be selected.
References
1. A.S.M.Y. Munsi, A.J. Waddell and C.A. Walker,
Modification of Welding Stresses by Flexural
Vibration during Welding, Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining, 6 (3), 133-138 (2001)
2. A.S.M.Y. Munsi, A.J. Waddell and C.A. Walker,
Modification of Residual Stress by Post-Weld
Vibration, Materials Science and Technology, 17,
601-605 (2001)
3. K.P. Ananthagopal, G.S. Narayana and S.
Prasannakumar, Effect of Vibration Stress Relieving
on Dimensional stability of fabricated structures,
Proceeding of the National Welding Seminar,
Madras, India, October 1986, pp. 1-13.
4. A.S.M.Y. Munsi, A.J. Waddell and C.A. Walker,
Vibration Stress Relief – an Investigation of the
Torsional Stress Effect in Welded Shafts, Journal of
Strain Analysis, 36 (5), 453-464 (2001)
5. M.C. Sun, Y.H. Sun and R.K. Wang, The Vibration
Stress Relief of a Marine Shafting of 35# Bar Steel,
Materials Letters, 58(3), 299-303 (2004)
Stress Relief in a Two-Dimensional Cantilever Beam,
A Thesis for Master Degree, Alfred University, 2002
7. B.B. Klauba, Report on Vibratory Stress Relief to
Ingersoll Milling Machine Company, Airmatic Inc.,
2002.
8. B.B. Klauba, Report on Vibratory Stress Relief to
Voith Hydro, Airmatic Inc., 1993
9. Meta-Lax, Research Summary of Vibration Stress
Relief, http://www.meta-
lax.com/no_flash/PDF/summary.pdf, 1989
10. Y. P. Yang, F. W. Brust and Z. Cao, Y. Dong and A.
Nanjundan, Welding-Induced Distortion Control
Techniques in Heavy Industries, Proceedings of the
6th International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research, Pine Mountain, Georgia; April 15 – 19
2002.
11. Y. P. Yang, F. W. Brust and Z. Cao, Virtual
Fabrication Technology Weld Modeling Tool and Its
Applications in Distortion Predictions, ASME
Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, 20-24 July,
2003, Cleveland, Ohio.
12. Y.P. Yang, F.W. Brust, P. Dong, J. Zhang and Z.
Cao, Numerical Prediction of Welding-Induced
Buckling Distortion and Buckling Mechanism
Studies, International Conference on Computer
Engineering and Science, 21-25 August, 2000, Los
Angeles, CA, USA.
13. J. Goldak, A. Chakravarti, and M Bibby, A New
Finite Element Model For Welding Heat Sources,
Metallurgical Transaction B, 15B(2), 299-305
(1984).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
MPI Implementation of The FETI-DP-RBS-LNA Algorithm
And Its Applications On Large Scale Problems with
Localized Nonlinearities
Jun Sun ∗, Pan Michaleris
Abstract
Simulation of large scale problems is a well-known
research topic since it is heavily desired by many
science and engineering disciplines. However, it also
poses many challenges for current available numerical
algorithms and computer hardware. In this paper,
one domain decomposition (DD) algorithm: the Dual-
Primal Finite Element Tearing and Interconnecting method
(FETI-DP) is carefully investigated, and a reduced back-
substitution (RBS) algorithm is proposed to accelerate
the time consuming preconditioned conjugate gradient
(PCG) iterations involved in the interface problems.
Linear and nonlinear analysis (LNA) is also proposed for
large scale welding and laser forming problems. This
combined approach is named as the FETI-DP-RBS-
LNA algorithm. Parallelism of the FETI-DP-RBS-LNA
algorithm is investigated and implemented by using MPI.
A simplified Maglev beam model is tested and the speedup
is measured. The results demonstrate the effectiveness
of the proposed computational approach for simulating
three dimensional linear-nonlinear large scale welding and
laser forming problems and its parallel performance in
distributed computing environment.
1 Introduction
Large scale finite element analysis has been widely
studied and applied in many scientific research areas and
engineering applications. In real life practices, large scale
models are built to include more details of the mechanism
related to applications, so that more reliable numerical
results can be provided. They are essential to simulate
complicated phenomena and processes which has difficulty
to be captured by a simplified model. However, from the
computational point of view, the resulting finite element
equations arising from these large scale applications may
∗ Graduate
Assistant, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 307 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 865-0059, Email:
junsun@psu.edu
† Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 232 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 863-7273 Fax : (814)
863-4848 Email: pxm32@psu.edu
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
†
easily exceed millions, which pose many challenges for
current available numerical algorithms as well as computer
hardware.
Extensive research has been conducted to develop efficient
and reliable numerical methods which are capable to
perform large scale analyses. Two well-known approaches
are direct and iterative methods. Direct sparse solvers are
recognized as robust and efficient choices and are already
employed in many commercial finite element softwares.
However, the high memory demands and the not-so-
well parallel scalability of direct sparse solvers restrict
its applications to large scale problems [1]. Traditional
iterative solvers are excellent from the memory point of view
and can be easily parallized. However, they are problem
dependent in some cases, and for complex ill-conditioned
engineering problems, they are not as reliable as direct
sparse solvers.
Several novel approaches, such as domain decomposition
methods, adaptive methods and multi-grid methods have
also been studied extensively for their possible applications
to solve large scale problems. In this paper, The new
generation of FETI family methods, the Dual-Primal
Finite Element Tearing and Interconnecting method (FETI-
DP)[2, 3] is carefully studied. Reduced Back-Substitution
(RBS) algorithm and Linear and Nonlinear Analysis
(LNA) are proposed based on FETI-DP to improve the
computational performance for large scale problems with
localized nonlinearities. This combined approach is named
as the FETI-DP-RBS-LNA algorithm. Serial running
statistics are measured for the improved performance of
floating point operations. The distributed version of this
algorithm is also implemented by using Message Passing
Interface (MPI) and tested on a distributed PC cluster to
measure its parallel performance and speedup.
2 Review of The FETI-DP Method
FETI-DP can be viewed as a combination of direct and
iterative methods. Based on the underlining divide and
conquer concept, the large scale application domain is
divided into several relatively small subdomains. These
subdomains are connected through the non-overlapping
interfaces. Through the similar concept of super elements
and substructures, this high level interface problem can be
553
first formulated and solved by an iterative Preconditioned multiplications.
Conjugate Gradient (PCG) scheme. Once the interface  
0
solution is available, all the low level subdomains become
 .. 
independent to each other and they can be solved by direct  . 
 s 
sparse solvers in a parallel fashion. Brs usr = ±  
 u br  and Bcs uc = usbc (2)
 . 
 .. 
2.1 Matrix Formulations 0
Through solving the saddle point of the Lagrange
The main idea of FETI-DP is shown in Figure 1, where a function [4, 5] and applying the standard Galerkin
large domain Ω is divided into four subdomains and finite procedure, the dual-primal interface equation for the FETI-
element discretization is applied. The subdomain related DP method can be derived, as shown in Equation (3). More
nodes can be classified into three groups based on their detailed expressions of terms involved can be found in Ref
locations, and they are marked as corner nodes, non-corner [2, 3].
interface nodes and internal nodes, respectively. For a     
FIrr FIrc λ dr
specific subdomain, the global stiffness matrix K s , solution FIrc T −Kcc ∗ uc
=
−fc∗
(3)
vector us and load vector f s can be rearranged as the format
in Equation (1) based on the above nodes classification. uc can be further eliminated from the dual-primal
interface equation, and it yields an interface equation that


only contains Lagrangian multipliers λ, which is shown in


Equation (4).





Ω1

∗ −1 ∗ −1 ∗
2
Ω
(FIrr + FIrc Kcc FIrc T )λ = dr − FIrc Kcc fc (4)






This is the high level interface equation that needs to be
Ω3
∗ −1


solved first. The computation of Kcc , which is used in
4


Ω

the right hand side, is referred as the coarse problem of the



FETI-DP method. If the nature of the application matrix
is symmetric positive definite (SPD), the matrix (FIrr +
∗ −1
FIrc Kcc FIrc T ) in Equation (4) can also be proven to be
Corner Nodes Non-Corner Interface Nodes
Internal Nodes
SPD. Therefore, the Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient
(PCG) method can be applied to solve this type of equations
Figure 1: Subdomains with non-overlapping interfaces, efficiently.
their meshes and nodes classification To reduce the iteration count in PCG iterations,
refinement of the FETI-DP algorithm is possible by
  enforcing an optional admissible constraint at each PCG
Kiis Kib s
r
s
Kib c iteration [2].
K s =  Kib s T
r
Kbsr br Kbsr bc 
s T
Kib Kbsr bc T Kbsc bc 2.2 Preconditioners for FETI-DP
 sc   s 
ui fi
The Dirichlet preconditioner and lumped preconditioner [2]
us =  usbr  f s =  fbsr  (1)
are widely used in FETI-DP to precondition the interface
usbc fbsc
equation, Equation (4).
The Dirichlet preconditioner is defined as:
In Equation (1), s corresponds to subdomain index. i  
stands for the internal node degrees of freedom. bc is the −1 ns
0 0
FIDrr = ws Brs Brs T ws (5)
corner node degrees of freedom, and br refers to the non- 0 Sbsr br
s=1
corner interface node degrees of freedom.
s s
Two types of mapping matrices, as shown in Equation where Sbr br are Schur complement matrices, w are scaling
(2), are introduced. Brs are signed boolean matrices diagonal subdomain matrices [6]. Details of the PCG
which map subdomain non-corner node degrees of freedom method can be found in reference [7].
usr to subdomain non-corner interface node degrees of s T
Sbsr br = Kbsr br − Kib Kiis −1 Kib
s
(6)
r r
freedom usbr . Bcs are unsigned boolean matrices which
map the global corner node degrees of freedom uc to When Dirichlet preconditioner is applied to solve second
subdomain corner node degrees of freedom ubc . During s order elliptic problems [8], it shows that the condition
the computations, the mapping actions of these boolean number of interface equation κ, grows asymptotically as:
matrices and their transposes on a vector perform scatter H
and gather operations instead of any real matrix-vector κ = O(1 + log 2 ( )) (7)
h

554
where H is the subdomain size and h is the mesh size. The
condition number κ is weakly related to the values of H and
h, and this property results in good numerical and parallel
scalability of the FETI method.
3 Reduced Back-Substitution
Based on the CPU usage statistics in Ref [9] and the welding
simulation problem in this paper, The PCG iterations for
large interface problems are found to be the time consuming
part in the FETI family algorithms. Within the PCG costs,
a high percentage of the CPU time is actually consumed
by the local back-substitutions inside the PCG iterations.
For the mechanical analysis of the welding problem in this
paper, which stands for a category of applications with small
coarse problems, Figure 2 shows the serial CPU costs of
local factorizations, PCG and local back-substitutions in
the FETI-DP algorithm, and the local back-substitutions
The reason this process requires much computational time
lies in the relatively large number of equations in each
subdomain, as the back-substitution is actually performed
on each subdomain internal and non-corner interface
degrees of freedom (equations). The left part graph of
Figure 3 shows the nodes involved in this standard back-
substitution.




















Standard Back-Substitution Involves Non- Reduced Back-Substitution Involves Only
Corner Interface Nodes and Internal Nodes Non-Corner Interface Nodes

consumes 64.3% of the total CPU time. Therefore, local

Corner Nodes Non-Corner Interface Nodes
Internal Nodes
back-substitutions play an important role in the FETI-DP
algorithm, and since they consume a high percentage of the
CPU time, the reduction of computations in these steps will Figure 3: Nodes Involved in Standard Back-Substitution 2
greatly improve the overall performance of the FETI-DP and Reduced Back-Substitution for Subdomain Ω in Figure
algorithm. 1

Notice Brs are signed boolean matrices which map the

internal and non-corner interface degrees of freedom in each
subdomain to the global non-corner interface degrees of
Numeric Decomposition PCG Back-Substitutions within PCG freedom, which is shown in Equation (10). It can be seen
that only in the row and column corresponding to usbr i∗ , the
Figure 2: Serial CPU Costs of FETI-DP Method component of Brs is +1 or −1. Elsewhere it is always 0.
 
0 ... 0 0 ... 0  
 .. .. .. .. .. ..  usi1
3.1 Reduced Back-Substitutions in PCG  . . . . . .  .. 

 0 ... 0 ±1 ... 0   . 
During each PCG iteration, the most time consuming  
  us  
s s  .. .. .. . . . 
..   i 
Br ur =  . . . .. .. n
(10)

 ubr i1 
steps are calculating the following two matrix-vector s

 0 ... 0 0 ... ±1   
 
multiplications listed in Equation (8). Each multiplication
 ..
has several back-substitutions involved.  . . . .. .. ..   . 
 . . .
. . . . . .  us
∗ −1 −1 br im
(FIrr + FIrc Kcc FIrc T ) · λ and FIDrr ·λ (8) 0 ... 0 0 ... 0

Taking one sub-step from the first multiplication FIrr · λ Due to the scatter and gather operations of Brs T and
as an example, after substituting the detailed expression of Brs , assuming the number of equations corresponding to
FIrr [2, 3], it yields the following equation: non-corner interface degrees of freedom is m, and these
equations are numbered last. Only the last m components
ns
s s −1 s T
FIrr · λ = Br Krr Br λ (9) from λ are required assthe input for the back-substitutions in
s=1
Equation (9) since Br zeros the rest components, and only
the last m components from the back-substitution result
s −1 s T
In the FETI-DP algorithm, Brs T is first applied on λ Krr Br λ are required as the output due to the same
sT s −1 sT
through scatter operations to get Br λ, then Krr (Br λ) reason. Thus the back-substitution is actually performed on
is solved as a whole through the back-substitution at the the last m equations. m is a much smaller number compared
s −1
subdomain level, where Krr is the inverse of subdomain to the sum of subdomain internal degrees of freedom and
matrix which has already been factorized with its factorized non-corner interface degrees of freedom. Therefore, much
information stored. Finally, Brs is applied on the solution time can be saved based on this reduced back-substitution
s −1
vector Krr (Brs T λ) through gather operations to form (RBS). The nodes involved in this RBS algorithm are shown
s s −1 sT
Br (Krr (Br λ)) and summed over all the subdomains. in the right part of Figure 3. Compared to standard back-

555
substitution, many internal nodes are not necessary to be
included anymore.
It must be mentioned that the proposed reduced back-
substitutions will affect the ordering scheme since it poses
the restriction to re-number the related equations to the
end of the entire equations. This re-numbering introduces
additional time costs in the numeric factorization stage
compared to the situation with a good ordering scheme,
such as the nest-dissection scheme. This overhead is related
to the ratio of subdomain interface equations with respect
to subdomain total equations, and it is also related to the
general sparse pattern of the matrices to be factorized.
Therefore, the overhead really varies from problem to
problem, and its value can range from 0.5 to 4 times the
costs of numeric factorization with a good ordering scheme.
In general, finding a good cut of the domain that generates
small interfaces will help to reduce this overhead. In case
of applications with small coarse problems and localized
nonlinearities, such as the welding problem in this paper,
the subdomains only need to be factorized a few times, and
the increased overhead will become trivial since more time
is saved from the reduced back-substitutions.
4 Linear-Nonlinear Analysis
Linear-nonlinear analysis (LNA) is a well-known concept
to solve problems with localized nonlinearity. It exploits
information about which subdomain (substructure) remains
linear during a nonlinear analysis. Therefore, repeated
factorizations of linear subdomains can be avoided and
computation costs can be saved.
The FETI-DP method provides a flexible option for
handling subdomains separately, depending on their specific
linear-nonlinear properties. For large scale problems with
localized nonlinearities, linear-nonlinear analysis can be
very useful and save much computational time. Taking
a welding problem in small deformation analysis as an
example, since welding heat input is concentrated in a small
region, nonlinearity is also a local phenomena and most of
the regions that are far away from the weld behaves linearly
in the welding process.
During a Newton-Raphson iteration, the matrices to be
factorized in the FETI-DP method are:
1 2
Krr , Krr n
, ..., Krr and Kii1 , Kii2 , ..., Kiin
where the first n matrices are for interface equations, and
the next n matrices are for the Dirichlet preconditioner.
For a general problem, all the subdomain stiffness matrices Figure 4: 16-Subdomain Hollow Beam Model and Meshes
are required to be re-factorized, so that the interface
equation, which is Equation (4), can be formed and the
local results can be calculated. This process can be greatly measured. The total number number of Hex20 elements
simplified through linear-nonlinear analysis, as long as the is 65664, and the total number of equations is 1007634.
nonlinearity is predictable before each factorization.
5 Welding Applications, Serial and
Distributed Performance Results
5.1 Software and Hardware
The FETI-DP-RBS-LNA algorithm has been integrated
into an in-house finite element code which is capable
of analyzing thermo-elasto-plastic problems. The code
is developed in Fortran 90. The IBM Watson Sparse
Matrix Package (WSMP) [10, 11] is implemented for
subdomain level factorizations, standard back-substitutions
and reduced back-substitutions. Basic Linear Algebra
Subprograms (BLAS) are used to improve the performance
of basic vector and matrix related operations. Message
Passing Interface (MPI) has also been implemented in the
in-house code to measure the performance of distributed
computing.
The serial simulations are performed on an Unisys ES7000
system. The system is 16-way SMP based on 64-bit Intel
Itanium2 (1.5 GHz) processors, with a total of 32 GB shared
memory. The distributed (MPI) simulations are performed
on the Penn State LION-XM cluster, which consists 168
computing nodes, and each node has 2 Intel Xeon (3.2 GHz)
Processors and 4 GB memory.
5.2 16-Subdomain Hollow Beam Model
and Simulation Information
The 16-Subdomain hollow beam model, as shown in Figure
4, is chosen to be the large scale welding problem for
performance measurements in this paper. The problem
requires four welds with the same velocity v=6.5 mm/s in
Z direction to be performed along the corners of the beam
in a sequential fashion.
(11)
Y
X
Z
Only the performance in the mechanical analysis is
The number of interface equations is 8460 and the number
556
 CPU Serial Direct FETI-DP FETI-DP Wallclock UNISYS, 1 Processor LION-XM, 16 Nodes
Time (s) Sparse Solver RBS Time (s) (16 Subdomains) (1 Subdomain Each)
IO & SF 42.11 81.45 103.58 NF 288.53 30.72
NF 47262.12 26525.69 40601.13 PCG 54.64 6.51
BS 1273.22 — —
PCG (LBS) — 58759.03 8879.37 Table 2: Mechanical Analysis Distributed Performance
— (54880.92) (5083.20)
TOTAL 48577.45 85366.17 49584.08
CPU costs in this stage is trivial compared to that of the
whole scheme, and they will not affect overall performance.
CPU FETI-DP FETI-DP
During the numeric factorizations stage, which is shown
Time (s) LNA RBS & LNA
in the second row in Table 1, it can be seen that the
IO & SF 80.99 103.58 FETI-DP method saves 44% of CPU time compared to
NF 1849.01 2582.91 the direct sparse solver. This is because the direct sparse
BS — — solver does not scale so well when the size of the problem
PCG (LBS) 58335.77 8900.07 increases. When RBS is implemented, 53% of overhead is
(54497.29) (5110.52) introduced compared to the FETI-DP algorithm. However,
TOTAL 60265.77 11586.56 LNA greatly reduces this cost. Compared to the FETI-
DP algorithm, 93% and 90% of CPU time are saved in
Table 1: Mechanical Analysis Serial CPU the FETI-DP-LNA implementation without RBS and with
RBS, respectively.
During the preconditioned conjugate gradient iterations,
as shown in the fourth and fifth row in Table 1, RBS reduces
of corner equations is 174. Due to the computer resource
91% of CPU time for local back-substitutions, and results
availability and time limits, the first 50 time increments of
in 85% of savings during the whole PCG iterations.
the mechanical analysis are computed.
The total CPU costs are shown in the last row in Table
1. For this welding problem with 16 subdomains, during
5.3 Descriptions of Welding Problems the first 50 time increments, FETI-DP-RBS-LNA improves
Transient thermal analysis is performed initially by using the computational speed 4.2 times compared to the direct
the Goldak’s “double ellipsoid” model to represent the sparse solver and 7.4 times compared to the FETI-DP
welding heat input, as shown in Equation (12) [12]. algorithm in the serial running mode.
However, since 16 may not be the optimal number of
√
6 3Qw ηf −3(( x )2 +( y )2 +( z+vt )2 ) subdomains to deliver the best performance of the FETI-DP
Q= √ [e a b c ] (12) algorithm, the CPU comparison results are just used to test
abcπ π
the LNA and RBS algorithms. Investigation of the speedup
where Qw is the welding heat input, η is the welding related to the FETI-DP algorithm with optimal number
efficiency, x, y, and z are the local coordinates of the double of subdomains is beyond the scope of this paper. Also,
ellipsoid model aligned with the weld fillet, a is the weld during the first 50 time increments, only one subdomain
width, b is the weld penetration, c is the weld ellipsoid is identified to be nonlinear. In the full simulation, the
length, v is the torch travel speed. LNA CPU costs in numeric factorizations can be expected
to increase when more subdomains are identified to be
5.4 Serial CPU Performance Results nonlinear.

The serial performance results are shown in Table 1, where

IO stands for solver initialization and ordering, SF is
symbolic factorization, NF is numeric factorization, BS
is back-substitution, PCG is Preconditioned Conjugate
Gradient iterations, LBS is local back-substitution in PCG,
LNA is Linear-Nonlinear Analysis, and RBS is Reduced
Back-Substitution.
During the initialization and ordering stage, which is
shown in the first row in Table 1, FETI-DP and its
implementations with RBS or/and LNA take more time
compared to the direct sparse solver. This is because
additional costs are spent on the preconditioners, and with
RBS, some overhead will also be introduced. However, the
5.5 Distributed Performance Results
Distributed (MPI) performance results are measured for
the numeric factorization and PCG iterations during the
first iteration, as shown in Figure 2. 16 computing nodes
of the LION-XM cluster are used in the simulation and
each computing node contains one subdomain. Currently,
standard MPICH library is implemented for testing.
The subdomain level computations, such as, forming the
subdomain stiffness matrices, local numeric factorizations,
local back-substitutions and residual computations are all
performed on each individual computing node in a parallel
fashion. MPI is mainly used to gather and broadcast the

557
intermediate results during the procedure of solving the
interface equation by the PCG method.
The speedup gained during numeric factorization is 9.4.
Perfect scalability is not achieved due to the fact that the
computational cost for each subdomain is not the same.
Some subdomains have large interfaces and require more
time to be factorized. The MPI wallclock time is measured
based on the longest factorization time.
The speedup gained during PCG iterations is 8.4. In
the total 6.51 s wallclock time, around 2.6 s is spent on
MPI calls to gather and broadcast the intermediate solution
results during the PCG iterations. Therefore, from the
computational point of view, the numerical scalability is
very good and higher speedup can be expected when high-
speed network interconnect is implemented.
6 Conclusion and Future Work
In this paper, a fast implementation of the FETI-DP
algorithm: the FETI-DP-RBS-LNA algorithm is proposed
for solving large scale problems with localized nonlinearity. [6] D. Rixen and C. Farhat. A simple and efficient extension of a
RBS is based on the motivation to reduce CPU costs in
many time consuming back-substitutions involved in the
PCG iterations. Through a specific ordering, RBS reduces
the equations involved in the back-substitutions, thus it [7] David
improves computational speed. LNA is also adopted based
on the nature of problems with localized nonlinearity. It
reduces numeric factorizations through a pre-identification
procedure of subdomains, and it also reduces the overhead [8] C. Farhat, J. Mandel, and F. X. Roux. Optimal convergence
arising from the specific RBS ordering scheme. This
combined approach can reduce CPU costs effectively.
Serial performance of the FETI-DP-RBS-LNA algorithm
is tested to give a correct estimation of floating point [9] C. Farhat, K. Pierson, and M. Lesoinne. The second
performance. MPI performance is also evaluated for
the first iteration to measure the speedup gained from
distributed computing. The wallclock time results show
that this algorithm can be effectively parallized. The future
work is to continue the investigation of the distributed
performance of the FETI-DP-RBS-LNA algorithm when
linear nonlinear analysis is applied.
7 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the funding from
Office of Naval Research, award number N00014-00-1-0645
and program manager Julie Christodoulou; Dr. Anshul [12] J. Goldak, A. Chakravarti, and M. Bibby. A New Finite
Gupta of IBM for his help to modify the WSMP solver
so that RBS can be tested; Dr. Padma Raghavan of
Pennsylvania State University for her valuable suggestions. [13] The British Iron and Steel Research Association, editor.
The authors would also like to acknowledge Unisys, Inc.
and Pennsylvania State University for providing the Unisys
ES7000 systems; Jeff Nucciarone from Academic Services
and Emerging Technologies, Pennsylvania State University, [14] L. O. Raymond and J. Chipman.
for his help and suggestions during the execution of the
simulation on the Unisys system.
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[3] C. Farhat, M. Lesoinne, P. LeTallec, K. Pierson, and
D. Rixen. FETI-DP: a dual-primal unified FETI method
- part I: A faster alternative to the two-level FETI
method. International Journal for Numerical Methods in
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[5] C. Farhat. A Saddle-Point Principle Domain Decomposition
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Numerical Analysis: Mathematics of Scientific Computing.
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scalable parallel algorithms for sparse matrix factorization.
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Residual stress in thick sectioned highly restrained steel welds
S. Pearce, V.Linton
School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
G. Sloan
ASC, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
Abstract
In order to determine the influence of a flaw on the integrity of
a structure the magnitude of stress, including residual stress,
acting on the flaw must be quantified. Residual stresses,
particularly in complex structures, are usually difficult to
measure and simplified assumptions are made as to their
magnitude. This paper describes a series of studies to be
undertaken in order to allow for a less conservative estimate of
the residual stress produced within Butt and T Butt steel welds
to be made. Firstly, in order to observe the contribution of pre-
weld residual stress to the post-weld stress field, stress levels
before, after and during welding have been measured using a
combination of hole drilling, neutron diffraction and dynamic
strain gauging techniques. The data obtained through this
analysis will be used as a basis to produce a predictive FEA
model for residual stresses within Butt and T Butt steel welds
for a series of medium thickness plates.
Introduction
Submarine hull structures are a welded fabrication using high
strength base materials. The high carbon equivalence of the
base material means that it is susceptible to the initiation of
hydrogen induced cracks which are difficult to detect and may
impact on the integrity of the structure in service. On real
structures, test restrictions may exist for the various non
destructive test methods used and these restrictions often
occur at locations of high stress. Therefore defects may be
present undetected and it is essential that a full understanding
of the factors which affect the possible growth of these defects
by fatigue is made when assessing the ability of the structure
to perform its service function.
The recently released British standard BS 7910 [1] is
recognised and used worldwide for critical assessment of the
acceptability of flaws in metallic structures and components.
BS 7910 offers three levels of flaw assessment depending on
the data available to the persons doing the assessment. Level 1
is the simplest and makes many conservative assumptions
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
about the properties of the material and the loading regimes
the structure experiences. Level 2 is a more detailed
assessment and requires detailed information on the flaw,
properties of the material in which the flaw is located and the
stress regime under which the flaw is operating. Level 3 is the
most advanced and accurate level of flaw assessment and
requires comprehensive material and stress data.
One of the most significant aspects of any BS 7910 Level 3
assessment is assigning values to the stresses acting on the
structure. These stresses are divided into primary and
secondary stresses. Primary stresses can be considered to be
those acting on a structure as a result of in-service operation;
from internal or external pressure loading. These stresses if
sufficiently high could contribute to the failure of the
structure. Secondary stresses are generally those that exist in
the structure as a result of manufacturing, including forming
and welding. These secondary stresses are self-equilibrating
and alone they would not cause failure of the structure.
However since these stresses can have magnitudes up to the
yield strength of the material, they can contribute significantly
to the local stress field experienced by the flaw and thus to the
likelihood of defect growth and component failure.
Primary stresses are usually well understood and easily
quantified. In comparison, secondary stresses, although
potentially large, are rarely well understood and are difficult to
quantify. Consequently the assumptions made about the
secondary stress levels under the BS 7910 methodology will
determine the level of conservatism in the assessment of the
defect and will influence the decision on whether or not to
repair it.
The residual stress profiles currently used in the Standard have
been produced using test pieces under limited restraint
conditions and limited correlation back to real structures [2].
Additional residual stress measurements that have been
performed independently of the Standard also were carried out
under conditions of minimal restraint [3, 4] and were
constructed from thin plates. In contrast to thick sections, thin
559
plate welds do not generally have a highly variable stress
profile in the through thickness direction. As a consequence,
the stress profile results cannot be reliably applied to thick
section welds [5].
Additionally the test plates used to measure stress profiles in
welds are generally assumed to be free from any residual
stress. Hence the effects of pre-welding residual stress on the
final stress field are not considered. This becomes particularly
important when considering welds that are performed on
rolled steel plate, such as that used in the construction of
submarine hulls.
In order to address these issues, a research project has been
initiated by ASC Pty Ltd, University of Adelaide and the
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
(ANSTO), with the financial support of the Department of
Defence Commonwealth of Australia and the Australian
Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering (AINSE) to
investigate the residual stress profiles in highly restrained Butt
and T Butt welds [6]. This project is part of the ASC Hull and
Structural Integrity Research project.
To gain an understanding of the varying stress profiles through
thick, highly restrained Butt and T Butt welds two test welds
and welds from a full scale submarine hull will be analysed.
Additional residual stress measurements will be performed on
unwelded submarine plate to gain knowledge of the pre-
welding residual stress field, i.e. from plate rolling and
forming. The two test welds will be constructed in test panels
provided by the ASC using the same material as the submarine
hull. The changing surface stress levels within the test panels
will be monitored through the welding process and used as
validation for both finite element models of the weld and three
dimensional neutron strain scans.
Surface stress measurement will consist of hole drilling prior
to welding in order to determine the fabrication residual stress.
During welding dynamic strain gauging using high
temperature gauges will be used to provide a measure of the
stresses produced on the surface of the plate through welding.
Three dimensional stress profiles through the weld and in the
immediate surrounds will be determined using neutron strain
scanning. Neutron strain scanning will be used because it is
capable of producing a non-destructive measure of a three
dimensional stress field. However the apparatus available for
use is limited in the size of sample that can be scanned and as
a consequence the test panels will need to be sectioned prior to
measuring. As a consequence careful monitoring of the
surface stress relaxation during the sectioning process will be
carried out. This surface stress relaxation will eventually be
reverse analysed and added to the residual stress measured
through strain scanning. Thus a picture of the total residual
stress field produced at the end of the welding process will be
constructed.
560
This paper presents results of stress measurements made on a
test panel containing a butt weld and also residual stress
measurements made on a small section of rolled plate. The
butt welded panel was analysed before, during and after the
welding process to monitor the strain changes. A number of
measurement methods have been used; surface dimensional
analysis, dynamic strain gauging during the welding process
and surface strain changes as the plate was sectioned in
preparation for further testing. The section of rolled plate was
used to conduct preliminary neutron strain scanning of a rolled
test section. These measurements will be used to validate
future residual stress measurement of the test panel and full
scale submarine hull welds.
Experimental Procedure
Materials and sample details
Both the flat butt welded test panel and the rolled plate test
section were constructed from full thickness pressure hull
plate of BIS 812 Ema. The rolled section measured
195x200mm. The dimension of the welded plate can be seen
in Fig. 1. Two panels 1600mm long, 500mm wide were tack
welded together at each end. The central metre of the panel
was welded under the test weld conditions. To mimic the
restraint seen in the repair welds conducted on submarine
hulls, strongbacks were attached on one side of the plate to
limit movement during the welding process; these can be seen
on the top surface of the plate in Fig. 1. The surface with
strongbacks is referred to throughout this paper as the “top” or
“supported” side whereas the surface without strongbacks is
referred to as the “bottom”, “unsupported” or “flat” side.
Figure 1: Test panel and strain gauges a. First test panel, flat
plate with strongbacks. Inset b. shows the layout of the high
temperature strain gauges
The test plate weld had a Double V standard 2/3, 1/3 weld
prep. The bottom side was welded in the overhead 4 G
position and then back gouged to a depth of approximately
25mm. The top side was then filled from the down hand 1G
position. The weld was undertaken using Atom Arc E12018
M1 consumables to a MMAW procedure using 2.2 kJ mm
heat input. Welding of this test panel was completed in the
first week of November 2004. After completion of welding the
test weld was outgassed and then nondestructively tested. No
defects were found and no repairs undertaken.
In order to carry out residual stress measurements using
neutron strain scanning on the test weld, a 200 x 200 mm
section of weld was removed from the centre of the plate
centred on the weld. The removal process consisted of
oxyacetylene cutting to remove the supporting strongbacks
and then water cutting to precisely remove the sample. The
strongbacks were removed separately because the water
cutting apparatus was unable to cut thicknesses greater than
80mm. Thus the strongbacks were cut back to approximately
40mm prior to the plate being water cut.
Surface distortion mapping
A series of surface distortion measurements were taken during
the welding process as a means to measure the success of the
strongbacks in restraining the plate. Additional surface
distortion measurements were made during the removal of the
residual stress sample in order to monitor the relaxation of the
plate and weld. A grid of size 550mm was marked in the
centre of the top side of the plate (Fig. 2a) about the centre of
the plate and the weld. On the opposite surface of the plate a
smaller gird was marked out, this can be seen in Fig. 2 b).
Figure 2: Surface distortion mapping grid a) locations of
surface height measurements on top side of plate b) location
of surface height measurements on bottom side of plate.
Dimensions in millimetres.
Prior to welding a measurement was taken of the height of the
surface at each point on the grid on both sides of the plate.
Measurements were also taken after the first side of the weld
was completed. Finally, after all welding was finished, a
measurement of the surface distortion was taken. The initial
and final measurements were used to gain an idea of the total
movement of the plate during the welding process. The
measurement made at the halfway point was designed to
561
provide an idea of how much the plate moved through the
action of unsymmetrical welding. The amount that the plate
moved gives an idea of the amount of restraint that existed and
how comparable the test situation is to a real hull welding
application.
Strain gauging
In addition to mapping the changes in the surface distortion of
the plate, a number of strain gauges were used to dynamically
analyse the changing surface strain on the top and bottom
surfaces of the plate during welding. Additional surface strain
measurements were made during the cutting process, using
strain gauge rosettes aligned on both sides of the weld in the
location of the dynamic strain gauges. Before placing the
dynamic gauges an analysis of the surface temperature profile
next to the weld region during a welding run was made. This
temperature profile was used to determine where to place the
gauges to ensure that they did not overheat.
Measurements of strain during welding were made with two
groups of high temperature uniaxial strain gauges. These
included four KHCM-10-120-G12-13 C2M strain gauges
rated to 750°C and two KHCM-10-120-G15-13 C2M strain
gauges rated to 650°C. Seven TML FRA-6-11 strain gauges
were used to measure the strain changes after each cutting step
during the residual stress sample removal.
The gauges on each side of the plate were oriented such that
one (a 650°C) gauge had its measurement axis aligned
transverse to the welding direction and two other gauges
(750°C) aligned parallel to the welding direction. This allowed
for a measurement of the transverse stress produced on the
surface as the weld progressed and also an analysis of the
stresses produced in the longitudinal direction. Using the
temperature profile of the surface close to the weld in order to
ensure that the gauges did not experience temperatures greater
than their operating temperature, it was decided to place the
two longitudinal gauges with their centres a distance of 12 and
18 mm from the toe of the weld.
An approximation was made that the final capping pass would
be 5mm wider than the initial weld preparation and the gauges
were placed using this as a reference position. Measurements
at the conclusion of the welding confirmed this assumption as
the gauge centres were 12 and 18mm respectively from the
edge of the surface of the weld. The third gauge on each side
was positioned 22mm from the edge of the weld toe. As it had
a slightly lower temperature rating the centre was slightly
further from the weld toe in comparison to the two
longitudinal gauges. These gauges were placed on both sides
of the plate in the centre of the weld in order to avoid any end
effects. The layout of the high temperature gauges can be seen
in Fig. 1 b).
Residual stress
In order to verify the capabilities of the Australian nuclear
reactor for the purpose of this analysis preliminary neutron
strain scanning was conducted on the unwelded curved test
section. The purpose of this test was twofold, firstly to
determine if the strain scanning apparatus was capable of
supporting and moving such a large sample and secondly to
establish whether the penetration power of the neutrons was
sufficient to allow for the mapping of hull thickness steel.
Results and Discussion
Surface distortion during welding
Before welding was commenced, the surface of the plate was
flat on both sides of the weld (there was no surface height
deviation). Upon completion of the welding the top and
bottom surfaces were once again completely flat. However at
the halfway point, when the weld on the bottom side of the
plate had been completed, there has been a clear change in the
surface profile of the plate, indicating that some movement
has occurred. The movement was of the order of a few
millimetres and thus it can be concluded that while the
restraint is not total it is very high.
The change in surface profile on the top surface of the plate at
the halfway point of welding can be seen in Fig. 3 below. The
transverse line profile of the plate at the centre of the weld and
125mm either side are also included.
Figure 3: Change in top surface height halfway through panel
welding and profiles before during and after at y=0, y=-125
and y=125
From the change in surface profile of the plate after one side is
welded it is clear that there is not complete restraint of the
weld region. However the small amount of movement
compared to the size of the plate and the weld suggest that a
562
very high restraint had been applied. If the plate was totally
unrestrained significant movement could be expected.
It is interesting to note the unsymmetrical distribution of the
shape of the plate after the oxycutting process (Fig. 4). It is
thought that this is a consequence of the order in which the
plate was cut. The longitudinal support was removed on one
side two cuts prior to the support removal on the other end of
the plate. Additionally on one end of the plate, the transverse
support was removed in one cut whereas it was removed in
two cuts (separated by a longitudinal section removal) on the
opposite end.
Figure 4: Change in surface height after oxyacetylene cutting
used to remove supporting strongbacks and profiles at points
y=-125, y=0 and y=125
The temperature of the plate climbed close to 100°C during
the oxycutting and remained at an elevated temperature for a
number of hours after the cutting process. It is possible that
the increased temperature affected the measurement
capabilities of the strain gauges or alternatively the join
between the gauges and the surface. It is thought however that
since the gauges still appeared to be firmly attached after the
oxyacetylene cutting that this was not a significant effect.
Another effect of the temperature increase through the
oxycutting process could have been temperature related stress
relaxation. This type of relaxation is undesirable since it will
not be accounted for correctly in the strain gauge
measurements on the surface. As a consequence of this
possibility, future test panels will use alternative methods of
restraint removal. If possible the strongbacks will be removed
through water cutting prior to the removal of the residual
stress sample.
The variation in surface height of the residual stress sample
was less than 1mm after the sample had been removed. Such a
small variation suggests that there had not been significant
relaxation during the water cut. While watching the water
cutting there did not appear to be any movement or distortion
of the plate with respect to the surrounding plate. This would
appear to support the conclusion that very little further
relaxation occurred.
Strain gauging
It is clear from the results of the surface strain measurement
during the welding process that there had been a significant
change in the strain on the surface of the plate. As expected
the changing direction of the strain is reversed on the top and
bottom surfaces of the plate (Fig. 5).
Figure 5: Transverse surface strain changes during plate
welding a) top surface gauge b) bottom surface gauge
The welding of the plate is denoted by periods of large data
variation in Fig. 5. The plot shows three such times, two
before the large change in stress and one afterwards. Periods
of stress stability correspond to the plate being left overnight.
As expected the strain stays constant overnight. The large
change in strain after the second welding period is a result of
backgouging and grinding of the top surface of the weld prep
in preparation for the final runs. Similarly the abrupt change
seen in the final period of the graph corresponds to the surface
grinding carried out prior to non-destructive testing and after
the overnight degassing process.
As yet a full analysis of the strain changes during the cutting
process has not been carried out. Preliminary investigation
suggests larger relaxation during the oxycutting than the water
cutting process which is as expected.
Residual stress
Despite the fact that the rolled sample was heavier than the
recommended maximum weight for the scanner platform, the
test piece was successfully moved along all three
measurement axes. This allows for scanning on all directions
563
to be carried out. The second component of the test was also
successful with a through thickness, three dimensional stress
profile through the curved plate being produced. However
while useful for validation purposes, the stress levels found
within the sample form no useful addition to the development
of stress profiles as the history of the plate used for the testing
is unknown.
Further Discussion
While the surface strain gauging and the measurement of the
surface distortion allow for an assessment of the changing
stress on the surface of the plate and weld region, it is
important to remember that this does not give an accurate
picture of the changes in stress profile through the thickness of
the plate. At this stage it is hoped to use the surface
measurements to validate measurements made through
neutron strain scanning and thus achieve a measure of the
change in through thickness stress profile. In order to do this
more accurately and more effectively other techniques are
being considered. For example ultrasonic techniques can be
used to give an average through thickness stress both before
and after cutting of the plate. This will also allow for further
validation of the neutron results and will increase the accuracy
of the profiles produced.
Concern still exists as to the measurement of the exact
relaxation of the stress through the cutting process. Before
continuing with the sectioning and cutting of test pieces a
review of the strain gauge analysis used during welding and
cutting will be undertaken. As a consequence of the review it
is hoped that an arrangement of gauges can be designed that
will provide additional information as to the relaxation of the
plate. In order to assist with the process, data gathered during
the previous repair of a full sized submarine hull will be used
to compare with the data gathered during this study.
Future Work
Residual stress
Neutron strain scanning measurements are being performed on
the sample removed from the welded plate. A series of three
scans will be made, two transverse across the weld at a depth
of 10mm into the plate and one through the centre line of the
weld in order to gain a measure of the change in stress profile
through the weld.
Validation and reassessment of testing methods
Once all measurements have been completed on the initial test
butt weld, the data will be used to develop the cutting, restraint
and testing procedures to be used on the T-butt test piece and
the full sized submarine hull section. As a consequence of this
reassessment it may be found necessary to add additional
measurement techniques in order to obtain a clearer picture of
the changes in through thickness stress during the cutting
process. Currently the feasibility of using ultrasonic testing to
measure the average through thickness stress levels at the
various stages of the weld and cutting of the sample is being
investigated. This will allow for a greater understanding of the
changes in through thickness stresses as each process is
implemented. Since the current monitoring processes are
surface stress measurement procedures, it is thought that this
will add significant information to the study.
Additional future work includes analysing the residual stresses
produced in a test T-butt weld produced using manual metal
arc welding. This will be analysed in a similar fashion to the
current analysis of the flat butt weld but with additional
changes to the methodology as determined necessary through
the analysis of the flat butt results. Concurrently the
development of finite element models of the stress produced in
the flat and t-butt welds will be developed and validated using
the data collected.
In order to determine the contribution of pre-welding residual
stress, two samples of unwelded submarine plate will be
subject to neutron strain scanning. These samples will be
specifically produced for this purpose and will be monitored
during the cutting and measuring process similarly to the butt
and t-butt test welds. From this an estimation of the
contribution of the pre-welding residual stresses will be
determined. This will allow for additional certainty as to the
stress field in the regions surrounding the weld.
Once the test pieces are analysed the cutting of the full scale
structural butt and T-butt welds will be performed using the
methods developed to monitor relaxation and changes in the
stress field during the process. These will again have residual
stress measurements using neutron strain scanning and will be
used to validate the finite element models of the welding
process.
Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering for providing
financial assistance (Award number AINSTU1804) to enable
work on the measurement of residual stresses to be conducted.
References
1. WEE/37, T.C., BS 7910:1999 Guide on methods for
assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic
structures, (1999)
2. Bate, S., D. Green, and D. Buttle, A Review of
Residual Stress Distributions in Welded Joints for the
Defect Assessment of Offshore structure, (1997)
3. Bahadur, A., et al., Development and comparison of
residual stress measurement on welds by various
methods. Materials Science and Technology, 20(2),
261-269 (2004)
4. Lorentzen, T. and J.B. Ibso, Neutron diffraction
measurements of residual strains in offshore welds,
Materials Science & Engineering A: Structural
Materials: Properties, Microstructure and Processing,
A197(2), 209-214 (1995)
5. Wimpory, R.C., et al., Measurement of residual
stresses in T-plate weldment, Journal of Strain
Analysis for Engineering Design, 38(4), 349-365,
(2003)
6. Sloan, G. Structural integrity of submarine pressure
hull welds, At this conference (2005)

Conclusions
1. Experimental design was successful in producing welds
with very high levels of restraint.
2. Surface strain measurements can be effectively made during
welding of highly restrained test panels.
3. Removal of samples from highly restrained panels can
significantly affect the residual stress levels in the panel, with
different techniques giving different levels of relaxation.
4. The changes in surface stresses during welding are
significant. They are clearly affected also by the post welding
processes such as grinding and backgouging.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Cooperative Research
Centre for Welded Structures (CRC-WS) for financial
assistance with this project. The CRC-WS was established,
and is supported under the Australian Government's
Cooperative Research Centres Program.

The authors would also like to thank Richard Blevins for his
assistance with neutron strain scanning and the Australian

564
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Residual Stress Measurements in Side Bonded Resistance Welds

P.S. Korinko, E.G. Estochen, G.J. McKinney, M.J. Pechersky

Savannah River National Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina, USA

Abstract
Resistance upset welding is used to attach small diameter
machined tubes to small gas vessels. Recently there has been
interest in determining the residual stresses caused by this
attachment method. A test program was initiated to determine
the residual stresses present due to welding using the nominal
weld parameters and varying the interference between the foot
and the counter bore. In this paper, the residual stress
measurement technique is described, the welding conditions
are provided, and the measured residual stresses due to
welding at the nominal conditions are presented.
Experimental
Weld samples were comprised of production stems and test
bases. A drawing of the test bases, a stem, and the assembly is
shown in Figure 1. The range of interference fit were selected
from the dimensional tolerances indicated on the engineering
drawings. The interference limits tested are shown in Table 1.
Three welds were made for each interference fit. The variation
in the interference was accomplished by fixing the fill stem
foot diameter and varying the bore diameter in the test base.
All the other stem and test base dimensions were held
constant.

Background
Resistance upset welding is a welding technique in which
electrodes are used to apply force and current to the mating
parts for the specified time. Heat is generated at the interface
by current passing through the joint. The force is applied
before heating and held through cooling. The entire weld is
heated circumferentially at the same time. Upset welds were
made using side bonding. This weld geometry is used for
small foot diameters of nominally 0.25 inch as well as large
plug welds of nominally 5 inches (1).
Fig. 1. (a) fill stem Fig. 1 (b) Test base
This process is used extensively at the Savannah River Site
(SRS) to recycle gas containing vessels and also to make new
gas containing vessels at other facilities. It was developed in Interference Fill Stem
the early 1960s to reduce costs. The process has been highly Fit
successful in production with no problems of vessels in the
field. However, the residual stress levels caused by the Counter Bore
interference fit are of interest. The residual stresses due solely
to the extent of interefernce at nominal weld conditions for
alloy 21-6-9 (Fe – 21 Cr – 6 Ni – 9 Mn), a Mn and N
stabilized austenitic stainless steel that is highly work Fig. 1 (c) assembly prior to welding
hardenable.
Fig. 1: Sketch of components (a) fill stem (b) test base and (c)
This paper describes the work to fabricate the weldments and an assembly prior to welding.
also the results from the laser residual stress measurements.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 565

 Table 1. Interference fits between the fill stem and test bases The residual stress is given by the following equation:
for the samples welded. (mm (in))

Bore Foot Interference EEH EE d

Maximum 6.325 (0.249) 6.985 (0.275) 0.660 (0.026) σ = AD × ⋅2ε −BD × H ⋅ ⋅α∆T
Nominal 6.426 (0.253) 6.985 (0.275) 0.559 (0.022) E−EH E−EH L−d
Minimum 6.528 (0.257) 6.985 (0.275) 0.457 (0.018)
where:
In order to keep the test matrix small and in order to elucidate
the residual stress due to mechanical interference, the welds L is the distance over which the strain is averaged;
were all made at the nominal conditions. The possible range of d is the diameter of the heated spot, which is the actual area
weld conditions, fixing the weld duration at 20 cycles, are for which σ is determined;
shown in Table 2. This table shows the technical standard α is the coefficient of thermal expansion;
limits, which indicates the entire range that has been proven to E is Young’s modulus at the initial temperature
yield acceptable welds, and the operating limits that are a EH is Young’s modulus when evaluated at the elevated
more conservative subset of the parameter range, as well as temperature
the nominal weld conditions used for this study. ∆T is the temperature rise (TH – TL), TL being the initial
temperature, and AD and BD are empirically determined
Table 2. Production weld conditions for limits as well as coefficients
condutions used for this study. .
Notice that there is no need to cause plastic deformation to
Standard Limits Standard Limits Duration (Cycles) obtain a measurement. This is a crucial improvement in this
Force (N) Current (A) (X 1/60th sec.) measurement technique since the yield stress of a specimen is
Low/High Low/High often not known. That is, even if the material is known the
7184 / 8056 5882 / 6746 20 amount of work hardening or annealing as a result of joining
Operating Limits Operating Limits Duration processes is not generally known. On the other hand, Young’s
Force (N) Current (A) (Cycles) modulus is fairly insensitive to these factors.
Low/High Low/High (X 1/60th sec.)
7250 / 7985 6030 / 6575 20 Results
Force (N) Current (A) Duration (cycles)
7562 6300 20 The actual samples welded for this study will be tested further
using other non-destructive residual stress measurement
techniques so actual metallographic results are not availble.
The method of residual stress measurement was to determine However, a sample that was welded using an interference fit
the dynamic strain relief after laser heating. The strain relief is close to the nominal conditions but at lower current and higher
determined by electronic speckle pattern interferometry force was sectioned for metallographic examination. These
(ESPI) This method uses an infrared laser for relieving stress weld conditions result in a “colder” weld. The macrograph and
in a small spot (2,3). A dab of temperature indicating paint is micrograph of the welded sample are shown in Figure 2.
applied to the spot and a specklegram of the spot and the
surrounding area is captured. The temperature indicating paint
spot diameter can range from about 1 mm to 4 mm. A
surrounding area of about 2 cm in diameter is normally
captured in the specklegram. The paint is then heated with a
laser until it melts. The heat is transferred from the paint into
the material resulting in a small amount of localized stress
relief as the yield stress of the material drops below the stress
levels surrounding the spot. Once the spot and area around it
start to cool, a series of additional specklegrams are captured
and the images are processed to determine the in-plane strain.
The amount of stress relief depends on the final temperature
attained as indicated by the thermal paint since both the yield
stress and the amount of thermal expansion are functions of
temperature. The data for this experiment were taken five
seconds after the heat source had been removed.

566
 0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
-20

Residual Stress (MPa)

-40

-60

-80

-100

-120

-140
Diametral Interference (mm)
Fig. 2. (a) low magnification view of weld
Fig. 3. Residual hoop stress as a function of diametral
clearance.

The location of the measurement can be seen in Figure 4

which is a specklegram used in the stress measurement. This is
a view looking at the bottom of the base/stem weldment. The
darkened spot near the top of the base is the heated spot (~ 3.3
mm diameter) which is where the stress is evaluated with the
ESPI system. It is on the far end of the base away from the
weld.

Figure 5 shows the measured longitudinal residual stress and

Fig. 2 (b) High magnification showing bond line. Note that Figure 6 shows the location that was used to measure the
bond is considered acceptable and that the weld is rotated 90 longitudinal residual stress.
degrees from the low magnification image

Fig. 2: Typical weld of fill stems to test bases in 21-6-9

material at colder weld conditions that those used in this
study. (a) low magnification of weld and (b) high magnifcaiton
of weld interface Note that bond is considered acceptable and
that the weld is rotated 90˚ from the low magnication image.

Figure 3 shows the measured hoop residual stress as a function

of diametral clearance. The nominal diameter of the foot of the
stem and weld cavity were 6.35 and 6.86 mm, respectively.

Fig. 4. Location of Hoop Residual Stress Measurement

567
 0 during the calibration experiments. Calibrations were
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 performed on four point bend specimens as well as sheet type
-20 tensile specimens. The results of these calibrations are shown
in Figure 7 along with similar calibrations for 304L stainless
Residual Stress (MPa)

-40 steel.
-60
21-6-9 Calibrations
-80
80.0

-100 60.0
40.0

Residual Stress
-120 20.0
0.0
-140 y = 0.326x - 93.84
-20.0
y = 0.39x - 86.7
Diametral Interference (mm) -40.0
-60.0 Linear (Unaxial)
Fig. 5. Residual longitudinal stress as a function of diametral -80.0 Linear (4 point Bending)
clearance. -100.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Strain Relief

Fig. 7 (a) Calibration curve for 21-6-9

304L Calibrations
60.0

40.0
y = 0.136x - 33.12
Residual Stress

20.0

0.0

-20.0

-40.0
Linear (Unaxial)
-60.0
y = 0.481x - 115.8 Linear (4 Point Bending)
-80.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Fig. 6. Location of longitudinal residual stress measurement. Strain Relief

Fig. 7 (b) Calibration curve for 304L

Discussion
Both the longitudinal and hoop stresses were compressive at
the locations measured. The average hoop stress is -55 MPa or
about 8% of the yield stress. The average longitudinal stress is
-97 MPa or roughly 14% of the yield stress of the 21-6-9
alloy. Note there is no systematic variation of the residual
stresses over the range of diametral interferences tested and
that the residual stresses are insensitive to the diametral
interference. Also notice that in both the hoop and longitudinal
directions the measurement locations were relatively far from
the weld. These locations were chosen for ease of
measurement and we expect to perform more measurements at
locations closer to the weld.
Finally, the calibration data to generate the stress values from
the measured strains is subject to a fair amount of uncertainty
so that the absolute values of stress should not be considered
to be very precise. This uncertainty is the result of difficulty in
maintaining a fixed load on the 21-6-9 calibration specimens
Fig. 7. Residual Stress Calibration Curves for(a) 21-6-9 and
(b) 304L Stainless Steel
Ideally the calibration curves for the four point bend
specimens and the tensile specimens should intersect at zero
stress since this a zero stress state and hence the through
thickness distribution is the same for both. Also, the slope four
point bend specimens should be steeper than the sheet type
specimens since the average stress near the surface is lower.
While these trends exist for the 304L calibrations they do not
for the 21-6-9 calibrations. Therefore, the absolute magnitude
of the residual stresses that are indicated in Figures 3 and 5 are
probably not accurate.
In addition, the thickness of this part relative to the sheet
specimens that were used for the calibrations may influence
measured strain, thus, increasing the uncertainty of the stress
value.

568
 Summary
Resistance welds were fabricated using nominal weld
conditions and variable amounts of interference.

The residual stress was measured using laser speckle

interferometry. This technique did not reveal significant
differences between the engineering drawing limits for foot
diameter and test base counter bore.

The absolute magnitude of the residual stresses are in question

due to the difficulty of obtaining an acceptable calibration for
21-6-9 and the currently unknown influence of constraint on
the measurement sensitivity.

Additional testing that will use a simpler test base as well as

type 304L stainless steel is planned. The influence of sample
thickness will be estimated using finite element modeling.

References
1. Eberhard, B.J. and Kelker, J. W., Jr., High Current
Resistance Welding of Nuclear Waste Containers.
Welding Journal Volume 61, Pages 15-19, June 1982.

2. Pechersky, Martin J., Chandra S. Vikram, Enhanced

Measurement of Residual Stress by Speckle Correlation
Interferometry and Local Heat Treating for Low Stress
Levels, Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Volume
124, Number 3, August 2002.

3. Pechersky, Martin J., Determination of Residual Stresses

by Thermal Relaxation and Speckle Correlation
Interferometry, STRAIN, Volume 38, pages 141 -149,
November, 2002.

Acknowledgements
This work was conducted for the US Department of Energy at
Savannah River National Laboratory under Contract DE-
AC09-96SR18500. The authors would like to thank S.
Howard for providing the micrographs.

Note there is a difference in the stress plots presented here and

those presented at the Seventh International Conference on
Trends in Welding Research due to a change in the calibration
curve that was used. The plots presented here are correct.

569
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Distortion Control in Precision Weldment by Penetration-Enhanced GTAW
Shuchi Khurana, Nate Ames, and Wei Zhang
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio, USA
Abstract
For precision applications, one of the methods to reduce
distortion due to welding of stainless steel is the use of
penetration enhancing compounds. Historically, significant
effort has been taken to quantify the heat input, penetration,
and weld metal properties resulting from penetration-enhanced
(PE) gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). However, this is one
of the first accounts to show the significant reduction in
distortion that can be attained through the use of penetration
enhancing compounds. Experimental results as well as weld
models predict significant reduction in distortion from PE-
GTAW compared to the conventional gas tungsten arc
welding.
Introduction
The GTAW process has historically been used in applications
of criticality where corrosion resistance or weld metal
microstructure/composition are of the utmost importance.
One of the many advantages of the GTAW process is its
ability to produce exceptionally high-quality welds with
minimal procedure development. Unfortunately the process is
equally plagued by the fact that it has been considered slow
when compared to alternative welding methods such as gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) and resistance welding. The
combination of its good and bad qualities has limited it used to
joining of high-cost alloys for precision applications typically
synonymous with those in aerospace, power generation, and
the oil and gas industries. Because GTAW is easily optimized
for many applications, it is also often implemented for
prototyping and similar short-run applications. Its ability to
quickly produce high-quality welds on virtually any alloy
system enables rapid turnaround of conceptual products.
During the mid-1980s, a world-wide effort began to develop
penetration enhancing compounds for the GTAW process
(commonly referred to with the following acronyms: TIG
Flux, A-TIG, HP-GTAW, PE-GTAW). The incentive for
development of these penetration-enhancing compounds
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
(PECs) was increased penetration, improved productivity and
reduced heat input. Potentially, one of the most significant
development efforts was organized by the Navy Joining
Center (NJC) for welding of heavy wall austenitic piping for
ship building applications [1-3]. This effort led to the
development of several PECs for multiple alloy systems. The
basic premise behind PECs is a weld through paste or paint
like substance that is applied to the surface of a weld joint
prior to welding (see Figure 1). The PEC is applied to the arc
side surface only, not the mating or backside surfaces. When
the GTAW process is then utilized as it would normally be in
a conventional GTA weld. The PEC undergoes a chemical
reaction, which yields the increased penetration and improved
productivity. At the conclusion of welding, a glasseous slag is
left on the weld surface. This slag is similar to that of a
SMAW weld, but much more tenacious and thus harder to
remove.
Figure 1: Pictorial representation of PE-GTAW application
and use.
The SS-7 PEC was one of the active fluxes developed during
the NJC program. It was developed specifically for use with
the GTAW of 300-series stainless steels. Since its
development it has been proven on several other alloy
families, including super austenitic, duplex and super-duplex
stainless steels.[4, 5] In each additional alloy evaluated it has
been found to increases penetration by as much as 300%
571
compared to the conventional GTAW process. The SS-7 PEC • The weld process must work on the current alloy with
is a mixture of inorganic oxide based materials suspended in a no change, except for filler material.
volatile media or a binder. The mixture is applied to the top • The current production equipment must function with
surface of the joint, in a layer less than 0.127-mm (0.005-in.) the new welding process
thick, prior to welding. The volatile liquid is allowed to o Jetline LWS-style Seamer configured with a
evaporate, and the weld is then produced. Standard GTAW GTAW torch and cold wire fill
equipment and consumables are used, including shielding and • The welding processes must improve productivity
backing gases. The PEC is not intended to provide shielding • The current welding personnel must be capable of
for either the face or the root of the weld. implementing the new process with minimal
production downtime.
In most applications where GTAW welding is implemented as • The process must yield a comparable finish
the production welding process, it is usually a safe assumption component cost, from a manufacturing standpoint.
that strict requirements must be met regarding weld metal and • If equipment is required, it must have a return on
heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. If this were not the case, investment of 2 years or less.
a higher productivity welding process would have been
integrated into the manufacturing system early on. Instances Through use of EWI’s welding database and staff experience,
where both weld quality and material properties are of equally the end user was able to reduce the number of possible
high importance, high-cost alternatives to GTAW are used. welding processes and rank them into most likely to succeed
The most common of which are laser, electron beam, and with minimal impact on production. At the conclusion of this
plasma welding. Unfortunately, these are both expensive to process survey, two potential welding processes lead the
evaluate and require additional measures be taken regarding to program with others close behind. Each process listed in the
joint fit up and filler metals. These applications usually fall top four were anticipated to reduce distortion due to lowered
under the header of niche applications. heat inputs.
Over the last 10 to 15 years PE-GTAW has seen an increase in Rank Process Pro’s Con’s
acceptance across a broad range of industries. Historically, 1 PE- Inexpensive, easily Addition steps
the PE-GTAW process is implemented when either material GTAW implemented, uses required during
thickness increases to a point that conventional arc welding is current production manufacturing
not cost effective or the heat inputs requirements of the alloy equipment
dictate that a low heat input process be used. Similar to laser, 2 Plasma Production process Requires change of
electron beam and plasma, PE-GTAW usually finds its home Arc unchanged from welding equipment
in the niche application category. However, unlike the Welding GTAW and tighter control of
previously mentioned processes, PE-GTAW is very weld joint prep.
3 LASER Exceptional High equipment and
inexpensive to evaluate and implement. For this reason more
Welding productivity, safety costs
and more applications are being discovered on a daily basis. possible to use with
Jetline Seamer
In this program, the end user was interested in reducing 4 Electron Excellent weld High equipment cost,
distorting and increase productivity of a 300-series stainless Beam quality, high requires a new
steel component that had to be welded prior to final to productivity manufacturing system
fabrication. The application required full penetration and had (chamber welding)
to be deployed on their current manufacturing system. The
research was organized into three phases: (1) a literature Phase 2—Simulation
survey to assess the possible welding processes that could be Weld Pool Model. A prerequisite for understanding the
quickly and affordably implemented into the production welding-induced stress and distortion is the knowledge of the
system, (2) evaluation of the theoretically optimal process temperature distribution in the weldment. In the present study,
using computer simulation, and (3) weld trials were conducted a weld pool model developed at EWI [6] was used to compute
on production components to determine the true feasibility of the molten metal flow and heat transfer. Unlike the
implementation. conventional thermal analysis using FEA models, which
typically rely on an imaginary volumetric heat source to
Experimental Procedure represent the extensive heat transfer due to molten metal flow,
the weld pool model properly takes into account this important
Phase 1—Process Survey physical phenomenon in the pool. The driving forces for
The end user, with the assistance of EWI’s technical staff, molten metal flow include the surface tension gradient,
evaluated possible weld process alternatives. The electromagnetic (Lorentz) and gravitational forces.
requirements which separated potential from not were; ∂γ
γ (T ) = γ mp + (T − Tmp )
∂T

572
For conventional GTAW, a negative value of -3.5×10-4 was
used for the temperature coefficient of surface tension.
When the active flux is applied to the test piece surface prior
to welding, the flux changes the chemistry in the weld pool,
particularly the dependence of surface tension on temperature.
It has been well documented that the addition of surface active
elements such as sulfur or oxygen can result in a positive
value of temperature coefficient of surface tension [7]. The
flux used in the welding experiments contains a combination
of oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Experimental
data of surface tension as a function of the composition of
these active elements is not readily available in the literature.
For simplicity, a positive value of 1.5×10-4 is used for the
temperature coefficient of surface tension when the active flux
is used.
Finite-Element Analysis. Sequentially coupled thermo-
mechanical finite-element analysis (FEA) was conducted to
predict the distortion for the case of conventional GTAW and
PE-GTAW. The analyses conducted in these cases were
simplified analyses. The 2-D half symmetric mesh is shown
Discussion and Results
Phase 1—Process Survey
While there were four potential welding processes highlighted
by the survey, the requirement to implement onto production
equipment limited the list to PE-GTAW and plasma arc
welding. Due to the low cost to evaluate, PE-GTAW was
selected as the starting point for this program. If PE-GTAW
was deemed not acceptable, additional research would
continue focusing on plasma arc welding.
Phase 2—Simulation
Weld Pool Model. Figure 3(a) plots the weld pool profile
during conventional GTAW. A negative value of -3.5×10-4
was used for the temperature coefficient of surface tension.
The surface tension gradient force produces an outward
molten flow near the pool periphery, which results in a wide
pool. The downward flow in the middle of the weld pool is
due to the electromagnetic force.
6 200
0K

Z (mm)
in Figure 2. In order to simplify to model and the

18
4 16

00
83

K
corresponding boundary conditions the fixture was not K

considered in this modeling effort. 2

0.1 m/s

0
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Y (mm)

(a)

Figure2 : Symmetric mesh for conducting FEA. ( a) 6

conventional GTAW ( b) PE- GTAW.

20
00
K
For each case, first a two-dimensional thermal model was
Z (mm)

180 0
4
1 683
analyzed to predict temperature profiles with respect to time.

K
The predicted weld pool shape was used to calibrate the model K

by comparing with the real weld bead shape. Two-dimensional

plane strain mechanical analysis is then performed to predict 2
the distortion and residual stresses in each case. A half
symmetric analysis was conducted for each case. 0.2 m/s

Phase 3—Welding 0
The PE-GTAW process was evaluated as it appeared to have a 8 6 4 2 0
high potential for success with minimal impact on the Y (mm)
production setup and manufacturing cost. Hence, PE-GTAW
was optimized in a laboratory environment on a joint (b)
representative of that utilized in production. Following Figure 3: Temperature distribution at weld cross sections
optimization, welding trials were conducted using the computed using the weld pool model. The 1683 K isotherm,
production welding parameters for conventional GTAW and i.e., the solidus temperature of the material, represents the
optimized PE-GTAW on the production equipment. Welds computed fusion zone boundary. (a) Conventional GTAW (b)
from these trials were then evaluated for bead shape and PE-GTAW.
distortion.
Figure 3(b) plots the weld pool profile during PE GTAW. As
shown in this figure, both surface tension gradient and
electromagnetic forces result in a clockwise flow pattern. The

573
heat from the welding arc is primarily carried in the depth
direction. As a result, a deep and narrow weld pool forms.

FEA. Figure 3 also plots the temperature gradients observed

in the weld and surrounding regions. The von Mises stresses
after the cool down for each case is shown in Figures 4. The
displacement in the horizontal direction was small and
comparable in both cases. The displacement in vertical
direction in the conventional GTAW was predicted to be about
twice that of PE-GTAW. This is shown in Figure 5.

The von Mises stress and displacement plots are shown at a

50× magnification for display purposes. The exact values
determined by the simulation were considered less important
Figure 6: Photomacrograph of a traditional GTA weld on ¼-
than the comparable distortion between the processes. It is
in.-thick 300-Series stainless steel.
evident from these plots that the residual stresses are more
uniform in the PE-GTAW process and the distortion is more
Table 1: Weld parameters used for conventional and PE-
in the case of conventional GTAW than in the PE-GTAW
GTAW welding processes.
case. This was considered sufficient evidence that the PE-
GTAW would reduce distortion in the final weldment.
Conv. GTAW PE-GTAW
Current (amps) 367.0 225.0
Voltage (volts) 9.1 9.8
Travel Speed (ipm) 6.4 9.5
Wire Feed Speed (ipm) 23 40
Heat Input (kJ/in) 31.31 13.93

The parameters listed above were transferred to the production

environment where a series of welding trials using production
b equipment and production components. These welds were
sectioned to compare with the predicted bead shape from the
Figure 4: Von Mises Stresses observed after cool down. ( a) simulations (see Figures 6 and 7). The comparison was made
Conventional GTAW ( b) PE- GTAW. between the predicted molten area, shown in Figure 3. The
model and the real world welds had a direct correlation.

b
Figure 5: Displacement observed in the vertical direction
simulation after cool down. ( a) Conventional GTAW ( b)
Penetration Enhanced GTAW.

Phase 3—Welding
The welding investigation began using PE-GTAW process in
order to optimize the process for the application of the end
user. At the conclusion of the weld optimization the PE-
GTAW process had a heat input of approximately 14 kJ/in.
compared to 31 kJ/in. for the conventional GTA welding used
in production. The details of the optimized welding
parameters for the application (nominally 0.25-in.-thick 300-
series stainless steel) are provided below in Table 1.
Figure 7: Photomacrograph of a PE-GTA weld on ¼-in-.thick
300-Series stainless steel.
For comparison purposes, the welds were visually examined
on both the root and arc (cap) side (see Figure 8 thru 11).
Aside from the dramatic reduction in weld bead width on the
arc side, the PE-GTAW process yielded an arc side bead width
approximately 60% smaller than that of conventional GTAW.
Upon evaluation of the root side it was also apparent that the

574
PE-GTAW process yielded a more robust, uniform root
profile.
Figure 8: Appearance of the cap side of a traditional GTA
weld on ¼-in.-thick 300-Series stainless steel.
Figure 9: Appearance of the cap side of a PE-GTA weld on
¼-in.-thick 300-Series stainless steel.
Figure 10: Appearance of the root side of a traditional GTA
weld on ¼-in.-thick 300-Series stainless steel
575
Figure11: Appearance of the root side of a PE-GTA weld on
¼-in.-thick 300-Series stainless steel.
Following visual inspection of the welds, the distortion
resulting from welding was evaluated. In order to measure the
distortion cost effectively the two trial welds from each
process were produced extinguishing the arc approximately
0.25 in. from the end of the weld joint. This allowed for direct
measurement at the ends of the specimen. Upon completing
the conventional GTA welds, they were first compared with
actual production parts to ensure that stopping the arc ahead of
the run-off tab did not have an exacerbating effect on the
resultant distortion. The distortion specimen and the
production components had commensurate distortion via
visual comparison.
Each distortion specimen was then photographed at the
evaluation location (near the arc stop), shown in Figures 12
and 13. These images were input into digital imaging
software and the distortion was measured in terms of angle of
total distortion. The results of these measurements are
provided in Table 2. The PE-GTAW process yielded
reduction in measured distortion of approximately 70%. This
coupled with the 55% reduction in heat input (from 31.3 to
13.9 kJ/in.) and approximately 150% improvement in travel
speed (from 6.4 to 9.5 ipm) led to the conclusion that the PE-
GTAW would meet the production requirements and provide
some added quality and productivity improvements.
Figure 12: Photograph showing the typical angular distortion
resulting from a traditional GTA weld on ¼-in.-thick 300-
Series stainless steel.
 Table 2: Distortion measurements for conventional GTAW
and PE-GTAW

Conv. GTAW PE-GTAW

9.89° 3.21°
10.22° 3.51°

Figure 13: Photograph showing the typical angular distortion
resulting from a PE-GTA weld on ¼-in.-thick 300-Series
stainless steel.
In an attempt to evaluate the ability to use laser welding, a
quick optimization program was organized and completed
using autogenous laser welding to join the same thickness and
geometry components in a laboratory setting. The final weld
parameters selected for evaluation were 4.8-kW with a travel
speed of 24.8 ipm, which is equivalent to 11.6 kJ/in. The
resultant weld macrostructure is provided in Figure 14. It was
quickly observed that neither the heat input nor the resultant
weld bead shape and size were dramatically improved over
that of PE-GTAW. Following welding the distortion was
measured in a manner similar to that described above. The
angular distortion was determined to be between 1.5 and 2.0
degrees. While this is a marked improvement over the 10.0
degrees measured for conventional GTAW it was deemed
negligible compared to that of PE-GTAW, especially when the
increase cost to implement was taken into account.
It is believed that if weld joint design or production equipment
were negotiable both the travel speed and heat input could
have been improved beyond those listed above.
Figure 14: Photomacrograph of a laser weld on ¼-in.-thick
austenitic stainless steel.
Conclusions
This research program was deemed a success, at its conclusion
PE-GTAW was implemented into the production and has been
used for more than one year. Since its implementation, the
PE-GTAW process has been transferred to several production
components with similar criteria. The net result of
implementing the welding process are:
a. Reduction in distortion
b. More consistent penetration in seam weld
c. Heat to heat variations have less impact on
weldability
d. Reduction in heat input
e. Overall improved quality
References
1. M. Q. Johnson, T. Paskell, and W. Lin, Development,
Evaluation, and Deployment of Fluxes for GTAW that
Increase Weld Penetration in Austenitic Stainless Steels,
Carbon-Manganese Steel, and Copper-Nickel Alloys,
NJC: Columbus, OH. p. 1-162 (1997).
2. M. Q. Johnson, C. M. Fountain, and H. R. Castner, GTAW
Fluxes for Increased Penetration, EWI and TWI: Denver,
CO (1999).
3. W. Lucas, Activating Flux-Improving the Performance of
the TIG Process, Welding and Metal Fabricating,
68(2):7-10 (2000).
4. N. D. Ames, M.Q. Johnson, and J.C. Lippold, Effect of
GTAW Flux on the Microstructure and Properties of
Austenitic, Super Austenitic and Super Duplex Stainless
Steel Welds, Trends in Welding Research (2002).
5. N. D. Ames et al., Comparison of Aaustenitic, Super
Austenitic and Super Duplex Weld Properties Produced
using GTAW Flux, Stainless Steel World America 2002,
Houston, TX, KCI Publishing (2002).
6. W. Zhang, S. Khurana, and R. Yancey, Modeling and
Prediction of Weld Pool and Bead Shape for Fusion
Welding Applications, Report of EWI Cooperative
Research Program (2005).
7. P. Sahoo, T. DebRoy, M. J. McNallan, Surface Tension of
Binary Metal--Surface Active Solute Systems Under
Conditions Relevant to Welding Metallurgy, Metall.
Trans. B, 19B:483-91 (1988).

576
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Welding with a Trailing Heat Sink: How to Optimise the Cooling Parameters?

E.M. van der Aa (a,b), M.J.M Hermans (b)

, I.M. Richardson (a,b)

(a) Netherlands Institute for Metals Research, Delft, The Netherlands

(b) Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract Introduction
Several research groups have proved that welding with a Residual stresses and distortions are one of the major concerns
trailing heat sink can minimize buckling distortion. However, related to the application of welding in industry. Several
industrial implementation is not yet achieved in part because it methods have been developed to eliminate the welding
remains complex to predict the required heat sink parameters. induced distortion. The procedure that is discussed in this
Basic models that can be used to study the effect of the paper is called dynamically controlled low-stress-no-distortion
cooling source parameters on the buckling behaviour are (DC-LSND) welding, and was first introduced by Guan et al.
developed and presented in this paper. In this study, a [1]. In this technique, the welding heat source is followed by a
combination of several modelling techniques is used. In this trailing heat sink at a short distance. The type of distortion that
way, the calculation times are reduced and physical insight is can be controlled in this manner is buckling. Buckling occurs
enhanced compared to standard thermal-mechanical coupled if a long, thin geometry is subjected to compressive stresses.
finite element models. The results show trends and provide The compressive stresses that develop during welding of thin
insight into the influence of varying cooling source parameters geometries usually exceed the critical buckling stress, which
on the longitudinal stress development and buckling causes buckling of the welded structure. When a trailing heat
behaviour. sink is applied, the longitudinal (i.e. parallel to the welding
direction) residual stress distribution changes drastically. In
Nomenclature this case, the stresses do not exceed the critical buckling stress
level, and buckling is eliminated.
Symbol Description
a Plate length
b Plate width
c Half heat source length
d Cooling source diameter
di 1-D virtual beam width
D Flexural rigidity
E Young’s modulus
f Fraction of heat
h Plate thickness
Hsink Cooling source heat transfer coefficient
l Link length
L Cooling source to heat source distance Figure 1. Minimization of buckling distortion due to welding
q Heat flux with a trailing heat sink (DC-LSND welding). Both plates are
Q Heat source power 1.5 mm thick AISI 316L stainless steel, and were welded with
r Half heat source width identical parameters.
t Time
T Temperature Fig. 1 shows an example of the effect of a trailing heat sink on
Tsink Cooling source temperature
the buckling deformation. The two AISI 316L stainless steel
v Welding / cooling speed
x Longitudinal direction (i.e. along the weld) plates, 250×100×1.5 mm thick, were GTA welded with the
y Transverse direction (i.e. perpendicular to the weld) same welding parameters (750 W, 3 mm s-1). The top plate in
α Relative width of the tensile zone the picture was welded with a conventional welding technique,
γ Relative width of the central compression zone resulting in severe buckling. During welding of the second
η Heat source efficiency plate, the welding torch was followed by a trailing heat sink at
κ Buckling factor 25 mm distance, which consists of a jet of liquid CO2 that
σ Stress transforms into solid CO2 upon expansion. The result of the
ν Poisson ratio active cooling is a nearly flat plate, free of buckling distortion.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 577

Both for better understanding of the process and for industrial
implementation it is necessary to know how the heat sink
parameters affect the buckling behaviour. Figure 2
schematically shows the essential parameters for the process: a
welding heat source with power Q and speed v, is followed by
a heat sink of diameter d and heat transfer coefficient Hsink at a
fixed distance L.
Figure 2. Characterization of the key parameters for DC-
LSND welding. A heat source with power Q and speed v is
followed by a heat sink with a heat transfer coefficient Hsink,
diameter d at a fixed distance L.
To study the influence of the heat sink on the buckling
behaviour, three important factors have been examined in this
work: (i) the influence of the heat sink on the temperature
distribution, (ii) the influence of the temperature history on the
residual stress distribution, and (iii) the influence of the stress
distribution on the buckling behaviour. The influence of the
cooling source parameters on the temperature field is
determined by finite element (FE) simulations. The FE models
can also simulate the influence of the temperature history on
the residual stress distribution very well. However, these
calculations are time consuming and therefore not practical for
extensive parameter analyses. A simpler approach is used
here, based on a 1-D model, which provides good guidelines
for optimum cooling source parameters. Finally, critical
buckling stresses for changing stress distributions are
determined by an analytical approach.
Model descriptions
Finite element models
Three-dimensional thermal and mechanical finite element
models were made in the commercial code Msc.MARC, to
simulate of the welding process with and without trailing heat
sink on a 250×100×1.5 mm thick AISI 316L stainless steel
plate. The models consist of 2000 bi-linear thick shell
elements (MARC type 85 for the thermal analysis and type 75
for the mechanical analysis). The heat source is given as a
surface flux, based on a modification of Goldak’s distribution
for GTAW heat sources [2], and can be written as:
⎛ y0 − y ⎞ ⎛ x − vt ⎞
2 2
3 f ηQ −3⎜⎝ r ⎠
⎟ −3⎜ 0 ⎟ plate, with width b, is represented. The model consists of n
q( x , y , t ) = e e ⎝ c ⎠ ..........................(1)
rcπ
f = 1.2 ⎫ f = 0.8 ⎫
With ⎬ if x ≥ x0 or ⎬ if x < x0
c=r ⎭ c = 2r ⎭
578
Here, f represents the fraction of heat deposited at the front or
rear part of the arc, η the arc efficiency, Q the heat input by
the welding arc, r the half width of the weld pool, c the half
length of the weld pool, x0 and y0 the starting position of the
heat source, and v the welding speed. The cooling source is
applied over a spot with diameter d, at a fixed distance L from
the welding heat source (Fig.2) and was modelled as a film-
coefficient:
qsink = H sink (T − Tsink ) .................................................... (2)
in which Hsink is the heat transfer coefficient and Tsink the
temperature of the cooling source. Convective and radiative
cooling was applied on the plate’s surface. Temperature
dependent thermal and mechanical material properties of AISI
316L were taken from reference [3]. In the mechanical model,
the strains are reset to zero when the temperature exceeds the
melting temperature [4]. As part of the parameter analysis,
thermal and thermal-mechanical coupled simulations were
performed with varying values for the cooling source
parameters, Hsink, L, and d. A list of relevant parameters is
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Data and input parameters for the thermal-
mechanical finite element models.
Parameter Value
Heat input, Q 580 W
Efficiency, η 0.75
Fixed
Welding speed, v 3 mms-1
Half heat source width, r 2 mm
Heat sink temperature, Tsink 293 K
Heat sink heat transfer coeff., Hsink 0 - 20 kWm-2K-1
Variable
Heat sink diameter, d 0 - 30 mm
Distance from arc to heat sink, L 15 - 50 mm
1-D mechanical model
The calculation times for the 3-D models described above
range from 30 minutes for the thermal model to approximately
eight hours for the mechanical model. The mechanical models
are therefore not very suitable for an extensive parameter
analysis. To decrease the calculation times, a 1-D mechanical
model was developed, using the temperature histories from the
3-D thermal FE model described above. The model describes
the longitudinal stress development along a line perpendicular
to the welding direction. Due to symmetry, only half of the
one 1-D beam elements with label i (i = 0..n), as shown in
Fig.4. Bar i = 0 represents a point at the weld centreline (at
position y = 0), while element i = n represents a point at the
plate edge (at position y = ½b). Temperature dependent
mechanical material properties similar to those of the 3-D FE
model are assigned to the beams.
 where D is the flexural rigidity of the plate:

Eh 3
D= ..................................................................... (6)
12 (1 − ν 2 )

and κ is a factor that depends on the plate geometry and the

edge constraints of the plate. For a plate that is simply
supported at x = 0 and a, and free at y = 0 and b (SFSF
condition), κ can be written as:

2
⎡b⎤
κ = ⎢ ⎥ ............................................................................ (7)
⎣a ⎦
Figure 4. Schematic representation of the 1-D bar model.
For a rectangular plate, that has all sides simply supported
The bars have virtual thickness h, representing the plate (SSSS condition), the factor κ can be written as:
thickness. The virtual width of the bars is given by di, which
depends on the position of the bars: ⎡a b⎤
2

κ = ⎢ + ⎥ ...................................................................... (8)
⎣b a⎦
di = 1
2 ( yi − yi −1 ) + 1 2 ( yi +1 − yi ) ....................................(3)
When a non-uniform uniaxial stress σxx(y) is applied, the
The length of the beams is arbitrary but equal. No critical buckling stress will not only depend on the geometry
displacements are allowed in the transverse direction. The of the plate, but also on the shape of the stress distribution.
nodes at the bottom are fixed. The nodes at the top are linked
to a rigid transverse bar. This imposes the boundary condition a
x
that the combined length of the beams and links is equal at all
times. The links have stiffness Ki, the magnitude of which is ½b(1-α-γ)
given by:
½αb

E (T ) ⋅ h ⋅ d i γb
Ki = ............................................................(4)
l ½αb

½b(1-α-γ)
in which E(T) is the temperature dependent Young’s modulus,
and l is the length of the link, which represents surrounding b
constraining material. Nodal temperature histories that are σxx,3
taken from the 3-D thermal calculations are applied to each of y
the bars. The number of bars is therefore equal to the number σxx,2 σxx,1
of nodes taken from the 3-D model. The resulting thermal Figure 3. Definition of geometry and loads for non-uniform
expansion and contraction of the bars is comparable to that of stress problem.
the material in 3-D model, resulting in a similar longitudinal
residual stress distribution. Consider the schematic stress distribution shown in Fig. 3. A
non-uniform stress σxx(y) is applied in the x-direction, with a
Analytical solution for buckling distortion distribution that is similar to a longitudinal residual stress
A plate that is subjected to a compressive stress will buckle if distribution after DC-LSND welding. Since these represent
the load exceeds a certain critical buckling stress σcr. Consider residual stresses, tensile and compressive stresses must
a thin plate with a length a along the x-direction, width b along balance, thus:
the y-direction, and thickness h along the z-direction, for a
material with Young’s modulus E, and Poisson ratio ν. When b
this plate is subjected to a uniform uniaxial stress σxx, the
critical stress that causes elastic buckling can be written as:
∫σ
y =0
xx (y) h dy = 0 .............................................................. (9)

⎡π 2 D ⎤ The total width of the tension zone is defined as a fraction of

σ xxcr = −κ ⎢ 2 ⎥ .................................................................(5) the plate width and is given by α. The compressive zone
⎣bh⎦
around the weld is also defined as a fraction of the plate width

579
and is given by γ. The magnitudes of the tensile and
compression loads are defined by σxx,1, σxx,2, and σxx,3. For 400

simplicity, the compressive stress level in the plate centre is Hsink [kWm-2K-1] d = 7 mm
300 0 L = 25 mm
assumed to be equal tot the compressive stress level at the

Longitudinal Stress [MPa]

2
plate edges, σxx,3 = σxx,2. In order to obtain stress equilibrium 200 3.5
(eqn.9) the following condition must be fulfilled: 5
10
100 15
−ασ xx ,1 = b(1 − α − γ )σ xx ,2 ..................................................(10)
0

Solving for the critical buckling stress σ for a plate with cr

xx,2 , -100
all sides simply supported (SSSS condition), gives:
-200
⎡π 2 D ⎤ ⎡ πα ⎤
σ xxcr,2 = −κ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ...............................(11)
⎣ b h ⎦ ⎣⎢ sin (π (α + γ ) ) − sin (πγ ) ⎦⎥
-300
-50 -25 0 25 50

Distance from the weld centre line [mm] (a)

Equation 11 is an analytical expression for the critical
buckling stress in terms of the plate geometry (defined by a, b, 400
d = 7 mm
and h), the material properties (E and ν), and the shape of the L [mm]
Hsink = 5 kWm-2K-1
stress distribution (defined by α and γ). In the case of 300 15

Longitudinal Stress [MPa]

20
conventional welding, the compressive zone in the weld centre 30
is not present. Therefore, filling in γ = 0 in eqn. 11 will lead to 200 40
the solution for the critical stress for conventional welding;
and for γ = 0 and lim(α→0) eqn. 11 reduces to eqn. 5. 100

Parameter Investigation 0
To study the influence of the heat source parameters defined
in Fig.2, the models described above are combined. Firstly, -100
thermal FE models are used to calculate temperature histories
for different cooling conditions. Then, nodal temperature -200
histories from the 3-D FE model are applied to the bars of the -50 -25 0 25 50
1-D model. The bar-model needs only a few seconds to Distance from the weld centre line [mm] (b)
determine the longitudinal residual stress profile for each
400
cooling condition. Finally, the analytical buckling models are
d [mm] L = 20 mm
used to investigate the influence of the stress distributions on
300
0 Hsink = 5 kWm-2K-1
the buckling behaviour. In the following section, the results 6
Longitudinal Stress [MPa]

for the 3-D mechanical calculations are also presented to 10

14
illustrate the value of this simplified approach. 200
20

Results 100

Finite Element simulations 0

A thermal-mechanical FE model was built, using the data
from Table 1 with varying values for Hsink, d, and L. Figures -100
5(a) to (c) show the residual stress distributions for the
simulations calculated with the 3-D thermal-mechanical -200
coupled model. Note that the variation of each of the cooling -50 -25 0 25 50
source parameters was performed while leaving the other two Distance from the weld centre line [mm] (c)
parameters constant. The slight asymmetry in the profiles is
caused by the asymmetric definition of the boundary Figure 5. Longitudinal residual stress distribution along a line
conditions. The positive stress level at the edge of the plate is perpendicular to the weld line as calculated by the 3-D FE
also a result of the boundary conditions; away from the edges, simulations, for (a) different values of cooling source heat
the boundary conditions have less influence. Therefore, the transfer coefficient, Hsink, (b) different values of the heat sink
minimum off-centre stress level (typically found around y = diameter, d, and (c) different values of the heat source to
±25 mm) is used to study the influence of the cooling source cooling source distance, L.
parameters.

580
From Fig.5 (a) it follows that for an increasing cooling source 0

Longitudinal stress [MPa]

strength (with d and L constant), the stresses around the weld -25 3-D FE model
zone are reduced, and the off-centre minimum stress levels -50
1-D bar model
become higher. Moreover, the width of the central -75
compressive region increases for increasing cooling source -100
strength. The variation of the arc to cooling source distance L -125
(with Hsink and d constant) shows an increase of the off-centre
-150
stress level for smaller distances L, while the stress levels
-175
around the weld zone show the opposite effect, i.e. higher for
-200
smaller L. The variation of the cooling source diameter d (Hsink 40 35 30 25 20 15
and L constant) shows for an increasing diameter an increase
Cooling source to heat source distance, L [mm]
off the off-centre stress level, and a decrease in stress level at (c)
the plate centre. In addition, there is a significant variation in Figure 6. Minimum off-centre longitudinal stress as calculated
the widths and positions of the tensile and compression zones. by the 3-D FE models and the 1-D bar model, for varying
The width of the compression zone at the plate centre is values of (a) the cooling source strength, Hsink, (b) the
approximately equal to the diameter of the cooling source. As distance between heat and cooling source L, and (c) the
a consequence, the position of the tensile region is shifted cooling source diameter d.
more toward the plate edge as the cooling source diameter
increases. The graphs show the trends for the minimum off-centre
longitudinal stress, for varying cooling source parameters.
1-D bar models Recall that the buckling deformation is caused by the
The 1-D bar model can obtain similar results to those formation of longitudinal compressive stresses at the plate
presented above in only a fraction of the time, i.e. in less than edges. Higher stresses at the plate edges (i.e. less
40 seconds, compared to eight hours for the 3-D models. compressive), result in a decrease in buckling sensitivity. Both
Temperature histories from the 3-D thermal models were the 1-D bar model and the 3-D FE model predict a decrease in
collected for 17 nodes distributed along a line perpendicular to buckling sensitivity for: increasing cooling source strength,
the welding direction. Procedure files were written to transport increasing cooling source width, or decreasing heat source to
the nodal temperatures histories from the 3-D thermal model cooling source distance.
to the 1-D bar model, for which n = 17.
The results are presented in Figure 6. Both the 3-D FE models, Analytical buckling analysis
and the 1-D bar models are plotted in this figure, to illustrate The critical buckling stress for a flat rectangular plate
their similarity. subjected to a uniform stress can be determined from eqn.5. A
plate with dimensions 250×100×1.5 mm, simply supported at
0
the short sides and free at the long sides (SFSF condition) will
Longitudinal stress [MPa]

-25 3-D FE model

1-D bar model buckle if it is subjected to a uniform stress of -6.5 MPa. After
-50 welding, the plate is subjected to both tensile and compressive
-75 stresses that balance each other. Obviously, a decrease in
-100 stress level at the plate edge will increase the sensitivity for
-125 buckling. But as can be seen from eqn.11, it is not just the
-150 stress level that influences the buckling sensitivity, but also
-175 the way that the stresses are distributed. Consider the
-200 distribution shown in Fig.3, where the variables α and γ
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 determine the shape of the stress distribution. For conventional
Cooling source strength, Hsink [Wm K ] -2 -1 welding, there is no compression zone in the plate centre,
(a) which can be obtained by filling in γ = 0.
0
The decrease in the critical stress level at the plate edge as a
Longitudinal stress [MPa]

3-D FE model
-25
1-D bar model
function of α and for different values of γ is plotted in Fig. 7.
-50 For constant stress levels (σxx,1 and σxx,2), there is an increase
-75 in the critical compressive stress for an increasing width of the
-100 tensile zone defined by α. Or in other words: the buckling
-125 sensitivity decreases when the width of the compressive zones
-150 at the plate edges decreases. For constant α, a reduction of the
-175 width of the compression zone at the plate edge can also be
-200 achieved by an increase in γ. Therefore, increasing the width
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 of the central compression zone will also result in a decrease
Cooling source diameter, d [mm] of the buckling sensitivity.
(b)

581
 Critical stress at plate edge [MPa]
-50
-75
-100
-125
γ=0
-150 γ = 0.1
γ = 0.2
-175
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
α that these stresses are distributed. By decreasing the width of
Figure 7. Variation in critical compressive stress at the plate
edges above which buckling can be expected. Here α is the
fraction of the plate width that is in tension, and γ the width of
the central compression zone as a fraction of the plate width.
Definitions of α and γ can be found in Fig.3. Plate dimensions
are 250×100×1.5 mm, ν = 0.3, E = 200 GPa.
Discussion
The 3-D FE models can be used to study the effect of the
cooling source parameters on the longitudinal stress
behaviour. Although not presented in this paper, the
mechanical 3-D model also predicts the deformation of the
plates. Conventionally welded plates show severe buckling,
while the DC-LSND welding plates remain nearly flat, due to
the changes in longitudinal stress when the cooling is applied.
The results from Fig.6 show that there are clear trends for the
variation of longitudinal residual stress for changing cooling
source parameters. Similar trends can be obtained by the
simplified 1-D bar model. However, the absolute values differ
from the 3D results. The reason for this difference lies in the
dimension of the model. The 1-D bar model describes the
stress and strain development along a line perpendicular to the
weld. These stresses and strains are caused the thermal
expansion and contraction that are a direct result of the
temperature loads. Also, the model accounts for interaction
between the bars, due to the rigid transverse beam to which all
bars are connected. However, the model does not account for
stress and strain changes that take place in the material below
or above the line that is considered. This leads to an under
estimation of the compressive zone that forms around the weld
line during DC-LSND welding, and therefore, the compressive
stress at the plate edges is over estimated (i.e. more negative).
Predicting desired cooling source strength is only one
consideration for the application of the DC-LSND process;
designing it in practice inevitably presents additional
challenges. For a practical cooling source, some parameters
will be easier to adjust than others. The easiest parameter to
work on is the distance between heat source and cooling
source. Also the cooling source size (given by d) can be
modified within reasonable limits.
Conclusions and recommendations
Welding induced buckling distortion of thin plates can be
eliminated when the welding heat source is followed by a
trailing heat sink, due to a decrease in compressive stress at
the plate edges. Several researches have shown this in
practice; to date, little was published concerning the effect of
various cooling source parameters on the buckling behaviour.
In this work we have discussed several approaches to
investigate the influence of the cooling source parameters.
The analytical solutions for the determination of the critical
buckling stress show that the buckling sensitivity does not
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
only depend on the absolute stress levels, but also on the way
the compressive zone at the plate edges, the buckling
sensitivity is decreased. This can be achieved by either
increasing the width of the tension zone or by the introduction
of a compressive zone around the weld.
A standard approach involves the use of 3-D thermal-
mechanical finite element models. Although these lead to
valuable results, the calculation times are very long, which
makes these models unattractive for extensive parameter
analysis. The combination of 3-D thermal FE models and
simplified 1-D mechanical models leads to reasonable results,
in line with the solutions predicted by the 3-D thermal-
mechanical FE models. Calculation times are much shorter for
this approach. Moreover, insight into the influence of the
cooling source parameters is enhanced. This insight is
valuable during the practical development of cooling sources
for DC-LSND welding. However, the simplified 1-D model
still needs improvement, in order to predict accurate stress
levels. At this moment, the simplified models work well with
respect to the prediction of trends, but quantitative values are
not yet consistent. Future work will involve improvement of
the 1-D models, and the development of optimisation
procedures that use the combination of thermal 3-D FE
models, mechanical 1-D bar models, and analytical buckling
solutions to predict the optimum cooling source parameters.
References
[1] Q. Guan, C.X. Zhang, and D.L. Guo, Dynamic control of
welding distortion by moving spot heat sink, Welding in the
World, 33(4), 308-313 (1994)
[2] J. Goldak, A. Chakravarti, and M. Bibby, A new finite element
model for welding heat sources, Metall. Trans. B, 15B(2), 299-
305 (1984)
[3] E.M. van der Aa, Finite element modelling of temperature
profiles, distortions and residual stresses due to TIG welding
(Thesis), Materials Science and Technology, Delft University of
Technology, 2003
[4] J.K. Hong, P. Dong, and C.L. Tsai, Application of plastic strain
relaxation effect in numerical welding simulation, Trends in
Welding Research conference proceedings, 999-1004 (1998)
Acknowledgements
This research was carried out under project number MC8.02117
(Investigation of Active Cooling for Control of Residual Stress and
Distortion) in the framework of the Strategic Research Programme of
the Netherlands Institute for Metals Research in the Netherlands.
582
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Development of Compressive Residual Stress in Structural Steel Weld Toes by
Means of Weld Metal Phase Transformations
F. Martinez
Caterpillar Technical Center, Moosville, Illinois, USA
S. Liu
Center for Welding, Joining, and Coatings Research, Golden, Colorado, USA
Abstract
In today’s highly competitive industry, fatigue resistance of
welded steel joints has grown to be one of the most important
concerns of structural integrity. A tensile residual stress that
generally develops at weld toes because of the fast and
uncontrolled cooling of the joint diminishes the fatigue
resistance of a structure. The increased nominal stress at the
joint makes them the region more prone to fatigue failure in a
welded component.
Mechanically- or thermally-induced compressive stress fields
have been used for decades to increase the fatigue
performance of welded joints. By means of the partial
stabilization of austenite in the weld metal and a subsequent
controlled decomposition into martensite, a compressive
residual stress field can be induced at the weld toe without the
need of further rework.
This work presents a description of the progress achieved in
the development of transformation-induced compressive
residual stresses in steel-weld-toes. The proven methodology
and all the limiting factors in the development of a
compressive stress are also presented.
Introduction
Arc welding of steel is a very violent process. Intense heat is
applied during a short period at the joint between two parts
with the intention of base and weld metals melting and
subsequent mixture. Then, a fast and uncontrolled cooling
regimen usually follows.
The thermal contraction that all welds undergo during cooling
to room temperature typically results in tensile stresses in the
vicinity of the welded joint. This is caused by dissimilar
volumetric contraction around the weld due to slight
differences in the thermal history.
Post-weld heat treatments are used to minimize or even
eliminate the tensile residual stresses induced during weld
bead solidification. Shot peening or hammering the weld toes
can plastically deform them and induce a compressive stress
that counteracts the tensile field surrounding the modified
area. Unfortunately, all these treatments involve rework,
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
which translates into more time and money spent in the
production of a component. A typical mechanical treatment
will require a time on the order of few minutes per linear
meter of weld, plus the use of additional equipment and
personnel. Thermal stress-relief treatments require several
hours, and require the use of expensive heat sources and a
finely controlled cooling regime.
For the development of a compressive stress field by means of
martensitic phase transformation, partial stabilization of the
austenite is first needed. Then, by means of controlling the
martensite start temperature, the effect of the thermal
contraction can be overridden and a compressive stress field
can be induced.
It has long been known that compositional variations made to
steel weld metal can alter the martensite start temperature
(MS) and the amount of martensite that results. By carefully
modifying the transformation temperatures for martensite, a
maximum fraction of it can be obtained.
In the constraint of solid state, the positive volumetric
difference between martensite and austenite will induce a
compressive residual stress in the surrounding matter. The
resulting compressive stress state has been shown to increase
the fatigue limit of plain-carbon steel structural welds by as
much as three times that of conventional weld metals 1,2.
The first phases forming upon cooling of the molten weld may
also influence the final residual stress state and the mechanical
performance of the weld metal. Presence of phases other than
martensite can reduce the magnitude of compression achieved
during the martensitic transformation. The different levels of
alloy microsegregation, derived from different primary phases,
may result in different local transformation temperatures 3.
This effect can also affect the effectiveness of establishing a
large compressive residual stress.
Experimental Procedure
Several Ni-Cr and Mn-Cr (Table 1) weld metals were
manufactured (GMAW-Metal Cored) by depositing different
amounts of ferromanganese and pure nickel onto an AISI-409
low carbon stainless steel strip. All the analyzed alloys lie in
the final martensite field of the Schaeffler diagram (Figure 1).
583
Table 1: Chemical composition of the analyzed weld metals This same series of experiments helped to evaluate the
(LECO SA-2000 glow discharge sputtering spectrometry). temperature at which the thermal contraction effect was
capable of overriding the effects of the martensite
Wire Element content (as dep. wt.%) transformation expansion. This information was used to
Code Ms Mf determine the maximum MS that would result in a final
%Cr %Mn %Ni (°C) (°C) compressive residual stress field around the weldment.
Mn1 12.3 1.76 0.08 533 400
Mn2 11.8 3.68 0.07 520 400 0 20 40 60 80

0
Mn3 11.2 5.93 0.07 370 270 1000

Mn4 11.3 7.6 0.07 272 160 Measured temperature

Mn5 10.8 9.02 0.07 150 50 800
Circumferential strain -0.02
Mn6 11.2 12.8 0.07 NA NA
Mn7 10.7 14.4 0.08 25 NA

Temperature (°C)

Strain (mm/mm)
Cr1 10.5 0.09 0.1 537 486 600 -0.04

Ni1 11 0.2 3.41 293 147

Ni2 11.3 0.22 6.17 220 113 400 -0.06
Ni3 12 0.28 9.99 170 135
Ni4 9.8 0.2 11.2 NA NA
Ni5 10.4 0.21 12.2 NA NA 200
MS
-0.08

MF

0 -0.1

0 20 40 60 80

Figure 2. Typical (Ni3 alloy) temperature vs. time and strain

vs. time profile as evaluated with circumferential dilatometry.

For this experiment, ASTM-A36 steel plates were welded

Figure 1. Portion of the Schaeffler diagram depicting the
experimental matrix of this study.
With the aid of a Gleeble 1500 Thermomechanical Simulator,
non-diluted weld metal samples were subjected to the thermal
cycle presented in Figure 2. This regimen tried to emulate the
cooling cycle that austenite in steels undergo after welding.
The inflexion points in circumferential dilatation recorded
during the cooling stage (helium blast) were taken as the MS
and MF temperatures.
The effect the alteration of the MS has on the residual stress
state was evaluated indirectly and in a qualitative form by
recording the deflections a fillet weld would experiment upon
welding. This approach to the problem was later corroborated
by means of x-ray diffraction analyses.
(semi-automatic GMAW) together with the Ni1, Ni3, Mn1,
Mn2, Mn3, and Mn5 weld alloys (Table 1). The plates were
held in a rigid T-fixture specifically designed for this
experiment. The bottom plate was completely constrained
with clamps while the upper plate was simply resting over the
fixture and lower plate so that it had complete freedom of
movement, Figure 3b.
During the making of these joints (32V, 10ipm, 300-350A),
laser pointers were attached to the corners of the upper plate
and projected to remote screens to record and quantify the
movements of the upper plate (Figure 4). The projection
screens were situated at distances between 160 and 420cm.
Video acquisition of the pointer projection documented the
whole deformation history of each welded plate.
Even though the methodology used in this experiment might
seem rudimentary, it was a straightforward technique that
summarized the effects of martensitic transformation and
thermal contraction in a single test. The results obtained from
this experiment closely match the results obtained by other
researchers using far more complex methodologies that
involved strain-gage drilling and X-ray diffraction
measurements 5.

584
a)

b)
Figure 4. General setup view (a) and detail of laser pointer
positioning (b).

b)
Figure 3. Geometric profile of the plates (60 cm long) (a) and
schematic representation of the welding setup (b).

Coupons for residual stress analysis were manufactured by

robotic GMAW (32V, 4.3mm/s travel, 300-350A,
90Ar10O2@45cfh) on ASTM-A36, 12mm thick base metal.
For their measurement, two-peak monitoring X-ray difraction
was conducted at the weld toe (Figure 5). Subsurface
measurements at the weld toe were obtained after the
electrochemical removal of base metal. Less than two
millimeters of material were removed to avoid the relaxation
of the stress field.

X-ray diffraction analyses (45kV, 40mA Cu radiation, eight

peaks monitoring) were also performed in non-diluted samples
to identify the phases present and map their evolution. Figure 5. Residual-stress-analysis coupon geometry.

Discussion
The Effect of the Thermal Contraction Upon the Final
Residual Stresses
Thermal contraction is an intrinsic physical effect that cannot
be suppressed. This volumetric reduction has the potential of
negating the effect of the martensitic-induced expansion. If the
net effect of the transformation is smaller than the thermal
contraction occurring later, no net volumetric expansion will
result. Thus, no compressive residual stress will be induced.

Thermal contraction is directly related to the binding energy of

the involved atoms. The higher the bonding forces between a
pair of atoms, the smaller the amplitude of vibration around
a) their equilibrium positions, which translates into a lower
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Unfortunately, the
modification of the binding energy between atoms is out of the
reach of this study.

585
 4

If the martensitic transformation is tailored to occur at the last

stages of the cooling process, the thermal contraction will

Deflection at the plate edge (degrees)

Deflection at the plate edge (mm)
have the least effect on the induced residual stress. This can be 2 0.4

done by reducing the transformation start temperature. By

reducing the contracted volume, the net change in volume will
be maximized and the magnitude of the residual compressive 0 0
stress will increase.

Figure 6 shows that, indeed, there is a direct correlation

-2 -0.4
between the martensite start temperature and the deformation
of the weld joint. This correlation applies the same for both
Mn- and Ni-based weld metals. Although the deformation of
the joint is not a simple variable, it summarizes the effect of -4

the thermal contraction coefficient and phase transformation in 600 500 400 300 200 100
a particular joint geometry and size. a) MS (°C)
-8

Compositions with high transformation temperature

manifested a larger closure along the transverse and

Deflection at the plate edge (degrees)

Deflection at the plate edge (mm)
-0.4
longitudinal axes of the weld. By reducing the martensite start -4

temperature, the angle between the plates (originally 90° from

the other plate) tended to increase (Figure 6).
0 0
Although the experimental variance in this experiment is high,
the correlation between the transformation start temperature
and the deformation tends to be linear. For both axes, the trend
4 0.4
also shows similar slopes.

Measurements related to the longitudinal axis present a

limiting temperature of about 340°C. Alloys with higher 8

transformation temperature manifested a closure along the 600 500 400 300 200 100
transverse axis, and are suspected to sustain a final tensile b) M (°C) S

residual stress along the longitudinal axis. Because of the Figure 6. Longitudinal (a) and transversal (b) deformation of
direction of their deformation, alloys with lower the weld toe after being the martensitic transformation.
transformation temperature alloys suspected to remain in
Mn concentration (wt. %)
compression along the longitudinal axis. 4 6 8

-500

Deformations related to the transverse axis indicate that the

thermal contraction effect negated that of the martensitic
formation for those alloys that transformed above 450°C. -400
Alloys that transformed below that temperature are suspected
Residual Stress at the Weld Toe (MPa)

to be in a final compressive residual stress along both the

longitudinal and the transverse axis. -300

Although simplistic in nature, the results from this experiment

match those obtained by other researchers. T. Tominaga and
-200
Ch. Miki experimented with the formation of residual stresses
at weld toes 5. They concluded that transformation
temperatures below 350°C were sufficient to induce a
compressive residual stress state, and to improve fatigue -100

behavior of components joined with Ni based weld metals.

Residual stress measurements later corroborated the results of 0

the fillet weld deflections. Measurements obtained from 500 400 300 200 100
MS (°C)
12mm-thick robotic welded joints indicate that indeed, weld
metals transforming below 450°C induce a compressive Figure 7. Transversal residual stress measurements taken at
residual stress at the weld toe (Figure 7). the weld toe. Mn-based weld metals.

586
Weldment Morphology Modification by Means of Silicon
Additions
The success in the development of a compressive residual
stress at the weld toe does not depend only on the martensitic
transformation. The volumetric expansion resulting from the
phase transformation can induce a compressive residual stress
if the thermal contraction effect is minimized. However, if
stress concentrators are present, the effect of the phase
transformation can be negated.
a)
Figure 8 presents the results of a finite element analysis of an
alloy that starts its martensitic transformation at 170°C and
ends it at 135°C, thus resulting in a maximum fraction of
martensite 6. As Figure 8a presents, the SCF at the weld toe
was kept to a minimum by having a smooth transition between
the weld and base metal. Figure 8b simulates an identical joint
possessing an undercut at the weld toe. As it would be
expected, a final compressive residual stress field results in the
first case while in the second case the compressive residual b)
stress field disappeared. Figure 8. FEM simulation Ni3 alloy. Without any geometrical
defect (a) and with an undercut at the weld toes (b).
The effect of the undercut is to act to locally decrease the weld
toe radius, thus increasing the SCF over 10 times (see Figure
14
9). With such an increment in stress concentration, the force Stress Concentration Factor SCF (tension)
exerted by the weight of the component is enough to minimize 12
SCF (bending)
the compressive residual field. 10

8
Ni-based weld metals exhibited a decent fluidity and resulted
6
in morphologies that can be referred as acceptable for this
project. Unfortunately, the Mn-based weld metals exhibited a 4
much rougher morphology. Alloys containing more than seven 2
weight percent manganese resulted in beads so distorted that
0
stress concentration points were inevitable. 0.01 0.1 1 10
Weld-toe radius (mm)
In an effort to enhance the fluidity of the Mn-based weld
metals, a complete welding-parameter optimization study was Figure 9. Stress concentration factor as function of weld toe
conducted. Unfortunately, no combination of welding radius of curvature (based on equations proposed by ref. 7).
parameters resulted in good bead morphology and no
undercut. Therefore, silicon additions to the weld metal were
required to increase the fluidity of the weld alloys (Figure 10).

At the compositional range evaluated, silicon showed no

evidence of altering the martensitic transformation.
Metallographic and XRD analyses revealed no change in the
final martensite fraction that remained over 95 percent volume
for all of the compositions.

By means of silicon additions the weld geometry was

modified. From bead-on-plate (BOP) coupons it was found
that high silicon additions were not necessary to improve the
fluidity of the weld metals (see Figure 11). A 0.4-wt %-Si a)
addition was enough to improve the fluidity so that a smooth
weld surface and a good wet angle resulted. Although alloys
with silicon contents over 0.6 weight percent manifested an
even smaller wetting angle, the weld contour and surface was
not any better than those of the leaner alloys.

587

b)
Figure 10. Weld profile view. Mn4 alloy made under
traditional welding parameters (a) and after a complete
parameter optimization (b).
70
Wetting angle (degree)
60
50
40
30
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
Silicon concentration (wt. %)
Figure 11. Effect of silicon additions on the resulting weld
geometry (BOP coupons).
With the morphology problem solved, the composition of a
weld metal that would result in a high level of compression at
the toe was devised. This weld metal should start its
transformation at the lowest possible temperature below
450°C, and finish its transformation well above room
temperature. Additionally it had to contain over one half
weight percent silicon to provide good bead morphology.
Conclusions
x A methodology that altered weld metal composition for the
purpose of creating a compressive residual stress field in
plain-carbon steel structural welds toes was established.
x The thermal contraction effect can negate that of the
martensitic volumetric expansion. Alloys that start
transformation above 450°C will not generate a final
compressive residual stress field.
x A direct correlation between the martensite start temperature
and the magnitude of the induced compressive residual
stress exists.
x Silicon additions and modifications to welding parameters
can alter the morphology of weld beads. As little as 0.4-wt
%-Si addition will noticeably improve the bead morphology
of Mn-Cr-based GMA welds in steel.
References
1. Ohta, A., O. Watanabe, K. Matsuoka, Y. Maeda,
N. Suzuki, and T. Kubo. “Fatigue Strength
Improvement of Box Weld by Low Transformation
Temperature Welding Wire and PWHT” IIW
Document No. XIII-1758-99 (1999).
2. Ohta, A., O. Watanabe, K. Matsuoka, Y. Maeda,
N. Suzuki, and T. Kubo. “Fatigue Strength
Improvement of Box Weld by Low Transformation
Temperature Welding Wire” IIW Document No.
XIII-1759-99 (1999).
3. Martinez, F., G. Edwards, S. Liu. ‘High Alloy
Weldments for Fatigue Resistance in Structural
Carbon Steel” Presented at the 83rd Annual AWS
Convention, Chicago IL, March (2002).
4. Martinez, F., G. Edwards, S. Liu. “Effect of
Manganese and Nickel on the Phase Stability of High
Alloys Weld Metals” Presented at the 84th Annual
AWS Convention, Chicago IL, March (2003).
5. Tominaga, Tomimori and Chitoshi Miki. “Effect of
Steel Strength and Ms Temperature on Fatigue
Performance of Low Temperature Transformation
Electrode” IIW Document No. XIII-1953-02 (2002).
6. Martinez, F. Development of Compressive Residual
1.6 2 Stress in Structural Steel Weld Toes by Means of
Weld Metal Phase Transformations. Doctoral Thesis.
Colorado School of Mines (2004).
7. Brennan, F.P., P. Peleties, and A.K. Hellier.
“Predicting Weld Toe Stress Concentration Factors
for T and Skewed T-Joint Plate Connections” Int. J.
of Fatigue. Vol. 22 (2000): 573-584.
8. ASM International. ASM Handbook Vol. 6
Welding, Brazing, and Soldering. Metals Park OH:
ASM international, 1993.
9. Krauss, G. Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing
Principles. Materials Park: ASM International, 1990.
10. Incorporated Electronics. Shot Penning Overview.
Training Document. USA: Incorporated Electronics,
2001.
11. Schaeffler A.L. “Constitution Diagram for
Stainless Steel Weld Metal” Metal Progress Vol. 56
(1949): 680-680B.
12. Brooks, J.A. “Solidification and Solid State
Transformations of Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds”
in the Proceedings of the Trends in Welding
Research in the United States, ASM, New Orleans,
Louisiana, November 16-18 (1981).
13. Cullity, B.D. Elements of X-Ray Diffraction. 2nd
Ed. USA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Inc., 1978.
588
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Numerical Analysis and Measurement of Residual Stresses
in Multi Pass Welding – Influence on Fatigue Root Crack Propagation
Z. Barsoum
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate the residual stresses
near the weld root and the weld toe for multi-pass welded
tube-to-plates, and the influence of residual stresses on multi-
axial fatigue of tubular joints. Two different tubular joint
configurations were studied; a three-pass single-U weld
groove for maximum weld penetration and a two-pass fillet
(no groove) welded tube-to-plates for minimum weld
penetration. An axi-symmetric finite element model was
developed to calculate the temperature distribution, HAZ,
penetration depth and the residual stress distribution for the
sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical analysis. The
calculated geometry and the temperature distribution of the
fusion zone showed good agreement with the micro samples
of the welds. The calculated residual stresses was compared
with experimental results and showed qualitatively good
agreement. The “design root crack” is under compressive
stresses in both configuration, -230 MPa for the single-U weld
groove and -120 MPa for the fillet weld, respectively. Also the
weld toe, transition between weld and tube, is under
compressive stresses. Multi-axial fatigue tests were performed
in order to study weld root crack propagation. The tube
structures were loaded with a static internal pressure in order
to separate the design root crack and initiate the crack growth.
The fatigue tests show that, depending on the size of the static
imposed internal pressure, different crack paths are received.
Introduction
Residual stresses have a significant influence on the fatigue
strength of welded structures, and it is well known that high
tensile residual stresses have a detrimental effect on fatigue
life and compressive residual stresses could have a favourable
effect on fatigue life. The combination of welding residual
stresses with operating stresses to which engineering
structures and components are subjected can promote failure
by fatigue. The risk of failure can be reduced by various stress
relieving processes, such as post weld heat treatment (PWHT).
However, the stress distribution for a complex welded
structure is usually not known, and conservative assumptions
are made of the residual stress distribution when fatigue life
predictions are assessed using fracture mechanics [1-2].
Furthermore during welding, lack of penetration can occur in
the weldment and give rise to “design root cracks”.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Investigation regarding the residual stress field on the root side
of weldments, and how this field would change during fatigue
crack propagation and external loads is in need. Consequently,
more accurate residual stress distributions are needed in the
fatigue life assessment, in order to increase the accuracy of the
fracture mechanical fatigue life predictions.
In Hansen & Agerskov [3-4] a frame box structure for a two
stroke diesel engine was analyzed regarding welding residual
stresses, PWHT and fatigue strength. The objective was root
crack assessment, and it was found that the as-welded
structure had double fatigue life compared to the stress
relieved, due to compressive residual stress presence in the
root. This compressive stresses gave the higher fatigue
resistance compared to the stress relieved specimen.
In Free & Goff [5] a simplified approach was used for residual
stress prediction of multi pass welded tube to plate. The
residual stress prediction and measurement showed
compressive stresses in the weld root and tensile stresses in
the weld toe. Finch & Burdekin [2] carried out fracture
mechanical calculation for root cracks under residual stresses
using the result in [5]. They concluded that compressive
residual stress at the weld root tends to close the crack under
small tensile load. It always reduces the SIF (stress intensity
factor), and hence increase the fracture strength and decrease
the crack growth rate in cyclic loading. In Finch [6] evaluation
of the interaction between applied stress and residual stress in
various geometries of welded joints were studied, and the
quantification of welding residual stress effects in the defect
assessment of tubular joints were continued.
Michaleris et al [7] presented a finite element methodology for
the incorporation of residual stress effects into fracture
assessment. Following the welding simulation, interpolation is
used to transfer the computed residual stresses onto fine
meshes for evaluation of fracture mechanical parameters.
In this study the residual stresses close the weld root and the
weld toe for multi-pass welded tube-to-plates, influence on
fatigue resistance and effect of different weld penetrations
were investigated. Two different tubular joint configurations
were studied; a three-pass single-U weld groove for maximum
weld penetration and a two-pass fillet (with no groove) welded
tube-to-plate for minimum weld penetration. In order to
reduce computational time and still preserve accuracy an axi-
symmetric finite element model was developed to calculate
the temperature distribution, HAZ, penetration depth and the
589
residual stress distribution for the sequentially coupled
thermo-mechanical simulation. The calculated residual
stresses was compared with experimental results and showed
qualitatively good agreement. Multi-axial fatigue tests were
performed in order to study weld root crack propagation. The
tube structures were loaded with static internal pressure in
order to separate the design root crack and initiate the crack
growth from the root side.
Test objects and welding procedure
The circular tubes and the plates were constructed from
structural steel, Swedish type SS142171-91. These are cold
drawn post heat treated seamless tubes - STRUCTO 525/ST
52 with yield strength of 576 MPa (Rp0.2) and ultimate tensile
strength of 700 MPa (Rm). The plates were hole-drilled
circumferentially to fit into the fixture. The welding were
carried out in a MAG robot with welding wire Grytgöl GB 74
with a electrode diameter of 1.2 mm and a yield strength of
440 MPa. Two different tubular joint configurations were
produced. The welding conditions for the single-U weld
groove and the fillet welded tube-to-plates are listed in table 1
and 2, respectively. Figure 1 illustrates the tubular joints.
difference between the 2-D axi-symmetrical and the 3-D
results were found, except for the residual hoop stress at the
surface of the weld. Two axi-symmetrical FE-models were
built in the FE-software ANSYS 8.1 [13] for the thermal and
mechanical analysis, one for the single-U weld groove and one
for the fillet welded tube-to-plates, respectively. The same
mesh is used in the thermal and the mechanical model and
consists of 2983 2-D 4-nodes elements (PLANE55 and
PLANE42) with 3224 nodes. To this come a number of
contact elements (perfect thermal-and mechanical contact) to
avoid penetration and closure pressure in the design root crack
at the lack of penetration between the tube and the plate. A
sequentially coupled analysis was carried out starting with the
thermal analysis. The results from the thermal analysis - the
temperature distributions, were used as loads in the
mechanical model. Figure 2a shows the geometry and
dimension. Figure 2b-c shows the two different joint
configurations considered including the weld filler and the
design root crack.
[mm]
R153

Table 1: Welding condition for single-U weld

Symmetry
groove welded tube-to-plates.

Pass Current Voltage Welding Heat R60 R70

Nr. (A) (V) speed Input 400
(mm/sec) (kJ/mm) 415
Sym.
1 210 26 5.1 1.07
2 220 29 4.4 1.45 a) Design root crack
3 290 30 3.4 2.56 contact elements

Table 2: Welding condition for fillet welded (no W3

W2 W1 W2 W1
groove) tube-to-plates.

Pass Current Voltage Welding Heat

Nr. (A) (V) speed Input
(mm/sec) (kJ/mm)
1 280 27 4.7 1.60 b) a)
2 260 29 3.9 1.93 Figure 2: Axi-symmetric finite elements mesh: a) geometry and
dimension; b) no groove; c) single-U weld groove, filler
Finite element models material and design root crack.
The thermal and mechanical response of a weldments is a Material properties
three-dimensional problem that requires a large amount of The temperature dependent thermal and mechanical material
computational time and consequently more time demanding in properties for steel SS2172 are shown in figure 3. The tube,
multi-pass welding. Therefore, it is necessary to develop the plates, HAZ and the filler weld material are assumed to
simplified models, reduce CPU time and hence preserve the have the same material properties (autogeneous weldment),
accuracy. An assumption common in circumferential welding and these are obtained from Jonsson et al [14] and Wikander
is axi-symmetry i.e. that the filler weld material is deposited at et al [15] by extracting data points from similar material
the same time, hence infinite welding speed. Earlier 2-D and properties. When the material reaches the solidification
3-D welding simulations [8-12] shows that residual stresses in temperature the thermal conductivity is assumed to increase
circumferential weldments are quit axi-symmetric, they agrees ten times to initiate the fluid flow in the melted zone. The
well with the residual stress measurements and no significant high peaks of the heat capacity are the latent heats due phase

590
transformation (at approx. 700 °C) and heat of fusion (at
1480-1530 °C) corresponding to a latent heat of 260 kJ/kg.
Furthermore, cooling by convection during and between the
welding passes is modeled by assuming a heat transfer
coefficient for all exterior surfaces of 15 [W/°C·m2]. For the
mechanical material properties (E, ν, σY, α, ρ) a cut off
temperature, Tcut-off, was set to 1500 °C i.e. if the temperature
calculated in the thermal analysis is higher than 1500 °C,
then the material properties are evaluated at the cut off
temperature in the mechanical analysis. The thermal
expansion coefficient (α) is defined as instantaneously and is
set as stress free at 1500 °C for the weld filler material and
stress free at 20 °C for the plates and the tube material. The
plastic behavior is described by the von Mises criterion with
no hardening. To avoid convergence problems in the
numerical calculations the minimum yield limit was set to 5
MPa and the maximum Poisson’s ratio to 0.45.
1800
C [J/kg°C ]
Heat input model
Sense the geometrical model used in this work is 2-D axi-
symmetric some assumption is needed for the modeling of the
heat source. To simulate arc heating effects during multi-pass
welding, the equivalent heat input can be assumed as the
combination of both surface and volume heat flux components
[16]. To simulate the deposition of weld filler material the
technique of element birth and death was utilized (activation
and deactivation of elements). The filler material elements
were activated at the beginning of the deposition with an
initial activation temperature above the melting temperature -
1600°C. Since it is necessary to conserve the energy, the net
heat input is reduced because arc efficiency includes the
energy added with the filler material. The total net heat input
(Qtotal) consists of volume flux (Qvolume [J/sm3]), surface flux
(Qsurface [J/sm2]) and the energy release when the filler material
is cooled from activation temperature 1600°C to room
temperature 20°C. The power balance is given bellow in
200 equation 1:
λ [W/m°C]

1500
Q total = Q deposit + Q volume + Q surface = η UI (1)
150
1200 C
λ Where η is arc efficiency (~80%), U is voltage [V] and I is
900 100 current [A]. The ratio between Qvolume/Qsurface can be adjusted
to achieve as accurate fusion zone and HAZ as possible
600 compared with the micro samples, see figure 4. In this work
50
the heat input consists of volume heat flux (~30% of Qtotal) and
300
deposition of filler material (~70 % of Qtotal) with activation
Temperature [C ]
0 0 temperature of 1600°C. The heat input is active for a certain
0 500 1000 1500 2000 time, t [s], depending on the welding speed, (v) [mm/s], and
a) the diameter, (dt) [mm], of the weld filler wire;
600 8
σY[MPa]
E ρ ·10 3 [kg/m 3 ]
E [GPa]
d (2)
500 ρ
σY
t=
v
400
Tcut-off After the heat source is active for t seconds the weld is cooled
down for approximately 10 seconds between the weld passes,
300
and when the last (second or third) pass is applied the structure
200 is cooled down to room temperature (20°C). The volume flux,
qvolume, is applied according to equation (3) assuming constant
100 uniform distribution.
Te mpe rature [°C ]
0 7 UI η ⋅η volume
qvolume = (3)
0 500 1000 1500 2000
AFZ ⋅ d t
b)
15,0 0,5
α [10-6/°C] ν [-] Where AFZ is the cross-sectional area of the fusion zone,
Tcut-off
α
ν ηvolume is the proportion volume flux from total heat flux
14,0 (30%). This heat source models have been used to
approximate simple welding process [17-18]. Micro-samples
were produced of the single-U weld groove and the fillet weld.
13,0 0,4
The shape of each layer of filler weld material is predefined in
<
the model based on the experimental micro-samples of the
12,0
weld penetration profile. The calculated weld penetration
profiles, fusion zone and HAZ are shown in figure 4 for the
Te mpe rature [°C]
first weld.
11,0 0,3
0 500 1000 1500 2000
c)
Figure 3: Material properties: a) conductivity (λ) and heat
capacity (C); b) density (ρ), elastic modulus (E) and yield
stress (σY); c) poisons ratio (ν) and thermal expansion
coefficient (α).

591
 Filler material
Weld No.1
Melt – 0.3 sec.

Figure 4: Temperature fields of the root pass and comparison

with micro-samples of the weld penetration profile, fusion
zone and HAZ for single-U weld groove. stress distribution
Residual stress measurement and comparison direction (Y)
The residual stress in the single-U weld groove welded tube- Single-U weld groove
to-plates is evaluated experimentally by saw cutting and X-ray
diffraction technique. The methods are outlined in Radaj [19]. a)
Figure 5 presents the FEM calculated and experimentally
obtained radial and tangential stresses along the top surface of
the plate. The measurement point’s in the vicinity of the weld
line shows a reasonable agreement with the calculated
stresses. Figure 6 shows the residual stress plot in the axial
direction. In the both configuration the “design root crack” is
under compressive stresses, -230 MPa in the sinlge-U weld
groove and -120 MPa in the fillet weld, respectively. Also the
weld toe, transition between weld and plate, is under
compressive stresses, -320 MPa in the single-U weld groove
and -300 MPa in the fillet weld, respectively. It implies that
the compressive residual stress tends to close the root opening stress distribution
and improve the fracture stability at the root and is favorable direction (Y)
from a fatigue resistance point of view. Fillet weld (no groove)
-120 -80 -40 0 40 80
b)
600
Figure 6: Contour plots of the residual stress distribution in
X
[MPa] from FEM simulations in the axial direction: a)
300 single-U weld groove; b) fillet weld tube to plates.
Stress (MPa)

0
Fatigue testing and residual stress effect
The welded tube to plates configurations where produced in
series in order to conduct fatigue tests. One objective of the
-300 fatigue tests was to quantify the influence of the weld
——– σX - FEM penetration depth on the fatigue resistance. Another important
▲ σX - Experiment objective was to study the effects of residual stresses on root
-600
a) x - posi ti on (mm) crack propagation and the interaction between residual stresses
-120 -80 -40 0 40 80
and external service loads. The tubular joints were divided in
600 four different batches, see table 3. The fatigue tests were
carried out in a torsion servo-hydraulic test machine with
X torsion load capacity of ±25 kNm. All test were conducted at a
300
stress ratio, R, of -1 (R = τmin/ τmax= min. shear stress / max.
shear stress). The test were stopped when the root crack (root
Stress (MPa)

0 failures) have propagate trough the effective throat of the weld

– approximately 13.5 mm for the single-U weld groove types
(batch B2 and B3) and approximately 8.5 mm for the fillet
-300 weld type (Batch B4). Sense the compressive residual stresses
——– σΖ - FEM tends to close the design root crack an internal pressure
▲ σΖ - Experiment
-600
(hydraulic oil) is applied to relax and balance out these
b) x - posi ti on (mm)
stresses, and enable the crack to propagate from the root side.
Figure 5: Predicted and measured residual stress: a) σx -
radial transverse stress b) σz - tangential (hoop) longitudinal
stress.

592
The pressure is static imposed (crack opening Mode I) and the from the root side. For the objects in batch B2, the static
fatigue crack propagates in anti-plane shear mode (Mode III). internal pressure was 25 MPa and the failure initiation and
propagation was from the root side. The pressure relaxes the
Table 3: Fatigue test matrix of welded tubular joints. compressive residual stresses at the root and the crack grows
through the effective weld throat thickness, see figure 10d.
B1 B2 B3 B4 The internal pressure was lowered to 15 MPa for test objects
Batch Single-U Single-U Single-U Fillet in batch B3. The majority of the failed tests are from the root,
Weld Weld Weld Weld (no
Groove Groove Groove Groove)
tough at lower torsion load (±18 kNm) the failure initiation
Load (kNm) Torsion Torsion Torsion Torsion and propagation is from the toe side.
(R=-1) (R=-1) (R=-1) (R=-1)
Pinternl (MPa) 0 25 15 0
Tests (nr.) 2 5 4 (3) 4
FAT**) 156 136 133 113
Failure Toe Root Root *) Root
*)
1 test object failed at weld toe (transition between weld and plates) at 18 kNm.
**)
Characteristic fatigue strength at 2 million cycles in [MPa] at 50% failure
probability. The slope of the fatigue strength curves for details assessed on the basis of
shear stresses is m=5, according to IIW recommendations [20].

a) b)

22
Mv (kNm)

17
B1: Singel-U weld groove, 0 MPa
B2: singel-U weld groove, 15 MPa
B3: singel-U weld groove, 25 MPa
B4: Fillet weld (no groove), 0 MPa
Cycles
12
1,E+05 1,E+06
Figure 9: Fatigue test result presented in Mv–(Log (N))
diagram for the 4 different batches B1, B2, B3 and B4.
Figure 9 shows the fatigue test result (Mv vs. Cycles) for the
different batches. Each point marks fracture of a test
specimen. The fatigue resistance data are based on the number
of cycles N to failure, and represented in S-N curves,
C
. N= (4)
Δτ m
In batch B1 the tubular joints were tested in torsion and no
internal static pressure was applied. This batch shows
significantly higher fatigue resistance than the other batches.
Also the crack path differs from those in B2-B4. The crack
initiates at the weld toe; see figure 10a-b, and propagates
circumferentially. The residual stress analysis shows that
tensile stresses are expected in the toe region; figure 8a. Figure
8c shows the characteristic crack path for specimens in batch
B4. The crack is propagating from the root side through the
weld. Due to the poor weld penetration depth and the small
magnitude of compressive residual stress at the root side no
internal pressure was needed to enable the crack to propagate
c) d)
Figure 10. Different fatigue crack path in multi-axial fatigue test
of tubular joints: a) batch B1 – toe (transition between weld-
plate) failure; b) characteristic fracture surface batch B1; c)
1,E+07 batch B4 – root failure; d) batch B2 and B3 – root failure.
Conclusion
Residual stress prediction and measurement was carried out on
welded tubes to plates containing a lack of penetration, with
single-U weld groove and tubes with no groove, respectively.
Fatigue tests were also performed in order to study root crack
propagation. The following conclusions were made:
1. The calculated residual stresses are in good
agreement with the experimental obtained.
2. The design root crack is under favorable compressive
residual stresses in the welded tube to plate
configurations (with groove and no groove). This
keeps the root crack closed and higher the fatigue
threshold value for root crack propagation.
3. Depending on the magnitude of the static imposed
internal pressure, different crack paths were received.
At lower internal pressures (0-15 MPa) the crack path
shifts from root to toe failure.
4. The threshold limit for the internal pressure is 15
MPa in order to separate the root crack, relax the

593
 compressive residual stresses and enable the crack to
initiate and propagate from the root.
5. The lack of penetration size (design root crack) has a
major influence on the fatigue life.
Future work
• Further evaluation of the multi-axial fatigue test
results using Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanic.
• Simulation of root crack propagation in residual
stress field using LEFM.
• 3D-welding simulation and 3D fatigue root crack
propagation in residual stress field.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Mr Nenad Mrden at Volvo
Construction Equipment AB for carrying out the fatigue
testing. Also Mr Gunnar Åkerström and Mr Mirsattar
Hejasiffar at Volvo Penta AB are acknowledged for the
residual stress measurements.
REFERENCES
[1] Martinsson J., Comparisons between different
contemporary FCG programs on welded components,
IIW Document No. XIII-1994-03.
[2] Finch D. and Burdekin FM., Effect of welding residual
stresses on significance of defects in various types
of welded joint, Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
Volume 41,No.5, pp. 721-735, 1992.
[3] Hansen J.L., Residual stresses from welding of large
diesel engine structures, Proc. Design and Analysis of
Welded High Strength Steel Structures, pp.345-372,
Stockholm June 2002, ed. J. Samuelsson, EMAS.
[4] Hansen A.V, Agerskov H., Fatigue assessment of root
defects in the welded structures of a diesel engine, Proc.
Design and Analysis of Welded High Strength Steel
Structures, pp.373-389, Stockholm June 2002, ed. J.
Samuelsson, EMAS.
[5] J.A. Free and R.F Porter Goff, Predicting residual
stress in multipass weldments with the finite element
method, Computer and Structures, Volume 32, No.2,
pp. 365-378, 1989.
[6] Finch D., Effect of welding residual stresses on
significance of defects in various types of welded joint-
II, Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Volume 42,No.3,
pp. 479-500, 1992.
[7] Michaleris P.,Kirk M., Mohr W. and McGaughy T.,
Incorporation of residual stress effects into fracture
assessment via the finite element method, Fatigue and
Fracture Mechanics: 28 th Volume, ASTM
STP 1321, J.H. Underwood and B.D Macdonald, M.R.
Mitchell, Eds., American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1997.
[8] Karlsson C.T, Finite element analysis of temperature
and stresses in a single-pass butt-welded pipe –
influence of mesh density and material modelling,
594
Engineering Computations, Volume 6, pp. 133-
141,1989.
[9] Lindgren L-E. and Karlsson L. Karlsson, Deformations
and stresses in welding of shell structures,
Int. Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering,
Volume 25, pp. 635-655, 1988.
[10] Karlsson R.I. and Josefson B.L., Three-dimensional
finite element analysis of temperatures and stresses
in a single-pass butt-welded pipe, ASME Journal of
Pressure Vessel Technology, Volume 112, pp. 76-84,
1990.
[11] Murthy Y.V.L.N, Venkata Rao G. and Krishna Iyer P.,
Numerical simulation of welding and quenching
process using transient thermal and thermo-elasto-
plastic formulations, Computers and Structures,
Volume 60, No.1, pp. 131-154, 1996.
[12] Josefson B.L and Karlsson C.T., FE-calculated stresses
in a multi-pass butt-welded pipe – a simplified
approach, Int. Journal of Vessel & Piping, Volume 38,
pp.227-243, 1989.
[13] ANSYS guide. ANSYS release 8.1. Houston: Swanson
Analysis Systems
[14] Jonsson M., Karlsson L. and Lindgren L.E,
Deformations and stresses in butt-welding of large
plates with special reference to the mechanical material
properties, Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology, Volume 107, pp. 265-270, 1985.
[15] Wikander L., Karlsson L, Näsström M. and Webster P.,
Finite element simulation and measurement of welding
residual stresses, Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng.,
Volume 2, pp. 845-864, 1994.
[16] Goldak J., Bibby M., Moore J., House R. and Patel B.,
Computer Modeling of heat flow in welds, Metallurgical
transaction B, Volume 17B, pp. 587-600, September
1986.
[17] Bang I.W, Son Y.P, OH K.H., Kim Y.P. and Kim W.S,
Numerical simulation of sleeve repair welding of in-
service gas pipelines, Welding Journal, pp. 273-282,
November 2002.
[18] Sabapathy P.N., Wahab M. and Painter M.J., Numerical
models of in-service welding of gas pipelines,
International conference on advances in materials and
processing technologies, pp. 663-674, 1999.
[19] Radaj D., Welding residual stresses and distortion –
calculation and measurement, DVS Verlag, ISBN 3-
87155-791-9, 2003.
[20] Hobbacher A., Recommendations on fatigue of welded
components, IIW Document No. XIII-1965-03/XV-
1127-03.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Fatigue and Residual Stress Responses of Welded Piping Joints

Abigail E. Humphreys and Tasnim Hassan

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7908

Camden R. Hubbard
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Diffraction and Thermophysical Properties Group
Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6064

Abstract strain ratcheting, i.e. the mean strain gradually increases with
the number of cycles.
It was pointed out by Lu [1] that the ratcheting response at
welded joints might be a probable reason for premature fatigue 500
failures. It was indicated that the ratcheting failure might be
induced by the residual stresses in the welded joints. This σ x (M P a)
study made efforts to determine what happens to residual 250
stresses at welded piping joints under low-cycle fatigue
loading and to understand how residual stresses induce strain
ratcheting and thus affect the fatigue life of the welded joint.
0
A set of systematic residual stress measurements and low- -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
cycle fatigue tests were conducted on a socket welded piping σx
joint. Initial residual stresses near the weld toe of the socket
-250 σxm
weld were measured using x-ray diffraction. The socket weld
was then loaded in low-cycle fatigue to intermediate points of
fatigue life and residual stresses were measured again. Strain
-500
response data near the weld toe were gathered throughout
(a) ε x (%)
specimen fatigue life. Results of residual stress and strain
responses from a socket weld test and related observations
made are presented. 0.8
ε x m (% )

Introduction
0.6

One of the principal concerns in the nuclear power industry is

the unexpected failures of welded joints. When the failures are
0.4
not defect or environment related, the reason in many cases
remains a mystery. An earlier study pointed to the ratcheting
response of welded joints that occurred under cyclic loading as
0.2
a probable reason of premature fatigue failures [1]. Strain
ratcheting is defined as the accumulation of strain with cycles
and usually occurs under a stress-controlled cycle with a mean
0
stress ([2],[3]). In Fig. 1, the phenomenon of uniaxial 0 50 100
ratcheting for stainless steel (SS) 304 is graphically depicted. (b) N
As can be seen in Fig. 1a, the applied stress cycle is
unsymmetrical and the prescribed cycle has a positive mean Figure 1: Demonstration of ratcheting response in a uniaxial
stress. This results in tensile strain ratcheting as evidenced in test. (a) Hysteresis loop in axial stress-strain response is
Fig. 1a by the migration of the hysteresis loop in the tensile shifting along tensile direction with cycles, (b) Mean strain in
strain direction. The mean strain—that is, the midpoint of the each cycle versus the cycle number in uniaxial test; mean
peak-to-peak strain range of each cycle—is plotted in Fig. 1b strain in each cycle is gradually increasing.
as a function of the number of cycles. Figure 1b also conveys

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 595

Lu [1] tested four SS304 welded piping specimens in the
cantilever setup shown in Fig. 2. Sketch of each type of
408.8 mm
specimen tested can be seen in Fig. 3. Biaxial strain gages
115.1 mm
were installed at the top and bottom weld toes prior to testing
to monitor the strain response at the weld toes. Each specimen
Strain Gages
was subjected to a symmetrical, displacement-controlled saw-
tooth fatigue cycle (see the inset in Fig. 4a). The recorded
force-displacement response and axial-circumferential strain 61.6 mm
response from the top toe gage in the butt-weld test are shown (a)
in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4a, the hysteresis loops reveal symmetric
force response. The axial-circumferential strain response from
the top toe gage (Fig. 4b) demonstrates that both axial and
circumferential strains are gradually increasing with cycles— 396.9 mm
that is, strain ratcheting occurs in both directions. The readers 128.2 mm
are referred to [1] for details on the experiments.
Strain Gages

Pin & 48.6 mm

loading end
fixture (b)

Figure 3: Schematic diagrams of the (a) butt-weld specimen,

Load cell and (b) socket-weld specimen (Lu [1]).
6000

Force (kN)
Butt-weld BW1
δ 4000

Pin
fixture
t 2000

0
-20 -10 0 10 20
Actuator Displacement (mm)
Support -2000
column
-4000
(a)
-6000

0.20
Butt-weld
0.10
Circumferential Strain (%)

0.00
-1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00
-0.10

-0.20

-0.30
Cycle
(b)
-0.40

Axial Strain (%)

Figure 4: (a) Load-displacement response from the butt-weld

specimen, and (b) axial-circumferential strain response from
Figure 2: Cantilever setup for welded piping joint fatigue the butt-weld specimen at every 20 th cycle (Lu [1]).
testing (Lu [1]).

596
In Fig. 5, axial strain responses at both the top and bottom
weld toes (Fig. 3) from the butt weld test are shown. The filled
symbols in the figure represent the amplitude—one half of the
peak-to-peak range—of strain cycles experienced. Lu’s fatigue
tests were conducted in a displacement-controlled setup and
consequently, relatively constant amplitude of strain was
recorded at both weld toes. The mean strain—the midpoint of
the peak-to-peak range, represented by unfilled symbols—at
both weld toes gradually increased with cycles. As shown
earlier in the uniaxial test, the increase of mean strain with
cycles in the welded specimen test is evidence of strain
ratcheting. The occurrence of strain ratcheting in these
particular tests was surprising as no mean stress was externally
applied. In spite of this fact, strain ratcheting was observed
without exception at the top and bottom weld toes of the four
welded piping specimens fatigue tested by Lu [1]. This finding
prompted the following hypothesis: residual stress at the weld
may not be relaxing but may be acting as a mean stress in
fatigue, thus inducing ratcheting and playing a notable role in
fatigue failure. This hypothesis, however, contradicts the
commonly accepted assumption that welding residual stresses
relax in low-cycle fatigue.
1 measurement. Such discontinuous response is induced by the
ε x (% )
0.8
0.6
0.4
Amplitude at top toe
0.2 Mean at top toe
Amplitude at bottom toe
Mean at bottom toe
0
0 100 200 300
N
Figure 5: Amplitude and mean of axial strain responses from
the butt weld specimen, every 10th cycle.
The effect of residual stress in reducing low-cycle fatigue life
is well known, but the related failure mechanisms are not well
understood. It was the primary objective of this investigation
to determine what happens to residual stresses at welded
piping joints under low-cycle fatigue loading and to
understand how residual stresses induce strain ratcheting and
thus affect the fatigue life of the welded joint. In order to
achieve these objectives, residual stresses were measured and
low-cycle fatigue tests were conducted on SS304 butt and
socket welded piping joints. Initial residual stresses near the
weld toe were measured using x-ray diffraction. The
specimens were then loaded in low-cycle fatigue to
intermediate points in their fatigue lives, and residual stresses
were measured again. Strain response data near the weld toe
were gathered throughout specimen fatigue lives. Results of
residual stress and strain response from a socket weld test and
related observations made are presented below.
Fatigue Response of Socket Weld Specimen
The socket weld piping joint was tested using the cantilever
test setup in Fig. 2 and prescribing a 14 mm amplitude
displacement-controlled saw-tooth loading cycle (see the inset
in Fig. 4a). The readers are referred to Lu [1] and Humphreys
[4] for details of the welded specimens and fatigue tests. The
fatigue loading on the socket weld presented here was
prescribed in three steps: first up to 160 cycles, second up to
480 cycles, and finally up to 1120 cycles, when the test was
stopped due to the through wall crack in the pipe. Residual
stresses were measured in between the loading steps and
before the fatigue tests. In the third step of loading, the first
fatigue crack was initiated at the bottom weld toe in the
circumferential direction after 605 cycles; a second fatigue
crack was identified at the top weld toe after 715 cycles. The
through-wall crack propagation occurred after 1120 cycles at
the top weld toe—the location of the second fatigue crack.
Figure 6 shows the amplitude and mean of the force response
from the socket weld test. Note the discontinuity in the
response between the loading steps, when the specimen was
dismounted from the test setup for residual stress
long duration between the two loading steps of testing,
separation, and re-welding of the loading end fixture (see Fig.
2), and variations in specimen mounting during different
loading steps. If these discontinuities are disregarded, then
softening in the loading response of the socket weld observed
is similar to that observed by Lu [1] in socket and butt welded
joint tests.
4
P (k N )
400
3
Amplitude
2 Mean
Loading
Step 1 Loading Step 2 Loading Step 3
1
0
0 400 800 1200
-1
N
Figure 6: Amplitude and mean of the load response from the
socket weld test.
The strain responses at the top and bottom weld toes in the
axial direction from the three steps of loading are combined in
Figs. 7 and 8. In between the two steps of loading, the strain
gages were removed to facilitate measuring residual stresses at
the spot of strain measurement. Before fatigue testing in the
second and third steps, strain gages were remounted. Because
of this and other reasons mentioned earlier for load response
discontinuities, the strain responses measured were also
597
discontinuous as seen in Figs. 7 and 8. The mean and Measurement of Residual Stresses in Socket
amplitude strain responses at the top and bottom of the socket Welded Specimen
weld toes in the first step of fatigue loading revealed the same
behavior as presented earlier in Fig. 5 for the butt welded
The field of residual stress measurement is populated by many
joint. The amplitudes of strain responses are almost constant if
different techniques. These techniques can be classified into
the discontinuity between the loading steps is disregarded.
two categories—destructive and nondestructive. One of the
Once again, axial mean strains at the weld toe showed
main objectives of residual stress measurement in this study
evidence of positive ratcheting (see Figs. 7 and 8). From these
was to response of welding residual stresses when the welded
figures, it is apparent that strain ratcheting occurs in the axial
component is subjected to cyclic loading. In order to satisfy
tensile direction at both the top and bottom weld toes over the
this objective, measurements of residual stresses before the
entire fatigue life of the specimen. Upon careful examination
component was loaded and at intermediate points in the
of the axial strain response, it can be observed that the rate of
specimen fatigue life were needed. This sequence of steps
axial strain ratcheting at the bottom weld toe in the first step of
within the experiment mandated that the method of
loading is nearly identical to that at the top weld toe. However,
measurement be nondestructive in nature, as the component’s
the rate of ratcheting at the bottom weld toe is larger in both
ability to function as designed could not be compromised in
the second and third steps than the rate of ratcheting at the top
the process of obtaining residual stress measurements. The
weld toe. Hence, fatigue crack initiation occurred first at the
following two nondestructive techniques of residual stress
bottom toe—the location of higher strain ratcheting rate as
measurement were considered for implementation in this
was also observed by Lu [1].
experiment.

2 X-ray diffraction is a nondestructive residual stress

ε x (% )

Amplitude
measurement technique whose merit has been acknowledged
by much of the scientific community since the 1960s [5]. In x-
1.5 Loading Mean
Loading Step 3 ray diffraction, a dimension in the crystal lattice of the
Step 1 Loading Step 2 metal—the distance between atomic planes—is measured.
1 The atomic planes act as strain gages. The distance that exists
when the metal is subjected to stress is transformed to strain
0.5
via comparison to the interplanar atomic spacing characteristic
of the unstressed metal. Operating under the assumption that
stress is proportional to strain, stress values can be obtained by
0 applying the elastic constant to the strains calculated from the
0 400 800 1200
measured interplanar atomic distances [6]. For a more
-0.5
thorough treatment of the theoretical background of x-ray
N diffraction, the readers are referred to Noyan and Cohen [7].

The fact that x-ray diffraction is a nondestructive technique is

Figure 7: Combined axial strain amplitude and mean at top of great importance for this study. In addition, x-ray
weld toe from the socket weld test. diffraction generally yields significantly lower scatter and
increased accuracy of results when compared to destructive
2 methods [8]. However, this technique also has certain
limitations and disadvantages that must be taken into account.
ε x (% )

Amplitude
Loading Loading Step 2 Loading X-ray diffraction is strictly a surface probe. The stresses
1.5 Step 1 Step 3 Mean obtained represent the state of stress in the specimen at depths
less than 0.001 inches (0.025 mm). Further, while some
destructive methods can be used to find residual stresses in
1
components in the field, x-ray diffraction is a non-portable
measurement technique that has been largely restricted to the
0.5 laboratory. The equipment used, procedure followed, and
interpretation of results in x-ray diffraction are complex.
Trained technologists must carry out testing if accurate,
0
dependable results are to be obtained. In addition to these
0 400 800 1200
limitations, it should be noted that x-ray diffraction is more
-0.5
time-consuming and less economical than other residual stress
N measurement techniques [5].

Like x-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction is a nondestructive

Figure 8: Combined axial strain amplitude and mean at residual stress measurement technique in which the spacing
bottom weld toe from the socket weld test. between crystallographic planes is measured and used to

598
determine the residual stress that exists in the metal. When
carried out carefully, neutron diffraction can yield highly
accurate measurements with less than half as much scatter as
x-ray diffraction results. In addition, neutron diffraction is not
strictly a surface probe. Measurements of residual stresses at
depths up to a few centimeters can be obtained [9]. However,
there are also a few drawbacks associated with this technique.
Again, like x-ray diffraction, neutron diffraction is a non-
portable method. Components to be tested must be transported
to the laboratory. The equipment, procedure, and
interpretation of results are complex and require trained
technologists. Finally, measurements by neutron diffraction
are very costly and time-consuming, even more so than x-ray
diffraction measurements [5].
For the experiment upon which this paper is based, the
residual stress measurement technique chosen for
implementation was x-ray diffraction. The High Temperature
Materials Laboratory (HTML) within Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL) sponsors a user program through which
researchers from industry, academia, and government
institutions can gain access to the ORNL equipment. It was
through this user program that the NC State research team
gained access to x-ray diffraction equipment at HTML. While
interpreting the residual stress results in the following, it is
important to remember that the x-ray diffraction techniques
measures only the surface stresses.
Axial Residual Stress at Location of Maximum Strain
Cycling
Residual stresses measured prior to fatigue loading as well as
following each of the first two steps of fatigue loading at the
location of maximum strain cycling (bottom of the pipe; see
Fig. 3) in the axial direction can be seen in Fig. 9. The residual
stresses in the initial state can be characterized by the
following description. At the location of measurement nearest
the weld toe, a large compressive residual stress of
approximately -400 MPa was measured. Moving away from
the weld toe along the surface of the pipe specimen, residual
stress in the axial direction increased in magnitude reaching a
maximum compressive residual stress of approximately -450
MPa at a position 21 mm away from the weld toe (the third
measurement spot). After reaching this maximum magnitude,
the compressive residual stress decreased quickly and reached
a small tensile stress value of 40 MPa at the location of
measurement furthest from the weld toe (40 mm).
Residual stresses in the socket-welded specimen were
measured for a second time after the first step of cyclic
loading (160 cycles). The length of the first loading step, in
terms of number of cycles, varied among the welded
specimens tested. The motive behind this variation was to gain
insight into the relaxation mechanism and determine how
quickly relaxation progresses with fatigue cycles. Extensive
relaxation is observed after 160 cycles. Future research should
consider much shorter cycles of loading, on the order of 5 to
10 cycles, in order to gain understanding of the relaxation
mechanism.
599
200
σ R x (M P a)
0
0 10 20 30 40
-200
-400 Initial
After Loading Step 1
After Loading Step 2
-600
Distance from weld toe (mm)
Figure 9: Axial residual stress (error bar ±70 MPa) at
location of maximum strain cycling (at the bottom of the pipe).
In general, relaxation of the axial residual stress at all five
locations of measurement occurred during the first step of
fatigue loading of 160 cycles. At the location nearest the weld
toe, the residual stress relaxed from approximately –400 MPa
to +70 MPa. Over the length of the pipe in which residual
stresses were evaluated, the residual stress remained close to
zero, fluctuating mildly in both the tensile and compressive
directions at different locations. The axial residual stress at the
fifth spot, which had been approximately +40 MPa in the
initial state, had increased in magnitude to an approximate
value of +100 MPa. This was the only location at which the
residual stress did not move towards zero during the first step
of fatigue loading.
Residual stresses were measured for a third time in the axial
direction at the location of maximum strain cycling after a
total of 480 fatigue cycles. Measurements obtained after this
second step of loading were not significantly different from
the stresses measured after 160 cycles at any of the five
locations. The values of residual stress fluctuated slightly but
remained close to zero at the five locations of measurement,
staying between ±100 MPa. As the error bars associated with
x-ray diffraction were estimated within ±70 MPa (Humphreys,
2004), it was concluded that the extent of relaxation
experienced by the axial residual stresses at the location of
maximum strain cycling was entirely achieved during the first
step of fatigue loading.
Circumferential Residual Stress at Location of Maximum
Strain Cycling
In a similar fashion to the axial direction, the initial residual
stresses in the circumferential direction were highly
compressive near the weld toe and tended towards zero as
distance from the weld toe increased (Fig. 10). The highest
compressive residual stress in the circumferential direction, -
530 MPa, was found at the location of measurement nearest
the weld toe. Again, a tensile residual stress was measured at
the spot furthest from the weld toe. The value of this residual
stress was approximately +90 MPa. The residual stresses in
the circumferential direction at the location of maximum strain
cycling prior to and following the first and second steps of
fatigue loading can be seen in Fig. 10.
200
σ R θ (M P a )
0
0 10 20 30
-200
-400 Initial
After Loading Step 1
After Loading Step 2
-600
Distance from weld toe (mm)
Figure 10: Circumferential residual stress (error bar ±70
MPa) at location of maximum strain cycling (at the bottom).
Relaxation of the residual stresses in the circumferential
direction after the first step of fatigue loading was obvious.
The residual stress at all five locations of measurement moved
towards zero. All residual stress measurements after the first
step of loading were between –100 MPa and zero.
Analogous to the residual stress measurements in the axial
direction obtained after the second step of fatigue loading, the
residual stresses in the circumferential direction exhibited no
significant differences from the measurements obtained after
the first step of fatigue loading. Residual stresses measured
after the second fatigue loading were within 50 MPa of the
first fatigue loading measurements at each of the five
measurement locations. Again, complete relaxation of residual
stresses at the location of maximum strain cycling was
accomplished in the first step of fatigue loading.
Conclusion and Discussions
From the experimental work conducted to establish what
happens to welding residual stresses during fatigue, the
following two observations were made: (1) welding residual
stresses near the weld toe in both the axial and circumferential
directions were compressive and (2) these residual stresses
near the weld toe at the location of maximum strain cycling
experienced near-complete relaxation within the first loading
step (160 cycles). These two observations raise the following
questions: (1) why does strain ratcheting occur in the tensile
direction when the residual stresses are initially compressive
and (2) why, after the relaxation of residual stresses, are initial
ratcheting trends maintained? Answers to these questions are
needed for understanding of the fatigue failure mechanism of
welded piping joints and for improvement of the design
methodology. It is anticipated that the complex interactions
during relaxation of multiaxial residual stresses and the
heterogeneous dislocation structures of welded joints are
inducing the ratcheting failure mechanism at the welded
piping joints. Research in this direction is underway at NC
State University.
Acknowledgment
The financial supports from the Center for Nuclear Power
Plant Structures, Equipment and Piping and the Department of
40 Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering at NC
State University are greatly acknowledged. Abigail E.
Humphrey was supported by a NSF Graduate Fellowship (ID#
2003015097) while working on this project. Research at
ORNL was sponsored by the Assistant Secretary for Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of FreedomCAR
and Vehicle Technologies, as part of the High Temperature
Materials Laboratory User Program, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, managed by UT-Battelle, LLC, for the U.S.
Department of Energy under contract number DE-AC05-
00OR22725. Support of the U.S. National Science Foundation
(DMR#0408910) for investigation of this failure mechanism is
greatly acknowledged.
References
1. Lu, Xiangyang (2003), “Influence of Residual Stress on
Fatigue Failure of Welded Joints,” PhD Dissertation,
North Carolina State University.
(http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/theses/available/etd-02062003-
200519/unrestricted/etd.pdf)
2. Hassan, T., Kyriakides, S., 1992, “Ratcheting in cyclic
plasticity, part I : uniaxial behavior.” Int. J. Plasticity, 8,
pp.91-116.
3. Hassan T., Corona, E., Kyriakides, S., 1992, “Ratcheting
in cyclic plasticity, part II : multiaxial behavior.” Int. J.
Plasticity, 8, pp.117-146.
4. Humphreys, Abigail (2004), “Influence of Residual Stress
on the Initiation of Strain Ratcheting Fatigue Cracks at
Welded Joints,” MS Thesis, North Carolina State
University.
(http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/theses/available/etd-05212004-
162354/unrestricted/etd.pdf)
5. Ruud, C. (2002). “Measurement of Residual Stresses,”
Handbook of Residual Stress and Deformation of Steel,
ASM International, pp. 99-117.
6. Lu, J., Bouhelier, C., Lieurade, H.P., Baralle, D., Miege,
B., and Flavenot, J.F. (1994). “Study of Residual
Welding Stress using the Step-by-Step Hole Drilling and
X-Ray Diffraction Method,” Welding in the World, Vol.
33, No. 2, pp. 118-128.
7. Noyan, I.C. and Cohen, J.B. (1987). Residual Stress
Measurement by Diffraction and Interpretation, Materials
Research and Engineering, pp. 75-116, 164-208.
8. Dupas, P., Todeschini, P., Yrieix, B., and Waeckel, F.
(1998). “Evaluation of Residual Stress Measurement
Techniques and Finite Element Simulations on Friction
Welded Pipes,” ASME PVP, Vol. 373, pp. 439-446.
9. Webster, G.A. (2000). “Role of Residual Stress in
Engineering Applications,” Materials Science Forum,
Vols. 347-349, pp. 1-9.
600
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Vibratory Stress Relief: Methods used to Monitor and Document Effective
Treatment, A Survey of Users and Directions for Further Research
B. B. Klauba, BS
Airmatic Inc., VSR Technology Group, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
C. M. Adams, PhD
Annapolis, Maryland, USA
John T. Berry, PhD
Coleman Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
Effective vibratory stress relief treatment can be performed on
a production basis, providing that changes in the workpiece’s
resonance pattern are carefully monitored. Stability of the
new resonance pattern is indicative of completion of the
vibration treatment. These changes are consistent with the
workpiece’s increased mechanical response to dynamic
loading.
An increasing number of manufacturers of precision
components use vibratory stress relief on a variety of
components. A survey of dozens of users of vibratory stress
relief, from diverse industries, reveals regular application of
the technology upon a wide range of workpiece materials and
configurations. At times vibratory treatment replaces thermal
stress relief; at other times vibratory stress relief has been
found to stress relieve components that respond marginally to
thermal treatment, stainless steel weldments being one of the
most common examples.
Two promising directions for further research are outlined:
1. A careful examination of resonance patterns of an iron
casting reveals a change in both resonance amplitude
(expected), but also resonance frequency (unexpected),
with varying vibrator unbalance.
2. A new, simple method of measuring residual stresses,
using micro-hardness data, could greatly expand the
understanding of the vibratory method.
Introduction
The Vibratory stress relief process uses controlled and
monitored vibration to cause dynamic loading; this dynamic
loading combined with the internal load from residual stresses,
enables plastic flow to occur. Flexure is a key requirement of
the process.
Residual stresses can be viewed as a form of potential energy,
and stress relieving, whether the result vibratory, thermal, long
term storage, or unintentional “bumpy” transport, as a release
of this potential. It has been observed for decades that a
workpiece that has been final machined can change shape
during transport, often outside tolerances.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 601
The use of vibratory stress relief has increased steadily over
the last two decades. The reasons for this steady increase
include:
• The finding that thermal stress relief is, in practice,
less effective on certain types of workpiece
configurations. Large variations in wall thickness of
a workpiece or its topography characterize two such
types.
• Weldments made out of 300 series, austenitic
stainless steel, which require good dimensional
stability, are more effectively stabilized with
vibration treatment, than with PWHT (Post Weld
Heat Treatment). The high temperature strength of
these stainless steels precludes their ability to respond
to temperatures used during PWHT.
• Stress relieving both before and after rough
machining improves dimensional stability. This is
practical with vibration treatment, but often
impractical, if not impossible with PWHT.
• The increased use of low-carbon, high strength steel.
PWHT of these steels poses risks of either reduction
in strength or toughness. Certain grades also suffer
increased risk of cracking as a result of PWHT. Of
the 141 ASTM grades of steel listed in the
International Steel Group Plate Steel Specification
Guide, 43 carry the warning that PWHT “may
degrade heat-affected zone strength and toughness”,
while 11 others also "may be susceptible to cracking
in the heat-affected zone of welds during post-weld
heat treatment (stress relief) or elevated temperature
service."
• The increased use of bi-metallic components, for
which PWHT is not a viable option.
• The time required to perform vibration treatment is a
fraction of that needed to perform PWHT.
• The ability to vibration treat virtually any size or
weight of workpiece.
• The increased cost of fossil fuels, and their
environmental consequences.
Previous work required an additional final machining (costing $3,000 to
The early (1943) notable work of McGoldrick and $4,000 USD).
Saunders1 on both steel castings and weldments
concluded that for the vibration treatment to work, it must
cause plastic flow within the workpiece. They further
recommended using resonant vibration to achieve
effective amplitudes.

Dawson and Moffat2 were successful in relieving 90% of

the residual stress present in samples of three different
alloys. This work was complimented and extended by
Walker, Waddell and Johnston3. In 1995 they concluded
that the degree of dynamic loading required to achieve
stress relieving was significantly less than previously
reported.

Adams and Klauba4 concluded that, carefully controlled,

vibration treatment could be monitored, and had become a
frequently used process, based upon a survey of users.
This also was the first published work that included a Figure 1
vibratory stress relief treatment chart, which clearly
showed a change in resonance pattern resulting form Shown in Fig.1 is a photo of the Cross-Rail setup for
vibration treatment. At the time of this work, a PhD study vibration treatment. The workpiece was set on three (3)
at Georgia Tech, by A. R. Soto-Raga (supervised by isolation load cushions, which were placed on wood to
Professors P. Yoder and J.T. Berry) was undertaken to level, and provide floor clearance. One cushion is visible
determine whether finite element analysis could be in the photo. The other two cushions were on the other
applied to the vibration process.5 side, centered, and spaced only four feet apart. This three
point – far from corner – cushion placement, minimizes
More recently, the individual works of both Hahn6 and damping, enabling maximum workpiece flexture during
Yang et al7 have used a more refined computational vibration treatment.
approach with finite element analysis to further determine
the most effective vibration frequency choice (resonant
vs. non-resonant), as well as the effectiveness of vibration
treatment.

A recent work by Rao et al8 has applied vibration

treatment to rails intended for a Maglev transportation
system. They noted (joining other previous researchers)
that after vibration treatment, the resonance peak
increased while the resonance frequency decreased. This
phenomenon will be touched on later in this paper.

Vibratory Stress Relief Case Studies

Two examples of large, precision components that
underwent vibration treatment are described below: The
first is a 23-foot long Cross-Rail for a milling machine.
This component in operation rests on columns, with a gap
of about seventeen feet between the columns. A precision
way, responsible for the path of the spindle assembly, is
machined into the Cross-Rail. To compensate for sagging
caused by the weight of the spindle, a crown is machined
into the way. The crown is 0.0012-inches (≈0.030 mm).
Standard manufacturing procedure for this machine tool
builder is to PWHT both before and after rough
machining. Inspections during a trial assembly showed
these critical components failed to meet dimensional
tolerances, despite the two thermal treatments. Almost all
Figure 2
Figure 2 is the vibration treatment chart made during
stress relieving of the Cross-Rail. The X axis is vibrator
speed in RPM. There are two vertical axis: The upper is
the workpiece acceleration; the lower is vibrator power.
Both the Pre-Treatment and Post-Treatment Scans are
superimposed, allowing changes in resonance pattern to
be easily seen. Both the resonance peaks at ≈3200 and
≈6000 RPM grew 30% to 40% during treatment, which
lasted for about forty minutes. Peak growth, which is

602

indicative of stress relieving activity, eventually subsides,
resulting in: permanently larger resonance peaks; a stable
resonance pattern; and a stable workpiece to machine.
This Cross-Rail met tolerances after final machining,
Deviation (in)
unlike all similar ones.
The second case study is of a 59.5-foot (18 meter) long
gantry for an even larger milling machine. Again,
straightness of the ways was a key tolerance in the design.
Figure 3 shows a photo of the gantry setup for vibration
treatment. Isolation load cushions were placed on both
sides of the workpiece, at the 1/3rd and 2/3rds locales.
Vibration treatment was done both before and after rough
machining. No PWHT was performed.
Figure 3
Figure 4 shows a dimensional inspection chart for the
gantry. The Horizontal axis is the length of the gantry,
running from 0 to 700-inches. The shape of the gantry is
depicted in the two hill-shaped curves, both of which are
scaled on the left. These show that the gantry was straight
±0.002-inches, changing little over the course of two
weeks, when the dashed curve’s data was gathered. The
difference, scaled on the right, and depicted in the valley-
shaped curve, is 0.0008-inches, indicating very stable
dimensional behavior.
603
Lower Way
0.005 0.0002
0.004 0
0.003 -0.0002
Difference (in)
0.002 -0.0004
0.001 -0.0006
0 -0.0008
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-0.001 -0.001
Distance (in)
12/17/2002 1/2/2003 Difference
Figure 4
A New Approach to Estimating the Degree of
Effectiveness of Vibratory Stress Relief
One factor which may have limited the acceptance of
Vibratory Stress Relief, has been the lack of precise
information regarding the extent to which residual
stresses have diminished during treatment. Recently one
of the authors (Berry) and a colleague (John Wyatt at
Mississippi State University) have developed a highly
practical technique by which residual stresses on a surface
can be effectively measured. This technique, for which a
patent has been applied, involves the change in geometry
and spacing of micro-hardness indentations. Appendix II
contains a description of the method concerned.
Survey of Users of Vibratory Stress Relief Equipment
Appendix I is a tabulation of the survey responses of
twenty users of vibratory stress relief equipment. The
tabulated information includes the type of business,
department in which the respondent works, size range of
workpieces, types of materials, criteria for choosing the
form of stress relief to be employed, the types of
problems solved by using vibratory stress relief, and the
builder of the vibration equipment.
Effects of Vibratory Stress Relief on Fatigue
An important and largely unanswered question is the
matter of how vibratory treatment affects fatigue life.
Dawson and Moffat2 concluded that some amount of
fatigue damage, though small, might accompany vibration
treatment. Walker, Waddell and Johnston3, however,
showed that effective stress relieving took place at lower
induced stress levels in mild steel (250 Mpa) than
previously observed, a level unlikely to cause fatigue
damage.
None of the users responding to the survey reported any
damage caused by vibration treatment to any workpiece.
One respondent, a manufacturer of vibratory screening
equipment, reported that their sole reason for using
vibratory stress relief was for the purpose of extending
fatigue life in the frames of their equipment, which are
mild steel weldments.
The Lowering of Resonance Frequency with
Increasing Driving Force
The progress of vibration treatment can be monitored
accurately by tightly regulating the vibrator speed, and
watching for changes in resonance pattern. The greatest
of these changes is the growth of the resonance peaks.
This change is accompanied by a shift to lower frequency
of the resonance, a change that requires re-tuning of the
vibrator speed, so as to stay on top of the peak.

A similar lowering of resonance frequency as a result of

increased driving force on structures not containing
residual stresses has been observed. The phenomena
appear to be related.

Figure 6

This is further depicted in Fig. 7, which is a plot of the

shift in resonance frequency vs. acceleration.

This would indicate that peak shifting, in the direction of

lower frequency, is caused by an increase in flexure of the
structure. This increase might be due to an increase in
driving force, as in this test, or due to peak growth, as a
result of effective vibratory stress relief.

The variation in resonance frequency is subtle. In the

example, which is consistent with similar tests of this
phenomenon, five-fold range of driving force caused a
change of resonance frequency of only 2.7%. This degree
of change is resonance frequency is very much in
Figure 5 agreement with what is seen during vibratory stress relief.

To explore this, a cast iron vibration test block, which had

been acquired from a scrap yard (no stresses), was setup
in a manner similar to preparation for vibration treatment.
Figure 5 shows the resonance pattern of the block. The
vibrator was then adjusted to a series of four lower
unbalance settings, and the resonance patterns of these
were recorded. A composite of these five charts, show in
Fig. 6, clearly shows that the lower driving force results in
higher resonance frequency. Conversely, higher driving
force results in lower resonance frequency.

Figure 7

604
Conclusions
Vibratory stress relief has evolved over the last few
decades into a repeatable industrial process:
• Used primarily for purposes of dimensional
stability, it will render large precision metal
components more stable and predictable than
PWHT, and do so at significant savings in cost
and time.
• Progress of an effective vibration treatment can
be monitored by controlling the vibration, and
watching the resonance pattern of the workpiece.
Resonance peak growth is the key parameter to
monitor.
• Vibration treatment allows a wider range of
materials, including low-carbon, high-strength
steels, stainless steels, bi-metallics, and
weldments with aluminum alloy members to be
made dimensionally stable, with absolutely no
effect upon their physical properties.
• Additional applications of vibratory stress relief
are likely to emerge once a more complete
picture of the actual mechanism through which it
operates becomes available.
• Measures of the effectiveness of vibratory stress
relief will become more readily available using a
new, practical method of measuring residual
stress.
• Manufacturers using vibration treatment can
enhance the quality of the precision metal
components they make, and the assembled
equipment containing them.
605
References
1.
R.T. McGoldrick and H. Saunders, Some Experiments in
Stress-Relieving Castings and Welded Structures by Vibration,
Journal of the American Society of Naval Engineers., 55, 589-
609 (1943)
2
R. Dawson and D.G. Moffat, Vibratory Stress Relief: a
fundamental study of its effectiveness, Journal of Engineering
Material and Technology, 102, 169-176 (1980)
3
C.A.Walker, A.J. Waddell and D. J. Johnston, Vibratory
Stress Relief – an investigation of the underlying process,
Proc. Inst. Mechanical Engineers., 209, 51-58 (1995)
4
B.B. Klauba and C.M. Adams, A Progress Report on the Use
and Understanding of Vibratory Relief, Proc. Winter Meeting
of the ASME AMD 52, 47-57 (1982)
5
A.R. Soto-Raga, An Analysis of the Mechanism of Reduction
of Residual Stresses by Vibration, PhD Thesis, Georgia
Institute of Technology, April 1983.
6
W. Hahn, Report on Vibratory Stress and Modifications in
Materials to Conserve Resources and Prevent Pollution,
Alfred University (NY), Center for Environmental and Energy
Research (CEER), 2002
7
Y.P. Yang, Private Communication (Also see paper in
session 26 of this conference.)
8
D. Rao, J. Ge and L. Chen, Vibratory Stress Relief in
Manufacturing the Rails of a Maglev System, J. of
Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 126, Issue 2, 388-
391 (2004)
Appendix 1: Survey of Users of Vibratory Stress Relief Appendix 2: A New Method for the Determination of
Types of business: Superficial Residual Stress
Machine tool builders: 4 J.E. Wyatt and J.T. Berry
Job shops: 4 Mississippi State University
Fab shops: 2
Industrial saw builders: 2 The measurement of residual stresses in metallic components
Cement making machinery: 1 is often a long, laborious and expensive task. Recently a
Steel and aluminum mill equipment: 1 technique has been evolved which is both simple and
Plunger pumps, 3 and 5 cylinder: 1 inexpensive and capable of determining the magnitude and
Aerospace tooling: 1 orientation of residual stresses present at the surface of metals
Hydraulic cylinders: 1 and alloys (A1). It has thus far been applied to wrought
Mining, quarry and pit equipment: 1 components which have been subject to high speed machining
Bolster plates, mold bases: 1 (A2) and also to as-cast alloys of aluminum (A3).

Departments: The technique concerned is based on the change in shape and

Design: 8 spacing of hardness (preferably microhardness) indents which
Plant management: 6 came about when a component containing residual stresses is
Welding: 3 stress relieved. The paper cited earlier (Wyatt and Berry,
Assembly: 1 2005) describes how stresses present at the surface of a 2024-
Machining: 1 T6 aluminum alloy machined at a variety of cutting speeds
Quality Assurance: 1 were measured using this technique.

Workpiece weight varied from as low as 20 – 100 lbs., to as
much as 100,000 lbs., the most common workpieces was in
the 4,000 lbs to 40,000 lbs range.
Workpiece size varied from 2 to 3-feet long for the smallest,
to as much as 60-feet long, with 8 to 24-foot long parts being
common.
The principle involved follows work by Simes, Mellor, and
Hills,(A4) which describes the change in indent shape
measured before and after the application of a biaxial stress
state to a special cruciform shape. This work has been
extended to include the change in spacing of pairs of indents
which will also follow up removal of the residual stresses
concerned.

Material: Knowing the change in spacings (i.e., the displacements

Mild steel: 16, including 1010, 1018, 1020, and A36 concerned) and applying simple elasticity theory, the
Cast: 2, including Cl 35 grey iron magnitude and sense (i.e., sign) of the stresses concerned can
Stainless steel: 5, including 304, 304L, 316, 316L, 410 be estimated with reasonable accuracy. The technique
Low-Carbon, High-Strength Steel: evolved holds considerable promise for application to
4, including HY80, ASTM 514 structures that have been subjected to vibratory stress relief.
Alloy Steels: 4, 1045, 4140, 4340 Because of its simplicity and inexpensive nature it would seem
readily applicable to on-site application.
Criteria for type of stress relief:
Size of workpiece: 8 REFERENCES TO APPENDIX 2
Avoiding distortion from PWHT: 4 A1. J.E. Wyatt and J.T. Berry, Patent filed April 2004, in final
Avoiding scaling from PWHT: 2 review by US Patent Office.
Customer requirements: 4 A2. J.E. Wyatt and J.T. Berry, A Low Cost Method for
Determining Residual Stress, submitted to Journal. Materials
Problems solved by using vibratory stress relief: Processing Technology (2005).
Dimensional instability: 19 A3. A.R. Williams, Masters Thesis, 2005 Mississippi State
Machinability: 14 University, in preparation.
Reduced cracking in finished product: 6 A4. T.R. Simes, S.G. Mellor and D.A. Hills, Journal. of Strain
Surface finish: 4 Analysis, 19, 135-137, (1984).

Manufacturer of vibratory stress relief equipment:

Airmatic Inc., VSR Technology Group: 11
Bonal Technologies: 5
Stress Relief Engineering: 3
Aaronson: 1

606
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
AH-Adaptive FE Scheme for Welding Distortion Analysis in
Large Structures
Shih-Horng Tsau ∗, P. Michaleris
Abstract
Applying a heat source such as welding or laser on a
structure forms permanent plastic strains, which will
remain after the temperature is cooled down, and lead to
residual stresses and distortions. These plastic strains and
the corresponding elastic components have high gradients
transverse to the welding direction, however, they are
relatively uniform in the longitudinal direction. Using
a static mesh in welding analyses requires fine elements
along the entire welding path. The mesh needs to be
fine in both transverse and longitudinal directions to
capture the gradients of temperatures, stresses, and strains
during the welding procedure. Isotropic adaptive meshing
performs simultaneous coarsening, and refining, in all
spatial dimensions. Application of isotropic adaptive
meshing allows the use of a coarse mesh as the analysis
starts and it refines in all directions during welding. The
mesh coarsens in all directions after the temperature is
cooled down in the heat transfer analysis. However, the
mesh still remains fine in the mechanical analysis, due
to the high transverse plastic strain and residual stress
gradients. In this work, a FEA method is developed for
welding simulation. The method, termed AH-adaptive,
performs independent refining and coarsening in the
spatial dimensions. Application of the anisotropic h-
adaptive meshing allows the use of coarse mesh as the
analysis starts. The mesh remains fine only in the
transverse direction, which contains higher gradients than
1
the longitudinal direction, thus reducing DOFs by n 2 in
1
2D analyses, and n 3 in 3D analyses. The condensation
and recovery method is implemented to handle the
constrained DOFs. This method is computationally more
efficient than the Lagrange multiplier method.
∗ Graduate
Student, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, 307
Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,University Park, PA
16802,USA Tel : (814) 865-0059, Email: sut108@psu.edu
† Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear
Engineering, 232 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel : (814) 863-7273 Fax : (814)
863-4848 Email: pxm32@psu.edu
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
†
1 Introduction
1.1 Transient Thermal Analysis
For a stationary reference frame r, at time t, the governing
equation for transient heat conduction analysis is given as
follows:
∂T
ρCp (r, t) = −∇r · q(r, t) + Q(r, t) in volumn V
∂t
(1)
where ρ is the density of the flowing body. Cp is the specific
heat capacity. T is the temperature. q is the heat flux
vector. Q is the internal heat generation rate, and ∇r is
the spatial gradient operator of reference frame r.
The nonlinear isotropic Fourier heat flux constitutive
relation is enforced.
q = −k∇r T (2)
where k is the temperature dependent thermal
conductivity matrix.
The initial and boundary conditions can be found in [1].
1.2 Adaptive Methods by Dynamic
Meshing
Within the region close to the welding path, a
minimum mesh density of 3 elements/thickness and 4
elements/(torch width) in longitudinal and transversal
directions [2] is necessary to capture the gradients of
the heat input (and the displacement in mechanical
analysis). Such simulations require prohibitively costly
numerical computations using currently available software
and hardware.
There are three primary categories of adaptivity
strategies [3]: 1) r-adaptivity, which only relocates
the node positions with constant mesh connectivity
and number of nodes, 2) h-adaptivity, which generates
hierarchical elements where it is necessary to acquire more
accuracy, and coarsens the elements where the solution has
exceeded the desired accuracy, 3) p-adaptivity, which has
the polynomial order increased where higher interpolation
is necessary. Due to the restrictions imposed by the fixed
degrees of freedom and that the topology (connectivity)
can not be modified regardless how those nodes are moved
to make an r-adaptive mesh, r-adaptivity demands the
least cost but provides the poorest performance among
607
the adaptivity categories. The p-adaptivity may induce 2 Isotropic vs Anisotropic
oscillation in the solution distribution due to the difference
of interpolation orders in the elements, in addition to being
h-Adaptivity
dependent on the initial mesh as described above. Isotropic h-adaptivity refines an element in all x-, y- (and
z- for 3D) directions (see Figure 1). That is, 4 descendant
elements in 2D analyses and 8 descendant elements in
Isotropic h-adaptivity refines an element in all spatial 3D analyses. On the other hand, an anisotropic [5, 6,
dimensions. On the other hand, in the anisotropic 4] adaptive analysis scheme acquires separately in each
adaptive analysis scheme, refinements can be applied direction the need to refine an element (Figure 1). For the
independently in each direction. During welding, the refinement in one direction, 2 elements are created. Taking
∇T is much higher around the heat source position. actions in the opposite direction coarsens the elements.
The corresponding mechanical response for the gradient
of plastic strains (or ∇u) is high longitudinally and
y
transversally around the heat source as well. However,
upon cooling the ∇T goes to nearly zero in the entire x

structure, and the plastic strain gradient remains high y-refinement

x-refinement
transversally but is much lower longitudinally. The
permanent plastic strains lead to residual stresses and
distortions. Using a static mesh in the analyses requires
fine elements along the entire heat source path for
both transverse and longitudinal directions to capture
the gradients of temperatures, stresses, and strains.
Application of adaptive meshing allows the use of a coarse Isotropic Refining Anisotropic Refining

mesh as the analysis starts. Isotropic adaptive meshing

Figure 1: Isotropically and anisotropically refined 2D
in heat transfer (thermal) analyses performs simultaneous
elements .
refining in all spatial dimensions for elements near the
heat source, and coarsens the elements behind. However, The dynamic meshes in this paper are created using
for applying isotropic meshing in mechanical analyses, not forward adaptive meshing, i.e., in a time increment, the
only does it generate fine elements around the heat source, analyses generate a new mesh based on the solutions
but the elements need to remain fine isotropically due to acquired in the previous time increment, and prior
the high transverse ∇u. Thus, mostly only refinements to solving the system equations for the current time
and no significant coarsening occurs. Anisotropic adaptive increment. An alternate approach is an iterative adaptive
meshing in heat transfer analyses performs similarly procedure which continuously refines (or coarsens) the
to that of isotropic meshing. However, in mechanical elements in a mesh within the same time increment until
analyses, the mesh can reflect the magnitudes of gradients the mesh convergence is attained. However, this approach
in each dimension by being coarsened along the heat may be computationally more costly than the forward
source path direction and remaining fine transversally. adaptive meshing.
1
The mesh thus reduces DOFs by n 2 in 2D analyses, and Because of the element refinement (or coarsening),
1
n 3 in 3D analyses. There are a few application researches adjacent elements may be of different element orders as
on anisotropic FEA. Ham et al. [4] demonstrates an illustrated in Figure 2. In the figure, the DOFs for node a
anisotropic Cartesian grid method for incompressible (induced by y-direction refinement) and node b (induced
flows. Also, Rachowicz presents an anisotropic scheme by x-direction refinement) are constrained, due to the
on compressible Navier-Stokes equations [5]. And Lo linearity of solutions on the edges of element 1 and 3,
[6] performs an anisotropic procedure for 3D tetrahedral respectively. Thus, the solution of node a is constrained
elements. by the average of solutions on node 1 and node 2, and the
node b constrained by node 2 and 3.

The objective of this research is to develop an

anisotropic h-adaptive method for the analyses of 3 Condensation and Recovery
large structures. The h-adaptive method induces Theory
constrained DOFs between elements of different orders
of refinement. The condensation (and recovery) method To account for the constrained nodes, the condensation
[7] is implemented to account for the constrained DOFs. and recovery method [7] is introduced to solve the system
The efficiency of the AH-adaptive method is evaluated of equations containing constrained DOFs.
by comparing the results to those from the static mesh For each time increment, the system (Equation (??)) is
analysis. processed by partitioning the DOFs into
608
 1

Element 4 Element 5

Element 1 a

Element 6 Element 7 4 Numerical Implementation

2 b 3
4.1 Thermal Analyses
Element 2 Element 3 The flow chart in Figure 3 shows the procedures to
y be implemented for the AH-adaptive thermal analysis
scheme. The blocks (procedures) utilized for the AH-
x
adaptive analysis ability on dynamic meshes are described
Figure 2: Illustration for the dependent nodes in a mesh as the proceeding sections.

Read model Calculate the

  data file
Solve the


need to refine system
δur or coarsen
δu = (3) elements
δuc Read input Update the
control file element order solution vector
where the subscript r stands for ”retained”, and c stands smoothing

for ”condensed (out)”. Thus, δur represents the actual Assemble the Recover the
Coarsen constrained
DOFs to be retained in the equation, and δuc is the permanent
arrays for
elements DOFs
condensed DOFs of the dependent nodes. node and
element Refine
And the entire partitioned non-linear system is, information elements
if eps
     Check
(L2 norm of
incremental
Arr Arc δur br inc = 1 solution)
= (4) dependent
No < epslim
Acr Acc δuc bc nodes

No Yes
Pre-processing
if inc >1
for the condensed Acquire the
matrices secondary
The general representation of constraint equations is Yes quantities

  iter = 0
  δur
 Calculate the
norms for No
Cr Cc = Q (5) iter = iter + 1 if time < Analysis
δuc elements
maxtime finished
Assemble the
residual and Yes
stiffness inc = inc + 1

Because the constraint equations (in 2D elements) must the procedures utilized in ordinary FEA (static mesh)
have the form of
uconstained node − 12 (unode1 which it depends on
the procedures necessary to be utilized in CAH-adaptive analysis

Figure 3: The flow chart of AH-adaptive thermal analyses

+unode2 which it depends on ) = 0 (6)

So that the term Q in Equation (5) must be zero.

By utilizing the equations representing the constraints: 4.1.1 Information Assembling
 
  δur
 During the entire analysis, element refinements generate
Cr Cc = 0 (7) new nodes and associated elements. Arrays which save
δuc
the information for all of these created entities, including
the nodes and elements on the initial mesh, are necessary.
So, Figure 4 describes the contents of the information



 arrays stored for each node, such as 1) the coordinates
δuc = −[ Cc ]−1 [ Cr ] δur = [ Crc ] δur of the nodes, 2) whether the node is active in a
(8) time increment, 3) node-wise (details in Section ??)
boundary information and 4) the pointers connecting the
information of the global sequential node numbers (fixed
By
 substituting Equation (8) into Equation 
(4),  for the entire analyses), and the local sequential node
Arr + Arc Crc + CTrc A cr + C T
rc A cc Crc δur numbers (sequential numbers assigned to the active nodes
on a dynamic mesh for a time increment). Take Figure

 6 as an example. At time increment i, active nodes for
= br + CT
rc bc (9) this mesh are node 1,...,node 9,node 100,node 101. To
609
 The array for node information of integer values

1 4 7 1 4 7
102
Node 1 Node 2 ..... Node Nmax 1 3
1 7 8
Flag on whether
1 0 ..... 1 (1:Active)
the node is active 2 5 101 8 2 5 101 8
Pointer to sequential
1 0 ..... 100 (0 if not active) 2 5 6 2 4
active node number
Refinement
3 6 100 9 Area
Coarsened
3 6 X
100
00 9
The array for node information of double precision values Mesh at Inc i Mesh at Inc i+1
Area
Node 1 Node 2 ..... Node Nmax

Coordinates
Fixed Active Node Fixed Active Node
Node-wise Number Number Number Number
boundary conditions 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
: the information may contain more than 1 row 4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
Nmax : the maximum number of total nodes
which can be created during the entire analyses 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
Figure 4: The arrays constructed for node information. 9 9 9
9
100 10 100 0 (deactivated)
101 11 101 10
102 11
construct the system of equations to be solved, the local
node numbers must be assigned sequentially, because if Figure 6: Node number assignment for active and
there exists a jump of node numbers, the system acquires a deactivated nodes.
singular stiffness matrix. And the assigned local sequential
node numbers are as shown. Similar to time increment
i+1, after some refinement and coarsening. 4.1.2 Norm Definition
Definitions of norms for isotropic analyses applicable
The array for element information of integer values
to linear elements are provided in [8]. However, for
Element 1 Element 2 ..... Element Emax
The n-th refined element order of anisotropic h-adaptive analyses:
some initial element, in each dimension
Flag on whether the element is active 1 0 ..... 1 (1:Active)
the normalized local error estimate for an element
Ancestor element of this element,
in each diemension
(Figure ??) is
Descendant elements, in each dimension

Pointer to sequential active element 1 0 ..... 80 (0 if not active)

((( (T1 −T 2 ) ∂r 2 (T3 −T4 ) ∂r 2

number
1/2
∂x ) + ( 2 ∂x ) ) · Area(i))
Maximum refined element order
acceptable, in each dimension (i) 2
The element on the initial mesh
1 2 ..... 2
Ex−dir = g
which this element is within the region
L2
(10)
The array for element information of double precision values
Element 1 Element 2 ..... Element Emax

Edge-wise boundary conditions

Element-wise boundary conditions

((( (T1 −T
2
4 ) ∂s 2
∂y ) + (
(T2 −T3 ) ∂s 2
) ) · Area(i))1/2
(i)
2 ∂y
: the information may contain more than 1 row
Emax : the maximum number of total nodes
which can be created during the entire analyses
Ey−dir = g
L2
(11)
Figure 5: The arrays constructed for element information.

Element information arrays are illustrated in Figure 5, where

and mainly include 1) the element orders, 2) the edge-
wise and element-wise (details in Section ??) boundary


2 N
(i) 2 N

condition definitions, 3) the ancestor and descendant g = g = (i) (i)
[T∗ ]T [T∗ ]dΩ (12)
L2 L2
elements for the element, 4) whether the element is active i=1 i=1 Ω(i)

in a time increment, and 5) the pointers connecting

the global sequential element numbers (fixed for the
(i)
entire analyses) and the local sequential element numbers and T∗ = ( (T1 +T2 +T 4
3 +T4 )
).
(sequential numbers assigned to the active elements on a The need to isotropically refine an element in the mesh
dynamic mesh for a time increment). Figure 6 in addition is calculated as the equations in [8], which follows the ideas
provides an example of ancestor and descendant elements. of [9]. In the anisotropic h-adaptive scheme, modifications
610
lead to the ability for acquiring the information of x- and maximum refined order (minimum length limit), it should
y-dimensions independently. Thus, new element sizes in be adjusted exactly to the limit value.
each dimension are In the first loop to examine adjacent elements, all edges
are checked. For any edge containing elements of order
(i)
difference larger than 1 (in any direction), the element
∗
 Ex−dir √ −(1/p−m+d) of lower order potentials are raised up to be exactly 1
hx−dir = M∗ hx−dir (13)
E∗ order less than the largest. For example in the figure,
the element of orders (1,1) adjacent to the element of
orders (2,0) and (3,0) is adjusted to (2,1). Except for
the first loop which examine each edge, only the edges on
the elements which were just adjusted in the previous loop
(i)
 y−dir
E √ need to be examined, because any necessary adjustment
h∗y−dir = M ∗ −(1/p−m+d) h (14)
y−dir exist only around such elements. Figure 8 includes the
E∗
example as well. For the edges on the element just
modified from (1,1) to (2,1), the element of order (0,0)
needs an adjustment and therefore is raised up to (1,0).
where p is the order of the shape function, m is the The results of order distribution in the mesh are as shown.
highest order of differentiation in the strain-displacement Procedure B then calculates the actual demands of
relation, d is the number of dimensions, and element refinement by the order distributions minus the
 M  Ees (i) d 
p−m+d 2(p−m+d)/(2p−2m+d)
M∗ = i=1 E ∗
x−dir
current element orders. Based on the information, the
 M  Ees (i) d
p−m+d
2(p−m+d)/(2p−2m+d) elements are refined or coarsened accordingly.
+ i=1 E ∗ y−dir

One important notification is that, by the modifications

on the equations utilized in [8] which were isotropically (1,2) (1,2) (1,2) (1,2)
(0,1)
defined, the E ∗ in this paper is regarded as an error (0,0)
(1,2) (1,2) (1,2) (1,2)
reference number, instead of the exact permissible error (1,2) (1,2) (1,2) (1,2)
(0,1)
percentage. (1,2) (1,2) (1,2) (1,2)

(0,1)
4.1.3 Element Order Smoothing (0,0) (0,0) (0,0)
(0,1)
The most appropriate distribution of element orders in the
mesh should be smooth, i.e., adjacent elements should at
most be of one order difference in x- and y- (and z- in
3D elements) directions, respectively. However, Equation
y
(13) and Equation (14) may result in that adjacent
elements have order difference larger than 1, depending
x
on the demand of higher element density around the
heat source, and the mesh density in the previous time
increment. Figure 7 provides an example for the element (Xn,Yn) : element orders in each dimension
order distribution. The upper-right elements are refined
to orders (xn ,yn ) = (1,2), where xn is the refined order of Figure 7: Element order smoothing for adjacent elements
the element in x-direction, and yn in y-direction. Thus,
the upper-left and the lower-right elements are forced
to be refined in y-direction to have orders (xn ,yn ) = 4.1.4 Element Refinement
(0,1). Therefore, all adjacent elements satisfy the smooth
element order distribution as in the figure. Figure 9 shows an example mesh with elements to be
To check whether adjacent elements are of at most refined or coarsened. For the elements to be refined in
one order difference described above, see Figure 8. x-direction, check whether the descendant elements of it
Procedure A adds up the current element orders and have been assigned. If not, the original element has never
the numbers of refinement demand, which are calculated been refined. Thus, node 5 and node 6 are created on the
by norms, to be the order potentials for each element. associated edges. The magnitudes T5 and T6 are evaluated
The term ”potential” is because the values may need by interpolation on the element edges. Some element
adjustment. Prior to adjacent elements checking, any information (described in section 4.1.1) which the refined
negative potential value must be modified to 0, due to that elements inherited such as boundary conditions has to be
the initial mesh elements (element order 0) should be the processed and transferred from the original elements. If
coarsest. In addition, if any potential value exceeds the the original element was refined before, no new nodes are
611
 Current element order How many orders to refine (or coarsen if < 0) x-refinement
Edge 1 5
2 1

( (
2 1
(0,0) (0,0) (0,0) (1,1)

(A) + Edge 2 Element 1 Edge 4 A B

(0,0) (1,0) (1,0) (1,1) (1,0) (2,0)

3 4
3 4 6
Edge 3 x-coarsening
Order potential Result of order distribution

(0,0) (1,1) (0,0) (2,1) (1,0) (2,1)

Adjustment Adjustment
= y

(1,1) (2,0) (3,0) (1,1) (2,0) (3,0) (1,1) (2,0) (3,0)

x

Current element order Actual orders to refine

Result of order distribution
(or coarsen if < 0) Figure 10: Boundary condition information transferring

(B)
( (1,0)

(1,1)
(2,1)

(2,0) (3,0)
-
(0,0)

(0,0)
(0,0)

(1,0) (1,0) ( =

: Edges containing adjacent elements of order difference larger than 1

(1,0)

(1,1)
(2,1)

(1,0) (2,0)
node 1 and 2 withhold prescribed quantities.
2)Edge-wise quantities such as element convection and
flux properties. If the Edge 1 on Element 1 is defined for
edge-wise quantities, all of the Edge 1 for Element A and
: order adjusted elements, and the element edges to examine adjacent elements Element B need to be assigned the same magnitudes for
(instead of the entire mesh)
the quantities.
3)Element-wise quantities such as body heat input. If
Figure 8: Examine the element order distribution Element 1 is defined for element-wise boundary conditions,
such quantities are assigned to Element A and Element B
created, it is only necessary to interpolate the magnitudes upon refinement.
for the refined elements.
4.1.5 Element Coarsening
Element coarsening does not involve creating new nodes
and elements, so it is not necessary to process boundary
16 17 22 conditions, assuming the boundary conditions are fixed
1 4 7 7
18 19 23 during the entire analyses. However, one thing to notice
8 9 24 26
is that whether a node should be deactivated or not has
2 5
10
20 21
25 10
to be based on if the node is on any active element. After
11 11
the procedures for refining and coarsening elements are
12 13 13
3 6 3 6 27 finished, the element information array should indicate
14 15 15
which elements are active. According to these information,
all nodes (and only the nodes) on the active elements are
set to be active nodes in the mesh for the time increment.
Constrained Node

Refinement Element Area

4.1.6 Condensed Tangent Matrices and Nonzero
Coarsened Element Area
Enforcements
This research utilizes the IBM WSMP solver [10], a sparse
Figure 9: Element refining and coarsening matrix solver which extracts only the information for the
nonzero elements and saves into linear arrays. Due to
Thermal analyses do not need to interpolate magnitudes the need of determining the exact nonzero positions, the
on the gauss points in the elements, however, mechanical nonzero enforcement effect for the condensed matrix is
analyses require such tasks, which will be illustrated in the essential.
paper describing the AH-adaptive mechanical analyses. The condensation method (section 3) actually can be
There are primarily three categories of boundary regarded splitting the columns and rows of the constrained
conditions for the FEA entities : DOFs into the columns and rows of the DOFs on which
1)Node-wise quantities such as prescribed temperatures those are dependent (see Figure 11). Figure 12 contains
(and displacements in mechanical analyses). Take node an example mesh, and the original tangent matrix.
5 of x-refinement in Figure 10 as an example. These Splitting the columns and rows of the constrained DOFs
boundary conditions are assigned to node 5 only if all of in the matrix induces nonzero enforcement effects into
612
some components which are originally zeros. Figure
13 shows the condensed tangent matrix, and all the
nonzero components including those caused by the nonzero
enforcement effect.
1 5 8 12

10 2 6 9
7 4 1

8 5 2 3 7 10 13

9 6 3 11

4 11 14

15 14 13 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(a) 1 X X X X
2 X X X X X X
3 X X X X X X X
4 X X X X
2 3 .....

{ {
1 4 15
5 X X X X X X
6 X X X X X X X X X
1 K1,1 K1,2 K1,3 K1,4 ..... K1,15 7 X X X X X X
8 X X X X X X X
2 K2,1 K2,2 K2,3 K2,4 ..... K2,15 9 X X X X X X
10 X X X X X X X X X X X
3 K3,1 K3,2 K3,3 K3,4 ..... K3,15
11 X X X X X X
12 X X X X
4 K4,1 K4,2 K4,3 K4,4 ..... K4,15
13 X X X X X X
14 X X X X
.....

.....

.....

.....

.....

.....
.
....

15 K15,1 K15,2 K15,3 K15,4 ..... K15,15

X : nonzero elements in the stiffness matrix

(b) Figure 12: Example mesh and the original stiffness matrix

Figure 11: Illustration of the condensed column and row

in the stiffness matrix

4.1.7 Checking Dependent Nodes

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 11 12 13 14
1 X X X X
The nonzero enforcements induced by the condensed 2 X X X X X
matrix effect result in the importance of checking 3 X X X X X X
4 X X X X
dependent nodes. Even if the element orders are smoothly
5 X X X X X
distributed in the mesh, Figure 14 illustrates a mesh 6 X X X X X X X
containing ”nested” constrained nodes a, b, c, d. In the 8 X X X X X X
mesh, node a is constrained by node 2 and node b, with 10 X X X X X X X X X
node b constrained by node c (and node 9), node c by node 11 X X X X X X
12 X X X X
d (and node 1), and node d by node 3 and node 4. The 13 X X X X X X
”nested” structure can even be complicated if the mesh is 14 X X X X
larger and has more elements.
Figure 14 also provides the mesh which eliminates the
nested constrained nodes by refining some elements to X : original nonzero elements in the stiffness matrix

make nodes b and d independent. For the mesh containing : nonzero enforcements due to the condensation effect
nested constrained nodes, the DOF of node 6 needs to
have many more nonzero components, even including Figure 13: The condensed stiffness matrix and the nonzero
interaction with the DOF of node 3. However, the mesh enforcements
without any nested nodes has fewer nonzero components
induced by enforcements. Though the procedure may
activate a few more DOFs, it simplifies the algorithm and
reduces the number of elements to be checked.
613
 5 3 12 5 3 12

1 c d 1 c d f

2 a b 2 a b e

6 8 9 4 13 6 8 9 4 13 Laser Beam :
Q = 1.5 kW
Spot size = 16 mm
Material : D36
Heating line on the surface
7 10 11 14 7 10 11 14
Row Node 6 of Stiffness Matrix Row Node 6 of Stiffness Matrix

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 b
X XX XX 150 mm
X X XXX
(Condensed)
0.3 m / min

X : original nonzero elements in the stiffness matrix : nonzero enforcements due to the condensation effect 6 mm

300 mm (15000 mm in simulation)

Figure 14: Processing of nested dependent nodes in the
mesh
y

z
4.1.8 Recovered Solutions for the Condensed
DOFs x

With solving the system containing the independent Figure 15: Laser Forming Plate.
DOFs, the solutions for the constrained DOFs can be
recovered by the constraint equations Equation (7) to
acquire the entire solutions for all entities. 5.2 Analysis requirements
To acquire an accurate solution distribution, it is required
that at least 2 elements per radius (4 elements per
5 Examples diameter) along the heat source moving line [2]. For the
The research tests the AH-adaptive scheme on a 2- static mesh, the section near the heat source moving line
dimensional heat transfer analysis of a large surface in the model is created with the required mesh density,
problem. The performance of the AH-adaptive procedure however, coarser mesh is applied at other places. For the
is evaluated by comparing to the analysis using a static anisotropic h-adaptive analysis, it starts using a coarse
mesh. mesh.

5.1 Problem definition 6 Analysis Results

The analyses performed in this paper are the 2D
simulations based on the laser forming experiments set 6.1 Static Mesh
up by Kyrsanidi in [11]. The experiment conditions is The static mesh in Figure 16 is utilized for the entire
shown as Figure 15. Because the anisotropic h-adaptivity analyses. There are 45015 nodes and 44000 elements in
provides efficiency on large structure analyses, the model the mesh. Convection properties are assigned on all free
length is extended 50 times to compare the computational edges of elements. Figure 17 shows the analysis result of
CPU time usage. temperature distribution at t = 1000 sec.
The experiment conditions are as follows :

• Dimensions : 300mm × 150mm (15000mm × 150mm 6.2 AH-Adaptive Mesh

in the simulation)
The initial mesh for AH-adaptive analysis contains 7209
• Thickness : 6mm nodes and 6400 elements (see Figure 18). The minimum
length of elements is set to be the same as the smallest
• Laser power : 1500 W element in static mesh. The smaller the error reference
number is, the higher accuracy of solution has to be
• Laser beam diameter : 16mm achieved, so that the mesh contain more refined elements,
• Laser moving velocity : 0.3 m/min mostly around the heat source area. If the assigned
number induces a too coarse mesh, then tune up the
• Material : D36 number, and vice versa. So the number can be adjusted
614
 to generate the suitable mesh density. Among trials of
tuning the reference number, the magnitude is set to be
1.3 in this analysis.
Figure 19 shows the anisotropic adaptive mesh and the
analysis result of the temperature distribution at t = 1000
sec in the analysis. The dynamic mesh at t = 1000 sec
includes 7318 active nodes and 6484 active elements.

Z X

y
Y

z x
Z X

Figure 16: Static mesh in the analyzed 2D Model.

Figure 18: Initial mesh for AH-adaptive 2D thermal

analysis model.

9.00+02

8.00+02

7.00+02

6.00+02

5.00+02
9.00+02

8.00+02 4.00+02

7.00+02 3.00+02

6.00+02 2.00+02

5.00+02 Y 1.00+02

Z X
0.
4.00+02
default_Fringe :
Max 7.88+02 @Nd 8330
Min 2.38+01 @Nd 8326

3.00+02

Figure 19: Analysis result for the AH-adaptive mesh at t

2.00+02
= 1000 sec.
Y 1.00+02

Z X
0.
default_Fringe :
Max 7.88+02 @Nd 8330
Min 2.38+01 @Nd 8326
6.3 Comparison
Figure 17: Analysis result for the static mesh at t = 1000 The temperature results of AH-adaptive analyses are
sec. comparable to the static mesh results. As the Figure
17 and Figure 19 show, the peak temperatures at t =
1000 sec are 788 degree C and 823 degree C in static
analyses and AH-adaptive analyses, respectively. The
peak temperature difference is 4.441 percent.
The analysis time comparison is as the table shown.
615

Total Number of Time Increments
Number of Nodes
Number of Elements
Total Analysis CPU Time
CPU Time for Residual Assembling
CPU Time for Stiffness Assembling
CPU Time for Solving KU = R
CPU Time for Adaptive Mesh Information Processing
Total Number of iterations
Average CPU Time / Iteration
Ave. CPU Time for Residual / Iteration
Ave. CPU Time for Stiffness / Iteration
Ave. CPU Time for Solving / Iteration
Static Analysis AH-Adaptive Analysis
6000 6000
Statically 41017 Initial 7209 Peak 8027
Statically 40000 Initial 6400 Peak 7120
305655.45 sec 73638.27 sec
106271.98 sec 12272.5 sec
179554.1 sec 22151.07 sec
12750.75 sec 2315 sec
(N/A) 27163.7 sec
18000 27620
16.98 sec 2.66 sec
5.903 sec 0.444 sec
9.975 sec 0.801 sec
0.7084 sec 0.0838 sec
7 Conclusion
An AH-adaptive analysis scheme is developed using
condensation method. Not only can the scheme be applied [8] H. Runnemalm and S. Hyun. Three-Dimensional Welding
on welding or laser forming analyses, but it also improves
efficiency for many research areas involved with structures
which has relatively much larger area (volume) than [9] L.-Y. Li, P. Bettess, and J. A. Bull. Theoretical
the portion(s) which undergoes loads. The AH-adaptive
procedure reduces the numbers of DOFs compared to
static or even isotropic adaptive analyses. The number [10] A. Gupta. IBM Research Report WSMP:Watson Sparse
of DOFs in tangent matrices plays a significant role
in computational cost. Especially as the node number
[11] An. K. Kyrsanidi, Th. B. Kermanidis, and Sp. G.
increases, the CPU time for this task can dominate the
entire analyses.
The presented example shows the ability of reducing the
analysis CPU time, even though the numbers of DOFs is
not so large as to make solving system equations Aδu=b
dominating the CPU time usage. If the necessary DOFs
for static analyses is larger, the efficiency can be much
higher because the computation for the inverse of stiffness
matrix can be much more reduced.
The mesh refinement procedure is applied forward
of time, i.e., mesh refinements are utilized for a time
increment based on the previous solution distribution,
without iteratively examining the mesh convergence. The
616
AH-adaptive method will be utilized also in mechanical
analyses. In mechanical behavior analyses, the time for
adaptive mesh information processing, in exchange for the
improved efficiency, does not depend much on the number
of DOFs per node.
8 Acknowledgments
References
[1] P. Michaleris, D. A. Tortorelli, and C. A. Vidal.
Analysis and Optimization of Weakly Coupled Thermo-
Elasto-Plastic Systems with Applications to Weldment
Design. International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 38(8):1259–1285, 1995.
[2] J. Goldak, M. Bibby, J. Moore, R. House, and B. Patel.
Computer Modeling of Heat Flows in Welds. Metallurgical
Transactions B, 17B:587–600, 1986.
[3] Antonio Huerta, Antonio Rodriguez-Ferran, Pedro Diez,
and Josep Sarrate. Adaptive Finite Element Strategies
Based on Error Assessment. Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng.,
46:1803–1818, 1999.
[4] F. E. Ham, F. S. Lien, and A. B. Strong. A Cartesian Grid
Method with Transient Anisotropic Adaptation. Journal
of Computational Physics, 179:469–494, 2002.
[5] W. Rachowicz. An Anisotropic h-Adaptive Finite Element
Method for Compressible Navier-Stokes Equations.
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., 146:231–252, 1997.
[6] S. H. Lo. 3D Anisotropic Mesh Refinement in Compliance
with a General Metric Specification. Finite Elements in
Analysis and Design, 38:3–19, 2001.
[7] Robert D. Cook, David S. Malkus, and Michael E. Plesha.
Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis.
John Wiley & Sons, 3rd edition, 1989.
Analysis Using an Adaptive Mesh Scheme. Comput.
Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., 189:515–523, 2000.
Formulations for Adaptive Finite Element Computations.
Comm. Numer. Meth. Eng., 11:857–868, 1995.
Matrix Package. 2000.
Pantelakis. Numerical and experimental investigation of
the laser forming process. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 87:281–290, 1999.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Measurement of Welding Residual Stresses and
Redistribution due to Cyclic Loading (5668)
C. Sanger and P. Kurath
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Abstract
Experimental residual stress measurements are compared to
those obtained from numerical simulations of the welding
thermal cycle for a butt welded joint. Residual stress changes
due to subsequent constant amplitude cyclic loading are
investigated and the ramifications with regard to durability are
addressed. A Findley parameter is shown to render adequate
fatigue life estimates when residual stresses are included.
Shakedown events, a common industrial practice, are viewed
in the context of the relaxation/redistribution of residual
stresses. An initial overload is predicted to be beneficial to the
total life.
Introduction
Since the onset of the 1900’s, engineers were beginning to
understand the importance of residual stresses in the presence
of cyclic loads. Formation of residual stresses requires a strain
gradient and a region within the strain gradient that
experiences unrecoverable deformations. These conditions
may occur during fabrication processes, a change in
microstructure, or thermal gradients producing an arrangement
of self-equilibrating stresses in the absence of external
loading. In the case of welding, the high thermal gradients
associated with weld pool solidification contribute
significantly to the formation of a tri-axial residual stress state.
The magnitude and distribution of the residual stresses is
dependent on many welding parameters such as joint
geometry, heat input, and travel velocity.
In the case of a weld, high tensile multiaxial residual stresses
exist at the weld toe where cracks tend to originate. These
have been shown to have a detrimental effect on the fatigue
life. Sonsino et al [1] performed a comparison of the high
cycle fatigue lives of unmodified and stress relieved welds that
showed the effect of the residual stresses increased as the
cyclic amplitude approached the endurance limit. Most of the
research to date on the relaxation of residual stresses has been
performed on specimens whose residual stress magnitudes
have been modified significantly by either changes to the
geometry or additional thermal processing [2-5]. Most of
these investigations focus on constant amplitude loadings with
fatigue lives less than 106 cycles. Takanashi et al [2] and Iida
[3] performed tests on plates machined from larger welded
samples where the cyclic loading was applied parallel to the
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
weld axis. The majority of residual stress relaxation was
shown to occur on the first cycle of loading, as suggested by
several other publications reviewed [4-7]
Material and Mechanical Testing
A material with low wt% carbon, moderately high yield
strength, and high ductility is an excellent choice for structural
welding. For the base material, a 12 mm thick A572-50
structural steel with a hardness of 87 HRB was chosen.
Monotonic tensile properties of σy.2% = 368 Mpa, σu = 493
Mpa, and %RA = 76.8 were determined in accordance with
ASTM-E8 [8]. All weld specimens were fabricated with the
primary loading direction being coincident with the rolling
direction. The specimen dimensions were selected in a
manner to reduce any boundary affects on the residual stress
field based on trends presented in the literature [9, 10]. These
investigations show that as the weld length decreases so do the
magnitudes of the transverse and longitudinal residual
stresses. Transverse residual stresses become stable for weld
lengths of 100 mm and greater while longitudinal stresses
requires 200 mm. Due to load frame limitations, a width of
100 mm was selected. Premature fatigue failure often initiates
at starts and stops at the edge of the weld. Ten mm was added
to the width of the specimen to accommodate start-stop
removal before testing.
Weld joint preparation was performed using a standard AWS
[11] 30° double V-groove. To help ensure a consistent
residual stress field from specimen to specimen robotic metal
inert gas (MIG) welding was employed to join the specimens
using Lincoln L-56 weld wire (1.14 mm diameter). Weld
process parameters were a travel speed of 280 mm/min,
current of 260 amps, and a voltage of 27.5. Etched cross-
sections of the weld verified the full penetration. Starts of
both passes were aligned so that weld progression occurred in
the same direction on both sides, or that the starts and stops
occurred on the same edge.
Experimental Method
Residual stress measurements were conducted using a
commercially available system called Prism, manufactured by
Hytec. This system utilizes the hole drilling method in
conjunction with laser speckle interferometry to estimate a
617
two dimensional residual stress field. Because large residual
stress gradients were expected, a small 1.6 mm diameter
titanium coated carbide end mill was employed. Repeatability
of the measurements was optimized with a hole depth of 0.5
mm. Details of electron speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI)
have been explained in the literature to great detail [12]. The
total estimated error for residual stress measurements using
the PRISM system is approximately +/- 8.5% and is broken
down into great detail by the manufacturer [12].
To quantify relaxation, a baseline 2-D mapping of the residual
stresses had to be determined. Measurements were made in 10
mm longitudinal increments (parallel to the weld bead)
beginning at 10 mm from the start of the weld to 90 mm.
Measurements closer than 10 mm to the free edge were
unreliable. At each of these intervals, transverse measurements
were also conducted in 8 mm increments. In order to increase
the number of readings per specimen, the assumed symmetry
of the residual stress profile about the weld was utilized.
Transverse measurements made on both sides of the weld bead
were staggered by 4 mm starting at 10 mm from the weld
centerline. An example of the staggered measurements and
nomenclature to be used throughout this presentation are
shown in a schematic of the specimen (Figure 1). A majority
of the measurements were performed on the first weld pass
side of the specimen, referred to as side A. In retrospect
measurements on side B would have been more useful but the
trends are expected to be analogous.
22 18
14 10
Longitudinal Y
X
Dist from
Transverse Weld Start
Dist from Weld CL
Figure 1: Residual stress measurement nomenclature.
Experimental relaxation analyses were performed by
determining the residual stresses after 1, 10, and 100 cycles of
constant amplitude R=0 and R=-1 loadings loading using
companion specimens. Residual stress measurement maps
were again constructed using the same increments as for the
baseline. For fatigue life experiments, failure was ascribed
when actuator displacements exceeded +/- 10 mm. This
corresponded to specimen separation or a very large
macroscopic crack.
Experimental Results
Baseline Residual Stresses
The baseline for the as-welded residual stresses, presented in
Figure 2, represents the average measurements for three
specimens taken at the midline of the specimen (50 mm from
the start of the weld). Figure 1 describes the ordinates used to
618
define specimen location. The distance from the weld was
referenced from the centerline of the weld with the weld toe
being located 9 mm from the centerline. Data shown in Figure
2 labeled “orig” is from the unmodified specimen (5mm not
removed from each side).
The variation in the measurements is less than or equal to +/-
10% of the nominal 0.2% offset yield strength of the material
for most points. The amount of variation appears to be
constant and unrelated to the magnitude measured at a given
location. A large range of values was observed at the weld toe
in both the transverse (σXX) and longitudinal (σYY) directions.
The large gradient at this location combined with slight
variations in drilling location and stress profiles were deemed
responsible. Figure 2 examines the ramifications of removing
5 mm from the edges (Cut) and compares it with the original
data (Orig.). Qualitatively, the shape of the profiles was
similar.
Figure 2: Baseline residual stresses at the specimen midline
with and without 5 mm removed from edges.
The magnitude of the transverse residual stress (σXX)
displayed a maximum at approximately 5 mm from the weld
toe rather than the center of the weld. A possible explanation
is that the second weld pass affected the residual stresses
measured on side A. Subsequent heating of side A during
welding of the second pass may have caused a thermal stress
relief, reducing the residual stresses in the vicinity of the first
weld pass. Residual shear stresses (τXY) were approximately
an order of magnitude smaller than the other two components
measured along the midline. The symmetric nature of the
residual stresses about the midline of the specimen suggests
that shear stresses should be zero at this location. Deviations
at the centerline location were within expected measurement
variations. Residual stress profiles parallel to the axis of the
weld are presented in Figure 3. They are measured at each
component’s observed maximum along the midline (Figure 2),
corresponding to 18 mm for σXX and τXY. For the longitudinal
profile (σYY), the compressive maximum was a more
repeatable measurement at a location of 26 mm from the weld
centerline. Again, the removal of 5mm from the edge of the behind yield and subsequent plastic deformation, which in turn
plate did not significantly affect the results. is hypothesized to control residual stress relaxation. Near the

The tensile peak of the transverse residual stress (σXX) was

found to reside at the midline of the plate. At either edge of
the specimen, the transverse residual stress was observed to
become compressive. These compressive lobes are present to
balance the high tensile stress at the midline of the specimen
as required for self-equilibration. A visual inspection reveals
the area encompassed by the compressive lobes is noticeably
less than the tensile lobe. Longitudinal residual stresses were
found to peak near the midline of the specimen as well. Their
magnitudes approached zero as they drew nearer to the edge
of the plate which agrees with the traction free boundary
condition at a free surface. The shear stress exhibits a profile
that is zero about the midline and peaks near the edge of the
plate. To meet the traction free boundary requirements, the
shear stress must decrease rapidly to zero within the remaining
Figure 4: Surface rendering of baseline transverse residual
10 mm to the edge of the plate.
stress.

Figure 5: Surface rendering of baseline longitudinal residual

stress.
Figure 3: Baseline residual stresses measured parallel to the
weld with and without 5 mm removed from the edges.

Each of the three components exhibits a symmetric profile

about the midline of the plate. A comparison between the
original and cut data shows only a marginal deviation in the
transverse stress, which again is attributed to measurement
error. Two-dimensional surface renderings were chosen as a
convenient form to present the full field average data. Figures
4 and 5 present the full field baseline data for σXX and σYY,
generated from the average of the experimental data obtained
from specimens with 5 mm removed from the edge. All of the
residual stress components decreased to the far field stresses at
65 mm from the weld centerline.

Data presented in the two previous figures was used to

calculate an effective residual stress assuming plane stress
conditions (Figure 6). This scalar value reflects the level of
deviatoric stress that is largely adopted as the driving force
Figure 6: Surface rendering of baseline effective residual
stress.
weld toe, where the thermal gradients are the largest during
weld solidification, the maximum effective stress is

619
approximately 80% of σy0.2%. Even though there is some
variation, a region that extends approximately 26 mm from the
centerline of the weld is nearly at the same level. It should be
noted that this level of effective stress is a result of various
combinations of tensile and compressive stress states.
Axial Relaxation/Redistribution
Cyclic loading was applied to the specimen with amplitudes
whose maximum stress corresponds to 40%, 56%, and 75% of
σy0.2% for a stress ratio of R= -1 and 56%, 75%, and 92% of
σy0.2% for R=0. Figure 7 presents transverse stress (σXX) results
for a maximum applied stress of 0.92 σy0.2% for R = 0. Large
amounts of relaxation/redistribution were observed where the
original magnitude of the residual stress was initially higher.
Strange data for cycle 10 was due to measurement error,
which was subsequently verified to result from premature
wear of the drill bit. Little difference in the relaxed profile
was exhibited for cycles 10 and 100. Further more, a majority
of the relaxation, at this load level, occurs on the first cycle.
These trends agree with the observations reported in the
literature [2-7]. Significant changes in the residual stress from
the baseline were measured at 14 mm and 22 mm from the
weld centerline. The trends are also representative of those for
lower loading levels as well as R = -1 axial loading, results for
which may be found in [13].
Figure 7: Transverse residual stress after an applied
maximum stress of 0.92 σy.2% at the midline of the specimen.
Longitudinal residual stresses (Figure 8) showed trends similar
to those exhibited by the transverse residual stresses. The
greatest changes occurred at the weld toe and at the original
compressive maximum, corresponding to measurement
coordinates of 10 mm and 26 mm, respectively. The majority
of the relaxation again occurred on the first cycle with no
evidence supporting significant changes between cycles 10
and 100. The overall shape of the stabilized stress profile
agrees with trends expected for self-equilibration. Again,
similar relaxation trends were observed for the lower loads
and R = -1 axial loading.
620
Data from Figures 7, 8 and all other experiments indicates that
measurable relaxation occurs in less than 10 cycles. Cycling
beyond 100 cycles should not cause further changes in the
residual stress profile. Based on these observations, further
presentations of the data will compare only baseline and 100
cycle (stabilized) values. The 100 cycle data seemed to have
fewer anomalous measurements and was used in subsequent
analyses. Since 10 or 100 cycles is a small fraction of the
expected fatigue life and does not affect the damage analysis.
Figure 8: Longitudinal residual stress after an applied
maximum stress of 0.92 σy.2% at the midline of the specimen.
Measurements of the relaxed transverse residual stresses
(Figures 9 and 10) were performed at the midline of the
specimen. Considering only the 0.56 and 0.75 σy0.2% loadings,
larger changes in the residual stresses were expected for R=-1
when compared to R=0. However, considering the variation
associated with the measurements, no substantial difference
was observed. For load levels equal to or less than 0.56 σy0.2%,
little to no change in the residual stress was observed for either
load ratio. As the applied cyclic load was increased, a greater
change in residual stress was observed for both load ratios.
The largest amount of relaxation, irrespective of load level,
was determined to occur at 14 mm, the peak of the baseline
transverse tensile residual stress. A second local region of
increased relaxation was also noted at 22 mm. Far field
stresses, at distances greater than 40 mm, do not change
appreciably for the array of load levels investigated. For the
actual complex state of residual stress, the maximum nominal
stress appears to be the driving force for relaxation/
redistribution. Relaxation in one region requires changes in
residual stress at other locations to maintain self-equilibration.
Hence, a change in measured residual stresses does not
necessarily imply plastic deformation at that location. For this
reason, the relaxation/redistribution terminology is often used
and should be implied.

Figure 9: Transverse residual stress after 100 cycles at
midline of the specimen.
Figure 10: Longitudinal residual stress after 100 cycles at the
midline of the specimen.
The longitudinal residual stress data displayed in Figure 10
also shows a greater change in the residual stress with
increased applied load. The largest amount of relaxation
occurred between 20 and 30 mm as opposed to the weld toe.
This corresponds to the second region of relaxation observed
in the transverse residual stress. At this location, the transverse
stress is positive while the longitudinal stress is negative,
creating a higher state of deviatoric stress with nominal tensile
loading. This results in plastic deformation occurring earlier
for the initial transverse nominal loading, supporting the
previous hypothesis presented for the effective baseline
residual stress (Figure 6). Tension only loading displays
similar trends as the fully reversed case. Despite changes in
the residual stresses, a steep gradient still remained in the
region critical for fatigue damage. This will cause some
degree of constraint for the mechanical behavior of this
location and should be considered in subsequent analysis.
621
Effects of Relaxation/Redistribution on Fatigue Life
Studying the effect changes in the residual stress have on
fatigue life requires a model that considers the full multiaxial
state of stress. The Findley parameter has been shown to be
effective in predicting damage for these types of scenarios in
other investigations [7]. In addition to the nominal loading
used to fit the fatigue data (Figure 11), the residual stresses
were included in the calculation of the damage by using
results from a finite element model that characterized the
stabilized multiaxial state of stress. A complete description of
the FE model, results, and agreement with experimental data is
provided in [13]. Ignoring the residual stresses in the fatigue
damage calculations produced severe load ratio banding.
450
Exp. R = 0
Exp. R = -1
Exp. R = -0.74
Findley Damage, D F (MPa)
400 Fit
Error
(Factor of 2)
350
300
Findley k f = 0.54
(|Δτ|/2+kfσnmax) = 734.6 Nf-0.0619
250 4
10 105 106 107
Nf (cycles)
Figure 11: Fatigue curve for axial loading considering
residual stresses using Findley damage parameter.
Evaluation of the effects of residual stress
relaxation/redistribution on more complex life predictions
were then explored using a simple high-low fatigue history
consisting of 10 high cycles followed by lower amplitude
cycles to failure. This was anticipated to change the residual
stresses experienced by the lower loadings. The stabilized
residual stress profile of the high low loading scenario
matches that of the larger loading level. This is significantly
less than the lower magnitude’s constant amplitude residual
profile. These changes resulted in a reduction in damage
compared to its constant amplitude counterpart. Similar trends
are observed for the other load ratios. This overload effect is
ignored when assigning damage on the basis of experimental
constant amplitude data without consideration of the residual
stress field. The format of the data in Figure 44, is amenable
to evaluate these changes in residual stresses.
Table 1 highlights the results of life calculations for the high-
low histories. The effect of the larger cycles on the total life
was determined to comprise less than 0.1% of the total life
using Miner’s hypothesis, and was neglected in estimating
cycles to failure for the lower load. Significantly longer
failure lives were calculated for the smaller amplitude loads
with smaller residual stresses, differing by orders of
magnitude from their constant amplitude counterparts.
Admittedly, the differences may not be accurate as shown.
Extrapolation of 104 to 107 experimental fatigue data more
than two orders of magnitude may be unreliable. However, it
is feasible that events, which were damaging in a constant
amplitude context, could be rendered harmless by a
relaxed/redistributed residual stress field.
2. Takanashi, M. et al, Relaxation Behavior of Welding
Residual Stresses by Fatigue Loading in Smooth
Longitudinal Butt Welded Joints, Welding in the World,
44, 120-124 (2000)
3. Iida, K. and M. Takanashi, Relaxation of Welding
Residual Stresses by Reversed and Repeated Loadings,
Welding in the World, 41, 314-327 (1998)

Table 1: Comparison of blocks to failure for an initial 10 4. Han, S. et al, Residual Stress Relaxation of Welded Steel
cycles of 0.92 σy0.2% overload (R=0 loading). Components under Cyclic Load, Steels Research, 73, 414-
420 (2002)
Constant Amp. Variable Amp.
Low Load 5. Teodosio, J. R. et al, Relaxation of Residual Stresses
Residual Stress Residual Stress
σmax/σy.2% During Fatigue Cycles in Steels, Materials Science
Df, Low Nf Df, Low Nf
0.40 253.8 2.86x107 186.9 4.02x109 Forum, 426-432, 3981-3986 (2003)
0.56 283.2 4.88x106 232.4 1.19x108 6. Zhuang, W. Z. and G. R. Halford, Investigation of
0.75 316.5 8.08x105 288.9 3.54x106 Residual Stress Relaxation under Cyclic Load,
International Journal of Fatigue, 23, S31-S37 (2001)
Conclusions
7. Kurath, P. and Y. Jiang, Analysis of Residual Stresses and
At times the quantity of the data was almost overwhelming Cyclic Deformation for Induction Hardened Components,
and analytical choices abound. The following highlight the SAE Technical Paper Series, Doc No. 950707 (1995)
significant contributions of this research. A complex three-
8. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section 3: Metals Test
dimensional residual stress state was experimentally measured
Methods and Analytical Procedures, ASTM (1993)
to establish a baseline profile for a transverse symmetric butt
weld. Maximum nominal stress level was shown to be control 9. Gurney, T. R., Fatigue of Welded Structures, 2nd Edition,
final relaxed residual stress state. A Findley damage parameter Cambridge University Press, New York (1979)
was calculated using the analytically determined stabilized
relaxation profiles at the fatigue critical location. Simple high- 10. Weisman, C., Welding Handbook: Fundamentals of
low sequence loadings, simulating shakedown procedures, Welding, American Welding Society (1976)
were analyzed. Because the residual stresses in the constant
amplitude analysis were amplitude dependent, it was 11. AWS Structural Welding Code, AWS, Florida (1984)
determined that the maximum event dictated the residual
stresses for the entire history. These diminished residual 12. Steinzig, M. and E. Ponslet, Residual Stress
stresses resulted in orders of magnitude longer lives for many Measurements Using the Hole Drilling Method and Laser
of the lower load events. However, there is a practical limit to Speckle Interferometry: Part 4, Experimental Techniques,
the magnitude of the overload. Nov./Dec.,45-48 (2003)

Acknowlegements 13. C. Sanger, Prediction of Welding Residual Stresses and

Redistribution due to Cyclic Loading,, Master’s Thesis,
The National Computational Science Alliance at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (2004)
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is thanked for
their technical assistance and the use of the NCSA IBM P690
computing network under grant number MSS040009N. The
authors are grateful that the John Deere Technical Center in
Moline, Illinois provided facilities for the residual stress
measurements and specimen fabrication. They also
contributed to the support of a graduate student for this
research.

References

1. Sonsino, et al, Slope of the S-N-Curve and High Cycle

Fatigue Behavior of Longitudinal Stiffener in As-Welded
and Stress Relieved Fillet Welds, IIW, Doc. # XIII-1242-
87 (1987)

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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Design of a Robotic Welding System

H. B. Smartt, Ph.D., E.D. Larsen, D. P. Pace, R. J. Bitsoi and C. R. Tolle, Ph.D.
Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho, USA

Abstract research into artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic

Canisters for long term storage or disposal of waste
materials are normally closed by welding one or more lids
to the top of the canister. This paper describes the
development of a conceptual design of a control architecture
for a robotic system for welding lids on canisters in a
remote welding cell. This work extended over several years
and included development of control systems for three
machines.
Introduction
Waste materials are normally contained within a metal
canister for long term storage or disposal. Various sizes and
configurations of canisters exist, with one or more lids, with
single or multiple vessels, and with purge ports for
evacuation and backfilling with a suitable atmosphere.
Internal and external shielding may be used to allow access
of personnel during welding or shielding may not be
provided thus requiring welding to be accomplished by
completely remote means. Although the Idaho National
Laboratory is developing actual robotic welding systems for
closure of long term storage and disposal canisters, this
paper describes long term research into the architecture of
the control system for a conceptual robotic welding system.
methods for application to both control and sensing that are
described elsewhere [1,2]. Eventually, the development
work centered on a small, robotic welding cell employing an
open architecture robot, a milling machine, and a side beam
welding machine and the ultimate application of the
technologies was changed from general fabrication to waste
canister closure.
Radiation levels in a welding cell for closure of canisters
may be excessively high. At such levels, conventional CCD
video cameras do not operate; CID or CMOS cameras must
be used. Robotic devices may need optical encoders for
motion control to be replaced by resolvers. Finally, care
must be taken in the selection of materials, especially
polymer materials for such applications as electrical
insulation, drive belts, bearing seals, and lubricants.
However, it is well known how to design such systems [3]
and components are commercially available for most
applications.
At high radiation levels, canister closure welding needs to
be done without personnel present, resulting in a need for

This work started years ago when a customer expressed a

need for modular, plug-and-play automated welding
systems. Specifically the customer wanted to be able to
change major system components, such as welding power
supplies, without extensive development work for
component integration. The same customer also expressed a
need for intelligent sensors for control and monitoring of the
welding process and the product quality. This led to work
on hardware interfacing, communication bus selection,
software development of graphical user interfaces,
application of graphical-based and object oriented
programming methods, and eventually development of
architectures for machine control systems as described in
this paper. There was also extensive work on self-validating
Figure 1: Robotic welding cell with human machine
sensors, weld vision systems, non-contact and in-process
interface.
ultrasonic inspection methods and equipment, and extensive
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 623
robotic welding systems. Various factors, including a
number of canister sizes and configurations, dimensional
tolerances on canister components, and tolerances on
placement of canisters in position for welding, lead to
consideration of three cases for robot trajectory control. In
the first case, preprogrammed motion of the robot without
sensor feedback control is adequate for welding. In the
second case, preprogrammed motion of the robot with
sensor feedback control is adequate for welding. In the third
case, preprogrammed motion of the robot with sensor
feedback control is not adequate for welding. It is this third
case that is considered in this paper. However, the
discussion starts with a presentation of work on control of
machine functions using agent based control, human
machine based control, and then text message based control.
Control architectures
We discuss three examples of control architecture in this
paper. These examples start at a relatively mature level and
emphasize development of control authority,
communications within a system, and development of an
approach to separate procedure information from the control
source code. Earlier work using conventional controllers is
not discussed.
Agent based control
Early work on computer control of welding systems based
on table top linear manipulators led to the realization that a
robotic welding cell was needed as a platform for serious
control architecture research. An open architecture, six
degree of freedom, articulated arm robot was acquired and
integrated into a small welding cell, Figure 1. The robot arm
was suspended in an inverted position from a single degree
of freedom linear gantry. Either a linear or a rotational
positioner was placed on the cell surface below the robot
arm to provide additional motion for the weldment. The
resulting eight degree of freedom system was integrated by
a human machine interface (HMI) in a conventional PC
communicating via an instant messaging application over
Ethernet using TCP/IP protocol with the two real time
operating systems (RTOS), one for the robot control and the
second for control of the linear slides (or rotational
positioner). This system was then used for a study of agent-
based control [4,5].
The basic concept of agent based control involved local
software agents used for control of each major system
functional element as indicated in Figure 2. Each agent used
a fuzzy logic rule set that governed operation of only the
particular functional component. Thus, there was no single
agent that controlled the entire welding process. The agents
communicated with the user interface and with each other
using a simple command set; an on-board interpreter
invoked the corresponding rule for a particular command.
Commands included “arm”, “disarm”, “enable”, “disable”,
“go”, “stop”, “weld” and other commands needed to control
the process.
The agent controlled robotic welding system was used to
make gas metal arc spot welds. This application was chosen
because the weld time was very short, approximately 3
seconds, and thus the ability of the agents to communicate

A power supply

operator HMI A wire feeder

volume
to A A X-axis motor
wfs & time
heat A A Y-axis motor
to
voltage RTOS

A Robot
RTOS
bus

Figure 2: Agents used for control of individual system

functional components. Real time operating systems
(RTOS) and human machine interface (HMI) are Figure 3: Milling machine used for experimental
indicated. Wfs stands for wire feed speed. evaluation of control architecture.

624
 drive Y-axis
drive motor
HMI RTOS
drive Z-axis
hub servo
PC motor
rotating
chuck
IR camera motor

PC ballscrew
encoder X-axis
dynamometer

proximity/limit Fy rpm
switches encoder
Fx
encoder Fz torque

Figure 5: Five-channel dynamometer on milling machine

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of control architecture for
to measure principal forces, torque and rotational speed of
milling machine.
tool.
fast enough using the instant messaging method to perform characteristics, lead screw pitch, etc.). This is accomplished
a practical application was critical. The resulting and operating programs are also written in text files and
performance was good, but it was determined that the downloaded using a simple text file reader. Additional
timing of the events in the process was not deterministic and commands are generated by command buttons in the
even though the system worked flawlessly during the tests, graphical user interface and sent to the RTOS by the instant
performance of the system could not be guaranteed a-priori. messaging application. Although this approach works well,
These factors were considered unacceptable for an eventual the commands generated by the graphical user interface are
application, and the agent based control approach was embedded in the HMI source code and thus cannot be easily
abandoned. However, elements of the system architecture changed. It is felt that a system in which all procedure
were retained in the next experimental system. information, commands, and rule sets are downloaded to the
system at runtime as text messages is needed.
Human Machine Interface based control
The next system discussed is actually the control
architecture for a milling machine [6], Figure 3. The basic
machine is a manual model of a bed mill, chosen for its
rugged construction and relatively low cost. The power feed
motors on the three axes were replaced by higher torque
stepping motors with encoder feedback and the spindle
drive motor was replaced with a large servo motor with
resolver feedback. A real time operating system (RTOS) is
used for motion control and three conventional PCs are used
for the operator interface, Figure 4. One PC is used for data
acquisition from a five channel dynamometer, Figure 5, a
second PC is used for an infrared video camera and a third
PC is used for motion control and overall integration. The
three PCs communicate to each other and the RTOS by
means of a dedicated network using Ethernet hardware and
TCP/IP protocol. An instant messaging application is used
for communications between the HMI, the other two PCs,
and the RTOS.

In the previous system using agent based control, one

concern was the fact that the rule sets governing operation
of the agents were written in the particular agent source
code. Thus, it would be necessary to edit that code to make
any changes in the robotic system configuration or the rule
sets. In the milling machine it was desired to investigate text
files to define system configuration (motor and encoder Figure 6: Welding end effector mounted to
Cartesian robot on side beam welder.
625
Text message based control message generation is shown schematically in Figure 8. An
The third system presented is presently being developed and example set of commands is listed in Table 1 for welding
evaluated on a side beam welding machine. The machine and ultrasonic inspection [8,9] of an outer lid weld joint on a
employs a five degree of freedom, Cartesian robot, mounted canister.
on a carriage, with a quick disconnect tool plate mounted
welding end effector, Figure 6. The carriage runs along a The messages have up to five parts, the actor, action, object
straight beam, but will be relocated to a circular beam. to be acted upon, and the context of the action. For
example, the third message in the table tells a particular
Our approach to control of the robotic welding system is to robot (robot 1) to weld the outer lid using the fill procedure
use templates. Motion of the robot is defined by graph [7] for weld pass 3.
templates, Figure 7. Such templates may be used to depict a
robot trajectory, define events, such as the start of a weld, or Table 1: Example commands for robot 1 to weld and
activiation of a seam tracking sensor, and define a sequence ultrasonically inspect weld pass three for the outer lid of a
of events. They can also include properties associated with waste canister. EE is end effector, UT is ultrasonic testing.
points, such as coordinates, or portions of the resulting
trajectory, such as welding parameters. In addition, the ACTOR ACTION OBJECT PROCEDURE CONTEXT
templates may be populated with properties at run time. Robot 1 pick weld EE
Robot 1 set electrode stickout
There are two different sets of properties that we are Robot 1 weld outer lid fill pass 3
interested in, these being the coordinates of points and Robot 1 place weld EE
welding process parameters. Robot 1 pick UT EE
Robot 1 inspect outer lid UT pass 3
Robot 1 place UT EE
Robot 1 home arm

å C/L Conclusions and Discussion

c/l

There are general design considerations that are applied to

P0
P3
p1
T commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware when possible.
p2
Figure 7: Robot motion template. Motion is from P0 to
p1, to p2 along path T, to P3.
Points of interest include fixed points, such as the home
position of a robot arm or the storage location of an end
effector. Other points are not fixed in the general case and
include the location of weld joints for a particular waste
canister. The fixed points are not an issue but the variable
points are. Our approach is to locate a particular canister
using a coordinate measuring system consisting of
calibrated video cameras. The resulting canister location is
sent to the robotic welding system which then finds the
canister using on-board video cameras for precise
determination of weld joint coordinates.
all of the machines that we design. First, it is important to
realize that functionality of the machine is a major
requirement. It is usually easier to remove machine
functions later than it is to add them. Second, we use
This assumes that the COTS hardware has the required
functionality for the particular machine. We also seek to
ensure that the machine is modular in the sense that the
hardware is open architecture and that machine functions
are associated with components with easily integrated
software and hardware interface requirements. High level
system integration capabilities such as client/server
relationships or plug and play capabilities are also desired.
It is especially important to consider the costs of developing
software. Such costs include the direct cost of development
systems, the labor to code and debug applications, as well as
the administrative cost. The latter cost is especially
important for applications subject to enterprise architecture
requirements. An advantage of the approach we are using is
that welding procedure information is not embedded in the
control software and thus the quality of that information is
not governed by enterprise architecture requirements.

Welding procedure parameters for a particular weld are In the method we are using, a high level command is
downloaded from a database as a text file. A parsing engine generated by the graphical user interface of the HMI.
breaks the file into parts; a circular trajectory is fit to the Consider for example:
observed weld joint coordinates, macros are added for robot
Robot 1 weld outer lid fill pass 3
control and the resulting text message is sent by an instant
messaging engine to the RTOS for execution. The sequence
of welding is controlled by a set of high level commands In this example, Robot 1 identifies the system component to
that are generated by the HMI at run time. This process of which the message output will be sent. Weld identifies the

626
 Engineering Sciences, DOE-BES, Argonne
National Laboratory, May 15-16, 2000, (INEEL-
HMI
Procedure Application code 2000-CON-667).
Application code
Outer
P1
Outer,P1
Fill Outer
P1,P2,P3 Coordinate Outer
5. Herschel B. Smartt, Kevin L. Kenney, Charles R.
Move to X planning
Weld to X along T
Move to X
engine Transformation p1,p2,P3 Tolle, “Intelligent Control of Modular Robotic
Text document Move to, Weld to, Move to Welding Cell”, Trends in Welding Research, ASM
Move to International, ISBN 0-87170-780-2, 2003, pp. 985-
Move
Move toto
Move to Assembler
Weld to
990.
Application code
Macros 6. George E. Cook, Herschel B. Smartt, Jason
Move to p1 Mitchell, Alvin M. Strauss, “Controlling Robotic
Weld to p2 along Outer
Text document Move to p3 Friction Stir Welding”, Welding Journal, June
Ethernet text message 2003, pp. 28-33.
7. Lung-Wen Tsai, Mechanism Design, Enumeration
RTOS
of Kinematic Structures According to Function,
ISBN 0-8493-0901-8, CRC Press, 2001.
Figure 8: Schematic diagram of message generation 8. John A. Johnson, Eric D. Larsen, Karen S. Miller,
procedure. Herschel B. Smartt, Timothy R. McJunkin,
end effector to be used. Weld outer lid identifies the robot “Method for the Concurrent Ultrasonic Inspection
contol macro to be used. Weld outer lid fill identifies the of Partially Completed Welds”, United States
procedure to be used, and pass 3 identifies the trajectory for Patent 6,484,584, November 26, 2002.
the weld pass. 9. Herschel B. Smartt, Eric D. Larsen, John A.
Johnson, “Inspection Apparatus for Evaluating a
The Assembler, see Figure 8, first verifies that the weld end Partially Completed Weld”, United States Patent
effector is on Robot 1, then acquires the coordinates of the 6,178,819 B1, Jan. 30, 2001.
weld pass 3 trajectory, uses it to calculate coordinates of
starting and ending points, and inserts this information into
the Weld outer lid control macro and sends the macro to the
Robot 1 controller. The Assembler also sends the Weld
outer lid fill file to the RTOS. Finally, the Assembler
initiates coordinated execution of the Weld outer lid control
macro and the Weld outer lid fill file by Robot 1 and the
RTOS respectively. There is also a fill planning engine that
calculates the amount of fill needed per pass for multipass
welds.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy,

Office of Energy Research and by INL Laboratory Directed
Research and Development under DOE/NE Idaho
Operations Office Contract DE-AC07-05ID14517.

References
1. J. A. Johnson and H. B. Smartt, "Advantages of an
Alternative Form of Fuzzy Logic", IEEE
Transactions on Fuzzy Systems, Vol. 3, No. 2, May
1995, pp 149-157.
2. J. A. Johnson and H. B. Smartt, "Conventional
Controllers in Fuzzy Form," 1994 World
Conference on Neural Networks, INNS, San
Diego, CA, June 1994, Vol. 1, pp. 759-764.
3. K. U. Vandergriff, Designing Equipment for Use in
Gamma Radiation Environments, ORNL/TM-
11175, May 1990.
4. Herschel B. Smartt, Charles R. Tolle, Kevin L.
Kenney, “Complex Intelligent Machines”,
Proceedings, Eighteenth Symposium on Energy

627
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

OFF-LINE PROGRAMMING OF ROBOTS FOR METAL DEPOSITION

M. Ericsson, F. Danielsson, H. Carlsson
University of Trollhättan Uddevalla, P.O. 957, SE-461 81 Trollhättan, Sweden

P. Nylén
University of Trollhättan Uddevalla, P.O. 957, SE-461 81 Trollhättan, Sweden
Volvo Aero Corporation, SE-46181 Trollhättan, Sweden

Abstract Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) process developed at Sandia

Metal Deposition (MD) is a rapid prototyping technique to
build parts by depositing metal in a required fashion. When a
complex-shaped part is to be built, a simulation tool is needed
to define robot trajectories. Three different simulation-based
methods for robot trajectory generation are introduced and
compared in this study. The methods are; reversed milling,
adapted rapid prototyping and application programming in a
computer aided robotics software. All methods were shown
capable of creating robot paths for complex shapes, with the
CAR software approach being the most flexible. Using this
method, the geometry to be built is automatically sliced into
layers and a robot path is automatically generated. The method
was tentatively evaluated and appears to provide a powerful
technique in the design and optimisation of robot paths for
MD. Experiments showed that it is possible to manufacture
fully dense parts using an Nd-Yag laser.
Introduction
Many of the complex-shaped components, especially those
used in the aerospace and automobile industries, are
manufactured by casting or forging. Components made by
these processes require extensive machining and finishing
operations before they can actually be used. If the production
volume is low then the production cost for each component is
likely to be rather high. Manufacturing by moulding is also a
rather inflexible method since it is necessary to change the
complete mould in order to effect a change in component
geometry. The development of alternative manufacturing
methods is therefore of significant interest.
One interesting alternative is metal Rapid Prototyping (RP)
often referred to as Metal Deposition (MD). MD has the
potential to be used to manufacture a new part, to add features
to an existing part, or to repair worn parts. The technique uses
a welding heat source to melt a powder or a wire material
which solidifies on a surface, thus enabling a part to be built
drop-by-drop. An example of such a method is the Laser-
National Laboratories and Stanford University [1]. In the
LENS system a laser beam melts the top layer of the part in
areas where material is to be added. Materials that can be used
include 316 stainless steel, Inconel 625, tungsten, and titanium
carbide cermets The LENS process produces fully-dense parts
with functional mechanical properties. However, at present,
the process can only be applied for parts with simple and
uniform cross-sections.
Full flexibility and usability of the MD process technique can
however be obtained if a robot is used. The robot can then
either be programmed manually, or it can be programmed
using Computer Aided Robotics (CAR). Manual programming
is usually carried out using the teach-in method. In this
method the robot arm is jogged through the program under
reduced power and at reduced speed, via a joystick. The
manual generation of a path in this way is very time-
consuming and is a tedious task. Robot programming using
computer simulation is an interesting alternative which,
moreover, is necessary when complex shapes are to be built.
Using this method the actual process can be simulated prior to
manufacturing. There is, however, to the authors’ knowledge,
no commercial software currently available for the simulation
and generation of robot paths for MD. Different methods
could be used to develop this type of software. The aim of this
paper is to introduce and compare three different possible
methods.
Geometries
Two different part geometries were considered within this
project; a solid rectangular box, see Figure 1 and a solid box
with a more complex shape, see Figure 2.
The principle for off-line programming that was evaluated was
the same for both namely 1) creation of a CAD model of the
part, 2) slicing the CAD model into thin cross-section layers
and 3) definition of geometry paths for each layer.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 629


Figure 1: A solid box
Figure 2: Complex geometry
Methods for robot trajectory generation
Several methods can be developed for the generation of the
robot trajectory. One method is to use a CAM module in
commercial CAD/CAM software. This method is, in this
paper, denoted as “reversed milling” since it is based on a
milling path which is mirrored. This transformation of the path
is made by a developed postprocessor. An alternative method
is to use software developed for the rapid prototyping of
polymer parts. Since such software is developed for polymer
applications, adaptations have had to be made which are
further described in the section headed Adapted Rapid
Prototyping, below. The final method that is evaluated is
application programming in Computer Aided Robotics
software (CAR). This method is, in this article, denoted as
adapted CAR. In all three cases the part to manufactured is
created within CAD software. All three methods also require
simulation and verification of the robot path using CAR,
which is why an initial brief description of this technique is
necessary.
Computer Aided Robotics
Several commercial software packages for CAR are currently
available (GRASP, IGRIP and RobCad etc). The procedure for
the generation and simulation of robot paths using these
systems can be summarized in terms of the following six steps
[2, 3].
630
1. Modelling of the work cell
2. Work cell calibration
3. Programming of robot and other optional work cell
equipment
4. Downloading of the program to the robot controller
5. Additional robot programming
6. Test running
The first step involves the construction of a geometrical and a
kinematic model of the work cell. This geometric model can
either be constructed using a CAD/CAM system, or
constructed in the CAR system. In the second step a geometric
calibration of the model with the real cell is performed. This
step can include several sub-steps, such as tool-point, work-
piece and signature calibration. [2, 4]. Tool calibration is
performed to determine the tool centre point and to determine
the weld torch orientation. A procedure using a measuring
arrow in a fixed position in the work cell and moving the robot
to this position in different directions, is usually used. The
positions from the real robot cell are then uploaded to the
CAR system and a “best fit” is found using regression.
Calibration of the workpiece is performed similarly by moving
the robot to identified positions on the workpiece. In step three
the robot motion (and other possible motions) is programmed
either using a high level language or a specific robot language.
If a high level language is used, the program is translated to
the specific robot language and downloaded (step four) to the
robot controller system. The programming of the robot path is,
in this study, substituted by the different methods described
beneath. Usually, following the initial programming,
additional equipment-specific programming is also needed
(step five), which is performed manually at the robot.
Validation of the program by test runs is finally performed in
step six. Both IGRIP (Interactive Graphics Robot Instruction
Program, Deneb Robotics) and ROBCAD (of UGS Corp.)
systems were used in this study. Both a tool calibration and a
workpiece calibration were performed. In Figure 3, an IGRIP
snapshot from the experimental setup is shown. A more
detailed description of CAR can be found in [2].
Figure 3: Snapshot from IGRIP
 Robot Path Generation through Reversed Milling
Unigraphics (UG), of UGS Corp. is a 3-D graphical tool for
computer-aided design (CAD).The software is available in
both Microsoft Windows and UNIX versions. A specific
Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) module is available. It
is used to define up to five axis milling paths, a so called NC-
code. In this study the NC code was instead used to generate
robot paths for MD. The procedure is based on three steps.
The first of these is the generation of the robot path in the
CAM module. The slicing of the part is made at this initial
stage and a robot path is constructed for each layer. The
second step is the importation of the path to the CAR software,
where a robot simulation of the path is made. Finally, in the
last step the robot motion is downloaded to the physical robot
where MD is performed, see Figure 4.
UniGraphics/ Welding
CAR
CAM modul robot
Figure 4: Schematic principle of the “reversed milling”
procedure
The CAM module generates an NC code which is easy to
understand for a person familiar with NC machines. The code
mainly consists of coordinates and tool data. Since it is
developed for milling, it describes how to remove material. In
the MD process, material is added. Thus the need here is to
reverse the path so that the last coordinates in the NC code
actually become the start coordinates for the MD process. This
mirroring can either be performed by introducing a fictive
surface located at the upper surface on the part to be
manufactured, or by the development of a postprocessor that
automatically makes this transformation. This latter method
was the approach taken in this study. In the CAR software this
transformed path is verified. A simulation is also performed,
verifying the robot orientation and thus ensuring that no
collisions between the welding torch and the part occur. A
typical robot path for one layer of a rectangular shape is
shown in Figure 5. The deposition is started from the lower
right corner and a zig-zag movement up to the upper left
corner has been defined. While performing experiments it was
shown that it is a major advantage if the starting point for each
layer could be varied, and if an individual thickness could be
defined for each layer. The advantages with individual layer
thicknesses and different starting points for each layer agree
with the findings of [5]. The start location for each layer and
individual layer thicknesses could, however, not be
automatically varied. This makes the path generation more
cumbersome. Another drawback with this method was that a
counter support path was needed for each layer in order to
maintain the shape of the part. This counter path also had to be
defined manually for each layer. These drawbacks,
notwithstanding, the method was shown capable of creating
631
complex 3D shapes, thus enabling robot paths for the test
geometries to be constructed.
Figure 5: Robot path for one layer
Adapted Rapid Prototyping
The term rapid prototyping (RP) refers to a class of
technologies that can automatically construct physical models
from CAD data [6]. Although several RP techniques are
available, all seem to employ the same procedure. The steps to
create a path can be summarized as [6]:
1. Creation of a CAD model of the design
2. Conversion of the CAD model to STL format
3. Slicing the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers
One example of RP equipment manufacturer that employs this
procedure is Stratasys, of Eden Prairie, MN, a company that
has developed a number of different RP machines. The
machines can create complex-shaped 3D polymer prototypes
directly from a CAD-drawing. The CAD-drawing is pre-
processed in Stratasys’ own Insight software which imports a
STL-file [5], which is the most commonly used file format
that in RP. The STL-files can be generated by most of the
commercially available CAD software. Insight automatically
slices the geometry in layers and then creates tool paths for a
specific machine. The tool paths are rotated for each layer i.e.
starting each layer in a new corner as desired. Since the path is
generated for a specific machine and for additive polymers
only thin layers (0.03-0.1 mm) can be defined. When metal RP
is to be applied, a larger part dimension is necessary and a
scaling procedure is thus needed. Another adaptation that has
to be made is that the Insight software exports not coordinates,
but pulses to the machine. These pulses must subsequently be
translated to coordinates. A specific translator had therefore to
be developed. A postprocessor was created that automatically
translates the instructions in the SML-file (Insight file format)
to Rapid (ABB robot language). The program also ensures the
rotation of the starting point for each layer. In order to obtain
the same tool orientation for each layer, transformations also
had to be made to some of the tool paths. The path generated
by this program is thereafter imported to the CAR software
where the robot motion is simulated and collision checks are
made. An advantage in using the adapted RP method
compared to the “reversed milling” method is that counter
paths are automatically generated using this method.
Drawbacks using this method are that constant layer Figure 7: Complex geometry with robot poses
thicknesses are generated and that the scaling procedure could
be a possible cause of errors. It is necessary that the operator
Experiments
knows what scale factor to use, and this can vary from part to
part. A common drawback between this method and the
Experiments were performed using both a robotised TIG
reversed milling method is that two different software systems
welding cell and a Nd-YAG laser cell. The TIG cell consists
are needed; one software system for robot path generation, and
of a six-axis robot ABB IRB 1400 with a torch from Binzel
another for robot simulation. The final method of the three
AB (thoriated tungsten electrode) which is connected to a TIG
suggested alternatives uses the same software for both
Commander 400 AC/DC, from Migatronic Inc. Argon gas was
purposes.
used on the top side to avoid oxidation of the component. The
laser welding experiments were carried out with 2.3 kW
Adapted Computer Aided Robotics Nd:YAG laser cw2500 from , Rofin, German witch was linked
to the IRB 4400 robot. The material used was stainless steel
The most interesting solution for the generation of robot 316L. Figure 9 shows a snapshot from the TIG process. An arc
trajectories is to make sole use of CAR software, see Figure 6. of plasma is formed between the electrode and the base plate.
The process was shown to be rather sensitive with regard to
Welding the process parameters needed to obtain the desired shape of
CAR the deposited metal. The weld torch had to be inclined 20
robot
degrees from the vertical axis. The deposit direction is from
left to right in Figure 8. The base plate had to be clamped very
Figure 6: Robot path generation and simulation using firmly to a fixture in order to avoid deformation and to enable
computer aided robotics efficient heat transportation.

The major advantage with this method is that, compared to the

reversed milling and adaptive RP methods, it gives the
operator a better overview of the whole process. The major
disadvantage, though, is the lack of automatic path generation.
Application programming is thus necessary, both for slicing
the part into layers, as well as for the creation of the
movement in each layer. The program has to calculate robot
paths in a general way, independent of part geometry. Two
different ways of generating paths were evaluated. In the case
of simple geometries a standalone program was suggested that
interactively asks the operator for geometry information such
as component height and width and position i.e. the location
where the part is to be manufactured. For cases where more
generalized shapes are to be made, such as the example in
Figure 2 above, the path is preferably generated by
implementing functions directly in the CAR software.
Information about the weld path, as well as information about Figure 8: Metal Deposition by TIG welding
the welding parameters, is then exported to the physical robot.
An example of a side view showing the robot path coordinate In the TIG experiments Automatic Voltage Control (AVC)
systems is shown in Figure 7. was used to maintain an optimum electrode distance of 1.5
mm. The process parameters used for the welding operation
can be listed as follows:

632
 • Weld speed : 3.0 mm/s
• Wire feed : 1.1 mm/s
• Weld current : 120 Amp
Experiments in which a rectangular solid box was
manufactured, were performed line by line. The part to be
manufactured was 40.6 mm wide, 100 mm long and 18mm
high. It was initially made by 14 layers without any overlap of
the weld seam i.e. the distance between the centres of each
seam was chosen to be equal to the width of the seam. It was,
however, shown that an overlap between seams is necessary.
New deposit trials were performed by taking a weld seam Figure 10: The solid box geometry manufactured using a Nd-
overlap of 2.7mm. The number of seams and layers was Yag laser cell.
reduced to five and four respectively. Better results were
achieved this time as the layers were attached to each other
and no discontinuities were observed. It was, however,
observed that at some locations of the deposit the seams were
not straight but deviated in a zigzag fashion. It was shown that
the process was sensitive to slight deviations in the wire feed
angle. Another observation was that edges occurred at the
boundaries of the seams, Figure 9. This was shown to be due
to partial oxidation of the deposited metal and hence the
adjacent seams did not join perfectly.

Experiments were then performed using the Nd-Yag laser cell.

Figure 10 shows the solid box part. Each layer had an
individual starting corner and a zig-zag movement from this
corner had to be performed. A counter path was also used for
each layer. It was also shown that it was necessary to adjust
the wire feed rate and the laser power continuously during the
deposit. A sensor-based control system would be necessary to
be able to fully automate the process. Figure 11 illustrates the
necessity of these continuous adjustments where a rectangular
shape has been made. The left shape was performed without
any adjustments of the process, whilst the right shape was
performed with continuous manual adjustments.
Figure 11: Deposit without continuous process control (left)
and with continuous process control (right).
Visual inspection of the cross-section revealed a fully dense
material without any pores, Figure 12. Further work is planned
to develop a process window in which a stable process is
ensured. Microstructure evaluations and the mechanical
testing of material properties with the aim of securing the
functional performance of the parts are also planned.

Figure 9: Edges along the seam after four layers

Figure 12: Cross section of the solid box geometry

Summary and Conclusion

Three different methods for the off-line programming of robot
paths were evaluated in this paper. Two different geometries
were considered; a rectangular solid box and a more complex
geometry. Computer programs were developed to generate

633
optimal robot paths for these geometries. All three methods Fabrication Symposium, pp. 125. August 12-14, 1996, Austin,
were shown to be capable of generating the paths for the TX
geometries. The major drawback encountered in the use of a
CAM module for path generation is that the software has been 2 G. Bolmsjö, M. Olsson, K. Brink, Off-line programming of
developed for milling, which means that its functionality for GMAW robotic systems - a case study, Int J. for joining of
Metal Deposition is limited. Individual paths for each deposit Materials, 9, pp. 86-93, 1997
are needed, thus making the method more time-consuming for
complex parts. The method using polymer Rapid Protyping 3 Y. F. Yong, J. A. Gleave, J. L. Green, and M. C. Bonne, Off-
software had a higher functionality since different starting line programming of robots, Handbook of Industrial Robotics,
points for each layer were automatically defined. A drawback New York, John Wiley & Sons, (1985)
with this method, though, was that individual layer thicknesses
could not be defined and that scaling procedures were found to 4 R. Bernhardt, Robot Calibration, pp. 3-55, London:
be necessary. The most flexible method seems to be the Chapman & Hall, (1993)
adaptation of Computer Aided Robotic (CAR) software. Using
this method, a fully automated path generation seems possible, 5. Zhang Y., Chen Y, Li P, Alan T. and Male A, Weld
even for complex-shaped parts. Another advantage with this deposition-based rapid prototyping: a preliminary study,
solution is that only one system is needed for both path Journal of Materials Processing Technology 135 (2003) 347–
generation and for robot simulation. Further work is however 357
needed to evaluate the use of the method for more complex-
shaped parts. The welding experiments showed that it was 6. Pennsylvania State University/Mechanical Engineering
possible to manufacture fully dense parts, although the Department. http://www.me.psu.edu/ lamancusa/ rapidpro/
continuous control of process parameters is a requirement. index.htm [2005-04-18]
Development of a sensor-based control system is therefore
under way. The present study seems to provide an efficient 7. M Ericsson, Simulation of robotic TIG-welding, pp 5-9,
way of manufacturing parts by means of the process of metal licentiate thesis, Lunds University (2003)
deposition. The final quality of the product in terms of
accuracy, finish and mechanical properties can be improved
further by examining different aspects of the process, such as
heat transfer and microstructure, thus enabling more optimized
weld parameters. The development of a simulation tool that
can predict part temperature and distortion during deposition
would also be a worthwhile innovation. Optimal robot speeds,
and trajectories related to shrinkage and distortion can thus be
automatically defined. Such a simulation tool software system
can by accomplished by linking the CAR software with Finite
Element software in the same manner as was done in previous
work regarding welding [7].

Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance in the
experiments by Mr Kjell Hurtig and Mr Mats Högström of
University Trollhättan/Uddevalla and Mr. Peter Jonsson and
Mr. Ingmar Fransson of Volvo Aero Corporation, Trollhättan
for their help and encouragement. Mr. Alastair Henry of
University of Trollhättan/Uddevalla for linguistic revision.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the initial simulation
work performed by Mr Manu Singhal. The work was funded
by the EC Structural Founds and Innovatum Teknik.

References
1. M. L. Griffith, D. M. Keicher, C. L. Atwood, J. A. Romero,
J. E. Smugeresky, L. D. Harwell, D. L. Greene, Free Form
Fabrication of Metallic Components using Laser Engineered
Net Shaping (LENS®), proceedings of the Solid Freeform

634
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Process-Planning Models for Welding Using Bayesian Network
M. Kristiansen, O. Madsen
Department of Production, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
Abstract
A process-planning model has been developed for welding of
T-joints. The model has been used for computing control
variables on a T-joint with varying root gap. This research
investigates how different sources of knowledge can be
produced, acquired, integrated and formalised in process-
planning models. The knowledge sources investigated are
empirical knowledge from welding experiments, analytical
knowledge from literature and knowledge obtained from
interviews with welding operators and experts. A Bayesian
network is selected as the tool for making the process-
planning model. It is selected because it is a graphical model
and it uses probabilities, which enables use of welding
operator and expert knowledge. Welding made using the
designed process-planning model shows good results on a T-
joint with varying root gap. A benchmark with artificial neural
networks for a direct process-planning model shows an
advantage of the model based on a Bayesian network
Introduction
The industry requests solutions for automation of the welding
process to reduce the production costs, improve weld quality
and to increase the standard of the working conditions. One of
the obstacles, which prevent many industries from utilizing
robots is the cumbersome work, associated with the
programming of robots. For manufacture of small batch sizes,
it is especially important to make the programming more
effective.
Automation of the programming task requires models of
processes. A process-planning model is illustrated in figure 1.
The direct model relates the welding control variables,
workpiece parameters and equipment parameters to the quality
parameters. The welding control variables can be adjusted
during the process execution. Workpiece parameters, which
describe the workpiece are given during the product design
and cannot be changed. The Equipment parameters are
settings of the equipment used and can be changed before
process execution but are fixed during process execution.
Quality parameters define the quality of the welding by
geometrical and metallurgical parameters.
To plan a robotic welding task the inverse process-planning
model is used to compute welding control variables. Reliable
direct and inverse process-planning models are difficult and
expensive to build for the welding process because they are
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
influenced by many factors, the physics of the process is not
understood completely, and the process is non-linear.
The two different approaches used to construct the process-
planning modes are analytically and empirically based.
Workpiece Equipment
parameters parameters
Welding
control Quality
variables parameters
Direct process-
planning model
Workpiece Equipment
parameters parameters
Welding
Quality control
parameters Inverse process- variables
planning model
Figure 1: The input and output to the direct and inverse
process-planning model. [1]
The analytical method uses general physical laws verified and
formalised on a mathematical form. Using these mathematical
equations and physical laws, a description of the welding
process is made. Examples are [2] and [3] who model the heat-
and mass flow and surface tension of the weld pool using the
finite element method.
Empirical methods use experimental data that contains sets of
welding control variables, workpiece-, equipment- and quality
parameters. Different methods are used to model the relation
between the input and output. [4] and [5] use regression and
curve fitting methods. Methods from the area of machine
learning are used in [5-10]. Artificial neural network is a
frequently described method in the literature and is described
by [5], [6] and [7]. [8] describes the use of rule- and case
based reasoning, [9] describes use of decision trees, and [7]
describes the use of genetic algorithms used with artificial
neural network. For the spot welding process [10] has made a
direct process model using Bayesian network.
Building process-planning models using the analytical method
is time consuming and not possible because the physics of the
process is not completely understood. Empirically based
process-planning models require many experimental data and
taking more variables and parameters into the model increases
drastically the number of required experiments. Furthermore,
empirical models have limited range of application since they
can only be applied to tasks, which are carried out under the
same conditions as those used for the experiments.
635
 Plate 2
An available knowledge source rarely used for making
welding process-planning models is the welding operator. The
welding operator has experience from many hundreds of hours Leg length plate 1
of welding and can quickly find the settings of the welding Depth of fusion plate 2

parameters giving the decided quality and this even for new Leg length plate 2 Depth of fusion plate 1
geometries and materials. In the literature only very few
examples can be found with use of operators knowledge. [11]
describes how historical data and experience of operators can Theoretical throat Plate 1
be used for controlling quality of production processes. Height of seam
Combinations of different knowledge sources are also very
rarely used. [12] describes, in a pre-study for the work Figure 3: Welded T-joint showing the measured geometrical
presented in this paper, how empirical data and experience of quality parameters.
welding operators can be combined.
The measurement of leg length plates 1 and 2, height of seam
This paper describes the result of an investigation of how the and theoretical throat are determined by non-destructive
different knowledge sources can be combined and used in one methods. Depth of fusion plates 1 and 2 are determined from
process-planning model. The knowledge sources are analytical destructive test. The used materials and equipment are
knowledge, empirical knowledge, and experience from described in table 1.
operator and expert. The investigated modelling technique is
Table 1: Specifications of task and setup.
Bayesian networks, which have some good facilities for
combining knowledge by having a graphical representation
Part
and using probabilities to represent data. The objectives of
Plate 1 dimensions (T x L x W): 12 x 200 x 100 mm
using Bayesian networks are to combine and integrate
Plate 2 dimensions (T x L x W): 10 x 200 x 100 mm
different knowledge sources in one model. The objectives are
Root gap: 0-3 mm
also to be able to use the same model as a direct and an inverse
Plate angle 90º
process-planning model. Another objective of using the Plate material plates 1 and 2: S235
Bayesian network compared with many other types of Plate surface plates 1 and 2: Untreated with oxide scale
machine learning tools as e.g. artificial neural network is that
Equipment
the model is not a total black box model because it can be Power supply: Migatronic BDH550
visualised, understood and the physics of the process can be constant voltage machine
modelled to some extent.
Wire type: ESAB OK Autrod 12.51
Shielding gas: 82 % Ar and 18 % CO2
Materials and methods Shielding gas flow: 14 l/min
Nozzle cup diameter: Ø15 mm
Welding task
A T-joint with varying root gap is used as case and shown in Sources of knowledge
figure 2. The sources of knowledge for the modelling are:
• Empirical knowledge from experiments
Thickness plate 2
• Analytical knowledge from equations and rules
• Operator and expert experience from interviews.
Plate 2
Gravity Empirical knowledge
Plate angle
Empirical knowledge is created from 58 welding experiments
where 44 experiments are used for training and 14 for testing.
Root gap Each experiment is made with different settings of the welding
control variables, variations of the root gap and the quality
Thickness plate 1 parameters are measured different. The weld groove is
scanned before and after welding with a laser scanner to
Plate 1 measure respectively the initial geometry shown in figure 2
and the seam geometry of the weld face shown in figure 3. For
Figure 2: T-joint to be welded showing geometrical workpiece each experiment, more data sets are made from laser scanning
parameters. measurement because the geometry is scanned with an interval
of 2.5 mm. For 36 of the experiments the depth of fusion are
After welding the quality parameters are measured and the measured. The data from the experiments are stored in a
geometrical quality parameters are defined in figure 3. database with an example showed in table 2. The experiments

636
are reproducible and made using a robot. The data logging is an energy variable can be made from the voltage and current
made by the welding machine and by a laser scanner, which variable.
scans the part before and after welding. Using operator and expert experience is often difficult because
different operators and experts have different ways of
Table 2: Example of two empirical data sets discretized to fit describing things. In addition, the descriptions of e.g.
to the states of the Bayesian network. interactions are not so precise that a fixed value can be
specified. Although, the knowledge is not very precise it is
Gap Wire Work Travel Stickout Travel
diameter angle angle speed
still useful to build the model structure where the general view
0.8 1 -45 0 14 8 is more important than the precision.
1.2 1 -45 0 18 8
Oscilla- Oscilla- Oscilla- Wire feed Voltage
Modelling
tion width tion tion hol- speed A Bayesian network is a directed acyclic graph having a set of
frequency ding nodes (variables) and a set of directed edges between them.
1 2 50 12 28 Each node has a set of mutually discrete states and each state
1 2 40 15 36 is associated with a probability measure. The probability
Fill area Height of Leg length Leg length Theore- Depth of measures are written in a table and for node A with the parent
seam plate 1 plate 2 tical throat fusion nodes B1,…,Bn is P(A| B1,…,Bn). [14]
plate 1
A process-planning model is modelled using a Bayesian
20 1.4 5 5 3 0.5
network describing a T-joint welding task. The modelling is
30 1.8 7 6 4 1.5
made by making a graphical representation describing the
Depth of Weld face Weld face Convex- Appea-
fusion undercut undercut ity rance physics and/or the relations of the system and by giving
plate 2 plate 1 plate 2 probabilistic information to the nodes.
0.5 4 4 3 3 The principle of creating the process-planning model is to
1 2 2 3 2 identify and make relations between the three node categories
of welding control variables, workpiece and equipment
Analytical knowledge parameters and the node category of quality parameters see
Analytical knowledge from physical laws where the following figure 4. Each node category can be split up into one or more
are used: nodes with different characteristic:
1 The workpiece parameter describes the workpiece to weld.
Wire feed speed ⋅ ⋅ Wire diameter 2 ⋅ π The equipment parameter describes the adjustment of the
Material deposit = 4
Travel speed welding equipment.
The control variables describe the controllable variables.
Energy = Voltage⋅ Current The quality parameters describe the quality of the welding.
Energy
Heat input =
Travel speed Between the three categories of welding control variables,
A constitutive equation is also used: workpiece and equipment parameters and the category of
Voltage = α ⋅ Current + β quality parameters are an intermediating node category of
process state variables, describing the relations shown in
From the empirical training data it is found that α = 0.0869 figure 4.
and β = 15.237.
From welding standard [13] rules are used to classify the Workpiece Equipment
Control variables
welding quality. parameters parameters
Inverse model
Direct model

Operator and expert knowledge Process state

variables
Operator and expert experience is gathered from interviews
and formalised into relations, interactions and descriptions. Quality
Relations tell which variables in the process have an effect on parameters

each other, e.g. that wire feed speed influences the current.
Interaction tells what interaction one variable has with a
related variable when the state of the variable is changed. E.g.
when wire feed speed increases then the current increases.
Descriptions describe phenomena in the process, which can be
made into a variable, which describes the intermediating
process state variables between welding control variables,
workpiece and equipment parameters and the quality
parameters of the process-planning model in figure 1. E.g. that
Figure 4: The node categories of variables and parameters in
the model.
From the general model in figure 4 the dedicated model for the
T-joint in figure 5 is constructed. The process of constructing
the model has taken many iterations where knowledge from
operators and experts is used together with the analytical
knowledge. The edges are defined by operator and expert
descriptions of relations together with analytical knowledge.

637
 Root gap Wire diameter Travel speed Work angle Travel angle
Wire feed
Voltage
Height of seam mm 17 -0.6-2.6 LS+EM
speed
Constraint voltage current boolean 2 0-1 CE+RU
Stickout
Oscillation
holding time
Oscillation
frequency
Oscillation
width
Constraint oscillation boolean 2 0-1 RU
Quality parameters:
Material Leg length plate 1 mm 11 2-12 LS+EM
deposit Constraint vol-
Root gap LI
Heat
Current
tage current Leg length plate 2 mm 11 2-12 LS+EM
distribution Theoretical throat mm 4 2-5 LS+EM
Fill area Energy
Depth of fusion plate 1 mm 9 0-4 LS+EM
Constraint
oscillation Depth of fusion plate 2 mm 9 0-4 LS+EM
Height of
Equal legs grade 4 1-4 RU
Heat input Energy num
seam Convexity grade 4 1-4 RU
Weld face undercut plate 1 grade 4 1-4 LS+EM
Leg length Leg length Theoretical Depth of Depth of
Weld face undercut plate 2 grade 4 1-4 LS+EM
plate 1 plate 2 throat fusion plate 1 fusion plate 2

LS: Least square polynomial approximation

Equal legs Convexity
Weld face un-
dercut plate 1
Weld face un-
dercut plate 2
From the empirical data, a least square approximation is made
to fit a polynomial curve through the data. The welding
operator and expert decide the order of the equation and a
Figure 5: Model dedicated to T-Joint welding. verification of the fit is made from the residuals. More fits of
the function are often evaluated to find the best fit and the
The nodes in the process-planning model in figure 5 are
lowest deviation of the residuals. The approximated equations
described in table 3 together with a description of how the
are used to generate a probability table for the nodes. As an
node tables are generated. The number of states in each node
example is the fill area fitted by:
is for the welding control variables, workpiece, equipment and
quality parameter nodes decided by the resolution of the Fill area = -3.155⋅ root gap + 1.096 ⋅ materialdeposit + 2.008
empirical experiment and by the operators and experts This equation generates a probability table for the fill area.
knowledge of how big effect a node give on its edges. For the
process state variable nodes are the number of states decided EM: EM-learning
so a precise probability of the node is achieved. The EM-learning algorithm described in [15] trains the
Bayesian network from the empirical training data. The
Table 3: Nodes in the model. No sensor variables are used in algorithm reads the training data file, and for each training set
the model. The methods for table generation are described by is evidence from the training set modelled into the Bayesian
a two letter abbreviation and can be found below the table. network. The algorithm updates the probability in the actual
*
States described by an interval. column in the nodes table for the nodes with training data.

Node Unit Stat- Reso- Table EQ: Analytical equation

es lution genera- From the analytical equation describing the node a probability
(min-max) tion
table is generated.
Workpiece parameters:
Root gap mm 21 0-4
Equipment parameters: CE: Constitutive equation
Wire diameter mm 1 1 The parameters in the constitutive equation are calculated
Control variables: from empirical data and from the constitutive equation a
Travel speed mm/min 11 3-13 probability table is generated.
Work angle degrees 4 -50--35
Travel angle degrees 13 -30-30 AP: Approximation
Wire feed speed m/min 6 10-15 The nodes are described by an approximation. As an example,
Voltage volt 20 17-36 is the heat distribution approximated by the area, which the
Stickout mm 8 8-22 oscillation motion covers. From calculating all the possible
Oscillation holding time % 6 0-50
Oscillation frequency Hz 8 0+0.8-2
combinations, a probability table is generated.
Oscillation width mm 6 0-1
Process state variables: RE: Reduction
Root gap LI mm 9 0-4 RE The node has a reduced number of states compared to the
Material deposit mm2 31* 8-68 EQ number of states of its parent. It is done to reduce the size of
Fill area mm2 31 8-68 LS+EM the tables in the model to ease computing.
Heat distribution mm2 4* 0-0.2 AP
Current amp 10 150-240 CE CN: Convert to numbered
Energy J/sec 70* 2050-8950 EQ The node states are converted to a numbered value when the
Energy num J/sec 70 2050-8950 CN
parent states are an interval.
Heat input J/mm 30 50-2950 EQ

638
 100

RU: Rule 90
80
Rules from e.g. welding standards [13] are converted to
70
Boolean probabilities for the node table.
60
% 50
Constraint nodes are used in the model and [14] describes the 40
principle. They are inserted in the network as a child to nodes 30
where a relation between them should be expressed. This 20
relation could be a rule or a relation given by an equation or 10

operator and expert knowledge. The constraint node removes 0

<-3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 >3
all the impossible combinations between the parents nodes. Leg length plate 1 Leg length plate 2 Theoretical throat
That is for example for the oscillation nodes where there is Depth of fusion plate 1 Depth of fusion plate 2 Weld face uncercut plate 1
either oscillation or no oscillation, so the oscillation frequency Weld face uncercut plate 2 Convexity
and width should be either zero or a value.
Figure 6:Results for Bayesian network. The average correct
Operating the model prediction is 44% and the average correct prediction +-1 state
When using the Bayesian network as an inverse process- is 85%.
planning model evidence based on workpiece, equipment and
quality parameters is entered into the model nodes. For the 100
inverse process-planning model the evidence would look like: 90
e = {Gap = 1.0, Wire diameter = 1.0, Constraint voltage 80
current = 1, Constraint oscillation = 1, Theoretical throat = 3, 70

Depth of fusion plate 1 = 0.5, Depth of fusion plate 2 = 0.5, 60

% 50
Equal legs = 4, Convexity = 4, Weld face undercut plate 1 = 4,
40
Weld face undercut plate 2 = 4}
30
The prediction of the wire feed speed is found and described
20
by probabilities, which can be between 10 and 15 m/min: 10
P(Wire feed speed | e) = (10 = 16.9%, 11 = 20.6%, 12 = 0
19.8%, 13 = 19.1%, 14 = 15.5%, 15 = 8.1%) <-3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 >3
The highest probability is selected and this state is entered as Leg length plate 1 Leg length plate 2 Theoretical throat
Depth of fusion plate 1 Depth of fusion plate 2 Weld face uncercut plate 1
evidence to the network. This is calculated for all the control Weld face uncercut plate 2 Convexity
variables, and the desired control variables are found and used
to control the welding process. The selected order of the Figure 7: Result for artificial neural network. The average
control variables for selecting and entering evidence correct prediction is 33% and the average correct prediction
influences the result. This is because every time evidence is +-1 state is 84%
entered into a node then the network is updated and this may
result in another probability distribution in the rest of the Inverse model
network nodes. When the process-planning model is used inverse, the model is
tested and verified by making a sensitivity analysis and by
Results making experiments. The sensitivity analysis is made for each
quality parameter separately where one quality parameter is
The process-planning model can be used as a direct or an selected. Evidence is given to each state individually of the
inverse model. quality parameter and the control variables are observed and
plotted. The result of the sensitivity analysis for changing the
Direct model root gap is shown in figure 8.
The direct model is tested with the 14 experimental testing
data sets with the result shown in figure 6. A benchmark with An experimental verification is made where a part with a root
an artificial neural network trained in Clementine [16] with a gap changing from 0 to 4 mm is welded using the developed
dynamic training method shows a slightly lower correct process-planning model. The part is first scanned by a laser
prediction, which is shown in figure 7. In figure 6 and figure 7 scanner, and based on the scanning the root gap is found and
is correct prediction zero at the x-axis and e.g. -1 is when the the control variables generated. The result of the welding
prediction is one state too low. E.g. means -1 for the experiment was that the quality parameters convexity and the
theoretical throat that the Bayesian network model estimated weld face undercut for plate 1 and 2 were set to a class 4 [13]
the theoretical throat 1 mm to short. and that was achieved. The quality parameters leg length plate
1 and 2 were set to 6 mm and it was achieved to lay between
6.5 mm ± 1 mm for the weld seam.

639
 40
30
20
10
0 Variables by Finite Element Simulation and Iterative
-10 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
WorkAngle Stickout TravelSpeed WireFeedSpeed
Figure 8: The control variables when changing the root gap
from 0 to 4 mm.
Conclusion
It is shown that a process-planning model, which combines
different sources of knowledge, can be constructed and gives a
satisfactory welding result for a T-joint. The Bayesian network
with the graphical and probabilistic representation is a good
way to use the different knowledge sources. The network is
built so welding operator and experts together with analytical
knowledge are the main sources of the casual experience to
build the edges of the network. Analytical and empirical
knowledge is the main sources of making the probability
tables. The model based on Bayesian networks shows in a
benchmark with an artificial neural network a slightly better
prediction for the Bayesian network. A welding experiment
using the Bayesian network process-planning models gives a
quality according to the decided quality.
The perspective of using the Bayesian network is that dynamic
models can be developed where the effect of changing
conditions and changing welding variables can be modelled.
The model can be used for both process-planning and process-
control where feedback during welding process execution is
given as evidence to the model. Future work will be done to
figure out how big models are required to different welding
tasks and how much of a model can be reused for another
welding task.
Acknowledgement
Erling Rask at Department of Production, Aalborg University
and Henning Jørgensen at Migatronic, Denmark for
participating in interviews.
References
1. Madsen O., Sensor based robotic multi-pass welding,
Ph.D. thesis, Department of Production, Aalborg
University, Denmark, ISBN 87-89867-02-5 (1992)
2. Holm H., Jeberg P. V. and Bro C., Applications of
numerical model for off-line programming of posture
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640
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Planning of Dynamic Trajectories for Weld Process Control Variables
by Finite Element Simulation and Iterative Learning
M.Sc. P. V. Jeberg, Email: pvj@oss.dk*
Professor, Ph.D. Hans Holm, Email: i9hh@iprod.auc.dk**
Head of Department of Technology Development, B.Sc. S. Lambaek, Email: sla@oss.dk*
*Department of Technology Development, Odense Steel Shipyard, Postbox 176, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark
**Department of Production, Aalborg University, Fibigerstraede 16, DK-9220 Aalborg East, Denmark
Abstract
At present, off-line planning for robotic welding is confined to
planning of robot motion such that a wanted torch movement
is obtained. The planning is based on feasible settings of the
weld control variables, see Figure 1.
{
Weld Control Variables
Torch motion variables
Position
Quality variables
Speed Weld process
Power supply variables
Power settings
Wire feed speed
Figure 1. Definition of the weld control variables, which comprise
torch movements and power supply settings.
Determination of the weld control variables is done by
performance of weld experiments prior to execution of the
robot weld task. A constant set of values of the weld control
variables is used for the entire welding task. This results in
acceptable weld quality but not necessarily in optimal weld
quality with regard to for example a specified fusion zone or
minimum heat input.
This paper presents a method for automatic planning of
dynamic trajectories of the weld control variables such that a
wanted weld quality is obtained despite known changes in
process conditions, for example geometric changes. The
method is based upon finite element simulation of the weld
process. This includes process dynamics and geometric
information. The finite element simulation is coupled to an
iterative learning controller, which exploits the capability of
simulations to be repeated. The iterative learning control can
identify the best possible dynamic trajectories of the welding
process control variables in an iterative process.
The method is configured by simulation experiments on an I-
joint full penetration single pass gas metal arc (GMA) welding
task, where the optimal dynamic trajectories of welding speed
and power input are identified.
Two different experimental results of open loop execution of
automatically planned weld tasks on work pieces with constant
and varying geometry are presented. The results are compared
with the commonly used method of weld planning with
constant values of the process control variables. They
demonstrate the superiority of process performance based on
planning by iterative learning control compared to manual
execution of welding task and compared to process planning
based on traditional methods, as described above.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Introduction
During the last decades, steel-structure fabrication companies
have automated welding tasks in the effort to preserve
competitive power. One of the methods has been the
introduction of welding robots, which are capable of having a
larger arc on time, removing humans from hazardous work
environment and securing a more homogeneous weld quality.
To increase the productivity of welding robots, off-line
programming is an often-used method, but off-line
programming has been confined to planning the robot motion.
The welding control variables are set based on resource
consuming welding experiments, and they are therefore not
necessarily optimised with regard to for example heat input.
Instead, the settings of the welding control variables are just
usable settings, which result in an acceptable weld quality for
the entire weld task. In general, constant values of the weld
control variables entail that the weld control variables are set
in a conservative manner, such that the process is kept well
within the usable process window. However, this can result in
too large heat input and in too much added material compared
to what will be possible with dynamic trajectories of the weld
control variables, which are optimised with regard to
minimum heat input. Too high heat input and too much added
material have a negative effect on work piece distortion and
consequently on production efficiency. However, obtaining
process optimised dynamic weld control variables by use of
experiments is too costly, especially if the geometry
complexity entails a change in thermal process conditions
along the weld seam. This calls for a method for automatic
planning of dynamic trajectories of the weld control variables.
A concept for automatic planning of dynamic trajectories of
the weld control variables and on-line real-time feedback
control is created at Aalborg University (Denmark). The
concept enables a process optimised execution of the weld
task despite complex geometry and work piece tolerances, see
for example [1], [2] and [3].
The perspective of the system for automatic planning of
dynamic trajectories of the weld control variables and on-line
real-time feedback control is to increase performance of the
weld tasks already performed by robots, for example by higher
process efficiency or less distortion. The perspective is also to
enable automation of weld tasks, which today are impossible
to automate because of the high process sensitivity and, hence,
the process demands for optimal settings of the weld control
variables. In general, the system enables higher efficiency in
the production facility and hence higher competitive power.
641

This paper focuses on the system for automatic planning of
dynamic trajectories of the weld control variables. The
structure of the system is presented along with the iterative
learning algorithm used to perform the process optimisation.
At present, the system is used to plan I-joint full penetration
single pass gas metal arc (GMA) weld tasks. The results of
open-loop execution of planed weld tasks are presented.
Off-line process optimised weld planning
Automatic planning of dynamic trajectories of weld control
variables is performed off-line. The planning system consists
of two parts. One part is the finite element model, which
describes the work piece geometry and the welding process.
The present model describes the weld process by the
temperature distribution in the work piece and the weld pool
surface deformation [4]. The other part of the planning system
is a control function, which is used to optimise the simulated
process. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the off-line process
optimised weld planning system. During simulation, the weld
process information can be sampled at each time step to
identify the weld process progress. Depending on the control
method, the information can either be used to adjust the values
of the process control variables for the next time step, or the
information can be saved and used to update the entire
trajectory of the process control variables before a new
simulation is performed. The latter is the case with iterative
learning control.
Finite element based
weld process model
C1
Finite element model
CAD based work
piece geometry Build finite element
I1 model
1 Quality reference Control method
C2
Control unit
Weld process progress information
- Temperature distribution in the work piece
- Weld pool surface deformation
Weld control variables
e.g position, power input
Figure 2. The off-line process optimised weld planning system.
The control unit in Figure 2 takes a quality reference as input,
which as an example can be the maximum allowed weld pool
surface deformation or the minimum required size of the
fusion zone. Based on the comparison of the quality reference
and the process progress, the control unit makes rectifying
action on the values of the process control variables such that
the error between the wanted quality and the process progress
is minimised. In this way the controlled simulation identifies
the optimal trajectories of the process control variables with
regard to the wanted quality reference. The level of optimality
depends on the effectiveness of the control method applied. A
primary benefit of using a simulation in search for optimal
settings of the process control variables is removal of costly
experiments in search for the optimal settings.
The trajectory of the process optimised control variables,
which minimises the quality error, can be saved and used as a
basis for a robot programme used for the physical execution of
the simulated weld task. If the agreement between the
simulation and the physical world is good, the physical
execution of the planned weld will result in an optimised
process progress with regard to the quality reference.
However, if the difference between the simulated and the
physical world is not sufficiently small a real-time feedback
control system is needed. A real-time feedback control system
based on a temperature sensitive camera has been developed
and presented in [5]. The system compares the weld pool
surface temperature profile obtained during execution with the
reference weld pool surface temperature profile obtained
during simulations. Hence, the off-line process optimised
planning system generates the real-time quality reference.
Iterative Learning Control
Iterative learning control (ILC) is a method for improving the
transient response in an iterative process. Information about
the output error ek from iteration k is used to update the input
uk+1 for the next iteration k+1. The basic principle can be seen
in Figure 3 where uk(t) is in the input to, and yk(t) is the output
from the k’th process iteration at time t. The variables yd(t) and
uk+1(t) are the desired output and input to the next process
iteration respectively.
(C3)
Robot and weld equipment programme:
Weld control variables
Figure 3. Diagram of the basic principle of ILC [6].
O1
ILC needs the following conditions to function [7]:
2 1. The initial conditions are identical in each iteration.
Simulation of the
weld process 2. The disturbance is identical in each iteration.
3 3. The plant parameters are stationary or slowly varying.
A3
4. Each iteration has the same duration.
5. The desired output yd is identical in each iteration.
The use of ILC in the off-line process optimised weld planning
system benefits from the fact that the simulation can be
repeated an infinite number of times with zero disturbance,
identical model parameters and identical initial conditions.
Normally, ILC is applied to processes where the input is a
function of time. In welding applications, the input as a
function of position along the weld seam x is of interest and
therefore time t is replaced with distance x. Each process
iteration will have the same weld seam length and the five
conditions for ILC to function are fulfilled.
ILC based optimisation
The ILC algorithm used in the weld planning in this paper is:
ek ( n ) = y d ( n ) − y k ( n )
(1)
u k +1 (n) = u k (n) + ζ ⋅ Γ ⋅ E k (n) ⋅ L
642
where uk (n), yk (n), yd (n), ek (n) are the i-dimensional input Damping ζ
100%

vector, the j-dimensional output, desired output and error 90%

vectors at point n respectively. The (i,i) dimensional diagonal

80%

damping matrix ζ is used to avoid oscillations in u k . The

Relative error ||ek||/||e1|| (%)

70%

elements in ζ are in this paper set to the same value ζ. Γ is 60%

the (i,j) dimensional error-weight matrix. E k (n ) is the (j,m) 50%

dimensional error matrix, which includes the error vectors at 40%

different points n used to update u k . As an example 30%

E k (n) = [ek (n) ek (n + 1)] where m=2. L is the m-dimensional 20%

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Iteration
point-weight vector, which weights the influence of the error 10% 25% 50% 100%

at different points n. n is the location on the work piece along

the weld seam, see Figure 4. Figure 6. Graph of the optimisation results with various values of
Heat source
the damping constants ζ.
z
x Figure 6 shows the results obtained with various values of ζ.
1 n-1 n N The best setting is ζ=25%. ILC algorithms are known to show
an initial convergence followed by a dis-convergence before a
Figure 4. Sketch of the work piece along the weld seam where the final convergence [9]. However, continuing simulation beyond
points 1..n..N are marked. the iteration with an initial minimisation of the error has not
been found beneficial due to the use of computational
The error e(n) is minimised with regard to the l2-norm: resources. Comparison of ILC with a PI control method in
N
[10] did show that the trajectory obtained by the initial
min ∑e
n =1
2
k ,1 (n) + K + ek2, j (n) convergence of ILC is superior to PI. This indicates that ILC is
useful even if it is stopped after the initial convergence. The
Many different configurations of the ILC algorithm presented optimal value of ζ also depends on the computational
in Eq. (1) are possible, which can have vital influence on the resources used in each simulation. If the computational
effectiveness and efficiency of the ILC method. Simulation resources used are large, a trade off between error
tests are therefore performed to identify the best configuration. minimisation and use of computational resources can be
The welding model used is a top-down full penetration single
necessary. This can call for ζ larger than 25%. Among the
pass I-joint model calibrated to a 5 mm thick work piece with
results presented ζ=25% is used.
a 2 mm weld seam width [8]. A sketch of the test piece can be
seen in Figure 5.
The second ILC algorithm test consists of four different
configurations. The results can be seen in Figure 7:
Test 1 L = [0.6 0.4] and N = 25
T

Test 2 L = [0.0 1.0] and N = 25

T

Test 3 L = [0.6 0.4] and N = 50

T

Test 4 L = [0.6 0g .4] and N = 100

T

100%

Figure 5. Picture of the non-uniform work piece used for 90%

configuration of the ILC algorithm.

80%
Relative error ||ek||/||e1|| (%)

The input is welding speed v and power input Q. The output is 70%

the widths of the fusion zone at the top ξtop and the bottom 60%

ξbottom of the work piece and hence i=j=2. This gives the
50%
following input and error vector:
uk (n) = [vk (n) Qk (n)]T ek (n) = [ek ,ξ top (n) ek ,ξ bottom (n)]T
40%

30%

The Γ and E k used in all tests can be seen in Eq. (2). Its
20%
values are based on information obtained during calibration of 1 3 5 7 9
Iteration
11 13 15 17

the model [8]. These settings entail that a too small ξtop Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4

decreases v, and a too small ξbottom increases Q.

Figure 7. Graph of the optimisation results with the four different
⎡ − 1.1 0 ⎤
Γ=⎢ E k (n) = [ek (n) ek (n + 1)] (2) configurations of the ILC algorithm.
⎣ 0 4 . 5e5⎥⎦
The best results are obtained with Test 2 after 12 iterations.
In the first test series ζ is investigated. N=25 giving a spacing However, the optimised trajectories of the process control
between the points on 4 mm and L = [0.6 0.4]T . variables show large fluctuations for the power input, which

643
can be difficult for the power supply to fulfil, and it will although it crosses the process boundary and the weld pool is
probably cause an unstable process. Therefore, the lost. Therefore process progress information about the weld
configuration of Test 1 will be used for the open loop pool deformation shall be included in weld planning for
experiments, which gives almost as good results as Test 2 but physical execution to identify when the process boundary is
without fluctuations in the power input. In Figure 8 a being crossed and the weld pool is lost.
comparison of the process optimised planned trajectory of the
process control variables obtained in Test 1 (iteration 8) with Experiment with rectangular work piece
the initial constant-valued guess can be seen. The resulting
width of the fusion zone of the initial guess and of the process To enable an evaluation of the benefit of the system for
optimised planned trajectory can be seen in Figure 9. process optimised off-line weld planning at its present
Trajectories of process control variables in Test 1
0,01 6000 development status, two open loop execution experiments of
0,009 planned optimised welding tasks were performed. The goal of
5000

0,008
the process optimised weld planning was to minimise the heat
4000 input while securing a minimum fusion zone width ξmin and a
Welding Speed v (m/s)

maximum bulge height Φmax. Φmax was set in accordance with

0,007

Power Input Q (W)

0,006 3000
the welding standard used at Odense Steel Shipyard, which is
0,005
2000 1.0 mm + 0.2·ξ. It is based on the standard DS/EN25817.
0,004 However, the constraint on Φmax, bottom was tightened by 0.5
0,003
1000
mm in the optimisation due to a model weakness [8]. The
0,002 0
constraint settings were:
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

v initial
Position (mm)
v optimised Q initial Q optimised ξmin,top (mm) 4.0 Φmax, top 1.0 mm + 0.2·ξtop
ξmin,bottom (mm) 3.0 Φmax, bottom 0.5 mm + 0.2·ξbottom
Figure 8. Graph of the process optimised planned trajectory of
the process control variables obtained in Test 1 (iteration 8) and If the constraints are passed, the error will be different from
the initial constant-valued guess. zero and is included in the updating algorithm of u k +1 . In
Width of fusion zone obtained in Test 1
0,009
process optimised weld planning with regard to minimum heat
0,008
input, the ek (n) and Γ used can be seen in Eq. (3).
0,007

⎡− 1.1 0 0 0.58 - 1e - 9 ⎤ (3)

Γ=⎢
Width of fusion zone (m)

0,006

0,005 ⎣ 0 4. 5e5 0 5e5 1.5e - 4⎥⎦

0,004
ek (n) = [ek ,ξ top (n) ek ,ξ bottom (n) ek , Φ top (n) ek ,Φ bottom (n) ek , heat input ( n)]T
0,003
The first experiment was welding of a rectangular work piece,
0,002
see Figure 10 where the open-loop execution of a process
0,001 optimised planned trajectory is compared with a manually
0 executed weld.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Position (mm)
Top Initial Bottom Initial Top Optimised Bottom Optimised Top ref. Bottom ref. The average settings of the process variable obtained during
manual welding and the average resulting process output were:
Figure 9. Graph of the resulting width of the fusion zone of the Current I(A) 194 Av. Weld speed v(mm/s) 5.33
initial guess and of the process optimised planned trajectory. The
Voltage U(V) 23 Heat input E(kJ/mm) 0.84
wanted reference is also shown.
ξtop (mm) 7.1 Φtop (mm) 1.1
The fusion zone width has primarily been optimised with ξbottom (mm) 3.5 Φbottom (mm) 1.3
regard to the bottom fusion zone width, which initially was too
small compared to the wanted reference. The process
optimised trajectories of the control variables show a
significant variation in the welding speed v in the area where
the work piece width is small as expected. The variation in
power input Q in the area of the small work piece width is not
that significant, but it does show an increase.

The identified trajectories of the process control variables seen Figure 10. Picture of the rectangular work piece used in the first
open-loop experiment.
in Figure 8 show settings which are known to be outside the
process window and will result in loss of the weld pool [8]. In The result of the manual welding does in general fulfil the
the ILC based process optimisation, only process progress constraints except for Φbottom. However, Φbottom does not pass
information about the width of the fusion zone is used to the welding standard used at Odense Steel Shipyard, except
update the input. As long as the error is not zero, the ILC occasionally due to variation caused by the manual execution
method will continue to search along the direction given by Γ of the weld.

644
The manually obtained setting of the process variables was was calculated in meters (m) while the heat input was
used as an initial guess for the process optimised weld calculated in (J/m). The error in heat input was around nine
planning. The planned process optimised trajectories of the magnitudes larger than the error in length. Heat input will
process control variables reduced the relative error to 67%. therefore have a significant weight in the error norm, and a
The heat input E was reduced to 69% of the manually large excess of the constraints can be accepted before a
obtained. The planned process optimised trajectories showed minimum is reached. When the error consists of incomparable
minor fluctuations around an average value. The average dimensions, the set-up phase shall include weighting of the
values of the process control variables and the resulting error in the norm calculation to secure a useful location of the
simulated process output were: error minimum. However, it should be remembered that the
error weight in the norm calculation does not influence the
Current I(A) 164 Av. Weld speed v(mm/s) 5.68
error response, which is determined by Γ , and hence the
Voltage U(V) 20 Heat input E(kJ/mm) 0.58
optimisation can be stopped when a satisfactory result is
ξtop (mm) 7.4 Φtop (mm) 0.7
achieved.
ξbottom (mm) 3.2 Φbottom (mm) 1.5 Process settings at each iteration
6000

Again, the process output fulfilled the constraints except for 5500

Φbottom, which passed the constraint used during optimisation

Too high welding speed

Lost weld pool

5000

by 0.4 mm, but the welding standard used at Odense Steel

Power Input (W)

4500 1

Shipyard was not passed. 4000

3500
Based on the heat input minimised weld planning, two open- 10
Not full penetration
3000
loop executions (Ex. 1 and Ex. 2) were performed. The 19

2500
average values of the realised process control variables and the
2000
resulting process outputs were: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Welding speed (mm/s)
Used process setting Model calibration points Process settings at each iteration
Current I(A) 168 Weld speed v(mm/s) 5.67
Ex. 1

Voltage U(V) 20.4 Heat input E(kJ/mm) 0.60 Figure 11. Diagram of the process settings obtained during each
ξtop(mm) 5.9 Φtop(mm) 0.7 iteration of the ILC process optimisation. The process window
ξbottom(mm) 3.3 Φbottom(mm) 1.1 was identified during the calibration of the model [8].
Current I(A) 158 Weld speed v(mm/s) 5.67
Experiment with varying work piece geometry
Ex. 2

Voltage U(V) 20.2 Heat input E(kJ/mm) 0.56

ξtop(mm) 4.9 Φtop(mm) 0.6
To investigate the effect of the process optimisation with
ξbottom(mm) 3.0 Φbottom(mm) 0.6 regard to minimising heat input on a work piece where the
The resulting process output of Ex. 1 was in most agreement geometry changes influence on the thermal process conditions,
with the planned weld. However, of major interest was the a second experiment was performed. The work piece, for
reduction in heat input to 71% and 67% for Ex. 1 and Ex. 2, which the trajectories of the optimal process control variables
respectively, compared to manual welding. The goal of the were planned, can be seen in Figure 12.
process optimised weld planning was to reduce heat input
while the quality constraints were fulfilled. The reduction in
heat input entailed a reduction in the deformation. The
maximum deformation of the work piece plate from its initial
position was:
Manual ≈ 9 mm Ex. 1 ≈ 4mm Ex. 2 ≈ 0 mm
The deformation of Ex. 1 was reduced to 44% of the
deformation obtained with manual welding, and the Figure 12. Picture of the non-uniform work piece used in the
experiment with a varying work piece.
deformation of Ex. 2 was practically zero. This showed one of
the benefits of using process optimised planned trajectories of For comparison, the weld was executed by use of the robot
the weld process control variables as mentioned in the with the manual settings of the process variables found in the
introduction. experiment with the rectangular work piece. This gave the
follow resulting process measured along the weld seam, which
During the planning of the process optimised trajectories the fulfilled the demands from the welding standard:
relative error did not show an initial convergence, and the
optimisation was stopped before the process boundary was Process I(A) U(V) v(mm/s) E(kJ/mm)
exceeded. In Figure 11 it is possible to see the process settings settings 189 22.9 5.33 0.81
identified in each iteration. The settings obtained in iteration Pos. ξtop ξbottom Φtop Φbottom
10 were chosen as the process optimised and used for 40mm 8.2 mm 3.4 mm 1.2 mm 1.5 mm
comparison with manual welding. The lack of convergence 100mm 12 mm 5.2 mm 1.9 mm 1.0 mm
was caused by the set up of the error norm. The error on length 160mm 8.6 mm 3.7 mm 1.3 mm 1.1 mm
645
In the narrow part of the work piece, the weld pool was as
wide as the work piece, and examination of the work piece
showed that the edges were melted and the shape was altered.
The planned process optimised trajectories of the process
control variables weld speed v and power input Q were almost
constant along the weld seam. This is because the quality
constraints on the minimum fusion zone width ξmin and the
maximum bulge height Φmax were in general not violated
during the optimisation. Therefore, the update of the process
control variables was predominated by the wish for
minimising the heat input. This will cause a uniform update of
the process control variables when the initial guess is uniform.
A more fine-tuned ILC based process optimised weld
planning, which drives the process more to the edge of the
process window, is expected to result in non-constant process
control variables as seen in Figure 8, because the quality
constraints are then expected to be activated. However,
insufficient time was available to perform this.
The planned weld was executed open loop and the obtained
average values of the process control variables and the
resulting process output were:
Process I(A) U(V) v(mm/s) E(kJ/mm)
settings 177 20.9 5.50 0.67
Pos. ξtop ξbottom Φtop Φbottom
40mm 6.6 mm 3.0 mm 1.3 mm 0.8 mm
100mm 8.0 mm 3.7 mm 0.8 mm 0.9 mm
160mm 6.9 mm 3.2 mm 0.9 mm 1.2 mm
The resulting process did also comply with the welding
standard, and the heat input was minimised to 81% by using
the process optimised settings. This reduction avoided melting
of the work piece edges, and it indicates how the weld
planning system is able to handle changes in the process
conditions.
Conclusion
A system for process optimised weld planning based on
numerical simulation of the weld process and iterative learning
is presented. The system’s capability to perform weld planning
which minimises the heat input and hence work piece
distortion was tested. Although the error norm used in the
iterative learning scheme needs to be improved, the results of
welding width optimised weld control variables are promising.
The capability of the weld planning system to obtain dynamic
trajectories of the process control variables was shown in
simulations of the welding of a work piece with varying
geometry. Especially, the welding speed showed clear
variations. This is important in the planning of welds with
varying material distribution around the weld seam like for
example connection pipes. The simulations also showed that
not only information about the fusion zone width but also
information about the bulge height are essential to secure a
realisable weld planning.
646
The paper presents contributions to a weld planning system,
which is under continuous development with regard to both
weld model and optimisation methods.
Acknowledgement
Odense Steel Shipyard Ldt. and the Danish Academy of
Technical Science are acknowledged for the financial support,
which makes this research project possible.
References
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A reference architecture for design of an industrial
temperature feedback welding control system. Journal of
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Fabrication of Net-Shape Metallic Parts by Overlapping Reinforced Weld Beads
K. P. Cooper and S. G. Lambrakos
Naval Research Laboratory, Materials Science and Technology Division, Washington, DC
Abstract
Metallic parts can be made by depositing metal in a layer-by-
layer fashion. By this means, a layered structure, made up of
overlapped reinforced weld beads, is produced. Prototypes,
customized parts and tooling can be made this way. However,
for layer-by-layer fabrication to move from prototyping to
manufacturing, the processes need to be reliable and
consistent. Detailed microstructural and thermal
characterizations of the product are needed to advance the
manufacturing goals. We present our analysis of the
microstructure of the solidified overlapped weld pools and an
inverse-problem model for the calculation of thermal fields
during layer-by-layer deposition, that is potentially adaptable
for prediction of temperature histories in samples made by
these processes.
Layer-by-Layer Manufacturing by Direct
Deposition of Metals
Benefits of layer-by-layer manufacturing or solid freeform
fabrication are many. The ability to make spare or replacement
parts on demand, to repair damaged parts and to add features
on existing parts are attractive advantages. There are many
material-specific, layer manufacturing techniques. For metals,
direct deposition techniques appear most suitable. Direct
deposition involves building three-dimensional, net-shape
metallic structures [1]. A CAD solid model of the object or
part is sliced into layers. Each slice or layer is formed by
overlapping several reinforced weld beads, which are made by
continuously feeding powder or wire into a melt pool formed
by a laser or electron beam. Each weld bead follows the
trajectory set by an automated process planner.
The laser deposition process is illustrated in Fig 1.
Concentrically arranged nozzles feed metal powder into the
laser melt pool. As the substrate is translated in the x-
direction, overlapped weld beads form the first layer. The
substrate is then incrementally lowered in the z-direction and a
second layer is formed by rastering in the y-direction. This
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
sequence of steps is continued until a three-dimensional solid
object is created, which is an exact replica of the original CAD
model. By this means, fully dense, complex shape structural
and functional parts with internal geometries and overhangs
are possible.
Laser-powder
deposition head
Weld
Beads
Y
Substrate
Z X--Y
X
Position
Figure 1: Schematic of laser deposition process showing
overlapping of weld ingbeads to build a three-dimensional
metallic structure. Stage
Laser engineered net shaping (LENSTM) and laser additive
manufacturing (LAMSM) are two commercial laser-based
direct deposition processes for metals. LENSTM uses a low
power Nd:YAG laser and fine powder particle size, which
produce a small (mm or so) melt pool and a small heat-
affected zone [2] . It creates parts with thin walls and fine
intricate features, very close to their final dimensions, thus
requiring little or no finishing. With LENSTM precision is
high, but the build-rate is low, of the order of 0.05 kg/hr. Parts
made by LENSTM have a high degree of complexity and a
relatively smooth surface finish. LENSTM has been used to
make tooling with conformal cooling channels for high
volume manufacturing and parts with functionally-graded
microstructures, e.g., a gear with a tough core and a hard, wear
resistant surface [3]. Such geometries and microstructures are
not possible with conventional manufacturing technologies
such as metal casting and powder metallurgy.
647
LAMSM uses a high power CO2 laser and coarse powder
particle size to form the melt or weld pool, which is relatively
large (cm or so) and a heat-affected zone that is substantial
[4]. LAMSM creates near net-shape parts with thick walls and
coarse features, requiring final machining to achieve accurate
dimensions and smooth surface finish. Precision is sacrificed
during deposition, but the build-rate is high, of the order of 5
kg/hr, which is 100 times greater than LENSTM. The
advantage of building parts to a near net-shape is to reduce
“buy-to-fly”, i.e., reduce material usage, machining time,
tooling costs and product realization time. For certain
aerospace parts, cost savings of 20-50% are possible when
machining of forgings is replaced by layer-by-layer
manufacturing.
LENSTM produces small parts, a few centimeters in size.
LAMSM produces large parts, a few meters in size. Both
processes can produce fully dense, porosity-free parts. The as-
deposited LAMSM parts have a rippled or “stair-step” surface
finish, which is typical of most layer-by-layer manufactured
products. Because of the rippled surface finish, finish
machining is required and because of the machining operation,
LAMSM parts are of moderate complexity.
The electron beam is another source of directed energy for
direct deposition of metal. When used with metal wire feed, e-
beam processes have advantages such as excellent coupling of
the e-beam with metals and little material loss. In the e-beam
freeform fabrication (EBF3) process metal wire is fed at a
constant rate into the melt pool formed on the substrate by the
e-beam [5]. The work piece sits on a stage that is translated in
the x and y directions, incrementally lowered in z direction
and rotated. At present, the EBF3 system is a modification of
an e-beam welding apparatus and is privy to all the control
systems available for welding. Similar to laser deposited
structures, EBF3 fabricated structures also have a rippled
surface, requiring finish machining.
Direct deposition of metal processes face the same
metallurgical issues as welding processes. For example,
microstructures in the heat-affected zone and fusion zone,
grain size and orientation, alloy element segregation, and
oxidation need extensive study. Surface finish, dimensional
accuracy, part distortion, porosity, thermal stress and thermal
cracking are also issues that need detailed study. Melt pool
visualization, thermal imaging and finite element models have
been developed to understand microstructural evolution in
direct deposited metals [6]. Thermal models have been
developed to establish optimal processing windows or process
maps and generate process control methods to fabricate parts
with good surface finish, good dimensional tolerance and low
residual stress [7].
648
Layer-by-layer deposition processes are capable of fabricating
metallic parts from a variety of alloys. Stainless steel, tool
steel, titanium, rhenium, aluminum and nickel-based
superalloys are some of the alloys that have been successfully
processed. Applications in the automotive, energy, aerospace,
defense and biomedical industries are targeted. Prototype parts
are routinely made. However, the manufacture of load-bearing
and functional parts faces technical and economic hurdles.
However, as layer-by-layer manufacturing matures and
becomes affordable and as the technical problems are solved,
more applications should be forthcoming. For reliability in
manufacturing and consistency in part performance, direct
deposition of metal with precise closed loop process control
must be developed. For process control, it is important to
understand the evolution of the microstructure and the nature
and magnitude of the thermal fields.
Microstructural Analysis
For direct deposition of metallic structures, metal powder or
wire is fused on a work-piece and a part is built layer-by-layer
from the bottom up. Direct deposited metallic structures
appear as a series of weld beads arranged side by side and one
above the other. Examples of the microstructure showing
overlapped weld beads appear in Fig 2.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: Examples of microstructure showing overlapped
weld beads. (a) Laser-powder deposited (Courtesy: William
Hofmeister, Vanderbilt University.) (b) E-beam-wire deposited
(Courtesy: Thomas Eagar, MIT.)
The microstructure in Fig. 2(a) shows three laser-powder
deposited layers, the middle layer being orthogonal to the
other two [8]. The microstructure in Fig. 2(b) shows several e-
beam-wire deposited layers [9]. In both examples,
hemispherical segregation bands define the weld pool shape.
Remelting of previous weld beads brought about by
overlapping is evident as is the radial orientation of grain
structure within each weld pool. These microstructural
features are similar to those obtained in multi-pass welding, an
example of which appears in Fig. 3 [10]. The multi-pass
welded structure in Fig. 3 was produced by GMA welding and
clearly shows overlapped weld pools, hemispherical weld pool
shape and radial orientation of the grain structure.
 orientation in the build direction. The aspect ratio of the grains
is small compared to the titanium alloy. The high
magnification view of the top of the deposit highlights the
surface ripples and the spherical shape of the last weld bead or
layer to form, which is similar to that observed in the titanium
sample.

Figure 3: Microstructure in multi-pass weld made by GMA

welding. (Courtesy: Deug Moon, NRL.)

A freeform fabricated rectangular coupon is made by a straight

line build-up process, i.e., depositing metal on a substrate
which is translated back and forth. A freeform fabricated
cylinder is made by a circular build-up process, i.e., by
depositing metal on a rotating substrate. The microstructures
of the cross-sections in the build direction are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4(a) shows a microstructure in LAMSM fabricated Ti-6Al-
4V rectangular test coupon [11]. The test piece is made up of
several layers defined by the ripples on the surface. The
surface ripples are remnants of surface tension-driven
spherical weld pools. The size and shape of the surface ripples
depend upon the surface tension and density of the alloy, the
(a) (b)
size of the weld pool and the fluid dynamics in the melt pool.
All of which depend upon the heat input and temperature
Figure 4: Microstructures in build direction in LAMSM-
distribution, which is a subject for a study in itself.
fabricated materials. (a) Ti-6Al-4V. (b) Rhenium. (Samples
courtesy of AeroMet Corp.)
The microstructure of the cross-section of the coupon shows
three distinct regions, heat-affected zone (HAZ) in the
The width of the Ti-6Al-4V sample wall is 1.5 cm, while that
substrate, banding in the body of the deposit and a band-free
of the rhenium sample is 0.8 cm. Since each layer is a single-
top layer. Most of the heat is dissipated through the substrate,
pass weld bead, the width of the weld pool is also 0.8 cm. The
which is typical of welding processes, and, hence, the HAZ
grain size and morphology differences between the two metals
has a hemispherical shape. The bands are highlighted by
are best explained by the vast differences in their melting
segregation and define the shape of the melt pool. The bands
points as well as the fact that one is an alloy and the other is a
also appear to correspond to the ripples on the surface. The
pure metal. The weld pool shape in rhenium could not be
shape of the bands suggests a flat-bottomed weld pool, which
determined because, being a pure metal, the macro etch
is very different from the usual hemispherical shape of a
revealed the grain structure, but not the segregation bands that
typical weld pool. This suggests that most of the heat transfer
would define the shape of the weld bead.
in the freeformed structure is through the bottom and through
previous layers. The band-free top region is the last weld bead
Fig. 5 shows microstructures obtained in a Ti-6Al-4V alloy
to solidify. It suggests a spherical weld pool shape, one that is
rectangular coupon deposited by the EBF3 process using
several times larger than the band spacing or layer thickness.
single pass welds. Fig. 5(a) shows a section perpendicular to
This means that considerable remelting of the previous layers
the sample translation direction. The coupon is about a cm
must have taken place. The grain structure shows elongated
thick. Fig. 5(b) shows a section parallel to the sample
and columnar grains that appear to traverse across several
translation direction. Surface ripples, segregation bands and
bands or layers, suggesting strong epitaxial growth. The
grain orientation in the build direction are similar to those
columnar grains appear to grow in the build direction but also
found in laser-deposited Ti-6Al-4V material. Grain growth is
towards the coupon surface, probably due to convective and
epitaxial, and some of the grains appear to traverse across
radiative heat transfer from the coupon walls.
several segregation bands, which define individual layers. One
grain in Fig. 5(a) appears to extend all the way to the top of
Fig. 4(b) shows a microstructure in LAMSM fabricated pure
the deposit. As in the laser-deposited sample in Fig. 4(a), the
rhenium cylinder wall [12]. The rhenium grain structure is
segregation bands are flat, suggesting a flat-bottomed melt
much coarser and less columnar than that in Ti-6Al-4V . The
pool and unidirectional heat flow down through the previous
grain size is a few mm and the grain boundaries in the growth
layers. Dimensional control in the coupon appears poor
direction appear faceted. There is some indication of grain

649
because the sample was prepared under less than optimum
conditions. However, for a first attempt, the results
demonstrate the viability of EBF3 as layer-by-layer fabrication
technique.
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Microstructures in EBF3 deposited Ti-6Al-4V. (a)
Section perpendicular to translation direction. (b) Section
parallel to translation direction. (Sample courtesy of NASA
Langley Research Center.)
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Microstructure in e-beam deposited Ti-6Al-4V. (a)
Section perpendicular to translation direction. (b) High
magnification view of box in topmost layer in (a). (Sample
courtesy of MIT.)
An example of a microstructure in e-beam deposited material,
where the deposition involves multiple overlapped weld
beads, is shown in Fig. 6(a). Metal was deposited on a rotating
cylinderical mandrel. The microstructure is of a section
perpendicular to the rotation direction. The deposit is about 4
cm wide and a cm in height. The microstructure is made up of
fine-scaled equiaxed grains. This grain size and morphology
are very different from that seen in Fig. 5. It is difficult to
determine the size and shape of the individual weld beads
from Fig. 6(a). However, a magnified image of the topmost
layer does show contours of weld pools, which is shown in
Fig. 6(b). The weld pool shape appears tilted at approximately
45° probably because the energy source irradiated the surface
650
at that angle. The weld pool size is small, less than 3 mm, but
the shape of the weld pool is hemispherical as is the case with
most multi-pass welding processes, which suggests multi-
directional heat flow.
Thermal Analysis
A list of process parameters for layer-by-layer manufacturing
of net-shape metallic parts by direct deposition of metal
processes is given in Table 1. These parameters are not very
different from those used for laser or e-beam welding,
especially, if it involves multi-pass welding. However, in
order to obtain tighter dimensional tolerance, reasonable
surface finish and, most important, controlled thermal stress,
intelligent control of process parameters is essential.
Excessive thermal stress can result in cracking and
delamination between layers. Also, manufacturing processes
need to be reliable so quality parts can be produced
consistently. The goals of layer-by-layer manufacturing are to
determine the “build envelope” and to achieve “closed loop
process control” to fabricate high quality parts and
components for critical applications.
Table 1: List of process parameters for direct deposition of
metal processes.
Process Parameters
Laser or B-beam Power
• Power density
• Focus
• Effect in z dimension
Powder or Wire Feed Rate
• Focus
• Z Range of Build
Traverse Velocity
Hatch (x-y) Spacing
Z Increment
One way to achieve these goals is to develop methods to
determine the thermal fields, temperature histories and fluid
flow fields within the weld pool and the solidified layer. From
this analysis, process control algorithms can be determined for
specific materials and processes. We employed the inverse-
problem approach to determine thermal fields in direct
deposition of metal processes.
Inverse-Problem Approach Methodology
The direct-problem approach involves utilizing
thermodynamic models. However, the lack of accurate
thermo-physical property data of many engineering alloys,
especially at high temperature, tends to diminish the utility
and value of direct-problem approaches. The inverse-problem
approach also uses the basic energy equations but the model is
augmented by experimental data such as solidification cross-
sections, dimensions and shape, top-surface morphology,
thermocouple measurements, relative position and spatial
character of energy source, energy per distance, and any
information related to the temperature history of the deposit.
This approach involves constrained optimization.
Our study involves a case where the metal deposition process
is characterized by a range of complexly coupled influences or
experimental artifacts. Inverse-problem analysis would
generally consider the inversion of direct metal deposition
cross-sections. However, our preliminary analysis involves
determining thermal fields during direct metal deposition not
for specific cases, but a general case using a set of
assumptions.
Physical Model
welding. Other boundary conditions such as weld pool
dimensions and measured temperatures will be considered in
the future as the model is refined further. For the calculations
we also assumed heat conduction through the previous
deposited layers and through the solidified layer. At the edges
of the rectangular coupon, there is no heat transfer into the
ambient environment. This is a realistic assumption since
conductive heat transfer in these processes is greater than
radiative heat transfer. The layers are deposited one on top of
the other by traversing the passes in a zig-zag fashion as
shown schematically in Fig. 7.
4

Build Direction
3
The methodology takes into account Rosenthal-type solutions
to the heat conduction equations, temperature-dependent 2
source terms, time-dependent temperature fields and global
constraint conditions on energy. For the model, the discrete 1
elements of the surface distribution of the energy sources are
numerically integrated. It is assumed that the sample Substrate
translation speed and the speed of the heat source are the
same. A theoretical rendition of the inverse-problem approach Figure 7. Schematic showing layer-by-layer fabrication
for determining thermal gradients within weld pools is given scheme assumed for calculating thermal fields.
by Lambrakos and Milewski [13], and its application to a
microgravity welding problem by Cooper et al [14].

To determine the temperature fields in the direct metal

deposited layers we assumed the deposition of discrete liquid
metal drops of a given volume at certain time-steps and
frequency. We assumed a certain number of drops per layer
and a certain number of layers. We adopted the material
properties of stainless steel. Our goal was to determine the
thermal fields during the layer-by-layer formation of a
rectangular coupon of the sort shown in Figs. 4(a) and 5.
Model parameters are listed in Table 2. The data is plotted
using the grid size dl given in Table 2.

Table 2. Model parameters used to determine thermal fields in

direct deposition processes.

Model Parameters
Material: Stainless steel
Diffusivity = 5x10-6 m2/s Figure 8. Calculated two-dimensional thermal fields, five per
Timestep = 1.2 sec layer for four layers.
Drop deposited every 5 timesteps
5 drops per layer To simplify the calculations each drop was considered a cube.
4 passes or layers However, the model can be extended to consider other shapes.
Volume of each drop = (10 dl) x (20 dl) x (10 dl) Several calculated two-dimensional slices parallel to the
where dl = .0006 m direction of travel of the three-dimensional temperature fields
are given in Fig. 8. For these calculations the coldest
We determined two-dimensional thermal fields in and around temperature is 25°C and is well away from the melt pool. The
the liquid metal drops parallel to the direction of travel. A hottest temperature is 2500°C, which is at the leading edge of
boundary condition for the calculations was liquid-solid the cube. The following observations are made. The thermal
interface defined by the alloy liquidus temperature (1530°C). fields get hotter and more extensive in size as the layers are
The melt temperature beneath the heat source was assumed to built one on top of the other. This is because the new layers
be uniform and 2500°C, based on previous observations on are continuously deposited on hotter previous layers. At the

651
coupon edges, the thermal fields are hotter than near the
middle of the layer because there is no heat dissipation from
the coupon edges.
The analysis presented here should serve to demonstrate the
advantages of the inverse-problem approach for addressing
issues related to the sensitivity of layer-by-layer deposited
structures to changes in process parameters, such as reversal
of the direction of traverse and changes in boundary
conditions. It is our intention to develop the model further to
include weld pool shapes and dimensions and measured
temperatures. Another piece of information that one can
extract from these two-dimensional slices is the temperature
history of a particular location in the work piece. For instance,
the temperature histories in the heat-affected zones would be
important to understand microstructural evolution in these
critical regions, where cracking and delamination are possible.
Microstructure dictates mechanical properties, which can
mean that the success or failure of using the layer-by-layer
fabrication approach to making parts depends upon the
production of the right microstructure.
Summary and Implications
Layer-by-layer fabrication of net-shape metallic structures has
many advantages. It can respond to rapid changes in part
design and provide rapid turnaround time. For direct
deposition of metals to be successful as a manufacturing
technology, the essentially cast microstructure, similar to that
obtained in welding, must demonstrate mechanical properties
superior to those obtained in conventionally produced parts.
Due to somewhat rapid solidification, the scale of the
microstructure is generally finer than in bulk castings and
higher yield strength values have been reported. However, a
thorough microstructural evaluation of the fabricated part and
mechanical properties parallel and perpendicular to the build
direction must be performed in order to make the part
acceptable to industry. Strong grain orientation in the build
direction, as observed in e-beam deposited Ti-6Al-4V, will
result in a greater degree of anisotropy in mechanical behavior
and is to be avoided. The success of direct deposition of metal
processes will depend upon the degree of reliability of the
manufacturing technology. For this it is important to develop
thermal field models and then relate them to process control in
order to produce high quality parts.
652
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the many scientists involved in layer-
by-layer manufacturing research for sharing their results with
us and the Office of Naval Research for its support.
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of the 2002 International Conference on Metal Powder
Deposition for Rapid Manufacturing, p. 51, MPIF,
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and M. Griffith, M. Ensz, JOM-e, 51, (7) (1999)
7. J. Beuth and N. Klingbeil, JOM, 53, (9), 36 (2001)
8. W. Hofmiester, Vanderbilt University, P r i v a t e
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Symposium, p. 64, University of Texas-Austin, Austin,
TX (1995)
10. D. W. Moon, S. G. Lambrakos, R. J. Wong and E. A.
Metzbower, Sci. & Tech. of Welding and Joining, 8, (5), 1
(2003)
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Freeform and Additive Fabrication, Vol. 625, MRS,
Warrendale, PA, (2000)
12. K. P. Cooper, F. G. Arcella and H. N. Jones, Rapid
Prototyping of Materials, Proc. of TMS Fall Meeting, p.
119, TMS, Warrendale, PA, (2002)
13. S. G. Lambrakos, J. Milewski and P. G. Moore, JOM, 55,
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Effect of Welding Parameters on Formation of Toe Imperfections in
Tandem Gas Metal Arc Welding
Majid Farajian-Sohi, Niklas Järvstråt
University of Trollhättan/Uddevalla, Trollhättan, Sweden
Mattias Thuvander
ESAB, Göteborg, Sweden
Abstract
Prediction and control of flaws in welds play an important role
in design of complex structures against fatigue and fracture
failure. Cold laps, outer lack of fusion, are small imperfections
at the weld toe that appear under improper welding parameters
and act as fatigue crack initiation sites which lead to a
reduction in the life of a welded structure. The goal of this
study is to investigate the influence of welding parameters and
their variations on weld quality concerning formation of toe
imperfections termed “Cold Laps” in tandem gas metal arc
(GMA) welding. A statistic-based design of experiment for
quality assessment in robotic tandem GMA welding was
implemented. The experimental set up along with selection of
welding parameters and their variations are based on the “Arc
wise” method. To facilitate evaluation of weld quality a rapid
destructive method was implemented. In this method weld toes
could be opened and investigated longitudinally. Investigations
of the fracture surface between the weld toe and base material
was made, where two types of cold laps were observed, namely
overlap and spatter. Measurements showed that these
imperfections are in the form of semi elliptical micro cracks
with depth between 0.1 and 1.5mm with a length between 0.1
and 4 mm. The statistical software Modde 5.0 was used to
handle welding parameters, variations and quality assessment.
Keywords:
Cold laps, GMAW, tandem welding, weld toe defects, impact
test, weld quality, parameter study
Background
Automatic welding processes are preferred over manual
processes for a number of reasons. Among them are increased
productivity, better capability to reach points of difficult access
and welding in environments with serious risks for human
health. However, the fatigue life in automatic welded
constructions is shorter than their manually welded
counterparts. Gurney[1] reported a factor of two for better
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 653
fatigue life in manual welds compared to similar automatic
welds. It has been argued by Verreman et al [2,3] that this
effect is due to different crack shape development and crack
coalescence.
In general conventional and modern arc welding processes may
introduce defects to both welds and base materials. These
defects can be in the form of cracks, cavities, solid inclusions,
lack of fusion, poor penetration, imperfect shape and
dimension, etceteras [4].
In welded constructions the most common initiation sites for
fatigue crack propagation are at the weld toe and root. Fatigue
cracks initiate at a fillet weld toe when the fillet weld size is
large enough or at a weld root when weld size is inadequate [5].
The toe region is highly susceptible to fatigue loading due to
the presence of weld defects, stress concentration due to weld
geometry, tensile residual stresses and/or adverse metallurgical
conditions such as coarse HAZ microstructure. Moreover, the
toe region also experiences high dilatation and thermal stresses
depending on the type of welding process or procedures
adopted during fabrication [3].
The issue of weld defects at the weld toe of automatic welds
along with their influence on fatigue has been studied by many
authors [3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11]. An estimation of fatigue
strength can be made more accurately, by considering the
existence of initial imperfections, their distribution, their
evolution to fatigue cracks and the consequent propagation of
the cracks within the welds. Due to the presence of crack like
defect in welds, the major part of the fatigue life is spent in the
growth of pre-existing cracks from initial defect size to critical
crack size [12].
At present, there is limited knowledge about the sources and
reasons of formation of weld toe flaws in automatic welding
processes, especially concerning recently introduced techniques
such as tandem gas metal welding. In this study, we investigate
the source of weld toe flaws in small scale laboratory tests
under controlled welding parameter variation.
 Introduction Experimental approach
In this study the influence of welding parameters on cold laps The parameters shown in table 1 are considered to be the most
were investigated for the tandem GMA welding. Tandem Arc important in gas metal arc welding. Table 1 also gives the
Welding allows faster welding speed and increases the nominal values for the test series described in this paper.
performance of GMA welding. It is characterized by the
arrangement of two electrodes, through two electrically Table 1. Nominal weld parameters (Controlled parameters
separated contact tubes, in the same gas nozzle. Welding denoted by *, those held fixed are denoted by ◦, and those fully
parameters of the two electrodes are adjusted independently, determined by controlled parameters are denoted by †)
using two power sources. Welding Base material Filler materials and
parameter Shielding gas
Cold laps Total wire feed Alloy◦ (Steel, EN Wire type* (solid:
Fatigue calculations based on the measured weld geometry data speed* (21 m/s) 10 025-S275JR) OK Autrod 12.51,
i.e. toe radius and toe angle, showed poor correlation with test metal cored: OK
results according to Blom et al [10]. He found the most Tubrod 14.12)
common imperfection associated with the single run GMA was Weld torch angle* Plate thickness◦ Wire diameter◦ (1.2
microscopic crack like flaws termed cold laps at weld toes. (0, vertical) (12 mm) mm, leading and
These imperfections were reported to be detrimental for fatigue trailing)
strength of weldments. Arc length* Surface quality◦ Distance between
(4 mm) (As rolled) the two contact
The selection of welding process and parameters directly affect tubes◦ (20mm)
dynamic stability and solidification of the weld pool. This in Contact tube to geometry◦ (50×300 Gas type* 92% Ar
turn has significant influence on toe cracking behavior and thus work distance (16 mm, bead-on- and 8% Co2
fatigue life of weldments. Balasubramanian [13] reported that mm)* plate)
cruciform joints produced by Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrode Welding position◦ Gas flow rate
(SMAW) endure more cycles as compared to their Fluxed stick-out† (Horizontal, PA) (28 l/min)◦
Cored Arc Welded (FCAW) counterparts. This is attributed to
Current†
the fact that crack initiation is delayed in SMAW joints and
fatigue crack growth rate is lower. Voltage†
Welding speed†
Parameter studies
Structural steel plates were plasma-cut to smaller coupons, and
Varied welding parameters were chosen to study their
welding parameters were defined to obtain welds in spray mode
influences on a number of defined problems. . These studies
with a fairly good appearance. Setting all the other parameters,
were also performed to modify a weld process for a specific
i.e. WFS, WS, CTWD, TA, according to the work sheet (table
application.
3) the main specimens were deposited.
Selection and variation of welding parameters has always been
The WFS of both leading wire and trailing wire was kept
challenging. There are different approaches to perform weld
always equal i.e WFSLeading=WFSTrailing=WFS/2.
experimentation and parameter studies. Allen [14] divides the
main approaches into four categories: 1) static Taguchi
Weld parameter selection
methods, 2) computer-generated design methods followed by
The throat thickness was kept reasonably constant in this
neural net modeling, 3) heuristic parameter optimization
experiment series, by setting the ratio between wire feed speed
methods, including methods based on “tolerance boxes” and 4)
and welding speed, WFS/WS to a constant value of 15 that
classical Design of experiment (DOE). There have been also
corresponds to a throat thickness of about 4mm. Weld speed,
some other approaches by Murray [15] based on dimensional
Arc Length (measured at Leading wire), Contact Tube to Work
analysis for selecting parameters.
Distance (measured at Leading wire), and Torch Angle were
In this study classical design of experiment with some
varied according to table 2. The influence of wire type was
considerations for welding has been used.
also investigated by adding an experiment series with cored
Every statistical design of experiment includes five steps:
wire in the trailing position. All other welding parameters were
1. Definition of the problem the experiment is designed for
held constant at the values indicated in table 1.
2. Definition of factors that are likely to influence the results
3. Definition of responses or what to measure
4. Performing the experiment
5. Evaluation of results and empirical modeling using
regression

654
Table 2. Welding variables and their ranges in this study was determined by first welding a test plate. Then the pointer
No Tandem Arc Welding Notation Range was removed and the test plate was replaced by the actual
parameters specimen.
1 Wire Feed Speed WFS 18,21,24 m/s The weld toe imperfection characteristics were quantitatively
2 Arc Length(Leading) Larc 2,4,6 mm evaluated by measuring the dimensions and noting the shape of
3 Contact Tube to Work CTWD 15,16,17 mm these imperfections. Once defects were detected, chemical
Distance (Leading) composition in their vicinity was assessed. The evaluation was
4 Torch Angle TA -10(Pull), 0 , done conventionally by slicing the specimens, polishing and
10(Push) degrees then examining the cross section using light microscopy. This
5 Wire combinations WireC Solid-solid:0 method is time consuming and gives information only about the
Solid-cored:1 cross sections. There is also a risk of missing toe flaws that are
6 Weld Speed (Set to WFS/15) WS 1.2,1.4,1.6 m/s between the two cross sections. To perform the evaluation
faster and gain more information about the weld toe, a
Welding work sheet destructive method based on mechanical impact test was
According to the selected welding variables, a fractional developed. In this method the specimens are first sliced to an
factorial two level model with one replication was chosen to appropriate dimension fit an impact test machine. After being
design the experiment with the software MODDE. For a cooled down in liquid nitrogen for ten minutes they were hit by
statistically significant model, a total number of 38 weld the pendulum of the impact device. Figure 1 illustrates
specimens with different and controlled welding parameters schematically the experiment procedure.
were welded according to the produced work sheet. Table 3 is
the work sheet, according to which the specimens were welded.
(a) (b)
Table 3. Work sheet of welding parameters
No WFS WS Larc CTWD TA Wire Voltage
(m/min) (m/min) (mm) (mm) type Leading
(V)

1, 20 18 1.2 2 13 -10 cored 27.5

2, 21 24 1.6 2 13 -10 solid 29.0 (c) (d)
3, 22 18 1.2 6 13 -10 solid 29.8
4, 23 24 1.6 6 13 -10 cored 34.8
5, 24 18 1.2 2 15 -10 solid 26.0
6, 25 24 1.6 2 15 -10 cored 29.5
7, 26 18 1.2 6 15 -10 cored 32.0
8, 27 24 1.6 6 15 -10 solid 34.8
9, 28 18 1.2 2 13 10 solid 26.0 Figure 1. a) Bead on plate weld specimens, b) slicing the
10, 29 24 1.6 2 13 10 cored 29.5 specimen to sub specimens, c) Hitting by a pendulum, d) Light
11, 30 18 1.2 6 13 10 cored 31.5 or electron microscopy of the fracture surface
12, 31 24 1.6 6 13 10 solid 34.8
13, 32 18 1.2 2 15 10 cored 27.5 Microscopic evaluation and measurement
The fracture surfaces of the broken specimens (figure1.d) were
14, 33 24 1.6 2 15 10 solid 29.5
studied using light and electron microscopy. Investigations
15, 34 18 1.2 6 15 10 solid 29.5 revealed that toe flaws were of two different types and
16, 35 24 1.6 6 15 10 cored 34.8 characteristics. Some were observed as solidified overlap of
17 21 1.4 4 14 0 cored 31.0 the weld pool on the base metal giving semi-elliptical cracks at
18 21 1.4 4 14 0 cored 31.0 weld toe, while the rest were spatters tending to attach to the
19 21 1.4 4 14 0 cored 31.0 weld toe either in a single or cluster form. Figure 2 shows two
36 21 1.4 4 14 0 solid 29.6 types of cold laps, namely overlap and spatter. It was observed
37 21 1.4 4 14 0 solid 29.6 that the surfaces of these toe flaws are porous and contain some
38 21 1.4 4 14 0 solid 29.6 solid inclusions. These solid inclusions were detected by
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) to be Mn and Si oxides
that occur from welding.
Execution and evaluation
Defect dimensions, such as defect depth, are important factors
The arc length was set by varying the voltage manually until
for fatigue life calculations using fracture mechanics. Using a
the desired arc length was obtained. To measure and check the
computer coupled light microscope, the depth of the two types
arc length a long tungsten pointer attached to a digital caliper
of cold laps observed in all the broken specimens were
was used. The voltage corresponding to the desired arc length

655
measured. The maximum defect depth was registered over a On each bar the corresponding 90% confidence interval is
total distance of about 11 cm for each set of weld parameters. superimposed.
Secondly, a regression equation was determined, keeping only
the statistically significant parameters, i.e. those with
Weld Weld confidence bounds not covering zero in the scaled coefficient
plot. Projections of this equation in the plane of torch angle vs
wire feed speed are shown in figures 5 and 7, illustrating the
difficulty of finding a process window to avoid this kind of
Spatter defect.
Overlap

Base metal fracture surface Base metal fracture surface Overlaps

The factors with most pronounced effect on the overlap depth
were the total wire feed speed (WFS) and the torch angle (TA).
(a) (b)
Interestingly, the effect of torch angle was reversed when
Figure 2 .a) Scanning electron micrograph of a fracture switching to cored trailing wire compared with solid-solid. The
surface containing overlap cold laps. b) Single spatter at the contact tube to work piece distance (CTWD) had a minor effect
top of the fracture surface. but still statistically significant.
Figure 3a and b are histograms showing defect depth ranges
measured from all the detected toe flaws. Overlap depth has a
normal distribution with average value of 0.25 mm. Spatters are
randomly distributed with average depth of 0.34 mm. The
influence of welding parameters on overlap and spatter
distributions are investigated statistically in the next section.
35 16
30
14
12
F re q u e n c y

25
Frequency

10
20
8
15 6
10 4
5 2
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 More 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 More Figure 4. Scaled and centered coefficient plot of parameters
Depth (mm) Spatter Depth (mm) affecting maximum overlap depth in 110 mm of welds
Figure3. Histograms of a) overlap, and b) spatter
Even though the effect of Larc was minor, combined with wire
type it was significant and all four parameters were kept in the
Results and discussion multilinear regression leading to equations 1 and 2. As seen in
figure 4, WFS and CTWD have negative effect on overlap
The formation and distribution of geometrical flaws in welds length. This means that increasing their values to their
are governed by the weld process condition and can thus be maximums will decrease the depth of overlap. On the other
controlled by a proper setting of control parameters. The weld hand solid-metal cored combination of wires and its interaction
process condition can be described by variables such as the with TA have positive influence on overlap depth. Thus,
shape and dimension of the arc, metal transfer mode, changing wire from solid-solid combination to solid-cored
fluctuations in the weld pool and its convection, temperature combination causes deeper overlaps, in particular for positive
distribution in the weld pool and base metal, cooling rate and torch angles.
solidification of the weld. To assess the influence of welding Empirical models were statistically derived as follows for
control parameters on dimension of toe flaws, a multiple linear solid-solid electrode tandem welding:
regression analysis was performed, using the five control
variables WFS (the total wire feed speed in m/s), CTWD (the Max overlap depth =
contact tube to work piece distance in mm), Larc (the arc 4 - (0.22 + 0.006·Larc - 0.01·CTWD) ·WFS
length in mm) and TA (the torch angle in degrees). All - (0.06 + 0.001·Larc + 0.004·CTWD) ·TA
experiments were performed with tandem GMA welding of + 0.5·Larc - 0.21·CTWD - 0.03·Larc·CTWD (Eq.1)
bead-on-plate in horizontal position with solid leading wire and
solid or cored trailing wire. and for solid-cored electrodes:
Test results were used to statistically correlate the five varied
parameters to the maximum depth of overlaps and spatters. Max overlap depth =
First, a full parameter set correlation was performed, yielding 3.45 - (0.23 + 0.006·Larc - 0.01·CTWD) ·WFS
information about the relative importance of parameters, as - (0.04 + 0.001·Larc + 0.004·CTWD) ·TA
illustrated in the scaled and centered bar charts of figs 4 and 6. + 0.56·Larc - 0.23·CTWD - 0.03·Larc·CTWD (Eq.2)

656
At low WFS and thus low current, the weld pool is shallow but
at higher WFS better penetration profile is obtained. That can
be explained, in part by the inertia of drops striking the weld
pool surface [16] and in part by higher current providing
sufficient heat input to melt the wire and base material in such
a way that a proper fusion and solidification occurs reducing
the number and size of cold laps.
a b
Figure 5. Statistical model representing a) depth of overlap for
solid-solid wire b) depth of overlap for solid- cored wire
Figure 5a is an overlap model graph showing the depth of
overlaps at different torch angle and WFS combinations. As
shown, the shortest overlaps are obtained where high WFS is
combined with positive TA. As seen in figure 5b, for obtaining
a weld with shorter overlaps negative TA should be used.
Spatter
Also for spatter defect depth, the total wire feed speed (WFS)
and the torch angle (TA) were dominating factors. Here,
however, the effect of torch angle was strictly positive, while
increased wire feed speed was only beneficial for spatter
defects if cored trailing wire was employed.
Figure 6. Scaled and centered Coefficient plot of parameters
affecting maximum spatter depth in 110 mm of welds
As for overlap type defects, wire feed speed was the most
important parameter, followed by torch angle and CTWD, with
arc length being of minor importance. All parameters were
kept for the regression analysis.
Empirical models were derived as follows for solid-solid
electrode tandem welding:
657
Max Spatter Depth =
9.43 - (0.385 - 0.015·Larc - 0.025·CTWD + 0.002·TA) ·WFS
+ (0.16 - 0.007·Larc - 0.006·CTWD) ·TA
- 1.4·Larc - 0.625·CTWD +0.072·Larc·CTWD (Eq.3)
and for solid-cored electrodes:
Max Spatter Depth =
15.166 – (0.5 - 0.015·Larc - 0.025·CTWD – 0.002· TA) · WFS
+ (0.175 - 0.007·Larc - 0.006·CTWD) ·TA
-1.5·Larc - 0.818·CTWD + 0.072·Larc·CTWD (Eq.4)
Torch angle and CTWD have the contrary influence on
maximum spatter depth compared to their influence on overlap
depth. Increased wire feed speed is detrimental for spatter
occurrence, except for the case of cored trailing electrode. The
increase in WFS leads to higher heat input, which improves
penetration and increases the weld pool size. But at the same
time, increased WFS increases the kinetic energy of
transferring droplets, and since spatter is molten metal from the
consumable that hits the base material away from the weld
pool, a higher velocity of droplets also increases the risk of
spatters. Also, since some spatters are produced after impact of
droplets to the surface of weld pool, higher velocity droplets
produce more such secondary spatters. In spray transfer GMA
welding, contact to work distance is made up of the electrical
stick-out and the arc length. Increasing CTWD, in particular
together with the arc length, increases the probabilities of
disturbed droplets in the arc getting distributed in a wider area
than weld pool which leads to more spatter on the weld and
base metal.
a b
Figure 7. Statistical model representing a) depth of spatter for
solid-solid wire b) depth of spatter for solid cored wire
Figure 7a and b represent spatter depth model graphing how
torch angle and WFS influence the maximum depth of spatter.
In general, positive torch angle (push) leads to smaller spatters
using both solid-solid and solid-cored combination. With
regards to spatter defects, cored trailing wire is beneficial at
high WFS. With cored leading wire, spatter defect size was
actually observed to decrease with increasing wire feed speed.
Note that negative values of defect size in figure 7a are an
artifact of the fitting procedure and should be interpreted as
absence of any spatter defects under these conditions.
 Summary and Conclusions
The suggested destructive method for detecting and
characterizing weld toe defects has been shown to give
quantitative information concerning the occurrence and
magnitude of crack-like toe defects. The main advantage
compared to conventional cross-section cut-and-polish is that a
longer section of the weld is tested, thus considerably reducing
the risk of missing the cold laps altogether or not getting an
accurate measure of the deepest defect.
The weld toe defects detected by the proposed method, cold
laps, are considered highly detrimental to weld integrity, in
particular under fatigue loading. Cold laps, here defined as
semi-elliptical crack-like defects with a depth between 0.1 and
1.4 mm distributed along weld toes, are caused by microscopic
lack of fusion. In the present study they were observed in the
form of overlaps and spatters. Overlaps are considered to be
caused by an "overflow" of hot metal from the weld pool over
cold metal to the side of the weld, rapid enough not to fully
melt the underlying base material. Spatters are weld droplets
hitting the base material ahead of the weld pool and then
overrun and partly merged with the weld.
In the parameter study performed, it was found that wire feed
speed and torch angle are the two most important variables in
controlling the formation of cold laps. Unfortunately, low
values in these parameters increases the risk of overlap type
cold laps while high values increases the risk of spatter cold
laps.
Strange enough, switching to cored leading wire had a negative
effect on the occurrence of overlap cold laps. It does have a
positive influence on spatter cold laps, though, especially at
higher wire feed speed. A reason for not getting the expected
quality improvement from cored wire could be that these
experiments were performed on as-rolled metal sheets. Thus,
the surface quality was not optimal and sheet surface impurities
had a dominating effect. Further studies on welding blasted
base material at even higher speeds should be performed to
provide a better view of wire performance, optimizing the torch
angle and CTWD for maximum welding speed.
Acknowledgements
The research presented here was supported by the Swedish KK-
foundation. Experiments were performed at the University of
Trollhättan/Uddevalla, while impact testing and most
metallographic work was performed at ESAB welding process
centre and material laboratory. Volvo Construction Equipment
and SSAB contributions in the form of material and plate
preparation are highly appreciated.
References
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658
2. Verreman.Y, Bailon..J.P and Masounave.J, Plasticity
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3. Verreman.Y, Bailon..J.P and Masounave.J, Fatigue life
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4. ISO 6520-1:1998welding and allied processes classification
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of defective weldments, Int.J.Pres.Ves.&Piping, 9, 1981
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9. F.Watkinson, P.H.Bodger, J.D.Harrison, The fatigue strength
of welded joints in high strength steels and methods for its
improvement. In Proc.Conf. Fatigue of Welded structures,
Brighton, July 1970, welding institute, UK, 1971,PP. 97-113.
10. Blom.A.F.(ed) Fatigue under Spectrum Loading and
Corrosive Environment ,EMAS Ltd, Wariey, UK, 1993
11. L. Lopez Martinez, P. Korsgren, Characterization of initial
defect distribution and weld geometry in welded fatigue
specimen, Proc. Fatigue under spectrum loading and in
corrosive environments, Lyngby, 1993, ed A.F. Blom. pp 3-21,
EMAS
12. L. Lopez Martinez, A. F. Blom and J. Samuelsson, Weld
defects before and after post weld treatment for MAG and high
productive MAG welding,
13. V. Balasubramanian, B. Guha Effect of welding processes
on toe cracking behaviour of Pressure vessel grade steel,
Engineering Failure analysis, 2003
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AND G. P. MAUL, Statistical Process Design for Robotic
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Development of a model to predict weld bead geometry during the GMAW
process using high speed camera
E. J. Lima II, C. Castro, A. Q. Bracarense, M. M. Campos
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Abstract
Among the various sensors used in welding processes, there
are no sensors capable to directly sense some of the weld
characteristics as depth and heat affected zone (HAZ) during
the process. This is a limiting factor in the process control due
to the fact that the determination of the weld final
characteristics can only be done at the end of the process,
through desctructive or non destructive tests, when any control
law cannot be taken. In this work it is shown the study of the
relation among some weld quality parameters and observable
variables, as voltage, current, welding speed and weld pool
geometry, focusing on the later one, in order to determine if
the information about welding pool geometry is relevant on
the determination of the weld bead geometry or if the
information about voltage, current and welding speed is
sufficient. Based on the experimental results, a mathematical
model is developed relating welding parameters and
measurable variables with non-measurable ones during the
GMAW process. This model makes possible the inference of
some weld quality parameters as depth, height, width and
HAZ by measuring some variables as voltage, current,
welding speed and weld pool width. Therefore, in order to
obtain the desired weld bead geometry, the model allows a
real time control system to change the welding parameters. It
was generated some welding parameter sets and, during the
welding process using each set, the weld pool was monitored
by a high-speed camera. So as to automatically detect the weld
pool geometry, computer vision techniques were used. The
measures bead geometry was obtained with metallographic
analysis. The obtained model shows that the observation of the
welding parameters and the pool geometry makes possible the
inference of the weld geometry, better than just observing the
welding parameters.
Introduction
Nowadays, qualification of weld beads is basically performed
by two groups of tests: the no-destructive tests, such as visual,
penetrating liquid, magnetic particles, x-ray and ultrasound
inspections and the destructive tests, such as tensile, impact,
bending, fatigue and hardness. These tests are used to develop
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
the welding engineering and procedure and in many cases the
welds and welders qualification. Besides, in some specific
applications it is wanted that the welds have certain geometry,
as certain values of width, reinforcement and penetration.
Then, several welds are accomplished with different welding
parameters (such as voltage, current, travel speed, stick-out,
etc.) until the wanted geometry, preferably without
descontinuidades (such as lack of fusion, undercutting,
porosity, incomplete penetration, excessive fusion, cracks in
the weld metal and in the heat affected zone, etc.) is obtained.
Most of the closed loop control systems used in welding
concentrates in only one output, such as weld bead width,
temperature or estimation of the penetration [1]. However, for
a complete process control, the variables should be regulated
simultaneously. For example, to precisely define a weld bead
geometry it is necessary not only to know the weld bead
width, but also the reinforcement and the penetration.
Practically, there is no sensor that detects all the weld bead
characteristics and properties simultaneously [2]. This is a
limiting factor in the welding process control. In other words,
it is not possible to determine the weld bead characteristics
during welding, but later, through non destructive and
destructive tests.
Theoretical revision
Sensors for arc welding application are defined as [3]: “A
detector that is capable to monitor and to control a welding
operation based on its own capacity to detect internal and
external situations that affect the results of the welds and to
transmit the detected value as a signal”. The whole system,
including the sensor, the control, etc. is defined as “control
system”. “External situations” refer to the presence of
obstacles, changes in the dimensions and positions of the
groove and presence of other weld bead, for example.
“Internal situations” are related to the process itself and refer
to the electric arc geometry, weld pool dimensions,
temperature distribution and arc sound potency. As this
definition is very generic, it includes the whole control system
659
in the sensor, while other definitions treat the sensor only as
the feedback element of the control system.
Several types of sensor, projected to detect the visible light or
LASER, are used as sensors in welding. Such sensors are
classified as punctual sensors, linear sensors and area (or
image) sensors, and are based on the pattern of the received
light.
To use these sensors in welding it is necessary to solve some
problems related to disturbances, as electric arc radiance and
electromagnetic noises. Researches related to welding with
short circuit transfer and pulsed current introduced some
solutions for such problems [4]:
•Capture images during the short circuit period (in which the
arc extinguish) or during the period of base current;
•Determine the wavelength of luminescent elements and use
filters;
•Control the amount of light captured by the camera, using a
rotating perforated disk in front of the camera;
•Reduction of the effect of fumes and sparking by flowing
shielding gas in front of the camera.
In Alfaro et al, 2003 [5], a schematic of the assembly of a
CCD camera (area sensor) mounted in a GMAW torch to
move together during welding is shown. In that position the
camera is capable to acquire images from the arc, the electrode
and the weld pool, besides the groove, to develop algorithms
for seam tracking.
In Nomura and Middle, 1994 [6], acquired images from pulsed
GMAW processes are qualitatively analyzed. The pixels
(picture elements) bright distribution along the vertical and
horizontal lines are also shown. The bright distribution along
the vertical line shows the symmetry of the weld pool. It is
important to observe that the occurrence of the saturation in
some of the elements of CCD should be avoided, under
penalty of loss of information.
In Song, 1993 [7], a vision system is used to observe the weld
bead width based in obtained images of the weld pool. In that
work the wire feed and the torch travel speed are controlled to
obtain the wanted weld bead width and penetration. In this
case the vision system was used as feedback device to control
the weld bead width. Since a sensor to measure penetration
was not available, Song [8] used a method, based on
temperature measurement in the back of the plate, to predict,
in real time, the penetration.
In the present work it is used an area sensor equipped with
CCD camera to acquire images, allowing one to obtain a great
amount of information through the image processing. This
sensor disadvantage is the demanding time to process the
images, hindering control actions in real time, but, as it will be
shown, it is a step ahead on the development of the welding
sensing and optimization.
660
Methodology
The objective of this work was to obtain a mathematical
model that relates parameters and measurable variables with
others no measurable ones during the GMAW welding
process. With this model it would be possible to infer in the
quality parameters, such as penetration, reinforcement, and
width of the weld bead and heat affect zone, by measuring
other parameters, such as voltage, current, travel speed and
weld pool width.
The first step is to define two vectors:
P = [V I v L ]
T
(1)
Q = [D W Z]
T
H (2)
Where P is the vector of measurable parameters: V is the
welding voltage, I is the welding current, v is the travel speed
and L is the weld pool width. Q is the vector of quality
parameters and has as dimensions: D, the penetration; W, the
weld bead width; H, the reinforcement and Z, the size of the
heat affected zone.
The model should relate each one of the values of the vector
Q with the parameters of the vector P. It will be possible to
infer, for each group of welding parameter and weld pool
width, on the quality behavior of the weld bead.
Initially, a vector P1 of ideal parameters for the welds is
considered. They are defined experimentally and considered
as ideal parameters, because they produce a weld with the
desired characteristics. A weld bead accomplished with the
vector P1 results in a quality vector Q1.
Starting with vector P1, other vectors Px are generated, by
changing voltage, current and travel speed. For each vector Px,
values of Lx are defined by monitoring the weld pool through
computational vision techniques. In spite of, in this stage, L be
considered as an output parameter of the experiment, later it
will be considered as an input parameter for the model. In
other words, the measurement of the weld pool width will be
used later to infer the weld bead quality parameters.
Experimental procedure
After determining vectors Px, weld beads were accomplished
using each vector. A robot was used to produce all the welds.
The use of the robot guarantees that the other parameters
considered constant (stick-out, torch angle, flow gas, etc.),
stay constant during the experiments. A36 steel was used as
base metal, ER70-6 solid wire steel of 0.8 mm of diameter was
used as filler metal and argon with 25% of CO2, as shielding
gas.
To reduce possible camera vibrations during the experiments,
the plate was moved using a special positioning table, with
one degree of freedom, maintaining the torch and the camera
fixed. The camera was positioned such that it focuses the
electric arc at an angle of 30o with the plate. The table moves
the plate with the speed v, determined by the parameters [D W H Z] = A
T
[V V2 I I2 v v2 L L2 1 ]T

vector. ⎡ a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19 ⎤
⎢a a 22 a 23 a 24 a 25 a 26 a 27 a 28 a 29 ⎥⎥
A = ⎢ 21 (4)
After having accomplished the tests, all the welds were ⎢ a31 a32 a33 a34 a35 a36 a37 a38 a39 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
metalographically check to obtain the quality parameters ⎣a 41 a 42 a 43 a 44 a 45 a 46 a 47 a 48 a 49 ⎦
vectors. Measurements of width, penetration, reinforcement of
the weld bead and size of the heat affected zone were Where the model coefficients are obtained through the
performed, obtaining the vectors Qx. minimum square rule using the experimental data.

During welding, the weld pools were monitored by a high- Preliminaries results
speed camera. This camera has a CCD sensor capable to To evaluate the Canny’s algorithm applicability to identify the
generate images of 480x420 pixels, with gray levels from 0 to weld pool borders, welds were made using travel speeds of
255. The images can be captured at rates from 60 to 8000 16mm/s and 20mm/s. Figure 1 shows the obtained images of
frames per second. The use of the high-speed camera made two weld pools during welding.
possible to capture weld pool images during the short circuit
period (in which the electric arc is momentarily extinct),
avoiding the radiance of the electric arc that impedes its
visualization.

After recording the weld pool at a rate of 250 frames per

second, images, captured in the same position were the plates
would be cut, were selected. For the automatic detection of the
borders, the Canny algorithm [9] was used. Canny algorithm
uses the calculation of the gradient of image pixels intensity to
determine where are located the edges of the scene elements.
Edge elements, or edgels, are considered the points where the
module of the intensity gradient is a local maximum in the
direction of the gradient vector.
Obtaining of the model
Kim at al, 1996 [10], used a quadratic model to describe the
relationship between the welding parameters and the weld
bead geometry. In that case, only the controllable variables
(voltage and current) were used as model inputs.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: Weld pool images using welding travel speeds of
20mm/s (a) and 16mm/s (b).
Apparently, there are not great differences between the two
weld pools. Figure 2 shows a graphic of gray levels of the
pixels in each column, in the line where the weld pool width is
larger. As can be observed there is not a great difference
between the weld pools using 20mm/s (dotted line) and
16mm/s (continuous line) in this scale.

In the present work, observed variables such as voltage,

current, travel speed and weld pool width were used as input
variables for the model. The last one is usually used as
model’s output variable. In this case it was used as additional
information (input) for the model, since it is possible to
observe its value through the use of the camera and techniques
of computational vision.

The quadratic model used is:
D = a11V + a12V 2 + a13 I + a14 I 2 + a15 v + a16 v 2 + a17 L + a18 L2 + a19
W = a 21V + a 22V 2 + a 23 I + a 24 I 2 + a 25 v + a 26 v 2 + a 27 L + a 28 L2 + a 29
H = a31V + a32V 2 + a33 I + a34 I 2 + a35 v + a36 v 2 + a37 L + a38 L2 + a39
(3)
Z = a 41V + a 42V 2 + a 43 I + a 44 I 2 + a 45 v + a 46 v 2 + a 47 L + a 48 L2 + a 49
Those equations can be arranged in the matricial form as:
Figure 2: Gray levels of two weld pools using 20mm/s (dotted
line) and 16mm/s (continuous line) in the larger line of the
weld pools.
To process the images, Canny’s algorithm was implemented
using Matlab. The program has as input parameters the image,
the mask width for the Gaussian filter and the hysteresis
thresholds. Figure 3 shows the borders detected by the
algorithm for the weld pool using the welding speeds of
20mm/s and 16mm/s. It is possible to observe that, for the

661
20mm/s pool, a width of 16 pixels was obtained, while for the
16mm/s pool, the obtained width is of 19 pixels. These results
were expected, since the higher the travel speed, keeping the
voltage and current constant, the lower the heat input (the
energy supplied by unit length) and, therefore, the smaller the
weld pool width.
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Borders resultant from Canny’s algorithm
(v = 20mm/s (a) and 16mm/s (b)).
Figure 4 shows the borders detected on the original images. It
can be observed that the detected borders do not cover the
whole weld pool, since the Canny’s algorithm detects as
border the pixel where the intensity gradient is a local
maximum.
(a) (b)
Figure 4: Borders detected by the Canny’s algorithm on the
original images (v = 20mm/s (a) and 16mm/s (b)).
Observing the graphic on Figure 2, one can conclude that the
weld pool width can be better obtained by using the second
derivative of the pixels intensity. The implemented program
was changed in way to consider the second derivative of the
intensity, instead of the first derivative. Figure 5 shows the
identified borders for the modified program, while Figure 6
shows the identified borders on the original images.
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Borders detected by the modified Canny’s algorithm
(v = 20mm/s (a) and 16mm/s (b)).
662
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Borders detected by the modified Canny’s algorithm
on the original images (v = 20mm/s (a) and 16mm/s (b)).
It can be observed that, despite the second derivative of the
intensity have introduced a larger noise rate, the location of
the identified borders was closer to real.
Data acquisition for the model validation
To validate the model, several welds were made using as
parameters vectors P1 to PN, defined previously. Current
varied from 75A to 105A, voltage from 16V to 20V and travel
speed from 16mm/s to 20mm/s. Weld pools with widths
between 21 and 30 pixels in the image were obtained. Figure 7
shows images of some weld pools after having been processed
by the modified Canny’s algorithm.
Figure 7: Images of weld pools after processing by the
modified Canny’s algorithm.
Each weld bead was cut and prepared for standard
metallographic procedure. Images were taken using a
microscope to determine the Q vectors (weld bead geometry).
Figure 8 shows sections of two welds obtained with
P=[20V 105A 16mm/s 30pixels]T and P=[16V 105A 16mm/s
27pixels]T, respectively. Figure 9 shows how each one of the
four weld bead geometric parameters was measured.
Figure 10(a) shows the image borders of one weld bead
identified by the Canny’s algorithm. In this picture it is
possible to identify the borders of the base metal, the
reinforcement and the penetration. For HAZ identification,
however, it was necessary a lower value for hysteresis
thresholds what leads to a great number of identified borders,
due to image imperfections and noises, as shown in Figure
10(b).

Figure 8: Example of welds prepared for Q vectors
determination.
Figure 9: Quality parameters measurement.
(a) (b)
Figure 10: Image borders of a weld bead image identified by
the Canny’s algorithm (a) and borders identified using lower
hysteresis thresholds for HAZ identification (b).
To obtain the values of D, W, H and Z in millimeters for each
weld bead, a scale was used in the horizontal and vertical
directions in the same image of the weld beads section. The
scale was used to determine the correspondence of each pixel
with the real dimention. Figure 11 shows a weld bead image
with the scale.
Figure 11: Scale used for weld bead geometric parameters
measurement.
663
Equation (5) (model of perspective camera) shows the
relationship between the measurements in pixels in the image
(∆x and ∆y) and the real dimention in the scene (∆X and ∆Y).
ΔX ΔY
ΔxS x = f ΔyS y = f
Z Z
SxZ SyZ (5)
ΔX = Δx ΔY = Δy
f f
Using the images scale, it was possible to determine SxZ/f and
SyZ/f. Those relationships represent the correspondence
between each pixel and the dimentions in millimeters in the
scene. In average, it was obtained a relation of 0.0174mm per
pixel in the horizontal direction and of 0.0176mm per pixel in
the vertical direction. It is observed that those values represent
the maximum precision of measurement of the weld bead
characteristics.
Values between 0.84mm and 1.72mm for penetration (D),
3.72mm and 7.10mm for width (W), 2.08mm and 3.49mm for
reinforcement (H) and 0.59mm and 0.94mm for ZTA (Z) were
obtained.
Results
Using minimum square rule, after establishing the values of
the Px vectors, a model for each one of the weld bead
geometry parameters (Q vector) was obtained:
D = 30,69V − 16,92V 2 − 0,92 I + 1,78I 2 − 22,24v + 12,41v 2 + 12,70 L − 7,37 L2 − 8,58
W = −6,71V + 5,82V 2 + 0,33I − 1,84 I 2 − 101,69v + 57,53v 2 + 48,39 L − 21,09 L2 + 26,82
H = −20,80V + 10,70V 2 + 3,07 I − 0,33I 2 + 18,63v − 11,63v 2 − 14,71L + 8,40 L2 + 9,51 (6)
Z = 4,76V − 3,14V 2 + 6,30 I − 5,00 I 2 − 39,98v + 22,99v 2 + 18,25L − 8,16 L2 + 5,20
To evaluate the model fidelity, the error between the measured
values of the weld bead geometry and the calculated values by
the model was determined. The error values were 0.020mm
for D; 0.138mm for W; 0.034mm for H and 0.053mm for Z. It
was observed that for penetration (D) the average error is
approximately the measurement precision obtained in the
microscope. For the reinforcement values (H) and heat
affected zone (Z) the average error was of 2 and 3 times such a
precision (what is equal to 2 and 3 pixels in the image)
respectively. For the width (W), the average error was 8 times
the maximum precision of measurement (8 pixels).
Other models were experienced for the same samples;
however the best values of D, H and Z were obtained with
equations (6). The best model for the width (W), however, was
obtained by the substitution of term I2 by Iv. In this case, the
average error decreased to 0.096mm (equivalent to 5 pixels)
and the equation becomes:
W = −6,21V + 6,81V 2 + 17,39 I − 17,87 Iv − 58,19v + 39,69v 2 + 40,52 L − 21,26 L2 + 5,28 (7)
In all the equations it was observed that the coefficients of L
and L2 (weld pool width) have quite significant values (it
should be observed that the values of V, I, v and L were
normalized), allowing concluding that such information are 10. I. Kim, W. Kwon and E. Siores, An investigation of a
important to infer the weld bead geometry parameters. mathematical model for predicting weld bead
geometry. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly (1996)
Conclusion
The present work showed the use of computational vision
techniques to determine weld bead quality parameters
(geometry) without the need to perform destructive tests.

The weld pool was monitored by a high-speed camera and

measured through computational vision. The voltage, electric
current and travel speed parameters and weld pool width were
then used to develop a model to calculate the weld bead width,
penetration and reinforcement and the size of the heat affected
zone. The model showed be very close to the real dimentions,
having an error range near to the own measure precision of the
used microscope.

The coefficients related to the weld pool width, obtained in the

model are significant, allowing concluding that such
information are important for an appropriate modeling of the
weld bead geometry.

References
1. M. Hale and D. Herdt, Multi-Output Process
Dynamics of GMAW: Limits to Control. Proc. 3rd
International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research, 1015-1020 (1993)
2. H. Smartt, Intelligent Sensing and Control of Arc
Welding. Proc. 3rd International Conference on
Trends in Welding Research, 843-851 (1993)
3. I. Masumoto, T. Araya, A. Iochi and H. Nomura.
Development and application of sensors and sensor
systems for arc welding. J. of the Japan Welding
Society, 52(4) 339-347 (1983)
4. H. Nomura and J. Middle, J. Sensors and Control
Systems in Arc Welding. Chapman & Hall (1994)
5. S. Alfaro, A. Bauchspiess and P. Drews, Intelligent
Systems for Welding Process Automation. Proc. of
IMECE (2003)
6. K. Ohshima, Observation and control of weld pool
phenomena in arc welding. J. of the Japan Welding
Society, 58(4), 44-49 (1989)
7. J. Song and D. Hardt, Simultaneous Control of Bead
Width and Depth Geometry in Gas Metal Arc
Welding. Proc. 3rd International Conference on
Trends in Welding Research, 921-926 (1993)
8. J. Song and D. Hardt, A Thermally Based Weld Pool
Depth Estimator for Real-Time Control. Proc. 3rd
International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research, 975-980 (1993)
9. J. Canny, A computational approach to edge
detection. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, 8(6), 679-689 (1986)

664
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Weld Pool Surface Monitoring and Depth Extraction Using a
Calibrated CCD Sensor
G. Saeed1, Y.M. Zhang1, C. Jaynes2
1. Center for Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
2. Department of Computer Science,
University of Kentucky, College of Engineering, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
Abstract
Automated monitoring and control of the weld pool surface
has been one of the goals of welding industry. This paper
presents a technique which uses a calibrated CCD sensor and
structured light to extract the surface information as depth of
pool from captured images. It projects a laser line from a pre-
determined position onto the weld pool surface. Reflected
laser beam from the weld pool surface is captured by a
calibrated CCD sensor to form the image. The image is then
processed based on ray-tracing technique to calculate the
depth of the weld pool surface using the position of laser and
its fan angle along with the intrinsic parameters and extrinsic
parameters of the CCD sensor.
Background
Measurement and sensing of the weld pool features is the key
to controlling the welding process. Automation of the welding
process can only be achieved with reliable sensors that can
provide a feedback to the controller. Continual research is
being done in the field of sensors to develop better new
sensors to measure the characteristics of the weld pool to
determine the penetration. Among the methods proposed in
existing literature, pool oscillation [1-3] and infrared sensing
[4-6] based methods received attention. Ultrasonic sensing [7-
9] has also been used but it requires additional sensing devices
which are difficult to attach to the torch. Acoustic emission
sensing [10] can distinguish between full penetration and
partial penetration. Though many methods are available to
measure the weld penetration, in order to improve the quality
of welding, new or improved solutions are still strongly
needed because of the inherent restrictions associated with
each of the above-mentioned methods. In addition there are
mechanical aspects affecting sensors implement-ability. A
number of chronic problems exist in placing sensor in vicinity
of the arc, where the environment is harsh, and minimal
working volume is available around the weld torch for sensor
intrusion without limiting access of the weld end effector to all
weld points.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 665
The most substantially successful technology that has emerged
is the use of electro-optics, which has been expanded into the
realm of ‘machine vision’ with the rapid advance of optical
sensor technology and computer processing power. The basic
principle of the optical sensor has remained unchanged over
the years. Charge-coupled devices (CCDs), laser diodes, and
microprocessors form the basis of this type of sensing
technique. It is known that the surface of the weld pool
contains information that can be used to control the welding
process. Researchers have used camera to observe the weld
pool and study the shape of the weld pool. Algorithms have
been developed for determining the boundary of the weld pool
[11]. However due to the overlap of the torch and electrode
with the weld pool a complete boundary is not acquired,
therefore the acquired edges of the pool boundary are used to
fit a complete boundary for the weld pool. The 2D shape of
the weld pool has also been studied in relation to the current
change using special synchronized laser and camera shutter
[12]. Program have also been developed to measure the 3D
depth of the weld pool [13], and methods have been
experimented with to determine the depth of weld pool
experimentally [14]. The 3D shape of the weld pool has also
been studied using stereovision [15]. The problem with these
systems is that they require specialized camera, or observation
system and impose dramatic space requirement on the system.
In this paper a well known image processing technique is
applied to determine the 3D depth of the weld pool using a
compact regular CCD sensor fitted with band pass and neutral
density filters to eliminate the arc light. Such a sensor has
been built at University of the Kentucky [16].
Monitoring the weld pool surface
The active structured light technique is often used to measure
3D shapes. There are two main categories of active structured
light sensors: one based on structured light triangulation, and
another based on the laser range scanners (LRS). Sensors
belonging in the first class project a light stripe on the scene
and use a camera to view it. Based on accurate knowledge of
the configuration of the light emitter relative to the camera, Du = Dv = 7 µ m, and (u0’, v0’)=(764 pixel,600 pixel) in the
depth can then be computed. The second category of sensors image coordinate system.
emit and receive a laser beam and by measuring difference of
phase, time of flight or frequency shift, depth is measured. Extrinsic parameters are needed to transform object
They require precise measurement of time and phase coordinates to a camera coordinate system OXYZ which is
deference which imposes the need for better speed and centered at the optical center of the lens with its OXY plane
accuracy and lead to systems that are too bulky and costly. parallel with the image plane and Z axis across the image
Therefore in this research the 3D depth will be recovered center (u0, v0). By doing calibration we need to determine the
using a compact vision sensor whose position with respect to camera’s position in the world coordinate system which is
the light emitter is accurately known. defined using the world plane Π 1 (work piece surface) and the
A Kodak KAI-2001 CCD sensor mounted in a small enclosure torch’s axis. To this end, a laser crosshair pattern is projected
with filters and lens was used to observe the reflected laser on a plane and observed using the camera.
from the weld pool surface. The CCD sensor was placed at an
angle of 26.7 degree approximately at a distance of 33.12mm The dimension of the laser cross hair length is measured to be
(1.3039”) from the weld pool with the lens placed 27.42mm l1 , l 2 , l 3 , and l 4 in mm on Π 1 . The projected laser cross hair
(1.0795”) in front of the CCD sensor. The positioning of the on Π 1 produces an image on Π 2 centered at (center’i, center’j)
CCD sensor was found through experimentation so that the where center’i and center’j are both in pixels. (In this paper,
reflected laser was approximately paraxial to the optical path notations such as center’i, center’j with “ ’ ” are measured by
of the lens and the lens could capture all reflected laser [16]. pixels, and those such as l1 , l 2 , l 3 without “ ’ ” are by mm).
The entire unit with the CCD sensor, filters, and lens will be
The edges of the laser cross hair are found out to be (top’i,
referred to as camera. The laser was projected from an angle
top’j), (right’i, right’j), (left’i, left’j), and (bottom’i, bottom’j) as
of 25 degrees and was placed at a distance of 50 mm (1.9685”)
shown in Fig. 1. The corresponding image coordinates (ui,vj)
away from the weld pool to cast a 25.4 mm (1”) long laser
in metric units are found by applying the following
line.
transformation to (u’i,v’j)
In order to determine the 3D depth of the weld pool, the ⎡u i ⎤ ⎡− Du u ' i ⎤ ⎡u 0 ⎤
⎢v ⎥ = ⎢ D v ' ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥
camera and the laser have to be calibrated. Since the camera
⎣ j ⎦ ⎣ v j ⎦ ⎣− vo ⎦
was fitted with a band pass filter centered at 685nm, normal
where ( u 0 , v 0 ) are measured in mm.
objects could not observed with the camera and used for
calibration. The most popular calibration algorithms are
called self calibration, where the camera looks at a grid pattern
printed out with known dimensions and placed at different
orientations. Using the images captured from the stationary
camera, the extrinsic parameters of the camera can be
determined [17-21]. But due to the inability of camera to
observe objects outside of 685nm wavelength, a new
calibration technique was developed and is detailed in this
paper.

Calibration of camera

In the context of 3D machine vision, camera calibration means

to determine the intrinsic and extrinsic parameters of the
camera with respect to some known world coordinate.
Intrinsic parameters are the internal parameters of the camera
and usually include the effective focal length f and the image
center (u0, v0) which is also called the principal point. Here,
as usual in computer vision literature, the origin of the image
coordinate system is the upper left corner of the image array
and the units are pixels. The coefficients Du and Dv , which
convert pixels to mm are given in data sheets of the camera,
and the focal length f is known. The sensors intrinsic
parameters in this application are f =15mm (0.5906”),
Figure 1: Presepective projection of laser cross hair from
image plane to world plane
The length of each cross hair side on the image lleft , l right ,
ltop and lbottom mm can thus be found. Next using perspective
projection and similar triangles the distance x of the optic
center from the world coordinate center can be determined
using the following expression as shown in Fig. 2 a) :
l .x '
x= 4
l right

666
where x' , the distance between the optic center and the CCD Calibration of laser
sensor image plane, is known to be 24.72mm (0.9732”) ( lleft ,
l right could be used along with l3 , l4 respectively in the For the depth extraction in structured light techniques the
calibration of light is needed. For our application a model
equation to determine the distance x . Either method should SNF-501H laser fitted with a cross hair generation optic was
reveal the same value for x ). used for calibration. The fan angle θ of the laser was 10
degrees. Because the cross hair formed on Π 1 changes with
To determine the height of the optic center from Π 1 , the law
laser position, measuring the cross hair length and knowing
of cosines and sins is used. Consider the geometry of the the fan angle can reveal the position of the laser. If the laser
perspective projection shown in Fig. 2 b). The distance of is perpendicular to the projection plane, then all the cross hair
(topi, topj) from the optic center O (0,0,0) , is computed as lengths will be equal. The distance of the laser from the plane
can be found out by measuring the length of the cross hair as
z= (0 − top i )2 + (0 − top j )2 + (x')2 = (top i )2 + (top j )2 + (x' 2 ) shown in Fig 3 a), and the distance xl is given as
l1 , where θ
xl = α = is half of the laser fan angle. Now
The angle θ is therefore computed using law of cosine to be tan(α ) 2
⎛ x' 2 + z 2 − l top 2 ⎞ consider the calibration which requires the laser projected onto
θ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟
Π 1 at an angle inclined in just one direction with the pattern
⎜ 2 . z . x ' ⎟
⎝ ⎠ projected aligned with the tilt as shown in Fig 3 b). The
pattern formed on the plane will have different cross hair
lengths. It is apparent that length l 2 will be longer than the
length l1 , and each horizontal line ( l 3 ) will be equal in length.

The distance xl can be computed using the horizontal cross

hair lengths l 3 as xl = l 3 . Length will not be distorted

l3
tan(α )
by the projection angle of the laser, where as lengths

Figure 2 a) Figure 2 b)

Figure 2a) :Front view-Camera calibration using presepective

projection of laser cross hai front view. Figure 2b): Side
view- calibration of camera usingp perspective projection

The angle θ1 is found using law of sine to be

Figure 3 a) Figure 3 b)
⎛x ⎞
θ1 = sin ⎜⎜ . sin (θ )⎟⎟
−1

⎝ l1 ⎠ Figure 3a): Laser projected perpendicular to the surface.

It follows that θ 3 = θ1 + θ , which is the angle of CCD with
respect to the ground. The height , hc , of the optical center
from work-piece is hc = x. sin (θ 3 ) and the distance is
d c = x. cos(θ 3 ) . The extrinsic parameters needed to transform
object coordinate to camera coordinate OXYZ including
hc , d c , and x are thus determined. Hence the camera
calibration is considered complete.
Figure 3b): Laser projected at an angle α 5 the surface.
l1 and l 2 will be distorted and can be used to determine the
angle of tilt. To this end, a perpendicular plane to the laser is
drawn at a distance xl as shown in Fig 3 b) and the angle this
plane forms with the front incident laser ray is α 1 . The length
of all laser hairs on this perpendicular plane will be l 3 based
on the geometry of projection. The angle α 1 will be
α 1 = 90 − α , and therefore α 2 = 180o − α1 . Using the law of
o

667
sines α 3 can be found to be α = sin −1 ⎛⎜ l 3 . sin (α )⎞⎟ . Hence
3 ⎜l 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ placed at a distance of 50 mm (1.9685)” away from the weld
α 4 = 180o − (α 2 + α 3 ) can be calculated and α 5 (the angle of
the laser projection) is given by α 5 = 90o − α 4 . The height of
the laser from the projection plane is given by hl = xl . sin(α 5 ) ,
and the distance by d l = xl . cos(α 5 ) . Hence the distance,
height and angle of the laser in relation to the center of the
cross hair which is aligned with the world coordinate center
are obtained and the laser is calibrated
Depth extraction based on calibrated camera
and laser
A calibrated camera can be used to trace the path of the rays
captured in the image. The ray tracing is accomplished by the
ray bending behavior of the lens. As light passes through the
lens, entering and leaving the glass surface, refraction takes
place. The main function of any lens is to bend light rays in a
controlled fashion.
The universal ray tracing concept of a lens is that all rays that
are parallel to each other will pass through the same single
point called the focal point on the focal plane after passing
through the lens. In image processing algorithms the ray
tracing is accomplished by inverting the direction of the image
and moving it equidistance on the side of the object. Then a
ray from the center of the optical axis to the image, will pass
through the object. This is illustrated in Fig 4.
Figure 4: Perspective projection model
There is however disparity in finding the exact position of the
object. The direction of the ray can be traced, but the exact
depth of the ray cannot be determined (indicated by the dotted
line). A unique world object location cannot be obtained from
knowing geometry of the image. This problem is solved by
active triangulation vision. A light pattern is projected from a
known coordinate and therefore the object coordinates can be
solved for by the two perspective projections. We will use
this concept to extract the depth of the weld pool using the
calibrated camera and laser.
The laser cross hair is centered under the torch tip
(approximately center of weld pool). The CCD sensor was
placed at an angle of 26.7 degree approximately at a distance
of 33.12 mm (1.3039”) from the crosshair center with the lens
668
placed 24.72mm (0.9732”) in front of the CCD sensor. The
laser was projected from an angle of 25 degrees and was
pool to cast a 25.4 mm (1”) long laser line. Next the precise
locations of the camera and laser are found using the
calibration technique listed in this paper. Images of the laser
reflected from the weld pool were recorded and using the ray-
tracing procedure the rays traced back into the real world, and
then the intersection of the rays with the incident laser ray was
found to reveal the depth of the weld pool. The calibration
technique and the depth extraction simulation was tested on
reflective objects with known heights and depths to find out
the percent error between the real and measured height/depth.
Implementation procedure and experimental
results
In implementation, the camera and the laser are first
calibrated. Then an image of the laser reflected from weld
pool in bmp format is read to a matrix, re-quantized to have
255 bit levels of gray (Fig 5a), and inverted around by 180
degrees so that it can be moved to the front of lens (refer to
Fig. 4). Next the edge detection algorithm is run on the image
to find the boundaries of the laser. Having found the top and
bottom boundary of the laser line in the image, the center of
the laser between top and bottom boundary is found out along
its length (Fig. 5b). These center points will be used for ray
tracing and the depth calculation. Then the image plane is
transposed equidistance in front of the lens, and the inverted
laser points placed on this image plane (Fig. 5c). This is
accomplished by first converting the laser point coordinates
from pixels to metric units with respect to the image center
(u0, v0). The laser points are then multiplied with the rotation
and translation matrices. The translation matrix moves the
center points from the center of the world coordinate to the
position of the image plane, and the rotation matrix rotates the
points along the y-axis to tilt them along the angle of CCD.
The translation matrix is given by :
⎡1 0 0 d x ⎤
⎢0 1 0 d ⎥
Translation = ⎢ y⎥
⎢0 0 1 d z ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1 ⎦
where, (d x , d y , d z ) is the position of the image plane. The
rotation matrix about the y-axis is given by
⎡1 0 0 0⎤
⎢0 cos(θ ) sin(θ ) 0⎥
Rotation = ⎢ 3 3 ⎥
⎢0 sin(θ 3 ) cos(θ 3 ) 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 1⎦
where θ 3 is the angle of CCD as shown in Fig. 2b). Hence the
image points on the image plane are given by
simplane = (Translation.Rotation..Image1 )
where simplane is transposed laser points to image plane, and
Image1 is the inverted laser points at world coordinate center.
Next the laser rays are traced by drawing several lines from
the optic center through the transposed laser point on the
image plane. These lines are representative of the path
traveled by the laser light before falling on the camera’s image
plane. Then based on the calibration results of the laser, the
coordinates of the laser are entered and the laser beam is
drawn as emerging from that point onto the weld pool. To
consider the laser divergence, several lines within the area of
divergence were drawn as shown in Fig. 5d. Finally to
determine the surface of the weld pool the intersection points Figure 5 c)
of the incident laser rays and the retraced rays from the camera
were found. These points revealed the surface of the weld
pool. The height profile of the object imaged in Fig. 5 a) is
shown in Fig 5 e). The accuracy of the system was tested on
objects with known height. The % error margin of various
objects is shown in table 1.

Table 1: The error percentage of the system measured with

reflective objects of known heights

Actual (mm) Measured (mm) % Error

Object 1 0.51 0.5281 3.54
Object 2 1.23 1.2526 1.83 Figure 5 d)
Object 3 2 2.0355 1.77
Object 4 2.23 2.349 5.33

Figure 6 shows the retraced weld pool profile from an

experimental run. The approximate percent error of the
system was 6%. The experiment was performed on stainless
steel metal plate of 1.85mm (0.0728”) thickness. The voltage
of the arc welding was set to 12 volts, and the current varied
with time. The experiment was initiated with a current of 48
amps, and then increased to 50amps to achieve penetration.
The current was then decreased to 48 amps again for about 15
seconds, and then increased to 52 amps at the end of
experiment. Studying Fig. 6 shows the transition of the weld
from no penetration to penetration state with the transition of
48 amps to 50amps in the beginning. The depth of the weld
pool is about 0.2 mm. When the welding current is decreased
to 48 amps, it can be observed from Fig. 6 that weld pool
comes to no penetration state and the profile looks like a
mountain (due to convex shaped blob shape of weld pool).
Then finally when the current is increased to 52 amps,
penetration is achieved again and the weld pool depth
averages 0.5mm.
Figure 5 a) Figure 5 b)
Figure 5 e)
Figure 5a): Laser line captured by the camera. Figure 5b):
Edge Detectino of laser line using image processing. Figure
5c): Simulation run showing image plane, lens, and
transposed image points Figure 5d): Retraced laser and
incident laser rays are used to determine the surface profile.
Figure 5e): The height profile of the object determined by the
intersection of retraced laser and incident lase.
Conclusion
This paper presents a technique developed based on a
calibrated CCD sensor and structured light to extract the
surface information as depth of the weld-pool from CCD
images. The weld pool profile was effectively measured
within acceptable error range. This method only applies to Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) where the weld pool depth is
about 0.5 mm (0.0197”) deep. If the weld pool depth gets
deeper then the reflected laser is not captured by the sensor
and no measurement is made. The presented system can
automatically measure and monitor the weld pool.

669
 Cross sectional
view
Figure 6: The weldpool profile during an experimental run
and its cross section at two time instances.
Acknowledgements
This work is funded by the National Science Foundation under
grant DMI-0114982 and the University of Kentucky.
References
1. Renwick, R. J. and Richardson, R. W., Experimental
investigation of GTA weld pool oscillations, Welding Journal,
62(2): 29s-35s, (1983).
2. Xiao, Y. H. and Ouden, G.den, A study of GTA weld pool
oscillation, Welding Journal, 69(8): 298s-293s. (1990)
3. Xiao, Y. H. and Ouden, G.den,, Weld pool oscillation
during GTA welding of mild steel. Welding Journal, 72(8):
428s-434s, (1993).
4. Nagarajan, S., Banerjee, P., Chen, W., Chin, B. A.,.
Control of the welding process using infrared sensors. IEEE
Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 8(1): 86-93, (1992)
5. Nagarajan, S., Chen, W. H., and Chin, B. A., Infrared
sensing for adaptive arc control. Welding Journal, 68(11):
462s-466s, (1989).
6. Chen, W. and Chin, B. A., Monitoring joint penetration
using infrared sensing techniques, Welding Journal, 69(4):
181s-185s, (1990).
670
7. Hardt, D. E. and Katz, J. M., Ultrasonic measurement of
weld penetration. Welding Journal, 63(9): 273s-281s, (1984.)
8. Lott, L. A., Ultrasonic detection of molten/solid interfaces
in weld pools. Material Evaluation, 42: 337-341, (1983)
9. Johnson, J. A., Carlson, N. M., and Lott, L. A., Ultrasonic
wave propagation in temperature gradients. Journal of
Nondestructive Evaluation, 6(3): 147-157, (1988)
10. Cannon, I., Maram, J., and Smith, M., Weld penetration
sensor for an experimental welder. Transactions of
NAMRC/SME, Vol. XV, (1987).
11. R. Kovacevic, Y. M. Zhang, Real-time image processing
for monitoring of free weld pool surface, ASME Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 119(2): 161-169,
(1997).
12. Hong. L et. al., Vision Based GTA Weld Pool Sensing and
control using Neurofuzzy Logic, SIMTech Technical Report
(AT/00/011/AMP), Singapore institute of Manufacturing
Technology, (2000).
13. G. Saeed and Y. M. Zhang, Mathematical formulation
and simulation of specular reflection based measurement
system for gas tungsten arc weld pool surface, Measurement
Science and Technology, 14(8): 1671-1682, (2003).
14. G. Saeed, M. J. Lou, and Y. M. Zhang, Computation of
3D weld pool surface from the slope field and point tracking
of laser beams, Measurement Science and Technology, 15(2):
389-403, (2004).
15. Mnich, C. , Al-Bayat, F., Debrunner, C., Steele, J.,
Vincent, T., ‘In Situ Weld Pool Measurement using
Stereovision”, ASME, Proceedings 2004, Japan – USA
Symposium on Flexible Automation, Denver, Colorado, July
19-21, (2004).
16. G. Saeed, S. Cook, Y. Zhang, A Compact Sensor for
Welding Process Control’, ASM Trends in welding, 7th
annual conference, May (2005).
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Plane From Unknown Orientations. International Conference
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20. P F Sturm, S Maybank, On plane-based camera
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
A Compact Sensor for Welding Process Control
G. Saeed, Y.M. Zhang, S. Cook
Center for Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Abstract
The purpose of vision based sensing devices in the welding
industry is to electronically replicate the role of a skilled
welder, and emulate the human eye with a light sensing device
such as camera and the human brain with a computer
algorithm that interprets the images. Just as optical feedback
from human eye guides the human welder, optical feed back in
this electronic system would be used to control a mechanical
welding system, in the case of this research, a Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding (GTAW) system, in order to control the quality
of the weld. Such sensing systems have been developed, but
our purpose is to build one using more commonly available
elements and on a much smaller scale, as to be able to attach it
to an already-existing welding system without imposing
dramatic space requirements on the system.
Building a system to replicate the function of a human welder
requires research into optics, specifically charge-coupled
devices (CCDs) and lenses. This paper discusses the
procedure employed in developing the knowledge base and
the experimental system used for building this compact sensor.
Experiments have been performed to determine the
positioning of the lens, its focal length, and size. A study of
the illuminating system is also documented to understand how
light is dispersed under welding environment. The
illumination system is based on structured laser light, where a
laser line is projected on the weld pool. The weld pool is
divided into three parts, the front (deepest), middle and
back(shallow). Experiments are performed to determine the
position where the laser light needs to hit the weld pool and
how it is reflected from various points of the weld pool.
Background
For critical and accurate joining where the weld quality must
be ensured such as for the root pass and for the welding of
advanced materials, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is
often used to produce a high quality weld because of its
capability in precision control of the fusion process [1].
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Its weld penetration control has been a fundamental subject in
automated welding. Significant advances over time in the
sensor development have allowed for limited automation of
welding processes. Several methods have been studied,
including pool oscillation [2–4], ultrasound, infrared sensor [5,
6], radiography etc. Acoustic emission sensing [7] is capable
of distinguishing between full penetration and partial
penetration. Though many methods are available to measure
the weld penetration, new or improved solutions are still
strongly needed, because of the inherent restrictions associated
with each of the above-mentioned methods. The difficulty
associated with this problem is to find a precise and reliable
way to measure the weld penetration using only top-side
sensors which are attached to and move with the torch. With
the advancement of machine vision, vision based sensors have
been used and studied to sense the penetration of the weld
pool. Several techniques, as stereo vision [8], pulsed laser,
and synchronized camera systems [9-11] have been used to
observe the weld pool. However the equipment involved with
these sensing and measurement methods is expensive, as it
requires multiple cameras or specialized pulsed laser with
synchronized cameras to observe the weld pool. These
procedures also impose a large space requirement on the
system making application harder.
In this paper a novel vision based sensor is presented. The
sensor is compact and measures 45.72 mm x 32.512 mm x
54.102 mm (1.85’x1.28’x2.13’). The sensor is mounted
directly on the existing GTAW torch without imposing any
drastic space requirement. The sensor works based on
structured light technique. A laser line is projected on the
weld pool and the sensor is placed on the other end which
collects the reflected laser light from the mirror like molten
weld pool. The deformation of the stripe is determined by the
deformation of the weld pool surface. Thus, the sensed
reflection of the stripe can be processed and used to compute
the 3D pool surface. The entire sensor is attached to and
moves with the torch.
671
 Experiments
The basic organization for the apparatus described in this
paper is shown below, in Fig. 1.

Figure 2: The elongated laser line due to shallow projection

angle

Another difficulty with shallow angle would be keeping the

far edge of laser in the center of the weld pool. The data from
the positioning in Fig. 2 would not be sufficient to determine
the depth of the weld pool since, though the laser is positioned
at the center of the weld pool, the angle of the laser would
Figure 1: The Compact sensor illustrated with the whole cause the resulting image to be of the front edge of the weld
system pool, alone.

This sensing system has three major variables that need to be
determined. First, the angle and distance of the laser, second
the angle of disbursement of the laser after being reflected off
the molten weld pool, and third the parameters of lens as the
positioning, focal length, and the place where CCD sensor
need to be placed for imaging.
Using these two limitations on laser angle, and experimenting
within the range of 15-55 degrees, we determined 20-25
degrees to be of sufficient experimental acceptability. It is
possible that different arrangements of hardware would
require a different angle to optimize the data taken. Figure 3
shows shadowing of laser due to electrode at a too steep angle.

The angle of the laser is an important variable concerning the

positioning of the sensor. The angle at which the laser is
reflected after hitting the weld pool depends entirely on the
surface of the weld pool and the incident angle of the laser
beam. Therefore to determine the position of the sensor,
where it can capture the reflected rays it is important to
experiment and fix the incident angle. Varying over the range
between 0-90 degree for the incident angle, it was determined
that a too-steep angle (greater than 60 degree) or too shallow
angle (less than 20 degree) will cause a problem in the
illumination and observation of the weld pool. A too steep
angle will cause the torch to cast a ‘shadow’ over the image of
the weld pool, because the laser will be reflected at too high of
an angle to clear the far edge of the torch. A too-shallow
angle will cause difficulty in taking useful data, or will cause
the weld pool to cast a ‘shadow’ over itself (due to internal
reflection from the edge of the weld pool, i.e the laser may get
reflected back after hitting the edge of the weld pool). Also a Figure 3: Shadowing caused at a steep laser projection angle.
too-shallow angle will cause the laser to cast a very elongated
curve along the weld pool, and make the set of data taken from Since the shape of the surface of the weld pool is similar to a
any position of the laser either unimportant (Fig. 2) or very concave mirror, it is necessary to take into account how the
limited. The accuracy of the system will also be compromised laser is reflected from front, back, and middle of the weld pool
at a shallow angle as it will be harder to focus the laser line at as shown in Fig. 4. Each of these positions must be taken into
a shallow angle. Please note that the elliptical weld pool account, as in the final application of this system, an array of
shape is an approximation to make theoretical demonstration laser line will be used that will span the length of the weld
easier. pool, thus describing the entirety of the surface of the weld
pool in a three-dimensional coordinate system. Therefore it is
important to find out the range of angle over which the laser is

672
reflected back from the weld pool. This range will help
determine the position where the CCD sensor needs to be
placed in order to collect the reflected laser. Figure 4 shows
how the weld pool reflects the laser at various positions along
its surface.
Figure 4: Illustration of how laser reflects from the surface of
the weld pool
In performing the experiment to determine the range of the
reflected laser, the incident laser angle was fixed at 25 degree
and a paper plane placed 85.725mm (3.375”) away from the
weld pool. Paper was used as an imaging plane to mark the
areas where the laser line fell after being reflected from the
weld pool. The laser was then scanned over the length of the
weld pool. The resulting curve spanned approximately
25.4mm (1.0”) from top to bottom on the image plane. The
bottom edge or the starting point was previously established to
be at 20 degrees. This indicates a range of 13.4 degrees,
starting at 20 degrees and going up to 34.4 degrees, making
the center line at an angle of 26.7 degrees (Fig. 5). This will
be used to align the CCD so that the center lines goes through
the middle of the lens and hit the middle of the CCD, at an
angle of 26.7 degrees above the plane of the weld pool. These
were the operating specifications for the lens/CCD system, as
the lens needed to capture the entire image, no matter where
the laser hit on the weld pool.
The next system parameter that needed to be determined was
the diameter of lens, its focal length, and its positioning. The
lens had to be large enough in size to capture the reflected
laser range and focus it on the CCD sensor placed behind the
lens. Hence the distance of lens from the weld pool, the
distance of lens to the CCD sensor and the diameter of lens
were three variables that had to be determined. A requirement
imposed on the lens positioning was that the image had to be
diminished in size, so that it would fit it on the CCD sensor
placed behind it (since the laser line diverges as it travels
away). This could be accomplished by placing the lens at a
673
distance of 2 f away from weld pool, where f is the focal
length of the convex lens, and placing the CCD sensor
between f and 2 f behind the lens. Figure 6 shows the
different positions of the lens with reference to the weld pool,
and how the resulting image would be affected.
Figure 5: The range of laser refelected with center line at
26.7degrees.
The first placement of the lens (Fig. 6a), with the weld pool at
a distance less than f shows the image forming far away
from the lens, with magnification M greater than 1. This
setup is not desired, even though the lens being quiet close to
the weld pool ensures that all the reflected laser is captured
before diverging away, however the rays after passing through
lens form a magnified image that may not fit on the CCD
sensor. The second placement of the lens (Fig. 6b), with the
weld pool at 2 f shows the image forming at 2 f with M = 1 .
This means that the size of the image formed is the same as
the object. In our requirement we need the image to be
diminished or smaller than the object. Hence this setup is also
not desired. The third placement of the lens (Fig. 6c), with the
weld pool beyond 2 f shows the image formed in between
f and 2 f , with magnification less than 1 ( M < 1 ). This third
setup is the desired setup, as it allows for shrinking of the
image to fit the CCD, and also allows, through a series of
optimizations, a relatively close setup of the lens and the
sensor to the weld pool. The further the lens is placed from
the object, the smaller the image is going to be, and the more
likely it will all fit on the CCD, but at a larger distance, the
lens is less likely to capture all of the reflected laser light.
Both a larger diameter lens and a shorter focal length help
fulfill these two requirements.
The focal length of the system was set to be 15mm (0.5906”)
after giving consideration to the standard lens in market and
their sizes. It was determined that with a focal length
of15mm, placed at a distance of 33.116mm (1.3038”) (greater
than 2 f ), the diameter of the lens had to be at least the bandwidth of 685nm ± 10nm to pass through. Some light
11.453mm (0.4509”) in order to capture the reflected laser in from the arc in that range passes through the filter. However
the intensity of the arc light is much less compared to the
intensity of the laser light, and therefore the neutral density
filters block the arc light, and allows the higher powered laser
light to go through. Two neutral density filters in the order of
1% and 10% transmission in series were used. The lens is
mounted on a lens holder at a distance of 27.42 mm (1.0795”)
away from the CCD sensor surface with filters in between.
Figure 7a) shows the CCD sensor placed on the custom CCD,
Figure 6 a) Figure 6 b) Fig. 7b) and Fig. 7c) show the compact sensor and the cross
sectional view of the sensor with its elements.

Figure 6. c)

Figure 6: Lens diagram demonstrating object placement and

image formation by a convex lens. Figure 6a) Object between
F and 2F causes enlarged image beyond 2F. Figure 6b)
Object at 2F causes image at 2F of same size as the object.
Figure 6c) Object beyond 2F causes diminished image to be
formed between F and 2F

the range of 20 degree – 34.4 degrees. Hence a standard Figure 7a)

15mm (0.5906” )diameter x 15mm (0.5906”) focal length lens
was used placed at a distance of 33.116mm (1.3038”) away
from the weld pool. The distance of the CCD sensor from the
lens was determined based on the equation 1 = 1 + 1 , where
f u v
u is the distance of the object from the lens, and v is the
distance of the image plane from the lens. Therefore v , the
distance of CCD sensor from the lens was computed to be
27.42 mm (1.0795”).

It should be noted that, given the angle of the laser, the

distance of the laser from the weld pool is relatively
unimportant, as increasing the distance between the laser and
the weld pool only expands the width of area covered by the
laser on either side of the weld pool. The two extremes to be
avoided, of course, are that where the laser does not
completely span the weld pool and that where focusing the
laser to a fine line across the weld pool becomes too difficult.
Figure 7 b) Figure 7 c)
Figure 7 a) The CCD sensor placed on the custom designed
PCB board Figure 7 b) The vision based compact sensor side
view. Figure 7 c) The cross sectional view of the compact
sensor with its elements

Results The sensor was used in several experiments to observe the

The sensor was built using Kodak KAI-2001 CCD sensor.
The sensor was placed on a custom built PCB board to provide
mobility and miniaturize the size of the sensor. Band-pass
filters and neutral density filters were placed in front of the
sensor. These filters were necessary to block out the arc light
and allow the light in the bandwidth of laser light to pass
through. The band pass filter blocks all light but the light in
weld pool. The reflected laser light was successfully captured,
and the distortion in the laser line distinctively showed the
shape of the weld pool. Figure 8 shows some of the data
captured by the compact sensor. An interesting finding was
that the shape of the weld pool is like a convex mirror and
shaped like a blob when there is no metal penetration (Fig 8a).
However when the welding current is increased and the weld

674
penetrates the metal, the weld pool is like a concave mirror
and deepens as the penetration increases (Fig 8b) .
The depth of the weld pool could also be observed using the
compact sensor. Figure 9 shows a series of frames captured
during an experimental run in which the welding current was
slowly increased and as a result the weld pool depth increased.
Figure 8 a) Figure 8b)
Figure 8 a) No penetration- Laser reflected from Weld pool.
Figure 8 b) Penetration – Laser reflected from Weld pool.
It can be observed from the images that the curvature of the
laser line changes to reflect the depth of the weld pool. In Fig.
9a) the weld pool isn’t very deep, when the current is
increased, the resulting laser line has a deeper curvature and is
shown in Fig 9 b). When the current is further increased, the
weld pool penetration increases, and the curvature of the
captured laser line is even greater (shown in Fig 9 c)).
Figure 9 a) Figure 9 b) Figure 9 c)
Figure 9 a): Laser reflected from a shallow weld pool, with
little penetration. Figure 9 b): Welding current increased to
have greater penetration- capture laser reflects the change in
weld pool penetration. Figure 9 c): Captured laser has
greater curvature when the welding current is further
increased
Conclusion
Sensing applications are present throughout the welding
industry, giving engineers the tools necessary to build
mechanical welding systems that produce higher and higher
quality welds more efficiently and more predictably. A
system such as this, with as much mobility as a compact
sensor allows, lends itself to many applications with very little
675
or no mechanical alteration to the system. Any timed welding
system that requires a human to make sure that the system is
welding the right area would benefit from this system, which
could be easily altered, through software, to detect seams or
other visual characteristics that a human would use for
reference to guide a machine. Alignment issues would be
eliminated, though welding systems would need to have the
ability to react to feedback added, and possibly would require
a wider range of motion in order to react to data analyzed by
the sensor system described here. A visual system that relies
on area light and photographic analysis software would
struggle to function while welding is taking place, as brilliant
light from the welder washes out the camera in just the area
that is crucial for the application: the area being welded. This
system eliminates that issue, and, while our application has
been specifically interested in the surface of the weld pool, the
range of this system can be easily broadened to encompass an
area around the weld that a conventional camera system would
find difficult to analyze.
Acknowledgements
This work is funded by the National Science Foundation under
grant DMI-0114982 and the University of Kentucky.
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676
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Arc Acoustic Feedback in GMA Welding

J. Tam, J. Huissoon
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Abstract carrying out repeated experiments and application of signal-to-

noise analysis, it is possible to quantify the significance or
Development of GMAW arc acoustic experiments using confidence level of each component as a function of operating
Taguchi methods are presented. Emphasis is placed upon the parameters. Many of these associations and significance
spectral analysis and data anylsis methodologies. Identified levels would otherwise be unidentifiable using conventional
are key acoustic spectral bands that are characteristic of experimental techniques.
specific operating parameter levels.
Choosing Independent Variables and Levels
Introduction The choice of independent variables is determined by the
Arc acoustics play an important role in process control for number of adjustable weld parameters for the given
professional welders – it is generally acknowledged amongst equipment. Experimental equipment includes a FANUC 210i
professional welders that arc sound provides as much useful Arc Mate Robot in conjunction with a Lincoln Powerwave
feedback as vision in controlling the process [1]. However, 455 configured for constant voltage operation. With the
the specific characteristics or features of the acoustic feedback freedom afforded by the robotic manipulator, the parameters
signal that the professional welder uses to maintain control of of interest are chosen as voltage, wire-feed-speed (WFS),
the process are not well understood. contact-tip-to-workpiece-distance (CTWD), torch-speed,
torch-angle, wire diameter, and gas flow rate.
Previous studies have shown that arc acoustic emissions can
be used to identify the metal transfer mode and to detect As part of Taguchi experiments, it is necessary to select the
process problems such as lack of shielding gas [2], as well as number of levels for each parameter under investigation.
for establishing relationships with arc electrical characteristics Since GMAW is inherently non-linear in behavior, it is
[3], and control of arc length [4]. Throughout many of these reasonable to expect acoustic trends between operating levels
works, the investigators have only been able to identify the to change in a non-linear fashion. As such, it was decided to
general shape of the acoustic frequency spectrum for restricted carry out experiments with three operating levels for each
operating parameters. independent variable, with the exception of wire diameter
(Table 1).
To our knowledge, investigations have never been conducted
to identify how and which frequency components change with Table 1: Independent variable operating levels for Taguchi
changing parameters. In this work, prevalent acoustic experiments. Note the differences between numerical values
characteristics associated with arc-tuning are identified with of the operating levels between wire diameters. This is
respect to changing welding parameters using Taguchi necessary to accommodate for proper spray-transfer
methods. Discussed will be the development and generation operating envelopes for each respective wire size.
of necessary experiments as well as how response parameters
Wire
are chosen and identified through the use of spectrum analysis Diameter 0.035 0.0625
and cluster identification techniques. The results of these [in]
experiments and analysis will be summarized with Low Med High Low Med High
descriptions pertaining to their potential significance as CTWD
0.551 0.650 0.787 0.551 0.650 0.787
control feedback. [in]
Torch
Speed 0.354 0.472 0.591 0.472 0.591 0.709
Taguchi Experiment Design [in/sec]
WFS
8.333 10.833 12.500 6.300 7.874 9.449
[in/sec]
Taguchi methods were chosen as they facilitate identification Voltage
of welding parameters which most affect sound characteristics 26 29.5 33 24 29 34
[V]
with a reasonable number of experiment runs. More Gas
30 40 50 30 40 50
importantly, associations can be drawn, from level average [ft3/sec]
analysis, between changing weld parameters and specific Torch
Angle 30 0 -30 30 0 -30
sensible acoustic emission components. Additionally, by [deg]

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 677


With the experiment parameters and associated levels
selected, proper parameter combinations are decided upon.
These combinations will ensure that the experiments yield
representative results and associations between acoustic data
and welding parameters.
Generating Parameter Combinations
In order to properly assign parameter combinations for
Taguchi experiments, it is necessary to; 1) calculate total
degrees of freedom, 2) select appropriate orthogonal array, 3)
draw required linear graph and adjust to match standard linear
graph. These steps are illustrated and explained below.
Calculating Degrees of Freedom
The degrees of freedom (DOF) are the number of factor and
interaction comparisons necessary to derive a complete
conclusion concerning the effect of parameter levels for a
given experiment. Equation 1 shows how this is computed:
N The resulting factor level listing is then generated based on the
DOFmain_effects = ∑ (ni − 1)
i
M
Equation 1
DOFinteractions = ∑ DOF ( Aj ) × DOF ( B j )
j
DOFtotal = DOFmain_effects + DOFinteractions
Where:
N: number of factors (main effects)
ni: number of levels for factor ‘i'
M: number of interactions
To compute the DOF of these experiments, interactions of
interest are identified. Since it is known that there is a strong
correlation between the electrical and acoustic behaviour in
GMAW [5], it is reasonable to investigate the interaction of
those factors which have strongest influence on electrical
characteristics. Thus, the interactions of interest are; Voltage
X WFS, Voltage X CTWD, and CTWD X WFS.
Having seven main effects and three interactions, each with 3
levels of operation, the number of degrees of freedom for this
experiment is 26.
Orthogonal Array Selection
An orthogonal array is one that is designed so that each level
for each factor occurs an equal number of times. The
appropriate orthogonal array is selected from a set of standard
arrays based on the required degrees of freedom, as
determined previously. In this case, for a three level
experiment, a L27(313) orthogonal array is selected to match
the required 26 DOF.
Linear Graphs
This graphical method allows for systematic assignment of
factors within the orthogonal array without confounding the
effects of factors and interactions [6]. The graphs are
678
constructed of vertices and edges, representing columns and
interactions, respectively. Numbers are assigned to each dot
and line corresponding to the column in which each factor or
interaction is to be placed within the orthogonal array. With
seven main effects and three interactions, Figure 1 represents
the required linear graph chosen from a standard list provided
by [6].
Voltage
1 Torch Speed Wire Diameter
9 10
3, 4 6, 7
Gas Flow Torch Angle
2 5 13
8, 11 12
CTWD WFS
Figure 1: Linear graph used for assigning factors and
interactions to the appropriate columns of a L27(313)
orthogonal array.
linear graph and orthogonal array. Although the wire diameter
factor has three levels, only two diameters are available for
testing. To accommodate this, two sets of experiments are
done, such that the medium level is assigned to either small or
large diameters in each.
Data Collection and Spectrum Analysis
Data Collection and Hardware Summary
Acoustic data is collected through a custom built microphone
pre-amplification circuit that includes a built-in analogue anti-
alias filter with a 12.5 kHz corner frequency. This signal is
then digitally stored on a PC using a PCI 9114 data acquisition
card with a sampling frequency of 33.3 kHz per channel. Also
collected are voltage and current data measured using a LEM
LV-100 voltage transducer and a LEM LT-1000 Hall effect
current transducer, respectively.
All welds performed were bead-on-plate using 0.125” plating
for 0.035” wire and 0.250” plating for 0.0625” wire. Each
weld is performed, non-consecutively, three times. This
facilitates the signal-to-noise analysis and also establishes a
level of confidence when identifying dominant frequency
clusters, as explained later.
Spectrum Analysis
Of primary interest is the spectrum or frequency content of the
acoustic signals. Using Matlab, fast Fourier transforms (FFT)
are applied to four equally spaced segments of the acoustics
data (Figure 2). It is necessary to perform multiple FFTs as
acoustic signals are inherently stochastic and thus vary in
time.

Figure 2: Time domain acoustic signal and associated spectra
from four equally spaced data segments.
Prior to the FFT, the DC content of each signal is removed
using a digital high-pass filter with a 20 Hz cut-off frequency.
The frequency spectra in this study are generated using 4096
point FFTs, resulting in 8.14 Hz frequency resolution.
Cluster Identification
In order to properly identify trends in acoustic characteristics,
it is necessary to devise a repeatable and reliable method of
characterizing each frequency spectrum. By using an ad hoc
cluster identification technique, it is possible to identify those
frequency components which are dominant and common
between spectra and experiments. The method used involves;
1) transform spectra to octave bands, 2) determine cluster
boundaries, 3) extract dominant frequency components.
Octave Band Transformation
Human hearing is not a linear function of frequency, and as
such, the frequency spectra are transformed using 1/10th
octave bands. The octave band boundaries are computed
according to Equation 2.
fCn+1 = 21/ m fCn
f Equation 2
f Ln =
Cn
1/(2 m )
2 boundary combinations has been exhausted, or when the right
fU n = 21/(2 m ) fCn
Where:
m: octave band fraction (m=10 in this case)
fCn+1: center frequency of n’th band
fLn: lower frequency boundary of n’th band
fUn: upper frequency boundary of n’th band
679
An example of this fractional octave band transformation is
illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3: 1/10th octave band transformation of acoustic
spectrum
Determining Cluster Boundaries using Recursion
Initial inspection of a typical frequency spectrum for a GMA
weld (Figure 4), suggests that distinct separations can be made
to identify key frequency components. To perform this task in
a consistent and optimal manner, a recursive algorithm is
developed in Matlab to assess the level of scatter for data
within all possible boundary combinations. The average of
the cluster scatters is then used as a global cost function in
assessing optimal cluster boundary placement for each
spectrum.
The scatter of a set of points is defined as the collective spread
of a set of points from its local geometric mean:
N
∑ d (i) ⋅ i
mG = i
N
Equation 3
∑ d (i)
i
N
S w = ∑ d ( j ) ⋅ ( j − mG )2
j
Where:
mG: Geometric mean of data points
d: Data points
N: Total number of data points under consideration
Sw: Data set scatter
Every boundary combination is explored using the recursive
algorithm by sweeping boundary combinations from left to
right. The algorithm calls itself and continues to propagate
exponentially until the termination condition is met for the
most recent function call, at which point, back-propagation
through the recursion history occurs. The termination
condition is defined, in this case, as when the sub-set of
most boundary combination has been considered.
Each octave-banded spectrum contains 98 possible
boundaries. Since all possible boundary combinations are to
be assessed, the number of combinations, and thus, the
computational feasibility of arriving at optimal clustering is
considered by the binomial coefficient, ⎛ 98 ⎞ , where ‘k’ is
⎜ ⎟
⎝ k − 1⎠
the number of clusters. In the interest of practical
computational time, it was decided to assess up to five cluster
sets, inclusive, (approximately 71 million combinations),
resulting in a run-time of approximately 20 minutes per
spectrum. With 4 spectra per weld, and 162 welds, a total of
216 hours was required to analyze the collected data. Figure 4
illustrates an optimally clustered octave-banded spectrum.
Figure 4: Optimally clustered octave-banded spectrum using
recursion cluster identification algorithm.
Dominant Frequency Extraction
Having identified cluster boundaries for each spectrum, the
dominant frequency from each cluster can be identified and
extracted. Implementation simply involves searching for and
recording the frequency value at which maximum magnitude
occurs within each cluster. This method is simple and yields
relatively consistent results when used on steady-state data.
Level Average Analysis
Having extracted the dominant frequency components for four
spectra per weld run, it is now possible to generate a general
mapping between the severity of changes in frequency
components and changes in weld parameters. Level average
analysis looks at this trend by considering how much the
output parameter mean is affected by changes in control
parameter levels.
The primary effects and interaction effects of input parameters
on a given output parameter is computed by:
N M
∑m ∑m i
j =1
j
Equation 4
P= i =1
−
N M
Where:
P: Primary or interaction effect
mi: Means of output parameters pertaining to level
of highest effect.
mj: Means of output parameters pertaining to level
of lowest effect.
N: Number of
680
For this investigation, each of the five possible spectral bands
was considered an output parameter and was subjected to level
average analysis.
It became apparent that because level average analysis utilizes
the mean of dominant frequency components from each
spectrum, some effects may be underestimated due to
anomalous or non-clustered data points that can skew the
computed means. Fortunately, the following signal-to-noise
analysis will be sufficient to identify those effects which are
scattered (noisy), or well clustered, thus giving a better
indication as to which effects are truly dominant.
Furthermore, due to possible misrepresentation using
statistical mean, it is still necessary to identify specific spectral
components pertaining to said welding parameter changes. To
accomplish this, the data for dominant spectral bands are
subjected to frequency-of-occurrence analysis, as will be
discussed later.
Signal-to-Noise Analysis
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (Equation 5) was developed as
an indicator of how well a given process will perform in the
presence of noise. In this context, it is used as an indicator of
how consistent changes in spectral components are with
respect to changes in welding parameters. When used in
conjunction with results generated by level-average analysis, it
will help pinpoint the exact frequency bands that deserve
attention for a given set of welding parameters.
The S/N equation, in dB, is defined as:
y12 + y22 + ... + yn2
S / N = −10 ⋅ log Equation 5
n
Where:
y1, y2, … , yn: Data point values
n: Number of data points under consideration
In general, the larger the S/N ratio, the more salient or
confident one would be of a specific spectral component.
Level Average and S/N Results
The significant input parameters for each spectral band can be
identified by comparing the computed effects and interactions
from both the level-average and S/N analyses. Figure 5 shows
an example of how input parameters and interactions which
have significant level average effect as well as high S/N ratio
are considered.
For level-average analysis, maximum and minimum response
ranges are used to determine the factor selection threshold.
 7000 0

In Figure 5, the shaded columns indicate those factors and 6000

-10

interactions which have response ranges exceeding the -20

5000
selection threshold. In other words, the change in mean

Mean Frequency [Hz]

-30

S/N Ratio [dB]

frequency levels due to these factors and interactions are most 4000 -40

prominent. 3000 -50

-60
2000
A similar selection process is performed for the S/N results -70

using the maximum S/N ratio for each factor or interaction. 1000
-80

Furthermore, the response range in the S/N analysis gives an 0 -90

Low Med High
indication of how the salience and consistency of the given CTWD Level

frequency band changes due to changes in each factor or Mean Frequencies (cluster 1) [Hz]
S/N Ratios (cluster 1) [dB]
Mean Frequencies (cluster 4) [Hz]
S/N Ratios (cluster 4) [dB]

interaction. For example, as voltage increases from low to Figure 7: Dominant level average and S/N responses due to
high, the S/N ratio decreases. This indicates that spectral CTWD changes.
components centered about 338Hz will be more consistent at
low voltage settings while those components centered about 5000 0

3645Hz will be less consistent at high voltage settings. 4500

-10
4000
-20
Frequency Band 1 - Level Average Responses 3500

Mean Frequency [Hz]

Input Factors and Interactions
-30

S/NRatio [dB]
Input Parameter Level Voltage CTWD A x B A x B WFS A x C A x C B x C Torch Speed Wire Dia. B x C Gas Torch Angle 3000

2500 -40
Frequencies (Hz)

Low 338 1025 2542 1628 2139 1667 1718 1747 851 2608 1704 2980 509

2000
Med 807 1805 1562 1535 837 1877 2179 1625 1930 1248 2708 1446 1070 -50
Dominant

1500
-60
High 3645 2275 1002 1942 2128 1561 1208 1733 2324 1248 693 679 3525 1000
Response Range: 3307 1250 1540 408 1302 317 971 121 1473 1360 2014 2301 3016 -70
Level Average Selection Threshold: 1205 500

0 -80
Freqency Band 1 - S/N Responses
Input Factors and Interactions Low Med High
Input Parameter level Voltage CTWD A x B A x B WFS A x C A x C B x C Torch Speed Wire Dia. B x C Gas Torch Angle WFS Level
Mean Frequencies (cluster 1) [Hz] Mean Frequencies (cluster 3) [Hz]
Low -48.58 -59.36 -65.17 -56.81 -67.94 -60.67 -62.40 -60.22 -57.89 -64.00 -62.80 -64.59 -53.79 Mean Frequencies (cluster 4) [Hz] S/N Ratios (cluster 1) [dB]
S/N Ratios

S/N Ratios (cluster 3) [dB] S/N Ratios (cluster 4) [dB]

Med -56.79 -57.57 -53.85 -61.20 -52.97 -61.30 -58.00 -59.75 -60.10 -57.27 -59.66 -60.15 -62.10
(dB)

High -71.54 -61.62 -59.53 -60.53 -57.63 -56.58 -58.14 -58.58 -60.56 -57.27 -56.09 -53.81 -62.65 Figure 8: Dominant level average and S/N responses due to
Response Range: 22.97 4.05 11.32 4.40 14.97 4.72 4.40 1.64 2.67 6.73 6.71 10.78 8.86
Max S/N:
S/N Ratio Selection Threshold:
-48.58
-53.85
-57.57 -53.85 -56.81 -52.97 -56.58 -58.00 -58.58 -57.89 -57.27 -56.09 -53.81 -53.79 WFS changes.

6000 0
Figure 5: Level average response and S/N response analysis
-10
spread sheet. Grey columns indicate input parameters having 5000
-20
the greatest response effect for the specific frequency band.
MeanFrequency [Hz]

4000

S/NRatio[dB]
-30

3000 -40

Figure 6 through Figure 10 provides a graphical summary of -50

2000
how the S/N ratios and respective mean frequency clusters -60

change with significant parameter levels. 1000

-70

0 -80
Low Med High
6000 0 Torch Angle Level
Mean Frequencies (cluster 1) [Hz] Mean Frequencies (cluster 2) [Hz]
-10 Mean Frequencies (cluster 5) [Hz] S/N Ratios (cluster 1) [dB]
5000 S/N Ratios (cluster 2) [dB] S/N Ratios (cluster 5) [dB]

-20
Figure 9: Dominant level average and S/N responses due to
Mean Frequency [Hz]

4000
S/N Ratio [dB]

-30
torch-angle changes.
3000 -40

-50 6000 0
2000
-60 -10
5000
1000 -20
-70
MeanFrequency[Hz]

4000
S/NRatio[dB]

-30
0 -80
3000 -40
Low Med High
Voltage Level -50
2000
Mean Frequencies (cluster 1) [Hz] Mean Frequencies (cluster 2) [Hz] -60
Mean Frequencies (cluster 3) [Hz] Mean Frequencies (cluster 4) [Hz]
Mean Frequencies (cluster 5) [Hz] S/N Ratios (cluster 1) [dB] 1000
-70
S/N Ratios (cluster 2) [dB] S/N Ratios (cluster 3) [dB]
S/N Ratios (cluster 4) [dB] S/N Ratios (cluster 5) [dB]
0 -80
Low Med High

Figure 6: Dominant level average and S/N responses due to Mean Frequencies (cluster 1) [Hz]
Gas Level
Mean Frequencies (cluster 5) [Hz]
voltage changes. S/N Ratios (cluster 3) [dB]
Mean Frequencies (cluster 3) [Hz]
S/N Ratios (cluster 1) [dB]
S/N Ratios (cluster 5) [dB]

Figure 10: Dominant level average and S/N responses due to

gas flow rate changes.

681
 Frequency of Occurrence Analysis 14000
Frequency Cluster 4

12000

As mentioned earlier, the mean of each data-set may lead to 10000

misrepresentation of where the mode of the data truly lies. A

Frequency[Hz]
8000

better representation is obtained by frequency-of-occurrence 6000

analysis to identify the mode of each data set. It simply 4000

calculates how often data values occur within a range of 2000

values and plots a histogram (Figure 11). Due to the acoustic 0

Low Med High

nature of the anaylsis, the data ranges are arranged WFS Level

logarithmically in 1/10th octave bands. Figure 13: Dominant spectral bands identifying changes in
key sound characteristics with changing WFS.
Frequency - Voltage (Cluster 1) Low
Frequency Cluster 3

700

20 600

18
500
16

Frequency[Hz]
400
14
Occurances

12 Frequency 300

10 200
8
100
6
4 0
Low Med High
2 Gas Level

0
Figure 14: Dominant spectral bands identifying changes in
2473

4946
6994
19.32
27.32
38.64
54.64
77.27
109.3
154.5
218.6
309.1
437.1
618.2
874.3
1236
1749

3497

9891
13988

key sound characteristics with changing gas flow rate.

Ranges

Figure 11: Sample histogram generated by frequency of Conclusion

occurrence analysis to identify characteristic frequency bands
of significance. This work has explored and identified dominant characteristics
in arc acoustics with respect to changing welding parameters.
Each significant spectral band identified by level-average and Through Taguchi experiments, detailed spectral analysis, and
S/N ratio analysis is subjected to this analysis. The most frequency of occurrence analysis, we have shown that changes
commonly occuring frequency for each case is then identified in voltage level, WFS, and gas flow rate can be detected by
and the collective results plotted against their respective observing changes in specific acoustic frequency bands. With
parameter levels (Figure 12 through Figure 14). Only those further development, these characteristic bands can be utilized
cases which exhibited significant changes in dominant as feedback signals in automated process control.
frequencies are presented. The frequency-of-occurance
analysis has greatly reduced the number of significant References
parameters and associated levels when compared to the level
average analysis, illustrating how it reduces the confounding 1. Matteson A., Morris R., Tate R, Real-Time GMAW
effects of non-clustered data points. Quality Classification using an Artificial Nural Network
with Airborne Acoustic Signals as Inputs, Conf.
14000
Modelling and Control of Joining Processes
12000
2. Chawla KS., Norrish J., Real time quality monitoring
10000 using analysis of the arc sound, Proc. 4th Int. Conf.
Frequency [Hz]

8000 Computer Technology in Welding

6000 3. Drouet M., Nadeau F., Acoustic measurement of the
4000
arc voltage applicable to arc welding and arc funaces, J.
2000
Physics and Scientific Instruments 1982, 15 (1) 268-269
0
4. Kaskinen P., Mueller G., Acoustic arc length control,
Low Med
Voltage Level
High
Proc. Int. Conf. Advances in Welding Science and
Cluster 3 Cluster 4 Technology, Gatlinburg
Figure 12: Dominant spectral bands identifying changes in 5. Tam, J. and Huissoon, J., Characterizing Arc Acoustics
key sound characteristics with changing voltage. in GMA welding, 14th Int’l Conf. Computer Technology
in Welding and Mfg. 2004
6. G.S. Peace, Taguchi Methods – A Hands-On Approach,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading,
Massachusetts (1993)

682
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
ADVANCED WELDING CONTROL & MONITORING SYSTEMS DEVELOPED FOR
THICK-SECTION NARROW GROOVE WELDING
J. Kikel, S. Menicos, B. Grut
BWX Technologies Inc., Barberton, Ohio, USA
D. Schwemmer
AMET Inc., Rexburg, Idaho, USA
Abstract
BWX Technologies has a long history as a developer and
provider of parts involving complex welding. BWX
Technologies has developed significant expertise in the use of
thick section, narrow groove, GTA (Gas Tungsten Arc)
welding to meet the rigid demands for the manufacture of
these parts.
To support it’s unique, world-class capability, BWX
Technologies established the requirements for a new, next
generation automated control and monitoring system that
would be completely integrated and incorporate the latest
technology. AMET (Advanced Manufacturing Engineering
Technologies), a provider of sophisticated welding control and
monitoring systems, was selected to produce two identical
turn-key systems.
This welding application required many technologies to be
incorporated into a single integrated welding system. The
final system design incorporated the following capabilities and
technologies:
• Accurate high-speed control of all existing and
potential welding parameters (Current, Voltage/Arc
Length, Hotwire Voltage, Travel Speed, Wire Feed
Speed, Back Purge Pressure, Mechanical Oscillation,
Cross-Seam Position, etc.).
• A fixture design, which significantly improves
welding setup accuracy and cycle time.
• Automatic compensation for variances in fixture /
torch position relative to joint centerline position.
• Adaptive control of the welding current on the root
pass for varying gaps to produce consistent
penetration and root pass geometry.
• Custom designed Arc Machines (AMI) narrow
groove welding torch with three axis remote wire
positioning and remote torch tilt capabilities. This
torch also includes AMI fixed focused auto filtering
trailing and leading video cameras.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
• Automatic control of back-purge flow rates to
maintain a constant pressure as the root gap varies
with time.
• Video recording capability with real time parameter
overlay of key welding parameters along with torch
position and time information.
• Extensive integrated process monitoring and
automated faulting systems for quality assurance.
• Integrated database for organizing and documenting
all required process procedures, all acquired welding
data, and verifying operator input.
BWX Technologies and AMET have jointly implemented two
advanced welding systems that have proven a new approach
for narrow groove thick section GTA welding of complex
parts.
Introduction
In order to support the demands for thick section narrow
groove GTA welding, BWX Technologies together with
AMET specified, developed, and produced a next generation
automated control and monitoring system. The objectives of
this project were as follows:
● Integrate high-speed control and monitoring of all
welding parameters.
● Incorporate a new fixture design which significantly
improves the welding setup accuracy and cycle time
as well as incorporates a custom Arc Machines
narrow groove welding torch with remote wire
positioning and remote torch tilt capability.
● Utilize integrated controls that automatically
compensate for variances in fixture / torch position
and joint centerline position.
● Provide integrated sensors and controls for adaptive
control of the weld current for varying root gaps to
satisfy the consistent penetration and root pass
geometry requirements.
683
 ● Provide integrated sensors and control for automatic
control of back-purge flow rates to maintain a
constant pressure as the root gap and unwelded
length vary with time.
● Provide integrated video display, video recording,
with real-time parameter overlay of key welding
parameters along with torch position and time
information.
●
Provide extensive integrated and redundant process
monitoring as well as automated faulting systems for
quality assurance.
● Provide an integrated database for organizing and
documenting extensive process procedure
information, all acquired welding process data, and
operator input to verify process conformance.
● Provide an optimal Man-Machine Interface (MMI)
that easily facilitates the programming, operation,
and maintenance of the system.
System Technology
Architecure Approach
AMET’s system consists of one or more VME hosted CPU
boards, AMET designed DSPs (Digital Signal Processors),
which are IO processors (one for each control or data
acquisition channel), and a PC based operator interface, Figure
1. Each processing element in the system is optimized for a
specific part of the system. The main VME CPU(s) executes
the basic controller tasks and sequences in a hard real-time
software environment. This guarantees predictable and reliable
response to the welding process. The DSP IO processors
provide all the front end processing and control for each
channel. This can include acquiring, filtering and scaling of
process feedback signals for data acquisition and control loop
processing for process parameters (PID, Kalman Filter, etc.)
such as AVC. By using DSP’s, which are optimized for signal
processing, a much higher level of control is accomplished
(currently 20,000 control points per second can be processed
per DSP channel) without impacting the main controller CPU.
Flexibility is also enhanced as additional control channels can
be added to the system by incorporating additional DSP IO
processors. These additional processors are self contained so
the main CPU does not become bogged down as the
complexity of the overall controller increases.
Another element of AMET’s distributed architecture is the
operator interface processor. This is implemented using a PC
Desktop operating environment connected to the controller
over a high-speed Ethernet network. The operator interface
acts as a client to the controller (server), and receives and
sends control and monitoring information over the network.
The Operator interface software can concentrate on informing
and interacting with the operator. Another advantage to the
networked operator station is that any station on the network
can connect to the controller and monitor/interact with the
controller, such as a remote display when multiple operator
stations are required. This approach provides a sophisticated
684
operator interface using the most advanced GUI (Graphical
User Interface) based operating system without affecting the
controller’s response and reliability.
ENGINEERING OPERATOR
CONSOLE
MAINFRAME
WORKSTATION STORAGE
PROCESSOR
ETHERNET
REAL-TIME
PROCESSOR
VME BUS
IP BUS
DSP
PROCESSOR
DSP
PROCESSOR
DSP
PROCESSOR
DSP
GAP SENSOR
DSP
BACK PURGE
CURRENT VOLTAGE TRAVEL PROCESSOR PROCESSOR
Figure 1: Schematic depicting the AMET distributed
archetectual approach.
Man Machine Interface (MMI) - Control and Monitoring
The MMI for this system needed to interface with many
disciplines; manufacturing, engineering, quality, maintenance,
and management. The interface needed to manage significant
amounts of welding procedural information, weld schedule
information, and welding data. The resulting software package
comprises over 5 million lines of C++ code and provides
graphical programming, “drag and drop” process automation
scripting, graphical data display, integrated video displays, an
integrated data base for coordinating all process information,
and a user friendly calibration environment.
It also needed to provide visual feedback and recording of this
information. The resulting interface combines 2 19” high
resolution monitors, 2 programmable DVD recorders, a
remote display, and 2 remote pendants for operator control.
These components provide for the input, the distribution and
presentation of this information as required throughout the
extensive weld setup, welding, and post weld analysis. Figure
2 shows screen captures of the main MMI including data
analysis and script programming screens.
An independent / redundant high speed monitoring system is
also utilized to further ensure weld process compliance. It is
also a DSP-based system designed to statistically evaluate the
process data, at up to 20,000 samples/second/channel against a
pre-established template of acceptable tolerances.
 welding current compensation algorithm developed by BWX
Technologies was coded into software which then allows the
current to be adjusted automatically based on the measured
gap.

Tack weld recognition logic is also included as part of the gap

measurement software as to not affect the current
compensation when a tack is encountered.

Figure 2: Screen captures depicting the main MMI including

data analysis and script programming screens.

Virtual Alignment / Fixture Design

Many man-hours of labor were required to align the torch
fixturing to the centerline of the part to be welded using the
original equipment procured for this application. This
procedure had to be repeated several times between sequences
of welds. To eliminate much of this effort AMET and BWX
Technologies developed a software solution utilizing
precision, high speed servo controls to maintain accurate torch
alignment throughout the weld path. With this technology the
torch positioning equipment could be located on the part using
only mechanical interfaces for rough centering. The system
would then automatically sequence allowing the operator to
teach a relatively few points on the weld joint center (every 15
to 30 degrees). Once completed the software calculates a
virtual path that compensates for center misalignment and
joint deviations. The high speed precision servos adjust cross-
seam torch position automatically as the torch is rotated Figure 3: View of the main rotator assembly and torch.
around the part keeping the torch aligned to the joint at any
point in the path. This virtual alignment is active not only
during welding but also during positioning and jogging. Figure
3 is a photograph of the main rotator assembly and welding
torch.

Gap Measurment and Adaptive Control

For root pass consistency, the gap at the joint must be
accurately measured and compensated for by adjusting the
weld current. To automate this process, precision laser gap
scanning measurement hardware and software were
developed. The hardware consists of a laser displacement
sensor and a precision servo-controlled slide positioned at a
fixed offset ahead of the torch, Figure 4. The servo-controlled
slide scans the laser sensor across the joint while the
displacement data is processed by an AMET digital signal
processor. The DSP algorithms trigger high speed position
latch registers at the appropriate thresholds, effectively
capturing the positions of the joint edges. From this
information it is easy to calculate the measured gaps to as
small as 0.005”.

The gap data is buffered sequentially by rotational position Figure 4: Close-up view of the AMI weld torch along with the
and acted upon when the welding torch reaches the position. A root gap sensing sensor.

685
 Results

Two welding systems have been installed and are currently in

production at BWX Technologies. Figure 5 is a
photomacrograph of a completed weld using the new AMET
welding system. Figure 6 is a photograph of the entire weld
system including the auxilery console and pendants.

With the new welding systems results to date have been

impressive. Weld quality has been exceptional with a zero
defect rate. The cycle time per component has been reduced Figure 6: View of the welding system including the rotator,
and significant reductions are anticipated in the future, as main console, auxilery console and pendants.
familiarity with the systems continues. The “Virtual
Centering” has effectively eliminated the need for operator
“steering” of the torch, which is very important on such long
duration welds. The precision fixturing and “Virtual
Centering” have reduced the previous torch run out from
±0.030” to ±0.005”. The adaptive gap and pressure control
have ensured desired penetration on the root passes and
eliminated the difficult and sensitive in-process operator
adjustment demands. The data acquisition systems verify
controller performance as well as part-to-part process
consistency. The database has ensured and verified procedure
compliance. The new systems have incorporated many
integrated technologies to solve past process problems,
provided increased production rates, and ensured that BWX
Technologies stringent quality requirements have been
achieved.

Figure 5: Transverse metallographic section of a completed

narrow grooove weld deposited using the AMET system.

686
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Model Based Metal Transfer Control
J. S. Thomsen
Aalborg University, Denmark
Abstract
In pulsed gas metal arc welding (pulsed GMAW) current
pulses are used for detaching drops at the tip of the electrode.
To obtain a high weld quality one drop should be detached for
every pulse, and moreover, the amount of energy used for
detachment should be kept at a minimum. Thus, each pulse
must be strong enough to detach each drop, but on the other
hand, each pulse should be as low as possible. The minimal
pulse required to detach a drop depends on the size of the
drop, but during welding the size of the drops change with
disturbances in the process. Traditionally, in pulsed GMAW a
fixed pulse frequency and a fixed pulse shape are used.
Because of disturbances strong current pulses are used to
obtain the one drop per pulse objective, but minimal pulses are
not obtained. In this work a novel approach is presented which
provides minimal pulse energy and one drop per pulse. A
variable time interval between the pulses is used to ensure a
fixed drop size at initiation of each pulse, and this makes it
possible to minimize the pulses.
Introduction
The pulsed gas metal arc welding (pulsed GMAW) process is
one of the most frequently employed and important welding
processes. The process is performed either as an automated
robotic process, or as a manual hand-held process. In many or
most applications of the pulsed GMAW process high weld
quality is of concern. In pulsed GMAW many different
aspects contribute to the overall quality of the weld. For
example, the performance of the internal controllers in the
welding machine have a significant effect on the quality. In
this paper metal transfer control is considered which is one of
the internal control mechanisms in pulsed GMAW. The task
for the metal transfer controller is to provide drop detachment
by forcing a current pulse onto the process. In general it is
desirable to have one drop per pulse (ODPP), and also, in
many application a low pulse energy is preferred. ODPP can
be regarded as a robustness property, and thus, ODPP should
be fulfilled despite disturbances in the process. Disturbances
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
could for example be uneven movement of the welding gun or
irregularities in the workpiece.
Traditionally, pulsed GMAW is carried out by a metal transfer
controller which uses a fixed pulse shape and a fixed pulse
frequency. However, using this control method the pulses
need to be over-sized (in terms of magnitude and duration) to
ensure drop detachment in the presence of disturbances. In this
paper a novel metal transfer controller which is able to handle
disturbances without using over-sized pulses is proposed. The
basic idea is to obtain a uniform drop size prior to pulse
initiation by integrating the melting speed. The proposed metal
transfer controller is a continuation of the work in [1]. Other
work in area of pulsed GMAW typically involves tuning pulse
parameters in the traditional control scheme. Also, work have
been done with respect to pulse shapes, see the double pulse
approach in [2].
The Pulsed GMAW Process
The GMAW process is illustrated in Fig. 1. The welding
machine outputs a voltage at the terminals, and thus,
establishes an electrical circuit. Basically, the circuit consists
of the anode wire, the cathode wire, the electrode, and the arc.
The energy produced in the arc and the electrode melts the
electrode and causes drop growth and drop detachment from
the tip of the electrode. The electrode, consumed in this way,
is replaced by new electrode material as the electrode is
pushed forward by a wire feed system. The energy developed
in the arc also melts the workpiece and melted workpiece
material and detached liquid metal drops from the electrode
form a melting pool. When the melting pool cools down and
solidify the weld is complete. During the welding process the
arc is protected from the ambient air using some shielding gas,
typically, pure argon or a mixed gas of argon and carbon
dioxide.
GMAW can be divided into at least 3 modes of operation
depending on the current. These modes are the short arc mode,
the globular mode, and the spray mode, see for example [3]. In
687
this paper pulsed GMAW is considered. Pulsed GMAW can
be regarded as spray mode welding, in which a strong current
generates and transfers liquid metal drops from the electrode,
through the electrical arc, and to the melting pool. In ordinary
spray welding a strong current is maintained during the
welding process, but in pulsed GMAW the current level is
shifted between low and high. During the time intervals with a
low current level, also denoted as the base periods, the arc
should be maintained but no drop detachments should occur.
During the time intervals with a high current level, also
denoted as the pulse periods, drops should be detached from
the electrode, such that one drop is detached for every pulse
period.
Electrode speed
Anode
wire
+
Power supply Anode terminal
Contact
and control Cathode terminal
-
tip to
workpiece
distance
Cathode
wire The arc
Welding current
Melting pool Workpiece
Figure 1: Illustration of the GMAW process. A consumable
electrode is forwarded by a wire feed system (not shown)
through the contact tube. The electrode melts and drops
detach and fall into the melting pool.
Modelling the GMAW Process
For control a suited model of the welding process is needed.
Such model can be found in numerous works, for example in
[3]. The main parts of the model will be presented in the
following. Basically, the important aspects with respect to
control are the electrical circuit, the drop dynamics, the drop
detachment criteria, and the melting rate.
The GMAW process constitutes an electrical circuit which can
be described by (1). Ut is the machine terminal voltage, Rw is
the wire resistance, Lw is the wire inductance, Rcc is the sum of
all contact resistances, ls is the electrode length, ρr is the
electrode resistivity, and I is the welding current. The function
h(I, la) describes the arc voltage, and thus, the arc voltage is
modelled as some function of the current and the arc length la.
U t = Rw I + Lw I& + Rcc I + ls ρ r I + h( I , la )
The pendant drop attached to the tip of the electrode can be
modelled as the mass-spring-damper system described in (2).
md is the mass of the drop, xd is the position of the drop (with
respect to the electrode), bd the damping coefficient, kd is the
spring constant, and FT is the sum of other forces.
md &x&d = FT − bd x&d − kd xd (2)
FT is stated in (3) and consists of a force Fg due to gravity, a
force Fem caused by electromagnetic induction, a force Fd
caused by aerodynamic drag, and a momentum force Fm
accounting for the change of mass of the drop.
FT = Fg + Fem + Fd + Fm (3)
At strong currents the electromagnetic force Fem dominates the
Contact
tube other forces. Strong current is present in the pulse periods and
therefore the electromagnetic force, stated in (4), is important
with respect metal transfer control.
μ I 2 ⎡ ⎛ r sin θ ⎞ 1 1 (4)
Current
Fem = 0 ⎢ln⎜⎜ d ⎟− −
carring
electrode
4π ⎣ ⎝ re ⎟⎠ 4 1 − cosθ
2 ⎛ 2 ⎞⎤
+ ln⎜ ⎟⎥
(1 − cos θ )2 ⎝ 1 + cos θ ⎠⎥⎦
Arc
length
In the literature prediction of drop detachments are normally
either described by the static force balance model (SFBM),
which has been extended to a dynamic force balance model
(DFBM), or described by a model based on the pinch
instability theory (PIT). The SFBM drop detachment criterion
is stated in (5), and it predicts drop detachment by comparing
the surface tension Fs of the drop with the external forces FT
exerted on the drop, see [4]. re is the radius of the electrode
and γ is the surface tension.
SFBM detachment if : FT > Fs , Fs = 2πreγ (5)
In the SFBM the dynamics of the drop is not taken into
account when predicting the occurrence of drop detachment.
However, in [5] dynamics are accounted for by including the
inertia of the drop in the model. This gives the dynamic force
balance model (DFBM) as stated in (6).
DFBM detachment if : FT + md &x&d > Fs , Fs = 2πreγ (6)
The drop detachment criteria given by SFBM and DFBM rely
on the axial forces acting on the drop. However, the drop
detachment criterion based on the PIT relies on the radial
forces acting on the drop. The PIT criterion states that drop
(1) detachment occur if the drop radius rd exceeds a critical drop
radius rdc. The PIT criterion, see [6], is stated in (7) and (8),
688
where μ0 is the permeability of free space, and ρe is the
density of the electrode material.
PIT detachment if : rd > rdc
π ( rd + re ) ⎛ 3m ⎞
rdc = , rd = ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟
⎝ 4πρ e ⎠
0.5
5 ⎛ xd + rd ⎞⎛⎜ μ0 I 2 ⎞
⎟
⎜ ⎟⎟ 1 +
4 ⎜⎝ rd ⎠⎜⎝ 2πγ ( rd + re ) ⎟⎠
The melting rate can be modelled by two terms, that is, the
anode heating and the Ohmic heating, see [7]. The anode
heating represent the kinetic energy of electrons bombarding
the electrode, and also, the energy of condensation when
electrons are absorbed into the lattice of the electrode material.
Ohmic heating is caused by the energy loss from the current
flowing through the electrode material. In this paper a melting
speed (measured in m/s) model is used instead of a melting
rate (measured in m3/s) model, but the only difference is the
value of the constants. The melting speed model is stated in
(9) where k1 and k2 are constants used for anode heating and
Ohmic heating, respectively.
vm = k1I + k2ls I 2
The model presented in this section will later be used for
developing a metal transfer controller and simulating the
process.
Controlling the Pulsed GMAW Process
In this paper it assumed that it is only possible to measure the
machine terminal voltage Ut and the current I. These
measurements can be considered as the standard available
measurements in manual welding. Output from the welding
machine is the control voltage Uc, which ideally is equal to the
machine terminal voltage. Equation (1) determines the current
dynamics of the process with terminal voltage Ut as the
driving input. However, by inserting an internal current
controller in the welding machine the current dynamics is
determined by this control loop, and thus, the welding
machine acts as a controlled current source (CCS). Such
internal current controller provides a direct way to shape
current pulses and handle extreme situations such as short
circuits which might otherwise damage the machine or the
process. It is believed that such current controller is normally
included in modern welding machines, and likewise it is
included in this work.
Two main tasks can be identified for control of the pulsed
GMAW process. These tasks are arc length control and metal
transfer control. The objective in arc length control is to keep
a steady arc length in spite of disturbances such as unevenness
in the workpiece and uneven movement of the welding gun.
With respect to metal transfer control the objective is basically
to provide drop detachment from the electrode. The arc length
controller and the metal transfer controller can be configured
(7) in a cascade coupled system together with the internal current
controller as shown in Fig. 2. Irc is the reference current
control signal, Ir is the reference current signal, and both are
(8) internal control signals in the welding machine.
Arc
Irc Metal
Ir Current Ut
GMAW
length transfer
control control control process
I Ut
Figure 2: The cascade coupled control structure of the
welding machine.
Control of the pulsed GMAW process can be divided into two
periods, that is the base period and the pulse period. Normally,
arc length control is performed during the base period by
adjusting the current Irc which is forwarded directly to Ir. For
example, arc length control can be performed by a PI-
controller which uses the terminal voltage as a measure of the
arc length, or alternatively the measured voltage and current
can be used for estimating the arc length. Metal transfer
control is performed in the pulse period by forcing some
specified, and normally fixed, current pulse onto the process.
(9) Traditionally, the lengths of the base periods and the pulse
periods are fixed, and thus, the pulse frequency is also fixed.
Let us denote this traditional metal transfer controller as the
FFMTC (Fixed Frequency Metal Transfer Controller).
Objectives in Pulsed GMAW
In pulsed GMAW current pulses are used for detaching drops
from the tip of the electrode, such that, one drop is detached
for every pulse. Lack of drop detachment or multiple drop
detachments for each pulse will have a negative effect on the
quality of the weld. Thus, an objective in pulsed GMAW
control is to obtain one drop per pulse (ODPP). This can also
be regarded as an objective of robustness. Moreover, in many
applications it is important to avoid heating up the electrode or
the workpieces too much. For example, this could be the case
when welding with alloys or when welding in thin materials.
In pulsed GMAW most heating is generated in the pulse
period, and thus, minimization of the energy per pulse used for
detaching one drop is desirable. Therefore, a second objective
in pulsed GMAW control can be defined as minimization of
the energy per pulse used for detaching one drop.
Three models for drop detachment have been presented, that
is, the static force balance model (SFBM), the dynamic force
balance model (DFBM), and the model based on the pinch
instability theory (PIT). In both the SFBM and the DFBM,
drop detachment depends on the total force FT. Because of the
strong pulse current the electromagnetic force Fem is the far
most significant force of the forces included in FT. From (4) it
689
can be seen that Fem depends on the size of the drop, that is,
the drop radius rd. In DFBM, the drop detachment criterion
also depends on the acceleration of the drop, and a large
acceleration is caused by large changes in the total force FT
which is dominated by Fem. Therefore, as Fem depends on the
magnitude of the current the DFBM also becomes dependent
of the change in current, that is, dI/dt. However, the
acceleration does not only depends on the change of force, but
again, on the size of the drop, as small drops for some applied
force obtain a higher acceleration than large drops. In the
detachment model based on the PIT the criterion for drop
detachment depends on the drop radius rd, on the position of
the drop xd, and on the magnitude of the current. The position
xd both depends on the magnitude of the total force, and also it
depends on the change in the total force (or change in current),
as a sudden change in force gives rise to drop oscillations, and
thus, change in xd. The conclusion is that no matter which drop
detachment criteria is considered drop detachment depends on
the drop size. It also appears that the change in current is
another important factor. However, in this paper only the drop
size will considered with respect to metal transfer control.
Now, let us assume that the pulses are given by some fixed
shape, such that, all pulses are identical. Also, suppose that
because of disturbances the size of the drop immediately
before initiation of the pulse period differ from period to
period. Then, conservative (over-sized) pulse shapes must be
used to ensure drop detachment for all possible drop sizes. For
example, if the drop is relatively small, then some specified
pulse shape might not be able to detach the drop. So, to ensure
drop detachment, also for the small drops, the pulse magnitude
or duration must be increased. However, for large drops, the
given pulse shape will be over-sized in the sense that the drop
is detached in the beginning of the pulse, and thus, the rest of
the pulse just contributes to excess melting and a large heat
input into the workpiece. Therefore, in this case the objective
of minimal energy for drop detachment is not fulfilled.
Now, it appears that at least two methods for obtaining drop
detachments at minimal energy are feasible. One method is to
adjust each pulse shape according to the drop size at initiation
of each pulse. Another method is to make sure that the drop
size at initiation of each pulse is constant, and thereby a fixed
and minimized pulse shape can be used. In practice, it is
difficult to derive the shape of a pulse based on the drop
detachment models as these models are not precise, and
therefore, it is better to tune a pulse shape from practical
experiments. For this reason the latter method is used, that is,
to use a fixed pulse shape but ensuring a uniform drop size
prior to pulse initiation. So, this uniform drop size approach
becomes the basic idea in the metal transfer control algorithm
presented in this paper.
690
Model Based Metal Transfer Control
A control scheme is needed which is able to provide a uniform
drop size prior to pulse initiation, and also, in the control
scheme it must be possible to perform arc length control. This
can be done by allowing the arc length controller to operate in
the base period. However, instead of having a fixed pulse
frequency, the length of the base period is adjusted according
to the size of the drop. During one total cycle the total melting
of electrode consists of the length of melted electrode xmp in
the pulse period and the length of melted electrode xmb in the
base period. These lengths can be expressed by the melting
speed vm. In each cycle the start of the pulse period is denoted
by t0, the end of the pulse period is denoted by t1 which is also
the beginning of the base period, and the end of the base
period is denoted by t2.
t1 (10)
xmp = ∫ v ( I , ls ) dt
t0 m
t2 (11)
xmb = ∫ vm ( I , ls ) dt
t1
The total length of melted electrode xmt is given by (12).
xmt = xmp + xmb (12)
During welding the melting speed vm can be calculated by the
melting speed model stated in (9). The current I and the stick-
out ls are needed to calculate the melting speed, but only the
current is measured. To overcome this problem ls is simply
assumed to be the nominal value.
Each drop starts growing from the point of the previous
detachment, and continue growing until detachment again
occur. Normally, detachment takes place during the following
pulse period, and therefore, a drop both begins and ends in a
pulse period. To ensure a uniform drop size prior to pulse
initiation the melting speed must be integrated from
detachment of the previous drop, but in practice it is difficult
to calculate the exact point of drop detachment during the
pulse period. However, unless significant disturbances is
applied to the process it can be expected that the drop detaches
at approximately the same point during each pulse period.
This makes it possible to integrate the whole pulse period, and
thus, a condition for pulse initiation can be derived. The
condition is given in (13) and states that the new pulse period
must be initiated when some specified length of electrode xmtSet
has been melted during the pulse and base period. Moreover,
to increase robustness of the method a minimal cycle time
TcMin is used as an additional condition in (13). tc is the cycle
time.
Initiate pulse if : xmt ≥ xmtSet ∧ tc ≥ TcMin (13)
Now, with this condition a uniform drop size prior to pulse approximated by a first order filter having a time constant τi.
initiation is provided. Let us denote this metal transfer The process also consists of equations describing electrode
controller as the UDMTC (Uniform Drop Metal Transfer melting and drop dynamics. The DFBM criterion is used for
Controller). An example pulse and base period are sketched in determining drop detachment events.
Fig. 3, where the melting speed is integrated from t0 and until
condition (13) is fulfilled. The pulse shape illustrated in Fig. 3 To enable numerical simulation a large number of parameters
is the so called chair form which is used in several modern are needed. A few important parameters are shown in Table 1
welding machines. Other pulse shapes could likewise be used and a complete list of all parameters can be found in [1].
as for example the double pulse suggested in [2].
Table 1: Selected parameters used in simulation.
I
Current time constant, τi 6.7e-5 s
Melting speed constant, k1 3.7e-4 m/(sA)
xmt = xmtSet Melting speed constant, k2 6.6e-4 1/(A2m)
Electrode radius, re 5e-4 m
Nominal tip to workpiece distance, lc 0.015 m
Electrode speed, ve 0.1 m/s
t0 t1 t2 time Arc length reference, la 0.003 m
pulse period base period

Figure 3: Sketch of the current during the pulse period and To illustrate the robustness of the proposed metal transfer
base period. At the indicated point t2 a new pulse is initiated. controller plots from four experiments are shown in this
section. In the first experiment the FFMTC is used and in the
second experiment the UDMTC is used. In both the first and
Simulations the second experiment no disturbances are applied to the
process. In the third and fourth experiment the FFMTC and
In [1] an extensive simulation system for GMAW is presented.
the UDMTC are used again, but this time disturbances in the
This simulation system (developed in Simulink) will be used
contact tip to workpiece distance are included.
for validation of the metal transfer control approach described
in the former section. Basically, the simulation system is an
To be able to compare the two controllers the same pulse
implementation of the previously described model. The
shape is used, and also, the FFMTC is adjusted to have the
simulation system is sketched in Fig. 4.
same average frequency as the UDMTC in the experiments
without disturbances. Moreover, in the no disturbance
Drop detachment
criteria (DFBM) situation the fixed pulse shape (which is used in both methods)
detachment
event is tuned to a minimum, such that, no or only a few pulse
lc periods lack drop detachment. In this way the minimal energy
ve The process : objective is fulfilled, but on the other hand the robustness
- current control (ODPP) objective is not necessarily obtained.
Arc Metal - electrode melting
Irc Ir - drop dynamics
length transfer
control control In Fig. 5 the results from the first and the second experiment
are shown. The current using the FFMTC is shown in (a), the
current using the UDMTC is shown in (b), and the contact tip
I Ut
to workpiece distance lc is shown in (c). Drop detachments are
indicated by stars on the current plots. As it can be seen there
la Arc length is one pulse in (a) without drop detachment. This might seem
estimation
odd as lc is constant, but the reason is the irregularity of the
drop oscillations.
Figure 4: Simulation system used for investigation of the metal
transfer control approach. In Fig. 6 the results from the third and the forth experiment are
shown. As in Fig. 5 the currents and drop detachments for
The arc length la is measured by an arc length estimator and FFMTC and UDMTC are shown, and also, the contact tip to
controlled by the arc length controller. The metal transfer workpiece distance lc is shown. lc is generated by 20 Hz
controller applies a reference current Ir to the process. Other bandlimited noise around the nominal value to simulate
inputs to the process are the electrode speed ve, the contact tip irregular movements of the welding gun in manual welding.
to workpiece distance lc, and drop detachment events which Furthermore, a positive step equal to 0.003 m at 0.2 s and a
reset the states of the process. The current dynamics is negative step of 0.004 m at 0.3 s are included. These steps
considered to be a part of the welding process and is simply simulates edges in the workpiece. With this disturbance

691
applied the FFMTC has five pulses without drop detachment robustness the minimal total cycle time TcMin (see (13)) is set
and the UDMTC has one pulse without drop detachment. to be a little less than the fixed frequency of the FFMTC.
Thus, the UDMTC is far more robust than the FFMTC to
these disturbances. 0.02

0.015

(a): time (s)

400 0.01
(a): current (A)

300 0.005

200 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
100
0.02
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.015

(b): time (s)

400 0.01
(b): current (A)

300 0.005

200 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
100 time (s)

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

0.025
Figure 7: Cycle time using the FFMTC (a) and UDMTC (b).
(c): contact tip dist.(m)

0.02

0.015
Conclusion
0.01

0.005
In this paper a novel metal transfer controller is proposed. The
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
time (s) controller is based on obtaining some specified drop size
before initiation of each pulse period, and thus, the pulse
Figure 5: (a) Current and detachments using the FFMTC. (b) frequency is not fixed. The advantage is increased robustness
Current and detachments using the UDMTC. Stars indicates towards the one drop per pulse objective. Also, it is possible to
drop detachments. (c) Contact tip to workpiece distance. lower the energy used for drop detachment. However, the
method has only been verified in simulation, and thus,
verification on the real welding process still need to be done.
400
(a): current (A)

300
References
200

100
1. J.S. Thomsen, Advanced Control Methods for
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 Optimization of Arc Welding (Thesis), Aalborg
400 University (2004), ISBN 87-90664-18-3.
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300 2. Y.M. Zhang, P.J. Li, Modified Active Metal Transfer

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Research Supplement (2001).
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0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 3. D.S. Naidu, S. Ozcelik and K.L. Moore, Modeling,
0.025 Sensing and Control of Gas Metal Arc Welding,
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0.02 Elsevier (2003).

0.015 4. A.D. Watkins, H.B. Smartt, J.A. Johnson, A Dynamic
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time (s) Technology (1992).
5. J.H. Choi, J. Lee, C.D. Yoo, Dynamic force balance
Figure 6: (a) Current and detachments using the FFMTC. (b) model for metal transfer analysis in arc welding, J.
Current and detachments using the UDMTC. Stars indicates Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 2658-2664 (2001).
drop detachments. (c) Contact tip to workpiece distance. 6. J.F. Lancaster, The Physics of Welding, Pergamon
Press (1984).
In Fig. 7 it can be seen why the UDMTC is more robust than 7. A. Lesnewich, Control of the Melting Rate and Metal
the FFMTC. In (a) the cycle time tc is shown for the FFMTC, Transfer in Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding, Part I,
and the maximal tc is fixed as it should be. However, in (b) the Welding Research Supplement, 343-353 (1958).
cycle time is adjusted according to the UDMTC. The problem
for the FFMTC occur when it is trying to detach a small drop.
The UDMTC, on the other hand, waits until the drop is big
enough and then initiates the pulse period. Notice that, for

692
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Nonlinear Interval Model Control of the Double Sided Arc Welding Process
B. Losch, Y.M. Zhang
Center for Manufacturing Systems, Lexington, KY, USA

Abstract Process Description

The Double Sided Arc Welding (DSAW) process developed at The DSAW consists of two distinct states: the keyhole
the University of Kentucky provides many advantages over establishment phase (peak mode) and the keyhole phase (base
both conventional arc welding and laser arc welding mode). Figure 1 demonstrates the division of the states.
processes. A nonlinear model was chosen to represent the Peak mode starts at time t 0 . The DSAW control signal is
dynamics of the DSAW method based on experimental switched high, which turns on the voltage of the DSAW power
analysis of the procedure. Due to the highly dynamic nature
supply. The plasma current ( I PAW ) is then set to an initial
of the DSAW process, the model parameters determined via
o
least squares method from a series of experiments were varied. value, I peak . I PAW is then ramped up at 1A / 10ms while
It was determined that the parameters of the nonlinear model
were uncertain, but bounded in a given interval. To determine I DSAW is monitored. While the keyhole is closed,
the intervals, a number of experiments were carried out using I DSAW = 0 . As the keyhole becomes formed, I DSAW
the same operating parameters. Each experiment provided a
increases. When I DSAW crosses some predefined threshold
set of model parameters, and the interval ranges were
determined by the minimum and maximum calculated values value, the keyhole is considered formed and the process enters
for each parameter over the set of experiments. A series of base mode (time t1 ). At this point, I PAW is set to a base
closed-loop control experiments were run to verify the validity value ( I base ). Base mode continues until either I DSAW drops
and robustness of the interval model control.
below the threshold value, or some predefined maximum time,
Keywords: Double Sided Arc Welding, keyhole, nonlinear Tbase, max , is reached. At this pont, the DSAW control signal
system, predictive control is held low for some predefned period (called the intercycle
delay, or δ). This is done to allow the keyhole to partially
Introduction close to help prevent burn through.
The double-sided arc welding (DSAW) process is a novel
process developed at the University of Kentucky [1, 2]. This
method uses two torches connected to the two terminals of a
single power supply. By doing this, the welding current flows
from the electrode of one torch to the electrode of the other,
thereby focusing the current through the keyhole instead of
allowing it to earth through the workpiece. This enables heat
to be concentrated in the keyhole. DSAW dramatically
improves the thickness of material that can be fully penetrated
by arc welding, as well as drastically reducing heat distortion
due to the symmetric heat input to both sides of the workpiece.
Also, the nature of the DSAW process guarantees full
penetration throughout the weld.

Experiments have demonstrated the DSAW process is very

dynamic. For this reason, a robust control procedure needs to
be developed to make the process practical for industrial
application. The interval model approach has been shown to
be a successful approach to modelling and controlling
dynamic systems [3, 4]. While this approach has been used
for other welding processes, it has not been applied to the
DSAW process. Figure 1: Typical Time Sequence for the DSAW Process

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 693

 experiments indicated that for 9.5mm steel plate, a double
sided current, I DSAW , in the range of [65 A, 85 A] and a base
current, I base , of 50 A produces a stable weld pool during the
base cycle. That is, a majority of the base periods, Tbase , will
equal the maximum base period, Tbase, max . To determine the
intervals of the parameters, a series of experiments were run
varying I DSAW over the given range, while setting
I base = 50 A . The different sets of data all gave n=5, but
varied values for the coefficients. The resulting interval model
can be written as:
5
yk = a0 + a1uk −1 + å a j uk − j yk − j +1 (2)
j =2

where y k = TP ,k with units of seconds and u k = I P ,k with

units of amperes. The ranges for the parameters are shown in
Table 1.

Table 1: Experimentally determined range estimates for the

Figure 2: Typical waveforms for I PAW and I DSAW . The nonlinear interval model of the DSAW process.
control signal is shown below the other waveforms. Parameter min max
a0 1.0031 1.2534
Typical PAW and DSAW current waveforms for the process
are shown in Figure 2. Experimental work suggests that for a a1 -0.0022 -0.0041
given thickness of material, a range of I DSAW will cause the a2 -0.0031 -0.0012
process to be reasonably stable, that is, Tbase = Tbase,max for a3 -0.0014 -0.0006
most of the cycles. By restricting the analysis of the system to
a desired range of I DSAW , the system can be approximated as a4 -0.0013 -0.0004
a single input, single ouput system. a5 -0.0010 0.0000

Nonliner Interval Model

Control Algorithm
An interval model can be useful description for parametric
uncertainty [3, 4], Several studies have examined this For convience of control calculation, it is preferable to that a
approach for both linear [3, 5, 6] and nonlinear [4] models. In positive change in control output result in a positive change in
the latter study, the quasi-keyhole, plasma arc welding process the steady state output. Therefore, we will modify the notation
was studied. This process possesses many of the same of the system model such that u~k = −u k and
characteristics as the DSAW process, i.e. the peak current
duration is determined by both the amplitude of the peak a~ = − a ∀j ∈ (0,5) . The model thus becomes:
j j
current and the heat previously input to the system. Based on
this, we propose a similar nonlinear model to represent the 5
DSAW process: yk = a0 + (−a1 )(−uk −1 ) + å (−a j )(−u k − j ) yk − j +1
j =2
5
(3)
= a0 + a~1u~k −1 + å a~ j u~k − j y k − j +1
n
TP , k = a0 + a1I P , k −1 + å a j I P , k − jTP , k − j +1 (1) j =2
j =2

Where TP is the peak period and I P denotes the initial peak

We can now calculate the change in state by:
current, I 0peak . The summation terms I P ,k − j TP,k − j +1 are used
[ ]
5
to account for the heat input during the previous cycles. ∆yk +1 = a~1∆u~k + å a~ j u~k − j +1 yk − j + 2 − j u~k − j yk − j +1 (4)
j=2
The order of the model, n, and the coefficients of the model
a j ( j = 0,1, K n ) are determined from experimental data using by substituting ∆yk = yk − yk −1 and ∆u~k = u~k − u~k −1 , we can rewrite
a recursive least squares method [7] and F-test. Previous equation (4) as:

694
 5
[
∆yk +1 = a~1∆u~k + å a~ j yk − j + 2 ∆u~k − j +1 − j u~k − j ∆yk − j + 2 ] Experiments
(5)
j=2
To test the validity of the nonlinear interval model control,
These equations can now be used to calculate the bounds of two bead-on-plate welds were produced using different control
∆yk +1 :
approaches. Both experiments used the values of
I base = 50 A , y 0 = 0.050 s , and I DSAW = 75 A with
I P defined over the range I P ∈ (140 A,240 A) . The first
[ ]
5
max yk +1 ∆u~ = max a~1∆u~k + å max a~ j yk − j + 2 ∆u~k − j +1 − j u~k − j ∆yk − j + 2
k
j=2 experiment implemented essentially an open loop control, with
(6) the initial I P = I 0peak = 140 A in each peak cycle. The second
[ ]
5
min yk +1 ∆u~ = min a~1∆u~k + å min a~ j yk − j + 2 ∆u~k − j +1 − j u~k − j ∆yk − j + 2 experiment used the nonlinear interval model algorithm
described in this paper to calculate the initial values of I 0peak
k
j =2

(7)
for each cycle. The resulting peak periods are shown in Figure
3. These results show that the interval model control produced
If we assume that the input remains constant (i.e.
a much more consistent period, which, in turn, produced a
u~k +γ = u~k ∀γ > 0 ), we can recursively calculate the bounds of more consistent weld. Figure 4 shows the weld produced with
yk +γ : the Interval model control. The increase in the consistency of
the peak periods gained with the interval model control
produces a uniform weld width for both the front side weld
maxyk+γ ∆u~ ,∆u~ = maxyk+γ −1 + maxa~1∆u~k+γ and the back side weld.
k k +γ =0

(8)
[ ]
5
+ åmaxa~j yk+γ − j+2∆u~k+γ − j+1 − j u~k+γ − j ∆yk+γ − j+2
j=2

minyk+γ ∆u~ ,∆u~ = minyk+γ −1 + mina~1∆u~k+γ

k k +γ =0

(9)
[ ]
5
+ åmina~j yk+γ − j+2∆u~k+γ − j+1 − j u~k+γ − j ∆yk+γ − j+2
j=2

This calculation can be repeated until the system reaches its

steady state value. For the DSAW process, we have chosen
γ =5.

For a given desired operating point, y0 , the linear model

control algorithm [3] produces an analytical result for ∆u~k
such that the maximum of the steady-state output equals the
the desired value when ∆u~k + j = ∆u~k (∀j > 0) . However, this
is not the case for the nonlinear model control algorithm [4].
The control criterion will be defined the same: Figure 3: Comparison of Tp for the (a) Open Loop and
(b) Interval Model Controls.
max yk +γ ∆u~k ,∆u~k +γ =0
= y0 (10)

Because this control cannot be analytically determined,

max yk +γ ~ ~ is calculated first. If the result is smaller that
∆u k , ∆uk + γ =0

y0 , then ∆u~k will be positive. Conversely, if the result is less

than y0 , then ∆u~k will be negative. The magnitude of ∆u~k is
then increased iteratively until the desired level of accuracy is
obtained. The control action can then be calculated:

u k = −u~k = −(u~k −1 + ∆u~k ) (11)

Figure 4: Resulting weld from the Nonlinear Interval Model

Control: (a) Front side, and (b) Back side

695
 Conclusion
Based on the experimental data obtained from the set of
experiments over a defined range of DSAW current, a
nonlinear interval model was developed. Experiments suggest
that the nonlinear interval model based control can produce
consistent cycle periods, thus producing more consistent welds
than existing control procedures.
The focus of this study was on developing a system using a
simplified SISO model over a limited range of parameters,
namely for 9.5mm steel plate and a DSAW current defined
as I DSAW ∈ (65 A,85 A) . This approach minimized the amount
of fluctuation that is present, helping to ensure that the system
remains stable. While only one type of material with one set
or parameters was analyzed, this approach can be applied to
other ranges of parameters, or for other materials as well.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the National Science Foundation
under grant DMI-9812981 and by the ONR SBIR program.
696
References
[1] Zhang, Y.M., and Zhang, S.B., Double-Sided Arc Welding
Increases Weld Joint Penetration, Welding Journal, v.77, n.6,
pp.57-61, 1998
[2] Zhang, Y.M., and Zhang, S.B., Keyhole Double-Sided Arc
Welding Process for Deep Narrow Penetration, Welding
Journal, publication pending
[3] Zhang YM, Kovacevic R: Robust control of interval
plants: A time domain method. IEE P-CONTR THEOR AP
144 (4): 347-353, 1997
[4] Lu, W., Lin, W-Y., and Zhang, Y.M., Nonlinear Interval
Model Control of Quasi-Keyhole Arc Welding Process,
Automatica, 40(5): 805-813, 2004
[5] Abdallah, C. et.al.: Controller Synthesis for a Class of
Interval Plants, Automatica, 31: 341-343, 1995
[6] Olbort, A.W. and Nikodem, M., Robust Stabilization:
Some Extensions of the Gain Margin Maximization Problem,
IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 39: 652-657, 1994
[7] Moscinski, J. and Ogonowski, Z.: Advanced Control with
Matlab ans SIMULINK, p 123, Ellis Horwood Ltd., New
York, USA (1995)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Effects during the Starting Period of the MIG Process
G. Huismann
University of the Federal Armed Forces, Hamburg, Germany
Abstract
In modern automated welding procedures the start phase
determines the quality of the weld. Due to the two combined
actions, heat generation and material transfer, an ideal run in
process is not available with the MIG process.
During starting the MIG process has to ignite the arc and heat
up the workpiece and the stick out. The initiation often creates
failures due to spatter generation and discontinuous weld
profile with cold lap and low melt in.
Therefore, most of the modern power sources use special
treatments for wire feeding and current setting during the start
phase. Different methods for handling the start phase are
shown. The reactions on material transfer and process
behavior are analyzed. The process behavior in relation to the
used regulation method is characterized. Unfortunately, the
contact resistance feeds high power near to the contact tip into
the wire. Therefore, high currents can lead to melting far
above the arc and destabilize the melting which resulted in
long disturbed phases.
To get better starting phases, a study of the wire melting and
transporting in relation to the wire feed rate has to been done.
The stick out acts like a low pass filter for current and melting.
The behavior becomes time dependent. Therefore, the
different methods, which are used in the power sources, are
modeled to show the reasons for the specific behavior. The
effects of the parameters on the melting actions are received.
Methods for starting with low disturbances are derived.
Introduction
Due to the two combined actions heat generation and material
transfer, an ideal run in process is not available with the MIG
process. A separate preheating of the base metal without filler
metal to form a weld bead would be ideal. Afterwards the
welding process could be started in combination with the
addition of filler material. Such a sequence is not possible with
the MIG process and lack of fusion is present in the starting
region. The start of the arc could be done with high voltage
with TIG. MIG needs resistance heating which leads to large
spatter expulsion in normal welding. Therefore, optimizing the
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
start process with the MIG process will have a great impact on
the costs in automated welding.
The paper shows different kinds of heat generation and the
dynamic behavior of the process in simulated and real
systems.
For starting the MIG process four actions are necessary:
1. Ignition of the arc
2. Heating of the electrode
3. Heating of the workpiece
4. Forming a quasi steady state weld pool
5. Forming a quasi steady state temperature profile on
the stick out
Ignition of the arc
The MIG plasma has a temperature of about 6000K. It
incorporates metal fumes. Therefore, its temperature is much
lower than the plasma of the TIG process, where nearly pure
inert gases are present.
At room temperature the shielding gas has a very low
electrical conductivity. It reaches significant conductivity over
3000K. To reach that state, high voltage for spark ignition
cannot be used due to the construction of the burner and the
wire electrode. Therefore, only resistance heating is used in
practice for the ignition of the MIG process.
In principle, two heat sources can be used:
1. Contact resistance between wire and workpiece
The resistance of the contact (Rcontact) may be as high as on the
arc, if low contact forces (Fcontact) are present (ρ electrical
resistivity, hardness Vickers HV) [1]:
HV
Rcontact = K * ( ρ 1+ + ρ 2 ) *
Fcontact
Conditions can be reached, that before a real short circuit
happens an arc is formed by high contact resistance heating
due to the touching of the wire onto the workpiece.
2. Ohmic heating of the stick out
If the contact resistance between wire and workpiece is low,
most of the power is fed into the stick out by resistance
heating of the volume. During starting, many times the stick
out is interrupted just below the contact tip due to melting of
697
the wire. That part of the wire is normally expelled. Modern
power sources do have low inductances in the welding current 1400
circuit. Therefore, less overvoltage and lower chances of Waszink
ignition of the arc are present at such large gaps. The wire 1200 RkFe10
feeding system pushes the electrode once again to the 1000
workpiece, which needs some time. When this wire end is

h [J/g]
800
touching the workpiece, its temperature is high. Normally the
end of the electrode is enclosed by an oxide layer. Most of 600
them do have an ion structure. Therefore, the resistivity of the
400
oxide layer falls with increasing the temperature and the
starting in the hot status can be done better than during the 200
first cycle. 0
0 0.5 1
Wire; 1mm, 7.5m/min F/1E6 [A² s/g mm]
Pulse: 30.6V at 0A,
0.5V/100A, 4.7ms

Larc [mm], vwire [m/min]

Base: 50A, 10.4ms Figure 2 Enthalpy function of F=Ieff²*L/(ρms vwire A²)
Contact tip workp.: 18mm
Current [A]

The enthalpy can be calculated by feeding current through a

v w ire still standing wire and measuring the electric power. For the
I
calculation of F in equation 2, the time represents the
component L/vwire .
p u ls e

Therefore, the time necessary to melt the wire is proportional

to the cross section of the wire for a specific material and
inverse proportional to the square of the current. If the short
Time [ms] circuiting current is a function of the time, the mean square
current has to be used:
Figure 1 Simulation of starting sequence [2] t
1 1 2
t1 − t 0 t∫0
Figure 1 shows the signals during a starting sequence in a
I m2 = I (t )dt
simulation [2]. After the first short circuit the wire is expelled.
No arc is formed and a second short circuit is necessary. After Melting times are in the dimension of 100ms for 1.2mm steel
a threefold feeding time along the stick out, the arc length is wire and currents of 400A. The volume specific melting rate is
stabilized. much smaller than with arc heating.

Heating of the electrode
One source for heating the electrode is resistance heating. The
other main source is the anodic heating from the arc.
Resistance heating
A model of the resistance heating, which is simple to
compute, was published in the 70s [3]. This model is used here
for calculating the resistance heating. The describing
differential equations can be simplified. Due to short times
and high power, heat losses in the stick out can be neglected.
The heat flow from the droplet to the contact tip is very small
under normal welding conditions [4]. Therefore, the heat
conduction in the stick out can be omitted and a closed
solution of the ruling equations is possible, when the integral
equations are solved. The solution was that the enthalpy h is a
function of F [3].
h=f(F), F=Ieff²*L/(ρms vwire A²) , stick out L, density ρms,
velocity vwire , area A, equation 2.
During starting, the end condition is a nearly uniform
temperature over the stick out, except for the region near the
contact tip and workpiece. At the contact tip heat from the
contact resistance is fed into the wire. Therefore, the
temperature is higher and most of the time the rupture of the
bridge takes place here. At the workpiece different conditions
in relation to the resistance of the connection is present. If the
resistance is high, the rupture will happen at the workpiece. If
the contact resistance is low, heat will be transported into the
workpiece and lower temperatures than in the rest of the stick
will be present.
Anode heating
The specific anode heat is 5.5W/A [2]. This value is much
higher than the voltage drop on the cold stick out. Therefore,
the heat input by anode heating is larger than the resistance
heating component under normal welding conditions [4].
Heating of the workpiece
The workpiece receives most of the energy from the droplet
and from the cathode fall.

698
The preheating of the stick out is low due to expel of the stick
out or an instant arc during starting the process. Therefore,
most of energy to the droplet comes from anodic heat. The
cathode fall is in the dimension of 10 to 20V. About 5.5V are
used for the electrons and about 10 W/A are fed into the
workpiece.
During short circuiting nearly no heat flows into the
workpiece. Therefore the highest specific energy in relation to
the material input flows into the workpiece, when no short
circuit happens.
Forming a quasi steady state weld pool
Due to the large mass low melt in of the workpiece takes place
during the starting phase. Cold lap happens (Figure 3).
Normal Back- Fore-hand 15°
hand 15°
Flying Delayed Hot
Forming a quasi steady state temperature profile on the
stick out
The melting rate of the wire electrode depends on the
preheating of the stick out. The stick out acts like a low pass
filter. Time lag reactions are present. The length of the arc,
current, and regulator characteristics are forming the dynamic
behavior.
Figure 4 shows the reactions of the processes on retraction of
the wire. A current decrease is visible. About double of the
time necessary to feed the wire through the stick out is
necessary to reach the steady state again.
Experimental set up
Different power supplies were used for welding. The process
was recorded for electrical and arc behavior. Current and
voltage were sampled with 15kHz. High speed videos with
1000 frames per second were shot.
Different wires were used. The Migatronic Flex 4000 and the
CSC-MIG system were tested with 1.6mm AlSi wire. The
other power sources were tested with steel SG-2 wires 1.0 and
1.2mm thick which are easier to start.
For the aluminum wire Argon was used as shielding gas. The
steel wires were welded with Argon 18%CO2 mixtures. The
welding parameters from the factory programs were set up
with the ESS and Migatronic power source. The Miller
equipment (XMT 456 with S74D) had had no factory
parameter storage. 18V and 4.5m/min with 18mm stick out
were used.

To investigate the influence of the starting current, tests with a

CSC-MIG system [8] were done. The CSC-MIG system works
Figure 3 Melt in profile and length of cold lap for different starting with an electrode position control. Fast retraction to avoid
procedures [5] sticking of the electrode to the workpiece is possible. A serial
regulator with low response time in current control mode was
used (Elma analog technique).
Wire: 1mm, 7.5m/min Mean current
Stroke -2.7mm
Contact workp.:18mm
Table 1 Used equipment and materials
Pulse: 4.7ms, 28.1V,0.5V/100A Manu- Power Parameter Wire Shiel- Wire Wire
Base: 10.4ms, 50A
facturer Source set fee- ding type dia-
der gas meter
Uni Bw Elma PC CSC Ar AlSi 5 1.6
CP 400 mm
Migatronic Flex AlSi5 Flex Ar AlSi 5 1.6
4000 1.6mm 4000 mm
ESS E1- SG 2 E1-
Ar SG 2 1.0
2800 1.0mm 2800
+18% mm
CO2
Miller XMT 18V, 30% S74D Ar SG 2 1.2
456 inductance +18% mm
4.5m/min CO2
Figure 4 Dynamic behavior of a MIG system [6]

699
 Results The medium current range gave long short circuiting times.
Above 200A a continuous arc was present. No short circuits
In conventional MIG technique the starting is been done by took place during ignition.
resistance heating of the stick out. The hottest spot is a short
distance below the contact tip, because here the extra Ohmic For the CSC-process two regions are usable: The low current
heating from the contact resistance takes place. So the first range with a quiet start without material transfer or the high
melting of the wire occurs here and the breaking of the circuit, current range with material transfer of small droplets, which
too. Bow shaped wire ends with a length nearly equal to the are laid down in the starting region.
distance between contact tip and workpiece are expelled.
Accumulation of the heat gives the starting conditions for the Different power sources
arc. Unpredictable cycles and spatter are the result [8]. The power sources are steering the wire feed and the
characteristics of the welding current. Dynamic reactions are
Effect of starting current present in the mechanical and electrical part. The mechanical
The starting current affects the type of arc ignition. The CSC- part incorporates lash in the liner system and inertia in the
MIG equipment gave the opportunity to vary the starting motor and spool. Normally back lash in dimension of 10mm is
current independently and get predetermined faultless starts, present in the liner. The motor has the highest inertia with the
by the direct controlling of the electrode position (Figure 5). conventional wire feed systems [7]. Some systems are using a
retracting action onto the wire during the starting phase. Due
to different liner geometry the effect is not precisely
determined. Modern power supplies do have low inductances
in the welding current circuit. Less electrical energy can be
stored for extra voltage during ignition after a short circuit.
Therefore, different regulation strategies are used during
[V, 0.1mm]

V, ignition to receive an arc start. Different power supplies were

tested, to show those different methods of starting. It was not
intended to do a rating of the power supplies. Therefore, non
uniform testing conditions could be used to show the different
capabilities.

CSC process [8]

Instead of feeding the power into the complete stick out, a
direct heat input into the wire end is better. This can be done
Figure 5 CSC-MIG process starting, SG 3 2.4mm steel wire by a fast control of the mechanical loop (Figure 7).

Low current leads to pre arcs, which are extinguished

afterwards by the movement of the electrode. The short
circuiting time in relation to the starting current shows Figure
6. Zero short circuiting time indicates an instantaneous arc
ignition.
Voltage

3
Current
2.5 i
Short circuiting time [ms]

1.5

Figure 7 Controlled start of a MIG process,

1
AlSi 5 1.6mm wire, start current 20A
0.5

0
In the initial phase, the wire is cold. A low speed of the wire is
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
been used to get the contact between wire and workpiece. So
Ignition Current [A]
the wire can be retracted fast after recognition of the contact
(I>0; U<U0). This gives the opportunity to get a nearly
Figure 6 Short circuiting time as function of the ignition instantaneous arc, in less than 1ms. Using the knowledge of
current (CSC-MIG process) the physical condition of the process (wire and workpiece are

700
cold), an extra long heating action is introduced. The quasi
steady state of the process is reached very fast. Nearly after
one arc cycle, stable process conditions can be obtained.

Migatronic system
The Flex 4000 from Migatronic is a modern inverter type
power source. The regulation and steering units are completely
digital. Figure 8 shows the current voltage traces during a start
sequence with AlSi5 wire (AA 5056). The wire is fed down.
The current rises and the voltage falls, when the touching of
the wire takes place. For about 40ms a high current is fed
through the wire. No visible short circuit is formed during the start 5 ms
whole starting phase. The high speed videos show a
continuous material transfer of small droplets flowing around
the wire in different directions (Figure 9). Due to the small
gap between workpiece and wire electrode, a wide wetting of
the workpiece just under the electrode is formed.

Current

8ms 13m
Voltage
Figure 9 Migatronic Flex 4000 start, AlSi 5 1.6mm wire, at time x m
after touching, material of different shape is laid down near to t
electrode center

After a couple of milliseconds the start current pulse is off

Figure 8 Current voltage traces for a start sequence (AlSi 5
wire, 1.6mm, mean current 77A)
The corresponding film shows pictures from the start. The
capturing time for each frame is 1ms.
(Figure 12, 0 and 2ms) and a normal short circuiting sequence
takes place. More than 100ms later, the wire digs deep into the
shallow weld pool (Figure 12, 136ms) and during the next
short circuit it sticks to the base metal (Figure 12, 137ms). A
long lasting short circuit happens (Figure 11, Figure 12,
182ms).

This is a hard ignition process. Very short connections of the

melt with the weld pool take place. Reduced arc intensity is
visible in the picture 8ms after start due to the black line
(CMOS camera scanning from top to bottom within 1ms,
registration of the actual light intensity at scanning time).

Miller system
The Miller system consists of a XMT multiprocess power
source and a separate wire feed unit S74D, which fits to many
power sources. The wire feed motor was the biggest one of the
used systems and had had the highest inertia. Figure 10 Miller system, arc start
The touching of the wire reduces the measured voltage below
10V and reduced current slope is present in the beginning
(Figure 10). Afterwards high current slope rates and very high
currents are used.

701
 Arc off
Figure 11 Miller system, process start
At 182ms ( Figure 12, 182ms) the stick out is bended and cut
off. No arc is started. Therefore, the wire comes down without
power to the work at 309ms (Figure 12, 309ms). Afterwards
the normal ignition of the arc and the process without further
disturbances happens.
0 2 136
182 309
137
Figure 12 Different phases during starting cycle at time x ms after
touching, Miller system, steel wire SG 2, 1.2mm
Ess system
Ess builds all components into one housing. The parameters
are controlled by a microprocessor system. The wire feed
system uses a windshield wiper motor from the car industry.
Due to the snake gear, high friction losses are present in the
gear system. Figure 13 shows the current voltage trace during
the first 60ms. Within the first 40ms the current slope is set
very high. 1.8*106A/s were measured. Current control is done
at arc ignition. About 500A are set. The same characteristic is
used during the following short circuits. During the arc cycles
a constant voltage characteristic with a small slope is active.
After 60ms the system looked smooth, but afterwards the wire
became weak and started bending (Figure 15, 68ms, 82ms).
The arc turned off (Figure 15, 120ms). Long molten zones are
702
Voltage
Current
Figure 13 Ess, arc ignition
Current
Voltage
Figure 14 Ess, process start
on the wire. The melt contracts and forms one droplet (Figure
15, 138ms). The high volume of molten metal contacts the
weld pool. A new short circuit starts with the current control.
More than 20ms are needed to interrupt the short circuit
(Figure 14). Nearly the complete stick out is molten (Figure
15, 173ms), which is now expelled and a long arc forms
(Figure 15, 179ms). A few normal short circuiting cycles
follow. Afterwards the wire becomes soft again (Figure 15,
334ms). Nevertheless, no phase of high currents is the
consequence and a stabile process is formed afterwards.
Discussion
The inverter power sources showed high percentage of
forming a nearly instantaneous arc during touching of the
electrode. All tested power sources used high current setting
during ignition.
After the ignition of the arc conditions arose, which showed,
that the high current can lead to problems. The Ess equipment,
which used the highest currents in the first two phases, gave
high probability of melting the electrode above the arc.
Deformation of the electrode happens there and long disturbed
process phases follow. In many cases the wire was expelled.
The melting rate should be equal to the electrode feed rate (at
the contact tip). If the wire feed rate is higher than the melting
rate, stubbing happens. Ess and Miller equipment showed
high percentage of those conditions.
 0 68 82 2000
Start [A]
D 1mm 450
1800 Iarc 115A Start [s] 0.013 Time [s]
Ieff 170A 0.0296
1600
6.9m/min 0.0412
1400 melting 0.0644
0.0876
1200
0.1108

h [J/g]
1000 0.1340

800 0.1572

138 173 0.1746

600
1.7977
400 Melting
Wire end
200
120 0
0 5 10 15 20
Distance [m m ]

Figure 16 Enthalpy function of location and time, wire 1mm,

179 262 334
2mOhm contact resistance, start heating by 450A for 13ms

30 1500

25 1250

Velocity [mm/s], h [J/g]

Pos. [mm], resist. [mOhm]
h_end
20 1000
Resistance
Figure 15 Ess system, characteristic phases, x ms after touching 15 Position 750

CSC Migatronic Miller Ess 10 500

AlSi 5 AlSi 5 Sg 2 SG 2
1.6mm 1.6mm 1.2mm 1.0mm 5 250
Instantaneous arc 0% at 20A 100% 100% 100% Velocity
Expel of stick out 0% 0% 70% 100% 0 0
Table 2 Behavior of the different systems under various 0.0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000
conditions Tim e [s]

The CSC-MIG process has a self regulation of the wire feed
rate. Therefore, such failures were not seen.
The Migatronic system works with a melting rate, which is
higher than the wire feed rate, during ignition. A long arc was
formed in between. This system gave precise starting
sequences.
To optimize the starting procedure, the dynamic behavior of
melting and wire feeding has to be controlled. Models for
energy control of the MIG process have been used on a
synergic pulse system. Those models could be used also in the
starting phase to do a sound run in.
Modeling
The different problems during starting are the result from
heating of the stick out. Models of the process for static and
dynamic situations were shown in [4, 6]. These one
Figure 17 Enthalpy, resistance, position of wire end function
of time, wire 1mm, 2mOhm contact resistance, start heating
by 450A for 13ms, Iarc=115A, Ieff=170A
dimensional models including heat conduction have been used
for investigation of the start process. Three main problems
were visible during starting. Examples of all three problems
are shown in (Figure 16, Figure 17).
1. The energy input during starting the arc is so large at the
contact tip that melting happens (Figure 16). For steel this
limit is about 1300J/g. Melting at the contact tip cuts the wire
off at a long distance to the workpiece. In most cases an arc
will not be present.
2. During further transport more resistance heat is
accumulated and melting takes place before the arc region is
reached. If the distance to the workpiece is large, arc will
extinguish by breaking away of the wire end. In Figure 16 this
effect is visible at about 8mm between 0.0876 and 0.111s.

703
 140 shown for short circuiting transfer. The arc current becomes
h0=1300 1mOhm small due to the short circuit times, where the arc current is
120 h0=1300 2mOhm
l<18mm 1mOhm defined as zero. The conditions become easier with non short
l<18mm 2mOhm circuit and constant current. Pulsed MIG mode brings
100
effective currents in the same dimension as in short circuiting
t IStart [ms]

1mOhm
80 mode. Therefore, the heating will be the same as shown in the
60 diagrams.
40 Conclusions
2 mOhm
20 Power sources showed large disturbances during the start
0 phase. Spatter and low melt in can be the result. Procedures to
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 avoid such problems are possible and were realized in
IStart [A] different systems.
In modern power sources manipulation of the current in the
Figure 18 Time for reaching melting temperature in wire at starting phase is done. Those manipulations have to be done in
contact tip for 1 and 2mOhm (1.0mm wire), preheating time to correspondence to the dynamic behavior of the process. The
avoided stick out lmax< 18mm, Iarc=115A, Ieff=170A wire end stores heat and works like a low pass filter.
Unfortunately the contact resistance feeds high power near to
30 the contact tip into the wire. Therefore, high currents can lead
1mOhm lsolid to melting far above the arc and destabilize the melting which
25
resulted in long disturbed phases.
Length solid [mm]

2mOhm lsolid
20 To get satisfying starting phases, a precise study of the wire
melting in relation to the wire feed rate has to be done.
15
Two different ways to solve those relations were seen. Both
10 ways work with totally different solutions.
The industry needs power supplies, which can do such precise
5
run in procedures. The needs are especially present in the car
0 industry, where high percentage of automation is present in
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Europe. Many application use short welds. The lack of
IStart [A] penetration in the start region can lead to problems. Spatter is
Figure 19 Minimum solid length of wire during start, with also unwanted. Therefore, focusing on the starting
lmax<18mm, Iarc=115A, Ieff=170A, tStartt Figure 18 dotted performance will be necessary.

3. The wire touches the workpiece in a condition, were the Literature

workpiece is cold. The wire tends to stick to the workpiece
1. Holm, R., Electrical Contacts, 4th edition,Springer-Verlag,
and the short circuit will last long. High currents will flow and
Berlin, 1967
the process will become instable. The limit (18mm) was set 2. Huismann, Gerd, Analyse eines Schmelzschweißprozesses
2mm lower than the distance contact tip workpiece (20mm) mit abschmelzender Elektrode, Habilitationsschrift, Uni
for droplet and weld pool height. In Figure 17 at 0.07s 18mm Bw Hamburg, 1998
and at 0.15s 20mm are reached. 3. Waszink, J. H., van den Heuvel, G.J. P. M., Heat
Generation and Heat Flow in the Filler Metal, W. R.
The conditions for fulfilling the three criterions have been Supplement, Aug. 1982, pp. 269-s-282-s
tested on 1mm mild steel wire. The preheating cycle brings 4. Huismann,G., Advantages in using the stick out for
enthalpy at contact tip into the wire which is proportional to increasing the burn off rate in gas metal arc welding, 7th, I.
the contact resistance, time, and the square of the current. Weld. Symp., November 2001, Kobe, Japan, pp. 345 -350
Figure 18 shows the preheating times as function of the 5. Knoch, R., Untersuchungen des Zündvorganges und
Anfangsbindefehlers beim MAG-Schweißen, Schweißen
current for reaching 1300J/g in the wire near to the contact tip.
und Schneiden, 35 ,(1983) , 9, pp432 -435
For most conditions the necessary preheating time to avoid 6. Huismann, G., Hoffmeister, H., Reactions of Current and
stubbing (lsolid<18mm) is much smaller (Figure 18). But for Metal Transfer on Unsteady Wire Transport in Mig
higher contact resistances and higher currents melting is Welding with Respect to Hyperbaric Conditions, Trends in
received there. The minimum solid length of the stick out is Welding Research, (1998), Pine Mountain, USA
above 15mm for 1mOhm contact resistance (Figure 19). For 7. Huismann,G., Transport of the Wire in MIG/MAG Welding,
2mOhm quite small solid stick out is present, especially for especially Friction, IIW Doc 212--03, Bucharest (2003)
higher currents. Therefore, braking away of the solid end will 8. Huismann,G., Introduction to a New Mig Process,
Possibilities and Advantages, IIW Doc 212-952-99, IIW
extinguish the arc in many cases. The modeling results are
annual meeting Lisbon 1999

704
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Dynamic Response of Electrode Extension to Step Changes in Average Current
for Pulsed GMAW
P. G. Krepp, R. Crawford, G. E. Cook, A. M. Strauss
Vanderbilt University, School of Engineering, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
Abstract
The dynamic response of electrode extension to step changes
in average current for pulsed gas metal arc welding were
measured and compared to a dynamic model. The experiments
were conducted at wire feed rates varying from 150 ipm (63.5
mm/s) to 350 ipm (148.2 mm/s) in increments of 50 ipm (21.2
mm/s). The step changes in average current were obtained by
imposing a step change in peak current with all other pulsed
parameters held constant. With the exception of the
experiments for 150 and 200 ipm (63.5 and 84.7 mm/s), the
initial and final pulsed parameters were chosen to achieve an
approximate detachment rate of one droplet per pulse. The
imaging system used to capture the electrode extension
variations consisted of a high-speed digital camera with a
macro lens viewing system. Using a frame grabber the camera
was interfaced to LabVIEW for viewing and making
measurements of the images. The electrode extension response
was found to be a second order variation with close correlation
to a second order nonlinear model. The settling time of the
dynamic variation in electrode extension to step changes in
average current were found to be approximately linearly
related to the wire feed speed. Implications of these results are
discussed with respect to automatic control of arc length.
Keywords: electrode extension, pulsed GMAW, dynamic
response, control.
Introduction
In constant potential gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
processes, regulation of arc length is inherent in the dynamics
of the system. This self-regulation results in the arc length
remaining relatively constant even though the contact-tube-to-
work distance may change. This is achieved by making up for
any change in contact-tube-to-work distance with an increase
or decrease of the electrode extension. This is referred to as
“self-regulation” because there is no significant work effort
needed from an outside control [1]. The variation in arc length
affects the melting rate of the electrode, and the electrode
extension automatically changes to reestablish equilibrium.
However, in pulsed GMAW, which typically uses a constant
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
current power source [2], there is no inherent regulation of arc
length.
Manufacturers of pulsed GMAW power sources provide a
method of sensing some measure of the voltage, and altering
one or more of the pulse parameters as conditions change to
maintain the preset voltage. This is normally referred to as
“adaptive” arc length control. Some manufacturers have
implemented a gain adjustment, or a table of parameters that
the user can modify to improve performance. Another
approach is to provide multiple methods of feedback control,
changing different pulse parameters based on which method is
selected. This provides a wider range of applications for which
the power source can perform acceptably, but it still requires a
great deal of trial-and-error to determine which mode is best
suited for a given application.
An ideal solution to the pulsed GMAW arc length control
problem would be a control system that continuously
identifies the system dynamics and automatically modifies the
control law in such a manner as to maintain optimum (or near
optimum) dynamic performance under all operating
conditions. A control system of this type would be truly
adaptive in the controls sense [3].
The focus of this paper is a number experiments conducted to
establish a better understanding of the system dynamics of the
arc length control problem in pulsed GMAW [4]. To do this
step changes in the average current were imposed on the
system at different wire feed rates. The experimental results
are shown to match closely with Halmoy’s dynamic model of
electrode extension [5].
Experimental Equipment
The experimental equipment used in carrying out this work
consisted of the welding system and the optical imaging
system. Each of these is described in the following sections.
Welding System
The experimental welding setup is shown in Fig. 1. The table
consists of a 3/8 in. (9.5mm) thick steel top with holes tapped
705
to allow clamping and stabilization of the workpiece. The
ground connects directly to this table. Mounted parallel to the
work surface is a steel rail, and attached to this is a carriage
that rides on steel rollers. This allows the carriage to cover the
entire width of the table maintaining a height accurate to
within 0.008 in. (0.2mm). Lateral travel is accomplished by a
rack and pinion drive attached to the table. This allows for fine
manual adjustments in two dimensions, and speed-regulated
movement in the third. The welding torch is water-cooled and
can handle 600 A of current and wire diameters from 0.030 to
0.062 in. (0.76 to 1.6mm). For all of the experiments
conducted in this work, the wire was 0.045 in. (1.1mm) mild
steel, and the shielding gas was 95% Argon, 5% CO2.
Figure 1: Experimental welding setup.
The power supply used in the welding experiments was a
Lincoln Electric Power Wave 455/STT paired with a Lincoln
Electric Power Feed wire feeder. The power supply was
connected to a PC operating under the Windows 98 operating
system. The PC ran the Wave Designer 2000 software
package also supplied by Lincoln Electric. The Wave
Designer software allows the user to manually change any
given parameter of the weld on the fly. It also ensures that all
parameters of the weld remain constant, reducing the
probability that unknown factors will contribute to observable
trends. High degree of control over the welding parameters
also allowed for instantaneous rather than gradual change of
706
current during the experiment resulting in far more reliable
data.
Imaging System
The optical system was designed to make the data acquisition
and analysis as simple and consistent as possible. The actual
image capture device consisted of a Dalsa high-speed digital
camera with a 25 mm Vidicon Lens. This lens alone could
capture images of acceptable quality at a distance of about 1.5
to 2 ft. (457 to 610mm). However, to prevent damage to the
imaging optics, it was desired to keep the camera at a distance
greater than 2 ft. (610mm). This was accomplished by adding
an imaging plate mounted on a counterweighted stand to allow
ease of movement as well as consistent positioning. The image
was then focused onto a back plate that was attached to the
rear of the adjustable-length lens mount. The camera was then
moved and focused until the image on the back plate filled the
majority of the camera’s view and produced acceptable image
quality. A further advantage of this approach was that the
image produced on the back plate was magnified and allowed
for greater ability to distinguish detail than would have been
possible with just the camera alone. The space between the
lens mount and the camera was covered with a black velvet
cloth in order to prevent interference from ambient light in the
room. The imaging system is shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2: Imaging system.
The optical system was set up prior to the initial run, and all
optical parameters were kept constant throughout all runs. The
first lens was placed at a distance of 13 in. (330mm) from the
electrode tip. This was the closest possible position due to the
horizontal positioning dial on the welding table, but due to the
magnification of the image onto the back plate, this was close
enough to produce accurate results. The lens had a focal length
of 6.5 in. (165mm), resulting in the back plate being
positioned 13 in. (330mm) behind the lens. This provided
about 1.5 times magnification. The camera was positioned 19
in. (483mm) behind the back plate. With this setup, the top of
the camera’s range was slightly above the cup on the weld
torch, and the bottom of the range was slightly below the edge
of the welding table, ensuring that the entire arc was captured
at all times.
The same basic waveform shape was used for all runs. Only
the peak current, peak duration, background current, and
background duration were altered between runs. In all cases
the adaptive controls built into the Lincoln Electric software
were turned off during the entire weld run.

The Dalsa camera acquires images at a rate of 800 frames-per- Welding

second, so it was necessary to have adequate onboard buffers Once everything was set up, it was necessary to check that the
in the frame grabber. The National Instruments model CPS- weld parameters produced an acceptable weld. This step
0100 frame grabber had adequate buffer space and allowed for served several purposes. First, it tested the parameters to make
the use of LabVIEW for data analysis. LabView 6i, with sure that the weld was consistent and the arc was stable with
IMAQ Image Builder, was used for viewing and taking the initial parameters. Also, it allowed for an accurate
measurements on all images. Measurements taken were measurement of the electrode extension to be made after the
accurate to within one pixel, which was determined to be trial run. With this done, the experimental run was conducted.
0.01127 in. (0.2863mm). The calibration of the imaging This required two computers with all imaging software on one
system was done by very carefully positioning the bottom of and the controls software on the other. The weld was started
the cup on the torch to 0.6875 in. (17.4625mm) above the prior to the imaging software to establish a stable arc. The
table, and in images where the bottom of the cup was visible, imaging software was then started (there was a delay from the
the measured distance from the bottom of the cup to the top of time the start button was pushed until the actual beginning of
the table was used to determine the ratio of pixels to inches capture due to the filling of the buffers). Once images were
(mm). The Vision Builder also allowed the use of several being captured, the controls software was used to make a step
filters that could be used in cases where the simple gray image change in the peak current, and images were taken until a new
was inadequate. This was rarely found necessary, however. equilibrium was established in the electrode extension. Overall
the data collection process took less than 3 s.
Experimental Procedure
Image capture
Experimental runs were conducted at preselected feedrates, The image capture coincided with the experimental run. The
and each run consisted of seven distinct steps: parameter camera, once buffered, stored 5000 images. At the capture rate
selection, waveform implementation, establishment of a stable of 800 frames per second, this provided more than adequate
arc, experimental run, image capture, data collection, and data time to make the changes and record all necessary data. Once
analysis. The selected wire feed rates varied from 150 ipm the frames were stored in the buffers, the LabVIEW program
(63.5 mm/s) to 350 ipm (148.2 mm/s) in increments of 50 ipm could be used to view the results immediately and decide if
(21.2 mm/s). they were acceptable, or if the experiment needed to be
repeated. If the results were acceptable, the images were
Parameter selection stored as a series of standard JPEG files. Due to the excess of
A desired detachment rate of one drop per pulse limited the images, many of these files could be deleted without any loss
range of operation for all parameters but reduced the number of significant data.
of variables that must be considered when analyzing the data.
The method described by Quintino and Allum [6] was used to Image analysis
establish conditions under which an approximate one-drop per Image analysis could have been conducted in many ways due
pulse detachment characteristic occurred. This was possible to the standardized file format, but in this case the same
for all runs except those conducted at 150 ipm 63.5 mm/s) and LabVIEW program was used to analyze the images. It was
200 ipm (84.7 mm/s). For these runs the parameters closest to only necessary to establish a few key points in order to collect
the desired parameters predicted by the Quintino and Allum accurate data. First, the accurate position of the workpiece in
[6] procedure were chosen that produced a stable arc. The the image had to be established. This was normally easy to
current parameters are listed in Table 1. find because the arc flares out right above it and illuminates it
nicely. Second, the location of the contact tube had to be
Table 1: Current parameters for experimental runs. accurately established. In all of the experimental runs, the
contact tube position was very carefully maintained level with
WFS 350 300 250 200 150 the bottom of the cup. This was done because it was easier to
Ip (tp) 505A 430A 330A 220A 160A identify the cup than the contact tube itself. So, finding the
(1.75ms) (2.4ms) (4ms) (5.6ms) (9ms) position of the bottom of the cup in the image established the
Ip Final 545A 470A 370A 260A 200A position of the contact tube. Finally, the easiest of the three
Ib (tb) 170A 124A 43A 15A 15A analysis tasks, was finding the position of the top of the arc.
(3.65ms) (3.8ms) (3.8ms) (1ms) (3ms) So long as the camera was never moved or refocused, the first
two tasks were consistent across runs. This was beneficial
because it was not always obvious where the cup was when

707
the electrode extension was long and there was not enough arc
light to illuminate the cup. The software used measured pixel
position from the corner of the image. The measurements were
made by determining a distance, in pixels, from the cup to the
top of the arc. The known distance from the workpiece to the
bottom of the cup was then used to produce a conversion
factor between pixels and inches (mm). These measurements
were taken manually on every significant frame (frames
between initial steady state and final steady state) of every run,
and the data was stored in spreadsheet format. It was a tedious
process, but quite accurate. Attempts were made to automate
this process, however, they proved inaccurate and
unacceptable.

Data analysis
The data analysis was conducted in a spreadsheet program.
The imaging program returned the data as a series of pixel
positions relative to the top of the image. The position of the
cup was then used to find a difference, or the distance between
the top of the cup and the tip of the electrode in pixels. The
conversion factor was then used to convert this difference in
pixels into inches (mm). This produced data that could be
reasonably viewed in graphical form and provide some
intuitive significance. From the graph produced, the time
constant could be determined at that feedrate. The time
constant is the time measured from the onset of the step
change in average current to the time at which the electrode
extension reached its new steady state length. These graphs
could then be fitted to model results of electrode extension
change for verification.
Results
Images
The imaging system produced gray scale images similar to
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 below. These images taken from the 200 imp
(84.7mm/s) run can be used to illustrate how all measurements
were taken.
Figure 4:200 ipm (84.7 mm/s) at high current.
The outline of the bottom of the cup is visible in Fig. 4, and
was used to determine the exact position of the contact tube,
which was kept level with the bottom of the cup. So, as
previously explained, as long as the optical system was not
moved following the acquisition of the contact tube location,
this position remained constant for all runs and could be used
on runs where the cup was not clearly visible.
Raw data
Given the known distance from the cup to the workpiece, it
was easy to identify a scaling factor from pixels to inches
(mm). With this conversion, the raw data appears similar to
Fig. 5. The raw data is rather erratic, so a smoothing filter was
used to simplify analysis. The filter consisted of a simple
moving average filter over 20 data points. This produces an
image like that shown in Fig. 6. The example images come
from the 150 ipm (63.5 mm/s) run.
0.4
0.35

0.3
Extension (inches)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)

Figure 5: Raw data for 150 ipm (63.5 mm/s) trial.

Figure 3: 200 ipm (84.7 mm/s) at low current.

708
 linear correlation, and it is very possible that this correlation
can be used to either design a control system, or also possibly
0.35 y = 0.3895x 2 - 0.5981x + 0.3104 to simplify the model and design a control system around that.
R2 = 0.9897
0.3
Extension (inches)

0.25 0.8
0.75

Time to Steady State (sec)

0.2 0.7
0.15 0.65
0.6
0.1 0.55
0.05 0.5
0.45
0 0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.35
Time (sec) 0.3
100 200 300 400
Wire Feed Speed (ipm)
Figure 6:Smoothed data for 150 ipm (63.5 mm/s) trial with
linear fit.
Figure 8: Time to reestablish steady state in electrode
Data fits extension following a step change in average current.
A curve fit was applied to each smoothed data set to calculate
the response time for each run. In each case, a second order Summary
linear fit worked best. The results for the 150 ipm (63.5 mm/s)
run is shown in Fig. 6.
The experiments used high-speed digital imaging and image
analysis to establish two primary points. The first is the strong
Model Comparisons
linear trend in response times with respect to wire feed speed.
Halmoy’s second order nonlinear model [5] was implemented
And the second is the high degree of correlation between the
in Matlab Simulink and the results of the experimental runs
experimental data and the model data. Experimental
were compared to the model simulation results. Since
measurements represent an accurate portrayal of the actual
Halmoy’s model was not implemented for pulsed current, it
system response. Each individual measurement is accurate to
was necessary to make use of the average current and assume
within a few percent of the overall change, and the smoothing
that the electrode extension varies little within each pulse. In
filter actually serves to further reduce deviation from the
each case, a simulation of Halmoy’s model [5] produced a
modeled results. Furthermore, the application of the
good fit to the raw data. The fit to the 350 ipm (148.2 mm/s)
smoothing filter is done such that the filtered results still
run is shown in Fig. 7.
accurately reflect the original date in the time domain,
meaning that the time at which the current is changed and the
time at which equilibrium is reestablished are preserved. This
establishes the accuracy of the response time measurements,
whereas the measurement accuracy validates the model
results.

Figure 7: Comparison of experimental results to Halmoy’s
model (smooth line) for 350 ipm ( 148.2 mm/s).
Response times
The time to reestablish a steady state electrode extension
following a step change in average current is plotted in Fig. 8
as a function of wire feed speed. The data shows a strong
Conclusions
The data presented in this work suggests two possible options
for a feedback arc length controller design: gain scheduling
controller or adaptive controller. A gain scheduling controller
is basically one that uses a lookup table of operating
parameters to alter the control law for the conditions used. An
adaptive controller is one that that continuously identifies the
system dynamics and automatically modifies the control law
in such a manner as to maintain optimum (or near optimum)
dynamic performance under all operating conditions. The use
of either a gain scheduling controller or a truly adaptive

709
controller are both supported by the data, so it is only the system on-line and achieving the necessary control to
necessary to decide which is more apt for the situation. The conduct the experiments described.
linear relationship found between the response time and the
wire feed speed suggests that a gain scheduling controller References
would be adequate, and the accurate model fits indicate that an
adaptive control system is highly possible. Each has their 1. M. E. Shepard, Modeling of Self-Regulation in Gas-
favorable and unfavorable aspects, and for the data presented Metal Arc Welding, Ph.D. Dissertation, Vanderbilt
there is no clearly superior design. However, given a few University, Nashville, Tennessee (1991).
reasonable assumptions it is possible to discern the more 2. G. E. Cook, Decoupling of Weld Variables for
probable favorite. Improved Automatic Control, Trends in Welding
Research, ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
The gain scheduling controller is by far the easier method to 1007-1015 (1999).
implement. It involves little computation and is very 3. K. J. Astrom and B. Wittenmark, Adaptive Control,
straightforward to design. However, there is a severe Second Edition, p 21, Addison-Wesley Publishing
drawback to this approach. A gain scheduling controller Company, New York (1995).
requires a compiled table of all possible combinations of 4. P. G. Krepp, Electrode Extension Control in Gas
influential weld parameters, and could require a high amount Metal Arc Welding, M.S. Thesis, Vanderbilt
of storage space resulting in long look-up times and poor University, Nashville, Tennessee (2004).
performance. It is noted that this work only examined a single 5. E. Halmoy, Electrode Wire Heating in Terms of
wire diameter, a single shielding gas, and a single material. A Welding Parameters, The Physics of Welding,
comprehensive lookup table would require large amounts of Second Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 330-
research to determine the degree to which each parameter 336 (1986).
affects the system and to compile the necessary data. Also, 6. C. J. Allum and L. Quintino, Control of Fusion
this control system is not highly adaptable to unexpected or Characteristics in Pulsed Current MIG Welding,
unidentified weld parameters and conditions. Part 1: Dependence of Fusion Characteristics on
Process Parameters, Metal Construction, 17, 242-
The adaptive controller, although it may be more difficult to 245 (1985).
construct and more computationally complex, is most likely 7. P. Smithmaitrie, Adaptive Fuzzy Voltage Control in
the better option. The foremost concern is the model Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, M.S. Thesis, Vanderbilt
reliability, but the data shows that the model, given the correct University, Nashville, Tennessee (2000).
parameters, is quite accurate. Furthermore, the primary
advantage of an adaptive control system is that it can self-
determine these estimated or unknown parameters to maintain
an accurate model. This construction makes the adaptive
control system more flexible when encountering changes in
the system. Instead of compiling a completely new set of data
for tables, the model is automatically modified to reflect
changes in the system. Overall, the adaptive control should
provide faster, more accurate control and prove to be the best
possible option to pursue. In light of the nonlinearity and
complexity of the system model, an attractive approach is a
model-based adaptive fuzzy logic control system. Such a
system would employ two fuzzy inference systems (FISs): one
for the basic feedback controller and a second acting on the
difference between the actual output and the desired model
response to adaptively modify the first FIS. This has been
successfully done in adaptive gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) arc length control [7].

Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by the NASA Space Grant
Consortium of Tennessee. The welding power supply, wire
feeder, and control software used in this work were provided
by the Lincoln Electric Co. Mr. Steve Peters and others at
Lincoln Electric also provided valuable assistance in bringing

710
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Keyhole Gas Tungsten Arc Welds
in Titanium and Titanium Alloys
S. Lathabai, K.J. Barton, L.K. Green, V.K. Tyagi
CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Woodville, South Australia, Australia
Abstract
Keyhole gas tungsten arc (K-GTA) welding, a novel variant of
the widely used gas tungsten arc welding process, has been
used to join commercially pure (CP) titanium and Ti-6Al-4V.
The process enables single pass welding of titanium alloys up
to 16 mm in thickness with no expensive filler metal addition
and a simple machined square edge preparation. The
relationship between the K-GTA weld microstructure and
mechanical properties are described and compared with those
of conventional GTA welds made on the same materials. It is
shown that the K-GTA welds have a very good combination
of microstructure and mechanical properties. We conclude that
the process with its high productivity combined with the
simplicity of proven technology and low capital investment
requirements, can be successfully used to produce high quality
welds in titanium alloys.
Keywords: titanium; Ti-6Al-4V; keyhole gas tungsten arc
welding; microstructure; mechanical properties; fatigue;
impact toughness.
Introduction
Titanium and titanium alloys display high specific strength
and excellent corrosion resistance which make them ideal
candidates for use in a wide range of applications in the
aerospace and chemical industries. In recent years, these
materials are also finding increasing application in other
sectors including biomedical engineering, marine and
offshore, transportation, architecture, and sports and leisure.
Welding is an essential step in the fabrication of useful
components from titanium.
Titanium and most titanium alloys are readily weldable by
fusion welding processes such as gas tungsten arc (GTA), gas
metal arc (GMA), plasma arc (PA), laser and electron beam
(LB and EB) welding processes, provided stringent
precautions are taken to shield the solidifying weld metal and
the heat affected zone (HAZ) from air, hydrogen, carbon
compounds or other contaminants [1,2]. This is necessary as at
temperatures exceeding 300°C, titanium and its alloys are
extremely reactive and are susceptible to embrittlement by
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen.
GTA welding which uses localised inert gas shielding to
produce good quality welds is a widely used process for
joining titanium and its alloys, especially in the sheet form.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
However, a major disadvantage is its low deposition rate,
particularly in the manual mode, which results in a rapid
increase in the number of passes per joint with material
thickness. This, in turn, leads to greater distortion and risk of
contamination. Processes such as GMA, EB and PA welding
are more effective for heavy section welding. However, with
GMA welding, the weld quality tends to be inferior; EB and
PA welding produce high quality welds but have the
disadvantage of high capital equipment costs [1,2].
Various modifications of the GTA welding process have been
attempted with a view to improving deposition rates and
productivity. These include preheating the filler wire, as in the
‘hot wire’ GTA welding, the use of ‘narrow grooves’ and the
application of fluxes to increase penetration in activated GTA
welding [3-5]. However, each of these modifications suffers
from drawbacks which limit their wider application. For
example, feeding the hot wire through the shroud and
adequately shielding the wire itself complicates the hot wire
GTA welding process while control of side wall fusion and the
need for a specially designed torch are of concern in the
narrow groove version. Smearing an even layer of the flux in
flux-activated GTA welding can pose a problem, particularly
in automatic welding.
(a) (b)
Weld
Efflux plasma
Figure 1: Schematic of the keyhole mode GTA welding
process; (a) side and (b) front views [6]. The arrow indicates
the welding direction.
The recent development of a new, full-penetration, single pass
variant of GTA welding, the keyhole GTA (K-GTA) welding
process, by Jarvis and co-workers at CSIRO, Australia, has
introduced another potential solution for the welding of
titanium plate [6,7]. The process is based on suitably adjusting
the process parameters, particularly the welding current, such
that the peak arc pressure developed is sufficient to puncture a
small opening through the root face of the plate [6,7].
Provided the opening is kept small, the resulting keyhole will
close behind the arc and the weld will be completed (Figure
1). Importantly, the opening releases the pressure within the
cavity and as a result the process is found to be very stable.
The successful generation of the keyhole is dependent on a
711
number of process variables including the physical properties High purity argon (99.999% minimum purity) was used for
and dimensions of the plate, tungsten electrode geometry, primary shielding via the torch; welding grade argon
shielding gas composition, arc voltage, welding current and (99.992% minimum purity) was used for secondary shielding.
travel speed. A fundamental constraint on the process is that
the liquid metal in the pool must be held in place by surface Table 1: Chemical composition (in wt.%)
tension while it solidifies. Therefore the physical properties of
a material that are critical to the process are thermal Alloy CP Ti Ti-6Al-4V
conductivity, surface tension and density of the liquid metal Ti Bal. Bal.
[6,7]. Al - 5.6
V - 4.2
K-GTA welding is particularly suited for materials with low Fe 0.10 0.18
thermal conductivity and low density [6,7]. Titanium alloys N 0..011 N/M
which meet both these requirements are thus ideal candidates O 0.150 N/M
for this process. Indeed, our preliminary studies have already C 0.013 N/M
confirmed that the process can be used successfully for high
quality single pass welding of commercially pure (CP) Table 2: Mechanical properties of the base materials
titanium and titanium alloys with section thickness up to 14
mm with no filler material addition and a simple machined CP Ti Ti-6Al-4V
square edge preparation [8,9]. 0.2% PS(MPa) 381 956
UTS (MPa) 539 979
The main objective of the present study was to carry out a % Elongation 24 16
detailed investigation of the relationships between the Charpy V notch impact 67, 67, 69 23, 23, 23
microstructures and mechanical properties of K-GTA welded energy at 20°C (J)
joints in CP titanium and the most widely used titanium alloy,
Ti-6Al-4V. A second objective was to examine if the
significant gains in productivity offered by the K-GTA (a) (b)
process in welding thick titanium plates also result in a level
of metallurgical quality at least comparable to that produced
by conventional GTA welding.
40 µm 40 µm
Experimental program
Materials Figure 1: Micrographs of the base materials: (a) CP titanium,
The materials studied were CP titanium and Ti-6Al-4V, (b) Ti-6Al-4V
conforming to ASTM B 265 Grade 2-95a and ASTM B 265
Grade 5-95a, respectively, in the form of plates 12.7 mm in Meticulous pre-weld cleaning of the joint and surrounding
thickness. The chemical composition and mechanical material, at least 50 mm beyond the groove on both the top
properties of the two base materials are presented in Tables 1 and bottom surfaces, was carried out to ensure elimination of
and 2. Figures 1(a) and (b) show the microstructures of the any contamination. A stainless steel wire brush was used to
two materials. CP titanium has an equiaxed grain structure remove any light oxide scale present. This was followed by
with Fe-rich fine precipitates present both within grains and at degreasing with acetone using a lint-free cloth. The filler
grain boundaries. The microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V consists of material used in conventional GTAW was degreased with
equiaxed grains of the α phase with globular β phase present at acetone using a lint-free cloth and wound on to a new spool.
the grain boundaries and triple points.
Welding was carried out using a heavy duty GTA welding
Welding torch, designed and manufactured by CSIRO [10]. The test
K-GTA welding procedures were developed for CP titanium plates, each 400 mm x 200 mm, were clamped to a purpose-
and Ti-6Al-4V. For comparison, procedures were also built welding platform incorporating the back shielding
developed using the conventional GTA welding process for arrangement and driven past the stationary GTA welding torch
these materials. In this case, matching filler materials in the by the action of a single-axis translation stage. The trailing
form of spooled wire, 1.2 mm in diameter, conforming to shield was attached to the torch. A lanthanated tungsten
AWS A5.16 ER-Ti1 and ER-Ti5, respectively, were used. A electrode, 6.4 mm in diameter, was used for the welding.
machined square edge preparation was used for K-GTA Current was supplied from a conventional GTA welding
welding, and a double-V edge preparation, for conventional power source. The heavy duty torch was also used for the
GTA welding. Since welding was carried out in the open air, conventional GTA welding, with the same electrode, so that
secondary shielding of the weld metal and the HAZ was the same welding set-up could be used. Data acquisition
provided via trailing and back shielding arrangements [8,9]. equipment was used for logging the welding parameters.

712
K-GTA welding of the CP titanium and Ti-6Al-4V plates was Mechanical testing
carried out along the rolling direction of the plates with the The welded test plates were tested in general accordance with
square machined edges in contact, i.e. with no joint gap. The the requirements of ASME Section IX [11]. Transverse
torch was manually aligned with the weld joint prior to tensile, all-weld tensile, guided bend and Charpy V-notch
welding. No filler material was used and full penetration impact tests (3 samples, at 20°C) were conducted.
welding was accomplished in one pass. Typical K-GTA Microhardness testing was carried out at a load of 100 g.
welding parameters are listed in Table 3. A second dressing
pass with no filler metal and the parameters listed in Table 3, Two additional CP titanium K -GTA welded test plates, each
was used to flatten the crown of the bead (see Results and approximately 600 mm x 400 mm, were produced for axial
Discussion). Conventional GTA welding of the plates was fatigue testing. Flat specimens with dimensions shown in
carried out using the appropriate filler materials with three Figure 2 were extracted transverse to the welding direction,
weld passes deposited on each side of the double-V groove. with the weld located at the centre of the gauge section. The
Typical welding parameters used for conventional GTA weld reinforcements at the face and the root were machined
welding are also shown in Table 3. flush with the specimen surface. The specimen surfaces were
hand-polished through various grades of abrasive paper to
Table 3: K-GTA and conventional GTA welding parameters obtain a surface finish, Ra, better than or equal to 0.2 µm. For
comparison, fatigue test specimens were also machined from
CP Ti Ti-6Al-4V CP titanium base material, ensuring that the orientation of the
K-GTA welding specimens with respect to the plate rolling direction was same
K-GTA welding pass as that for the welded samples.
Current (A) 630 625
Voltage (V) 20 19.5 280
Travel speed (mm/min) 300 300
Energy input (kJ/mm) 2.54 2.44

35
20
Electrode to plate distance (mm) 1 1
Electrode angle (°) 45 45 70
Dressing Pass R 160 12
Current (A) 250 350
Voltage (V) 25 15 Figure 2: Fatigue test specimen dimensions (in mm)
Travel speed (mm/min) 250 150
Energy input (kJ/mm) 1.5 2.1 Fatigue testing was performed at room temperature (20°C) in
Conventional GTA welding accordance with ASTM E 466-96 [12]. All tests were
Current (A) 240 240 conducted using a computer-controlled MTS Model 810
Voltage (V) 12 12 servo-hydraulic testing machine equipped with a 250 kN load
Travel speed (mm/min) 150 150 cell under load control. Sinusoidal loading with a stress ratio,
Filler wire (1.2 mm diameter) ER-Ti1 ER-Ti5 R, of 0.1 at a frequency of 15 Hz was used for all the tests. At
Wire feed (mm/min) 260 260 least two specimens were tested at each peak stress level for
Energy input (kJ/mm) 1.15 1.15 both the base material and the welded samples. The fatigue
No. of passes 6 6 limit was defined as the stress level that a sample withstood
for at least 106 cycles. Testing was discontinued when this
Radiographic examination confirmed that the welds were all number of cycles had been sustained by a sample. At least
free from gross porosity and other defects. No postweld heat three samples were tested at the apparent fatigue limit. Further
treatment (PWHT) was carried out on the CP titanium confirmation of the fatigue limit was obtained by ensuring no
weldments. Ti-6Al-4V welded joints were subjected to PWHT failure occurred at a stress level below this limit.
at 900°C in a inert argon atmosphere for a period of 4 hours,
followed by furnace cooling to room temperature. Results and discussion
Microstructural characterisation Microstructural characterisation
Transverse sections of the welded test plates from both alloys Figure 3(a) shows the typical appearance of a K-GTA weld in
were extracted for microstructural characterisation. Standard titanium. It can be seen that the keyhole weld shows a
metallographic techniques were used to prepare the samples tendency to undercut at the top surface and form a pronounced
which were then etched with either Kroll’s reagent or with crown. A similar tendency has been reported in the literature
Weck’s tint etchant (5 g ammonium bifluoride in water). in the case of laser and plasma arc keyhole welds in titanium
Microstructural characterisation was carried out using light alloys [13,14]. The physical properties of titanium may be
optical microscopy. responsible for the observed appearance. A second
conventional GTA weld pass at a low current and travel speed
with helium shielding flattened the crown and eliminated the

713
undercut, as seen in Figure 3(b). Figure 3(c) is the macrograph
of a multipass conventional GTA weld in Ti-6Al-4V. No large
pores or other defects were observed in any of the welds, in
agreement with the radiographic examination results.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3: (a) CP titanium K-GTA weld; (b) the same, with a
dressing pass; (c) Ti-6Al-4V conventional GTA weld.
The macrographs clearly show the two distinct zones of a
weld, the fusion zone (FZ) and the HAZ. In the FZ, where
melting occurred during welding, a coarse-grained cast
microstructure develops. In the HAZ, the material has been
heated as a result of the weld thermal cycle over a range of
temperatures spanning the melting point on the one side to the
β transus at the other. The weld thermal cycles are such that
the highest peak temperature and the fastest heating and
cooling rates are attained at the weld centre and these decrease
rapidly with distance from the centre. As a result, a gradation
of microstructures, both in terms of grain size and type, are
observed from the fusion line to the unaffected base material.
Figures 4(a)-(d) are optical micrographs showing the range of
microstructures observed in a K-GTA weld (with a dressing
pass) in CP titanium. The low magnification micrograph in
Figure 4(a) shows the coarse-grained HAZ of this weld. When
compared with the CP titanium base material microstructure in
Figure 1, it is obvious that rapid grain growth has occurred in
the HAZ. Fine parallel striations denoting a family of α plates
with the same crystallographic orientation are seen within the
clearly delineated prior β grains. Where parallel plates of one
variant of the crystallographic orientation meet another set, a
serrated sub-boundary appears within the grains. This can be
seen in Figure 4(b), a higher magnification micrograph of the
area outlined in Figure 4(a), which shows a triple point in the
coarse-grained HAZ. In addition, an acicular structure
consisting of intersecting coarse laths is also seen in some of
the grains resulting in a basket-weave pattern. Figures 4(c) and
(d) show that the microstructural features within the coarse
columnar grains in the FZ are identical to those observed in
the HAZ.
In titanium alloy welds, the cooling rate from the β phase
controls its microstructure [8,15]. High cooling rates produce
a lath martensite, α', by a shear transformation; slower cooling
produces packets of α by a nucleation and growth process.
Since both these transformation products obey the same
Burgers orientation relationship, distinguishing the two phases
by optical microscopy is difficult [15]. Examination at higher
magnifications in the scanning electron microscope (SEM)
showed that an Fe-rich film of β was present between the
parallel α laths in the K-GTA weld [9]. Based on this it can be
714
concluded that the observed microstructure corresponds to a
product of nucleation and growth and hence not α' [15].
(a) (b)
(a)
0.4 mm 100 µm
(c) (d)
0.4 mm 100 µm
(e) (f)
100 µm 100 µm
Figure 4. (a) Low magnification micrograph of the coarse
grained HAZ of a K-GTA weld in CP titanium; (b) higher
magnification view of the area outlined in (a); (c) and (d)
different magnification views of the FZ; (e) and (f)
micrographs of the coarse grained HAZ and the FZ in a
conventional GTA weld in CP titanium.
Figures 4(e) and (f) reveal that the microstructures of the FZ
and HAZ of the CP titanium conventional GTA weld are
similar in morphology to those of the K-GTA weld. The HAZ
was significantly narrower than that of the K-GTA weld,
consistent with the lower energy input per welding pass and
hence a steeper distribution of peak temperatures in this zone.
Given the faster rate of cooling in this weld, it is possible that
some α' may have formed, although limited SEM analysis
showed that the microstructure comprised mainly of α laths
interspersed with thin films of β.
The as-welded fusion zones of both K-GTA and conventional
GTA welds in Ti-6Al-4V exhibited a fine acicular
microstructure within coarse, columnar prior β grains. Figures
5(a)-(c) show these microstructures. The unresolved region
near the prior β grain boundaries in Figures 5(a) and 5(c)
suggests the formation of diffusional α at these sites. The
morphology of the acicular phase within the prior β grains
appears different in the two welds: the K-GTA FZ exhibits a
characteristic basket-weave structure, while the conventional
GTA weld FZ reveals long plates intersecting each other at ~
90°. Although unequivocal identification of these fine
microstructures is difficult by optical microscopy, it appears
that the faster cooling rate associated with the conventional
GTA process has resulted in formation of α' martensite, while
the slower cooling rate of the K-GTA weld has formed a furnace cooling, eliminated differences observed in the as-
mixed structure consisting of α plates and α' martensite. welded microstructures of the K-GTA and conventional GTA
welds. Therefore it is not surprising that significant differences
are not observed in their mechanical properties.
(a) (d)
Table 4: Mechanical test results: K-GTA and conventional
GTA welds in CP titanium and Ti-6Al-4V (after PWHT)

CP Titanium K-GTAW GTAW

100 µm 100 µm Transverse tensile test
UTS (MPa) 538 542
(b) (e) Failure location weld weld
All weld tensile test
0.2% PS (MPa) 440 Not tested
UTS (MPa) 527
Elongation (%) 23
40 µm 40 µm Bend test (8t former, 180°)
Face bend Pass Pass
(c) (f) Root bend Pass Pass
Side bend Pass Pass
Charpy impact test at 20°C
Mean impact energy (J) 121 120
Microhardness (HV0.5)
100 µm 100 µm Base material 175 ± 5 175 ± 5
HAZ 188 ± 10 193 ± 20
Figure 5. Micrographs of Ti-6Al-4V K-GTA and conventional Fusion zone 175 ± 9 167 ± 11
GTA welds showing the effect of PWHT at 900°C: (a) and (b) Ti-6Al-4V
FZ microstructures of K-GTA weld; (c) FZ microstructure of Transverse tensile test
conventional GTA weld; all as-welded. (d), (e) and (f), UTS (MPa) 993 943
respectively, show the corresponding microstructures in the Failure location weld weld
PWHT condition. All weld tensile test
0.2% PS (MPa) 815 862
The differences in the as-welded microstructures of the two UTS (MPa) 976 949
welds are eliminated by the postweld heat treatment. As can Elongation (%) 11 12
be seen from Figures 5(d)-(e), both welds exhibit a coarse Bend test (10t former,
basket weave structure of thick lenticular α plates in a β 180°)
matrix. The prior β grain boundaries are clearly outlined by α, Side bend Pass Pass
which appears to be continuous in the case of the K-GTA Side bend Pass Pass
weld, but discontinuous in the case of the conventional GTA Charpy impact test at 20°C
weld. Mean impact energy (J) 38 38
Microhardness (HV0.5)
Mechanical properties Base material 312 ± 17 Not
The results of the mechanical testing carried out on the K- Fusion zone – top 345 ± 20 measured
GTA and conventional GTA welds in CP titanium and Ti-6Al- Fusion zone – root 330 ± 19
4V are presented in Table 4. It is immediately evident from
these results that the mechanical properties of the K-GTA On comparing the all-weld tensile properties of both welds
welds in both CP titanium and Ti-6Al-4V are very similar to with that of the Ti-6Al-4V base material (in the as received
those of the corresponding conventional GTA welds. In the condition, Table 2), it is seen that the 0.2% proof stress and
case of the CP titanium welds, while the tensile properties of the ultimate tensile strength are similar but the weld ductility
both welds are very similar to those of the base material (elongation) is lower. This is attributable to the significantly
(Table 2), the Charpy impact energy at 20°C is significantly coarser cast grain structure of the fusion zone. In contrast, the
higher. The microhardness of the both the K-GTA and Charpy impact energies at 20°C of both welds are almost
conventional GTA CP titanium HAZ and FZ are also similar double that of the base material. The beneficial role of acicular
to that of the base material. microstructures in α+β alloys on fracture toughness is well
established [16]. The α platelets with their high aspect ratios
In the case of Ti-6Al-4V, we have noted above that the provide an extended α-β interface for preferential crack
postweld heat treatment at 900°C for 4 hours, followed by propagation. The crack tortuosity introduced as a result leads

715
to greater energy consumption for propagation, and hence,
higher fracture toughness [16]. In addition, when grain
boundary α is present, as its thickness inceases, greater energy
is absorbed due to increased plastic flow of the thicker α layer,
which is less constrained by the surrounding harder
transformed β phase [16]. We have seen that postweld heat
treatment promoted the formation of acicular α phase in both
welds and also resulted in the formation of α phase at the grain
boundaries. Both these alterations are clearly responsible for
the higher impact toughness of the postweld heat treated
materials, compared to the equiaxed base material.
600
500 Base material
Peak Stress (MPa)
Welded specimen
400
300
200
100
0
104 105 106
Cycles to failure
Figure 6. Fatigue performance of CP titanium K-GTA welded
specimens and base material.
Figure 6 compares the fatigue performance of CP titanium K-
GTA welded specimens to that of the base material. Symbols
with arrows indicate specimens that sustained at least 106
cycles without failure. The hashed region on the stress axis
denotes the ultimate tensile strength of the base material and
the weld joint. The results indicate that the fatigue behaviour
of the K-GTA weld is essentially similar to that of the base
material, with an endurance limit approximately 50% of the
UTS being observed for both cases. Despite the different
microstructure in the FZ, it is evident that the fatigue
behaviour of the welded sample is not inferior to that of the
base material.
Conclusions
K-GTA welding, a novel variant of the GTA welding process,
has been successfully used for joining 12.7 mm thick plates of
CP titanium and Ti-6Al-4V, the two most widely used
titanium alloys. The process uses no filler materials and a
simple square butt edge preparation. In contrast, welding
plates of these same materials using conventional GTA
welding required a double V-edge preparation, filler wire
addition and six welding passes.
The microstructure of the K-GTA weld in CP titanium was
essentially similar to that of conventional GTA weld. In the
case of Ti-6Al-4V, PWHT at 900°C for 4 hours followed by
furnace cooling eliminated any differences in the as-welded
microstructures. The tensile properties, Charpy impact energy
and microhardness of the K-GTA welds in both materials were
very similar to those of the conventional GTA welds. Axial
fatigue testing revealed that the fatigue performance of the K-
GTA weld was very similar to that of the base material.
We conclude that the K-GTA welding process offers
significant productivity improvements in the welding of
relatively thick sections of titanium alloys, using off the shelf
inexpensive equipment, while maintaining metallurgical
quality at least equivalent to that of conventional, multipass
GTA welds.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Laurie Jarvis for his interest in the
work and for many fruitful discussions.
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Journal, 76, 81s (1997).
716
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Residual strength in integral (welded) Al fuselage structures

- Understanding failure peculiarities enables amazing strength values -
Frank Palm
EADS Corporate Research Center Germany, Ottobrunn, Germany

Abstract
Laser beam welding (LBW) for skin – stringer joints became
reality in AIRBUS aircrafts like A318 or A380 since
1999/2000. Current applications of laser beam welding are
limited to locations in lower shell structures in the pressurized
fuselage where compression or shear + compression are
dominating the load distribution. Although fatigue crack
growth in such structures can be largely neglected sufficient
Figure 1: De Ha |villand Comet 1
residual strength (in a foreign damage case) have to be proven.
Principal investigations on LB welded pre cracked skin –
stringer components have shown in accordance to many other
previous investigations all over the world that integral
(welded) elements seem to suffer from an inherent low
residual strength capability if compared to differential
structures like riveted or adhesively bonded ones.
This apparent drawback stimulated a deeper going research
program at EADS CRC-Germany to gain a better
understanding about crucial mechanism, which probably
manage the residual strength behavior in LB welded skin –
stringer structures and the question for (new) solutions in
order to enhance residual strength in integral structures.

Introduction
Since the early 50´ies of the last century with its first high
speed jet airliner De Havilland Comet 1 aircraft structure
design and manufacturing have made tremendous progresses. Figure 2: Failure location in the side shell/window area of the
Driven by permanently (required) improvements in terms of COMET 1 fuselage
safety, reliability and efficiency in order to fulfill customer
and airliner needs and expectations the pressure on research Figure 3 demonstrates the impact of “exploded” jet engine
and engineering of aircraft manufactures was always and is debris in a lower part area of a wide body aircraft where all
very high. fan blades of the turbine completely separated from their
The history of technology is a history of failures and as mounting disc and partly hit the fuselage.
peoples voice declares: Only from damages you will become
smart as well the aircraft industry had (and for sure will have)
to make painful experiences.
The sudden in flight desintegration of 2 De Haivilland Comets
in 1954 due to accelerated fatigue crack growth (FCGR)
failure of the pressurized fuselage sensitized engineers to care
about the design and the materials which were used to built up
the airplane structure (fig. 1 and 2).
But not only fatigue and insufficient residual strength
threatened an aircraft structure, so called “foreign object Figure 3: “Artificial cracks” (FOD) in
damage” (FOD) can be the origin of fuselage “loads” which a pressurized fuselage structure
should not lead to an all over catastrophic depressurising = created by turbine debris
aircraft lost.
Such “cracks” can become obviously quite long and hence the
structure requires load capability reserves respective fail safe

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 717

design features, which comprises load path redundancy to
ensure a sufficient residual strength (to recover during flight).
Beside FCGR and FOD the riveted aluminum aircraft
structure have some inherent design characteristics that might
help to stop cracks (acts as a crack trap) or allows easy repair
but as well can be the origin of a severe damage. Each rivet
hole coupled with stress and corrosion is a potential crack
generator. Many of those locally small cracks in line (multi
side damage (MSD)) may lead to a wide spread fatigue
damage (WSD). This occurred in 1988 with a Hawaiian
ALOHA Airways Boeing 737 (see fig. 4a and b) where a
complete forward upper shell was “cut out” of the aircraft
fuselage unintentionally converting the plane into a
“convertible”. Owing to the robust design of the Boeing 737
this accident ended with only one casualty [3,5,6].
Figure 4: MSD leads to WSD in a Boeing 737 in Hawaii
(1988)
Due to lessons learnt the differential more or less riveted built
up design of a current pressurized fuselage aircraft structure
has proven to be very reliable. Some inherent deficiencies like
MSD pushed aeronautical engineers to focus again on integral
designed structures (machined from thick Al plates) [1,2,4].
Investigations all over the years from 1950 up to now
displayed always the same advantages (low corrosion, delayed
crack initiation Î improved fatigue, reduced manufacturing
costs). Despite those “motivators” they were unfortunately
closely coupled with inadequate long crack behaviour and
significantly reduced residual strength values if the structure is
weakened by in service or artificial damages.
Figure 5: Barrels test on stiffened panels demonstrating crack
arrest and crack turning at frame locations
718
It could be shown that desired crack turning resulting in
controlled depressurising (in barrel tests) might be achievable
(see figure 5). But the required local design to stimulate this
behavior was no more competitive in terms of weight due to
the significant material accumulation (local reinforcement) to
force the crack to deviate.
Summarizing all knowledge over the last 50 years today an
airplane claimed to ready for “entry in service” has to prove its
maturity following a over year by year perfected certification
routine (see fig. 7), which is supervised by the airworthiness
authorities (FAA/JAA).
Figure 7: Certification rules of FAA/JAA for big aircraft
structures
1. Laser beam welding in Airbus aircrafts
With advent of laser beam welding (LBW) for aluminum
alloys in the late 80´ies of the last century another way to
“built up” integral aircraft structures promising manufacturing
advantages became viable. After 10 years of basic research
and development the first component of the rear lower shell
structure was qualified for serial production in the single aisle
Airbus A318 [7].
Figure 8: Substitution of riveting by LBW for stringer
attachment in a lower fuselage panel [8]
In a first step all longitudinal stiffeners (stringer) are welded
applying filler material to the fuselage skin. Skin and stringer
are made from weldable AlMgSiCu type medium strength Al-
alloys. Perspective it is planned to weld in the future the
circumferential frame attachment elements (clips, cleats and
shear webs) as well in order to minimize the amount of
penetrations (rivet holes) in the fuselage surface. After the
introduction of this new manufacturing into the Airbus A318
program this type of welding application has now become real
in the Airbus A380 and soon in the Airbus A340-500/600
HGW (high gross weight). Figure 9 is showing the local
application (in red) always limited to compression and shear
dominated aircraft structure areas.

Figure 9: Application of LB-welded stiffened panels in civil

Figure 10a and b: Distribution of riveted and bonded stringer
commercial Airbus aircrafts [8]
in an Airbus A330-300
In parallel to the successful implementation of this new
manufacturing technology since many years detailed research
works are running to clear up what is necessary to extend the
LBW application to other fuselage areas (like upper shells
panels). Therefore significant property improvements are
required. Those have to tackle questions related to:
- New or improved weldable aerospace Al-alloys
- More reliable and simplified welding procedures
- Design optimization to ensure improved structural
behavior in terms of:
o Compression and shear
o Fatigue and fatigue crack growth behavior Figure 11: Dominating load cases for a pressurized fuselage
o Residual strength behavior (limit load like Airbus A380 [13]
capabilities)
o Impact of in service damages on the above
mentioned features
o Deeper understanding of complex
interactions due to the integral nature of the
components coupled with extensive
modeling to create new tools for prediction,
long term (in service) assessment and
certification
Figure 11: Structural damages as longitudinal cracks (over
2. Design principals and challenges in aircrafts structures
broken frame) and circumferential cracks (over broken
A modern aircraft structure like the Airbus A330-300 (see fig.
stringer)
10a and b) is designed to fulfill aircraft requirement mentioned
above. Therefore the fuselage has a differential design
During development both structural damages have to be tested
comprising of riveted and bonded stringer and riveted frames
(in pre cracked panels) in order to assess the residual strength
(attachments). This engineering is a result of the fuselage
capability of a design solution. It became obvious that the
loads, which determine the material selection and local
welded panel configurations were sufficient under
dimensioning.
compression and shear but the integral design was inefficient
If a design change from differential (riveted) to integral
for upper shell application.
(welded) is intended some of our observations were that we
This, well known feature originates from the lacking
have to take extremely care about the local load (and
capability of integral design to reduce the stress intensity at
subsequently failure) situation. The integral nature of the
the crack tip. In a differential design the stiffening element (i.
structure, which implies “physical” restrictions due to fracture
e. stringer) remains unaffected even the skin crack is passing
mechanics theory, prevents a design solution, which works for
under the stringer foot. The integral design if implemented in
nearly each loading case (like riveted structures fortunately it
the way figure 12 it displays is unable to carry high load (=
does).
high residual strength) because unstable crack growth (=
If residual strength optimization (dedicated to upper fuselage
premature failure with low residual strength compared to the
shells) is of primary concern two different kinds of cracks
riveted solution) will take place.
(longitudinal or circumferential) have to be attacked. In
particular a long crack over broken frame (“2-bay-crack
criteria”) is very challenging.

719

Figure 12: Crack extension in differential and integral design
under static or dynamic loading situations
In a differential design a high strength stiffener (i.e. 7xxx type
Al material) is beneficial as it shifts residual strength to higher
values although the 7xxx material has a worse fracture
toughness than the skin material (normally 2xxx type Al
material). In an integral design the behavior is assumed to be
vice versa due to the low fracture toughness of the 7xxx
materials (supposed the “weldability issue” is solved).
Î Therefore it is generally anticipated that the integral
(welded) design can never accomplish limit load
capabilities (= residual strength) like differential (riveted)
designs!!
Figure 13a and b: T-joint drawing which shows the local
“inhomogenity” of a laser beam weld
Our own investigations encouraged us to mitigate this
statement as we have observed that the crack tip behavior (=
stress intensity distribution) in a welded skin – stringer
configuration is influenced by many parameters. It seems that
some of this parameters can be manipulated reliable in order
to achieve delayed crack instability (= improved residual
strength values). In principal people equalize a weld zone with
a metallurgical notch always assuming reduced mechanical
properties. This very simplified consideration is not helpful for
understanding the complex interaction in the vicinity of weld
seam. Figure 13a and b should give a better overview about
the local peculiarities a crack is faced with during approaching
and running through the T-joint zone.
It is important to know that the extension of the plasticity zone
in front of the crack tip and the local material response(s)
(with their resistance against crack growth = fracture
toughness) are determining the reachable residual strength.
Therefore we have to distinguish in the weld zone both base
materials (1 and 3), their heat affected zones, the weld
720
material (2). In each case the fracture toughness can be very
different.
The overall purpose to decrease crack tip stress intensity in
order to realize higher residual strength now several “tools”
can be exploited:
- Increasing energy dissipation capability in the weld
zone
o Toughening the weld material
o Minimize “mismatch” in terms of strength
and ductility in order to prevent stress/strain
concentrations
- Changing local geometries to redistribute stresses
- Apply base materials and filler materials with
principal better failure behavior (in a welded
configuration and not considered solely))
- Allow load transfer into secondary load paths by
“matching” the right materials (Î different young
modulus)
Optimize local geometry in order to support the weld zone and
separate weld zone from failure zone
3. Improvement of residual strength in integral welded
structures via parametric studies using a “residual
strength test bar”
During the initial phases of basic research on welded integral
structures it was decided to run test on so called “qm panels”
which contained 7 welded stringers with an upper shell
stringer pitch. Despite some important observations (including
the good comparability of results with data generated in
pressurized barrel tests) it became evident that such
methodology is by far too expensive (and too long lasting) to
receive all the relevant data/test results required for integral
structure optimization. We implemented a down scaling
procedure started from 7 stringer over 4 stringer panels,
coupled with finite element modeling, reaching a welded
tensile test bar.
Crack (2a)
Figure 14a – d: Tested 7 and 4 stringer panels to assess
residual strength
The test results indicate that the residual strength in welded Skin material Stringer Filler material Post weld
skin – stringer panels with a crack perpendicular to the material heat
treatment
stringers can be derived and estimated by a simple addition of: 2024 T3 2024 T3 4047/4145/2319 Yes/No
- Residual strength of skin (which is defined by the R- 6013 T4 or T6 6013 T4 or T6 4047/4145 Yes/No
curve behavior and hence easy to calculate for skin 2524 T3 2098 T8 4047/1217 (russ.)
panels even if they have a “pocketing” substructure) AlMgMnZnZr AlMgMnZnZr No filler
(5059) (5059)
plus (+)
AlMgMnZnZr Improved 7xxx New filler Yes/No
- Residual strength of a tensile test bar which covers (5059) from different
the complex interaction of stringer + weld seam + suppliers
cracked skin remnant AlMgSc AlMgSc No filler
AlMgSc Improved 7xxx New filler Yes/No
from different
As visible in figure 15 therefore we cut the stringer + weld suppliers
zone free from the entire panel, rearrange the stringer flange in Improved Improved 7xxx New filler Yes/No
a vertical manner and received a tensile test bar, which AlMgSc from different
represents the local load (strength) capability suppliers
Improved 2xxx Improved 2xxx New filler Yes/No
Improved 2xxx Improved New filler Yes/No
AlCuLi
Improved Improved New filler Yes/No
AlCuLi AlCuLi
Improved 7xxx Improved 7xxx New filler Yes/No
Table 1: Material test matrix

Figure 15a - c: Establishment of the residual strength test bar
Thanks to this simplification it is now possible to weld such
test bars quite easily. Hence it opens the way for parametric
studies of different skin and stringer materials joint together in
different ways. Welding will be done in the same way like
panel welding thus comparison of results is approved.
4. Results
Figure 17 shall give you an impression about the residual
strength property drop of several tested base materials (in this
phase without any weld seam). As expected with increasing
base material strength the limit load capability of the notched
test bars is decreasing significantly. This is in good agreement
with the fracture mechanics knowledge for high strength
aerospace Al alloys. Thus it supports the statement that high
strength stiffeners might act beneficially in (pre cracked) built
up structures but it will not in (pre cracked) integral structures.

Figure 17: Limit load capabilities of different high strength

aerospace Al alloys (always same test cross section)

Figure 16a and b: Tensile bar notched with sharpened crack
(visible after static testing)
A first test matrix was developed consisting of different
aerospace Al alloys, which are established or under discussion
for future use in integral welded components.
Of more interest is the 2nd step if not only a notch but also a
weld seam is introduced into the test bar. In figure 18 we see a
comparison of the load carrying behavior of the medium
strength AlMgSiCu alloy AA 6013. There is a monotonic
decrease of residual strength visible. First only a moderate
reduction (≈ 10%) occurs from base (36 kN) to notched
material (33 kN) (proving the good inherent fracture
toughness of AA 6013 T6). After LBW with an AA 4047 filler
the limit load reaches about 30 kN. Welding in T4 condition

721
followed by artificial aging (190°C/4h) promotes further load
carrying capability reduction (27 kN).
Figure 18: Residual strength development of not welded and
welded aerospace Al alloy AA 6013
Obviously this type of material is influenced negatively by the
presence of a welded joint zone (especially if the joint zone is
“hardened” by post weld heat treatments). The same analysis,
done for the relatively new 3rd generation high strength
AlCuLi alloy AA 2098 T8 revealed a slightly different pattern.
Again here we found the more severe decrease (≈ 40%) in
limit load capability from base to notched material (53 kN Î
31 kN). But welding do not further stimulate a reduction of
residual strength careless the welding filler, which was applied
(in order to create a more ductile fracture behavior).
The comparison of AA 6013 and AA 2098 shows that in
welded configurations the high strength AlCuLi alloy will not
be able to display a residual strength improvement (in a pre
cracked situation).
Figure 19: Residual strength development of not welded and
welded aerospace Al alloy AA 2098
But as shown in figure 20 we have found material
combinations where appropriate improved base materials
coupled new welding fillers are capable for significantly
higher limit loads.
722
Figure 20: Extraction of the test table on different aerospace
Al alloys in LB welded configuration after limit load testing
with the residual strength test bar.
These material combinations are now subjected to more
detailed investigation consequently it is unfortunately not
possible to release more information about those promising
material solutions.
4.1 Estimation of residual strength in 4 stringers test
panels
In a 2nd step we tested the residual strength predictability of a
stringers reinforced panel (like shown in fig.14). The
comparison was done for a AA 5059 (skin) – AA 5059
(stringer) 4 stringer test sample. Taking the test bar results we
can approximate the stringer input of nominally ≈ 28 kN. A
finite element modeling (linear elastic) of load distribution in
the test panel cracked over one stringer pitch (figure 21) just
before failure demonstrated a load carrying participation of
66% for the outer stringers and of course 100% for the inner
stringers.
A parallel test of residual strength of the stringer free (not
reinforced) skin sheet (including pocketing) having the same
crack length produced a limit load value of 276 kN.
Î Limit load skin – stringer panel (calculated) = 276 kN +
2 x 28 kN+ 2 x 18,7 kN= 369 kN
Figure 21: Load (stress) distribution in a 4 stringers panels
during static (residual strength) tensile testing
Î Limit load skin – stringer panel (measured) = 366 kN
The same comparison was done with other welded mixed
material combinations. Each case showed a good agreement
between the global residual strength value of the stringer
reinforced configuration and the calculated (estimated) value
generated by the residual strength test bar + FEM estimation
of load distribution + residual strength of sheet.

5. Conclusive summary
Integral welded fuselage structures offer inherent advantages
(manufacturing costs, corrosion behavior, absence of WFD
and MSD etc.) but lacking sufficient residual strength
capabilities. In order to accelerate the further development of
integral design it could be shown that
1) The tough skin + high strength stringer philosophy
established for riveted and bonded design solution
with high residual strength can be adopted to welded
integral structures if the “right” materials are
coupled.
2) A fast estimation of residual strength values can be
accomplished by using a simplified test bar which Figure 22: Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 CFRP intensive new
displays all relevant material parameter obviously aircrafts
important to assess the crack tip behavior
(instability). 6. Acknowledgements
3) A great variety of materials/filler materials/heat The works described in this paper were financed by the EADS
treatments and geometrical configurations can now corporate research funding and the EADS-AIRBUS shared
be test without creating extensive costs. It will research network funding. The discussions with my EADS
produce reliable data, which are necessary to step CRC-G colleagues at Ottobrunn site and the AIRBUS ESW
forward (and determining the required data base for colleagues at Bremen and Hamburg site were highly
additional simulation activities) in order to push the appreciated.
application of welding over the entire fuselage.
7. References
Metallic aircraft structure engineering is currently faced with a
big threat by extended carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) [1] R. G. Pettit et al.
application. The Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 (s. fig. 22) Validated feasibility study of integrally stiffened
should be seen as an “Olympic” challenge. The intelligent use metallic fuselage panels for reducing manufacturing
of new aluminum alloys in welded fuselage structures coupled costs
with tailored design will show that the competition between NASA/CR-2000-209342
metals and plastic (“silver and black”) is stepping into the next
round (hopefully). [2] H. F. Hardrath et al.
Fatigue crack propagation and residual static
strength of built up structures
NACA Tech. Note 7/N 75414, 1956

[3] C. C. Poe Jr.

Fatigue crack propagation in stiffened panels
Damage Tolerances in Aircraft Structures, ASTM
STP 486, 1971, pp. 79 - 97

[4] J. Munroe et al.

Integral airframe structures (IAS) – Validated
feasibility study of integrally stiffened metallic
fuselage panels for reducing manufacturing costs
NASA –2000-209337

[5] T. Swift
Damage tolerance capability
Fatigue, Volume 16 Number 1, pp. 75 – 94, 1994

723
[6] C. E. Feddersen
Evaluation and prediction of the residual strength of
center cracked tension panels
Damage Tolerances in Aircraft Structures, ASTM
STP 486, 1971, pp. 50 - 78

[7] J. Schumacher
Erfahrungen bei der Serieneinführung für
Laserstrahlschweißen im Flugzeugbau
4. Laseranwenderforum, Bremen, 2002, pp. 247 –
256

[8] R. Kocik et al.

Development of a new joining technology for hybrid
metal aircraft structures
Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress on
Applications of Lasers and Electro-Optics (ICALEO)
2004, Orlando

[9] B. Sarh
“Lightweighting” of composite structures for
transportation systems
“Lightweighting at Boeing”, Workshop at EADS,
Munich, 14th of March 2003

[10] E. Seib et al.

Fracture assessment of laser beam welded aluminum
panels
ICF 11, March 22-25, 2005 Turin, Italy

[11] F. Congourdeau et al.

Damage tolerance of fuselage welded stiffened
panels
International committee on aeronautical fatigue
(ICAF), Lucerne, Switzerland 5 – 9 May 2003

[12] J. Franeck et al.

Einfluss der Stringergeometrie auf das
Rissausbreitungsverhalten in integralen
Flugzeugrumpfschalen
Deutscher Verband für Materialforschung und
prüfung, DVM – Bericht 236, 2004, pp. 29 – 37

[13] M. Pacchione
The challenges of the integral metallic fuselage
DVM-Arbeitskreis Sitzung: Der Integrale metallische
Flugzeugrumpf, eine bruchmechanische
Herausforderung, 25th of January 2005, EADS
Corporate Research Center Ottobrunn

724
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Correlating Temperatures, Structures and Hardness in A36 GMA Welds
D. W. Moon, C. R. Feng, S. G. Lambrakos. E. A. Metzbower
US Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC, USA
Abstract
A unique series of welds have been fabricated in ASTM A36
steel plate by gas metal arc welding at heat inputs of 1.0, 1.6,
and 2.2 kJ/mm. The initial pass was made over the entire
length of the plate. Each subsequent pass was indented
approximately 25 mm and then made the length of the plate.
This configuration allowed us to examine the consequence of
a subsequent weld pass on the prior weld beads by slicing the
welds at appropriate positions along its length. These slices
were then polished and the macrostructure was determined.
Hardness maps were then determined over the entire weld
zone, including the heat-affected zone and the base plate.
Correlations were then determined between the hardness maps
and the macrostructure. A bead-on-plate weld was made at
the same heat inputs and was used to determine the
temperature regimes as well as thermal profiles from these
areas. These temperature regimes were used to determine the
temperatures in the weld on a pass-by-pass procedure.
Relationships showing good correlations are observed
between the various microstructures, the macrostructure, the
calculated thermal profiles, and the hardness values. The
tempering that occurs as a result of a subsequent pass has been
quantified and follows the experimental data.
Introduction
Welds are essentially unique, usually thought of as consisting
of base plate (BP), heat-affected zone (HAZ), and fusion zone
(FZ). Occasionally the HAZ is described as containing a local
brittle zone with properties that differ from the rest of the
HAZ. The FZ is either assumed to have the same properties
everywhere (which may be the case in laser or electron beam
welds) or to have a mishmash of properties that are either
averaged in the testing procedure or are dictated by the
smallest local value. In reality the FZ of a multipass weld
consists of weld beads whose properties may or may not be
modified either by phase transformations or tempering by
successive passes.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Recent research (1-5) at NRL has demonstrated a definite
correspondence between the macrostructure of the weld as
revealed on a polished and etched sample and the hardness
when it is mapped over the entire surface of the weld. A
colored coded hardness map can be superimposed over the
macrostructure and indicates that the lower hardness
corresponds to those regions of the weld that have been
tempered by a subsequent pass and that higher hardness
corresponds to untempered areas of the weld. Detailed
electron microscopy (2) of the areas with different hardness
values indicates a significant difference in the microstructures.
The research effort described in this paper is an attempt to
unify the thermal modeling of the weld with its properties.
This requires a thermal model of the temperatures in a
multipass weld, knowledge of the peak temperatures at any
point in the weld, as well as the cooling curves from those
temperatures. The tempering effect of a subsequent pass on a
prior pass is modeled based on the peak temperature and the
thermal profile from the subsequent pass. Hardness maps are
compared to the macrostructure and the hardness in both the
HAZ of the base plate and the hardness in the tempered zone
of the prior weld is calculated.
Experiment
Gas metal arc welds at heat inputs of 1.0, 1.6 and 2.2 kJ/mm
were fabricated in a high strength, low alloy steel with yield
strength of 250 MPa (ASTM A36). The welds were made on
an automated welding machine. The 12.7 mm thick weld had
a single V-notch of 60˚ with a gap of about 5 mm and a
backing plate and was approximately 750 mm long. The first
pass went the entire length of the plate. Each subsequent pass
was indented approximately 25 mm from the start of the prior
pass. Table 1 gives the information about each weld as well as
the bead-on-plate (BOP) made under the same conditions.
The welds were machined so as to provide a progressive
sequence of individual cross sections of the first pass, the first
and second passes, the first, second, and third passes, etc. A
cross section of the BOP weld was also obtained. The
material was then
725
Table 1. GMAW HSLA-36 Welds
W439 W440 W441 W440
Volts 30 30 30 0
Amperes 310 310 310 1530
0.001
Speed / ms-1 0.0093 0.0059 0.0042 1227
Heat Input / kJmm-1 1.0 1.6 2.2 0.002

Depth / m
Wire Feed / ms-1 0.18 0.18 0.18 863

0.003
Interpass Temp / ˚C 93 93 93 721
Passes 11 7 6 0.004
500
BOP Width / mm 10.8 14.6 13.6 0.005
BOP Depth / mm 4.0 5.4 6.0
BOP Height / mm 2.3 3.5 4.0 0.006

BOP Area / mm2 27.65 35.55 38.66 0.007

mounted, polished and etched. The macro- and
microstructures of the HAZ, the as deposited weld metal, the
HAZ in the prior pass were determined by optical microscopy.
The hardness maps were made on the same samples that were
used for the generation of the macrographs. Hardness was
obtained with a diamond indenter and a 1kg load at a spacing
of 0.5 mm. The highest hardness values were recorded either
in the as-deposited fusion zone or in the HAZ of the base
plate. The lowest hardness values were found in the base
plate.
Thermal Model
Motivation for our thermal model is the fact that the inherent
complexity of welding processes implies that a completely
first-principles approach, i.e., a model representation that
attempts to include all underlying physical processes to the
calculation of thermal histories, may not be well posed in
general for quantitative analysis. Experience (3) has shown
this to be especially true for the calculation of thermal
histories in the HAZ. Following this approach, the entire
fusion line of the bead-on-plate weld and the height of the
weld bead were measured and used as input for the thermal
model, which uses a constrained optimization process (6,7).
That is to say, input for the thermal model is effected via the
specification of constraint conditions, defined according to
experimental information concerning solidification cross
sections.
The results of the thermal calculation are shown in Fig. 1
where the temperature contours for 1530, 1227, 868, 723 and
500˚C are plotted. The finger penetration that is evident in the
bead-on-plate weld is also obvious in these temperature
contours as is the transition from concave to convex curvature
of the contours at regions at lower temperatures.
The thermal data allows us to determine the various
temperature regimes of interest from a metallurgical point of
view. Thus based on the analysis, the boundary for different
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Width / mm
Fig. 1 Temperature contours from the thermal analysis of weld
W440.
thermal regions has been determined. The boundary for the
region of the steel that has been melted is one such regime.
Another is the area between the melt temperature isotherm and
a temperature (TGC) corresponding to large grain growth, taken
to be 1227˚C. The next regime is between the TGC and the AC3
temperatures. The next is between the AC3 and AC1
temperatures. The last area is the temperature between the
AC1 and a temperature of 500˚C. The AC1 and the AC3
temperatures were determined by the equations of Andrews
(8) based on the composition of the deposited weld metal
chemistry (0.094 C, 0.43 Si, 0.91 Mn, 0.02 Ni, 0.022 Cr, 0.005
Mo, 0.27 Cu, 0.002 Al, 0.009 S) and are 723 and 868˚C,
respectively.
Reed and Bhadeshia (9) developed a model for multipass steel
welds using a modified Rosenthal equation to determine the
various temperature regimes and information (width and
height of the weld bead) from a bead-on-plate weld to
determine the volume of weld metal deposited. The utilization
of the Rosenthal equation results in thermal zones in the weld
that are a function of the distance from the heat source and the
Rosenthal equation can not replicate the finger penetration that
is common in many gas metal arc welds. The use of a thermal
model that truly reproduces the finger penetration results in
more accurate boundaries for the various temperature regimes.
The boundaries are then inputted into the computer program
that determines the temperature at any point in the multipass
weld that is calculated pass by pass. Figure 2 shows the
various temperature regions that result from the computer
calculation for the bead-on-plate weld at a heat for the
completed weld at 1.0 kJ/mm weld and the corresponding
macrograph.

726

T<TM
TGC<T<TM
Ac3<T<TGC
Ac1<T<AC3
Fig. 2 Bead-on-plate and completed weld temperatures for
weld at 1.0 J/m
The thermal model also gives us the temperature-time curve
for each of the regions, as shown in Fig. 3. For example, at a
heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm and a peak temperature of 1227˚C, the
cooling time from 800 to 500˚C is 3.7 seconds for a cooling
rate of 80˚C/s. Temperature-time curves for the other regimes
had a similar cooling rate. These data indicate that the cooling
rate is independent of the peak temperature and depends only
on the conductivity of the steel and the heat input. Figure 4 is
the thermal profile with a peak temperature of 860˚C,
indicating that the time above the AC1 temperature is 1.1
seconds. Also in Fig. 4 is the initial Time-Temperature-
Transformation (TTT) curve for the weld metal composition.
Superimposed on the TTT is a cooling curve at the rate of
80˚C/s. These curves indicate that a considerable amount of
ferrite is formed before the transformation to acicular ferrite
starts. The cooling curves also suggest that at a peak
temperature less than the Ac3, only partial transformation to
austenite will occur. When the peak temperature exceeds the
AC3 temperature, complete reversion to austenite is assumed.
When the peak temperature is below the AC3 temperature,
727
another method of calculating the hardness and microstructure
is required.
Data 439-cooling-curve.qda
1600
1400 W439 Cooling Rates
From 1500ÞC 79ÞC/s
Temperature / ÞC
1200 From 1227ÞC 80ÞC/s
From 860ÞC 78ÞC/s
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time / s
Fig. 3 Cooling curves from different peak temperatures in
weld W440.
Hardness Calculation
The hardness of the microstructure can be calculated from
knowledge of the chemical composition and the cooling rate.
The Le Creusot (10) method of calculating the hardness relies
on the rule of mixtures and individually calculating the
hardness of martensite, bainite and ferrite plus pearlite as well
as critical cooling rates. Based on the weld metal chemistry as
stated earlier and a critical cooling rate, corresponding to an
approximate microstructure of 80% acicular ferrite and 20%
grain boundary ferrite, this methodology resulted in a hardness
of 226 HV for the weld made at a heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm.
The hardness in the heat-affected area of the prior pass is also
shown in Table 3 for each heat input.
The normal methods of calculating the hardness in the weld
metal would be by means of the composition, cooling rate and
the prior austenite size. These methods assume that the
volume of metal being considered completely reverts to
austenite before transforming into its daughter products. The
thermal analysis indicates that regions in the prior pass (called
FZHAZ in Table 2) have peak temperature in the range of
800-850˚C. Examination of Fig. 4 reveals that the peak
temperature of 800 ˚C is reached for only a very short time.
Thus implying that there was insufficient temperature and
time for a reasonably complete reversion to austenite.
Tempering
Le Creusot also calculated the tempering that resulted from
holding the steel at a specific temperature for a defined period
of time (usually 1 hour). Based on experimental studies and
statistical analysis they define an “equivalence of tempering
parameter”, P, as a function of the C, Mo and V content of the
steel.
 10 3
= [1.365−0.205C + 0.233 Mo+ 0.135V ]
Pc
CoolCurve860 data
900
where
800

⎛t⎞
Temperature / ÞC

700 1 1 nR
= − 5 log ⎜ ⎟
600 Pc T 10 ⎝ t0 ⎠
500
where T is the temperature in Kelvin, n is the natural
400 logarithm of 10, R is the gas constant, t is time of the duration
300 of the temperature, and t0 is the unit of time and was expressed
as 1 hour in the original work and is expressed as 3600
200 seconds in this work.
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 The hardness of the tempered martensite or bainite can then be
Time / s calculated using their coefficients in the generalized
expression that has the form such as

N
10 3 ⎛ N ⎞
H = a0 + ∑ ai X i + ⎜b0 + ∑ bi X i ⎟
1000
W439TTT.dat
1
Pc ⎝ 1 ⎠
80 ÞC/s
800 Where Xi is the chemical composition and ai and bi are the
Temperature / ÞC

corresponding coefficients of the composition that relate

600
B
S composition to hardness as expressed by reference 10. Using
M
these expressions one can calculate the tempered hardness of
S
400 either martensite or bainite for a given temperature and time.

200
By examining the peak temperatures in our thermal analysis
and their positions with regard to the macrostructure, a
tempered area of the weld metal, which was welded with a
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 heat input of 1.0 kJ/mm, can be shown to have a peak
Time / s temperature of 800˚C, exceeding the Ac1 for less than 2
seconds. Since at 800˚C, some phase transformation will
Fig. 4 Cooling curve from 1 J/m weld at a peak temperature of occur, the optical micrographs were used to determine the
860˚C and the initial Time-Temperature-transformation curve amount of each phase. The microstructure was determined to
for the weld metal with a cooling curve superimposed. be 75% acicular ferrite and 25% grain boundary ferrite. Using
the microstructural data, the Le Creusot (10) methodology
calculates a hardness of 152 HV. The measured hardness of
Table 2. Experimental and calculated hardness values in the weld metal heat-affected zone is 197 HV. Similarly for
different areas. W440, the time is about 2 seconds and for W441 the time
increases to about 3 seconds. The corresponding hardness
Weld Heat Input Fusion Zone Fusion Zone
value is 185 that compares to the experimental value of 151
kJ/mm (Exp.) (Calc.)
for W440. In the case of W441, the experimental value is 179,
W439 1.0 220 226
whereas the calculated value is 151.
W440 1.6 206 210
W441 2.2 197 210 The hardness maps allow us to depict the data in a variety of
Weld Heat Input FZHAZ FZHAZ ways. Figure 5 shows the hardness through the last bead into
kJ/mm (Exp.) (Calc.) the preceding bead. The hardness of the last bead is a function
W439 1.0 197 152 of the heat input and cooling rate in that the lower heat inputs
W440 1.6 185 151 and consequently faster cooling rates result in a higher
W441 2.2 179 151

728
 300
Vickers Hardness, Hv

439
440
250 441

200

150
HAZ Fusion Zone of bop
100

50
0 2 4 6 8
Distance, mm
Fig. 5 Hardness plots for each weld

HVN W440 Temperature / ÞC

230 1600
Vickers Hardness Number

220 1400 Fig. 6a Microstructure from the last pass of weld W439
Temperature / ÞC

1200
210
1000
200
800
190
600
180 400

170 200
300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Depth

Fig. 7 Hardness and temperatures from the peak of the last

weld down into the base plate.

hardness in the as-deposited weld bead. The hardness in the

prior bead or the HAZ of the weld bead is lower than that of
the as-deposited bead due to the tempering effect of the
subsequent pass as quantified in the prior paragraph. The
microstructure of fusion zone in the last pass of weld W439 is
shown in fig. 6a, and the microstructure of the heat-affected Fig. 6b Microstructure from the heat-affected zone of the last
zone is depicted in Fig. 6b. The fusion zone of the last bead pass of weld W439
consists of acicular ferrite and grain boundary ferrite and the
HAZ is a combination of ferrite and pearlite with some Conclusions
spheroidized ferrite. Examination of Table 2 indicates that as the heat input
increases the FZ hardness decreases. Examination of the
Figure 7 depicts both the temperature and the Vickers cooling curves for each heat input indicates that as the heat
hardness values from the top of the last bead down into the input is increased, the time from 800 to 500˚C increases and
base plate. A definite correlation can be seen between the the cooling rate decreases.
temperatures in each pass and the resulting hardness values.
These welds have allowed us to investigate the effect of a
subsequent pass on a prior pass. A general correlation can be

729
made between the hardness maps and the temperature zones
resulting from the thermal analysis.
The microstructure of the prior pass is modified considerably
especially in the regions where the temperature is close to the
AC1 temperature. This is clearly shown in the hardness maps
as they correspond to the macrostructure. This tempering
effect of the subsequent pass has also been quantified using
the Le Creusot methodology. Since this volume (the weld
metal heat-affected zone) does not fully revert to austenite, the
tempering concept developed by Le Creusot can be applied in
order to estimate the hardness values in this region.
The Le Creusot analysis results in a calculated hardness of 226
HV in the fusion zone of the last pass and corresponds to a
microstructure of 80% acicular ferrite and 20% grain
boundary ferrite. Experimentally the measured hardness was
220 HV and the microstructure was acicular ferrite and grain
boundary ferrite. In the tempered region near the finger
penetration, the measured hardness was 190 HV and the
microstructure was predominantly acicular ferrite with some
grain boundary ferrite. The peak temperature in this region
was less than the Ac3 and greater than the Ac1. The calculated
hardness, determined from the microstructure and the
chemical composition, yielded a hardness of 152 HV.
A computer calculation of the heat flow on a bead-on-plate
weld using the welding parameters as input and the
experimental melt temperature isotherm as a boundary value
has resulted in a thermal model that realistically reproduces
the finger penetration of the gas metal arc weld. The
temperature fields from this calculation have been used in a
modified model for representing of multipass steel welds.
This model allows us to know the thermal profile at any point
in the weld, based on the peak temperatures that occur as a
result of each pass and the cooling rate, which is a function
only of the conductivity of the metal.
Acknowledgements
Funding support from the Office of Naval Research,
Arlington, VA is gratefully acknowledged.
References
1. D. W. Moon, R. W. Fonda and G. Spanos, ‘Microhardness
Variations in HSLA-100 Welds Fabricated with New
Ultra-Low-Carbon Weld Consumables’, Welding Journal
2000 79(10) 278-s-285-s.
2. G. Spanos, D. W. Moon, R. W. Fonda, E. S. K. Menon
and A. G. Fox, ‘Composition-Microstructure-Property
Relationships in an HSLA-100 Weldment Made with a
New Ultra Low Carbon Consumable’, Trends in Welding
Research, Proc. of the 5th International Conference, J. M.
Vitek, et al ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
1998.
730
3. D. W. Moon, S. G. Lambrakos, R. J. Wong, and E. A.
Metzbower, ‘Macrostructure, hardness and temperature in
an HSLA100 steel weld’, Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 200, 8(2) 95-101.
4. D. W. Moon, S. G. Lambrakos, R. J. Wong, and E. A.
Metzbower, ‘Hardness, macrostructure, and temperature
in HSLA100 welds’, Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining 2003 8(5) 334-339.
5. E. A. Metzbower, D. W. Moon, C. R. Feng, S. G.
Lambrakos and R. J. Wong, “Modeling of HSLA-65
GMAW Welds”, accepted for publication in
Mathematical Modeling of Weld Phenomena, Graz,
October 2004.
6. S. G. Lambrakos and J. O. Milewski, ‘Analysis of
processes involving heat deposition using constrained
optimisation’, Science and Technology of Welding and
Joining 2002 7(3) 137-148.
7. S. G. Lambrakos and D. W. Moon, ‘Analysis of Welds
Using Geometric Constraints’, Computer-Aided Design,
Engineering, and Manufacturing, Systems Techniques
and Applications, Cornelius Leondes ed., CRC Press,
New York, 2001.
8. K. W. Andrews, ‘Empirical formulae for the calculation
of some transformation temperatures’, J. Iron Steel Inst.
1965 203 (7) 721-727.
9. R. C. Reed and H. K. D. H. Bhadeshia, ‘A Simple Model
For Multipass Welds’, Acta metall. mater. 1994 42(11)
3663-3678.
10. R. Blondeau, Ph. Maynier, J. Dollet, and B. Vieillard-
Baron, ‘Mathematical model for the calculation of
mechanical properties of low-alloy steel metallurgical
products: a few examples of its application’, International
Heat Treatment Conference, 16th, Stratford-upon-Avon,
1976, Metals Soc. London, c1976.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Effects of Enhanced Convection on the Microstructure of Dissimilar Welds
Thulasidharan Gandhi, Daryush K. Aidun
Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York, USA
Abstract
A hard region known as the unmixed zone (UMZ) occurs
during gas-tungsten arc (GTA) welding of 304 austenitic
stainless steel to A36 steel using 308L filler/wire. This zone
lowers the fracture toughness of the weldments, thus it should
be eliminated from the weld. The formation of this zone is due
to stagnant liquid film at the fusion boundary (FB) of the A36
base metal (BM) in the fusion zone (FZ). By increasing the
buoyancy force (g-level) in the weld pool using a centrifuge
(MGRWS), the size of the UMZ can be decreased
significantly. The reduction in the size of the UMZ is due to
enhanced convection in the weld pool, which produces a more
efficient mixing and dilution in the FZ. In addition, the
increase in the buoyancy force increases the cooling rate in the
weld zone, decreases the size of the A36 heat-affected zone
(HAZ), but does not affect the hardness of the UMZ. The
tension test results, show that the fracture occurs in the
BM/HAZ of the A36 at all g-levels.
Introduction
The recent trends in welding have been toward joining of
dissimilar metals/alloys using arc-welding process. Welding of
dissimilar metals is more difficult than that of similar metals,
because of differences in their physical, mechanical, and
metallurgical properties.
One important weldability issue in joining stainless steels to
low carbon steels is the formation of unmixed zone (UMZ) or
hard zone (HZ) [1-6]. The UMZ is defined as the stagnant
layer of liquid in the weld pool that is not mixed within the
fusion zone (FZ). In welding of 304 stainless steel to A36 steel
using 308L consumable, the UMZ that occurs at the interface
of the A36 base metal (BM) and the 308L weld metal (WM),
is of great concern. This UMZ, is the hardest region of the
weld, and it lowers the fracture toughness of the weldments
due to formation of martensite [2,3,4].
It is suggested that by proper selection of consumables and
cooling rates (or heat inputs), it is possible to eliminate the
UMZ in the weld [2,3,4]. These suggestions do help in
reducing the size of the UMZ but have their limitations. Since
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
lack of mixing or dilution in the weld pool, results in the
formation of the UMZ; it is possible to eliminate it by
increasing fluid circulation and mixing in the weld pool. This
is achievable by increasing the weld pool convection. The
convection can be increased by increasing the convective
forces such as buoyancy force, Lorentz force, Marangoni, etc.
This paper will examine the effects of enhanced buoyancy
force on the microstructure of dissimilar welds in particular,
the UMZ.
Experimental procedure
Austenitic stainless steel (Alloy 304, 12x3.5x0.7cm) and low
carbon steel (A36, 12x3.5x0.7cm) were joined by gas-tungsten
arc (GTA) welding process using 308L filler/wire. The
composition of A36 BM (in wt.%) is: 0.18C, 0.77Mn, 0.24Si,
0.12Cr, 0.09Ni, 0.03Mo. The compositions of 304 BM and
308L WM in (wt.%) are: 0.03C, 1.72Mn, 0.3Si, 18.18Cr,
8.82Ni, 0.24Mo, 0.047N and 0.018C, 1.73Mn, 0.41Si,
23.2Cr, 13.49Ni, 0.07Mo, 0.17N, respectively.
The welds were done @ three different simulated g-levels
(1g=9.81 m/s2, 4g, and 8g) in the centrifuge called Multi-
Gravity Research Welding System (MGRWS) as shown in
Figs. 1 and 2. The net acceleration acts parallel to the GTA
tourch, and perpendicular to the weld pool surface [7].
Table 1 shows the welding parameters used for this project.
The thermal cycle in the fusion zone (FZ) of the welds was
measured by inserting a K-type thermocouple in the path of
the arc (see Fig. 3). The welded samples were prepared for
microstructural evaluation and tension test.
Results
Figure 4 shows the thermal cycle for GTA welds at 1g, 4g and
8g. The data provides a relationship between the temperature
(T, qC) and time (t, seconds). Table 2 shows the cooling rate
(dT/dt) during the cooling cycle for the welds done at
different g-levels, using regression analysis. The cooling rate
in the FZ increases with increase in the g-level, because of the
increase of the buoyancy-induced convection in the weld pool.
If the effect of the Coriolis force is neglected, then the
731
convective velocity would increase proportional to g1/2 , and
the heat and mass transfer rates would increase proportional to A36 S 304
g1/4 [8]. The predicted cooling rates based on g1/4 at 4g and 8g
are 550 and 660 qC/s as compared to 476 and 628 qC/s,
respectively. The increase in the cooling rates from 1g to 4g
to 8g do follow the g1/4 trend. However, the difference between
the predicted and the measured cooling rates, are attributed to Welding
the effects of Coriolis acceleration, and other factors such as Direction
the design of the welding box.

Welding Box Ļ
Figure 3: The arrow shows the location of the thermocouple
on the surface of the FZ. S: start and E: end.
1200

1000

1g
Temp in deg celsius

Figure 1: The Multi-Gravity Research Welding System 800 4g

(MGRWS) during rotation. 8g

600

400

200

0
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 103 109
Time in seconds

Figure 4: GTA thermal cycle in the FZ as shown in Fig. 3.

Table 2: The cooling rates in the GTA FZ @ different g-levels.

Figure 2: The welding box of the MGRWS.
g-level * dT/dt = CoolingRate (qC/s)
Table 1: GTA welding parameters.
@ 1000 qC
Arc Current 162 Amps DCEN -2.54
1g -1311 (2018 / T) 220
Arc Voltage 24 volts
Shielding gas 75Ar-25He (25cfh)
Wire 308L (0.09cm) 4g -709 (1163 / T) -2.63 476
Electrode W-2%ThO2 (0.3cm)
Arc Length 0.03cm
8g -568 (963 / T) -2.69 628
Electrode Extension 0.2cm
Type of joint Butt joint * R2 > 0.95
Travel Speed (cm/s) From 0.2 to 0.3*
@ 1g, 4g, & 8g
* The difference in travel did not affect
the weld size and shape.

732
The effect of aerodynamics in the welding box is minimal
compared to the effect of free convection, as illustrated in Fig.
5. Figures 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, and 5E show the behavior of a Fig. 5D
candle flame at various g-levels. The candle light shown in
Fig. 5A is at 1g condition (no rotation). Figures 5B and 5C Rotation rate is
show the candle light at 4g and 8g, respectively. Figures 5D decreasing
and 5E show the candle light while the rotation rates are
from 4g to zero.
decreasing from 4g and 8g to zero, respectively. As the rate of
rotation increases the glow of the candle decreases
symmetrically, and as the rate of rotation decreases the glow
of the candle increases. This is caused by free convection.

Fig. 5A

1g
Fig. 5E

Rotation rate is
decreasing
from 8g to zero.

Fig. 5B

4g Figure 5: The effect of rotation rate on the shape and

brigthness of the candle flame.

In addition, the peak temperature at the bottom of the welding

box (shown in Fig. 6) was measured at various g-levels.

Fig. 5C

8g

Figure 6: The location of the thermocouple for measuring the

peak temperature at the bottom of the welding box (see Fig.
2).

733
As shown in Fig. 7, the temperature at the bottom of the
welding box increases as the g-level increases indicating, that
aerodynamics is not affecting the rate of cooling at high HAZ UMZ PMZ WM
rotation rates.

Fig. 8A 50 um

WM

Figure 7: The peak temperature at the bottom of the welding

box @ 1g, 4g, and 8g. UMZ
Figures 8A, 8B, and 8C show the optical micrographs of the
A36 HAZ, the UMZ, and the 308L weld metal (WM) at 1g,
4g, and 8g, respectively. Figures 9A, 9B, and 9C show the
SEM micrographs of the A36 HAZ, the UMZ, and the 308L
HAZ
WM at 1g, 4g, and 8g, respectively. Table 4 shows the average
width of the A36 HAZ, and the UMZ in the GTA FZ at Fig. 8B
various g-levels.

Table 4: Average width of the HAZ and the UMZ in welds.

g-levels A36HAZ,mm SD UMZ, mm SD

1g 2.53 0.06 0.17 0.01
4g 2.31 0.08 0.08 0.01 HAZ UMZ WM
8g 2.15 0.03 0.06 0.01
SD: standard deviation

The size of the HAZ decreases as the g-level increases due to

higher rate of cooling. The size of the UMZ decreases as g-
level increases because of enhanced convection in the weld
pool. Fig. 8C
The average hardness of the UMZ at 1g, 4g, and 8g is 402,
397, and 392 DPH, respectively. This hardness is the hardness Figure 8: Showing the A36 HAZ/UMZ/308L WM @ 1g (8A),
of the martensite for this A36 steel. As the g-level increases, 4g (8B), and 8g (8C) all @ same magnification.
the cooling rate in the fusion zone (FZ) increases, the size of
the UMZ decreases, but the hardness of the UMZ does not
change. This indicates that increasing the buoyancy force in
the weld pool reduces the size of the UMZ without affecting
its hardness.

734
 Table 5 shows the average composition of Cr and Ni across
the UMZ at 1g, 4g, and 8g, respectively.
Fig. 9A 308L WM
Table 5: Average wt.% of Cr and Ni in the UMZ

UMZ 1g 4g 8g
Cr 9.4r1 13.9r1 13.7r1
Ni 5.5r1 5.1r1 5.8r1
UMZ , mm 0.17 0.08 0.06
A36 HAZ
The average concentration gradients of Cr in the UMZ at 1g,
4g, and 8g are 55, 173, and 228 wt.% per mm, repectively.
The average concentration gradients of Ni in the UMZ at 1g,
4g, and 8g are 32, 63, and 96 wt.% per mm, respectively.
In the UMZ, the average concentration gradient of Cr and Ni
increases with increase in the g-level. This indicates, that as
Fig. 9B the g-level increases there will be more fluid mixing and
dilution in the weld pool. This, is in consistent with the fact,
308L WM that the mass transfer rate increases with g 1/4.

Figure 10 shows the size of the tensile specimen used in the

UMZ tension test. Figure 11 shows the location of necking in the
tension samples, which resulted in fracture.

A36 HAZ

Fig. 9C
WM
UMZ
308L WM

A36 HAZ
Figure 10: Tensile test sample with 0.55 cm gage length.

Figure 9: Showing the A36 HAZ/UMZ/308L WM @ 1g (9A),

4g (9B), and 8g (9C) all @ same magnification.

735
 Crack along the BM/HAZ boundary References
1. C.D. Lundin, Dissimilar Metal Welds – Transition
Joints Literature Review, Welding Journal, 61(2),
A36BM 58s-63s.
FB 2. A.A. Omar, Effects of Welding Parameters on Hard
Location Zone Formation at Dissimilar Metal Welds, Welding
(11A) 1g tensile of necking (11B) 4g tensile Journal, 77(2), 86s-93s (1998).
specimen @ point of specimen @ 3. E.J. Barnhouse and J.C. Lippold,
necking point of necking Microstructure/Property Relationships in Dissimilar
Welds between Duplex Stainless Steels and Carbon
Steels, Welding Journal, 77(12), 477s-487s.
4. M.D. Rowe, T.W. Nelson and J.C. Lippold,
Hydrogen- Induced Cracking along the Fusion
Boundary of Dissimilar Metal Welds, Welding
Journal, 78(2), 31s-37s.
(11C) 8g tensile specimen @ point 5. P.B. Srinivasan, V. Muthupandi and V. Sivan,
of necking. Microstructural Evolution and Properties of
Dissimilar Weld Joints between Carbon Steel and
Duplex Stainless Steel, Journal of Steel and Related
Figure 11: Shows the location of necking and cracking in the
Materials, 5 (2003).
tension samples.
6. Thomas Doody, Intermediate Mixed Zones in
Dissimilar Metal Welds for Sour Service, Welding
Tension test performed on the welds, show tensile strength of
Journal, 55-60 (March 1992).
550 MPa (79.7 ksi), 493 MPa (71.4 ksi), and 541 MPa (78.4
7. D.K. Aidun, J.J. Domey and G. Ahmadi, Effect of
ksi) at 1g, 4g, and 8g, respectively. The ductility of the
High Gravity on Weld Fusion Zone Shape, Welding
weldments at 1g, 4g, and 8g were all around 11% (0.55 cm
Journal, 79(6), 145s-150s (2000).
gage length). The fracture occurred in the BM/HAZ region of
8. L.L. Regal and W.R. Wilcox, Centrifugal Materials
the A36 steel, which has hardness of around 250 DPH, a much
Processing, P. 1, Plenum Press, New York, (1997).
lower hardness than in the UMZ (~ 400 DPH). The presence
of the UMZ, did not affect the tensile properties of the
weldments.

Summary
The results have shown, that by increasing weld pool
convection, it is possible to eliminate the formation of the
UMZ or the HZ in dissimilar welds (such as stainless steel/
carbon steel welds). Although, increasing buoyancy induced
convection has limited welding applications, there are other
means of enhancing weld pool convection. One such
technique to increase the weld pool convection, is by
electromagnetic force. This technique has been used for other
applications in the field of welding metallurgy, and can also be
used to enhance convection in the weld pool, eliminating the
UMZ or the HZ.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Dr. D. Durham and Dr. J.
Cao, program directors of division of DMII, and the National
Science Foundation for the financial support (DMI-9978609).

736
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Welding Procedures and Type IV Phenomena
J.A. Francis, W. Mazur
CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Adelaide, Australia
H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia
Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
Abstract
In this work, we attempt a quantitative estimation of the type
IV rupture stress for welds in ferritic power plant steels
containing 9–12 wt. % chromium, using a neural network in a
Bayesian framework. This article describes the methodology
that was used in creating and evaluating the neural network
model. The sensitivity of the rupture stress to the test
conditions, the composition of the steel and the heat treatment
schedule, as perceived by the model, appears to be consistent
with engineering experience and known metallurgical effects.
It has also been possible, for the first time, to infer the
dependence of the stress on welding parameters. The rupture
stress increases with the preheat and interpass temperature,
whereas the heat input has a relatively insignificant effect. It is
proposed that type IV effects can be ameliorated by welding
with the highest preheat temperature that is consistent with the
transformation characteristics of the steel and the practical
aspects of welding.
Keywords: creep, ferritic steels, neural networks, Bayesian
framework, type IV, welding parameters
Introduction
Type IV cracking is a feature of welded joints in creep-
resistant steels. It is associated with an enhanced rate of creep
void formation in the fine grained and intercritically annealed
heat-affected zones of the weld, leading to premature failure
when compared with creep tests on the unwelded steel.
Type IV cracking is particularly prominent in the stronger 9-
12 wt. % chromium steels. Since the problem arises from the
heterogeneous microstructure of the weld heat-affected zone,
it can be eliminated by a reaustenitisation and tempering heat
treatment. Unfortunately, this rarely is a practical option.
Instead, components have to be designed allowing for a
reduction in the creep strength (or equivalent reduction in
creep life) due to type IV cracking.
There are many reported data on the creep rupture stress
associated with type IV cracking, as a function of the steel
composition, welding parameters and heat treatments.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
However, the interpretation of this phenomenon has
essentially been based on the microstructures within the heat-
affected zone and much of the work has been qualitative.
Neural networks can provide a means of developing
quantitative models of physical phenomena when
experimental data are available but a physical model, based on
an understanding of the underlying mechanisms, is not. A
neural network is a flexible non-linear function which is able
to represent complex, multivariate phenomena. Neural
networks are created through a training process in which a
network uses a database to “learn” a mathematical relationship
between designated inputs (or operating conditions) and the
output (or behaviour) of the system being studied. Once
created, a neural network can be used to predict how a system
might behave under conditions that have not been tested by
experiment. It can also reveal the degree to which the output
of a system is correlated with each of the input conditions.
Neural networks are particularly powerful when implemented
within a Bayesian framework because they give an indication
both of the noise in the output, and a modelling uncertainty.
The latter is invaluable in identifying domains where data are
sparse or where data are completely lacking. Furthermore, a
careful use of the modelling uncertainty greatly reduces the
dangers of extrapolating a non-linear function.
In this work we apply neural networks in a Bayesian
framework to type IV cracking data. This builds on recent
work in which we proposed that a strength offset could be
applied to account for the reduction in the creep strength of 9-
12 wt. % chromium steels due to welding and the associated
type IV phenomenon.1 In that work the magnitude of the offset
was obtained by comparing the rupture stress of cross-weld
creep specimens that had failed in the type IV region with the
rupture stress that would be expected for the parent plate
material without a weld present. The rupture stresses for the
plate material were calculated as a function of chemical
composition and heat treatment using an established neural
network model.2 Here we attempt to model the type IV failure
stress directly, particularly as a function of welding
parameters, and to identify the physical basis by which these
parameters might influence failure.
737
 The Database
A neural network analysis can be as ambitious as is necessary,
with no particular limit on the number of variables. However,
because published work frequently does not state all the
variables that control type IV failure, an overambitious
collection of variables can limit the data that can be used in the
analysis.
A pragmatic list of variabes which allowed us to compile 53
sets of data on cross-weld tests associated with type IV
failures is given in Table 1. Among these data, 50 sets are due
to earlier sudies on type IV failure.3-8 A further 3 sets have
been obtained from an experimental programme that has been
undertaken by the authors. These experiments are still
underway and details will be reported at a later date. It is
sufficient to state that the 3 data sets correspond to cross-weld
creep specimens that were extracted from welded joints made
in a P91 pipe section. The normalising, tempering and post-
weld heat treatment parameters, together with the preheat
temperature, were the same for all three experiments, while
the weld heat input and the joint preparation angle were
varied.
Table 1: The range in concentration, heat treatment, welding
parameters and test conditions covered by the database on
type IV failures. The shaded rows indicate input variables that
were not included in the final analysis.
Among the 53 data sets, it was not always possible to access
the nickel, aluminium, phosphorus and sulphur concentrations.
A preliminary analysis indicated that over the range of
concentrations available in the literature, these elements did
not have a significant effect on the failure stress; they were
therefore eliminated from the analysis. The concentration of
vanadium in the whole database only varied from 0.19 to 0.22
wt. %, which is probably within the limits of experimental
error. Vanadium was also therefore eliminated from the
analysis. This procedure does not imply that Ni, Al, P, S and V
may not be important in other circumstances; simply that the
data available are incomplete or over such a narrow range as
to make it impossible to percieve a significant effect on the
failure stress.
Creation of the Model
The neural network methdology has been described
elsewhere.9-11 Suffice it to say that three-layer feedforward
networks are used here, similar to the network represented
schematically in Figure 1. The activation function for the
neurons in the second layer is a hyperbolic tangent (equation
(1)), while a linear activation function was used in the third
layer (equation (2)). The specification of the transfer function
together with the weight distributions completely defines the
model, which is a fully transparent mathematical function. It is
noted that committees of models are used here, as described
elsewhere.11

Variable Minimum Maximum

C wt. % 0.09 0.13 1
N 0.041 0.078
B 0 0.003 Σ f
Cr 8.45 12.0 1
x1
Mo 0.34 0.96
V 0.19 0.22 Σ f
Nb 0.05 0.13 xj Σ f y
W 0 2.21
Mn 0.40 0.81 Σ f
Si 0.02 0.35
Cu 0 3 Σ f
Ni 0.06 0.35
Al 0.008 0.019
Normalising Temperature (oC) 1050 1080
⎛ ⎞
Normalising Time (h) 0.5 2 hi = tanh⎜⎜ ∑ wij(1) x j + θ i(1) ⎟⎟ ..... (1)
Tempering Temperature (oC) 760 820 ⎝ j ⎠
y = ∑ wi hi + θ ........ (2)
Tempering Time (h) 1 6 ( 2) ( 2)
Heat Input (kJ/mm) 0.8 3.8
i
Preheat Temperature (oC) 100 250
Preparation Angle (degrees) 0 45 Figure 1: A schematic representation of the three-layer
PWHT Temperature (oC) 740 760 feedforward neural networks used in the current work. The
PWHT Time (h) 0.25 8 first layer contains the inputs, xj, which are multiplied by
Internal Pressure Test? (0/1) 0 1 weights, wij(1), and summed with the biases θi(1) to obtain the
Test Temperature (oC) 600 700 arguments for the transfer functions in the second (hidden)
Test Duration (h) 113 11220 layer of nodes. The outputs from the hidden layer, hi, become
Rupture Stress (MPa) 40 150 the inputs for the third (output) layer. The network output is y.

738
In this article we focus on the 'tricks' that were used to produce
a robust model that is not overfitted to the data; which respects
the level of noise in type IV experiments; and which gives
physically meaningful relationships between the input and
output variables.

The Overfitting Problem

The process of training a neural network involves fitting a
flexible non-linear function to a training database. There is,
therefore, a possibility of fitting the training data too closely,
so that experimental noise is incorporated in to the model.
Networks that have been overfitted to the training data
generally will not make accurate predictions for input
conditions that differ from those used in the training process.

The method used here has procedures for avoiding overfitting.

The first such procedure involves the use of only half of the
experimental data to train the network. The remainder of the
data (not used in creating the model) are then used to test how
the model generalises. A good model should show a similar
level of prediction error for both the training and test data.
(a)
Overfitting is also avoided by the Bayesian framework in
which both simplicity and accuracy are rewarded. Conversely,
models with greater complexity are assumed to be less
probable and are penalised accordingly. However, as will
become clear later, both of these methods turned out to be
insufficient to avoid overfitting, given a noisy and limited
database.

The problem is illustrated in Figure 2; throughout this paper,

the error bars plotted represent modelling uncertainty (+/- 1 σ)
rather than the level of model-perceived noise, σν, in the
output. In spite of the two procedures for avoiding overfitting,
the training data show a smaller scatter than the unseen test
data. With our best efforts, it was not possible to obtain equal
levels of scatter in the test and training data. In this case, the
model-perceived noise level in the output was only 5%.

Recognising that the actual level of noise in type IV

experiments is likely to be higher, a procedure was adopted to
force the model to stop training once a selected level of noise
in the output is reached. What then determines this 'selected
level' of noise, σν, in the failure stress?

To find the answer, models were created by setting the

minimum permissible value of σν that can be achieved to a
variety of values (the network-perceived value, 10% and
15%). There were two criteria to judge the quality of the
resulting models: (1) that the test and training data should
show similar levels of noise when compared with predictions;
(2) that the model-perceived 'significance' of each input
variable in explaining variations in the output does not depend
on the random numbers used to initiate the training.
(b)
Figure 2: A comparison of the predictions made by a neural
network with the database values for input conditions
corresponding to (a) the training data set and (b) the test data
set. In this case the network was allowed to minimise the level
of perceived noise in the output. This network is over trained.

739
 These difficulties arise because of the nature of the database,
i.e. a realtively large number of input variables and
comparatively few data. These features make for an objective
function with several local minima, thus making the analysis
sensitive to the way in which training is initiated.

As stated earlier, Figure 2 shows a case where the minimum

permissible σν value is too low, resulting in the overfitting of
the training data. By contrast, Figure 3 shows a case where the
minimum permissible σν value has been set to 15%, resulting
in a similar level of scatter in the training and test datasets.
Furthermore, the significances obtained for each variable then
did not depend on the initiation of the training process. For
this reason, the minimum permissible σν value of 15% is used
for all subsequent analysis.

This large level of noise indicates that there may be

(unknown) variables unaccounted for, i.e., not present in the
database, which contribute to variations in the rupture stress.
In addition, it is possible that there are inputs in Table 1 which
themselves are noisy. For example, it may be impractical to
exercise tight control on the actual preheat and interpass
temperature.
(a)
Significance of Input Variables
In Figure 4, the magnitude of the bar indicates the extent to
which a particular parameter explains the variation in the
rupture stress (the output). A small magnitude implies an
unimportant input within the context of the present analysis, or
alternatively, its influence is lost in the 15% noise imposed on
the output. In spite of this, it is evident that the major effects
perceived to be important have been recognised by the model.
These include the obvious effects of the test duration and
temperature, the normalising12 and tempering heat treatments,
and the well-known effect of tungsten.13

Bearing in mind that our major aim was to discover the effects
of the welding parameters, it is fascinating that the preheat
temperature has been recognised to be significant and at the
same time the heat input has been perceived to be
insignificant. This is illustrated in Figure 4.

(b)
Figure 3: A comparison of the predictions made by the
selected model with the database values for input conditions
corresponding to (a) the training data set and (b) the test data
set. In this case the level of perceived noise was pre-set to
15%.
Trends
The predicted type IV rupture stresses for welds in a P91 steel
are plotted as a function of preheat temperature in Figure 5. It
can be seen that an increase in the preheat temperature is
expected to translate to a corresponding increase in the rupture
stress. It is also evident that as temperatures progressively
larger than 250oC (the highest preheat temperature in the
database) are considered, there is an increasing level of
uncertainty in the predictions. Nevertheless, the effect of
increasing the preheat temperature is unambiguous.

740
 200
C 180

Predicted Rupture Stress (MPa)

N
160
B
140
Cr
120
Mo
Nb 100

W 80

Mn 60
Si 40
Cu
20
Norm_temp
0
Norm_time 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temp_temp Preheat Temperature (deg. C)
Temp_time
Heat_Input Figure 5: The predicted rupture stress as a function of preheat
Preheat temperature at 600oC for a P91 steel and a creep life of
10,000 hours. The normalising temperature was assumed to be
Prep_Angle
1060oC, the tempering temperature 770oC, and the post-weld
PWHTtemp heat treatment 760oC for 2 hours. The confidence limits
PWHTtime correspond to +/- one standard deviation in rupture stress.
IPtest
TestTemp
200
log_tr
180
Predicted Rupture Stress (MPa)

0.0 0.1 0.2

160

Figure 4: A graphical representation of the degree to which 140

the rupture stress correlates with each input variable, as 120

perceived by the selected model.
100

80
The predicted type IV rupture stresses for welds in a P91 steel
are plotted as a function of heat input in Figure 6. The 60
predictions assume a preheat temperature of 250oC in all 40
cases, and all other conditions are identical to those used in the
generation of Figure 5. It can be seen that the neural network 20
model does not perceive any significant effect of weld heat 0
input in determining the type IV rupture stress. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

It is worth considering how these interesting trends might
arise. We know that type IV cracking occurs in a creep-
softened region which is sandwiched between regions that are
harder in creep.. This will lead to a mismatch in creep strain
across the heat-affected zone during a cross-weld test.
Previous studies have shown that the effect of this mismatch is
to create triaxiality of stresses in the type IV region,14, 15 which
would be expected to encourage the growth of voids, and
hence lead to localised failure.
Heat Input (kJ/mm)
Figure 6: The predicted rupture stress as a function of heat
input at 600oC for a P91 steel and a creep life of 10,000
hours. The normalising temperature was assumed to be
1060oC, the tempering temperature 770oC, the preheat
temperature 250oC, and the post-weld heat treatment 760oC
for 2 hours. The confidence limits correspond to +/- one
standard deviation in rupture stress.

741
It is possible that the triaxiality diminishes as the type IV
region becomes wider, and in addition, the creep strain in this
region becomes distributed over a greater volume of material.
Wider type IV zones are of course associated with wider heat-
affected zones. An increase in preheat temperature achieves
exactly this. However, in this context, an increase in heat input
would also achieve a wider HAZ. It appears, therefore, that
further work is required to reveal why the heat input does not
affect the rupture stress in the same way that the preheat
temperature does.
Nevertheless, the remarkable result is that it would be better to
control the preheat and interpass temperature to the maximum
consistent with the welding circumstances in order to
ameliorate type IV effects. On the other hand, other welding
parameters can be chosen on the basis of welding productivity
since the type IV rupture stress was not perceived to be
sensitive to heat input.
Conclusions
The most important and novel outcome, from both a
technological and scientific viewpoint, is that it shoud be
possible to ameliorate the type IV phenomenon by welding
using as high a preheat temperature as is consistent with the
transformation characteristics of the steel and with the
practical aspects of welding.
On the other hand, the type IV rupture stress was not
perceived to be sensitive to heat input. This conclusion is
significant since it reveals that other welding parameters can
be selected with a view to optimising the productivity of
welding operations.
Acknowledgment
This project is proudly supported by the International Science
Linkages programme established under the Australian
Government's innovation statement Backing Australia's
Ability.
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Kubo and M. Tabuchi, Creep Rupture Properties of
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Tritium Effects on Fracture Toughness of Stainless Steel Weldments

M. J. Morgan, G. K. Chapman, M. H. Tosten, and S. L. West
Westinghouse Savannah River Company
Savannah River National Laboratory, Aiken, SC, USA

Abstract
The effects of tritium on the fracture toughness properties of
Type 304L and Type 21-6-9 stainless steel weldments were
measured. Weldments were tritium-charged-and-aged and
then tested in order to measure the effect of the increasing
decay helium content on toughness. The results were
compared to uncharged and hydrogen-charged samples. For
unexposed weldments having 8-12 volume percent retained
delta ferrite, fracture toughness was higher than base metal
toughness. At higher levels of weld ferrite, the fracture
toughness decreased to values below that of the base metal.
Hydrogen-charged and tritium-charged weldments had lower
toughness values than similarly charged base metals and
toughness decreased further with increasing weld ferrite
content. The effect of decay helium content was inconclusive
because of tritium off-gassing losses during handling, storage
and testing. Fracture modes were dominated by the dimpled
rupture process in unexposed weldments. In hydrogen and
tritium-exposed weldments, the fracture modes depended on
the weld ferrite content. At high ferrite contents, hydrogen-
induced transgranular fracture of the weld ferrite phase was
observed.
For the forging, notched groves were cut along the length of
the forging and the grooves were filled using the gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW) process with one of the filler wires.
Figure 1 shows the 304L forging and the welds. A mix of
308L and either 309L MOD or 312 MOD wires were used on
the same plate to produce GTAW welds having ferrite
contents between 10 and 25%. Electron beam welding was
used to produce low ferrite content weldments on the Type
304L plate. A number of weld ferrite morphologies were
produced, including a continuous phase. A ferrite scope was
used to measure the ferrite content at the root of the notch for
each test sample. The weld ferrite contents produced ranged
from 4% to 33% by volume. Radiography was used to verify
that no unusual porosity, cracking, or other macroscopic
defects developed from welding so as to ensure that
differences in properties could be attributed to weld
microstructure.

Introduction

Welded stainless steel vessels are used for the containment of

tritium gas. Weldments have not been well-characterized with
respect to hydrogen and tritium effects (1-8). Weldment
properties are different than base metal properties because of
the delta ferrite phase which forms during weld solidification.
Formation of retained delta ferrite is needed to prevent hot
cracking during welding but it could be detrimental with
Figure 1. Type 304L forging with cut grooves and weldments
respect to hydrogen and tritium compatibility. The purpose of
made using Types 308L, 309L MOD, and 312 MOD filler
this work was to characterize the effect of hydrogen isotopes
materials.
and ferrite content on the fracture toughness properties of
weldments. Furthermore, aged tritium-exposed alloys were
Arc-shaped fracture-mechanics specimens having the shape
used to assess the combined embrittlement from tritium and its
and dimensions shown in Figure 2 were fabricated from the
radioactive decay product, helium-3.
perimeter of each disc and oriented with their notches along
the centerline of a weld. The samples were fatigue-cracked so
Experimental Procedure that the crack-length to sample-width ratio was between 0.4
and 0.6.
The compositions of the steels and weld filler materials used
in the study are listed in Table I. Type 304L and 21-6-9 Four sets of samples were prepared for this study. One set was
stainless steels were used as the base metal and Types 308L, tested in the as-welded condition. Another set was hydrogen
309L MOD (modified-metal powder cored wire) and 312 charged at 623 K and a pressure of 35 MPa for three weeks
MOD were the weld filler wires. The base metal was supplied prior to testing. The final two sets were exposed to tritium gas
in one of two forms, forward extruded cylindrical forgings or prior to testing. Tritium exposures were identical to the
plates. hydrogen exposures. The samples were kept at approximately

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 743

223 K prior to testing in order to retain as much of the 4% perchloric acid solution at 35 V DC and 243K. All
hydrogen isotopes as possible within the samples after the microscopy was performed using a JEOL 2010 operating at
exposures. One set of tritium-exposed samples was tested soon 200 kV.
after charging and 6-month aging, and another tested
approximately 24 months later. The temperature of exposure
was designed to saturate the samples with hydrogen isotopes
without changing their microstructure.

G

500 nm
Figure 2. Configuration of fracture toughness sample.
(a)
The hydrogen contents of hydrogen-charged samples were
measured using a LECO detector. Hydrogen contents were in
general agreement with values calculated from hydrogen
solubility and diffusivity data for stainless steel and ranged J
from 125 appm in Type 304L stainless steel to 160 appm for
21-6-9 stainless steel (2). Tritium-charged samples were
analyzed for helium concentration from tritium decay at about G
a mid-point between the two sets of tests on aged samples.
Measured helium concentrations in base metals agreed with J
values calculated from tritium solubility, diffusivity, and
decay. Note that the weldments had 33-50% less tritium than
base metal because of additional off-gassing losses from weld
ferrite. The highest ferrite content weldments had the lowest G
measured helium contents. Helium contents at the time of each
test were calculated from the measured values by accounting J
500 nm
for the additional decay of tritium. The results are shown in
Table II.
(b)
J-integral tests were conducted at room temperature in air
using a screw-driven testing machine and a crosshead speed of Figure 3. (a) Low Ferrite Weld From 308L Filler Wire and
8.5 x 10-4 mm / s. while recording load, load-line displacement 304L Base Metal and (b) High Ferrite Weld From 312L MOD
and crack length. Crack length was monitored using an Filler Wire and 304L Base Metal.
alternating DC potential drop system and guidelines described
in ASTM E647-95 and J-R curves were constructed from the Results
data using ASTM E1820-99 (9).
Microstructural Characterization
The weld microstructures were characterized using standard Type 304L austenitic stainless steel consisted of a duplex
metallographic techniques and transmission electron structure of retained delta ferrite in austenite. Figure 3 shows
microscopy. Three to four thin slices where sectioned from that welds with ferrite contents less than 8% had
each specimen immediately adjacent to the fracture surface microstructures consisting of discontinuous skeletal ferrite
and within the weld zone (when present) providing samples present in a predominant austenite matrix and that welds with
with a range of microstructures and deformation levels. Two, ferrite content more than 20% had microstructures consisting
3 mm diameter disks were punched from each slice. Thin foils of nearly continuous ferrite present in a plate-like (or lathy)
were prepared from these disks in a Fischione jet-polishing morphology and globular austenite matrix. These
apparatus using a 57% methanol, 39% butylcellosolve, and microstructures represent the extremes of the ferrite contents

744
in the study. The weld microstructures contained a dispersion
of fine inclusions produced during welding. The size and
spacing of these inclusions can have a significant impact on
fracture and fracture toughness.
Tritium-charged samples were also examined using TEM.
metal. When ferrite morphology is discontinuous (< 12%) it
improves resistance to crack propagation. Note the steep slope
for the J-da 308L weld data of Figure 5.
1400
8000

J-Integral, kJ / sq. m.
Figure 4 shows typical helium bubble defects that are 1050
308L
6000
observed within the austenite phase of the welds. Helium
bubbles, visible in the recrystallized grains and measuring 1-2
700
4000
nm in diameter, were randomly distributed throughout the 304L
grain interiors. In contrast, in regions with a high dislocation
350
2000 304L-H2
density very few bubbles were observed.
308L-H2
00
00 .5
0.02 1.0
0.04 1.5
0.06 2.0
0.08 2.5
0.1 3.5
0.12 4.0
0.14
Crack Length Increase, mm.

Figure 5. Effect of Hydrogen on J-da Behavior for Type 304L

and Type 304L/308L Weldment.

Figure 4. TEM image of an austenite/ferrite interface and the
helium bubble distribution in the austenite grain in. The small,
black “dots” in the austenite arise from strain contrast
associated with helium bubbles.
The helium bubble distribution illustrated in Figure 4 was
typical of all welds examined, irrespective of ferrite content.
This particular region is from a weld containing the normal
level of ferrite in a 304L/308L weld. Helium bubbles were
observed only in the austenite matrix and not in the ferrite, on
dislocations, or at austenite/ferrite or austenite/austenite
boundaries. The failure to observe bubbles at these other
locations does not necessarily preclude their presence, since
bubbles measuring approximately <0.8 nm are difficult to
discern above the background image contrast. Additionally,
the magnetic nature of ferrite in welded samples makes
focusing TEM images at high magnifications difficult to
perform.
For base metal microstructures, helium bubbles were visible in
patches of recrystallized grains but not in the cold-worked
grains. This is most likely an artifact of the technique because
the strain contrast needed for bubble observation is obscured
by the strain contrast of the dislocations.
Fracture Toughness Tests
The J-integral fracture toughness data were collected and
calculated from the load-displacement records and the crack
length measurements. Typical J-da plots for the steels are
shown in Figures 5. The data show that the unexposed
weldments containing low ferrite content had fracture
toughness values two-to-three times higher than the base
The 308L weld had the highest toughness and the steepest J-R
curve indicating its large resistance to crack extension. As the
ferrite content increased to 24%, the toughness dropped and
the J-R curve flattened out. The 309L MOD weld had the
lowest toughness and a shallow sloped J-R curve (33%
ferrite).
For hydrogen-exposed welds, ferrite had a detrimental effect
on fracture toughness. The fracture path in hydrogen exposed
samples changed from dimpled rupture in low-ferrite (< 4%)
welds to fracture along the austenite-ferrite interfaces in
medium- ferrite (~12 %) welds to fracture through the ferrite
phase in high-ferrite (20-30 %) welds. The hydrogen-charged
weldments had fracture toughness values ranging from 388 kJ
/ sq. m. for welds having normal ferrite contents to less than
30 kJ / sq. m. in welds having high ferrite contents (Figure 6).
Tritium-exposed samples were tested in two groups at
different times to measure any toughness decrease caused by
the build-in of helium from tritium decay. The first set of aged
tritium-exposed weldments showed a reduction in toughness
that was consistent with the reduction seen in the hydrogen-
charged alloys. This was expected because the helium
concentration from tritium decay was low.
The second set of tritium-exposed weldments was tested after
a 24 month age. While the base metals showed a reduction in
toughness with the increased aging, the weldments did not
(Figure 7). One explanation for the discrepancy between the
aging effects in weldments and base metals is that weld ferrite
leads to tritium off-gassing losses during exposures and
storage. This is discussed further below.

745

1500
J-Integral, kJ / sq. m.
1000
500
0 study failed by a similar fracture process that Mills describes
0 10 20
Ferrite Content (%)
Figure 6. Effects of Hydrogen and Ferrite Content on
Fracture Toughness of Type 304L Stainless Steel and its
Weldments.
1500
J-Integral, kJ / sq. m.
1000
500
0
0 10 20
Ferrite Content (%)
Figure 7. Fracture Toughness of Tritium Exposed Weldments
Were Lower than Unexposed Steels at all Ferrite Levels.
Aging Time Did Not Reduce Toughness.
Fractography
Fracture surfaces were examined using scanning electron
microscopy. In unexposed specimens, failure was dominated
by the growth and coalescence of voids that had nucleated at
inclusions. Weldment fracture surfaces were characterized by
finer voids than those on base metal fracture surfaces. The
fracture path in hydrogen exposed samples changed from
dimpled rupture in low-ferrite (< 4%) welds to fracture along
the austenite-ferrite interfaces in medium- ferrite (< 12 %)
welds to fracture through the ferrite phase in high-ferrite (20-
30 %) welds. The fracture mode did not change significantly
with aging time for the weldments.
Discussion
Weldments having normal weld ferrite contents (8-12%) had
higher fracture toughness values than the base metals. The
toughness of weldments increased with ferrite content at low-
to-normal weld ferrite contents but decreased at high levels.
At low ferrite concentrations the toughness improvement that
resulted from weld ferrite is in agreement with the stainless
steel weldment behavior described in a recent review by Mills
Weldments Control
Hydrogen-Charged (5). Mills indicates that ferrite phases in austenitic stainless
steel weldments are brittle at low temperature and stainless
steel welds exhibit a ductile-brittle transition temperature
phenomenon. However, at ambient and elevated temperatures,
Mills shows that the ferrite phase behaves in a ductile manner,
and welds are more resistant to fracture. Weldments in this
30 40 with microvoids nucleating at precipitates like manganese
silicates and silicides, oxides, and delta-ferrite particles.
The decrease in fracture toughness with weld ferrite content
results from two factors. The first factor that contributes to
reduced toughness is that the weld yield strength increased
with weld ferrite content (Table III). Fracture toughness
generally decreases with increasing yield strength. Another
contributing factor to the reduced toughness at higher ferrite
contents, however, is that the filler wires used to make the
high ferrite content welds had a higher concentration of
Weldments Control
microscopic precipitates than the base metals and the low
Tritium Charged
(50-100 appm He) ferrite fillers. This was seen qualitatively in the metallographic
100-200 appm HE
sections and transmission electron micrographs. Higher
numbers of precipitates would result in more potential
microvoid nucleation sites and less strain needed to link up
adjacent voids during the fracture process. The smaller voids
were seen on the fracture surfaces and the lower strains to
fracture result in lower fracture toughness.
30 40
With regard to the effects of hydrogen on the weldment
toughness, the fracture modes of the hydrogen-exposed alloys
are similar to observations on the effects of hydrogen made by
other researchers (1,6). Brooks suggests that fracture occurs
along or near the austenite-ferrite boundary in those welds that
exhibit hydrogen induced fracture mode changes (1). Luppo
also investigated the effects of delta ferrite on hydrogen
embrittlement of austenitic stainless steel welds (6). A
hydrogen-microprint technique was used to demonstrate that
ferrite austenite interfaces acted as traps for hydrogen. This is
consistent with the fracture paths observed in the hydrogen
and tritium exposed weldments seen in this study particularly
at the high ferrite levels. Luppo also observed that ferrite
increased the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement as
measured by ductility losses in tensile tests. In those tests,
fracture occurred by cleavage in the ferrite and in the ferrite-
austenite interfaces with some tearing in the austenite. This is
very similar to fracture mode changes observed here. In low
ferrite weldments the ferrite morphology was discontinuous;
in high ferrite welds the morphology was continuous (Figure
3). When weld ferrite morphology was discontinuous, fracture
toughness values were higher than the base metal; when the
ferrite morphology was continuous, fracture toughness values
were lower than the base metal.
While the base metals showed a reduction in toughness with
the increased aging, the weldments did not. The most likely
746
explanation for the discrepancy between the aging effects in
weldments and base metals is that weld ferrite leads to tritium
off-gassing losses during exposure and storage. Note that
Table II shows that measured helium concentrations of
weldments are lower than base metal concentrations for these
tritium exposures. Toughness would not decrease as much
with aging time if much of the tritium had already decayed or
losses were significant due to off-gassing. Estimated
concentrations of helium in the base metal were in agreement
with measured values while weldment values were not.
Weldments also showed significant tritium off-gassing during
the cracking process which indicates that tritium is being lost
during the test as well.
Tritium-exposed-and-aged weldments fracture in ways that are
similar to those described by researchers who have
investigated fracture of irradiated stainless steels. For
example, O’Donnell demonstrated that irradiation of 4 dpa of
weld metal of 316 severely lowered the J-R curve (7). In this
study, both hydrogen and tritium-exposed steels had lower J-R
curves than unexposed steels (e.g. Figure 5). In this and
O’Donnell’s study welds were more significantly affected than
the wrought metal (Figure 7). A significant microstructural
feature in the weld metal of these studies is the dispersion of
fine inclusions produced during welding. The combination of
higher particle volume fraction and continuous weld ferrite
had their most severe effects on toughness when hydrogen and
tritium were present.
Conclusions
1. Fracture toughness values of stainless steel weldments were
higher than the base metal values for weldments with normal
weld ferrite contents. Fracture toughness decreased to about
half the base metal value as ferrite content was increased from
8% to 33%.
2. Weld microstructure affected fracture toughness. When
weld ferrite morphology was discontinuous, fracture
toughness values were higher than base metal values; when
the ferrite morphology was continuous, fracture toughness
values were lower than base metal values.
3. Hydrogen-charged weldments had lower toughness than
hydrogen-charged base metals and the toughness decreased
with increasing weld ferrite content. Similarly, tritium-
exposed-and-aged base metals and weldments had lower
toughness than unexposed alloys. The effects of hydrogen and
tritium were greatest in the high ferrite welds and were
manifested by a change in fracture mode.
4. Base metal toughness decreased with aging time because of
increased helium content from tritium decay. Weldment
toughness did not decrease with aging time because of tritium
off-gassing.
747
5. Fracture modes were dominated by the dimpled rupture
process in unexposed steels and welds. In hydrogen and
tritium-exposed welds, the fracture modes depended on the
weld ferrite content. At high ferrite contents, fracture occurred
predominantly by transgranular cleavage through the weld
ferrite phase.
References
1. Brooks and A. J. West, Hydrogen Induced Ductility Losses
in Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds, Metallurgical Transactions
A, 12A, 213-223 (1981)
2. G. R. Caskey, Jr., Hydrogen Effects in Stainless Steels,
Hydrogen Degradation of Ferrous Alloys, p. 822, ed. J. P.
Hirth, R. W. Oriani, and M. Smialowski, eds., Park Ridge,
NJ: Noyes Publication, (1985)
3. Proc. Fourth Int. Conf. on Hydrogen Effects on Material
Behavior, ed. A. W. Thompson and N. R. Moody, Warrendale,
PA: The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, (1989)
4. M. J. Morgan and M. H. Tosten, Tritium and Decay Helium
Effects on the Fracture Toughness Properties of Types 316L,
304L, and 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn Stainless Steels, p. 873, Hydrogen
Effects in Materials, ed. A. W. Thompson and N. R. Moody,
Warrendale, PA: TMS, (1996)
5. W. J. Mills, Fracture Toughness of Type 304 and 316
Stainless Steels and Their Welds, International Materials
Reviews, 42 (2), 45-82 (1997)
6. M. I. Luppo, A. Hazarabedian, and J. Ovejero-Garcia,
Effects of Delta Ferrite on Hydrogen Embrittlement of
Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds, Corrosion Science, 41, 87-
103 (1999)
7. J. O’Donnell, H. Huthmann, and A. A. Tavassoli, The
Fracture Toughness Behavior of Austenitic Steels and Weld
Metal Including the Effects of Thermal Aging and Irradiation,
Int. J. Pres. Ves. & Piping, 65, 209-220 (1996)
8. S. L. Robinson, The Effects of Tritium on The Flow and
Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels, p. 433, Proc. Fourth
Int. Conf. on Hydrogen Effects on Material Behavior, ed. A.
W. Thompson and N. R. Moody, Warrendale, PA: The
Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, (1989)
9. ASTM E 647-95a Standard Test Method for Measurement
of Fatigue Crack Growth Rates and E 1820-99 Standard Test
Method for Measurement of Fracture Toughness, ASTM
Annual Book of ASTM Standard Volume 3.01 Metals-
Mechanical Testing; Elevated and Low-Temperature Tests;
Metallography, American Society for Testing and Materials,
(1999)
 Table I. Compositions of Stainless Steel Forgings, Plates and Weld Filler Wires (Weight %)

Element Form Cr Ni Mn Mo C Si Cu P S N Co O Al
304L* Forging 18.0 11.3 1.7 0.04 0.02 0.42 - 0.01 0 0.04 0.03 - --
(Base)
304L* Forging 19.9 10.4 1.7 0.04 0.03 0.63 - 0.02 0 0.04 0.03 - -
(Weldment)
304L Plate* 17.8 11.1 1.9 0.2 - 0.54 0.12 0.06 - - 0.07 - -
21-6-9 Forging 19.3 6.7 9.9 - 0.03 0.38 - 0.01 0 0.28 - 0 0
308L Filler 20.5 10.3 1.56 <0.01 0.03 0.5 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.07 - -
309LM Filler 23.5 8.55 1.2 2.5 0.02 0.64 0.31 0.02 0.01 - - -
-
312 M Filler 28.7 9.17 1.45 0.27 0.05 0.51 0.31 0.02 0.01 - - -
-
*304L composition from SRS ICPES analysis; all other heats are manufacturers’ supplied compositions.

Table II. Tritium and Helium Contents for Tritium-Exposed-And-Aged Weldments

Original Tritium Calc. Helium

Content Helium Content Content Calc. Helium at
Material (Calculated) (measured) (1st Aging Tests) (2nd Aging Tests)
Description appm appm appm appm
Type 304L 1607 129.0 60 198
Type 21-6-9 2005 161.0 75 250
HERF 21-6-9 2641 212.0 98 329
304L EB Weld 1276 86.0 30 143
304L/308L/312L 1251 84.3 30 141
304L/308L/309LM 1316 88.7 31 149
21-6-9/312M 1383 111.0 51 -
304L/312M 1058 71.3 25 119
21-6-9/308L 1532 123.0 57 68
304L/312M 770 51.9 18 86
304L/308L 1532 - - 170
304L/308L 1532 - - 189

Table III. Volume Percent Ferrite and Mechanical and Fracture Toughness Properties

JQ, JQ,Tritium- JQ, Tritium-

Ferrite Yield Ultimate JQ, Hydrogen- Charged-&- Charged-&-
Material Description % Strength Strength Uncharged Charged Aged 6 Mos. Aged 30 Mos.
MPa MPa kJ /sq. m kJ /sq. m kJ /sq. m kJ /sq. m
0 462 724 242 133 165 178
Type 304L
0 855 1007 179 - 117 66
Type 21-6-9
4 - - 1051 388 - 359
304L EB Weld
Weldment 6 545 752 909 114 300 -
21-6-9/308L
Weldment 8 427 607 744 135 218 251
304L/308L
Weldment 10 455 586 595 - 262 227
304L/308L/312M
Weldment 13 455 641 683 - 206 214
304L/308L/309LM
Weldment 24 490 745 366 30 89 -
21-6-9/312M
Weldment 25 490 724 193 30 77 99
304L/312M
33 572 745 125 12 9 48
304L/309LM

748
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Welding Development for the World's Strongest Pipeline: X120
D. Fairchild, M. Macia
ExxonMobil Upstream Research Co., Houston, Texas, USA
N. Bangaru, J. Koo, A. Ozekcin, H. Jin
ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co., Corporate Strategic Research Annandale, New Jersey, USA
Abstract
Motivated by increasing energy demands, ExxonMobil has
developed an X120-grade pipeline and a girth welding method
that potentially lowers the total cost of long-distance gas
pipelines by 5 - 15%. New long distance pipelines have
budgets in excess of several billion dollars. This paper
describes the girth welding development program.
The girth welding process is solid wire, pulsed gas metal arc
welding (PGMAW). The effects of chemistry, shielding gas
composition, and weld cooling rate (heat input) on weld metal
microstructure and properties were studied. The weld metal
inclusions were engineered to optimize fracture toughness.
The developed weld metal microstructure is termed acicular
ferrite interspersed in martensite (AFIM). AFIM is capable of
achieving yield strengths greater than 120 ksi. Curved wide
plate testing was used to assess fracture toughness at
temperatures as low as -40°C. Weld hydrogen cracking
susceptibility was also investigated. In February 2004 the
X120 technology was used to construct a 1.6 km natural gas
pipeline loop in Northern Alberta, Canada. Low weld defect
rates were achieved and no hydrogen cracking was observed.
Ambient temperatures during welding were as low as -30°C.
Introduction
The demand for natural gas is growing worldwide. To meet
future demand, remotely located resources must be developed
economically. High-strength pipelines with higher operating
pressures and/or reduced wall thickness are a means to reduce
transmission costs. In the mid-1990’s, ExxonMobil initiated a
program to develop the next generation linepipe steel with
specified minimum yield and tensile strengths of 827 MPa
(120 ksi) and 931 MPa (135 ksi), respectively. The X120
development program has been described previously [1-9].
This paper provides a summary of the girth welding
development; specifically the details of weld metal
microstructure design and mechanical performance.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 749
New long distance gas transmission pipelines have budgets in
excess of several billion dollars and X120 technology
potentially lowers total pipeline cost by 5 - 15% [8]. A key
enabling factor in this effort is the ability to apply a girth weld
under rugged field conditions while achieving suitable
mechanical properties, defect rates, and productivity. Initial
mechanical property targets for the weld metal included:
• Minimum design temperature: -20°C.
• All-weld metal tensile properties: yield > 828 MPa, tensile >
931 MPa, total elongation > 18%.
• Charpy ≥ 84J @ -30°C. Ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature (DBTT) < -50°C.
• Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) ≥ 0.13mm, or J-
integral ≥ 121 MPa-mm (0.70 ksi-in) @ -20°C.
The mechanical property targets are discussed in Ref. 4.
Metallurgical Design of the Weld Metal
Traditionally, linepipe girth welds depend on acicular ferrite
(AF) as the base microstructure, but for X120, AF was
anticipated to be too weak. It was decided that martensite,
bainite, and/or their derivatives should be the primary weld
metal components. Although too weak on its own, a minor
presence of AF was still planned. It was thought that a minor
volume fraction of AF could be used to separate the prior
austenite grains into smaller sub-units, thus producing an
effective reduction in grain size and an increase in fracture
toughness. This dual phase design of combining a soft
material, AF, with a strong material like martensite was
anticipated to provide a combination of strength and toughness
sufficient to meet the X120 targets.
A dilemma in creating the dual phase weld metal was how to
simultaneously produce AF and martensite. The hardenability
required to create enough martensite to achieve the strength
target seemed inconsistent with the creation of AF. The
approach taken was to obtain strength with hardenability
(alloying) and ample martensite, but to engineer the weld
metal inclusions to be potent enough to still nucleate AF.
 Experimental Procedures
Welding Procedures and Consumable Wires
Girth welding was conducted using the solid wire pulsed gas
metal arc welding (PGMAW) process, CRC-Evans Automatic
Welding's P200 single-torch machine, and the standard CRC
weld bevel. From the standpoint of optimizing both properties
and ease-of-use, shielding gas selection consisted of Ar-based
mixtures that included minor amounts of helium and CO2.
Typical fill-pass heat inputs and T8-5 cooling times were about
0.6-0.7 kJ/mm and 4-5 seconds, respectively. The X120 pipe
sizes were 760 mm - 914 mm (30 in. -36 in.) diameter with a
wall thickness of 16mm (0.63 in.).
Twenty laboratory-melted wires and five wires made as larger
heats representative of commercial production were evaluated.
Wire diameter was 0.9 mm. Wire chemistry was altered to
study the effects of alloying. The alloys studied included: C,
Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, Cu, V, Zr, Ti, and B. Hardenability was
characterized using the parameter Pcm = C + Si/30 +
(Mn+Cu+Cr)/20 + Ni/60 + Mo/15 + V/10 + 5B. Weld metal
Pcm varied from about 0.24 to about 0.33. This changed the
proportions of soft and strong microstructural constituents,
which also controlled weld metal strength. Zr and Ti additions
were studied for their effects on inclusion chemistry, structure,
size, number, and for their potency as nucleators of AF. The
range of weld metal chemistries tested is given in Table 1.
Specific wire and weld chemistries are given in Ref. 4.
Table 1: Weld metal chemistry ranges.
C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo
Min. 0.045 0.20 1.45 2.35 NIA 0.50
Max. 0.085 0.65 1.95 3.15 0.65 0.60
Cu Ti Zr V B Pcm
Min. 0.10 NIA NIA NIA NIA 0.24
Max. 0.55 0.020 0.035 0.04 0.0013 0.33
NIA= no intentional addition
Microstructure Characterization
Optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to study
the weld metal. Analysis focused on phase and constituent
identification and on volume fraction quantification. Particular
attention was paid to the smallest units: laths, cementite, and
retained austenite. Such details were necessary to distinguish
lath martensite (LM), lower bainite (LB), degenerate upper
bainite (DUB), granular bainite (GB), and martensite-austenite
constituent (MA). A discussion of how these microstructures
develop in high strength weld metals is given in Ref. 10.
Non-metallic inclusions were studied using high-resolution
imaging, micro-diffraction, and microprobe chemistry
analyses. Of particular interest was the internal structure of
the inclusions and the nature of the inclusion-metal interface.
Mechanical Testing
The mechanical tests included all-weld metal tensile, Charpy
V-notch, and CTOD tests. Later in the program, the J-integral
technique was used for fracture toughness measurements to
take advantage of the unloading compliance method for J-R
tearing analysis. All fracture toughness tests were conducted
using the Bx2B geometry, a/W = 0.5, and a through-thickness
precrack orientation. The governing test standards were BS
7448, DNV OS-F101 Appendix B A800, and ASTM E 1820.
Large-scale fracture toughness was assessed using the curved
wide plate (CWP) test [11]. These tests were conducted at the
Laboratorium Soete of the Universiteit Gent in Belgium.
Dogbone shaped panels were cut from the girth welds (Fig. 1).
Notches were saw cut at the weld root and extended by fatigue
into either the weld metal or HAZ. Targeted crack depth was
roughly 3mm. Actual crack depth was measured post test
from the fracture surfaces. Varying degrees of weld metal
strength matching (over, even, under) were tested as well as a
series of tests with intentional bevel misalignment (high-low).
Ample tensile and CTOD testing was also conducted on each
girth weld used for CWP testing.
Girth Weld
550 mm
450 mm
Machined and
Precracked Notch 300 mm
Specimen is loaded
to failure in tension
900 mm
Figure 1: Curved wide plate specimen geometry.
Once mounted into the load frame, chilled methanol was
circulated through chambers clamped onto the specimen near
the weld. The weld itself was cooled by conduction and the
temperature was monitored at the crack location. Test
temperatures were -20°C and -40°C. Linear variable
displacement transducers (LVDTs) on each edge of the
specimen measured elongation over a 500 mm gage length and
a clip gage measured crack mouth opening displacement.
Additional details about X120 CWP tests are given in Ref. 12.
Hydrogen Cracking Assessment
To assess weld metal cracking, an initial study was conducted
using the Welding Institute of Canada (WIC) test [13], the Y-
groove test [13], and multi-pass welds on strongbacked plates.
The strongbacks were used to simulate worst case residual
stresses in a girth weld. Weld metal hydrogen was controlled
by additions of H2 to the shielding gas. Diffusible hydrogen
was measured for each combination of welding parameters
and shielding gas. After completing the initial study, it was
decided that hydrogen cracking in girth welds (particularly the
determination of preheat requirements) should be assessed
using actual girth welds because the simulative tests did not

750
generate suitable predictions. Subsequently, a series of girth
welds were made using a relatively high Pcm wire, varying
preheat, and H2 added to the shielding gas. Additional details Ar3
about hydrogen cracking in X120 welds are given in Ref. 14.
Ar1
Experimental Results and Discussion Ferrite

Temperature
typical Pearlite
cooling Acicular
Microstructure Characterization curve Ferrite
Granular
A typical girth weld macro is shown Bainite
in Fig. 2. The weld metals are made
up of two distinct materials, a soft Degenerate
phase, AF, and a hard constituent. Upper Bainite
The products observed in the hard
constituent are shown schematically Ms Lower Bainite
in Fig. 3. The most common
product was LM followed by DUB. 5mm Martensite
Because LM and DUB are closely
Time
related [10], the microstructure was Figure 2: weld macro.
named acicular ferrite interspersed in martensite (AFIM). A Figure 4: AFIM continuous cooling transformation diagram.
schematic continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram
for typical AFIM formation is shown in Fig. 4. The austenite grain
phase/constituent areas in this diagram can change position or
shape slightly due to local variations in chemistry, strain acicular
energy, cooling rate, etc. Additional details about AFIM and ferrite
the formation of the hard constituents are provided in Ref. 10.

AFIM morphology and AF volume fraction varied with Pcm.

The schematic in Fig. 5 and the SEM micrographs in Fig. 6 inclusions
show that at lower Pcm's the AF grains were thicker and
shorter, but at higher Pcm's the AF was thin and long. With hard constituent
lower hardenability AF forms at higher temperatures where (a) (b)
the driving force for grain length is limited and diffusion Figure 5: Schematic of the AFIM microstructure, (a) lower
allows some grain thickening. With higher hardenability, the Pcm morphology, (b) higher Pcm morphology.
transformation temperature decreases producing rapid grain
lengthening by cooperative shear processes, but slow diffusion
hinders grain thickening. Table 2 gives a summary of the (a) (b)
AF AF

Lower Bainite (LB) LB

Lath Martensite (LM)

LM
LM
AF
Cementite Cementite
Bainitic 10 µm DUB
Ferrite
Average lath width: 0.3 µm Average lath width: 0.4 µm
Figure 6: SEM images of AFIM, (a) lower Pcm morphology;
Degenerate Upper Bainite (DUB) Granular Bainite (GB) 36% AF, (b) higher Pcm morphology; 14% AF.

Martensite/
MA Table 2: AFIM microstructural variations with Pcm.
Pcm AF GB DUB LB LM
Bainitic
Ferrite
0.24-0.265 20-45% ~ 10% 20-30% < 5% 30-50%
Bainitic Martensite/
Ferrite 0.265-0.275 10-20% < 10% 15-25% < 5% 50-65%
Austenite / MA
0.275-0.285 5-15% < 10% 10-20% < 5% 60-75%
Average lath width: 0.6 µm Average grain size: ~2 µm
0.285-0.295 5-12% < 5% 10-15 < 5% 70-85%
Figure 3: Schematic showing typical products observed in 0.295-0.30 < 10% < 5% <10% < 5% 80-95%
the hard constituent. > 0.30 0% 0% < 5% < 5% > 95%

751
microstructural breakdown of AFIM as a function of Pcm.
This analysis is specific to the cooling rates applied.
AF divides the prior austenite grains into smaller subunits by
introducing many high angle (>10°) interfaces. This
refinement improves toughness. It is estimated that this effect
requires at least about 5% volume fraction of AF.
Zr, and to a lesser extent Ti, promoted an abundance of fine
(200 - 400 nm) non-metallic inclusions that are believed to pin
grain boundaries (dendrite and austenite) and act as nucleators
of AF. Many examples of AF nucleation on these inclusions
were seen in the SEM and TEM. By comparison of Zr-free
and Zr-containing welds, it was observed that Zr reduced
inclusion size, increased inclusion number density, increased
AF nucleation, and improved toughness [10]. Zr promoted AF
nucleation despite a relatively high hardenability and
martensite content. This is a primary reason for the protruding
AF nose shown in Fig. 4.
With Zr additions, the inclusion cores contained an agglo-
meration of small Zr-Ti rich oxide particles (Fig. 7a). This
provided evidence of the inclusion nucleation process. These
cores are encapsulated in an outer shell of Mn-Si-Al-Fe rich
spinel oxide. The Zr-Ti rich particles are crystalline while the
outer shell is amorphous (Fig. 7b). Based on micro-diffraction
results and quantitative chemistries from the TEM, the melting
point of the spinel outer shell is estimated to be 1150°C [10],
which is far below that of the matrix (1450°C). In Zr-free
welds, the cores sometimes contained small Ti oxides;
during weld cooling, the high temperature austenite is in
contact with spinel oxide liquid and this enables an easy
pathway for Fe atoms to rearrange in low energy crystal
planes, for instance, the close packed planes <111>. These
<111> facets at the inclusion-austenite interface provide a
potent AF nucleation surface via a Kurdjumov-Sachs
orientation relationship. This hypothesis challenges the
necessity of direct contact between a Zr/Ti oxide species and
austenite to nucleate AF. Theories about Zr/Ti in weld metals
providing a chemically conducive surface for AF nucleation
seem unsupportable. It is proposed that the dominant effect of
a strong oxide former like Zr is to decrease inclusion size,
increase number density, and increase the probability of AF
nucleation. This is the mechanism of nucleation potency.
Mechanical Properties - Small Scale Tests
As shown in Fig. 8, AFIM strength increases with Pcm (due to
an increase in the hard constituent). AFIM produces yield and
tensile strengths of about 750-950 MPa and 800-1050 MPa,
respectively. Lower strength AFIM exhibited Charpy and
CTOD upper-shelves in the ranges of 150-175J and 0.25-0.35
mm, respectively. The DBTT's for both test techniques were
about -75°C to -50°C. Higher strength AFIM exhibited
Charpy and CTOD upper-shelves of about 100-120J and 0.15-
0.20 mm, respectively, while the DBTT's were about -70°C.
Fig. 9 shows transition curves for an optimized weld metal.
1100
1000
Strength (MPa)

however, often no small

internal particles existed inclusion (a)
900
(Fig. 7c). Zr appears to
promote inclusion forma-
tion more than Ti alone. 800
UTS
YS
Crystallographic facets Zr-Ti oxides 700
were observed at the
inclusion-matrix interface 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.33
Pcm
(Fig. 7). It is believed that 500 nm
Figure 8: The effect of Pcm on AFIM weld metal strength.

200 0.25
CVN
0.20
150
Zr-Ti
CTOD (mm)
Energy (J)

oxide 0.15
CTOD
100
0.10
200 nm (c) 50
YS: 938 MPa 0.05
200 nm Mn-Si-Al-Fe oxide (b) UTS: 1007 MPa
0 0.00
Figure 7: TEM images showing (a) Zr-Ti rich oxide particles -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100
in an inclusion core, (b) micro-diffraction results showing Temperature (°C)
that the Zr-Ti oxide is crystalline (hexagonal (Zr,Ti)O4) while
the Mn-Si-Al-Fe oxide outer shell is amorphous, (c) an Figure 9: Charpy and CTOD transition curves for an
inclusion with no internal oxides. optimized AFIM weld metal [4]. Strengths are all-weld metal.

752
Excellent toughness was achieved by limiting CO2 in the
shielding gas and controlling weld metal oxygen content to
about 200-260 ppm.
Wide Plate Test Results
A plot of failure stress versus defect depth for the CWP tests is
shown in Fig. 10. No significant decrease in failure stress
with increasing defect size was observed. Considering the
experimental variations imposed such as notch depth and
location, test temperature, misalignment, and weld metal
strength; remarkably little variation in failure stress occurred.
1200
1000
Failure Stress (MPa)
The inherently low hydrogen potential of the solid wire
PGMAW process is a key reason that it was selected for X120
girth welding. This process is capable of consistently
producing less than 5 ml/100g of diffusible hydrogen if good
low-hydrogen practices are applied.
Demonstration Pipeline
In February 2004, ExxonMobil and TransCanada PipeLines
Limited (TCPL) installed 1.6 km of X120 pipeline as part of
an X70 loop in Northern Alberta. One of the objectives of this
X120 demonstration was to confirm constructability under
harsh winter conditions. Special focus was placed on weld
hydrogen cracking performance. Outside temperatures were as
low as -30ºC during welding. Photographs from construction

800
are shown in Fig. 11.
X120 Strength Targets
SMYS = 828 MPa (120 ksi)
600
The pipe was 914 mm OD x 16 mm thick X120 manufactured
SMTS = 931 MPa (135 ksi)
by Nippon Steel Corporation. Mainline welding was carried
400
out using mechanized PGMAW with CRC-Evans Automatic
WM notch, no misalignment Welding equipment. Tie-in and repair welding were
200 HAZ notch, no misalignment performed by semi-automatic PGMAW for the fill and cap
WM notch, ~2.4 mm high-low
HAZ notch, ~2.4 mm high-low
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
D efect H eight (mm)

Figure 10: CWP test results; failure stress vs. defect height.

Load trace analysis (all reaching max load) and fracture

surface examination indicated that the weld metal failed by
ductile crack extension at both -20°C and -40°C. This is
consistent with the CTOD/J-integral results that showed
transition temperatures between -75°C and -50°C.

For the CWP tests without misalignment, a comparison of the

failure stresses to the pipe's tensile strength indicated that
a
these tests performed to full pipe potential, failing at stresses
comparable to the pipe ultimate strength (about 1013 MPa).
For specimens with misalignment, the added stress
concentration reduced the failure stress by about 50 MPa.

Hydrogen Cracking Results

With no H2 additions to the shielding gas, typical diffusible
hydrogen levels were ~ 2 ml/100g. The highest measurement
was 3.7 ml/100g. The two weld procedures with H2-added
produced 5.4 and 7.1 ml/100g. Once conditions sufficient to
create cracking were applied to actual girth welds, the
cracking mode was observed to be transverse weld metal
cracking. The cracks were embedded just below the cap pass.
At H2 levels less than 5 ml/100g, it was found that a minimum
preheat/interpass temperature of about 125°C prevented the
transverse cracking. The self-restrained tests (WIC, Y- b
groove) did not produce transverse cracks presumably because
the driving force for cracking (hoop direction residual
Figure 11: Pictures from the X120 demonstration pipeline.
stresses) was not generated in the small-scale specimens.
(a) construction spread, (b) preheating.

753

c Offshore Industry (HMOI), Honolulu, pp. 10-18 (2003).
Figure 11 (cont'd): (c) welding shack being lowered onto
pipe; inset showing mechanized PGMAW inside shack.
passes, while the root pass was applied using the Lincoln
Electric surface tension transfer (STT) process. A minimum
preheat/interpass temperature of 125ºC was specified.
During construction, all welds were inspected shortly after
completion by automatic ultrasonic testing (AUT). The AUT
system included probes designed to detect transverse cracks.
The welds were then re-inspected 24 hours later to confirm
that no delayed transverse cracking had occurred. No cracks
were identified during the project. Of the 137 mechanized
welds made in the 1.6 km line, only two repairs were made
(1.5%) and these defects were classified as lack of fusion.
This repair rate is consistent with mature pipeline practice.
Once primary construction of the 1.6 km was completed, 11
more pipe joints were added to the end. These joints were
subseqently cut out and transported to a TCPL facility where
they were reassembled using the tie-in procedure. Several
simulated repairs were also added. This extra section was
hydrotested to 95% of the specified minimum yield stress of
X120 (hydrotesting of the 1.6 km line was according to the
X70 grade of the "mother" pipeline). As of the writing of this
paper, the extra section is being cut up and tested to generate a
statistical data base of X120 AFIM weld properties.
Summary
To enable the construction of high strength gas pipelines, a
girth welding method has been developed. The weld metal
microstructure is named acicular ferrite (AF) interspersed in
martensite (AFIM). Minor Zr additions produced small oxide
inclusions on which AF nucleates. These nucleators are potent
due to their small size (related to Zr). Also, it appears that the
outer inclusion shell remains liquid after weld metal solidifica-
tion, thus providing a convenient nucleation surface for AF.
AFIM weld metals are suitable for X120-grade pipelines.
Fracture toughness has been verified using curved wide plate
tests and hydrogen cracking studies resulted in the determina-
tion of a minimum perheat/interpass temperature of 125°C.
754
ExxonMobil has been granted a patent for this girth welding
technology in numerous countries including the US [15].
References
1. D.P. Fairchild, M.L. Macia, S.D. Papka, C.W. Petersen,
J.H. Stevens, S.T. Barbas, N.V. Bangaru, J.Y. Koo, and
M.J. Luton, “High Strength Steels – Beyond X80,” Proc. of
the Int'l Pipe Dreamer’s Conference, Yokohama, pp.
307-331 (2002).
2. J.Y. Koo, et al, “Metallurgical Design of Ultra-High
Strength Steels for Gas Pipelines,” Proc. of the ISOPE
Symposium on High-Performance Materials in the
3. H. Asahi, et al, “Development of Plate and Seam Welding
Technology for X120 Linepipe,” Ibid., pp. 19-25.
4. D.P. Fairchild, M.L. Macia, N.V. Bangaru, and J.Y.
Koo, “Girth Welding Development for X120 Linepipe,”
Ibid., pp. 26-35.
5. S. Okaguchi, et al, “Development and Mechanical
Properties of X120 Grade Line Pipe,” Ibid., pp. 36-42.
6. H. Asahi, et al, “Pipe Production Technology and Basic
Properties of X120 Linepipe,” Ibid., pp. 43-49.
7. S.D. Papka, J.H. Stevens, M.L. Macia, D.P. Fairchild, and
C.W. Petersen, “Full-Size Testing and Analysis of X120
Linepipe,” Ibid., pp. 50-59.
8. K.T. Corbett, R.R. Bowen, C.W. Petersen, "High Strength
Steel Pipeline Economics", Ibid., pp. 105-112.
9. H. Asahi, et al, "Development and Properties of Ultra-High
Strength UOE Linepipe", Proc. Int'l Pipeline Conf.,
Calgary, (2004).
10. N.V Bangaru, D.P. Fairchild, M.L. Macia, J.Y. Koo, A.
Ozekcin, “Microstructural Aspects of High Strength
Pipeline Girth Welds”, 4th Int'l Conf. on Pipeline
Technology, Ostend, Belgium (2004).
11. R.M. Denys, “Wide Plate Testing of Weldments, Parts I, II
and III”, Fatigue and Fracture Testing of Weldments,
ASTM STP 1058, H McHenry, J Potter Eds., ASTM,
Philadelphia, pp.157-228 (1990).
12. M.L. Macia, S.D. Papka, D.P. Fairchild, R.M. Denys, A.A.
Lefevre, “Verification of Fracture Toughness and Defect
Tolerance of X120 Girth Welds”, 4th Int'l Conf. on Pipeline
Technology, Ostend, Belgium (2004).
13. B.A. Graville, “Interpretive Report on Weldability Tests
for Hydrogen Cracking of Higher Strength Steels and Their
Potential for Standardization”, WRC Bulletin 400,
Welding Research Council, New York (1995).
14. M.L. Macia, D.P. Fairchild, N.V. Bangaru, and J.Y.
Koo, “Evaluation of Hydrogen Cracking Susceptibility in
X120 Girth Welds”, Proc. Int'l Pipeline Conf., Calgary,
pp.26-35 (2004).
15. D. P. Fairchild, J.Y. Koo, N.V. Bangaru, M.L. Macia, D.L.
Beeson, A. Ozekcin, “Weld Metals with Superior
Toughness for Joining High Strength, Low Alloy Steels”,
U.S. Patent 6,565,678, (2003).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Structural Integrity of Submarine Pressure Hull Welds
G.W. Sloan
© ASC Pty Ltd, South Australia, Australia
Abstract
Submarine pressure hulls and supporting structure are
fabricated from quenched and tempered steel which have
requirements for both high yield strengths and fracture
toughness for both the base materials and the weldments. As
the materials have a relatively high carbon equivalent and
many of the welds are subject to very high levels of restraint
the weldments are susceptible to Hydrogen Assisted Cold
Cracking, (HACC), which is difficult to detect. This paper
describes the research work currently being undertaken by
ASC and its research partners to address all facets related to
occurrence of HACC and its impact on the acceptability of the
welds in service subject to the fatigue and corrosive
environments applicable to submarine operation. The work
being undertaken includes optimization of heat input for
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) to avoid HACC for
welds under very high restraint while still meeting the
mechanical properties, combined with investigations into the
optimum NDE techniques to detect HACC. In addition any
cracks detected will be investigated for the influence of
microsegregation on the initiation of HACC. Work is also
being undertaken on determining the fracture toughness of the
range of MMAW heat inputs, the susceptibility of the low heat
input weldments to Stress Corrosion Cracking ( SCC) and the
corrosion fatigue properties of the weldments. Residual stress
profiles through butt welds for highly restrained test pieces
and for T butt welds taken from full size submarine structures
will be determined using a combination of techniques
including neutron diffraction. The relationship of this work to
proposed future submarine new fabrication is also discussed.
Introduction
With the completion in 2002 of the fabrication and outfitting
of HMAS RANKIN, the last of the COLLINS Class of
submarines, the submarine fabricator ASC Pty Ltd
commenced a new era of through life support of the class with
respect to maintenance and upgrade. The fact that the primary
fabrication has been completed does not mean that all welding
activity has stopped. In fact, already in the first refit cycle,
major openings in the pressure hull structure have been cut to
allow access for removal and replacement of large pieces of
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
equipment. The re-installation welding of these types of large
pressure hull segments have to be undertaken with the joints
under high restraint. This is because it is essential that the
creation of the opening in the hull does not change the shape
of the hull. This adds to the complexity of the task as well as
increasing the risk, as joints in high strength steel, and with
high restraint, are susceptible to HACC. With a projected life
of a further 25 to 30 years of service for the class it is
anticipated that this task will have to be undertaken many
times. Other significant welding activities during the refit
cycle have been the undertaking of extensive weld repairs to
two major tank/pressure hull sections of the first of class
HMAS COLLINS during her first refit. All of the repairs were
undertaken using Manual Metal Arc Welding, (MMAW).
Again these weld repairs were undertake with the joint subject
to extreme restraint and with the welding having to be
undertaken frequently in the non optimum vertical up 3G and
overhead 4G positions with significant access limitations and
cramped conditions. The reality of maintenance repair welding
is that it will inevitably be undertaken with conditions of high
restraint and poor access.
It must also be appreciated that Non Destructive Testing
(NDT) is not a perfect art and that some types of defect such
as HACC are difficult to detect and may be missed. It also
must be appreciated that welders are not machines and as there
will always be variation in run out length, particularly due to
access restrictions. It would also be naïve to assume that every
weld is defect free and that the mechanical and toughness
properties of the deposited weld metal match those for the
Weld Procedure Qualification (WPQR) which qualified the
procedure being used. The prudent weld engineer and designer
should address the influences of these factors on the structural
integrity of the submarine hull.
While it is still many years before fabrication of the next class
of submarines will commence ASC is already looking ahead at
key aspects in the fabrication of these vessels with respect to
materials, hull design and welding. The fabrication of a
conventionally powered submarine, which has many internal
tanks for fuel storage and weight compensation, as well as
large battery compartments, will always involve a high
percentage of MMA welds. This is particularly the case for the
integration of the tank structures to the hull plate and frame
755
cans, and also to major section joints. Processes such as to that of the base plate, and even conceivably under matching
FCAW are unsuitable for strength, toughness, and OH and S the strength of the weld to the base material, to pick up the
issues. advantage of increase in the toughness of the weldment must
continue or be considered.
One of the key factors which is starting to have a dominant
influence on all planning for future refits and new construction Research Projects
is the world wide trend in declining numbers of high skilled
welders capable of welding quench and tempered steels with ASC Pty Ltd in conjunction with its research partners, and
low defect rates. This is possibly due to malaise of western with financial support from the Commonwealth of Australia
governments in establishing and maintaining education and has embarked on a series of research projects aimed at
training programs for the 'black trades' coupled with the addressing the key issues identified above. Currently there are
influence of 'Baby boomers’ now that they are parents to push three projects underway looking at the diverse topics of
their children towards white collar work the prospects for a HACC, susceptibility of high strength weldments to stress
reversal in the decline in skilled welder numbers looks grim corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue rates in high strength
over the next decade. weldments, fracture toughness properties of MMAW
weldments for a range of heat inputs and notch orientation,
For example at ASC while we still have highly skilled welders and the residual stress profiles in highly restrained and normal
and welding supervisors, who during the fabrication of the butt welds and T butt welds in submarine structures. A fourth
Collins class submarines consistently achieved defect rates for project will use the data generated from the other three
hull welds below 0.5%, their average age is now 45 and there projects either individually or collectively in fracture
are not huge numbers of new young welders following on mechanics calculations assessing the current integrity of welds
from them. If there are not consistent numbers of welders and in the COLLINS class and reviewing whether it is possible to
other tradesmen coming through the ranks, trained under safely relax the welding defect acceptance criteria.
current supervisors on complex and high skilled work, it will
be difficult to maintain the low defect rate achieved to date.
Multi pass Butt-weld
Implementing fully automated processes does not solve the Hydrogen Butt weld
residual stress
Residual Unrestrained T Butt Residual Profile
Validation
Assisted Stresses of Hull
problem, as they still require highly skilled welding Cold
Restrained T Butt Residual Profile
Integrity
supervisors to set up the welding processes. Cracking Charpy data
diff heat inputs SCC-Fracture
da/dN
corrosion fatigue
Mechanics Fracture
toughness
With the difficulty in detecting HACC by non destructive Crack sizes HACC

methods and a possible downward trend in welder skills, the

integrity of the welds performed may deteriorate or be of Outcomes: •Acceptability T Butt Y/N
•Validity Charpy to Fracture •Acceptability 300/600 Y/N
•Susceptibility of ASC welds to
unknown quality, which will then raise concerns on platform HACC Yes/No •Validity of BS 7910
Toughness
•New structure acceptance
Appendix Q •Susceptibility to SCC regime
•Possible new NDT methods
life. to detect HACC
Yes/No (change inspection
regime)
•New defect acceptance
criteria

There are several ways of addressing the issues raised above:

a. Fully understand the mechanical and toughness properties,
fatigue and corrosion fatigue performance of the
weldments allowing for the maximum variation in heat
input for the weld deposition.
b. Have comprehensive understanding of the fracture
mechanics performance of the weld and adjoining structure
with respect to residual stress profiles from welding for the
varying levels of restraint in weld joints, coupled with the
detailed knowledge of the variation to these from all
processes and aspects of the fabrication processes.
c. Design the structure so that the weld joints are in locations
of low stress from the applied load, even taking into
consideration for the effects or influence of tolerance
deviations.
A key linkage between the projects will be that where
MMAW weldments are used in any of the projects they are
undertaken with the same range of heat inputs deposited with
controlled run out lengths. In addition all welding will follow
ASC standard welding practice as used on real structures, and
with levels of restraint matching those experienced on those
structures. The welding will be undertaken in the down hand
1G or the 4 G position as used for large pressure hull opening
reinstallation. For the majority of the heat inputs there is also a
correlation back to welding procedures investigated in the
early stage of the COLLINS Class fabrication project. For 4 of
the 6 heat inputs used there was a parent procedure developed
in the late 80's which was fully tested, including explosion
bulge testing, to determine suitability to achieve required
mechanical and toughness properties.

It will require a combination of all of the above coupled with
knowledge of the limitations of each current and future
welding process to be able to maintain low defect rates in
weldments or have structures that can tolerate higher defect
rates. The trend towards matching of the strength of the weld
Hydrogen Assisted Cold Cracking Project
This project, which is being undertaken under the auspices of
the Co-operative Research Centre for Welded Structures
(CRCWS) is looking at the following issues with respect to
MMAW weldments joining BIS 812 EMA material in

756
submarine structures.
a. Determination of welding parameter tolerance levels
against the initiation of hydrogen assisted cold cracking in
highly restrained weldments and the suitability of
mitigation strategies.
b. Evaluation of current NDT methods and their ability to
detect hydrogen assisted cold cracking.
c. Research into the development of alternative NDT
methods.
d. Research into the influence of relationship of micro
segregation in the weldment structure to initiation of HAC
and the variation of the microstructure due to variation of
heat input.
e. Measurement of residual stresses during welding of a
restrained Butt joint
f. Variation in the toughness of weld metal with the position
of welding and investigation into correlation between
Charpy impact test results and fracture toughness.
Background on HACC and the Relevance to the Research
Objectives
Hydrogen assisted cold cracking occurs when the four
conditions outlined below are present:
a. Tensile stresses act on the weld.
b. Hydrogen is present to a sufficient degree in the weld
c. A susceptible HAZ or weld microstructure is present
d. A low temperature is reached.
In regards to point a) tensile stresses in the weld are inevitable
and arise from the thermal contractions during cooling of the
weld and may be supplemented by other stresses developed as
a result of the rigidity of the assembly being joined. Repair
welds and installation of submarine hull plate patches are very
restrained welds as the rigidity of the surrounding structure is
acting against the contracting of the weld pool and therefore
results in tensile stresses approaching yield in, and adjacent to,
the weld joint. There will also be some variation through the
joint in a multi pass weld due to the tempering effect of
subsequent passes and the effect of double sided welding. It is
important that the test panels prepared to investigate hydrogen
assisted cold cracking simulate the high restraint present in the
weld repairs, and that this was validated to real structures.
The test panels used consisted of two 1600mm x 500mm
plates with a 2/3 1/3 weld prep positioned down the centre
line. A grillage of transverse and longitudinal bracing was
stitch welded to these plates on the 1/3 prep (top side). In
order to provide additional longitudinal restraint to resist
shrinkage of the test weld, 300mm lengths at each end of the
centre weld were then welded leaving a test weld of 1000mm.
The test plates and frames were all taken from BIS 812
material and the welding was undertaken using E120
consumables.
Validation that the restraint of the panels matched that
experienced on real structures is being undertaken by a
757
combination of;
a. Deformation measurements and comparison to those
experienced on similar joints on the hull. The results are
presented in ref 1.
b. By measuring surface residual stress measurements and
comparing them to measurements taken when undertaking
real joints on the hull i.e. reinstallation of a large pressure
segment into the hull.
To ensure a complete understanding of the factors affecting
initiation of HACC in BIS 812 EMA weldments on the
submarine structures a comprehensive understanding of the
levels of hydrogen diffused into the weldment and its rate of
diffusion out of the weldment is required. This will be
dependent on, and must encompass ASC's consumables,
consumable handling procedures, joint preparation and
cleanliness procedures, preheat methods, and weld heat input
variations to have any credibility of outcome. Therefore the
weld consumables used were Alloy Rods Atom Arc 12018M1.
The preheating was undertaken using 'Cooper Heat' resistance
heating pads with the preheat at 120 °C as per all ASC
MMAW submarine fabrication welds. Similarly interpass
temperature was controlled at a maximum of 175 °C. The
plates used to make the test welds were blasted and primed
and the weld preps were ground back to remove paint and rust,
i.e. any sources of hydrogen from the weld area, again as per
normal practice. Even though the welding was being
undertaken at a university test lab site all consumable were
still baked and placed in hot boxes prior to use as per standard
practice.
Diffusible hydrogen levels were undertaken on test pieces to
the methods of ISO 3690: 2000. The method used was the hot
extraction method with diffusible hydrogen tests at 400 °C and
residual hydrogen taken at 650 °C.
As BIS 812 EMA is a high yield strength (690 Mpa), high
carbon equivalent, quenched and tempered steel with a bainitic
microstructure in both the parent material and weldments, and
a tendency to transform the microstructure in the heat affected
zone to martensite, the base material and its weldments have a
susceptible microstructure. Variation in the cooling rate of the
weld deposit, for which there is a direct relationship to
variation in heat input rate of the welding, influences the level
of susceptible microstructure transformed. Therefore, a
program assessing the inception of HACC or the tolerance box
of welding procedure parameters must address varying heat
inputs. One of the key issues with respect to repair welding in
tight access areas is whether the welder has actually followed
the welding parameters. While current may be set, arc voltage
and run out length may easily be varied by the welder due to
the limitations they are confronted with. This reinforces any
realistic assessment of the initiation of HACC to consider the
variation in arc energy. In this research project the heat inputs
used for MMAW test welds were 1.3 kJ/mm, 1.7 kJ/mm, 2.0
kJ/mm, 2.2 kJ/mm, 2.5kJ/mm an 2.9 kJ/mm. The production
weld procedures have to date been set at 2.2 kJ/mm max. The
heat inputs used reflect the range of practicality with respect to
depositing a sound weld noting that the welds were both in the
1 G and 4 G positions. As noted earlier the 1.3 to 2.2kJ/mm
heat inputs have direct correlation to early development
WPQR's which included explosion bulge testing.
In regards to the fact that a low temperature is always reached
in a weld when it is finally cooled, ASC's mitigation strategy
is to post weld heat treat (outgas the weld). The outgassing is
undertaken at 200 °C and the times have been based on the
curves detailed in ref. [1] with a large factor of safety.
Standard practice on production welds has been to leave the
resistance heating on overnight between shifts. Therefore the
same practices were used for the welding of the test welds.
Residual Stress Measurement
As highly restrained test panels were being used in this HACC
project the opportunity was taken to combine this testing of
Butt welds with another project on residual stresses in
restrained butt welds. The details of this work are given in
ref.[2].
Non Destructive Testing
One of the key issues with respect to HACC is the difficulty
and often inability to detect HACC due to its fine and inter-
granular nature. The other key aspect is when does it develop
and therefore when to inspect. The NDT forming part of this
program will be undertaken over a period of between 48 hours
and 90 days post completion of welding. This period is
required as there have been concerns that HACC has occurred
in excess of 30 days post welding.
The NDT methods used in this project in addition to the
normal surface methods are:
a. Conventional ultrasonics including transverse inspection.
b. Phased Array UT.
c. Acoustic Emission (AE) testing on the low heat input test
plate and the 2.2 kJ/mm test plate. There is some evidence
that AE can be used to monitor the initiation and
propagation of HACC in real time. In addition the use of
multiple sensors can contribute to the assessment of crack
location and sizing.
d. TOFD will be used to size any cracks detected by the other
methods.
Destructive Testing
Following the completion of the NDT program the 6 off test
welds will be cut up using water cutting techniques for the
following testing:
a. One segment from each test panel will be subjected to
progressive milling and magnetic particle testing to
validate the NDT results.
b. One segment will be subject to metallographic
examination of the weld metal and HAZ for micro
758
segregation feature and crack initiation and propagation
mechanisms.
c. The remainder will be cut up for transverse tensile testing,
all weld metal tensile testing and Charpy V Notch testing
with test pieces taken from both the 1G and 4 G sides of
the welds.
Results to date
To date the NDT has shown that no defects are present.
The diffusible hydrogen testing results indicated that variation
of welding heat input did not significantly affect the levels of
hydrogen in the weld. The maximum level was 1.9 ml/100g
for heat inputs of 1.3kJ/mm and 1.5 kJ/mm. The results show
that good consumable purchasing and handling practice
considerably reduces the risk of HACC by minimizing the
source.
The remainder of the test program is currently being
implemented and will be finished by the end of June this year.
The results will then be compared with those from the
complementary test program being undertaken by the CRC –
WS on development of HACC in FCAW highly restrained
butt joints in BIS80 plates.
Stress Corrosion, Fatigue Crack Propagation,
And Fracture Toughness Project
This work is being undertaken as a joint project between ASC
Pty Ltd and the Defence Science and Technology
Organization (DSTO) of the Commonwealth of Australia.
Essentially the objectives of this project are to expand the data
pool and knowledge of the behaviour of weldments in BIS 812
plate to fully validate the repair work undertaken on sections
of the first of Class HMAS COLLINS, and to be able to assess
quickly and accurately any defects that arise through the 30
years plus expected life of the hulls. An additional objective,
in conjunction with other projects being undertaken is to
assess if it is possible to safely relax the weld defect
acceptance criteria for future structural modifications or the
next class of submarine. The main areas of focus are as
follows:
a. Acquire toughness data for MMAW weldments deposited
under a range of heat inputs from 1.3 kJ/mm to 2.9kJ/mm
and with varying notch orientation.
b. Measurement of corrosion fatigue data on a similar range
of weld metals.
c. Determination of whether the weldments have a
susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
As noted previously the reality of undertaking welds in
difficult access situations may result in the weld being
deposited over a range of heat in puts as the welder can not
follow a strict regime of run out length. To date the fracture
toughness data acquired for BIS 812 EMA weldments has
been for the preferred heat input chosen to optimize the
strength, and Charpy impact properties. Also the toughness
data has only been acquired for a few notch orientations. With
this project fracture toughness data will be acquired for a low
heat input of 1.3 kJ/mm, and therefore harder weldment, for
the preferred maximum heat input of 2.2 kJ/mm, and for the
extreme 2.9 kJ/mm heat input. These heat inputs represent the
maximum range of practical heat inputs.
The fracture toughness will be determined using Hi-K
Fracture Toughness Chevron Notched Short Bar test pieces to
ASTM E 1304-97. The notch will be orientated in the L-S, L-
T, T-S, and T-L orientations as defined in ASTM E399.
As a comprehensive set of Charpy impact specimens is being
acquired as part of the HACC project in weldments of the
same heat inputs the opportunity will be taken to review the
relationship between Charpy results and true fracture
toughness.
One of the weld metal characteristics that was not investigated
during the build phase of the Collins project was whether the
weldments were susceptible to Stress Corrosion Cracking,
(SCC). Testing for SCC in 900MPa weldments (albeit with
other consumables) has shown that welds of this strength are
susceptible to SCC. It is known from undertaking standard
weld procedure qualification tests using E120 strength
consumables for joining BIS 812 EMA plate by MMAW that
deposits of 900 MPa could occur. Therefore it is prudent to
investigate the SCC susceptibility for the weldments of the
submarines. The tests will be undertaken on weld metal
deposited using the low heat input of 1.3kJ/mm as this is
representative of the hardest weld deposits.
Prior to undertaking any SCC tests a review and physical test
program will be undertaken of the electrochemical potentials
occurring in tanks on the submarine to ascertain parameters
for the SCC tests. A range of electro chemical potentials will
be used and these for convenience have been classed as under
protected, nominally protected and overprotected.
The SCC tests will be undertaken using several methods. The
first series of tests will be undertaken using side grooved
instrumented bolt loaded wedge opening loading specimens.
The specimens will be taken from the L-S direction, in
accordance with ASTM E399, as this represents a transverse
crack that is growing in the direction of the plate thickness and
is considered to be the most susceptible to SCC. If these initial
tests show that the welds are susceptible to SCC then the test
will be repeated on other heat inputs namely 2.2kJ/mm and
2.9kJ/mm. Standard metallographic examination including
scanning electron microscopy will also be performed to
correlate the effect of varying microstructure with a multi pass
weld.
Limited testing will also be undertaken using the severe slow
strain rate test to investigate the effect of microstructure on the
759
susceptibility of the material to SCC. These will also be
undertaken over a range of electrochemical potentials.
With the submarines of the class in service there are only
limited periods when the vessels can be maintained or
surveyed. The surveying activity involves visual inspection
only of all structures and is mainly addressing pitting or
general corrosion. If surface breaking cracks eventuate the
inspections may not immediately detect them or recognize
them as cracks. Therefore it is important that the test regime
includes determination of the corrosion fatigue rates for the
weldments. These tests are being undertaken using compact
tension specimens and with the notch orientated in the L-S and
T-S directions. They will be repeated over the full range of
electrochemical potentials being considered. All tests will be
undertaken with a notch with high R value. The effect of
variation in frequency will be investigated.
Residual Stresses in Highly Restrained Butt
Welds and T Butt Welds in Submarine Hulls
This project is being undertaken as a joint project involving
ASC Pty Ltd, the University of Adelaide, and the Australian
Nuclear Science and Technology Organization. Detailed
description of this project is given in ref 1 which is also
presented at this conference. The objective is to measure the
residual stress profile in a range of submarine pressure hull
weldments both by using dedicated test panels and also full
scale submarine pressure hull structure and to compare these
with the profiles given in BS 7910 appendix Q ref. [.3].
The types of joint being considered in this project and origins
of the test piece are as follows:
a. Highly restrained double V butt joint from dedicated test
panel welded using MMAW. The validity of the level of
restraint to real structures will be established by a
combination of dimensional inspections and strain gauge
measurements, normal and hole drilling method,
undertaken on both the test panel and when a large patch
of pressure hull structure was welded back into its hull.
b. Highly restrained T Butt joint from a dedicated test panel
using MMAW welds
c. Longitudinal and circumferential butt welds in submarine
hull plate can structure with test pieces cut from full size
submarine structure. The welds were undertaken with the
SAW process.
d. T butt joints hull plate to plate can from the same full size
structure and again welded with the SAW process.
The residual stresses will be measured by a combination of
surface measuring techniques, including heat resistant strain
gauges monitored during the welding process, and subsurface
profiles by the neutron diffraction method. The results to date
of this project are given in ref. [1].
A supplementary phase of the project will be to assess the
influence of fabrication activities, such as working together of
hull plates at section joints to meet alignment tolerances, on
the residual stress profiles in key welds. This will use a series
of residual stress measurements and correlating hull structure
profile measurements undertaken on a submarine section joint.
The superimposition of these bending stresses will be assessed
for both butt welds and the adjacent bulkhead to hull plate T
Butt weld.
Future Design of Submarine Structures
One of the factors that should be looked at for all new designs
of submarines, is whether it is possible to under match the
strength of the deposited weld metal or more closely match its
strength to the base material, and to balance this with an
increase in toughness of the weldment. With a sound
understanding of the factors which increase the local stress at
a weld as a result of fabrication activities and with judicious
placement of major butt welds this is considered possible for
the majority of the welds on a submarine. The highest stressed
welds on a submarine will always be those joining a rigid
bulkhead to the hull plate, with the rigid bulkhead providing
the resistance to buckling of the hull from general instability.
The theoretical stresses in the welds for the majority of the
remainder of the structure, including pressure hull, are far less
and their position can be controlled by the designer to ensure
this.
But what about the fabrication or shape induced tolerances
which have the potential to change a theoretically low stressed
weld into a high stressed weld? For the majority of the
pressure hull welds the main factors, other than out of
roundness, which alters the theoretical stress level are the
additional bending stresses induced as a result of plate
misalignment and weld distortion at the weld joint. Essentially
this can be overcome by the implementation of accuracy
control at each stage of fabrication and by both the design
department and the production department understanding the
implications of the effect of tolerance deviations and weld
defects and adjusting the design or processes to minimize their
effect. The same logic applies to all the shape and structural
tolerances. In addition to this it is incumbent on the designers
not to optimize the structural scantlings of the vessel to
minimize weight as is the trend on surface warship design and
to maintain good tolerance margins. If this is done it is
possible to continue the move to using lower strength
consumables with the gain of increased toughness.
The higher strength consumables such as the E 120 class can
be applied where they are needed at the high stress welds such
as the bulkhead to hull plate welds and the lower strength
consumables such as E110 and E100 classes be used for the
majority of the welds. This has one distinct advantage.
MMAW welds with E120 consumable can end up with a
deposited weld metal strength of up to 900MPa. This trait has
the negative impact of increasing the risk of HACC. Therefore
760
by moving to the lower strength consumable and maintaining
good welding practice to eliminate the sources of hydrogen in
the weld the probability of HACC will be reduced. This then
combines with the increased toughness to provide a better
joint to resist service fatigue loads. A similar test program to
that currently being undertaken to expand the knowledge of
the mechanical properties, stress corrosion cracking
susceptibility, corrosion fatigue and fracture toughness of
weldments of E120 consumables would have to be undertaken
for E110 and or E100 consumables. Any shift to lower
strength consumables must be supported by comprehensive
knowledge of all issues affecting the hull performance. In
particular mechanical properties across the full thickness range
and welding positions must be determined. due to known
variation with thickness.
Conclusion
The research plan and the strategies presented in this paper are
major steps in maximizing the knowledge of the factors
influencing the integrity of the welds of submarine pressure
hull structures. They are unique in that major components of
the work scope include testing on real structures. It is hoped
that the completion of the projects will facilitate more accurate
assessment of the implications of defects on survivability of
plate butt and T butt joints for any structure involving the
combination of high strength steel and high levels of high
restraint. The research plan will also presents a way of
addressing the consequences of the worldwide shortage of
skilled welders while maintaining safe structures. However it
must be understood that this is not just the responsibility of the
welding engineer. A significant part of the responsibility also
rests with the structural designer for the goals to be achieved.
Acknowledgments
The Author would like to thank Prof V. M Linton of the Uni.
Of Adelaide for her assistance in developing the residual stress
project, Dr L Davidson of DSTO for assistance with the stress
corrosion, fracture mechanics project and Dr Z Sterjovski for
assistance with the HACC project. In particular the author
would like to thank J. Kelly of ASC Pty Ltd for helping put
the whole program together.
References
1. N. Bailey et al., Welding Steels Without Hydrogen
Cracking, Abington Publishing, 1993.
ISBN1855730146.
2. S.V. Pearce, V.M. Linton, G.W. Sloan, The
Measurement of Residual Stresses in Highly
Restrained Butt Welds, Proceeding of the 7th
International Conference on Welding Research 2005.
3. Guide on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of
Flaws in Metallic Structures BS 7910 1999.
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

A Microstructural Study of Liquated Grain Boundaries in Heat Affected Zone of Welded Inconel
738LC Superalloy.

O. A. Ojo, N. L. Richards and M. C. Chaturvedi

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. R3T 5V6

Keywords: Nickel-based Superalloys, Welding, Constitutional liquation, HAZ cracking.

Abstract material’s intrinsic resistance to cracking. It has been

In this study, the microstructures of the base metal
and heat affected zone (HAZ) of tungsten inert gas
welded IN 738LC were examined by the use of
standard metallographic techniques involving optical,
analytical scanning and transmission electron
microscopes equipped with energy dispersive
spectrometer and an electron probe microanalyser. It
was observed that liquation of grain boundary phases,
that were present in the pre-weld alloy, was
predominant in the HAZ regions and contributed
extensively to microfissuring during welding. In
particular, it was found that, apart from the effect of
rapid precipitation of γ’ particles on the HAZ
cracking as has been widely reported, constitutional
liquation of γ’ particles is a notable part of the
liquation phenomena. This influenced the mode of re-
solidification of intergranular liquid, which in effect
promoted susceptibility to microfissuring.
1. Introduction
Inconel 738LC is a γ’ (Ni3Al, Ti) precipitation
hardened nickel-based superalloy widely used in aero
and industrial gas turbine engines due to its excellent
high temperature strength and remarkable hot
corrosion resistance. The alloy, like other γ’
precipitation hardened superalloys that contain
substantial amount of Al and Ti (>6wt%), is very
difficult to weld due to its high susceptibility to heat
affected zone (HAZ) cracking both during welding
and post weld heat treatment (PWHT). Weld
cracking in this alloy has been attributed mostly to
the effects of rapid precipitation of γ’on shrinkage
stresses and inhomogeneous strain distribution during
weld cooling and PWHT. However, weld cracking
results from competition between mechanical driving
force for cracking (stress/strain generation) and the
found that liquation which could occur by different
mechanisms, is the primary cause of low HAZ crack
resistance in most austenitic alloys, including
precipitation hardened Ni base superalloys [1]. A
combination of thermally induced welding strain and
very low ductility in the alloy due to localized
melting at grain boundaries due to liquation of phases
present on them results in HAZ liquation cracking.
HAZ liquation is known to occur either by non-
equilibrium interface melting below an alloy’s
solidus or by equilibrium supersolidus melting.
Subsolidus HAZ liquation, which commonly occurs
by constitutional liquation of second phase particles,
is generally considered more detrimental to crack
resistance in that it extends the effective melting
range of an alloy. In addition, it also influences the
nature of supersolidus melting by pre-establishing
non-equilibrium film at a lower temperature which
alters the reaction kinetics during the subsequent
heating [1]. This phenomenon which was first
proposed by Pepe and Savage [2], and has been
observed by different investigators in various alloy
system [3-5], occurs by a eutectic-type reaction
between a second phase particle and the matrix
producing a non-equilibrium solute rich film at the
particle/matrix interface. It has been reported that
fully austenitic alloys that contain Nb and/or Ti can
be highly susceptible to HAZ liquation cracking due
to the formation of Nb and/or Ti rich low melting
intergranular liquids [6]. Nevertheless, limited
numbers of investigations have been reported about
the occurrence and nature of HAZ grain boundary
liquation in this alloy.
The present investigation, where results are discussed
in this communication, was aimed at studying grain
boundary liquation in the weld HAZ regions of
tungsten inert gas welded IN 738 superalloy in
relation to its susceptibility to microfissuring.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 761

 2. Experimental Procedures
The base alloy for this investigation was IN 738LC of
the following composition (wt %) 0.11C, 15.84Cr,
8.5Co, 2.48W, 1.88Mo, 0.92Nb, 0.07Fe, 3.46Al,
3.47Ti, 1.69Ta, 0.04Zr, 0.012B balance nickel. The
as-received material was given a pre-weld heat
treatment involving solution treatment at 1120oC for
2hrs air cool and subsequent overaging at 1025oC for
16hrs followed by water quenching. The heat
treatment referred to as UMT, was developed to
minimize weld cracking in IN 738 [7]. 7.6 X 2.5 X
0.3cm rectangular heat-treated plates on which 0.2cm
deep V-groove had been machined were gas tungsten
arc welded with IN 738 filler wire, using a current of
60 amp. D. C. and 10V. The welding torch and wire
speeds were maintained at 76mm/min and
304mm/min, respectively. The welded specimens
were sectioned transversely to the weld and were
polished using standard metallographic techniques.
Polished samples were etched electrolytically in 12ml
H3PO4 + 40ml HNO3 + 48ml H2SO4 solution at 6V
for 5s. The microstructure of heat treated base alloy
and the weld HAZ were examined and analyzed by
the use of optical microscope, JEOL 5900 scanning
electron microscope (SEM), JEOL 2000FX
transmission electron microscope (TEM), both
equipped with an ultra thin window EDAX energy
dispersive spectrometer (EDS). X-ray microanalysis
using theoretical Cliff – Lorime K factors and
selected area diffraction analysis were performed in
TEM on interdendritic constituent extracted on
carbon extraction replicas and on thin foils prepared
from the fusion zone centerline. Extraction replicas
were prepared through standard technique with a
solution of 10ml HCL and 1g of tartaric acid in 90ml
of methanol at 3V.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1 Microstructure of pre-weld heat-treated alloy
and weld HAZ regions.
The microstructure of the as-cast IN 738 alloy was
cored dendritic, with interdendritic regions enriched
in Nb, Ti, Ta, Mo and Zr due to microsegregation
that occurred during ingot solidification. Extensive
precipitation ~ 40% of ordered L12- type γ’
intermetallic particles, occurred within the dendritic
and interdendritic regions. Several secondary
solidification constituents in the form of MC type
carbides, and γ-γ’ eutectic that formed during ingot
solidification were also observed within the
interdendritic regions (fig. 1). The MC carbides of
different shapes, including blocky and Chinese-script
like morphology were observed. Electron diffraction
analysis of the particles extracted on carbon
extraction replica confirmed them to be of cubic
(FCC) crystal structure with a lattice parameter of
762
4.37Å. Figure 2 shows a TEM micrograph of a
carbide particle and selected area diffraction pattern
(SADP) of the particle at a [001] zone axis. A
different eutectic-type microconstituent was observed
in front of some of the γ-γ’ eutectic (fig. 1). It
consisted of M3B2 boride, Ni-Zr and Ni-Ti based
intermetallic compounds, which are believed to be
the product of terminal solidification reaction during
the investment casting of the alloy and has been
observed to be responsible for the incipient melting
of the as-cast alloy at 1155oC [8]. TEM examination
of particles extracted on carbon extraction replicas
showed that the M3B2 particles formed in
dendritically shaped morphology suggesting that they
formed by a solidification reaction (fig. 3). Analysis
of SADPs from these particles (inset in fig. 3)
showed them to be based on M3B2 phase with a
tetragonal crystal structure and lattice parameters of
a= 5.71Å and c= 3.05Å. M3B2 boride was also
detected in heat-treated IN 738 alloy by X-ray
diffraction analysis [9]. The present work indicated
that the particles were
MC-type
γ’-γ Eutectic Carbide
Eutectic-type
microconstituent
Figure 1: SEM micrograph of as-cast alloy showing
γ’-γ Eutectic
secondary solidification constituents.
311
220
111
500nm
Figure 2: TEM image of MC type carbides extracted
on carbon extraction replica with SADP from [112 ]
Zone axis.
 be liquation cracking in the HAZ of this alloy. This
suggests that during the liquation stage, while the
liquated phase is still liquid, the HAZ microfissuring
generally occurs by decohesion across one of the
solid-liquid interfaces when on-cooling welding
tensile stresses exceed the local strength at such an
interface.

3.2 Liquation of phases contributing to HAZ

microfissuring.
02 1 220 The metallurgical basis for HAZ microfissuring in
fully austenitic iron and nickel base alloys has been
201
recognized to involve the presence and persistence of
low melting liquid phase on HAZ grain boundaries
2 00nm

Figure 3: TEM micrograph and SADP from Cr-Mo

Boride particles extracted on carbon taken at [ 112 ]
Zone axis.

actually present in the as-cast alloy as a solidification

product, which is consistent with observations in
other boron containing nickel base superalloys [10].
The solution heat treatment at 1120oC for 2 hrs
resulted in a partial dissolution of primary γ’
precipitates. The microstructure after this heat Figure 4: SEM micrograph showing γ’ precipitates in
treatment consisted of fairly regular and coarse overaged pre-weld IN 738 alloy.
cuboidal, 0.6 - 0.8μm size, primary γ’ particles in the
interdendritic region and a fine (~ 0.1μm) spheroidal
dispersion of secondary γ’ particles, predominantly in Fusion Zone
the dendrite core as well as within the interdendritic
region. The secondary γ’ form during cooling from HAZ
the solution treatment temperature. On overaging at
1025oC for 16hrs both the primary and secondary γ’
increased in size producing a microstructure
consisting of γ’ precipitates, whose size was in the Intergranular
range 0.5μm - 1μm (fig. 4). The terminal cracking
solidification product ahead of γ-γ’ eutectic observed
in the as-cast alloy was found to consist mainly of
M3B2 boride after the solution and overaging heat
Figure 5: SEM micrograph of a welded sample
treatments. There was no evidence of the presence of
showing HAZ cracking.
either Ni-Zr or Ni-Ti intermetallic compounds in any
of the heat-treated specimens. The alloy retained its
serrated grain boundaries after the heat treatments
[11].
As shown in fig. 5, microcracks were observed in Re-solidified
HAZs around welds made after the overaged heat microconstituent
treatment. The microstructural examination of HAZs
showed that microcracks originated mainly in the
HAZ region slightly removed from the fusion
boundary, and in some cases they extended as much
as 300µm into the base material and partly into the
fusion zone. The cracks were intergranular and
displayed a relatively irregular and zigzag
morphology that is typical of liquation cracks. Re-
solidified microconstituents were observed along the
crack paths (fig. 6). The re-solidification constituents,
which formed mostly on one side of the Figure 6: HAZ liquated and cracked grain boundary.
microfissures, suggest the origin of microfissuring to

763
during welding cycle. Inability of the intergranular
liquid to accommodate thermal and shrinkage
stresses and mechanical constraint during cooling
often lead to microfissuring. Several mechanisms
have been proposed to explain HAZ grain boundary
liquation. The most widely accepted being the grain
MC carbide particles
Figure 7: HAZ liquation cracking associated with
MC carbide particles.
boundary penetration mechanism, wherein liquid film
from liquating particles like carbides, sulphide,
boride etc, infiltrate and spread along the grain
boundary regions. In the absence of liquating species
on the grain boundaries, HAZ grain boundary liquid
penetration requires the simultaneous occurrence of
constitutional liquation of intragranular liquating
species and grain boundary migration to the liquating
particles. The penetration of the boundary by the
liquid at the particle-matrix interface either pins the
boundary or significantly slows its rate of migration
and allows uniform wetting of the boundary by the
liquid.
In the present work, apart from super-solidus melting
which is expected to occur in all weldments due to
heating above the equilibrium solidus temperature,
constitutional liquation of MC-type carbides present
in the pre-weld alloy, were observed to be
contributing to the liquation phenomena and, thus,
affecting the HAZ microfissuring (fig. 7). Boron rich
particles were sometimes observed as part of
resolidified product along some liquated grain
boundaries. Besides, an intriguing detection in the
present investigation was that, apart from the effect
of rapid precipitation of γ’ particles on the HAZ
cracking as has been widely reported, γ’ precipitate
particles constitutionally liquated and contributed
significantly to the HAZ cracking (figs. 6, 7, 8 & 9).
The main reported contribution of γ’ phase to weld
cracking in superalloys has been through its effect of
rapid re-precipitation kinetics on shrinkage stress and
strain concentration on grain boundary regions.
Nevertheless, it has been found that an increase in
concentration of Al and Ti (the main γ’ forming
elements) in Ni base superalloys lowers the solidus
764
and the liquidus temperatures [12]. Limited
integrated time available for homogenization by the
diffusion process during rapid heating of welding can
cause γ’ precipitate particles to survive well above
their solvus to temperatures above γ-γ’ eutectic
reaction temperature of the alloy, which depends on
the initial particle size and heating rate. Eutectic
reaction between such incompletely dissolved
particle and the solute rich γ matrix surrounding such
particles can result in constitutional liquation and
subsequent penetration of the liquid along the grain
boundary. Constitutional liquation of both
intergranular and intragranular γ’ precipitates were
observed in the HAZ of the present alloy. The extent
of γ’ liquation increased with decreasing distance
Liquid film
migration
zone
Liquid film
migration
zone
Figure 8: Intergranular liquid film migration (LFM)
in the weld HAZ.
from the fusion line. That is, with increased
temperature in the region.
3.3 Influence of liquation of γ’ precipitates on
mode of re-solidification of intergranular liquid
film.
Liquation of γ’ particles is regarded as being
significant due to its considerable contribution to
intergranular liquid film thickness which would
reduce the stress required to cause cracking by
decohesion of solid-liquid interface. Also, its
occurrence at sub-solidus temperatures could increase
the effective melting temperature range of the alloy,
that is the width of crack susceptible region, which is
known to be harmful to liquation cracking resistance.
It has, however, been recognized through many
studies on liquation cracking that the mere
occurrence of liquation is not sufficient to determine
the occurrence and extent of cracking. To incur
cracking, continuous or semi continuous grain
boundary liquid should persist until a time when
sufficient thermal and mechanical restraints have
developed during cooling. Rapid elimination of grain
boundary liquid prior to the existence of sufficient
level of tensile stresses would improve the alloy’s

Liquid film
migration
zone
Figure 9: SEM micrograpgh of liquid film migration
region showing contribution from liquated
intragranular γ’ particles.
resistance to liquation cracking. There are 3 main
mechanisms through which intergranular liquid film
could be relieved of its excess solute concentration,
and thus solidify during welding thermal cycle. These
are, (i) solute back-diffusion into the adjacent solid
grain matrix, (ii) rapid solidification through liquid
film migration (LFM) and (iii) by normal
solidification involving solute partitioning. Exclusive
solidification via solute back-diffusion is likely to be
extremely limited in HAZ of cast IN 738 weldment
due to two reasons.
(1) Solute rich interdendritic zones due to
microsegregation in the pre-weld alloy,
which could reduce solute concentration
gradient expected to drive such diffusion
process.
(2) Limited surface area available for diffusion
flux due to the large grain size of the alloy.
LFM is a fundamental mechanism by which a
metastable grain boundary liquid film can be
effectively removed through rapid solidification,
thereby promoting resistance to liquation cracking.
This solidification mode, which is controlled by a
high diffusion rate in the liquid, is an alternative to
lattice diffusion controlled and the normal dendritic
solidification types, which as such has been reported
to be beneficial to HAZ liquation cracking resistance
[14]. There are two major driving forces that have
been reported to be responsible for LFM. They are (i)
diffusional coherency strain energy, which requires
sufficient size difference between the diffusing solute
in a metastable liquid and the matrix atoms in order
to develop substantial coherency strains resulting
from lattice mismatch [13-15], and (ii) asymmetry of
surface tension at the two solid-liquid interfaces. The
latter requires the occurrence of appreciable curvature
at grain interfaces in order to set up a substantial
concentration gradient within the liquid needed for
solute diffusive flux during LFM [13,15,16]. Nakkalil
et al [13] have shown that occurrence of LFM is
765
enhanced in wrought Incoloy 903 alloy with smaller
grains as compared to that observed in coarser grains.
Intuitively, therefore, occurrence of LFM in a large
grain cast IN 738 alloy may be expected to be less
favoured. Microstructural examination in this work
has revealed an extensive occurrence of LFM in IN
738 alloy (figs. 8 & 9). This could be attributable to
(i) substantial atomic size mismatch between the γ’
forming elements and the γ matrix atoms, and (ii)
significant local grain boundary curvature exhibited
by its well rounded/ curved serrated grain boundaries.
In addition, the inherent concentration gradient in
liquid film produced by constitutional liquation of γ’
particles [2] could also assist in driving the LFM
process. Nonetheless, even though LFM occurred
extensively in the alloy, it is still susceptible to
liquation cracking.
Richards et al. [17] have suggested that the benefit of
LFM in precluding HAZ microfissuring will be
effective provided the thickness of intergranular
liquid film is such that complete solidification of
grain boundary liquid occurred via LFM before
enough thermal and mechanical restraints could be
developed on weld cooling to induce cracking. This
suggestion is supported by the results of numerical
modeling of the LFM process by Barker et al [18].
They showed that the time required for a liquid film
of initial thickness δ(o) to completely solidify by LFM
process is given by t = δ(o)/2kvo, where k is the
partition coefficient of the solute and vo is the initial
migration velocity given by vo = DL(∆C)o/(CL,T –
CS,T)δ(o). DL is the solute diffusivity in the liquid
phase, (∆C)o is the concentration difference across
the liquid film at the start of the migration process,
CL,T and CS,T are the equilibrium solute concentrations
in the liquid and solid phases respectively, at the
solidifying interface. It is apparent from these two
expressions that an increase in film thickness will
cause (1) reduction in the initial liquid film migration
velocity and (2) increase in the time required to
complete the migration needed to remove all the
liquid film. This time delay could be very significant
during welding, where the time spent at welding
temperatures is very limited. This model was based
on the assumption that coherency is maintained in the
shrinking grain while the growing grain is strain-free
during migration. It has been found that the
coherency strain energy is a function of thickness of
the migrated region [19]. At a critical thickness, the
coherency strain energy becomes greater than the
energy required to create dislocations in the matrix.
This could lead to loss of coherency in the shrinking
grain and, of course, in the reduction of driving force
for LFM. Such a reduction in driving force has been
reported to result in immobility of boundary film
[18]. Consequently, a thick liquid film will not only
increase the time required for complete elimination of
the liquid via LFM, it could also lead to a significant
decrease in the driving force for the process.
Moreover, Brechet et al [20] have made an important
comment on LFM process, which is applicable to
discrete liquating precipitates, as were present in the
present work. They stated that a complete elimination
of a grain boundary liquid film would only occur
under a non-steady state liquid film migration process
in which no external source of solute is available. In a
steady state condition where an appropriate solute
source and solute transport path are provided to the
grain boundary liquid film, a complete elimination of
the liquid film by LFM might not be achievable. As
can be seen in figs 8 & 9, the LFM process within the
HAZ region of IN 738 approached a steady state
migration process due to the presence of a steady
source of atoms and solute transport path from the
liquated intragranular γ’ particles into the grain
boundary liquid layer, which in effect could not
preclude liquation cracking. Therefore, the
considerably high volume fraction of γ’ present in the
pre-weld alloy, which is capable of liquating and
contributing to the intergranular liquid volume
affected the resistance of the alloy to liquation
cracking through its influence on the effectiveness of
the LFM process in completely eliminating the liquid
film before the onset of cracking under welding
stresses during cooling.
4. Summary and Conclusions
1. Extensive grain boundary liquation was
observed in the HAZ regions of IN 738
superalloy welded in overaged heat-treated
condition. HAZ microfissuring was
observed to be closely associated with
liquated grain boundaries.
2. The liquation process involved
constitutional liquation of solidification
constituent including MC-type carbides. In
addition to the secondary solidification
constituent, constitutional liquation of γ’
precipitate particles was found to be
contributing significantly to the HAZ grain
boundary liquation.
3. Grain boundary liquid film migration was
observed in the weld HAZ which could be
attributed to the substantial atomic size
mismatch between γ’ forming elements and
the γ matrix atoms, as well as to the
asymmetry of surface energy at the solid-
liquid interfaces due to significant local
grain boundary curvature.
4. Constitutional liquation of γ’ particles in the
alloy contributed to its susceptibility to HAZ
cracking by limiting the effectiveness of
LFM in achieving rapid complete re-
solidification of intergranular liquid film.
766
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the consortium of
Manitoba aerospace industries and NSERC for the
financial support. One of the authors (OAO) also
acknowledges gratefully the award of Graduate
Fellowship from NSERC and the University of
Manitoba.
References
1. Owczarski, W. A., Duvall, D. S. and Sullivan, C.
P., Weld. Jour., 45, 145-s (1966).
2. Pepe, J. J. and Savage, W. F., Welding Journal,
46, 411-s (1967).
3. Romig Jr. A. D., Lippold, J. C. and Cieslak, M. J.,
Metall. Trans., 19A, 35 (1988).
4. Reiso, O., Rynum, N. and Strid, J., Metall. Trans.,
24A, 2629 (1993).
5. Radhakrishnan, B. and Thompson, R. G., Metall.
Trans., 22A, 887 (1991).
6. Ernst, S. C., Baeslack III, W. A. and Lippold, J.
C., Weld. Jour., 68, 418-s (1989).
7. Thakur, A., Richards, N. L., Chaturvedi, M. C.,
Inter. Journal of Joining of Materials, 15, p. 21
(2003)
8. Ojo, O. A., Richards, N. L. and Chaturvedi, M.
C., Jour. of Mate. Sci. 39, 7401 (2004).
9. Hoffelner, W., Kny E. Stickler, R. and McCall,
W. J., Z. Werktofftech, 10, 84 (1979).
10. Ouichou, L., Lavaud, F. and Lesoult, G.,
Superalloys 1980, American Society for Metals,
Metals Park, OH USA, 1980, p. 235.
11. Koul, A. K. and Thamburaj, R., Metall. Trans.,
16A, 17 (1985).
12. Lecomte-Beckers, J., Metall. Trans. A, 19A,
2333 (1991).
13. Nakkalil, R., Richards, N. L. and Chaturvedi, M.
C., Acta Metall. Mater. 41, 3381 (1993).
14. Radhakrishnan, B and Thompson, R. G., Scripta
Metall. Mater. 24, 537 (1990).
15. Handwerker, C. A., Cahn, J. W., Yoon, D. N.
and Blendell, J. E., in Diffusion in Solids: Recent
Developments, T.M.S.-A.I.M.E. p. 275 (1986).
16. Kirkaldy, J. S., Acta Mater. 46, 5127 (1998).
17. Richards, N. L., Nakkalil, R. and Chaturvedi, M.
C., Metall. Mater. Tran. 25A, 1733 (1994).
18. Baker, S. W. and Purdy, G. R., Acta Mater. 46,
511 (1998).
19. Matthews, J. W., Misfit Dislocations: in
Dislocations in Solids, Vol. 2 ed. F. R. N.
Nabarro, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1979.
20. Brechet, Y. and Purdy, G. R., Scripta Metall. 22,
1629 (1988).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Auger Spectroscopy Results from Ductility Dip Cracks Opened
Under Ultra-High Vacuum
TE Capobianco and ME Hanson
Lockheed Martin, Schenectady, NY
Abstract
Ni Cr Fe Filler Metal 52 is susceptible to a form of
intergranular solid state cracking known as ductility dip
cracking (DDC). In Ni Cr Fe alloys, DDC cracking is
usually associated with a loss of tensile ductility in the
temperature range of 1500° F to 1700° F. While this tensile
ductility loss in austenitic materials has been identified in
the literature as early as 1912 (1), and many potential
mechanisms have been suggested, the metallurgical basis
for this phenomenon is poorly understood. The purpose of
the present study is to characterize the grain boundary
composition and microstructure of pristine ductility dip
cracks in Filler Metal 52 (FM 52). Specifically, this report
describes a technique to locate, prepare, and expose DDC
fracture surfaces in ultra-high vacuum (<5 x 10-10 torr).
These fracture surfaces were then characterized using Auger
Electron Spectroscopy (AES) and Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM). Using this methodology, two ductility
dip cracks were located in specimens extracted from a heavy
section multipass weld via x-ray computed tomography
(CT). Once the DDCs were located by CT, the specimens
were prepared for in-situ fracture in the vacuum chamber of
the Auger instrument. Note that the DDCs were entirely
contained within the specimens and were not exposed to the
atmosphere prior to the in-situ fracture. The crack faces
showed heavy coverage of chromium rich carbide particles
(Cr23C6) as well as titanium and sulfur enrichment. While
elevated grain boundary sulfur levels are well known to be
detrimental to grain boundary strength in nickel alloys, the
Auger analysis suggests that the high sulfur concentrations
observed on the DDC fracture surfaces may be the result of
segregation after the DDC formed. The post-fracture
segregation is likely driven by the high energy of the newly
created fracture surface and the thermal energy from
subsequent weld passes.
Introduction
FM 52 is the welding alloy for Ni Cr Fe Alloy 690. This
alloy is resistant to stress corrosion cracking but is
susceptible to a form of solid state cracking that occurs in
the temperature range of 1500° F to 1700° F. This
temperature range is typically produced in weld deposits as
subsequent beads are made during multipass welds.
Because this cracking is associated with a loss of tensile
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
ductility (% reduction in area) at these temperatures, it is
referred to as ductility dip cracking. A consequence of the
susceptibility of FM 52 to ductility dip cracking is that
DDC-resistant Filler Metal 82H is used in some welds
where the greater corrosion resistance of FM 52 is preferred.
As part of an effort to improve the DDC resistance of
FM 52, Lockheed Martin is conducting research on the
metallurgical basis for ductility dip cracking.
Weld simulation tests based on either the Varestraint or
Gleeble have been proposed to assess the sensitivity of
nickel base filler metals to DDC (2, 3). However, until now
there have been few, if any, studies of DDC fracture
surfaces extracted from actual multipass weld joints.
Specimen Preparation
Weld wire from a commercial heat of FM 52 was deposited
in a narrow groove test weld. A section of this weld was
cut from the weldment and small cylindrical specimens
(Auger pins) were machined from this section (Figure 1).
The pins were visually inspected for surface breaking
ductility dip cracks. Pins with surface breaking cracks were
chosen to develop a crack imaging technique using CT.
Welding direction
Figure 1: Weld section from which Auger pins were
machined (rows of small holes)
The surface breaking crack in the first pin chosen, specimen
A4, was successfully imaged and an indication of an
embedded DDC was also observed in the center of the pin
(Figure 2). Flaw location data determined from the CT scan
were used to set the position of a circumferential groove
machined into the pin (Figure 3).
767
 a

Section shown in (b)

Section shown in (c)

Dia. = 0.135 in.

b
Figure 4: Specimen in vacuum chamber before fracture.

c
Surface breaking crack

Embedded crack

Figure 2: CT images of DDC in specimen A4. Both surface

breaking and embedded cracks are visible in image (c).

Figure 5: Specimen in vacuum chamber after fracture.

Several distinct regions can be seen: (1) the DDC surface

approximately centered in the pin, (2) the deformation
(smearing) produced by the actuator that fractured the pin,
(3) the overload fracture surrounding the exposed DDC, and
(4) a raised section in the middle of the crack surface that
may have been scraped when the pin was sheared. A higher
magnification view of the DDC area is shown in Figure 7.

(3) Mechanical overload

damage in shear direction
Figure 3: Pin machining dimensions were based on the CT
scan. Axial location of groove was determined relative to (4) Possible damage to
surface-breaking crack. Groove diameter was based on the crack face during fracture
smallest dimension between the crack and the pin outside
diameter (Figure 2b) then subtracting 0.010 in.
(1) DDC area
The pin was cleaned, mounted in a holder, and inserted into
the vacuum space (Figure 4). The unbroken specimen was
left in the chamber under vacuum for 12 hours; the (2) Force applied here
circumferential groove was then sputtered with an Ar+-ion
beam (for additional cleaning) and fractured (Figure 5). Shear
Figure 6 shows a scanning electron micrograph of the end of direction
the fractured pin with the DDC fracture surface outlined.

Figure 6: SEM image of fractured pin with DDC surface

768

SEM
Figure 7: SEM image of vacuum-exposed DDC fracture
surface (outlined areas). The dendritic morphology of the
grain boundary is evident on the fracture surface.
Auger Spectroscopy
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) was performed on two
vacuum-exposed DDC surfaces (specimens A4 and A5).
Both crack surfaces showed extensive coverage of
chromium carbides (Cr23C6), sulfur, and titanium. At a
magnification of approximately 120x, the sulfur appears to
be a nearly continuous layer over the majority of the crack
face (Figure 8) with roughly corresponding titanium
coverage at lower concentrations (Figure 9). At higher
magnifications, secondary electron images of the crack
surfaces showed extensive coverage by small particles
(Figures 10 and 11). The chromium concentration map
aligns with these particles (Figure 12). Spectra collected
from these particles point to identification as Cr23C6
(e.g. area 1 in Figure 11). This is further reinforced by
analytical electron microscopy results which indicate that
Cr23C6 is the predominant carbide in FM 52 (4). The
images in Figures 6 to 12 were produced on specimen A4;
similar results were obtained on A5.
The sulfur maps out with other elements on the DDC
surfaces but none are known sulfide formers like manganese
or magnesium. This indicates that sulfur probably exists in
elemental form on the fracture surface. Additionally, areas
of high sulfur concentration are also associated with
elevated concentrations of titanium, but perfectly
coincidental mapping does not exist. A higher
magnification view of the sulfur map (Figure 12) shows that
sulfur coverage is not uniform at the sub-micron scale.
Areas of local high sulfur concentration are roughly
coincident with the 0.5 to 1 μm Cr23C6 particles seen in
Figure 12.
Caution needs to be exercised during the interpretation of
these results since the exact moment that sulfur appears on
the fracture surface is not yet known. It is quite possible
that sulfur may populate the DDC crack face after the crack
has formed (sulfur “bloom”). The free surfaces of the DDC
cracks are highly energetic since they have been formed
internally and have not been exposed to adsorbing species
769
like water, oxygen, or organics as in the case of air-exposed
surfaces.
S
Figure 8: Sulfur map of vacuum-exposed DDC in specimen
A4. The outlined areas in Figure 7 correspond to areas of
high sulfur concentration (bright areas in map).
Ti
Figure 9: Titanium map of vacuum-exposed DDC in
specimen A4.
Atomically pristine surfaces will adsorb impurities in order
to lower their energy. Facile diffusion of impurities is likely
in the range of temperatures between crack formation and
cool down. The combination of favorable diffusion
conditions and high-energy sites for the sulfur to populate
tends to support sulfur bloom as the mechanism underlying
the observed result.
Figure 11 shows three areas that were selected for Auger
spectral elemental analyses. All elements except He and H
are detectable in the Auger electron kinetic energy ranges
displayed for these areas. Empirical sensitivity factors
applied to peak-to-peak intensities of each element’s unique
Auger transition provide atomic concentrations within
approximately ±20% of the values reported in Table 1.
The Auger electron spectra (Figure 13) clearly show the
presence of sulfur and elevated levels of Ti both on and off
Cr23C6 particles. The only detectable metals were the major
alloying elements of Ni, Cr, and Fe. P was detected in
sample A4, but not in sample A5.
Auger depth profiles were collected on specimen A5 at the
points shown in Figure 14. The depth profiles are shown in
Figure 15. The depth profiling technique is defined by
alternating cycles of Ar+-ion sputtering to remove a thin Cr
layer (5 to 10Å) of material, and characterization of the 2
freshly exposed subsurface regions with Auger Electron
Spectroscopy. Sulfur located between the carbide particles
sputtered completely off during the first sputter cycle (10Å).
A small sulfur signal persisted deeper into the carbide
particle (point #1) and did not disappear entirely until a
depth of approximately 150Å (these depths are not shown in 3 1
Figure 15). The Ti enrichment was persistent in the
sub-surface regions for points 1 and 3 (Cr23C6 particle and
“Ti-rich” area) for the entire 125 Å, but the Ti enrichment is
extremely thin in point #2 (off-carbide).

S
2

3 1

Figure 12: Chromium and sulfur maps corresponding to

Figure 10: Area of DDC fracture in specimen A4 showing SEM image in Figure 11. Maps show a general association
Cr23C6 coverage as small particles. Smooth areas without between S and carbide particles.
apparent second phase particles (e.g. around void) were
also found to have chromium carbides. These carbides did
not have sufficient contrast to be visible in this image.

3 1

Figure 13: Auger spectra for areas 1, 2, and 3.

Figure 11: Higher magnification view of Cr23C6 coverage
showing areas used for spectral analysis. Table 1: Atomic concentration (%)

Specimen A5 was notable for small (5 to 10 μm) areas Area

outside of the main DDC surface that showed DDC-like 1 2 3
characteristics. These showed up initially as sulfur hot spots C 11.1 2.1 2.7
in the ductile overload region. Further investigation P 2.7 2.6 3.4
revealed voids with a DDC-like surface morphology, S 11.5 10.9 10.4
chromium carbides, high levels of sulfur, and titanium Ti 2.6 2.3 2.8
enrichment (Figure 16). This suggests that DDCs exhibit a Cr 35.5 20.4 19.2
range of sizes that spans at least two orders of magnitude. 4.7 6.6 7.0
Fe
Re-examination of specimen A4 revealed a similar area
Ni 32.0 55.1 54.6
which can be seen at the center-top of Figure 8.

770
 60

Atomic Concentration (%)

Point 1
SEM Context Cr Carbide + High S
50
Cr
40

30 C

20 Ni

10 S
SEM Ti
0 Fe

0 50 100
3 60

Atomic Concentration (%)

2 Point 2 Ni
1 50 No Carbide + High S

40
Cr Cr
30

20
3 S Fe
2 10
C
1
0
Ti
0 50 100
60
Atomic Concentration (%)

S Point 3
High Ti + High S
50
Ni

3 40
2
30 Cr
1
20
C Ti
Ti 10
S Fe
0
3 0 50 100
2 Depth (Angstroms)
1
Figure 15: Auger depth profile for points shown in
Figure 14.

Figure 14: SEM images and Auger maps of sample

A5 showing the analysis points used for depth profiles.

771

SEM
Cr
S contributing factor rather than a primary cause in the
Ti
Figure 16: SEM image (top) of sulfur hot spot outside of the
main fracture. Further investigation produced chromium
and titanium maps characteristic of the main DDC fracture
surface.
Conclusions
Lockheed Martin developed a technique to identify ductility
dip cracks embedded within weld metal specimens and open
these cracks in ultra-high vacuum. Using this technique, the
cracks are never exposed to atmospheric contamination
prior to characterization. This technique has provided a
unique view of the DDC fracture surface and enabled
chemical analysis of a pristine fracture surface using Auger
Electron Spectroscopy.
772
AES characterization of two DDC surfaces showed a
significant amount of chromium carbide particles in a region
of titanium enrichment overlaid with a thin (~ 10 angstrom)
layer of sulfur. Sulfur concentrations increased in the
vicinity of the carbides, but the sulfur distribution was not
characteristic of particles such as sulfides. While it is
recognized that sulfur segregates to grain boundaries in
Ni-base alloys, it appears that sulfur also has a loose
association with Cr23C6 at the grain boundary. The
thickness of the sulfur layer on the fracture surface is
indicative of a post-fracture bloom.
Small pockets of sulfur concentration away from the main
fracture surface also show high concentrations of Cr23C6 and
Ti enrichment suggesting that ductility dip cracks exhibit a
range of sizes that span at least two orders of magnitude.
If the detected sulfur is the result of post-fracture bloom, the
implication would be that sulfur is present in the near grain
boundary region in lower concentrations than is measured
on the fracture surface. This scenario suggests that while
sulfur embrittles grain boundaries, it may be more of a
ductility dip cracking process.
The presence of sulfur and Cr23C6 on UHV-exposed
ductility dip crack faces provides a possible explanation at
the atomic level for the cause of DDC in FM 52: (1) sulfur
is present in the near grain boundary region as the result of
solidification segregation and causes a loss of strength;
(2) local stresses build up at the grain boundary from
precipitation of Cr23C6 during cooling from the temperatures
produced during subsequent welding passes; (3) global
shrinkage stresses in the weld then provide the impetus for
grain boundary decohesion when the total stress exceeds the
grain to grain bonding strength or perhaps through grain
boundary sliding.
References
1. G. D. Bengough, “A Study of the Properties of
Alloys at High Temperatures,” Institute of Metals,
Vol. 7, 123-174 (1912).
2. J. M. Kikel, D. M. Parker, “Ductility Dip Cracking
Susceptibility of Filler Metal 52 and Alloy 690,”
Proceedings of the 5th International Trends in
Welding Research, pp. 757-762 (1998)
3. M. G. Collins, J. C. Lippold, “An Investigation of
Ductility Dip Cracking in Nickel-base Filler
Materials – Part 1,” Welding Journal, vol. 82, no.
10, pp. 288s-295s, Oct 2003
4. M. J. Cola, D. F. Teter, “Optical and Analytical
Electron Microscopy of Ductility Dip Cracking in
Ni-Base Filler Metal 52 – Initial Studies,”
Proceedings of the 5th International Trends in
Welding Research, pp. 781-786 (1998)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Welding of Single-Crystal Nickel-Based Superalloys:
How to Avoid Stray Grains and Why
J. M. Vitek, S. S. Babu, and S. A. David
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U. S. A.
Abstract
In order to repair nickel-based superalloy single crystals by
fusion welding and maintain the single crystal structure, the
formation of stray grains must be avoided. Modeling studies
were carried out to investigate the optimum welding
conditions to minimize stray grain formation. The modeling
work combined a thermal model for the weld pool shape with
a geometric model that identified the active dendritic growth
directions and a nucleation and growth model that quantified
the tendency to form new stray grains. It was found that low
power and high weld speed reduce the likelihood for stray
grain formation. These results are discussed and explained,
and experimental welds confirmed the predictions.
Introduction
Single-crystal nickel-based superalloys are used extensively in
both aero- and land-based turbine engines. The absence of
grain boundaries improves elevated temperature creep
properties, allowing the components to be used at higher
temperatures and stresses and thereby improving engine
performance and efficiency. Components made from single
crystals are quite expensive and the development of a suitable
repair technology that does not impair performance is a high
priority in turbine engine industries. Furthermore, in the case
of land-based turbine engines where the component scale is
considerably larger than in aero-turbines, the costs are
correspondingly larger and the yield from castings is
significantly lower. In these components, repair of defective
castings is desirable to improve casting yield and to control
component costs.
One potential repair technology is fusion welding. While
crack-free welds can be made currently, weld repairs that do
not compromise properties compared to the original
component are not presently achievable. One major problem is
that during the welding of single crystals, new grains are often
formed that destroy the unique and desirable single crystal
microstructure. These spurious, undesirable grains are known
as stray grains. Earlier work has shown that they can be
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
avoided in model alloys [1-3] but nickel-based superalloys are
particularly vulnerable to their formation [4-10]. Furthermore,
in addition to the loss of the single crystal structure, the high-
angle grain boundaries around stray grains are weak links in
the microstructure and act as propagation sites for weld
cracking [5,6]. Hence, avoiding stray grain formation is
critical.
Much work has been done to investigate the nature of grain
growth in welds and the conditions that influence the
formation of stray grains [11-13]. During weld solidification,
epitaxial growth prevails and the dendrite growth direction is
aligned as closely as possible to the maximum thermal
gradient. In polycrystalline materials, this leads to a grain
selection process in which the best aligned grains dominate.
For single crystals, such flexibility in the choice of growth
directions is not available. Instead, growth is limited to one of
the six <100> preferred growth directions, and these are fixed
by the crystallographic orientation of the single crystal base
metal. Since the direction of maximum thermal gradient
changes along the weld pool solidification front, different
dendrite growth directions will be preferred in different
sections of the weld. When dendrite growth conditions are not
optimal, and alignment between the dendrite growth direction
and the thermal gradient is poor, new stray grains may
nucleate and grow. Stray grain formation has many similarities
with the columnar-to-equiaxed (CET) transition in castings
and welds [11,13,14], and as described later, the same theories
that quantify the CET can be used to describe stray grain
formation tendencies in weldments.
The aim of this paper is to present results from a recent
modeling study [15] in which the influence of welding
conditions on stray grain formation was assessed. These
results will provide valuable guidance in identifying the
optimum weld conditions to avoid stray grains. Some new
experimental results will also be presented, which validate the
conclusions based on modeling calculations.
773
 General Features of Stray Grain Formation
Extensive work was done on model Fe-15Cr-15Ni single
crystals to evaluate the nature of the microstructure of single
crystal welds [1-3]. This work led to the development of a
geometric model for dendritic growth [1,2] that is described in
the next section. In the model alloys, stray grain formation
was completely avoided, and the resultant weld was a perfect
single crystal. A typical microstructure is shown in Figure 1. It
is clear that even though the weld fusion zone is a perfect
single crystal, with the same crystallographic orientation as the
base metal, there are very clear distinct zones in the fusion
zone. These represent regions with different dendritic growth
directions. Each dendritic growth direction represents one
variant of the six possible <100> orientations in the base
metal. As the crystallographic orientation of the base metal
changes, the size and shape of the zones will also change. In
addition, since the weld pool shape depends on the power and
weld speed, the characteristics of the dendritic growth zones
will also vary with weld conditions. The size and shape of the
zones can be predicted with the use of a geometric model for
dendritic growth and a model to describe the weld pool shape
[1,2,16].
In the case of nickel-based superalloy single crystals, the weld
microstructure is somewhat different than that found for the
model Fe-15Cr-15Ni alloy. A typical microstructure of laser
welded Rene N5 is shown in Figure 2. In Figures 2a (top
view) and 2b (transverse view) it is readily observed that the
perfect single crystal nature is not present in the weld. While
some zones of dendritic growth comparable to the zones in
Figure 1 can be seen, there is also extensive stray grain
formation. These stray grains have orientations different from
the base metal and therefore the single crystal nature of the
base metal is lost in the weld. If the base metal orientation is
Figure 1: Autogenously welded Fe-15Cr-15Ni single crystal
showing perfect single crystal microstructure in fusion zone
and no stray grains.
774
symmetric about the weld centerline, then the microstructural
features in the weld are generally symmetric as well (e.g.,
extent of stray grains, location of stray grains, dendritic
growth zones with single crystal orientation). In the case of the
weld shown in Figure 2, the base metal orientation was not
symmetric about the centerline and the features are therefore
not symmetrically distributed as well. Figure 2c shows an
SEM micrograph using orientation imaging microscopy to
reveal the stray grains. It can be seen that the distribution and
density of stray grains is asymmetric with respect to the weld
centerline. Finally, cracking was often observed in welds on
nickel-based single-crystal superalloys [4-6,17]. These cracks
were aligned along the high angle boundaries of the stray
grains. Once again, if the base metal orientation was not
symmetric about the weld centerline, then the crack
distribution was also not symmetric, as seen in Figure 2c.
Models for, and Mechanisms of, Stray Grain
Formation
Epitaxial solidification from a single crystal base material is
governed by the condition that growth takes place along one
of the preferred dendrite growth directions [18-22]. For nickel-
based superalloys with an FCC structure, the preferred growth
directions are the six <100> crystallographic directions. The
selected growth direction at any location among the six
possible directions is the one that is best aligned with the local
maximum thermal gradient, which is perpendicular to the
solidification growth front. In welding, the solidification front
r
normal ( n ) and thermal gradient vary continuously around the
weld pool, and therefore, different <100> variants will be best
aligned with the growth direction at different locations on the
solidification front. A geometrical model was developed by
Rappaz et al [1,2] to describe the active dendrite growth
direction as a function of solidification front orientation. In
addition to the changing dendrite growth direction, the
dendrite growth velocity varies, depending upon the
solidification front orientation relative to the welding direction
r
and the degree of alignment between n and the active
dendrite growth direction. The variation in growth velocity
was also analyzed in the earlier work [1,2].
The geometric dendrite growth model must be combined with
a thermal model that describes the weld pool shape and also
the variation in the thermal gradient as a function of position
on the weld solidification front. While complex thermal
models have been developed over the last two decades, a
simple Rosenthal model [23] was used in this study. The main
advantage of the simple solution was that its inherent
symmetry allowed for an analysis over the entire weld pool for
a range of orientations and weld conditions without requiring
extensive computational times. Details of the analysis are
provided elsewhere [15].
Finally, the geometric model and thermal models must be
combined with a model that describes the extent of stray grain

a used to evaluate stray grain formation as a function welding
100 µm
b modeling work to identify the extent of stray grain formation
100 µm
c stray grains. The variable Φ is given by the following relation:
750 µm
Figure 2: Typical microstructures of laser-welded Rene N5
(power 804 W, speed 12.7 mm/s) showing asymmetric stray
grain formation and cracking on right side. (a) surface view;
(b) transverse view (arrows show a few stray grains); (c) SEM
surface view showing high-angle grain boundaries (>10°) as
imaged by electron back scatter pattern analysis.
775
formation as a function of local thermal conditions and can be
conditions. Two mechanisms for stray grain formation have
been proposed. One model, dendrite fragmentation, is based
on the idea that growing dendrites may break off and act as
nuclei for new grains during subsequent solidification [24].
The other model is based on the concept of constitutional
supercooling [25,26], in which solute rejection ahead of the
growing dendrite may create an undercooled liquid and
nucleation of new grains may take place in this undercooled
zone. Recent work has applied this concept to stray grain
formation in castings and welds [11,13,14]. Earlier work on
laser welded Rene N5 nickel-based single crystals indicated
that the experimentally observed characteristics of stray grain
formation during welding fit the predictions of the
constitutional supercooling mechanism far better than the
dendrite fragmentation mechanism [7,10]. Therefore, the
constitutional supercooling mechanism was used in the current
as a function of welding conditions, position in the weld pool,
and local solidification conditions (dendrite growth velocity
and thermal gradient).
Several studies have attempted to quantify the extent of
constitutional supercooling as a function of the thermal
gradient, G, and dendrite growth velocity, V [11,13,14]. In this
work, the model of Gäumann and co-workers was used [13].
The extent of constitutional supercooling is given by the
variable Φ, which represents the area fraction of growth by
3
− 4π N 0⎛ 1 ⎞
Φ = 1− e S where S= ⎜ ⎟ (1)
3 ⎜ (n + 1)(G n / aV)1 / n ⎟
⎝ ⎠
In the above equation, N0 is the nucleation density, and a and
n are constants. The same values for N0, a, and n that were
used by Gäumann et al [13] were used in this study since the
alloys were similar. Details are provided elsewhere [15].
When values for the constants are substituted, the expression
for S becomes:
3 / 3.4
⎛ V ⎞
S = −2.56 x1019 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (2)
⎝ G 3.4 ⎠
While a value of Φ < 1 indicates some extent of epitaxial
growth, in practice, a value of <0.5 is needed to retain some
degree of epitaxial growth and avoid an equiaxed
microstructure.
The geometric and thermal models were used to define the
active dendrite growth direction and velocity, and the local
thermal gradient, as a function of position on the weld
solidification front. This information was then used to
calculate the value of Φ at each location. In addition to
isolated values of Φ at fixed locations on the solidification
front, an area-averaged value over the entire solidification
front, Φ , was also determined. These calculations were carried
out for a wide range of welding conditions (power and weld
speed) and initial base metal orientation [15]. a
Modeling Results – How to Avoid Stray Grains
Calculation results are shown graphically in Figure 3 for the
same welding conditions but different crystallographic
orientations. In Figure 3a, the weld is made along a
crystallographically symmetric direction ([100] direction on
the (001) plane) while in Figure 3b the orientation is not
symmetric and corresponds to the experimental conditions in
Figure 2 (weld along [-0.141, 0.217, -0.966] on the (-0.925,
-0.376, 0.051) plane). The individual points in the figure
correspond to specific locations on the weld solidification
front where the variable Φ was calculated. A value of Φ = 0
(no stray grains) corresponds to a light color while a value of
Φ = 1 (all stray grains) corresponds to a black color. It can be b
seen in Figure 3a that a symmetrically oriented sample yields
a symmetric distribution of stray grain probability.
Furthermore, the tendency to form stray grains increases as
one moves from the fusion line to the weld centerline. For the
asymmetric orientation in Figure 3b, an asymmetric tendency
to form stray grains is found, in agreement with the
experimental results in Figure 2. For the asymmetric case
(Figure 3b), the highest values of Φ are on the left side not far
from the weld centerline, and they are significantly higher
than on the right side. Furthermore, the maximum value of Φ
is higher than anywhere in the symmetric case (Figure 3a).
The overall area-weighted averages for Φ, Φ , were also
calculated and they were 0.23 for both orientations in Figure
3. The base metal orientation had a strong influence on the Figure 3: Calculated weld pool shape showing extent of stray
local stray grain formation tendencies, as seen in Figure 3, but grain formation as a function of position in weld. Light gray
it had a negligible impact on the overall area-averaged stray represents no stray grains and black indicates complete stray
grain formation, Φ . Results for additional orientations may be grain formation. (Not drawn to scale).
found elsewhere [15].

The influence of welding conditions on the stray grain

formation tendencies was also examined. Figure 4 shows a
plot of Φ as a function of the welding speed and weld power
for one given base metal orientation. Contour lines for
constant values of Φ are plotted. The results show that
increasing power is undesirable in that it leads to an increase
in stray grain fraction while an increase in weld velocity has
the opposite effect. Thus, according to Figure 4, low power
and high speed are preferred to avoid, or at least minimize,
stray grain formation.

Figure 4: Calculated area fraction of stray grains averaged

Experimental Verification of Predictions
According to the model calculations, low power and high
speed are preferred for minimizing the formation of stray
grains. A series of autogenous electron beam welds were made
on Rene N5 to assess this prediction. The weld conditions
were adjusted while maintaining the overall condition of 3D
cooling conditions that were used in the calculations. A fixed
over the entire weld pool as a function of weld conditions
(power and speed). 0 indicates no stray grains and 1 indicates
100% stray grains.
crystallographic orientation, similar to that in Figure 2, was
used in all of the welds. The results are shown in Figure 5.
While the range of experimental conditions was not
comprehensive, the predicted behavior was confirmed in the

776
 experimental welds. Higher speeds led to fewer stray grains
and less associated cracking while higher powers promoted
stray grain formation and led to more severe cracking.

Discussion
Why Stray Grains Form – Interpreting the Model Results
300 µm The model calculations are based on the constitutional
supercooling mechanism for stray grain formation and the
results of the calculations indicate that high weld speeds and
low weld powers will minimize stray grain formation. At first
glance, this may seem to be in contradiction to the traditional
criterion for avoiding constitutional supercooling under plane
growth conditions [25,26], which is ΔT/D < G/V where ΔT is
the solidification temperature range (fixed for a given alloy
composition), D is the diffusion coefficient, G is the thermal
gradient and V is the growth velocity. According to this
condition, low growth velocity is desirable. The same
preference for low solidification velocity can be seen in
equations (1) and (2) although the exact dependence on V (and
G) is somewhat different because these equations apply to
non-planar, dendritic growth. This apparent discrepancy is
readily resolved by also considering the influence of
increasing weld speed on the thermal gradient. The Rosenthal
100 µm solution shows that increasing the weld speed at constant
power increases the thermal gradient as well. Thus, while the
effect of increased weld speed, by itself, is undesirable, the
associated increase in thermal gradient more than compensates
for the increase in V. Note in Equation 2 that S is much more
sensitive to G than to V. The prediction that low power is
desirable is a direct consequence of the higher gradients
associated with low weld powers.
100 µm
The effect of weld orientation on the overall tendency to form
stray grains, Φ , was found to be negligible [15]. However, if
one were to expand the model to include consideration of
thermal stresses on cracking [27], base metal orientation may
play a more significant role. Orientation will influence where
along the entire solidification front the stray grain formation
tendencies will be minimized and where they will be
maximized. Thus, it is possible that even though the overall
stray grain formation factor, Φ , is the same, high local values
of Φ where stresses are lowest will lead to less cracking while
high local values of Φ where stresses are high will enhance the
tendency to produce weld cracks. Therefore, the distribution
of Φ may be important and this is a strong function of base
20 µm metal orientation (see Figure 3).

Figure 5: Series of transverse micrographs of autogenous Compositional Effects

welds on Rene N5 made at two different power levels (1125
and 2250 W) and two different speeds (0.85 and 4.2 cm/s).
Top two micrographs are low speed, high power weld and
bottom two are high speed, low power weld.
The traditional constitutional supercooling criterion for planar
growth conditions (ΔT/D < G/V) indicates that a small
solidification temperature range will also tend to reduce the
extent of constitutional supercooling. While the exact same
criterion is not expected to apply for dendritic solidification
conditions, similar general tendencies are expected to prevail.
Earlier work has shown that a qualitative correlation between

777
stray grain formation tendencies and alloy composition can be
made [7,10]. Thus, one additional means for reducing the
extent of stray grain formation can be to reduce the
solidification temperature range, ΔT.
Summary
An integrated thermal model, geometric dendritic growth
model, and stray grain nucleation and growth model was used
to determine optimum weld processing conditions to minimize
stray grain formation. It was found that low power and high
speed are the preferred operating conditions. It was also found
that weld orientation does not have an appreciable effect on
the overall, area-weighted average for stray grain formation
tendencies but orientation does influence the local variation in
probability of stray grain formation. The calculated results
were confirmed with autogenous experimental welds.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the Division of Materials
Sciences and Engineering (modeling studies) and the
Advanced Turbine Systems Program, Office of Fossil Energy
(experimental work), U. S. Department of Energy, under
contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC. The
authors would like to thank General Electric Corporation for
providing the Rene N5 alloy.
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779
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
The Effects of Processing Parameters on the Microstructural Evolution and
Mechanical Properties of Inertia Friction Welded 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn
J. D. Puskar1, J. R. Michael2, B. P. Somerday1, D. K. Balch1, J. A. Brooks1 and C. H. Cadden1
1
Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, CA, USA
2
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Abstract
Tubular specimens of the nitrogen-strengthened alloy 21Cr-
6Ni-9Mn were instrumented with thermocouples and inertia
welded using a wide range of axial forces and kinetic energies.
It was determined that a linear relationship exists between
upset and kinetic energy for a given axial force. Furthermore,
the peak temperatures are inversely related to the applied axial
force. Microstructural characterization was performed using
optical and electron microscopy techniques. Ferrite was
observed locally at the weld interface, and it was determined
that the width of the ferrite zone could vary widely depending
on the process parameters. Electron backscattered diffraction
analysis revealed that the ferrite and austenite at the weld
interface exhibit the Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation
relationship, and suggests that a very large amount of ferrite is
present during the welding process that subsequently
transforms to austenite during cooling. The fracture toughness
of inertia welds thermally charged in gaseous hydrogen was
also measured. It was found that the hydrogen-assisted
fracture susceptibility of the inertia welds was greater than that
of the base metal, but less than that of 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn gas
tungsten arc welds.
Introduction
Inertia friction welding is a solid-state welding process that
has been employed successfully for many applications in the
automotive, aerospace, and defense industries. It is considered
that inertia friction welding has many potential process
benefits such as a conceptually simple set of process control
variables, no material melting and hence an elimination of
solidification-related defects, and the ability to join dissimilar
materials [1]. However, the thermo-mechanical processing
conditions that can occur during inertia welding give rise to
unique microstructures that are not observed in fusion welding
processes [2].
Interest in hydrogen storage and handling applications has
prompted research into the appropriateness of alternative
joining technologies such as inertia welding. However, for
hydrogen applications, microstructural compatibility issues
take on greater than usual importance [3]. For example, the
presence of ferrite in austenitic stainless steels has been shown
to have an effect on fracture after exposure to hydrogen gas
[4,5]. This paper focuses on the response of the nitrogen-
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
strengthened austenitic stainless steel 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn
(Nitronic® 40) to inertia welding. Experimental parameters
and material responses were collected, e.g. rpm, axial force,
upset and thermal profiles, during the welding process. A
wide range of processing parameters expected to be
representative of those used to fabricate various components
was studied. Ultimately, the hydrogen-assisted fracture
resistance of inertia welds was measured using fracture
mechanics methods. It should be noted that due to a variety of
application specific requirements, a significant portion of this
research focuses on upsets (defined as the difference between
the pre- and post-weld axial lengths of the parts) that would be
considered very low by conventional industrial standards [6].
Experimental Details
Inertia Welding
Round bars from two different heats of electro-slag remelted
21Cr-6Ni-9Mn stainless steel were used to fabricate tubular
inertia weld specimens, see Table 1. Heat #1 had a starting
diameter of 76.2 mm and was used in the annealed condition
with a 0.2% yield strength of 355 MPa and a tensile strength
of 680 MPa (51 and 99 ksi). It had been processed by the
manufacturer so that there was no detectable residual ferrite in
the starting microstructure, <0.5% using a Severn Ferrite
Indicator and no observable stringers in light optical
microscopy. Bars from Heat #2 with a starting diameter of
63.5mm were forged to a final diameter of 80 mm using a
two-stage forging process designed to align flow lines parallel
to the axis of the resulting cylindrical forging. The forgings
had yield and tensile strengths of 635 and 1110 MPa (92 and
161 ksi). Heat #2 did have ferrite stringers that were retained
after forging and were observable with light microscopy, with
an estimated volume fraction of ~0.5%. From these two
materials, tubular inertia weld specimens were machined with
an outer diameter of 61 mm and a wall thickness of 6.2mm.
Inertia welds were fabricated with an MTI Model 180 inertia
friction welder using a wide range of parameters. Flywheels
ranged from 0.87 to 4.2 kg-m2 (21 to 100 lb-ft2), axial forces
from 70 to 340 kN (15.7 to 76.4 kip) and rotational speeds
from 1570 to 6920 rpm. Thermal profiles were recorded using
K-type thermocouples with each lead individually spot welded
to the exterior of the stationary part at various distances (0.25
to 2.5 mm, 0.010 to 0.10”) from the interface. Temperature
data was collected electronically at 100 Hz. Inertia weld
781
microstructures were characterized using optical and electron
microscopy techniques.
Table 1. Compositions of the 21-6-9 materials used in this
study, in weight percent. Heat #1 was used in the annealed
condition and Heat #2 in the as-forged condition.
Cr Ni Mn N Si S P C Fe
1 19.9 6.6 8.9 0.27 0.43 0.0004 0.019 0.038 Bal.
2 19.6 6.7 9.3 0.27 0.64 0.0012 0.013 0.035 Bal.
Hydrogen-Assisted Fracture Testing
Fracture toughness tests were limited to base metal and inertia
weld samples fabricated from the forgings (Heat #2). Tests
were conducted on 3-point bend (3PB) specimens and
generally followed ASTM standard E1737-96 [7]. The forged
base metal was tested using specimens of two different sizes.
Hydrogen-charged specimens had dimensions similar to those
used to test the inertia welds (width and thickness of 5.7 mm),
while uncharged specimens had larger dimensions, i.e., both
width and thickness equaled 12.7 mm. Both sizes of 3PB
specimens were removed from a single forging with the long
dimension of the specimens parallel to the cylinder axis. For
inertia weld testing, rectangular blanks with a nominal 5.7 mm
square cross section were removed from the walls of the
welded tubular specimens. After polishing and etching,
precrack starter notches along the radial direction of the welds
were precisely located in the bond region using 0.1 mm
diameter electrodischarge machining (EDM) wire.
Sidegrooves, which reduced thicknesses by 20 – 25%, were
machined into all 3PB specimens prior to precracking.
All 3PB specimens were fatigue precracked in air to final
crack length-to-width ratios of about 0.52 under a final
maximum stress-intensity factor between 23 and 33 MPa√m.
The roller span of the 3PB fixture was 57 mm for all
experiments. Fracture mechanics tests were conducted in air
on both uncharged and hydrogen-charged specimens at a
constant actuator displacement rate of 0.2 mm/min; the time to
reach fracture initiation was between 4.5 and 11.5 min for the
hydrogen-charged specimens. Thermal hydrogen charging
occurred in 138 MPa hydrogen gas at 300oC for 28 days,
conditions intended to produce a nearly uniform hydrogen
concentration across the 3PB specimen thickness. The total
hydrogen concentration was measured as 280 wppm. Crack
propagation was monitored using the direct-current potential
difference technique.
Results
Inertia Welding
Inertia welds were fabricated from annealed material (Heat
#1) across a range of welding parameters resulting in upsets
from 0.25 mm to over 16 mm. As expected, higher axial
forces produced greater upsets for a given kinetic energy, Fig.
782
1. The measured upset values were determined to be linearly
related to the initial kinetic energy for a given axial force. For
a constant axial force, obtaining a specific amount of kinetic
energy by using a large flywheel spinning slowly or a small
flywheel spinning rapidly did not produce significant
differences in the resulting upset values. Only minor
differences in upset were observed in the forged specimens
(Heat #2) when compared to the annealed specimens for a
given set of parameters.
18
340 ±
16 5 kN
14 260 ±
5 kN
12
Upset (mm)
200 ±
10 5 kN
8 140 ±
5 kN
6
70 ±
4 5 kN
2
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Kinetic Energy (kJ)
Figure 1: Plot of the measured upset as a function of the
initial kinetic energy for inertia welds. For a constant axial
force, the upset was found to be linearly related to the initial
kinetic energy of the system.
Temperature measurements showed rapid thermal cycles that
varied with the processing parameters. Figure 2 shows
thermal cycles measured with thermocouples that were spot
welded to the outside of the stationary cylinder at a distance of
0.25 mm (0.010”) from the initial weld interface. These
measurements demonstrate that for a nominal upset, the
thermal profiles were dependent on the processing parameters.
It is also observed that the thermal cycles were repeatable for a
given set of processing parameters. The measured data did not
readily show a relationship between the amount of upset and
either the peak temperature or duration of the thermal cycles.
However, a relationship was found to exist between the
applied axial force and the measured peak temperature, Fig. 3.
In this figure, it can be seen that the measured peak
temperatures generally decreased with increasing axial force.
It should be noted that the thermocouples were not found to be
incorporated into the high strain region at the inertia weld
interface, but rather remained attached to the exterior of the
stationary cylinders, although they would be incorporated into
the material that formed the flash. Thus, the line that has been
drawn in Fig. 3 is thought to represent an upper bound of the
peak temperatures.
 1400 behavior are shown for the forged 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn (Heat #2) in
71 kN Figure 4. It can be seen that the higher axial force weld (a),
1200
126 kJ
135 kN 195 kN (referred to as IW1), has an inertia weld affected
0.51 mm
62 kJ region approximately 150 μm in width while the lower axial
0.76 mm force weld (b), 70 kN (referred to as IW2), has a weld-affected
1000
width of 600 μm. The annealed bar stock (Heat #1) showed a
Temperature ( C)

similar inverse relationship between the width of the bond line

800
o

and the applied axial force, however, the overall widths were
observed to be much less. This appeared to be due to the lack
600 of ferrite stringers in the starting annealed material.

400
195 kN
42 kJ
200 0.74, 0.79 mm

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Figure 2: Thermal cycles measured with thermocouples that
were attached 0.25 mm from the weld interface for four
different welds with upsets of approximately 0.65±0.14 mm.
Figure 4: Optical micrographs of forged material (Heat #2)
The thermocouple on the 71kN weld failed during cooling; the
inertia welds. The weld region consists of mixture of fine
dashed line is a typical extrapolation to guide the eye.
grains of austenite (light) and ferrite (dark). The width of the
weld affected region varied with processing parameters: (a) a
1350 higher axial force (195 kN) produced an weld affected region
T max 0.50 mm from Interface ( C)

~150 microns in width; (b) a lower axial force (70 kN)

1300
o

produced a region ~ 600 microns in width.

1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
0 100
Axial Force (kN)
Figure 3: Peak temperatures measured by thermocouples
initially located 0.5 mm from the weld interface, as a function
of the axial force. An upper bound line is drawn to
demonstrate the inverse relationship.
The microstructures of the inertia welded region consisted of a
mixture of ferrite and austenite, Fig. 4. These optical images
show the ferrite as the dark etched regions while the austenite
appears light. The austenite grains at the weld region are
much finer than the base metal, with typical grain sizes of 1 to
10 microns. The overall width of this region was found to be
dependent on the processing parameters. For welds fabricated
with less than ~4 mm (~0.160”) of upset, higher axial forces
produced narrow inertia weld affected regions while lower
axial forces produced wider regions. Two examples of this
For all of the welds fabricated in this study, the inertia weld
region consisted of refined austenite grains with ferrite located
at the austenite grain boundaries as shown in Figs. 5 (a) and
(b). The austenite grain size was observed to be parameter
dependent with lower axial force welds producing larger
grains and higher axial forces producing finer austenite grains.
In Heat #2, with ferrite stringers, in addition to the ferrite
located at the austenite grain boundaries, ferrite believed to be
related to the original stringers in the material was observed to
200 300 400 be concentrated in the inertia weld affected region.
Hydrogen-Assisted Fracture
Figure 6 summarizes results from fracture toughness testing of
inertia welds and the associated base metal, providing average
J-integral fracture initiation toughness values (bars) as well as
results from individual tests (circles). Many of the 3PB
experiments did not strictly meet the specimen size criteria for
valid JIc measurements, so the initiation toughness values in
Fig. 6 are referred to as Jc for the uncharged condition and JcH
for the hydrogen-charged condition. Included in Fig. 6 are data
for 21-6-9 gas-tungsten arc (GTA) welds that were tested
under conditions similar to those for the inertia welds [5].
Observation of crack profiles from polished and etched 3PB
specimens showed that cracks propagated in the inertia weld
bond region.

783
 800
21-6-9 uncharged (Jc)
700 25oC
H2 charged (JcH)
600

500

J (kJ/m )
2
400

300

200

100

0
IW IW 1 IW 2 GTAW
base metal

Figure 6. Fracture initiation toughness data for uncharged

and hydrogen-charged conditions of inertia weld base metal,
two inertia welds (IW1 and IW2 in Fig. 4), and a GTA weld.

Figure 5: EBSD images of ferrite located in the weld interface

regions. Both samples fabricated at 42 kJ and 195 kN: (a) (a)
Heat #1 weld (no detectable stringers) shows ferrite only
concentrated along the weld interface; (b) Heat #2 weld (with
ferrite stringers) shows ferrite concentrated along the weld
interface as well as deformed stringers (marked by arrows).

Figure 6 shows that average values of fracture initiation

toughness for the uncharged conditions are consistently higher
compared to the hydrogen-charged conditions. In addition, the
base metal has higher fracture initiation toughness than the
welds for both the uncharged and hydrogen-charged
conditions. Finally, the hydrogen-charged inertia welds have
higher toughness than the hydrogen-charged GTA weld.
Figure 7 compares SEM images from fracture surfaces of the
uncharged and hydrogen-charged conditions of IW 1. Figure
7(a) shows that fracture for the uncharged inertia weld
progresses by microvoid coalescence. Figure 7(b) shows that
hydrogen has a pronounced effect on the fracture mode. The (b)
fracture surface in Figure 7(b) exhibits uniformly distributed,
fine-scale features that resemble facets. Fracture surfaces from Figure 7. SEM images of fracture surfaces from IW 1 in: (a)
the uncharged and hydrogen-charged conditions of IW 2 are uncharged and (b) hydrogen-charged conditions.
similar to those for IW 1.

784
 Discussion
Inertia Welding
For a given starting kinetic energy, higher forces produced
greater upsets, Figure 1. As the applied axial force is
controlled to a constant value throughout the weld, one would
not expect plastic deformation to occur until the applied stress
exceeds the elevated temperature yield stress of the material.
If more axial force is applied at a given energy, then less
kinetic energy needs to be converted to heat before the
material begins to flow, leaving more energy for metal
deformation. For a given axial force, the amount of upset was
found to be linearly proportional to the starting kinetic energy,
but how the kinetic energy was obtained did not appear to
have a significant impact on the resulting upset. These results
suggest that there are many different sets of parameters that
could be chosen to provide a desired amount of upset, limited
only by the availability of different mass flywheels.
Overall, the measured thermal cycles were found to be very
repeatable for a given set of processing parameters, Figure 2.
The thermal cycles were affected by the processing
parameters, but there was no relationship observed between
the thermal cycles and amount of upset. It was observed that
the length of the thermal cycle was inversely related to the
applied axial load for a given kinetic energy. The measured
peak temperature was found to decrease with increasing axial
force during the weld, Figure 3. This is consistent with the
aforementioned temperature dependence of yield stress.
These results further suggest that if a specific peak
temperature is desired, this would be controlled by the applied
axial force. Then, using the process map previously
generated, Figure 1, it would be possible to determine the
necessary kinetic energy to produce a desired amount of upset.
Examination of the microstructures revealed a strong
dependence on the processing parameters. Wide weld affected
zones were observed in lower force welds while narrow zones
were observed in higher force welds. This is consistent with
the thermal profile observations, e.g., for a low force weld, the
peak temperatures are higher and the thermal cycles are
longer, allowing for a greater heat affected zone. Thus, more
time is available for the formation of ferrite in the inertia weld
affected zone. The origin of this ferrite appears to be a
combination of ferrite formed in the high shear zone at the
inertia weld interface and ferrite from preexisting stringers in
the base metal, Figure 5. In both heats of material, an
austenite refined grain region with ferrite at the grain
boundaries is observed. As this occurred in material initially
free of ferrite stringers, the ferrite most likely formed by a
solid-state phase transformation in the area having the highest
shear strains and rates. These results are similar to those
previously seen in austenitic stainless steel inertia welds,
where it was determined that the ferrite was due to both solid-
state phase transformations and fragmentation of the parent
material ferrite [8].
785
Further analysis of the electron back scattered diffraction data
obtained from the high shear region of the inertia welds
revealed that ferrite located at different austenite grain
boundaries often exhibited a similar orientation to other
nearby regions of ferrite. Figure 8 shows two maps of the
crystallographic orientations of the austenite (a) and ferrite (b)
grains for a single area of the weld. Two boxes have been
indicated on the maps that demonstrate the orientations of the
ferrite and austenite; in each box, regions of ferrite located at
the austenite grain boundaries have the same crystallographic
orientation. However, the austenite grains associated with
these ferrite grains have many different orientations. Analysis
of the orientations of the austenite grains and ferrite grains has
determined that in many cases, a region of ferrite containing a
single crystallographic orientation has a Kurdjumov-Sachs
orientation relationship [9] with many of the surrounding
austenite grains. The most likely explanation for these
orientations are that at the end of the inertia welding process
when the samples are still hot and in the two phase austenite-
ferrite region, there are relatively large grains of ferrite. On
cooling, grains of austenite nucleate from the ferrite with one
of the 24 possible variants of the Kurdjumov-Sachs
orientation, but due to the rapid thermal cycles, there is
insufficient time for either grain growth of the austenite grains
or for the transformation to go to completion.
Hydrogen-Assisted Fracture
The fracture toughness experiments convincingly revealed
trends in fracture behavior for inertia welds. The fracture
resistance of inertia welds was lower than the associated base
metal for both the uncharged and hydrogen-charged
conditions. While fracture in all of the uncharged conditions
progressed by microvoid coalescence, dimples on inertia weld
fracture surfaces (Figure 7(a)) were smaller than those on the
base metal fracture surfaces. Small dimples typically result
from closely spaced voids that grow limited amounts prior to
coalescence. This process requires relatively small amounts of
plastic strain, which leads to lower fracture resistance [10].
The feature that nucleated closely spaced voids in the
microstructures of inertia welds was not identified.
Considering the hydrogen-charged conditions, fracture surface
facets were observed for the inertia welds (Figure 7(b)). The
fracture mechanism leading to fracture surface facets was not
conclusively determined. However, the similar size scales of
the facets and the 1 μm grains observed near inertia weld
interfaces suggests that hydrogen may promote either γ/γ
or δ/γ interface separation. Finally, Figure 6 shows that GTA
welds are more susceptible to hydrogen-assisted fracture than
inertia welds. Crack propagation in the GTA weld fusion zone
was localized along the dendritic structure. The uniform
alignment of microstructural features, e.g., δ-ferrite,
vulnerable to hydrogen-assisted fracture likely contributed to
lower fracture initiation values in GTA welds compared to
inertia welds [5].

25 μm
Figure 8: Electron back scattered diffraction images of the
region of high shear in an inertia weld showing the
orientation of austenite (a) and ferrite (b). The areas marked
with boxes show regions of ferrite that appear to be
disconnected but share the same crystallographic orientation
while the austenite grains have many different orientations.
Summary and Conclusions
Inertia welds were successfully fabricated on both annealed
and forged 21Cr-6Ni-9Mn using a wide range of parameters.
For a given axial force, it was determined that the upset was
linearly related to the amount of kinetic energy used to
fabricate the inertia weld. The measured thermal cycles were
found to be most strongly dependent on the applied axial loads
with higher axial loads producing shorter thermal cycles at
lower peak temperatures, for a given kinetic energy.
The microstructures of the weld region were found to contain
a mixture of fine grained ferrite and austenite. For welds
fabricated with ferrite-containing base metal, the ferrite in the
interface was observed to be due to a combination of ferrite
stringers being sheared at the interface and a solid-state phase
transformation in the region of high shear. Welds fabricated
with ferrite-free base metal only had ferrite located in the
786
region of high shear due to a solid-state phase transformation.
The ferrite observed at the weld interface was found to have a
Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation relationship with the austenite
grains indicating that a solid-state phase transformation had
occurred to produce the observed austenite-ferrite
microstructure.
The fracture resistance of inertia welds was lower than the
base metal, both in the uncharged and hydrogen-charged
conditions, but was superior in the hydrogen-charged case to
gas tungsten arc welds of the same material. Inertia friction
welding may therefore be suitable for fabrication of
components for use in hydrogen environments.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Sam McFadden, Alice
Kilgo, and Andy Gardea for assistance with mechanical
testing and characterization. Sandia is a multiprogram
laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed
Martin Company, for the United States Department of
Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration under
contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.
References
1. S. Tsang, Friction Welding, pp 315-317, in ASM Handbook,
Vol. 6, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering, ASM International,
Materials Park, OH (1993)
2. J.C. Lippold and B.C. Odegard, Microstructural Evolution
During Inertia Friction Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels,
Welding J., pp 35s-38s (1984)
3. A.W. Thompson and I.M. Bernstein, Selection of Structural
Materials for Hydrogen Pipelines and Storage Vessels, Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy, 2, pp 163-173 (1977)
4. J.A. Brooks, A.J. West, and A.W. Thompson, Effect of
Weld Composition and Microstructure on Hydrogen Assisted
Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels, Metall. Trans. A, 14A,
pp 75-84 (1983)
5. B.P. Somerday, D.K. Balch, P. Novak, and P. Sofronis,
Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Assisted Fracture in Austenitic
Stainless Steel Welds, Proceedings of 11th International
Conference on Fracture, in press (2005)
6. D. Kuruzar, Manufacturing Technology, Inc., private
communication (2003)
7. Standard Test Method for J-integral Characterization of
Fracture Toughness, pp 968-991, in Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Vol. 03.01, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA
(1997)
8. J.C. Lippold and B.C. Odegard, Microstructural
Characteristics of Austenitic Stainless Steel Inertia Friction
Welds, pp 237-244, in Advances in Welding Science and
Technology, ASM International, Metals Park, OH (1986)
9. G. Kurdjumov and G. Sachs, Z. Phys., 64, pp 325-343
(1930)
10. W.M. Garrison and N.R. Moody, Ductile Fracture, J.
Phys. Chem. Solids, 48, pp 1035-1074 (1987)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Effect of Penetration-Enhancing Compounds on the Weld Metal Microstructure

of Super Duplex Stainless Steels
N. Ames
EWI, Columbus, Ohio, USA

J. Lippold
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

M. Johnson
Los Alamos National Labs, Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA

Abstract
Previous research has developed and optimized penetration
enhanced gas tungsten arc weld (PE-GTAW) procedures for a
wide range of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Recent work
conducted on SAF 2507 super duplex stainless steel revealed that
the EWI SS-7 penetration enhancing compound (PEC) yielded
some unexpected results with respect to the weld metal A B
microstructure and properties. Upon further investigation, it was
found that PE-GTAW produced a weld metal grain size
commensurate with that of the base metal and that grain growth
during subsequent welding passes appeared to be suppressed. It
was later observed that in addition to promoting and retaining fine
grain size, the use of PECs reduced the loss of alloying elements
due to vaporization from the weld pool. In particular, retention of
nitrogen was improved.
C D
During this investigation, commecially available penetration
enhancing compounds (EWI SS-7) along with individual oxide
Figure 1: A. Penetration profile of conventional GTAW B.
constituents contained in SS-7 and other PEC formulations were
Micrographic image of conventional GTAW microstructure C.
evaluated. Each (oxide based) constituent was introduced into
Penetration profile of PE-GTAW D. Micrographic image of PE-
autogenous welds on SAF 2507 using GTAW parameters similar
GTAW microstructure
to those typically utilized for super duplex welding. The resultant
welds were characterized to determine the effect of oxide
Upon review of the available publications and historical research,
composition on the penetration, as-welded grain size, and
the following observations can be made:
ferrite/austenite balance. Similarly, the composition of each weld
metal was analyzed and compared to that of the base metal. These
• When the PE-GTAW process is utilized for welding of
weld/heat affected zone combinations were then thermally cycled
austenitic and super austenitic materials, there is little to no
in a Gleeble to simulate postweld heat treatment and multipass
observable impact on the weld metal microstructure.
welding.
• PE-GTAW has a pronounced effect on duplex and super
The results of this program demonstrate that oxide composition duplex stainless microstructures; a finer prior ferrite grain
has a significant effect on the as-welded and post-weld heat size and larger volume fraction of austenite are measrued.
treated microstructures and as-welded weld bead morphology in • Base metal composition, including nitrogen content, remain
super duplex stainless steel. virtually unchanged following welding with the PE-GTAW
process.
• Super duplex stainless steels welded in conjuntion with
Introduction PEC’s exhibit improvements in both mechanical and
corrosion properties.
The effects of the commercially available PEC’s on super
• The use of commerically available oxide based PEC’s for
duplex stainless steel have been well quantified and
super duplex stainless steel yields the smallest observable
documented1,2,3,4. The two most notable effects, increased
prior ferrite grain size when compared to welds produced
penetration and improved austenite/ferrite balance, are provided
without the use of PECs or PECs with high proportions of
for comparison purposes in Figure 1.
flouride components.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 787

The relationship between oxide content and microstructure
evolution in super duplex stainless steel has not been reported in
the published literature. The use of PECs for welding of various
grades of duplex stainless steel grades offers a competitive
advantage over that of conventional GTAW welding. When
welding super duplex stainless steel with a specific phase balance
requirement, the use of PEC’s have been demonstrated to
improve both penetration and ability to achieve the desired
microstructure. Additionally, industrial use of PEC’s has clearly
identified considerable cost savings because of the reduced cycle
time and the fact that the smaller prior ferrite grain size and
austenite/ferrite balance occurs over a wide range of heat inputs,
thus increasing the weldability window for super duplex alloys.
Commercial PEC’s were developed primarily to enhance
penetration in austenitice stainless steel. The economic benefits
of using PEC’s for super duplex stainless steel welding are
considerable. The primary objective of this study is to provide
further charcterization of how various oxides penetration
improvements, grain size, ferrite content, high temperature
stability and solute distribution between the austenite and ferrite
phases so that future optimization of PEC’s can be effectively
achieved.
Experimental Procedure
Extensive characterization of welds produced using the
commercially available PEC along with a number of selected
oxide components were evaluated using macro- and microscopic
metallographic analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
qualitative and quantative electron dispersion spectroscopy
(EDS). The objectives of this experimental program were to;
illustrate the effects of various heat treatment temperatures on the
base material, compare the effects of oxide type on penetration,
grain size, ferrite content, high temperature microstructural
stability and solute partitioning.
A single heat of SAF 2507 super duplex stainless steel, hereafter
referred to as ‘2507’ was used throught this study. The material
was procured as 4-in (101-mm) wide by 0.25-in (6.35-mm) thick
strip. Full quantitative chemical analysis was completed on the
2507 material (and all oxide conditions). This analysis was used
to construct a phase diagram for the material evaluated in this
program, see Figure 2.
Figure 2: Phase Diagram for SAF 2507 material used in this
program
788
The as received material was then cut into 0.125-in (3.1-mm) by
0.50-in (12.7-mm) strips for evaluation using a Gleeble
thermomechanical simulator.
The as-welded Gleeble specimens were heated at a rate of
approximately 100°C per second, held at temperature (1100° or
1275°C or 1350°C) for 60 seconds, and cooled at an average rate
of 40°C per second to 300°C where they were then allowed to
free cool to room temperature. These peak temperatures
corresponded with three specific locations on the phase diagram
in Figure 2, namely maximum ferrite (1350°C) stability,
maximum austenite stability (1100°C) and equally stable
austenite and ferrite (1275°C). Following the Gleeble thermal
simulation, each specimen was sectioned and evaluated
micrographically. The microstructural progression of 2507 for the
various temperature profiles is shown in Figure 3.
As Received 1100°C 1275°C 1350°C
Figure 3: Microstructural Progression of SAF 2507 Following
1100°C, 1275°C and 1350°C Heat Treatments
Following evaluation of the base material, a 96 specimen test
matrix was completed. This matrix consisted of eight oxide
addition conditions each with seven subsequent test conditions
ranging from depth to width ratio, grain size and ferrite content,
1100°C post weld heat treatment (PWHT), 1275°C PWHT,
1350°C PWHT. Each point in the matrix was completed in
duplicate.
The eight oxide addition conditions consisted of an autogenous
baseline condition, and seven oxides (TiO, TiO2, Ti2O3, Cr2O3,
NiO, SiO2, Mn15Si26). Reagent grade oxides were exclusively
used in this experiment. All conditions were produced using the
same weld parameters; 165 amps, 9.5 volts, 3 ipm (76 mm/min),
with 100% argon shielding and backing gas, 3/32-in (2.4-mm)
thoriated electrode with a 45° tip. The oxides were added to weld
metal through surface additions prior to welding. This was
accomplished by taking 10- to 20-µm oxide powders and mixing
them into a slurry with scientific grade acetone. This slurry was
then painted on to the surface of the 2507 plates. The arc was
then initiated and traversed through the oxide layer.
One specimen from each oxide condition was sectioned at
multiple locations along the length of the weld. These were then
evaluated in terms of depth to width ratio. The depth was
measured as the distance from the top (arc side of the plate) to the
bottom of the fusion zone. Four examples of the penetration
profiles are provided in Figure 4.
 D/W = 0.21 D/W = 0.97
36% Ferrite 76% Ferrite

No Oxide TiO
NiO Mn15Si26
D/W = 0.40 D/W = 0.54
58% Ferrite 54% Ferrite

Ti2O3 TiO2
TiO2 SiO2
Figure 4: Representative Macro-graphic images showing the Figure 6: Representative Macro-graphic images showing the
effects of four representative oxide conditions on depth to width effects of four representative oxide conditions on ferrite content
ratio
As Welded 1100°C 1275°C 1350°C
Similar to the depth to width ratio analysis, grain size and ferrite
content was measured using optical metallographic techniques.
Similar to Figure 4, Figures 5 and 6 illustrate the wide variation in
grain size and ferrite content resulting from the addition of
selected oxides to the GTA welding process.

GS = 460 µm GS = 514 µm
Figure 7: Microstructural Progression of Cr2O3 oxide condition,
shown in the As Welded, 1100°C, 1275°C and 1350°C Heat
Treatments

No Oxide Mn15Si26 As Welded 1100°C 1275°C

GS = 50 µm GS = 186 µm

Ti2O3 Cr2O3
Figure 8: Microstructural Progression of Mn15Si26 oxide
Figure 5: Representative Macro-graphic images showing the condition, shown in the As Welded, 1100°C, and 1275°C Heat
effects of four representative oxide conditions on prior ferrite Treatments (the 1350°C condition melted)
grain size (GS)
As Welded 1100°C 1275°C 1350°C
Following evaluation of microstructure in the as-welded
conditions, oxide condition was subjected to the three post-weld
heat treatments cycles. These were evaluated using optical
microscopy for ferrite content and microstructural morphology,
three representative examples of this analysis are provided in
Figures 7, 8, and 9.

Lastly, the 1100°C heat treatment cycle and the as-welded

condition were evaluated (for each oxide condition) for
compositional partitioning. Figure 9: Microstructural Progression of TiO oxide condition,
shown in the As Welded, 1100°C, 1275°C and 1350°C Heat
Treatments

789
 Results and Discussion final weld metal compositions. This strongly supports the
previously published works that stated a correlation between the
As shown in Figure 10, D/W ratio, grain size and ferrite content weld metal oxygen content and weld penetration profile5,6,7,8.
were all dramatically affected by the oxide type. The relationship
among oxide composition, penetration, and microstructure can be Similar relationships were found for prior ferrite grain size and
clearly related by considering weld metal composition as-welded percent ferrite. The graphical representation of these
are provided in Figures 12 and 13. The relationship between final
weld metal titanium content and prior ferrite grain size is not fully
1.4
D/W Ratio
90 understood at this time. This work suggests that there is a
Grain Size
80 threshold titanium concentration that is required to effectively
1.2 Percent Ferrite
control grain size. Based on the current investigation a possible
70
role of titanium on microstructure evolution is described below.
Grain Size (mm) & D/W Ratio

1
60

Percent Ferrite
0.8 50 600

0.6 40
500
30
0.4
400

Grain Size ( mm)

20

0.2 300
10

0 0 200
No Oxide TiO TiO2 Ti2O3 Cr2O3 NiO SiO2 Mn15Si26

Figure 10: Graphical representation of measured D/W ratio, 100

Grain Size and Percent Ferrite for each oxide condition
0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Titanium (w t %)
When depth to width ratio was compared to each element
observed in the final weld metal it was found that oxygen content
Figure 12: Plot of Titanium content versus Grain Size
was in some way affecting or affected by D/W ratio. This is
relationship is shown graphically in Figure 11.
There appears to be a relationship between titanium content and
grain size. While this relationship is undeniably visible (in Figure
The oxygen content versus depth to width ratio was translated
12), it is not believed that the titanium itself controlling grain size.
into the following equation through a simple regression analysis
Rather, it is theorized that titanium combines with oxygen to form
of Figure 11.
small inclusions that work to either pin the grain boundaries or
nucleate ferrite grains. This coupled with the fact that the
1.4 titanium based oxide welds typically yielded a higher nitrogen
and oxygen content begins to suggest that there may exist a
1.2
complex interaction behind the percent ferrite relationship.
1
D/W Ratio

0.8
90
0.6 80
70
Ferrite Content (%F)

0.4
60
0.2 50
D/W Ratio = 0.4868Ln(Ox %) + 2.7088
R2 = 0.9458 40
0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 30
Oxygen (w t %) 20
10
% Ferrite = -551.63*Ox + 69.494
Figure 11: Plot of Oxygen content versus D/W ratio 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
D / W = 0.4868 ln(%O) + 2.7088 Oxygen (wt %)

Equation 1: Mathematical Prediction of D/W with respect to weld

Figure 13: Plot of Oxygen content versus Percent Ferrite
metal oxygen content
The relationship between minor weld metal composition varables
This equation predicts the depth to width ratio with various
and predicted ferrite was investigated using the ferrite number
oxygen contents within an R2 value of 95%. This was the
predictor (ORFN) created by Vitek et al9. The composition from
strongest correlation of all the evaluted effects with any of the
each of the welds was utilized to provide a comparison of

790
predicted ferrite and measured ferrite (as-welded only). The
results of this exercise are provided in Figure 14. The ORFN
calculates ferrite number (FN), for this program all ferrite
contents were analyzed in terms of percent ferrite (%F). When
necessary the conversion from FN to %F and vise versa was
completed using the Equation 2 below9.
10
5 1350 C
ORFN Variance
0
-5
-10
-15
No oxide TiO TiO2 Ti2O3 Cr2O3 NiO
No
TiO TiO2 Ti2O3 Cr2O3
oxide
ORFN Variance 1 3 1 -8 -6
Figure 14: Comparison of measured and predicted ferrite content
based on the final weld composition
FN
% Ferrite = 100 *
(−0.025813 * Fe 2 ) + (5.408679 * Fe) − 102.3902
Equation 2: Mathematical conversion of FN to %F
ORFN varience was calculated by subtracting the predicted
percent ferrite from the measured percent ferrite. As was
anticipated the no oxide condition, matched the predictor very
closely (with a varience of approximately 1% Ferrite). However,
the other conditions had a range of variation over that of the
predictor. This suggests that composition alone is not driving the
effects seen thus far.
Upon evaluation of each oxide condition following the various
post weld heat treatments cycles, it became increasingly evident
that the various oxides had dramatic effects on the high
temperature stability of the 2507 microstructure. This is most
pronounced in terms of grain size, as shown in Figure 15. While
there was minor variation in the ferrite content following each
thermal cycle, they were prodominately constant for each oxide
condition. This was anticipated, since each thermal condition
utilized the same cooling rate. These results are consistend with
previous work completed by Sewiert, McCowan, and Olson10.
The oxide based effects that yielded the ferrite content in the as-
welded microstructure were still present following imposition of
thermal cycles.
Note in Figure 15 the dramatic effect of TiO and TiO2 to reduce
the grain size and maintain a fine grain size at high temperatures.
At the point, the exact grain size is not important, rather its
magnitude compared to the as welded. The relative stability of
each oxide condition at various temperatures further suggests that
the grain size is be controlled by small oxide inclusions. Oxides
tend to be stable above the melting temperature of 2507, therefore
if each of the oxide conditions had normallized at a uniform grain
size (theorized to be around 300-µm), one could infer that the
variation was a result of solidification phenomena, such as
nitrogen partitioning. This grain growth relationship was
originally published by Ferreira and Hertzman11. Qualitatively
speaking, it is also notable that the TiO and TiO2 yielded the most
stable high temperature microstructure.
600
As Welded
1100 C
500 1275 C
400
Grain Size (mm)
300
200
100
Sio2 Mn15Si26 0
NF + Argon TiO TiO2 Ti2O3 Cr2O3 NiO SiO2 Mn15Si26
Mn15Si
NiO Sio2
26 Figure 15: Grain size for each oxide condition following post
-13 -1 9 weld heat treatments at three temperatures for 60 seconds.
The last portion of this program was the compositional
partitioning measurements conducted on each of the oxide
conditions and the perspective post weld heat treatment cycles. In
general it was found that very little partioning occurred in the as
welded microstructrure. These findings were in agreement the
work conducted on duplex stainless steel grade 220512,13 for all
oxide conditions in the as-welded state. The one exception was
the molybdenum content. The grain boundary austentite appeared
to reject the molybdenum causing a steep compositional gradient
across the grain boundary. Interestingly, the widmanstätten
austenite did not exhibit the same partioning. Based on the phase
diagram provided in Figure 2 (note the presence of austenite at
the solidous temperature), and the distinct partitioning behaviors
demonstrated in the grain boundary and widmanstätten austenite,
it is believed that the grain boundary austenite formed during
solidification and the widmanstätten austenite later as a solid state
transformation.
This is particularly interesting when combined with the as-
welded microstructures, it was observed that some of the oxide
conditions resulted in proportionally more widmanstätten
austenite (Cr2O3, NiO, and SiO2) than the others (TiO, TiO2,
Ti2O3, and Mn15Si26). This coupled with the above mentioned
finding indicates that Cr2O3, NiO, and SiO2 stabilize the solid
state transformation, while TiO, TiO2, Ti2O3, and Mn15Si26 do not.
The high temperature compositional partitioning showed that very
little change occurred. The only noteable diffusion controlled
partioning was that of the molybdenum in the widmenstätten
austenite. Following post weld heat treatments, the compositional
profiles of the widmanstätten and grain boundary austenite were
undistinguishable.
Conclusions
The intended purpose of this study was to characterize the effects
of various oxides on the microstructure of super duplex stainless
791
 steel, specifically SAF 2507. This characterization is effectively Ames N.D., Frye C., and Larsen K., Stainless Steel World
a qualitative comparison against the baseline, no oxide condition. America 2004, Houston, Texas, (2004)
Hence, the results can be easily organized into a tabular format. 5. Relationship of Weld-Metal Microstructure and
The matrix is provided below in Table 1. It is important to note Penetration to Weld-Metal Oxygen Content:
that no single oxide improved the weldmetal for all criteria Indacochea, J. E. and Olson, D. L., Journal of Materials for
evaluated. Energy Systems, ASM, 139-148 (1983)
6. The Relationship of Weld Penetration to the Welding
Depth/Width
Grain Size
Percent Grain Size Flux:
Ratio Austenite Stabilization Schwemmer, D. D., Olson, D. L., and Williamson, D. L.,
TiO +++ +++ ooo +++
Welding Journal, 153s-160s, (1979)
7. Effects of some residual elements on weld pool
TiO2 ooo +++ ooo +++ penetration in the TIG spot welding of stainless steel :
Ti2O3 ooo +++ +++ ooo Autio J., Makio J., Makeia K., Minni E., and Kettunem P.,
The Effects of Residual, Impurty, and Micro-alloying
Cr2O3 +++ ooo +++ ooo
Elements on Weldability and Weld Properties, Cambridge,
NiO +++ ooo +++ ooo UK, TWI, P18-1-P18-5 (1983)
SiO2 +++ ooo ooo ooo
8. Effects of Welding Parameters on the Weld Shape in Ar-
O2 and Ar-CO2 Shielded GTA Welding:
Mn15Si26 ooo --- --- ooo Lu S. and others, IIW, 1-8, (2004)
Table 1: Tabulated Results Matrix, each condition is compared 9. Improved Ferrite Number Prediction Model that
against the baseline, no oxide condition (+++ = better than, ooo = Accounts for Cooling Rate Effects--Part 1: Model
similar to, --- = worse than) Development:
Vitek, J. M., David, Stan, and Hinman, C. R., Welding
References Journal, AWS, 10s-17s (2003)
10. Ferrite Number Prediction for Stainless Steel Welds:
1. Orbital Welding of Small-Bore Super Duplex Tube Using Siewert, Tom A, McCowan, C. N., and Olson, D. L., Key
GTAW Flux : Engineering Materials, Trans Tech Publications, 149-166
Ames N.D., Johnson M.Q., and Holmquist M., Duplex (1992)
Stainless Steel Conference, Venice 2000, Venice, Italy, 11. Delta Ferrite Grain Growth in Simulated High
(2000) Temperature HAZ of Three Duplex Stainless Steels :
2. Comparison of austenitic, super austenitic and super Ferreira P.J. and Hertzman S., Duplex Stainless Steels 1991,
duplex weld properties produced using GTAW flux : Bourgogne, France, 959-966 (1991)
Ames N.D., Ramberg M., Johnson M.Q., and Johns T., 12. Microstructural Evolution in Duplex Stainless Steel
Stainless Steel World America 2002, Houston, Texas, (2002) Weldments :
3. Effect of GTAW Flux on the Microstructure and Lippold J.C., Varol I., and Baeslack W.A., Duplex Stainless
Properties of Austenitic, Super Austenitic and Super Steels 1991, Bourgogne, France, 383-391 (1991)
Duplex Stainless Steel Welds : 13. Toughness of Simulated Heat-Affected Zones in Duplex
Ames N.D., Johnson M.Q., and Lippold J.C., Trends in Stainless Steels :
Welding Research 2002, Calloway Gardens, Georgia, Varol I., Baeslack W.A., and Lippold J.C., Trends in
(2002) Welding Research, Gatlinburg, Tennessee, ASM, 757-761
4. Improved Corrosion Resistance of Super Duplex (1989)
Weldments :

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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Effect of Austenitic Fillers on Mechanical Properties of AISI 410 Martensitic

Stainless Steel Weldments

A.Vijay Kumar
Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur-602105, Tamilnadu, India

N.Muthukrishnan
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur-602105, Tamilnadu, India

Abstract Here austenitic filler is used, because weldability is improved

Martensitic grades were developed in order to provide a group
of stainless alloys that would be corrosion resistant and
hardenable by heat-treating. The Martensitic grades are
straight chromium steels containing no nickel. They are
magnetic and can be hardened by heat-treating.
The Martensitic grades are mainly used where hardness,
strength, and wear resistance are required. The basic alloy in
this group is Type AISI 410. Typical applications of AISI 410
include valve and pump parts, bolts and other fasteners, heat
control shafts, flat springs, knives and table flatware, gage
parts, hand tools, screens, spindles and mining machinery.
The critical scrutiny of the literature suggests the existence of
large number of research publications in the area of softening
behavior of heat affected zone, optimizing welding parameters
and proper welding procedure to remove internal stresses
developed, during welding of martensitic stainless steels
[2,4,5]. However, there are limited number of research
publication in the area of mechanical properties evaluation of
AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel weldments using austenitic
filler 316L, 308L respectively.
Present investigation pertains to study the effect of austenitic
filler on mechanical properties of AISI 410 Martensitic
stainless steel weldments using manual metal arc welding.
when austenitic stainless steel filler metal is used to take
advantage of the low yield strength and good ductility of the
weld metal.
The austenitic weld metal can yield during welding and
minimize the strain imposed on the hardened heat affected
zone. Weldments made with these filler metals are normally
laced in service in the as-welded condition. Manual metal arc
welding is used because, austenitic weld metal provides an
additional advantage, that it does not relieve hydrogen to the
base metal on cooling.
Analyses of the tensile& impact test results were critically
carried out. Microstructures and SEM fractographs were
taken, analyzed and the same were correlated with the
mechanical properties.
Keyword: AISI 410 Martensitic Stainless Steel, Welding,
Austenitic filler 316L, 308L, SMAW
Introduction
Stainless steels are iron-base alloys containing 10.5% or more
chromium. They have been used for many industrial,
architectural, chemical, and consumer applications for over
half a century. They exhibit excellent corrosion resistance,
strength at elevated temperature, toughness at cryogenic
temperature, and fabrication characteristics and they are

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 793

selected for a broad range of consumer, commercial, and
industrial applications [1].
They are used for the demanding requirements of chemical
processing to the delicate handling of food and
pharmaceuticals. They are preferred over many other materials
because of their performance in even the most aggressive
environments. In the fabrication of stainless steel products,
components, or equipment, manufacturers employ welding as
the principal joining method. Stainless steels are welded
materials, and a welded joint can provide optimum corrosion
resistance, strength, and fabrication economy.
However, designers should recognize that any metal, including
stainless steels, might undergo certain changes during
welding. It is necessary, therefore, to exercise a reasonable
degree of care during welding to minimize or prevent any
deleterious effects that may occur, and to preserve the same
degree of corrosion resistance and strength in the weld zone
that is an inherent part of the base metal [2, 3].
During the welding of stainless steels, the temperatures of the
base metal adjacent to the weld reach levels at which micro
structural transformations occur. The degree to which these
changes occur, and their effect on the finished weldments - in
terms of resistance to corrosion and mechanical properties -
depends upon alloy content, thickness, filler metal, joint
design, weld method, and welder skill [3,7,8].
Regardless of the changes that take place, the principal
objective in welding stainless steels is to provide a sound joint
with qualities equal to or better than those of the base metal,
allowing for any metallurgical changes that take place in the
base metal adjacent to the weld and any differences in the
weld filler metal. Subsequently several important sub-
categories of stainless steels have been developed. The sub-
categories are austenitic, Martensitic, ferritic, duplex,
precipitation hardening and super alloys.
Increased chromium content increases corrosion resistance,
while an increased carbon Content has the opposite effect due
to the formation of chromium carbides [8-10]
The martensitic stainless steels are resistant to damp air,
steam, freshwater, alkaline solutions (hydroxides) and dilute
solutions of organic and oxidizing inorganic acids. The
martensitic steels have poor resistance to pitting and crevice
corrosion but are largely immune to stress corrosion cracking.
The areas of use of martensitic and martensitic-austenitic
steels are naturally those in which the high strength is an
advantage and the corrosion requirements are relatively small.
This AISI 410 is used for stainless cutlery.
These steels can be annealed to provide a ferritic structure by
austenitizing and slow cooling conditions, but are normally
794
used with a martensitic structure [3-10]. The basic alloy in this
group is Type AISI 410.The chemical composition of typical
weldable martensitic stainless steel AISI 410 and stainless
steel filler metal are given in table 1& 2.
Martensitic stainless steel can be welded in the annealed, semi
hardened, hardened, stress relieved, or tempered condition
[12-15]. The condition of heat treatment has minimal effect in
the hardenability of the heat affected zone, and thus on the
weldability [14, 15].
Martensitic stainless steels can be welded by SMAW,
GMAW, SAW, spot welding, flash welding, friction welding,
high frequency welding, and electron beam welding. In this
direction an attempt has been made to explore the feasibility
of welding AISI 410 stainless steel using austenitic filler
material by using SMAW. The result of this investigation
provides some useful information..
Experimental procedure
Literature survey
AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel plate of 12mm thickness
was welded with austenitic filler (308L, 316L) using Shielded
Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). Both single ‘V’ and double ‘V’
with equal distance edge preparation were used as per AWS
standards.
Non-destructive examinations (LPI and RT) were carried out
on the specimen both in as received conditions and after
welding. The mechanical tests were carried out.
Microstructures of weldments were studied with optical
microscope after preparing the metallographic samples in
conventional manner. The fracture surfaces of these above
tested specimens were fractographed-using SEM to detect the
nature of fracture.
The material used for the present investigation is martensitic
stainless steel of grade AISI 410. Initially the plate was
1400mm X 400mm X 12mm in size. It was then cut into eight
pieces of dimension 400mm X 150mm X12mm with suitable
allowances by using plasma arc cutting, so that it can be
machined to dimension required for making weld joints.
Table 1: Chemical composition of AISI 410
Element Specified Analyzed
C 0.15(max) 0.15
Mn 1.0 1.00
Si 1.0 0.45
Cr 11.5-13.5 12.98
Ni 0.45 0.34
P 0.04(max) 0.036
S 0.03(max) 0.022
Table 2: Chemical composition of stainless steel filler metal prevent it from distortion during welding operation. The
mechanical properties of AISI 410 are given in table 3 and
AWS class E308L E316L welding parameters are listed in table 4.
C 0.04 0.04
Cr 19.5 18.5 The welding operation was first conducted with the electrode
ER308L for single ‘V’ and double ‘V’ edge operations. Before
Ni 10.5 12.5 starting welding, the tag-welded plates were preheated to
Mo -- 2.5 200oC using gas welding torch. After completing the welding
Mn 2.5 2.5 operation, the root portion of the plate was gouged to remove
Si 0.90 0.90 the area of incomplete penetration and it was back welded.
Similarly the above procedure was followed for electrode
ER316L.
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of AISI 410 Martensitic
Stainless Steel Experimental results and discussion
Density (lb / cu. in.) 0.28 Effect of weld metal on mechanical properties
Specific Gravity 7.7 When the welding operation was completed, the weld bead
Electrical Resistivity (micro ohm-cm (at 20 oC)) 342 was grounded for uniform appearance. Then it was given to
Melting Point (oC) 1532 NDT lab for testing the soundness of the weld. Non-
Modulus of Elasticity in Tension 29 destructive examinations [LPI and RT] were carried out on the
Yield strength (0.2% offset) in MPa 275.8 specimens both in as received conditions and after welding.
Ultimate tensile strength in MPa 517 Mechanical properties were tested and the graphs were drawn
Elongation , % in 50 mm 30 [Ref graphs 1, 2].
Reduction in area, % 65
Brinell hardness, BHN 200 max. The average values of ultimate tensile strength for ER308L
Rockwell hardness, RHN B95 max. weld metals for single ‘V’ and double ‘V’ edge preparations
were found to be 537 MPa and 561 MPa respectively and for
Impact values, Izod , ft-lb 85 min.
ER316L were found to be 549 MPa and 571 MPa respectively,
which is well above the average values [517 MPa] of ultimate
tensile strength of base metal AISI 410 martensitic stainless
Table 4: Welding Parameters for ER 308L & ER 316L
steel. This shows that the weld quality is good and joint
efficiency is high. Here in all the tests, fracture occurred in the
Welding Parameters ER 308L ER 316L
HAZ near to base metal not in weld metal, which confirms the
Arc current in amperes, A 130 200 above results, that the joint efficiency and weld quality is
Arc voltage in volts,V 24 20 good.
Power supply DCRP DCRP
Pre-heat temperature in oC 200 200 As compared to the ER308L and ER316L weld metals,
Inter pass temperature in o C 250 250 ER316L weld metal has high ultimate tensile strength both in
Travel speed in mm/min 130 120 single and double ‘V’ edge preparations. In discussion with
Heat input in joules/ sec 1440 ± 50 1200 ± 50 the effect of edge preparations double ‘V’ edge preparation
Re-baking temperature in o C 250 250 only have high ultimate tensile strength values both in
Soaking time in minutes 90 90 ER308L and ER316L weld metals. This makes the conclusion
Electrode diameter in mm 4 5 that ER316L weld metal with double ‘V’ edge preparation
Number of passes 9 4 shows the excellent and highest joint efficiency for welding
Number of electrodes used 22 12 AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel.
Bevel angle in o degree 30 30
Land in mm 2 2 Effect of weld metal on HAZ
Root gap in mm 3.2 3.5 The values obtained after conducting the impact test on heat
affected zone for ER308L and ER316L weld metals of both
single ‘V’ and double ‘V’ were noted & graphs were drawn
The edge preparations used for the present investigation are [Ref graphs 3,4]
single ‘V’ butt joint of 30o bevel angle. The edge preparation
was done by using a fixture fitted to the face milling machine. ER316L weld metal shows high toughness values both in
After the edge preparation, the plates were tag welded to single ‘V’ and double ‘V’ edge preparations as compared to

795
ER308L weld metal and AISI 410 base metal. There is almost
no effect of edge preparation over toughness value both in
ER308L and ER316L weld metals. It is not surprising that the
heat affected zone impact values of both ER308L and ER316L
weld metals is lower than the weld and base metal. It is
because of carbon migration from base metal to weld metal
and hence, form intermetallic compound along with
martensitic structure in the vicinity of weld. Figure 2: Microstructure of ER308L Weld Metal
Both ER308L, ER316L fillers are austenitic which are ductile
and hence, having the higher toughness values as compared to
the base metal. As compared to ER308L weld metal, ER316L
weld metal has high toughness value.

Discussions on micro structure of weld metal

The figures 1 to 6 shows the microstructure of base metal,
weld metal, and heat affected zone of AISI 410 martensitic
stainless steel weldments welded with ER308L, and ER316L
filler metals using shielded metal arc welding process. The
figures have a magnification of 100X. Figure 3: Microstructure of AISI 410 Base Metal

Figure 1 shows the microstructure of heat-affected zone

welded with ER308L filler, which reveals the progressive
coarsening of ferrite and the distribution of carbides.

Figure 2 In some regions, presence of lath (or lacy) ferrite

could also be seen.

Figure 3 shows the base microstructure, which reveals the

equiaxed ferrite grains with randomly dispersed carbides.
Figure 4: Microstructure of HAZ of ER316L Weldment
Figures 4,6 show the microstructure of HAZ welded with
ER316L filler. It could be observed that the progressive
coarsening of ferrite & distribution of carbides.

Figure 5 shows the microstructure of weld metal made with

ER316L filler. It could be observed from these photos that the
weld metal has solidified in dendrite mode, with almost same
morphology. Here also in some region lacy type ferrite could
be seen.
Figure 5 : Microstructure of ER316L Weld Metal

Figure 1 : Microstructure of HAZ of ER308L Weldment

Figure 6 : Microstructure of HAZ of ER316L Weldment

796
Figure 7 – 11 represents the typically observed SEM
fractogragh of AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel weldments
using ER308L and ER316L for single ‘V’ and double ‘V’ butt
joint in HAZ and martensitic stainless steel impact sample.

Figure 11:SEM fractograph of tensile sample welded with

ER316L filler metal(double ‘V’

Ultimate Tensile
Strength(Mpa)
560
550 ER308L
Figure 7 : SEM fractograph of AISI 410 martensitic 540
stainless steel impact sample 530 ER316L
520
1 2 3 4
Num ber of pieces
(Single v)

Graph 1 : Tensile strength datas for single ‘V’ butt joint

575
Figure 8 : SEM fractograph of impact sample welded with
Ultimate Tensile
Strength(Mpa)

ER308L filler metal in HAZ region 570

565 ER308L
560 ER316L
555
550
1 2 3 4
Num ber of pieces
(Double V)

Graph 2 : Tensile strength datas for double ‘V’ butt joint

Figure 9 : SEM fractograph of impact sample welded with

ER316L filler metal(single ‘V’)in HAZ region
Impact energy in Joules

120
100 ER308L for
80 single V

60 ER308L for
double V
40
20 ER316L for
single V
0
1 2 3 ER316L for
double V
Position of notch
Figure 10 : SEM fractograph of impact sample welded with
ER316L filler metal(double ‘V’)in HAZ region Graph 3 : Impact energy datas ,weldment

797
 References
Impact energy in Joules

100
ER308L for
80
Single V
1. A. Dhooge, E.Deleu, “Properties of Laser Welded
60 Super Martensitic Stainless Steels”, Welding in the
ER308L for World, PP 37- 41,Nov-Dec,2000.
40 double V
20 ER316L for 2. Welding Handbook, Vol.4, and (8th Ed.). American
single V Welding Society, Miami, Florida, USA. Chapter 5,
0
1 2 3 ER316 for PP 246-252.
double V
Position of notch
3. A.W.Marshal, and J.C.M. Farrar, “Welding of
Ferritic and Martensitic 11-14%Cr Steels”, Welding
Graph 4 : Impact energy datas for HAZ in the World, PP 32-55, May-June 2001.

4. Welding Hand Book, Vol. 4, (8 th edition) Materials

and Their Weldability Chapter 7, PP 432-456.
Conclusions
5. A Designers Handbook Series, “Welding of Stainless
Based on the experimental investigation and their analysis, the Steels And Other Joining Methods”, Produced By
following major conclusions are arrived. AISI.”

• ER316L weld metal with a double ‘V’ edge 6. Bela Leffler, “Stainless Steel and Their Properties”
preparation has exhibited the maximum joint Welding Journal, PP 5 –9, Volume 1, 2000
efficiency in welding AISI 410 Martensitic
stainless steel compared to the ER308L weld metal. 7. L.Van Muysen, A.Mathonet and R.V. Salkin,
“Welding of Martensitic Steels”, Welding
• ER316L weld metal has shown an optimum International, Volume 4, No. 4, PP 714-730, 1990
toughness value compared with the ER308L weld
metals. 8. V.I.Kabatskii Et al, “Structure and Properties of The
heat- Affected Zone in Welded Joints in a High
• Single ‘V’ grove edge preparation has outclassed Strength Martensitic Steel”, Welding International,
the double ‘V’ edge preparation in terms of Volume 3, No. 2, PP 120-142, 1989
hardness values in the HAZ as the same has
virtually doubled up. 9. Howard B.Cary, “Modern Welding Technology”,
Chapter 12, PP 419-426
Acknowledgements
10. S.V.Nadkarni, “Modern Arc Welding Technology”,
Chapter 10, PP 556-559
The authors are thankful to the Principal Prof.
S.Muthukaruppan, Dr.R.V.Seeniraj, Head of the Department,
11. Jackson F.J,”Heat- Affected Zone Toughness of SMA
Mechanical Engineering for their motivation and guidance.
Welded 12% Cr Martensitic- Ferritic Steels”,
We are also thankful to the executives in BHEL, WRI,Trichy
Welding Journal, PP 413s-426s, November 1990
division who supported us to complete the research work. We
would also like to express our gratitude to our guide,
12. Sidney H Avner, “Introduction to Physical
Dr.R.Nagalakshmi,BHEL who has been a source of
Metallurgy”, Chapter –9, PP 349- 387
encouragement for us. We thank our parents and friends who
have motivated us and helped us a lot in carrying out this
13. William F Smith, “Structures and Properties of
research work.
Engineering Alloys”, Chapter 7, PP 303-312

14. R.S.Parmer,”Welding Engineering And Technology”,

Chapter 8, PP 554-558

15. “Seamless Tube And Pipe”, A Document From The

Sandwik Materials Technology. Web-Site

798
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Techniques for Determination of Interstitial Nitrogen Content in Nitrogen-

Strengthened Austenitic Stainless Steel Alloy 1.4565
A.N. Lasseigne and D.L. Olson
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, USA

Th. Boellinghaus
Federal Institute of Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany

Keywords: Nitrogen-strengthened stainless steel, interstitial nitrogen, nitrides, thermoelectric power

Abstract From the literature it became apparent that the high nitrogen
Nitrogen is an interstitial solid solution strengthener for steel industry relates properties and material behavior to the
austenitic stainless steels. With increasing use of high nitrogen total nitrogen content and this practice is most likely due to the
steels it is necessary to precisely quantify the nitrogen content lack of a convenient method to determine the interstitial
to attain beneficial mechanical properties and corrosion nitrogen content. If microstructure and properties are to be
resistance. High nitrogen contents partition into interstitial properly correlated than it is essential that both the solid
nitrogen and transition metal nitrides in austenitic stainless solution nitrogen and the nitride nitrogen contents can be
steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) welds, thus affecting the easily and rapidly determined.
resulting material properties. Different techniques for
assessment of total nitrogen content and interstitial nitrogen For this nitrogen research, austenitic stainless steel Alloy
content in stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) are 1.4565 (AISI 34565) is utilized. Stainless steel Alloy 1.4565
discussed and compared. An ester-halogen digestion process (AISI 34565) is strengthened with high levels of nitrogen
with the micro-Kjeldahl nitrogen analytical technique in (0.458 wt. pct.) for enhancement in mechanical properties and
combination with the Leco Nitrogen Determinator was used to corrosion resistance. Stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI
determine and partition the solid solution nitrogen content 34565) has been developed for applications in high chloride
from the nitride nitrogen content. This interstitial nitrogen environments and it can potentially replace duplex stainless
content was used to calibrate a new analytical thermoelectric steel for pipeline material in the North Sea. High levels of
power surface contact probe practice to non-destructively nitrogen stabilize the austenitic phase, increase strength, and
measure weld metal interstitial nitrogen content. increase pitting and crevice corrosion resistance.1 This
investigation addresses the use of weld metal nitrogen analysis
Introduction to achieve the desired weld microstructure and properties.
Nitrogen strengthened stainless steels are being investigated
and developed to address new material needs requiring higher Experimental Procedure
strength and corrosion resistance.1-3 Nitrogen has proven to Plasma welds are made on 6 mm thick plates of Alloy 1.4565
have extraordinary effects on mechanical properties4-6 and (AISI 34565) stainless steel at the Federal Institute of
corrosion resistance in stainless steel7, while being Materials Research and Testing (BAM). The chemical
inexpensive and a strong austenite stabilizer.8-10 It is however composition for Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) is given in Table
important to understand the role of nitrogen in stainless steel 1. The welding parameters for plasma welds are given in
to maintain the desired properties because high nitrogen Table 2.
contents in fully austenitic stainless steel partitions into
interstitial nitrogen and transition metal nitrides. Interstitial Table 1: Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) Chemical
nitrogen is a strengthener in solid solution, so taking nitrogen Composition (wt %)
out of solid solution results in variations in properties making C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo
it necessary to quantitatively determine the nitrogen content 0.028 0.182 6.080 0.017 <0.001 23.82 18.83 5.639
that is in solid solution and the nitrogen associated with Ti Nb N Cu Al Ta Fe
formed nitrides. A full understanding of these nitrogen 0.017 0.028 0.458 0.104 0.015 0.011 44.78
contents would allow an accurate prediction of mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 799


Table 2: Plasma Welding Parameters for Alloy 1.4565
(AISI 34565)
Weld Travel Speed 20 cm/min and 10 cm/min
Current 190 Amperes
Voltage ≈ 15 V
Nitrogen Flow Rate 4 liters/min
Argon Flow Rate 15 liters/min
Plasma Flow Rate 2 liters/min
Arc Length 6 mm
Electrode Diameter 4 mm
To achieve nitrogen concentration variation for analysis, three
different sets of welds are made. The first sample consists of a
single autogenous weld pass, the second sample consists of a
double autogenous weld pass, the third sample consists of
triple autogenous weld pass as shown in Figure 1. An argon-
5% nitrogen shielding gas is used for all welds. Each
additional pass made re-melts the same metal under a
shielding gas with constant nitrogen content (Ar-5%N2). The
welding inter-pass time is approximately zero. Each welding
pass alters both the total nitrogen content and the partition of
nitrogen from being in solid solution and in formed nitrides.
After completion of the welding process, the welds are
sectioned for analysis of nitrogen content utilizing the
analytical techniques described in the next section for
determination of interstitial nitrogen content and total nitrogen
content. Stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) weld metal
was also characterized for its microstructure and alloy content
through SEM line analysis and X-ray diffraction.
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of single, double, and triple
autogenous weld passes for resulting variation in nitrogen
concentration. There is no interpass time between weld
passes.
800
Techniques for Total Nitrogen Content Analysis
Three different techniques were utilized for the determination
of the total nitrogen content in stainless steel Alloy 1.4565
(AISI 34565) weldments. These analytical techniques include:
emission spectroscopy, gas combustion (Leco Nitrogen
Determinator), and micro-Kjeldahl.
Emission Spectroscopy
For emission spectroscopy sample preparation, the surface of
the welds are milled to remove any decarburization or
oxidation and then the welds are cut into samples of
approximately 18 mm x 13 mm x 6 mm. The emission
spectrometer then analyzed the total nitrogen concentration by
rastoring the plasma across the surface of the weld bead.
Leco Nitrogen Determinator
The Leco Nitrogen Determinator is one of the most widely
used analyzers for total nitrogen content. Leco Nitrogen
Determinator (TC-436) has precision less than one ppm for
low nitrogen levels. Samples for the Leco Nitrogen
Determinator were prepared by milling each weld, while
collecting eight grams worth of mill grindings for analysis.
For each run, two grams of the weld are used and then the
same measurement repeated three times for accuracy. More
detailed information on gas chromatography can be found in
Niessen11 and Jeffrey and Kipping12.
Micro-Kjeldahl
The micro-Kjeldahl technique for nitrogen content
determination is popularly used for total nitrogen content
determination in organics, liquids, and metals. Welded plasma
specimens are milled to accumulate two grams. One gram is
used for each run, where the sample is completely dissolved in
acid. By titration the overall nitrogen content was determined.
Two measurements were made on each sample for accuracy.
Techniques for Determination of Interstitial
Nitrogen Content
Two different techniques, the Beeghly ester-halogen process
and thermoelectric power, for determination of interstitial
nitrogen content are discussed. The Beeghly ester-halogen
process is a method of calibration for the non-destructive
thermoelectric power measurements.
Beeghly Ester-Halogen Digestion Process
For determination of interstitial nitrogen in the austenitic
matrix of Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565), the ester-halogen
digestion method designed by Beeghly13-17 was developed into
a modern analytical practice.13-20 Rawers18-20 also used the
Beeghly ester-halogen digestion method for determination of
interstitial nitrogen content. To perform the ester-halogen
digestion process, a modernized version of the micro-Kjeldahl
has been used called the Hach Digesdahl Digestion Apparatus
as shown in Figure 2. The experimental procedure is described
in the following.
First, all welds or samples are milled into shavings to reduce
the digestion time. A one-gram sample is placed into a 200 ml
beaker, then 3 ml of bromine is added. After the addition of
bromine the water flow through the condenser is turned on and
2 ml of methyl-acetate is added to the distilling flask. After the
initial reaction between bromine and methyl-acetate occurs,
which takes approximately five minutes, 13 ml of methyl-
acetate are added in the condenser and heat is applied. The
solvent is refluxed until the sample is completely dissolved.
The resulting residue (nitrides) is then poured and filtered
through a Gooch crucible with a glass filter, while slowly
rinsing the residue with methyl-acetate as it filters. The filter
is then removed and placed in the furnace at 105°C until the
residue has completely dried into a powder. The nitride
powder residue is then analyzed using the Leco Nitrogen
determinator and/or x-ray diffraction to determine the nitrogen
content in the nitrides. The interstitial nitrogen content is then
calculated from the difference between the total nitrogen
content and the nitride content (residue).13-20
The time and temperature necessary to fully dissolve of the
iron matrix in the ester-halogen reagent varied with
composition and particle size of the specimens. Temperatures
used during the digestion of austenitic stainless did not exceed
the boiling points of bromine and methyl-acetate.13-17
The traditional x-ray diffraction practice used for interstitial
content determination in alloys was not used for the x-ray
diffraction practice requires preparation of powder from the
austenitic material. Powder generation will alter the austenite
lattice and interfere with the lattice strain measurement
required for interstitial nitrogen content determination.
Non-Destructive Thermoelectric Power Surface Contact
Technique for Interstitial Nitrogen Determination
Thermoelectric power is the second method to be developed
and is used for determination of interstitial nitrogen content.
A portable non-destructive thermoelectric power surface
contact probe unit was developed as shown in Figure 3. The
thermoelectric power coefficient also known as the Seebeck
coefficient is defined as the potential difference, dV,
developed per unit temperature difference, dT:
dV
Ζ=
dT [1]
By convention, the sign of Ζ represents the Seebeck
coefficient otherwise known as the thermoelectric power
coefficient. Given the Seebeck coefficient for a material, the
voltage difference between two points, where temperature are
T0 and T1, is given by:
T1
ΔV = ∫ ΖdT
T0 [2]
801
The absolute Seebeck coefficient (ASC) of the alloy material,
Ζa, can be determined from measurements as:
V
Ζa = − ΖCu
ΔT [3]
where V is the Seebeck voltage measured between the copper
probes held at a temperature difference, ΔT, and ΖCu is the
well-calibrated Seebeck coefficient for copper. One copper
probe is maintained at room temperature and the other one at a
temperature higher by 10 °C. The Seebeck probes are
properly calibrated for determination of interstitial nitrogen
content in stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) at specific
welding conditions.
For more detailed information on the non-destructive surface
contact probes utilizing thermoelectric power see Lasseigne.21-
24
The Seebeck surface probe technique has become reliable
due to the advances in electronic property measurements and
temperature control instrumentation. In this investigation, the
10ºC temperature difference (+/- 0.22˚C) was accurately
controlled using two Watlow temperature controllers and read
outs with two type K thermocouples and two type T
thermocouples. The potential measurements were made with a
Keithley Nano-voltmeter 2182 and an accuracy of +/- 10 nV.
Figure 2: Hach Micro-Kjeldahl Digestion Apparatus.25
Using the Beeghly ester halogen-method for interstitial
nitrogen content determination allowed for the calibration of
the thermoelectric surface contact measurement for interstitial
nitrogen content. The results of the interstitial nitrogen content
(determined from Beeghly process) and thermoelectric power
coefficient for austenitic stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI
34565) is given in Table 3. The thermoelectric power
coefficient is plotted as a function of interstitial nitrogen
content as shown in Figure 4. Notice the tight linear fit of the
thermoelectric power coefficient to measured interstitial
nitrogen content allowing for this information to serve as a
standard to compare other thermoelectric power measurements
to determine their interstitial nitrogen content.
 (a)

Figure 4: Thermoelectric power coefficient as a function of

interstitial nitrogen content. (Calibrated using the Beeghly
ester-halogen process with the Leco Nitrogen
Determinator).22-25

The results of total nitrogen content for stainless steel Alloy

(b)
Figure 3. (a) & (b) Thermoelectric power probe measuring
device for austenitic stainless steel weldments.22-25
Table 3: Interstitial nitrogen content from Beeghly
process and thermoelectric power coefficient
for stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565).
Interstitial Nitrogen Content
# of Weld Leco & Beeghly Thermoelectric
Passes Process (wt%) Power (µV/C)
1 0.4688 ± .0040 5.009
2 0.4118 ± .0040 5.124
3 0.4865 ± .0060 4.976
RESULTS
With increasing use of high nitrogen steels it is necessary to
precisely quantify the interstitial nitrogen content to attain
beneficial mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
Stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) weld metal is
strengthened with approximately 4600 ppm of nitrogen and
after plasma welding the total nitrogen content exceeds 5000
ppm of nitrogen.22-25 These high nitrogen contents partition
into interstitial nitrogen and transition metal nitrides in
austenitic stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) weld
metal, thus affecting the resulting weld metal properties and
the importance in precise measurements.
1.4565 (AISI 34565) from the Leco Nitrogen Determinator,
spark emission spectroscopy, and micro-Kjeldahl are
presented in Table 4. From the literature it became apparent
that the industry utilizes techniques to assess only the total
nitrogen content. So utilizing only total nitrogen contents can
suggest inaccurate material property predictions. Such
nitrogen measurements do not describe the full nature in
stainless steel welds and the interstitial nitrogen as well as the
nitride contents needs to be quantitatively reported. The lower
values for spark emission suggests that not all the nitrides
were fully decomposed and ionized on or the near surface
region of the alloy having a lower total nitrogen concentration
than the deeper bulk of the alloy. From the total nitrogen
content and interstitial nitrogen content results it is possible to
quantify the amount of nitrides present in stainless steel Alloy
1.4565 (AISI 34565) as shown in Table 5. These results
indicate that approximately two percent nitrides are present in
base metal Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565), with approximately 15
- 19 percent of the nitrogen in the weld metal being formed
nitrides.
Table 4: Total nitrogen measurements from
various analytical techniques for stainless steel
Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565).
Total Nitrogen Content (wt %)
# of Weld Leco Nitrogen Spark Micro-Kjeldahl
Passes Determinator Emission
1 0.551 0.403 0.5
2 0.5072 0.376 0.5
3 0.6043 0.391 0.49

802
 subsequent autogenous weld passes and/or the nitrides from
Table 5: Comparison of total nitrogen content, nitride the first autogenous weld pass can continue to grow and
content, and interstitial content for stainless steel coarsen. With each autogenous welding pass, the fraction of
Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565). nitrides and the size of the nitrides increased, with a decrease
in the particle spacing.
# of Total Nitride Interstitial % %
Weld N Content N (wt%) Interstitial Nitrides Nitrides that are exposed on the surface of the alloy can easily
Passes (wt%) (wt%) N be chemically attacked as apparent by the effectiveness of the
1 0.551 0.0822 0.4688 85.08 14.92 micro-Kjeldahl technique to digest the total sample and
reports only a total nitrogen content.
2 0.5072 0.09541 0.4118 81.20 18.81
3 0.6043 0.1178 0.4865 80.51 19.49

The interstitial nitrogen content techniques used for interstitial

nitrogen determination in stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI
34565) indicated that as the total nitrogen content increases,
the interstitial nitrogen in the interdendritic region is also
increasing to the point that the interdendritic region becomes
super-saturated with interstitial nitrogen, which results in the
formation of more nitrides.

An SEM image is shown in Figure 5 (a) of the stainless steel

Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) plasma weld metal (with three
autogenous weld passes) indicating a dendritic cored
solidification structure with an interdendritic two-phase region
full of nitrides. Figure 5 (a) is then zoomed in to 1500x
(Figure 5 (b)) and a line scan is run to determine the phases
that make up the dendritic solidification. The line scan is
performed along the arrow shown in Figure 5 (b). The line
scan indicated a cored austenitic stainless steel microstructure.

From the scanning electron micrographs of plasma-welded

stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) in Figure 5, notice
that nitrides have formed in the interdendritic region, while the
dendritic region is composed of only interstitial nitrogen. Due
to the dendritic solidification from the weld thermal
experience, the overall mechanical properties are associated
with the interstitial nitrogen and the formed nitrides. The
dendritic and interdendritic spacings are approximately
equivalent (10 µm), so both the interdendritic and dendritic
regions are contributing to strengthening. When considering
the overall properties of the weld, both the dendritic and
interdendritic region must be considered.

The degree of strengthening from nitride formation can be

described by specifying the shape, volume fraction, average
particle diameter, and mean interparticle spacing. Stainless
steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) welds have a large volume
fraction of nitrides with an approximate size of 1 µm (from
Figure 5) in the interdendritic region, where some nitrides are
smaller and some are larger. Upon subsequent welding passes,
nitrogen super-saturation proceeds in the interdendritic region
of the austenitic stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565)
weld, resulting in an increase in the volume fraction of nitrides
and a decrease in the spacing between particles. The nitrides
formed on the first autogenous weld pass may act as
nucleation sites for the formation of more nitrides upon
Figure 5: (a) SEM image of stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI
34565) (triple plasma weld passes) at 800 X and (b) at
1500X. Note that yellow arrow corresponds to EDX scan line
of the solute compositional profile [Lasseigne, 2005].
The type of nitrides formed during welding of stainless steel
Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) were determined from x-ray
diffraction of the residue produced by the Beeghly ester-
halogen practice. The nitrides were found to be aluminum
nitrides, iron nitrides, titanium nitrides, and chromium
nitrides. The Ellingham-Richardson diagram can be plotted to

803
determine the order of formation of the nitrides as seen in the
x-ray diffraction pattern for stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI
34565) (Figure 6).
The Ellingham-Richardson diagram is a plot of the change in
standard free energy of formation as a function of temperature
for carbides, oxides, and nitrides. The nitride standard free
energies given in the modified Ellingham-Richardson diagram
are customized to take into account each alloying addition in
stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) through the
utilization of the Wada and Pehlke26 equation for the activity
of nitrogen, which is shown in Figure 7.26 Figure 6 is a plot of
the free energy of formation of nitrides as a function of
temperature for stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) base
metal. All thermodynamic data came from Pankratz and
Elliot.27-30
Figure 7 indicates that thermodynamically, the first nitrides to
form are titanium nitride and aluminum nitride. The aluminum
and titanium quickly become exhausted leading to the
formation of chromium nitrides and iron nitrides. The nitrides
are present in the interdendritic region due to the super-
saturation of nitrogen in this region. Iron nitride (Fe3N) forms
in stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) welds as
determined by x-ray diffraction shown in Figure 6.
Notice from the Ellingham-Richardson diagram the positive
standard free energy of iron nitride (Fe4N) as compared to the
negative free energies of aluminum nitride and titanium
nitride. It would be suspected that iron nitrides would never
form due to the location on the Ellingham-Richardson diagram
(positive free energy), but the nitrogen content in the
interdendritic region was so sufficient (super-saturated) to
form Fe4N and then continue to decompose the Fe4N resulting
in Fe3N.22, 31
Figure 6: X-ray diffraction pattern for stainless steel Alloy
1.4565 (AISI 34565) weld residue (after Beeghly ester-
halogen digestion).
804
Figure 7: Ellingham-Richardson diagram modified for
stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) base metal.
Generally a loss in ductility or toughness is proportional to the
volume fraction of precipitates. The nitrides can also be brittle
and crack at a critical nitride radius. From the plasma-welded
specimen shown in Figure 5, it is speculated that with the high
nitride volume fraction, decreasing particle spacing, and
increasing nitride size, the mechanical properties are being
degraded in the interdendritic region with each subsequent
weld pass.
Irvine et al4 calculated the yield strength and ultimate tensile
strengths as a function of composition and grain size. Based
on a detailed analysis of all published strength data for Fe-Cr-
Mn-N stainless steels, strength data (MPa) in the annealed
condition as a function of composition (wt pct.) can be
calculated from Balachandran et al32 as:
YS = 3.03(C) + 335.60(N) + 5.08(Mn) + 8.41(Cr)
− 9.39(Si) − 172.71(P) − 94.95(S) − 21.94(Mo) [4]
+ 15.19(Ni) - 94.25(Cu) + 3188.33(V) + 176.62
Using the yield strength equation accounting for chemical
composition from Balachandran et al32, the yield strength of
stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) weld is plotted as a
function of interstitial nitrogen content in Figure 8. In Figure
8, it is also important to note that the yield stress is plotted as a
function of interstitial nitrogen content because nitrogen is an
interstitial solid solution strengthener.
Notice that the dendritic region is seeing much lower yield
strengths than the interdendritic region. The yield strength
increases with increasing nitrogen content, but it is important
to remember that super-saturation of nitrogen occurs before
reaching the higher yield strengths in the interdendritic region.
So the only way to reach these high yields strengths is by
carefully controlling the solubility of nitrogen. If the weld is
put under deformation, the dendrite would deform first
because it is softer, thus loading the interdendritic region.
To fully gain and understand the beneficial effects of nitrogen
strengthening, a composite model must be developed and
applied to account for the nitrogen strengthening mechanism
associated with both the dendritic and interdendritic regions.
1000
Stainless Steel Alloy 1.4565
950
900
850
800
Interdendritic Region
750
Dendritic Region
700
650
600
550
500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Interstitial Nitrogen Content (wt %)
Figure 8: Yield strength as a function of nitrogen content
calculated from Balachandran et al32 accounting for all
alloying elements in stainless steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565).
CONCLUSIONS
• The use of the Beeghly ester-halogen technique in
combination with the Leco Nitrogen Determinator
allowed partitioning of nitrogen content into solid
solution nitrogen and formed nitrides.
• The non-destructive thermoelectric power surface
contact probe rapidly assessed the interstitial nitrogen
content allowing for good predictability of
microstructural and property information on stainless
steel Alloy 1.4565 (AISI 34565) welds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge and appreciate the research support
of the U.S. Army Research Office, Federal Institute of
Materials Research and Testing (Berlin, Germany), the
National Science Foundation, and the American Society of
Non-Destructive Testing. The authors would also like to
acknowledge Prof. Victor Kaydanov (CSM) and Prof. Hans
Joachim Kleebe (CSM) for assistance with thermoelectric
power and microstructural analysis. The authors would like to
appreciate Dr. James Rawers of the DOE Albany Laboratory
for his tutorial on alloy stability of high nitrogen stainless
steels.
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Structure, Properties, Manufacture, and Applications,
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Intl. Conf. on "High Nitrogen Steels 2004", Ostend,
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5. Mathew, M.D. and Srinivasan, V.S., “Mechanical
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6. Nilsson J.O. and Thorvaldsson, T., “The Influence of
Nitrogen on Microstructure and Strength of a High Alloy
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(1985), pp. 83-89.
7. Gooch, T.G., “The Corrosion Behavior of Welded
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8. Mudali, U.K. and Raj, B., High Nitrogen Steels and
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9. Reed, R.P., Purtscher, R.T., Yushchenko, K.A., “Nickel
and Nitrogen Alloying Effects on the Strength of
Austenitic Stainless Steels at 4K” Adv. Cryog. Eng.
Materials, Vol. 32, (1986), pp. 43-50.
10. Reed, R.P. and Simon, N.J. “Nitrogen Strengthening of
Austenitic Stainless Steels at Low Temperatures”, In:
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Institute of Metals, London, (1989), pp. 180-188.
11. Niessen, W.M.A., Current Practice of Gas
Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy, Vol. 86, Marcel
Dekker Publ., New York, (2001).
12. Jeffery, P.G. and Kipping, P.J., Gas Analysis by Gas
Chromatography, Pergamon Press, New York, (1964).
13. Beeghly, H.F., “Determination of Combined Nitrogen in
Steel: A Rapid Method, Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry”, Vol. 14, No.2, (1942), pp. 137-140.
14. Beeghly, H.F., “Determination of Aluminum Nitride in
Steel”, Analytical Chemistry, Vol 21 (12), (1949), pp.
1513-1519.
15. Beeghly, H.F., “Behavior of Nitrogen and Some of its
Compounds in Steel” Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 24, No.
7, (1952), pp. 1095-1100.
16. Beeghly, H.F., “Determination of Non-Metallic
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17. Beeghly, H.F., “Determination of Nitrides in Metals”, 31. Lasseigne, A.N., Olson, D.L., Kleebe, H.J., and
Symposium for the Society of Analytical Chemistry, The Boellinghaus, Th., Microstructural Assessment of
Iron and Steel Inst., (1960), pp. 183-191. Nitrogen Strengthened Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds
18. Rawers, J., Bennett, J., Doan, R., and Siple, J., “Nitrogen Utilizing Thermoelectric Power”, to be published in
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Alloys”, Acta Metallurgica, Vol. 40 (6), (1992), pp. 1195- 32. Balachandran, G., "Developments in the Manufacture of
1199. High Nitrogen Stainless Steels", in High Nitrogen Steels
19. Rawers, J.C., Gokcen, N.A., and Pehlke, R.D., “High and Stainless Steels by Mudali, U.K. and Raj, B., ASM
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Metallurgical Transactions, Vol. 24A, January, (1993),
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20. Rawers, J. and Petty Jr., A.V., “High Pressure Nitrogen
Gas Alloying of Fe-Cr-Ni Alloys: Part 1-Nitride
Composition and Nitrogen Concentration”, Journal of
Material Science, Vol. 28 (1993), pp. 3489-3495.
21. Lasseigne, A.N., Non-Destructive Determination of
Interstitial Nitrogen Content in Austenitic Stainless Steel
Welds Utilizing Thermoelectric Power, Colorado School
of Mines Masters thesis, (2004), T-5899.
22. Lasseigne, A.N., D.L. Olson, Boellinghaus, Th., Kleebe,
H.J., and Smith, R.D., "Non-Destructive Determination of
Nitrogen in Nitrogen-Strengthened Austenitic Stainless
Steel Weldments Utilizing Thermoelectric Power
Coefficient Measurements", Proc. of Intl. Conf. on "High
Nitrogen Steels 2004", Ostend, Belgium, Sept. 19-22,
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Germany, (2004).
23. Lasseigne, A.N., Olson, D.L., Boellinghaus, Th., and
Kaydanov, V.I., "Utilization of Non-Destructive
Thermoelectric Power Measurements for Determination
of Interstitial Nitrogen Content in Nitrogen-Strengthened
Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds", Proc. of QNDE 2004,
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24. Lasseigne, A.N., Olson, D.L., and Boellinghaus, Th.,
“Development of a Non-Destructive Tool for Assessment
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26. Wada, H. and Pehlke, R.D., “Solubility of Nitrogen in
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Massachusetts, (1960), pp. 148-160.

806
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Spectroscopic Monitoring of Hydrogen in Welding Arcs
J. Chandler, G. Edwards, and S. Liu
Colorado School of Mines,
Center for Welding, Joining and Coatings Research
George S. Ansell Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering
Golden, Colorado, 80401, USA
Abstract
The focus of this work was to investigate the applicability of
arc spectroscopy as a non-destructive method of hydrogen
determination in gas metal arc welding (GMAW) of HSLA
steel. A spectrometer active in the wavelength range of 200 –
850 nm was utilized to measure the intensity of hydrogen and
argon emission lines in the arc. Determination of arc
temperature and hydrogen concentration was performed using
the ion-neutral line ratio method and the Saha equation. While
the methodology is not new, much of the arc-emission
spectroscopy work in literature has been performed on gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) processes. Arc spectroscopy of
GMAW processes required methods to account for metal
transfer modes and the increased presence of iron vapor in the
welding arc as compared to GTAW processes.
Varying amounts of hydrogen and moisture were added to the
shielding gas and then correlated to the hydrogen content of
the deposited weld metal measured using gas chromatography.
A Sievert’s Law type of relationship was found to exist
between hydrogen spectroscopically detected in the welding
arc and hydrogen content in the weld metal. Thus,
spectroscopic monitoring of a GMAW process during
deposition can be utilized to monitor the hydrogen activity in
the arc and signal the operator when unacceptable diffusible
hydrogen levels result.
Introduction
Hydrogen is a likely contaminant in arc welding processes,
originating from moisture in the atmosphere or shielding gas,
as well as contamination on the consumable or workpiece. The
deleterious effects of hydrogen on high strength steel have
been well documented [1-21]. Current methods of quantifying
diffusible hydrogen require destruction of the weld sample and
outgassing of hydrogen from the weld sample. Because of the
lengthy time required for hydrogen diffusion and collection,
current methods can only report diffusible hydrogen
measurements long after welding has been completed. Thus, a
method of non-intrusive, real-time monitoring of weldment
hydrogen was pursued in this research. Emission spectroscopy
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 807
was chosen as the method of arc monitoring due to its real-
time and non-intrusive nature during data collection.
Hydrogen content of the weldments was measured and
correlated to the light data emitted during deposition.
Experimental Procedure
Arc Generation System
A two-part welding arc study was conducted to investigate the
capabilities of the spectroscopy system using a Miller Nirvana
welding power source - a 60M series CC/CV power supply
and an ER70S-3 grade electrode with 0.045-inch (1.14 mm)
diameter. In the first and second phase, the welding
consumable held little importance on the goal of the research
other than to provide weld metal for analysis. The effect of the
shielding gas composition was the primary focus.
Light Collection Setup
In order to make measurements of the light emitted from a
welding arc, an apparatus was devised to magnify the arc and
collect data from small, discrete regions of the arc. A
schematic diagram of the equipment can be seen in Figure 1.
A shield constructed of sheet steel was placed next to the arc.
In addition, a high temperature polymer shield was placed
between the steel shield and the lens/filter assembly. The two
shields served to limit the amount of light traveling to the
spectrometer and to protect the lens and filters from errant
sparks and spatters emitted from the welding process. A 30
mm double convex polymer lens was used to magnify the arc.
Neutral density filters were utilized during this research to
attenuate the light signal emitted from the arc. The probe of
the spectrometer was placed into a hole drilled into the center
of an adjustable and articulating projection screen. Thus,
studies could be made of the light emitted from the various
regions in the arc.
The welding process was performed on A36 steel diffusible
hydrogen samples, in accordance with the standard
AWS/ANSI A4.3-93: Standard Methods for Determination of
the Diffusible Hydrogen Content of Martensitic, Bainitic, and
Ferritic Steel Weld Metal Produced by Arc Welding [23].

Lens
Arc
Shield with
Filters
Aperture
A/D
Computer
Board
Figure 1. Schematic representation of spectroscopic data
collection setup.
The probe of the spectrometer used in this research is shown
in Figure 2. Within the probe was a collimating lens 5
millimeters in diameter. Light data were transmitted to the
spectrometer via a fiber optic cable. Once it reached the
spectrometer, the light was dispersed by a fixed grating and
shone across a linear CCD array detector, which contained
2048 elements reactive to light in the wavelength range of 200
nanometers to 850 nanometers. Resolution in the spectrometer
- Model S2000 manufactured by Ocean Optics, Inc. was about
0.5 nanometers. Information read by the spectrometer was
converted by an analog-to-digital converter and then collected
by a customized LabView-based application software. Data
was acquired every 100 milliseconds and stored on disk for
later processing.
Figure 2. Photograph of spectrometer probe used in this research.
Divisions on ruler in photograph are millimeters.
Spectroscopic Calculations
Spectroscopic data obtained from the welding processes were
used to calculate the arc temperatures and the concentrations
of the different species in the welding arcs. The raw data was
pre-smoothened to allow for easier processing. To reconcile
the fact that two-dimensional spectroscopic data were obtained
from a three-dimensional object, the arc, the Abel inversion
was used. This operation converts the line emission coefficient
into the radial emission coefficient.
Probe of Spectrometer To fit a function to the data, a Mathcad operation was
performed that fitted a cubic spline curve to the data. Using
the radial emission coefficient as described earlier, the
temperature of the arc was determined as functions of the arc
radius using the ion-neutral line ratio method. This method
utilizes the measured ratio of the particle density of an element
in its neutral state to that of an ion of the same element.
Since argon constituted the major volume fraction of the
shielding gases used in this research, the argon lines were used
Screen
to calculate the temperature of the arc, in particular, the
neutral argon line at 696.5 nanometers and the argon
Spectrometer
ionization line at 476.4 nanometers. The main advantage of
this method is that the intensity of the spectral lines need only
be measured on the same scale. Since this method relies on the
ratio of the spectral lines to one another, readings on an
absolute scale are not required. As disadvantage, Matsushita
found this method to predict temperatures higher than those
determined by the off-axis peaking method [25]. In addition,
the noise in the spectrometer tends to cause the temperature
readings to flatten out as the radial distance increases. In other
words, the outer periphery of the arc seems to assume
unnaturally high temperatures that should be disregarded.
The concentration of the elements present in the welding arc
was calculated using the ratio of the spectral intensity of the
neutral species of a particular element to the spectral intensity
of neutral argon. Radial emission coefficients of the elements
of interest were placed in the equation along with the
temperatures calculated by the ion-neutral line ratio method.
With these substitutions, particle density ratios with respect to
neutral argon were obtained. The Saha equation was employed
to find ionization fractions using the determined temperature.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Hydrogen Additions to Argon Shielding Gas
Hydrogen additions to argon in the amounts of 220-ppm, 1-
vol. percent, and 3-vol. percent were used in the experiments.
The goal of this part of the study was to analyze the effect of
the additions on the hydrogen content in the weldments and to
test the ability of the spectroscopic system to observe
hydrogen in the arc.
The relationship between diffusible hydrogen content of steel
weldments and hydrogen additions to an argon shielding gas
can be observed in Figure 3. As the hydrogen content of the
shielding gas is increased, the diffusible hydrogen content of
the weldments deposited under the shielding gases increased
proportionally to the square root of the amount of hydrogen in
the shielding gas. A regression line with a power of one-half is
superimposed on the graphic for reference. This behavior is
similar to that predicted by Sievert’s law, suggesting that
absorption of diatomic hydrogen plays a strong role in the
total amount of hydrogen absorbed during welding. If
hydrogen absorption in the weld pool were to occur only from
808
monatomic hydrogen, the relationship would be expected to
exhibit a linear behavior, as calculated by Gedeon [19].
Weld Metal Diffusible Hydrogen Content (ppm)
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Hydrogen Addition in Shielding Gas (vol.pct.)
Figure 3. Relationship between diffusible hydrogen content of steel
weldments and hydrogen content in an argon shielding gas.
In order to determine the concentration of constituents in the
arc, the temperature had to be known. The temperature
calculated with the ion-neutral line ratio method was inserted
into the Saha equation to determine the ionization fractions of
hydrogen and argon in the arc. Concentration calculations
were performed at every 0.25 millimeters from the center of
the arc out to 3.25 millimeters. Because of occasional
inaccuracies in the temperature determined with the ion-
neutral line ratio method, hydrogen concentration profiles
were affected. Consequently, it was decided that a summation
of the hydrogen concentrations at the various radii within the
arc would best correlate with the hydrogen content in the
weldments. In this manner, any point-to-point variations in the
profile would be averaged out in the final concentration value.
Measurements beyond 3.25 millimeters were not considered
because readings beyond that radius would most likely be
spurious noise and not true signals from the arc.
The calculated temperatures for GMAW processes with 220-
ppm hydrogen additions can be seen in Figure 4. It is seen that
the largest gradients occurred at the 6-mm scan height
(measured from the surface of the weld pool towards the
electrode tip) due to its relatively small width. Temperature
profiles at 4 and 2 mm exhibited less severe gradients of
temperature, due to the increased width of the arc close to the
workpiece. The high temperatures at each scan height were
calculated to be at the center axis of the arc, decreasing in
value from approximately 25,500K at 6 mm to 22,500 K at 2
mm. This arc temperature distribution is similar to that
reported by an earlier researcher [1]. The temperature values
calculated in this research were somewhat higher than the
temperatures calculated by White [27] in GMAW processes.
However, temperatures calculated by White [27] were done so
using the Boltzmann-plot method and with additions of
oxygen to the shielding gas as well [27].
26000
6 mm 4 mm 2 mm
25000
24000
23000
22000
21000
20000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Radius (mm)
1.0 2.0 3.0 Figure 4. Temperature profiles at indicated heights (from the surface
of the weld pool) for a GMAW process with 220 ppm hydrogen
addition in argon shielding gas.
The relationship between the summation of hydrogen
observed in the arc out to 3.25 mm radius and the diffusible
hydrogen content of the weldments can be seen in Figure 5. A
linear correlation exists between the summed hydrogen
contents in the arc and diffusible hydrogen in the weldments.
Though the relationship is not an exact correlation, it is
sufficient proof that spectroscopy can be used as a diagnostic
tool for determination of hydrogen concentration in the arc.
With this tool, a welding manufacturer can pinpoint the level
of unacceptable level of hydrogen content in the weldment by
means of arc-observed hydrogen concentration. During
fabrication of a structure, detection of this particular amount
of hydrogen in the arc would serve as a warning sign that the
deposited weldment may be prone to HAC. In this manner, the
time and expense associated with destructive testing of
diffusible hydrogen analysis may be reduced or avoided
altogether. Before final application to a fabrication process,
similar sets of tests as was performed in this research should
be done with the conditions that would be present at the time
of welding. Specifically, data from GMAW processes that use
argon-carbon dioxide or other shielding gas mixtures should
be collected for correlation and the relationship incorporated
into the hydrogen detection procedure.
Hydrogen concentration profiles for GMAW processes with 1
and 3-percent hydrogen additions at 6 mm above the
workpiece can be seen in Figure 6. These hydrogen
concentration profiles exhibited a trend opposite that of
previous researchers, generally increasing from the center of
the arc outward. This trend can be attributed to the high
temperatures found at the center of the arc, regions of highest
energy density. As discussed earlier, the concentrations of the
constituents in the arc were calculated by computing a ratio of
the first and second ionized argon to neutral argon and using
the Saha equation. Examining the ionization behavior of argon
as a function of temperature, shown in Figure 7, it can be seen
809
that second ionization of argon begins to occur rapidly in the would have its own particular ionization behavior in that
temperature range of the maximum temperatures calculated. temperature range.
For each second ionized argon atom in the arc, two electrons
result and exert a significant influence near the center axis of In previous spectroscopic research of hydrogen in GTAW
the arc. Their influence, however, diminishes as the arc radius processes, it was postulated that hydrogen reaches a peak
increases. As the temperature decreases with increasing radius, concentration near the cathode because of the diffusion
the argon present tends to consist mainly of first ionized argon behavior of monatomic hydrogen, reactions with other species
and neutral argon. in the arc, and variation of hydrogen mass transport due to the
temperature and pressure gradients [28]. The hydrogen
concentration profiles calculated in this research suggests that
the overwhelming presence of electrons in the core of the arc
6 serve to displace hydrogen to the outer regions of the arc. The
high temperature in the center of the arc causes a rapid
5 expansion of the shielding gas that imparts kinetic energy to
the particles in the arc. For a given kinetic energy, a smaller
4
particle will experience a greater velocity than a relatively
3 larger one. As such, the hydrogen particles would move more
quickly than the argon particles in the arc. Thus, it is not
2 unreasonable to observe an increase in hydrogen content with
increased distance from the center of the arc.
1

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Summation of H in Arc out to 3.25mm

Figure 5. Relationship between diffusible hydrogen concentration of

weldments and the summations of hydrogen concentration in the
welding arc out to 3.25 millimeters arc radius.

0.040

0.035
1 % Hydrogen 3 % Hydrogen
0.030

0.025

0.020

0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Radius (mm)
Figure 6. Hydrogen concentration profiles across welding arcs
with indicated hydrogen additions to argon shielding gas.
Though the relationship shown in Figure 6 has not been
reported in the literature before, it should be noted that the
temperatures reported in this research are higher than those
previously reported as a result of both the particular range of
temperatures and the shielding gas. For instance, an increase
in temperature from 15,000 to 17,000 K would not have as
significant an effect as a change in temperature from 22,000 to
24,000 K, even though both differences are 2,000 K. That
particular temperature range is critical only because argon is
the primary constituent of the shielding gas. Another gas
3
Figure 7. Ionization behavior of argon as function of temperature.
(Initial particle density of 6.02x1023 particles per cubic meter) [8].
Another distinguishing factor in the center of the arc is the
presence of molten metal droplets traveling from the electrode
to the weld pool. Calculations by Mundra, et. al [17] showed
that molten iron droplets absorb as much as 12 ppm hydrogen
while traversing the arc. In this research, most welding was
performed primarily in spray mode, which would allow for
maximum surface contact with the arc atmosphere and could
have led to appreciable hydrogen absorption by the metal
droplets on their journey to the weld pool.
Moisture Additions to Argon Shielding Gas
A study was undertaken to test the ability of the spectroscopy
system to observe hydrogen in the arc resulting from moisture

810
in the shielding gas. The impetus for this phase of research lies
in the potential application of spectroscopy to a shipyard
fabrication environment. Humidity in the atmosphere results
in moisture in the shielding gas, which results in hydrogen in
the weldment. Savage, et. al. [29] found that moisture
additions in a shielding gas are more potent than hydrogen
additions with regards to hydrogen content of the weldment.
Special argon shielding gas mixtures containing hydrogen and
moisture additions for 220-ppm concentration, with a ± 3-pct.
variance according to manufacturer’s specifications, were used
in these experiments.
As expected, weldments made with the moisture-addition
shielding gas exhibited considerable porosity. It was believed
that the porosity was due to the moisture itself and not any
instabilities in the arc that may have been caused by the
additions to the shielding gas. Spray metal transfer mode was
achieved in all welding. No porosity was evident in weldments
made with the 220-ppm hydrogen addition shielding gas. This
observation would suggest that the moisture engendered a
considerable amount of hydrogen in the weldment. Low
hydrogen levels in a weldment would likely be in solution in
the weld metal. Only when hydrogen levels exceed saturation
in the weld metal would one expect to see porosity. Diffusible
hydrogen levels in weldments made with both shielding gas
mixtures were very low, often times not evolving detectable
amounts of hydrogen to register on the gas chromatograph.
2500
2000
6 mm
4 mm
2 mm
1500
1000
500
0 60
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Radius (mm)
Figure 8. Hydrogen concentration profiles at indicated heights in
GMAW processes with 220 ppm moisture additions in argon
shielding gas.
When sufficient hydrogen is collected, the diffusible hydrogen
levels were found to be 1.2 mL of hydrogen /100 g of weld
metal for the moisture-addition shielding gas and 1.5 mL of
hydrogen /100 g of weld metal for the 220-ppm hydrogen
addition shielding gas. This was not a significant difference
considering the drastic difference in weldment quality.
However, the porosity of the moisture-addition weldments
may be the reason for the low levels. Hydrogen in the molten
weld metal exists in monatomic form until saturation. Once
pores form, monatomic hydrogen is likely to leave the weld
811
metal to recombine in the energetically favorable diatomic
form. As outlined in the AWS diffusible hydrogen standard
[23], the weldments are quenched immediately after welding
to retard hydrogen mobility. Upon degassing, it is entirely
possible that hydrogen in the weld metal diffused into the
pores instead of evolving from the sample. Once in diatomic
form, hydrogen mobility in iron is severely limited. Thus, it is
not necessarily a contradiction that the weldments made with
the moisture-addition shielding gas exhibited lower diffusible
hydrogen levels. In fact, weldments made with the moisture-
addition shielding gas did contain higher levels of residual
hydrogen, suggesting that the moisture additions in the
shielding gas were indeed more potent than hydrogen
additions with regards to weldment hydrogen content.
The spectroscopy system was able to detect hydrogen in the
welding arcs resulting from moisture additions. Hydrogen
concentration in the welding arcs with moisture additions
followed the same general pattern as outlined in the previous
section, i.e. increasing with increasing radius. The earlier
discussion regarding the hydrogen concentration profiles is
also valid in this case. High temperatures at the center of the
arc cause an increase in the concentration of ionized argon,
and thus, the concentration of electrons. A profile of the
hydrogen concentration of GMAW processes with moisture
additions to the shielding gas can be seen in Figure 8. The
hydrogen concentrations shown further support the premise
that moisture is a more potent means of hydrogen generation
in the arc than hydrogen additions. A profile of the hydrogen
concentration of GMAW processes with 220-ppm hydrogen
additions can be seen in Figure 9.
180
150
6 mm
4 mm
2 mm
120
90
30
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Radius (mm)
Figure 9. Hydrogen concentration profiles at indicated heights in
GMAW processes with 220-ppm hydrogen additions in argon
shielding gas.
Comparing the graphs, it can be observed that the
concentration of hydrogen due to moisture is much greater
than the hydrogen due to hydrogen additions, much greater, in
fact. Both conditions follow the same trend of greater
hydrogen concentration higher in the arc, but the maximum
concentration of hydrogen resulting from the moisture
additions is a magnitude greater than that of the hydrogen
additions.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The relationship between hydrogen additions to argon
shielding gas and the diffusible hydrogen content of steel
weldments produced by a GMAW process resembles a
Sievert’s Law type of relationship.
2. Calculations made using emission spectroscopy of a
GMAW process was found to be a reliable indicator of the
diffusible hydrogen content of a steel weldment.
3. The spectroscopy setup used in this research was able to
detect hydrogen in the arc due to moisture in the argon
shielding gas and rust on a steel wire consumable.
4. Moisture additions were found to be more potent in causing
hydrogen in a steel weldment than hydrogen additions of
the same concentration in argon shielding gas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding and support
of Dr. Julie Christodoulou of the U.S. Office of Naval
Research.
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and R.J. Pargeter. Welding Steels without Hydrogen
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Welding of HSLA (Microalloyed) Structural Steels –
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J.E.M Braid, C.V. Hyatt, D.L. Olson, and G.N. Vigilante.
Ottawa: CANMET, 1999. 53-64.
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Periaswami, and S.D. Kulkarni: Welding Journal, July
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Analysis of Double-Electrode Gas Metal Arc Welding

C. S. Wu, G. X. Xu
Institute for Materials Joining, Shandong University, Jinan, China
K. H. Li, Y. M. Zhang
University of Kentucky Center for Manufacturing, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

Abstract the PAW electrode. This arc does not directly heat base metal
and is referred to as the bypass arc. The corresponding current
An analytical model is developed to predict the temperature is referred to as the bypass current I bp . The current supplied
profile and weld pool geometry in double-electrode gas metal by the GMAW power supply flows from the filler wire to the
arc welding (DE-GMAW), which is invented to avoid base metal and is referred to as the base metal current I bm . The
unwanted side-effects resulting from the higher welding
current associated with higher wire melting rate. For a case current which flows through and melts the filler wire will be
study, the DE-GMAW process employs the wire melting the sum of the bypass current I bp and the base metal current
current of 250 A while maintains the base metal current at half I bm , and is referred to as the melting current I m . Because two
of that value. Through preliminary analysis, quantitative
information is obtained for the deposition area, arc pressure, torch electrodes are used and the method is basically similar to
weld pool geometry, and the region at elevated temperature in GMAW except for the current bypass, the method is referred
the DE-GMAW. to as the double-electrode GMAW or DE-GMAW.
In order to understand the phenomena associated with the
DE-GMAW and establish the knowledge base and foundations
to support the novel process, the wire melting rate, droplet
Introduction formation and transfer, and weld pool behaviors should be
studied by modeling and simulation. In this paper, preliminary
In the conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW), the arc is analysis of the DE-GMAW is conducted to provide some
always established between the consumable electrode and the guidelines for implementing the process experimentally.
base metal. The base metal is the cathode and the part of the
arc heat determined by the product of the welding current and
the cathode potential is directly absorbed by the base metal.
Because this part of the heat directly melts the base metal
contributing to enlarging the weld pool and distortion, the
increase of deposition rate via increasing the welding current
is limited unless backing is used to support the large weld
pool. Due to deposition is the major application of GMAW,
the fundamental characteristic of the arcing principle limits the
further improvement of productivity in conventional GMAW.
For example, for a half inch (12.7mm) thick joint, five cover
passes are typically needed to fill the groove after the root pass
[1]. However, if the workpiece is not a terminal of the arc, so
that the permitted amperage is not restricted, high current can
then be used to achieve high melting rate to fill the groove in a
single pass. A novel process, referred to as the double–
electrode GMAW, has been developed at the University of
Kentucky to decouple the base metal current from the torch
current in GMAW [2]. As show in Fig.1, adding a plasma arc
welding (PAW) power supply and torch to GMAW power
supply and torch constitutes the double-electrode GMAW
system. The current supplied by the PAW power supply flows
from the filler wire (GMAW torch) to the PAW’s tungsten
electrode without going through the base metal. The Figure1: Experimental system for double-electrode gas metal
corresponding arc is established between the filler wire and arc welding

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 813

 Melting Rate and Deposition Area
During the DE-GMAW, let I m =250 A, I bm =125 A. Because
the melting of the electrode in the DE-GMAW is also
determined by the resistance heat, arc spot heat, and arc
radiation, the work by Waszink and Heuvel [3] can be used to
determine the melting rate of mild steel wire electrode. If
I m =250 A, the metal transfer is in spray mode. Then the
melting rate can be calculated based on the following formula
I 2L (1)
m = 5.1 × 10 −13 + 2.2 × 10 −6 ⋅ I
S 250A
where m is the melting rate, I is the current following
through and melting the wire ( I = I m in the DE-GMAW), L
is the wire extension, and S is the cross-section area of the
wire. If the wire diameter is 1.2 mm, and the wire extension is
26 mm, the melting rate corresponding to I m =250 A is
m = 1.283 × 10 −3 (kg/s)
For this case in the DE-GMAW, I m =250 A, but the base
metal current I bm =125 A. In conventional GMAW, the base
metal current equals to the melting current. If the permitted
base current is 125 A, the melting current I m =125 A. The
metal transfer mode will be globular and the melting rate
formula becomes [3]:
I 2L
m = 5.5 × 10 −13 + 2.4 × 10 −6 ⋅ I − 5.0 × 10 −5
S
The melting rate corresponding to I m =125 A is thus
m = 0.483 × 10 −3 (kg/s)
Different melting rate produces a different deposition area
on the base metal. The deposition area A in cross-section of
weld can be described as
A = m (3)
ρv
where ρ is the density of wire, and v is the welding speed.
For ρ =7840 kg/m3 and v =10.0 mm/s, A=16.33mm2 at
2
I m =250 A, and A=6.16 mm at I m =125 A. Therefore, the
DE-GMAW is of the much higher melting rate and deposition
rate, so it is associated with higher welding productivity.
Arc Pressure
The arc pressure Parc can be expressed as [4]
æ r2 ö
µ0I 2 ç− ÷ (4)
Parc = exp
8π 2σ j
2 ç 2σ 2 ÷
è j ø
where µ 0 is the magnetic permeability, I is the welding
current, σ j is the current distribution parameter, and r is the
distance from the arc centerline. As shown in Fig.2, increasing
the current also increases the arc pressure. When I m =250 A,
the maximum value of arc pressure in conventional GMAW is
248.8 N/m2 because I = I m = I bm . However, for I m = 250A in
the DE-GMAW, I = I bm is 125 A and the maximum value of
arc pressure imposed on the weld pool is 62.2 N/m2. The DE-
GMAW can thus reduce the arc pressure without reducing the
deposition rate. Hence, DE-GMAW provides a method to
weld thin-section materials with high deposition rate by
increasing I m but controlling I bm at a desired level.
250
200 125A
Parc(N/m )
2
150
100
50
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
r(m)
(2)
Figure 2: The distribution of arc pressure
Weld Pool Geometry
Determining the weld pool geometry based on the weld
temperature profile is a prerequisite for optimizing the
welding process. There are two ways to calculate the welding
temperature profile, i.e., numerical simulation and analytical
solution. The former includes finite element method and finite
difference technique, which are sophisticated and need
extensive computation. The latter has advantages for the
purpose of optimization and control of welding processes
because of its relative simplicity, clear physical meaning and
flexibility. Rosenthal’s solution [5] produces relatively large
errors in predicting temperature distribution in the weldment
because of many unrealistic assumptions. A few modifications
have been made on Rosenthal’s solution through incorporating
more realistic assumptions [6, 7], but they are valid only for
the quasi-steady state condition which is unsuitable for use in
optimization and control of welding processes. Eagar and Tasi
[8] and Nguyeneta et al [9] derived a transient model of
temperature fields in a semi-infinite body subjected to a heat
source, which has large errors in predicting the depth of the
weld penetration due to the assumption of the semi-infinite
thickness of the weldment. Boo and Cho [10] developed an
analytical solution to predict the transient temperature
distribution in a finite thickness plate during arc welding.
814
However, the traveling Gaussion heat source is unsuitable for heat source, the heat flux within each semi-ellipsoid are
describing the PAW process in the DE-GMAW. In this paper, described by different equations. For a point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) within
an analytical model is derived for the DE-GMAW process. the first semi-ellipsoid located in front of the welding arc, the
heat flux is in the following form
6 3 f 1Q æ 3x 2 3 y 2 3 z 2 ö
8 250A q '' ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = expçç − 12 − 12 − 12 ÷÷ (5)
125A a1bh c hπ π è a1 bh ch ø
6
For a point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) within the second semi-ellipsoid located
Y(mm)

4
behind the welding arc, the heat flux is in the following form
2 6 3 f 2Q æ 3x 2 3 y 2 3 z 2 ö (6)
q '' ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) = exf çç − 12 − 12 − 12 ÷÷
0 a 2 bh c h π π è a2 bh ch ø
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

X(mm) where f1 + f 2 = 2 , a1 , a 2 , bh , c h = ellipsoidal heat source

parameters, Q = arc heat input ( Q = ηIV ), and f1 , f 2 =
(A) Top surface proportion coefficient representing heat appointment in front
and back of the heat source, respectively.
0 After a series of derivation, the following equation is
obtained to predict the temperature profile in DE-GMAW
2
t 3Q 1 æ 3dö
T ( x, y , z , t ) = ò ⋅ erf çç ÷⋅
÷
2π ρ c d 12a (t − t1 ) + bh
Z(mm)

è ch ø
4 0

250A
6
125A ì f1 é 3[x + v (t − t1 )]2 3y 2 ù ü
ï exp ê− − +
2 ú ï
8
ï 12a (t − t1 ) + a1
ï
2
êë 12 a (t − t 1 ) + a1
2
12 a (t − t 1 ) + b h ûú ï ï
í ý⋅
ï f2 é 3[x + v (t − t1 )] 2
3y 2 ù ï
ï exp ê − − 2 ú ï
êë 12a (t − t1 ) + a 2 12a (t − t1 ) + bh úû ï
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

îï 12a (t − t1 ) + a 2
2 2
X(mm) þ
é ù
[ ]
∞
H
(B) Longitudinal section åc m exp − µ n2 (t − t1 ) •êcos(β n z ) + 1 sin (β n z )ú dt1
n =1 ë βn û
(7)
0

where µ 2
(8)
cm = n

µ + aH 1 2 + 2aH 1 / d
2
n
2
µ n2 h1 h2 (9)
β n2 = , H1 = , H2 =
a K K
Z(mm)

4
β n (H1 + H 2 ) (10)
250A
125A tan(β n d ) =
6
β n2 − H 1 H 2
where T is temperature in the workpiece, t is time and a is the
thermal diffusivity, K is the thermal conductivity, h1 and h2
8
are the thermal loss coefficients of the top surface and the
bottom surface, respectively, and T0 is the ambient
0 2 4 6 8

Y(mm) temperature. ρ c is the volumetric specific heat, and erf is the

error function:
(C) Cross section 2 x
ò exp(− x
2
erf ( x) = )dx (11)
π 0
Figure 3: The weld pool geometry (welding voltage 30V, Eq.(7) can be used to calculate the temperature distribution.
welding speed 2 mm/s, 9.525mm thick plate) It is based on the double ellipsoidal heat source, finite plate
thickness, and the effect of heat losses at the top and bottom
surfaces of workpieces. After the temperature profile is
A volumetric heat source traveling at the welding speed v known, the weld pool geometry can be easily determined. A
along x-direction is exerted on the workpiece of finite computer program has been designed for solving Eq. (9). This
thickness d. For describing the PAW in the DE-GMAW, analytical procedure provides a simple yet efficient method to
Goldak’s double ellipsoidal heat source [11] is used. Since compute the weld profile in DE-GMAW.
two different semi-ellipsoids are combined to give the new

815
 K), h2 = 18 W/(m2 K). The distribution parameters of the heat
10 source are f1 = 0.8, f 2 = 1.2, a1 = 0.8 mm, a 2 = 3.2 mm,
8 1050 C
0
0
bh = 6.5 mm, and c h = 1.5 mm.
600 C
The DE-GMAW is with much lower base metal current
Y(mm)

I bm . For a base metal current I bm =125 A, and the melting

4
current I m =250 A, it still has high deposition rate as 250A in
2
conventional GMAW. A comparison of weld pool shape and
0
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
heat-affected zone is made to show the difference between the
X(mm) base metal current 125A in the DE-GMAW and the 250A in
conventional PAW.
(A) Top surface (I = 125 A) Fig.3 shows the weld pool geometry at the top surface,
longitudinal and transverse cross sections. If the welding
0
current 250 A is used in conventional PAW, the workpiece is
fully penetrated. In the DE-GMAW, the welding current
2
flowing through the workpiece is only 125 A, so the weld pool
is much smaller because of the lower heat input.
Z(mm)

6
0
1050 C
For welding stainless steel, there exists a so-called
0
600 C “sensitization zone” with the temperature range from 600 to
8
1050 oC. This zone is the region in which stainless steel may
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 develop the undesired intergranular corrosion [12]. The
X(mm) possibility of developing weld decay increases as the
sensitization zone expands. Fig.4 demonstrates the
(B) Longitudinal section (I = 125 A) sensitization zones in DE-GMAW ( I bm =125 A) and in PAW
( I =250 A), respectively. It can be seen that the area of the
12 sensitization zone in DE-GMAW is much smaller than that in
10 1050 C
0 PAW.
0
8 600 C
Y(mm)

6
Conclusion
4
2
In DE-GMAW, the heat imposed on the base metal is
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 maintained at a desired level through decoupling the base
X(mm) metal current from the wire melting current so that the wire
melting current can be increased without increasing the base
(C) Top surface (I = 250 A) metal current. If the wire melting current is 250 A while the
base metal current is 125 A, the melting rate and deposition
area increase by 130.7%, but the maximum arc pressure
0
decreases by 300%. Because of lower heat input to the base
metal, both the weld pool geometry and the “sensitization
0
2 1050 C
0
600 C
zone” of the welded stainless steel are much smaller, thus the
Z(mm)

4
thermal distortion is expected to be much lower.
6

8
Acknowledgement
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
X(mm) This study is funded by the National Science Foundation
under Grant DMI-0355324.
(D) Longitudinal section (I = 250 A)

Reference
Figure 4: The sensitization zone of stainless steel plate
(welding voltage 30 V, welding speed 2 mm/s, 9.525mm thick [1] ANSI/AWS D10.12. Recommended practices and
plate) procedure for welding low-carbon steel pipe, in Welding
Journal, 79(8): 67-68 (2002).
In the case study in this paper, 9.625 mm thick stainless [2] Y. M. Zhang, M. Jiang and W. Lu, Double-electrode
steel plate is used. Its relevant properties are: GMAW for base metal heat input control. Welding Journal,
2 2 2
a = 0.585 × 10 −5 m /s, ρ c = 3.36 × 10 6 J/(m K), h1 = 50 W/(m 83(11): 39-42 (2004).

816
[3] J. H. Waszink and G. P. M. Van den Heuvel, Heat
generation and heat flow in the filler metal in GMAW welding.
Welding Journal, 61, 269s-282s (1982).
[4] M. L. Lin and T. W. Eagar, Pressure produced by gas
tungsten arcs. Metallurgical Transaction B, 17: 601-607
(1986).
[5] D. Rosenthal, Mathematical theory of heat distribution
during welding and cutting. Welding Journal, 20: 220s-225s
(1941).
[6] N. D. Malmuth, W. F. Hall, B. I. Davis, and C. D. Rosen,
Transient thermal phenomena and weld geometry in GTAW.
Welding Journal, 53: 388s-400s (1974).
[7] A. C. Nunes Jr., An extended Rosenthal weld model.
Welding Journal, 62: 165s-170s (1983).
[8] T. W. Eagar and N. S. Tsai, Temperature fields produced
by traveling distributed heat source. Welding Journal, 62:
346s-355s (1983).
817
[9] N. T. Nguyen, A. Ohta, K. Matsuoka, N. Suzuki, and Y.
Maeda, Analytical solution for transient temperature of semi-
infinite body subjected to 3-D moving heat sources. Welding
Journal, 78: 265s-274s (1999).
[10] K. S. Boo and H. S. Cho, Transient temperature
distribution in arc welding of finite the thickness plates. Proc
Instn Meeh Engrs part B: Journal of Engineering
Manufacture, 204: 175-181 (1990).
[11] J. Goldak, A. Chakravarti and M. Bibby, A new finite
element model for welding heat sources. Metallurgical
Transactions B, 15: 299-305 (1984).
[12] A.L. Philips, in: Welding Handbook, 5th edition, ed.,
AWS, pp.4.72-4.80 (1963).
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Experimental investigations of the arc in MIG-MAG welding

S.Zielińska, K.Musioł
(1)
Institut of Physics, Jagellonian Univ., ul. Reymonta 4, 30-459 Krakow - Poland

N.Pellerin
CRMHT - Centre Universitaire de Bourges, BP 4043, 18028 Bourges cedex 2 - France

S.Pellerin, Ch. de Izarra

LASEP - Centre Universitaire de Bourges, BP 4043, 18028 Bourges cedex 2 - France

F.Briand, F.Richard and T.Opderbecke

CTAS - Air Liquide, Saint Ouen l’Aumone, 95315 Cergy-Pontoise cedex – France

Abstract Scanning Electron Microscopy observations and Energy

Dispersive X-ray spectrometry chemical analysis.
Shielding gases have a strong influence on the stability of the
welding process. In particular, increase of carbon dioxide Optical diagnostics of the welding arc are also necessary to
percentage in argon mixtures induces a shift of the transition understand the observed modifications of droplet transfer
current threshold between globular mode and spray mode. modes, and validate already existing models, for example the
Observed effects on the arc shape are linked to the ones from Haidar [1, 2]. In this aim, an original spectroscopic
microstructural modifications of the anode tip during the diagnostic method has been used to determine the electronic
MIG-MAG welding process as a function of the gas density and the temperature distributions into the plasma
composition, and especially to the appearance or column for each transfer mode.
disappearance of a thick insulating oxide layer at the wire tip.
Spectroscopic diagnostics of the welding arc are also
necessary to understand the observed modifications of the
metal transfer mode. An original diagnostic method allows to
estimate the temperature and the electronic density
distributions into the arc plasma with no particular hypothesis
on its equilibrium state.

Introduction
Shielding gases have a strong influence on physical properties
of arc plasma and parameters of the MIG-MAG ("Metal Inert
Gas"-"Metal Active Gas") welding process. In particular, it is
well known that any increase of carbon dioxide percentage
into argon, results in an increase of the transition current
threshold separating the globular mode from the spray mode.
To explain this phenomena, the MIG/MAG welding arc
plasma was investigated with different mixtures of argon and
carbon dioxide into the shielding gas. With the use of a fast
camera, and by recording the spectral line distribution of the
arc plasma species, we noticed some phenomena not described
yet in the literature. In particular, results show very clearly
that beyond a CO2/Ar relative concentration, the shape of the
arc is significantly modified. Figure 1 - Experimental set-up
[F1: 468.8nm interference filter; F2: Filtre; M1..M7: Flat mirors;
These effects could be linked to the microstructural S1,S2: Spherical mirors; DP: Dove’s prism;P: metallic plate;
modifications of the anode tip during the MIG-MAG welding W: glass window; T: manual moving table; WEEQ step by step
process as a function of the gas composition. And then, anode moving table; ST: Voltage probe; SC: Current probe; S: Shunt]
erosion, formation of metallic droplets, their shape and their
distribution in the arc, have been also investigated using

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 819

 2. Experimental setup
The experimental system is presented on Figure 1. The
welding power source was a SAFMIG 480 TRS PLUS set with
a SAFMIG 480 TR 16 kit. The welding operation was carried
out under reverse-polarity (wire-anode, workpiece-cathode)
direct current in a constant current mode associated with a
constant wire feed speed. The wire-anode used in our
experiments was a 1,2mm diameter mild steel solid wire
(AWS A5.17). The contact-tube work distance was 20 mm,
and the workpiece thickness was 8 mm for all measurements.
Two moving tables were used. The first, micrometric tables
driven by step motor, ensured the displacement of the mild
steel metal plate in the welding direction with horizontal
velocity of 4 mm/sec. The second, manual micrometric table,
was used for displacements perpendicular to the previous
direction. The welding torch was set on a third table that could
be moved manually in vertical direction, in order to adjust the
arc length and change the distance between electrodes.
The required gases were provided by two cylinders of argon
and carbon dioxide. Two mass flow meters allowed
measurements and control of gas output.
Arc voltage (at the arc) and current were measured by a
differential voltage probe and current probe (Hall effect
transducer). These signals were sampled and stored by a
numerical oscilloscope LECROY LT584L.
3 Arc visualization
Shielding gases have a strong influence on the physical
properties of the plasma and on the parameters of the welding
process. In particular, the increase of carbon dioxide
percentage into argon, induces a shift of the transition current
separating the globular mode from the spray mode [3].
The observations made with a fast camera and a narrow
bandwidth interferential filter centered at 468.8 nm, show in a
very clear way that the arc shape and its stability are
particularly sensitive to the percentage of CO2 in argon. The
metal transfer modes can be qualitatively characterized by the
shape of the plasma column and how the arc spreads around
the wire tip [5]: in spray-arc mode, pictures show a conical arc
with a narrow attachment on the tapered wire extremity [Cf.
Figure 2b], while the arc shape in globular mode looks rather
like a bell with a large area of arc attachment above and all
around the droplet being formed [Cf. Figure 2a].
In our experimental conditions, the transition between
globular and spray transfer modes is observed towards 240 A
in argon, and towards 410 A in Ar/CO2 mixture with 15%vol
CO2.
820
a/ Globular
b/ Spray-arc
Figure 2 - The principal metal transfer modes in MIG-MAG
welding arc
Additional spectroscopic studies demonstrate that in spray-arc
mode, the regions of different brightness on the pictures
correspond to different plasma compositions [4] : the more
brighter area is made of ionized and excited metallic species
(iron essentially, manganese, chromium, …) while the
peripheral region is essentially made of excited argon. In
globular mode, this distinction is less pronounced; the plasma
is more homogeneous and the more brighter area is now
located around the droplet.
Furthermore, arc shape observations in different argon/CO2
gas mixtures at fixed current (Imean=324 A) and wire speed
(Vf=8m/min) [Cf. Figure 3], show that the arc shape is
significantly modified above a CO2/argon ratio, corresponding
to the transition from the spray-arc mode to the irregular
globular mode [5]. To be noted also is the progressive arc
length and voltage increase with the percentage increase of
CO2 into the mixture.
The current distribution within the pendant droplet plays a
very important role on the liquid metal flows, specially
through the magnitude and sign of the induced
electromagnetic force. The Lorentz force can play, either as a
force of detachment (if current lines diverge), or as a repelling
force (if current lines converge) [6, 7]. The repelled metal
transfer was observed in MAG welding with CO2 shielding
gas [8] and also in our experiments. Calculations made by
Haidar [9] point out that these behaviours could be explained
by the axial component of the electromagnetic force, through
more constricted arcs in CO2 and droplet asymmetry at the
wire extremity. Its radial component remains the dominant
detaching force and directly determines the globular-to-spray
modes transition.
These results seem to show that the observed effects could
also be related to microstructure modifications at the anode
tip, particulary through physicochemical transformations
occuring during the MIG-MAG process and dependant from
the gas composition.
a/ Globular transfer
 4. Microstructural analysis
Working conditions of the process, such as the nature of the
shielding gas or the current, have direct consequences on the
arc plasma, and induce an evolution of its shape and
composition. Through the interaction with the gas, some
physicochemical transformations of the anode wire are
possible and we have particulary looked at the microstructure
and the chemical composition of the droplet remaining at the
wire tip, at the end of the welding sequence (derived from the
steel quench into the gas mixture).

Microstructures have been examined by Scanning Electron

Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis in Back Scattering Electrons
(BSE) or Secondary Electron (SE) modes. Observations were
made on polished cross-sections according to wire axis.
Chemical composition measurements are qualitative, with an
incertitude of about 1% for metals and 5% on oxygen. Carbon
detection is rather indicative. These measurements have been
completed by quantitative analysis with an electron
microprobe.

Results show a few particularities of arc transfer modes,

especially when comparing spray-arc to globular mode.

a/ at 20% CO2 vol gangue

precipitate

50 µm

500 µm

b/ at 40% CO2 vol

Figure 4 - Microstructure of a droplet base for MAG

experiments at 330 A in two different gas mixtures, BSE mode

We have observed an oxide layer (“gangue”) wrapping the

Figure 3 - Arc shape for different gas mixture at constant droplet, in particular in globular mode, and which is all the
current more thick than the current is low or the CO2 content is high.

821
In spray-arc mode with argon, no oxyde layer is seen, while in
MAG experiments, this gangue is just partially present in
spray-arc or at the transition between the two regimes, but
exclusively on the upper part (attachment area) of the droplet.
This gangue is made of oxides, rich in iron with low CO2
mixture, and with silicon and manganese at higher CO2
content. In pure argon experiments, oxygen and carbon
coming from the wire (or through the contact tube)
concentrate into the droplet without any significant external
contribution. In Ar/CO2 experiments, notable enrichment in gangue
oxygen (and carbon to a lesser extent) is seen and attributed to
diffusion processes coming with the surrounding gas. In
another part, important fume emissions (iron vaporization) are 500 µm
thought to be responsible of the iron depletion of the oxide
layer around the droplet. Chemical reactivity between
shielding gases and liquid metal is therefore very important a/: at 240 A, a gangue wraps partially the drop,
and must be taken into account to understand the phenomena. essentially on the upper part, image BSE

According to standard Ellingham diagrams, CO2 into shielding

gas mixture can form metal oxides by oxidation -reduction
reactions:
Métal + CO2(g) Metal oxide + CO(g) (1)
Note that silicon and manganese are often used in iron
metallurgy to deoxidize iron ores according to the inverse
reaction (1), from CO gas supply.
20 µm
Precipitates are also detected in the peripheral zone and rather
at the bottom of the drop. Their composition is similar to the
gangue, and exhibit the same evolution with the gas mixture.
In metallurgy’s blast furnaces, during iron formation process, b/ microstructure detail of the gangue at 146 A, image BSE
the metal oxides coming from the initial ores constitute a slag
which floats above the melted iron. We believe that we have
here a similar process with oxide phases (oxyde layer and Darkest area between the
precipitates) in the peripheral region of the droplet. The grains, micrograph (b)
separation between the steel and the oxide phases is certainly
already there in the liquid state, when the arc is running and
when the oxygen content is high enough.

When this oxyde layer is created and if the current is not high
enough, the arc attachment region on the anode should be
larger because the electrical conductivity of oxydes is poor
c/ EDS grains analysis corresponding to (b) micrograph
and surface is needed to transfer the same current value. This
is what we have effectively observed in globular mode with a
Figure 5 – Observed gangue at low current for short-arc and
large arc attachment above and all around the droplet. This can
globular transfer mode in MIG experiments with pure argon.
explain the bell shape seen in globular modes to compare with
the more conical shape characterizing the spray-arc mode. At
higher current values, the gangue vaporization is improved
and the globular mode appearance is delayed when the CO2 5. Optical emission spectroscopy of the arc
percentage is increased.
Experimental optical diagnostic of the welding arc is also
To confirm these hypothesis, new recent experiments with necessary to understand the observed changes in the metal
another wire composition have been carried out. The spray transfer mode. But the temperature measurement datas
mode is reported at 330 A with 15 %vol CO2 argon mixture. available in the literature are dispersed, and are not often in
good agreements with the theoretical models [1, 2]. With
metallic lines emitted in the central region of the plasma,
Lancaster [10] measured temperatures in the range of

822
7000 °K, reaching 11000 °K on the column axis with a mild
steel wire, and temperatures close to 17000 °K with an
aluminium wire. Haidar [1] puts these differences, that are not
anticipated by the theoretical models, on the account of
experimental uncertainties.
The side-on measured intensity was converted into a radial
emission distribution using the Abel inversion procedure with
a cubic Spline data smoothing [11]. Then, the Voigt function
on a linear continuous background was fitted to each inverted
line profile.

It is therefore necessary to obtain accurate informations about
the plasma column behavior, and optical emission
spectroscopy seems to be a good way to do it.
Spectral distribution of emitted light was measured in spectral
range [260nm-760nm] using an Ebert type grating
spectrometer [R=Δλ/λ=150000; reciprocal dispersion
≈0.2nm/mm], set with an intensified two-dimensional CCD
array. The optical system [Cf. Figure 1] gave the image of the
plasma column image on the entry slit of the spectrometer,
after rotation and size reduction.
Observations of different column slices at different heigths h
above the workpiece for pure argon and for two Ar/CO2
mixtures (Ar + 5.4% vol CO2 and Ar + 20.2% vol CO2), with
a total gas flow rate Dg=20 l/min, and identical parameters:
wire speed Vf=9 m/min, and average current IMean=326 A, were
carried out on the arc. The use of an original method based on
comparison of stark broadenings of the 696.54nm ArI and
538.34nm FeI spectral lines [12, 13, 14, 15] has allowed to
estimate the temperature and the electronic density
distributions in the plasma without any hypothesis on its
equilibrium state [Cf. Figure 6 and Figure 7].

a/ Pure argon a/ Pure argon

6.0mm 4.5mm
6.0mm

4.5mm
3.0mm

3.0mm

r [mm] r [mm]

b/ Ar + 5% vol CO2 b/ Ar + 5% vol CO2

3.0mm 6.0mm

4.5mm

4.5mm
6.0mm

3.0mm

r [mm] r [mm]

Figure 6 – Temperature distributions for different gas types Figure 7 – Electron density distributions for different gas types
[Dg=20 l/min; Vf=9 m/min; IMean=326 A] [Dg=20 l/min; Vf=9 m/min; IMean=326 A]

823
The low temperatures observed on the arc column axis, with
pure argon or with a limited amount of carbon dioxide, is well
explained by the metallic vapours which increase the arc
electrical conductivity, but also its emissivity [16, 17], and
induce additional energy losses by radiation. Indeed,
measurements on TIG arcs prove that the addition of less than
0.07% iron vapours to an argon plasma, lowers its temperature
of about 1500°K [18]. Then, the temperature in the central
part of the arc seems to be limited to less than 15000 °K, and
is much lower than the values found in the litterature
(T>20000 °K on the axis).
On the basis of these results, it is clear that the modelisations
available in the literature [1, 2] do not represent the real
situation: for pure argon, they are generally established in the
local thermodynamical equilibrium (LTE) hypothesis, and
they do not take into account the metallic vapours influence
and the induced temperature lowering. Actually, to estimate
the distribution of relative concentrations of argon and iron in
the arc column, we are trying to verify the LTE hypothesis by
using different crossed diagnostic methods (Boltzmann plot,
atomic to ionic lines ratio…). But the zone of most intense
iron line emission is limited to the center of the arc column,
and possibilities of MIG-MAG arc temperature measurements
based on the LTE and the emission spectrum of metallic
elements are limited.
6. Conclusion
The comparison of MIG/MAG metal transfer modes in
different shielding gas mixturee shows an evolution from the
globular transfer mode to the spray-arc mode when current is
increased. The transition between globular and spray transfer
modes is observed towards 240 A in pure argon, and towards
410 A in gas mixture with 15%vol. CO2.
SEM microstructural observations and EDX analysis on
droplets for MIG-MAG experiments have allowed to
characterize the physicochemical transformations of the anode
wire, according to the working conditions of the process, such
as the nature of shielding gas and the arc current. The presence
of an oxide layer covering the droplet, comparable to slag in
iron metallothermy, is typical of globular transfer. CO2 in the
shielding gas supports its formation by a chemical oxidation-
reduction reaction. The bad electrical conductivity of this
oxyde layer partially blocks the current transfer and more wire
surface is needed to root the arc. That explains the bell arc
shape associated to globular transfer. The gangue thickness
decreases when current is increased or CO2 content is
decreased. So, it has not been observed in spray transfer mode
for pure argon shielding. In these conditions, the plasma
column has a well defined conical shape and the current line
curvature is clearly modified.
The plasma column diagnostic done by optical emission
spectroscopy without any hypothesis on its LTE state, shows
that, in the central part of the arc, the temperature never seems
824
to exceed 15000 °K, contrary to the data given in literature
(T>20000 °K on the axis). Among other results, we can point
out the deficit in excited argon close to the arc axis when the
CO2 amount into the shielding gas is less than 5%, the relative
weakness of iron lines at the column edge, but also the
increase of the FeII spectral lines in the arc periphery. This
work must be continued to study the LTE state in the plasma,
and try to estimate the distribution of relative concentrations in
argon and iron, and then the main transport and
thermodynamic characteristics (thermal and electrical
conductivity, viscosity…) in the arc column.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported in part by CTAS-Air Liquide, Saint
Ouen l'Aumone (France), and by Integrated Action Project
Polonium 958055E.
The authors would like to thanks M. Emmanuel Veron, from
CNRS-CRMHT Orleans (France), for his very efficient help in
SEM analysis.
References
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[2] J.Haidar, J.Appl.Phys. 84 (1998) 3518
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381s-386s
[4] S.Zielinska, “Propriétés physiques du plasma MIG-
MAG”, PhD Thesis, Cracovie (Pologne)/Orléans
(France), 2005.
[5] S.Zielinska, S.Pellerin, K.Musiol, Ch.de Izarra &
F.Briand, 16th ISPC, Taormina (Italie) - June 22/27, 2003
[6] V. A.Nemchinsky, J.Phys.D 29 (1996) 1202-1208
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269s-278s
[9] J.Haidar, J.Phys.D 31 (1998) 1233-1244
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[11] J.Glasser, J.Chapelle & J.C.Boetner, Appl.Opt. 17-23
(1978) 3750-3754
[12] A.Sola et al., ICPIG XX Barga (Italy, 5-12 July 1991)
Book of Contributed Papers p.1147
[13] J.Torres, J.Jonkers, M.J.van de Sande, J.J.A.M.van der
Mullen, A.Gamero & A.Sola, J.Phys.D 36 (2003) L55-
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[14] S.Pellerin, K.Musiol, B.Pokrzywka & J.Chapelle,
J.Phys.B 29 (1996) 3911-3924
[15] A.Lesage, J.L.Lebrun, J.Richou, Astrophys.J. 360 (1990)
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(1993) 1921
[17] J.Menart & S.Malik, J.Phys.D 35 (2002) 867
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Silicon Surface Modification Due to CO2 and
Free Electron Laser Radiation
D. W. Neat, D. R. DeLapp, J. A. Kozub, G. E. Cook, A. M. Strauss
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
Abstract
The feasibility of using either the Vanderbilt University Free
Electron Laser (VU FEL) or a cw CO2 laser for the controlled
melting and potential welding of doped silicon wafers was
studied. The silicon was irradiated with approximately 3-6 µs
long focused macropulses of varying energy at two different
wavelengths from the VU FEL over a range of exposure times.
The experiments with the CO2 laser were similar with the
addition of variations of doping level and wafer thickness.
Using either laser it was difficult to achieve melting without
breakdown damage and ablation. For the VU FEL at both 4.0
and 9.0 microns the threshold macropulse power density for
surface modification was on the order of 106 W/cm2. What has
previously been described as an incubation effect, where
increased exposure time reduces the necessary power density,
was observed. With the CO2 laser the maximum achievable
power density was less than 106 W/cm2. Exposure times of
several seconds were required to modify the surface at this
power, so the use of more heavily doped wafers became
practical. An unexpected result was the presence of periodic
surface structures on the silicon similar to those described in
previous work.
Keywords: laser welding, silicon, FEL
Introduction
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) components often
require silicon wafers to be joined to each other or another
substrate, such as glass, to form complex 3D shapes. The
substrates are often joined by some method of wafer bonding,
predominately anodic or fusion bonding. Successful bonding
requires the wafers to be very close together, smooth and clean,
and to have little or no curvature. Gluing is often used to join
glass or optical fibers to silicon, but it leads to low strength
bonds, and adhesive residue can be a problem. The joints tend to
deteriorate over time, especially when exposed to moisture or
severe temperatures. An alternate method of joining is laser
welding. It would allow high quality welds that are reproducible
with a short process cycle time. Laser welds could form liquid-
and gas-tight joints without the use of adhesives. The joints also
would not be susceptible to damage from extreme temperatures
or moisture, and they would have very good long-term stability.
This study sought to determine the effects of the VU FEL or a
cw CO2 laser on the surface of silicon and to determine the
potential of each for use in laser welding of silicon [1]. Much of
the previous work with laser welding of silicon has concentrated
on visible or near-IR lasers, and the majority of the work with
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
mid- or far-IR lasers has dealt with pulsed CO2 lasers. Since the
photon energy, ∇ω, for mid- and far-IR lasers is less than both
the direct and indirect band gap energies, Eg, for silicon,
absorption due to interband transitions does not occur [2-4]. IR
absorption is due to absorption by free-carriers generated
through one of two non-linear mechanisms: impact ionization,
also known as avalanche multiplication, and thermal runaway
heating (TRH) [2-3]. Since the number of electrons increases
with the temperature, and the number of free-carriers with the
number of electrons, the free-carrier density increases with
temperature. The absorption coefficient depends on the
imaginary part of the complex refractive index, n2; n2 depends
on the electron plasma frequency, ωp, which increases with the
number of electrons [3]. Then, as the number of electrons, or
free-carriers, increase, the absorption of silicon increases. In
semiconductors such as silicon, the intrinsic free-carrier density
is always in thermal equilibrium with the lattice temperature T,
and is given by
3
⎛ Eg ⎞
⎛ kT ⎞
(m m )
2
N eh (T ) = 2⎜
3
2 ⎟
* * 4
exp ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ [3]. (1)
⎝ 2πh ⎠
e h
⎝ 2kT ⎠
In (2), Neh is the free-carrier density, k is Boltzmann’s constant,
∇ is Planck’s constant, and me* and mh* are the effective masses
of the electrons and holes. Equation (1) shows that as the lattice
temperature increases, the free-carrier density increases. This
then increases the absorption coefficient, which in turn causes
the lattice temperature to rise. This positive feedback
mechanism leads to the behavior known as “thermal runaway
heating” [2-3]. In impact ionization, the inverse process of
Auger recombination [3], the laser beam deposits energy into
the free-carriers faster than it can be dissipated by phonon
emission. The free-carriers soon gain enough energy that, when
one collides with a lattice atom, it displaces an electron. This
creates a new carrier pair consisting of the electron and the hole
it leaves. The original carrier pair, slowed by the collision and
resultant loss of energy, and the newly created pair then repeat
the process [3]. The only losses are to recombination and
diffusion, so the number of pairs nearly doubles with each
iteration. Within a few iterations, the number of pairs is so high
that the material becomes nearly opaque. Since the beam
intensity required to initiate impact ionization is very high,
formation of a microplasma and explosive material damage is
likely to occur once the material becomes opaque [3].
The interaction of short pulse CO2 lasers with silicon was
studied by Sheik-bahae and Kwok [2]. Their model, supported
by experimental data, showed that the dominant process for
pulse durations shorter than 10-9 seconds for any doping
concentration was impact ionization. The effect of doping
825
concentration is much more significant for TRH. Since a certain
energy fluence is required for melting, shorter pulses require a
higher intensity, and impact ionization becomes dominant.
During longer pulses, where TRH is dominant, heat diffusion
causes an increase in that energy fluence. Since free-carrier
absorption is responsible for lattice heating in TRH, the initial
concentration has a large effect on the intensity required [2].
Until the pulse length becomes long enough that heat diffusion
becomes important, the threshold is basically inversely
proportional to the dopant concentration. Heavier doped
samples melt at lower intensities. Conversely, the growth of
intrinsic carriers is so explosive, once impact ionization begins,
that the threshold for it is not nearly as dependent on the initial
carrier concentration [2]. McDonald et al. [5] found that the
damage threshold was independent of dopant concentration up
to a level of about 1017 cm-3. The change in the optical
properties of silicon during irradiation was also noted in [5].
Lasers
The VU FEL is a pulsed laser that is tunable to generate a
specific wavelength of light. The description of the electrons as
“free” means the electrons are not bound in atoms or molecules.
The FEL uses a beam of relativistic free electrons as its lasing
medium [6]. The electrons in the VU FEL are produced by a
radio-frequency electron gun and then accelerated to near the
speed of light in a Mark III accelerator. The electrons are then
passed though a set of closely spaced (2.3 cm) magnets arranged
to form an alternating magnetic field. The set of magnets are
called undulators, or wigglers [6]. The wiggler induces a
periodic transverse oscillation in the electrons. Since
conventional lasers use a lasing medium with bound electrons,
their energy is quantized and transitions are of fixed energy.
However, the electrons used in an FEL are not bound, and are
therefore free to oscillate at any frequency. The oscillation
frequency can be altered by changing either the strength of the
wiggler’s magnetic field or the energy of the electrons passing
through the wiggler. Changing the oscillation frequency changes
the frequency of the laser, or the wavelength of the light emitted
from the laser. By adjusting the electron energy, the laser can be
tuned to the desired wavelength. The electron beam is dumped
after it passes through the wiggler, and the laser beam exits
through an output coupling mirror. The VU FEL’s pulse train is
very different from most lasers. The characteristics of the laser
pulse are similar to those of the electron beam it uses as a lasing
medium. The electron beam macropulse is on for 8 µs at a time,
and can be pulsed at 30 Hz, 20 Hz, or any factor of either. The
laser macropulse will be at the same repetition rate as the
electron beam, but due to start-up time the duration of the laser
pulse will be only 3-6 µs. The long electron beam pulse consists
of thousands of smaller pulses approximately 1 ps long. The
laser pulses corresponding to these electron beam pulses are also
about 1 ps long, and are referred to as micropulses. The
frequency of the electron beam and laser beam micropulse
during the macropulse is 2.856 GHz.
The second laser was a Synrad 48-2 cw CO2 laser. It uses sealed
CO2 gas as its lasing medium, while RF excitation generates the
plasma. The laser is not a true cw laser, but instead the CO2 gas
is pumped with a pulsed RF wave at roughly 45 MHz. The
826
output power is controlled by adjusting the duty cycle of the
pulse, with a maximum stable power output of about 17 W.
Experimentation
Two sets of experiments were conducted using the VU FEL or a
cw CO2 laser to determine if the either laser could successfully
melt silicon, and then to find the range of parameters which
could be used. From these parameters, the set most suitable for
welding silicon would be chosen. If acceptable parameters were
found, attempts to join silicon would be made.
For the VU FEL, irradiation time was controlled with an
electromechanical shutter. A two plate ZnSe polarizer/attenuator
was used to adjust the energy of the laser pulses. The beam was
focused by a BaF2 lens. The sample was usually mounted on a
micrometer stage mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The beam
entered the chamber through a BaF2 window. For experiments
conducted under vacuum, the chamber was evacuated to a rough
vacuum of around 100 milliTorr. Wafers of N-type phosphorus
doped silicon with nominal thickness of 482-532 µm were used
in the first experiments. The resistivity of the wafers was 1-10
ohm-cm, corresponding to a dopant density of roughly
1015 cm-3. The polished side had only the native oxide layer,
while the unpolished side had 10,000 Å of thermal oxide. The
wafers were usually broken into pieces about 5 mm wide by 20
mm long. Just before the experiment, they were rinsed with
alcohol to remove any contaminants. No attempt was made to
remove the native oxide layer. The macropulse energy was
varied from roughly 1 to 60 mJ and the irradiation time ranged
from less than one second to more than a minute. The sample
was placed various distances from the lens, allowing the beam
diameter, and thus the energy density, to be changed. In some
experiments, a separate two plate Germanium harmonic filter
and an attenuator were used to determine if the higher
harmonics would have any effect on the results. The odd
harmonics, intrinsic to the FEL, are usually less than 1% of the
total beam energy. Either a 500 mm or 1000 mm convex BaF2
lens was used to focus the beam for most experiments at 4.0 µm.
Since some of the energy was reflected by the lens and window,
the samples were irradiated by about 86% of the power
delivered by the laser. A pyroelectric detector coated with a
black absorber was used to measure the energy of the laser.
Similar experiments were conducted with the VU FEL adjusted
to 9.0 µm. The maximum available energy at 9 µm was around
25 mJ, so the maximum irradiation time was increased to three
minutes. A 200 mm BaF2 lens was used to focus the beam to a
smaller diameter and increase the energy density. The Ge
polarizer used only filtered harmonics below 2.0 µm, so it could
not filter the third harmonic of 9.0 µm at 3.0 µm.
The third set was conducted with the cw CO2 laser. The smallest
spot size attainable was needed due to limited beam power, so a
50 mm BaF2 lens was used in these experiments. Three kinds of
silicon wafers were used. The first was the same as used in the
first experiments. The only difference in the second kind was
that they had a nominal thickness of 100 µm and were polished
on both sides. The third kind had a nominal thickness of 525 µm
and had heavier doping than the first two, giving them a
resistivity of 0.0010-0.0015 Ω-cm. The laser power ranged from
2 to 17 W with irradiation times of 1 second to 2 minutes, and
experiments were conducted under vacuum, in air, and under a
shielding gas, argon. Due mostly to reflections, around 30% of
the total power was lost through the lens and the window. The
losses were about half that when only the lens was used. Early
experiments showed that a significant amount of heat was being
transferred from the silicon to the various sample holders. To
reduce heat transfer from the silicon, a sample holder making
only pinpoint contact with sample was used. This sample holder
could withstand the temperatures reached by the silicon, but the
area of contact was too small for much heat to be lost.
Experimental Results
The spots made were examined by scanning electron
microscopy. The energy or power density was calculated from
the 1/e2 spot size. The VU FEL’s spot size could be calculated
from the known unfocused beam size, laser wavelength, and the
lens’s focal length. The knife-edge technique was used to
precisely determine the focal distance and the diameter of the
CO2 beam at the waist. Each laser has a Gaussian spatial profile.
The calculated macropulse power densities for the VU FEL with
various experimental parameters are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Threshold macropulse power densities for the VU FEL
Wavelength Lens Pulse Irradiation Pulse Total
(µm), focal energy time power energy
Environment length (mJ) (seconds) density fluence
(mm) (MW/cm2) (J)
4.0 air 500 12 10 1.7 3.6
4.0 vacuum 500 19.5 5 2.8 2.9
4.0 vacuum 1000 49 5 1.8 7.4
9.0 vacuum 500 19.6 10 1.3 5.9
9.0 vacuum 200 21.0 <1 8.5 0.63
The spots made by the VU FEL at 4.0 µm with the 500 mm lens
in air were consistently round and typically had a mound shaped
peak in the center. Voids and cracks around the edges were
common, and ejected material was often found on and around
the spots. Rings of discoloration were often found around the
spots. With longer irradiation times and/or higher macropulse
energies, the center of the mound would often appear to have
exploded. With a pulse energy of 25 mJ the silicon was quickly
ablated forming a hole through the sample. A visible spark
corresponding to the generation of a plasma [3] was created
when the surface was modified. About the same time the spark
was created, the energy transmitted through the sample would
drop by 10-40%, or 0.5-1.5% of the incident beam energy.
Spots made under vacuum were similar in shape to those made
in air, but there was usually very little or no ejected material. A
typical spot is shown in Fig. 1. Ablation still occurred if the
energy was high enough and the exposure time was long
enough. Under vacuum, longer exposure times or slight
increases in power generally resulted in taller mounds that
protruded above the surface as much as 75-100 µm. The voids
827
around the mounds appeared to grow into craters encircling
them, and cracks were far less prevalent. The image shows rings
on the sides of the spot where melted silicon has resolidified.
The spots made with the 1000 mm lens were similar to those
made with the 500 mm lens, with the size and height of the
spots being the most notable difference. Typically the spots
were 40-50 % larger in diameter, but usually protruded above
the surface by only 25 µm or less. The spots had numerous
voids near their outer edges, and many cracks were seen. Very
little ejected material was observed.
Figure 1: 500 µm thick silicon irradiated by 20.9 mJ 4.0 µm VU
FEL pulses focused by a 500 mm lens for 5 sec under vacuum.
The polished side of the silicon could not be modified in
vacuum with the power available at 9.0 µm, so the rest of the
experiments at this wavelength were conducted on the etched
side. Even on the etched side the minimum energy that modified
the surface was near the maximum available from the VU FEL.
Relatively few experiments were then conducted at this
wavelength. The spots made on the etched side at 9.0 µm were
similar to those on the polished side at 4.0 µm. The most notable
difference was that the modified area around the mounds was
much rougher than on the polished side. Occasional cracks were
still found, and the voids appeared to be more prominent.
With the CO2 laser, the power remaining after the beam passed
through the lens and window was insufficient to modify the
silicon, so few experiments were conducted under vacuum.
Most of the experiments were conducted at maximum power
and the necessary exposure time was measured. It was found
that the 1-10 Ω-cm 500 µm thick silicon could be modified in
air by the 12.7 W beam in about 15 seconds. The power density
was about 2.5x105 W/cm2. This was much lower than for the
VU FEL, but the total energy fluence of about 190 J was a lot
higher. The spots were usually elongated, but this is thought to
be due to the sample being at a slight angle to the lens to prevent
any reflections from damaging any equipment. These spots
usually did not have mounds protruding noticeably above the
surface. Occasionally a small mound could be seen, but the
spots were usually more crater like in shape. The crater was
usually very rough and was surrounded by an outer crater a few
microns deep. The outer crater also had an uneven surface, but above the surface. There is also a patch of bubbles or beads on
not as rough as that of the central crater, with the outer boundary one side of this spot, but there are also a few larger drops
being very well defined. The spots were much larger in diameter scattered around the spot. Enclosing all of this is a large area of
than the VU FEL spots. The surface was usually discolored near discoloration. These spots appear to have started as a mound
the spot, with the discoloration forming rings around the spot. inside a crater and the mound formed into a ball as the crater
became deeper.
With the 100 µm thick silicon, no modifications could be made.
Most likely, the wafers were not thick enough to absorb enough
radiation to melt. When backed by another sample the surface
could sometimes be melted. A significant fraction of the
incident beam power was transmitted through both one and two
layers of the 100 µm silicon. Roughly 66% of the incident
power was transmitted through one layer, while slightly over
47% was transmitted through two. In comparison, a single 500
µm wafer transmitted about 31% of the incident beam power
when the polished side was irradiated.

On average, the spots made on the 1-10 Ω-cm 500 µm thick

samples took a few seconds longer to form in argon than in air.
The spots often had a large area of discoloration around them.
Usually a large, light colored ring surrounded a smaller, darker
ring enclosing the spot, with the ring size varying with the size
of the spot. Figure 2 shows two spots and the variation in the
size of the discoloration rings surrounding them. Immediately
inside the dark ring on this particular spot is a horseshoe shape Figure 2: A wide-angle view of a spot made on 500 µm thick
ridge. This ridge usually completely encircled the innermost silicon on the polished side by 23 sec of 12.7 W irradiation from
spot with an area slightly lower than the original surface of the a cw CO2 laser focused by a 50 mm lens in argon.
sample just inside. The surface of the outer part of the spot
remains continuous with no change in texture. The crater inside
this area is similar in texture to the craters made in air. This
particular spot had a small mound inside the crater near one
edge. Smaller spots, formed in less irradiation time, rarely had a
mound, the crater usually was not nearly as deep, and a wave or
ripple formed instead of a ridge.

Initial experiments with the heavily doped silicon in air showed

that the polished surface could be modified in as little as five
seconds. The spots created were varied in shape and size.
Without exception the spots had an apparent heat affected zone
partially surrounding them. In further experiments under either
air or argon, there was no significant difference due to
environment in the time necessary to modify either side. Eight
seconds was sufficient in both environments for the polished
side, while the etched side needed only two seconds. These
spots also had a heat affected zone covered with bubbles or
beads partially surrounding them. They ranged from less than a Figure 3: A spot made on 525 µm thick silicon on the polished
micron up to about three microns in diameter. No pattern in side by 30 sec of 12.7 W irradiation from a cw CO2 laser
their spacing or size could be seen, and they often appeared to focused by a 50 mm lens in argon.
be touching or overlapping each other. In the spots made in less
time the beads would appear to be randomly spaced across the The first defocusing experiments consisted of irradiating the
spot which had not yet formed into a mound and crater. The heavily doped silicon for a set time with the sample being
spots appeared to evolve from an area with a few beads to a defocused by a predetermined amount halfway through. In each
melted spot with beads and an irregularly shaped surface in the case the spot formed a ball in a crater, with variations only in
center to a very short mound in a shallow crater. It is possible the size of the ball itself. The ball tended to be much smaller or
that if the spot had been irradiated long enough it would have separated into a few smaller, usually non-connected, balls in
grown into a shape resembling the spots created under argon. these experiments. When irradiated by a defocused beam only
Figure 3 shows a spot made by 30 seconds of 12.7 W irradiation for comparison, the modifications were similar to those on
in argon. Most noticeable is the large ball of silicon in a deep, lightly doped 500 µm thick silicon in air. The second type of
smooth crater. Around the crater is a wide ridge rising slightly defocusing experiments varied the initial time in focus while the

828
defocusing distance and time were held constant. The only
notable difference was in the size of the spots, which increased
in time leading to larger spots. These spots were not
significantly different than the others, but surprisingly a spot
made under the exact same conditions as a spot in the first
defocusing experiments did not look the same. Instead these
spots appeared to be in the early stages of forming a crater
similar to the ones made on the more lightly doped silicon in air.
The third variation was similar to the first only with the sample
in focus for a shorter time and a greater range of defocusing. It
was in this set that a much unexpected result was noticed. The
first spot made by 20 seconds of focused irradiation followed by
30 seconds defocused by 0.5 mm, shown in Fig. 4, appeared to
have periodic surface structures similar to those reported by
many sources recently. In the center of the crater the surface
structures are large and somewhat inconsistent, running
vertically as viewed in the image. The structures around the
edge form more of a grid shape. Medium sized structures about
8 µm apart run horizontally from the edge to the structures in
the center. Between these are smaller, vertical structures spaced
about 4 µm apart. The small and medium sized structures are
found only on the left side of the spot shown. This may be due
to the slight (less than 100 µm) variation in the focal distance
from the sample being mounted at an angle. The structures were
far less prominent or nonexistent in spots defocused by more
than 0.5 mm. Reexamination found that the surface structures
were present in many of the spots from previous trials where all
spots were defocused by 0.5 mm.
Figure 4: Periodic surface structures made on 525 µm thick
silicon in argon by 20 sec of 12.7 W irradiation from a cw CO2
laser focused by a 50 mm lens followed by 30 sec more with the
sample 0.5 mm out of focus.
After one trial a sample broke across three of the spots, allowing
a cross-section of the spots to be examined. The break running
through several of the spots suggests that the laser modifications
are weakening the silicon. From the images the profile of some
of the spots could be seen, and the depth of the spots could be
determined fairly accurately. There is a layer of silicon that has
melted and resolidified across the spot and to the surrounding
area. A slightly discolored area could be seen extending roughly
829
halfway into the thickness of the sample. This may be the area
that was in some way disturbed by the heat from the irradiation.
Discussion
The IR absorption characteristics of silicon suggest that the
threshold intensities of the VU FEL and CO2 lasers should be
close, with the CO2 being lowest and the VU FEL at 4.0 µm the
highest. For a roughly 5x10-6 second macropulse and a dopant
density of about 1015 cm-1, the threshold varied from 1.3x106
W/cm2 to 8.5x106 W/cm2, much lower than the 108 W/cm2
predicted in [2]. The surface modification by numerous pulses at
lower intensities than predicted by the model suggests an
incubation effect similar to the one reported in [7]. The
individual micropulses that comprise the macropulse may play a
role in the modification of the surface of the silicon. If only the
micropulse energy is considered, the power intensity range was
5.5x108 W/cm3 to 3.5x109 W/cm3. The model in [2] indicates
that a picosecond pulse would require almost 1010 W/cm3 to
melt silicon. The micropulse energy is also below the theoretical
threshold intensity, but multiple pulses were necessary to
modify the surface. In either case, an incubation effect appears
to be playing some role in the surface modification, but it is not
possible from these experiments to determine the effects of the
micropulse energy density in the surface modification of silicon.
Laser-induced breakdown damage is described in [2] as the
presence of craters and fractures in the surface along with shock
waves and a visible spark created at its onset. This accurately
describes the VU FEL spots, indicating the intensities listed are
above the threshold. The exact threshold intensity could not be
determined from these experiments, nor is it possible to say
unquestionably whether thermal runaway heating or impact
ionization is the dominant mechanism for the VU FEL. The
model in [2] predicts that impact ionization should be dominant
for a sample with a dopant density of 1015 cm-1 irradiated by
microsecond pulses. The VU FEL’s tendency to move quickly
from melting to explosive ablation and vaporization seems to
agree. However, more experiments on samples with a range of
dopant densities would be necessary to confirm that.
The energy density of the cw CO2 laser was 2.5x105 W/cm2.
The boundary conditions are different than those in the model in
[2], so direct comparisons with its predictions cannot be made.
In general, longer pulses resulted in lower threshold intensities,
so the experiments do follow the trend predicted by the model.
More heavily doped silicon made surface modifications much
easier. The doping concentration’s effect on the intensity
threshold indicates that TRH is the dominant process for the
CO2 laser. Longer pulses require more energy due to heat
diffusion. This effect was seen in the CO2 experiments when the
sample size was varied. Irradiation time had to be increased for
larger samples to melt the surface. Since heat is conducted
throughout the sample, in smaller samples less energy is lost
heating the surrounding area. Both of these are consistent with
their prediction that TRH is more significant in longer pulses.
The CO2 laser spots did not exhibit the type of craters observed
in the VU FEL spots, nor did they have the prominent cracking
seen before. The spots emitted a visible, white light while they
were being made, and the shape of the surface had been
significantly modified by the time the silicon resolidified. The
spots then qualify as breakdown damage and the intensity
reported is actually above the threshold. It is not possible to
accurately state the exact threshold for the cw CO2 laser.
No changes in the grain of the silicon could be seen from the
cross-sectioning. The height of the VU FEL spots above the
surface varied from a few microns to as much as roughly 75 µm.
The depth of the craters varied from only a few microns to 25
µm or more. The height and depth of the CO2 spots also varied
with exposure time. The CO2 spots rarely exhibited a mound
extending above the surface and those that did were only a few
microns tall. The depth of the deepest craters was determined to
be around 100 µm. The layer of resolidified silicon on a cross-
sectioned spot was determined to be about 15 µm thick. It is
clear that the melt depth is more than 1 µm, but the surface
modification goes beyond controlled melting. It was predicted in
[2] that the melting threshold and breakdown damage intensities
are so close for pulses longer than 10-7 seconds that controlled
melting would be very difficult. The experiments with both
lasers verify this. There were a few instances where indications
of surface melting, such as emission of visible light from the
silicon, were noticed, but no surface changes could be observed
afterward. These suggest the possibility of melting without
breakdown damage, but surface damage was more common.
The most unexpected result was the formation of periodic
surface structures on some samples irradiated by the CO2 laser.
The structures were seen only when some part of the trial
included the heavily doped wafers in argon being irradiated by a
slightly defocused beam. The structures were most similar to
those reported in [4], but were obtained without the use of any
type of coating on the silicon. The samples did have the native
oxide layer on them, which Yang et al. [8] reported was very
important to absorption and the subsequent formation of surface
structures. Few spots exhibited periodic surface structures and
those that formed were rather faint, so the optimal conditions
under which they will form are not known. The spatial period of
these structures is on the order of the wavelength of the light,
which is consistent with the findings in [7].
The VU FEL and a cw CO2 laser irradiated silicon under various
experimental parameters and environmental conditions in
attempts to melt it. The threshold intensity for surface
modification of silicon was determined for each laser. The
threshold intensities found in this research were notably lower
than most of those reported and predicted by others. This is
likely due to an incubation effect not seen in most of the other
research. Single laser pulses were used in most of the other
work, whereas several seconds of cw irradiation or tens to
hundreds of pulses were typical here. The spots made were very
similar to those reported in other work. Those made by the VU
FEL usually had some form of bump in the center of them with
a crater or voids surrounding it. Beyond the crater was often a
discolored heat affected zone, and occasionally some material
ejected from the center of the spot. Some CO2 spots were
similar, but they would usually take the form of a ball deep in
the center of a crater. The crater joined a ridge surrounding it,
830
and the ridge gradually transitioned into the unmodified surface.
In some experiments where the sample was out of the focus
periodic surface structures formed. Although unexpected,
similar features had been reported by others. They are most
commonly formed by irradiation from pulsed lasers, so their
formation with a cw laser is somewhat unusual.
Neither laser produced optimal spots for welding silicon. The
modifications made are more characteristic of breakdown
damage than of controlled melting and would be unacceptable
for most MEMS components. It is possible that the level of
damage could be reduced if certain parameters were more finely
controlled. Control of the power or pulse energy probably could
not be improved for either laser, but control of the focal distance
could, and there were indications that slight variations in the
focal distance had a significant effect on the experiments.
It is clear that TRH is the dominant mechanism for the
absorption by silicon of cw irradiation. It is not clear which is
dominant with the microsecond pulses of the VU FEL. The
effect, if any, of the duration of the micropulses of the VU FEL
also remains unclear. Recent enhancements to the VU FEL in
the form of a pulse-stretcher have brought the ability to increase
the duration of the micropulses. The pulse-stretcher allows the
micropulse length for wavelengths between 6.0 and 9.0 microns
to be increased to as much as 200 picoseconds. Reducing the
micropulse intensity by a factor of 200 would be a significant
change easily allowing the determination of its effect and might
make the VU FEL more feasible for use in silicon welding.
References
1. D.W. Neat, Silicon Surface Modification Due to
Irradiation by Either the VU FEL or a CW CO2 Laser,
M.S. Thesis, Vanderbilt University, Nashville,
Tennessee (2004)
2. M. Sheik-bahae and H.S. Kwok, Controlled CO2 laser
melting of silicon, J. Appl. Phys, 63(2), 518-524 (1988)
3. M. von Allmen and A. Blatter, Laser-Beam
Interactions with Materials Physical Principles and
Applications. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2nd Ed. (1995)
4. W.J. Wang, Y.F. Lu, C.W. An, M.H. Hong, and T.C.
Chong, Controllable periodic structures on silicon
wafer by CO2 laser irradiation. Appl. Surf. Sci. 186,
594-598 (2002)
5. C.M. MacDonald, S.P. McGeoch, A.A. McInnes, C.H.
Nelson, and A.D. Wilson, Laser-induced damage
mechanisms in model optical materials. J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys. 21(10S), S85-S87 (1988)
6. C.A. Brau, Free-Electron Lasers. Academic Press,
Boston (1990)
7. J. Bonse, S. Baudach, J. Krüger, W. Kautek, and M.
Lenzner, Femtosecond laser ablation of silicon−
modification thresholds and morphology. Appl. Phys.
A: Mater. Sci. Process. 74(1), 19-25 (2002)
8. D.Q. Yang, E. Sacher, and M. Meunier, The early
stages of silicon surface damage induced by pulsed
CO2 laser radiation: an AFM study. Appl. Surf. Sci.
222, 365-373 (2004)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Laser Cladding of Low Pressure Turbine Blades

M. Brandt, J. Harris
Industrial Research Institute Swinburne, Industrial Laser Applications Laboratory
Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia

A. Bishop
Welding Technology Institute of Australia,
Melbourne, Australia

Abstract
The paper discusses the phenomenon of water droplet erosion in the low pressure section of steam turbines and the effect this has on
the long-term performance of the equipment. Costs of repair and/or modification are included to demonstrate that a large potential
saving is available if repairs can be carried out without dismantling the blades from the shaft. The possibility of in-situ cladding using a
laser and a powder feeder are explored, together with the anticipated problems. The development of a small, robust coaxial nozzle
together with extensive laboratory trials resulted in a cladding trial being undertaken, and the paper describes those trials and the
outcomes achieved.

Introduction The Issue

In the conventional generation of electricity from fossil fuelled
Power Stations, a boiler is used to heat water to produce steam.
This steam is superheated and then enters a turbine where the
stored energy is used to turn the turbine shaft which then turns
a generator. Superheated steam is very dry and causes no
mechanical damage to the blades. In a typical boiler, the
superheated steam enters the high pressure stage of the turbine
at approximately 5450C and 16.5 MPa pressure. The same
steam is returned to the boiler through the hot reheat system,
after which it enters the intermediate pressure stage of the
turbine, again at approximately 5450C but only at 4.5 MPa
pressure. The steam then goes directly to the low pressure
stage by which time the inlet temperature has dropped to
approximately 2150C and the outlet pressure is basically below
atmospheric (5.7 KPa) as the steam enters the Condenser.
As the steam exits the turbine, the pressure drop may be
enough to start the condensation of water droplets. This is a
function of the turbine design and the temperature/pressure
relationship at the exit. In certain designs, the water droplets
cause erosion of the leading edge of the last one or sometimes
two rows of blades. The steam normally enters the stage in the
centre and passes over the rows of blades in both directions as
it leaves. A typical low pressure stage is shown in Figure 1
Materials
The traditional material for all stages in steam turbines is a
Martensitic stainless steel, UNS 42000. The reasons for this
choice include good creep properties and an excellent
combination of strength and toughness. The material is used in
the hardened and tempered condition, and the chemical
composition is nominally:

%C %Mn %P %S %Si %Cr

0.15 1.00 .04 .03 1.00 12.00 – 14.00

Min Max Max Max Max

Typical mechanical properties are 345 MPa yield strength, 650

MPa tensile strength and 25% elongation.

Water droplet erosion has been known for some time, and one
of the methods the manufacturers have used is to add a shield
to the blades in the area where there is erosion. Of those
materials tried as a shield, Stellite 6 has proved to be
successful. Stellite 6 is a cobalt based material with nominally
28%Cr, 4.5%W, 1.2%C, 1%Mn, 3%Ni and 3%Fe.
It is often used as pressed and sintered part and is attached to
the blade using a silver brazing alloy. This has proven to
extend the life of the blades considerably, but there are still
issues. There are still blades in operation without any shields at
Figure 1: Typical Low Pressure Stage from a 200MW Turbine all, and although the erosion rate is slow, action will be
showing the blades. required at some time. There are also blades where the shields
have inadequate length (see Figure 2). The erosion is usually

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 831

confined to the blade tips, but has been seen down as far as the
shaft. In some blades, the brazing alloy has been preferentially
eroded and the risk of shield dislodgement is ever present.
Consequently, blades need to be completely replaced or new
shields need to be fitted. In either event, the blades have to be
removed from the shaft.
would have on the blades. Also to be considered was the issue
of cracking in the clad layer and in the substrate, and the
difficulty of programming the robot for geometrically different
items.

Figure 2: Erosion of the Blade beyond the Shield

Figure 3: Limited Access for Laser Cladding
The costs involved in replacing blades are substantial. Each
blade is in the order of AU$10,000 to AU$20,000, and since
Nozzle Design
there are 100 blades per row and two rows affected, blade
A monitoring system for the laser beam was introduced where
replacement alone is AU$2m to AU$4m. Added to this is the
the dimensions and intensity of the beam as it exits the nozzle
production loss of approximately 30 days at AU$100,000 to
was measured. This effect is shown in Figure 4. By doing this,
200,000 per day and this is up to another AU$3m to AU$6m.
the position of maximum intensity could be positioned at the
blade material surface. The powder feed was then arranged so
In 2001, the Welding Technology Institute of Australia and the
that the powder spot size matched as closely as possible the
Cooperative Research Centre for Welded Structures arranged
laser spot size.
some funding from a group of Power Stations in Australia. The
idea was to develop a suite of research Projects where each
contributing member would benefit from some if not all of the
Projects. The Projects were managed by the Power Generation
Research Group, and one of the research projects was to
investigate the possibility of in-situ cladding without removing
the blades from the shaft.

In-Situ Cladding
In-situ is defined by the Power Stations as opening the turbine
casing, removing the rotor and placing it on a cradle in the
Turbine Hall – basically as shown in Figure 1. Of the processes
considered, only laser cladding offered any real potential. For
this to work, a laser had to be found that was portable enough
Figure 4: Laser beam dimensions and intensity
to be used in an operating Power Station, and a Laserline
Diode Laser was used in the trials. The next problem was the
The final result was a nozzle that gave good powder delivery
space between the turbine blades. Access is such an issue, as
and powder focus. This gives better control, especially in out-
shown in Figure 3, that a special nozzle had to be designed to
of-position cladding, and results in a higher efficiency of
fit into the space.
powder uptake (up to 60% efficiency). The basic design of a
The design of the nozzle was a critical issue. It had to be small
coaxial cladding nozzle is shown in Figure 5
enough to fit the space plus it had to have a coaxial feed and be
A provisional patent application on the design of the nozzle
robust enough to work outside the laboratory. In addition, the
has been lodged.
nozzle had to be capable of cladding with a powder feed in the
vertical position.
Other issues were anticipated. These included the development
of residual stresses during cladding and the effect the distortion

832
Figure 5: Basic design of a Coaxial Cladding Nozzle
Residual Stress
Before embarking on the field trials, it was envisaged that there
would be an issue with residual stress. Laboratory trials were
undertaken in an attempt to create the anticipated residual
stress and measure the subsequent amount of distortion.
Residual stresses developed during Laser Cladding are:
Figure 6: Distortion of Blades after cladding
Cracking
Two types of cracking were observed during laboratory trials.
Longitudinal cracking was associated mainly with single layer
techniques and transverse cracking with multi-layer
techniques.

ŠThermal stresses due to through thickness temperature

gradients. The effect is to generate residual tensile stresses in
the clad layer which causes distortion in the blade. The thinner
the blade, the greater the degree of distortion at any given heat
input.

ŠStresses due to differences in coefficients of thermal

expansion between the clad layer and the blade. For Stellite 6,
the coefficient of thermal expansion from room temperature to
9000C is 15.5 x 10-6 mm/mm/0C, and for type 420 stainless
steel, it is 11.7 x 10-6 mm/mm/0C. The overall result is a Transverse crack
residual tensile stress in the clad layer

ŠStresses developed due to the Austenite to Martensite

transformation in the heat affected zone of the blade under the
clad layer. Micro-hardness tests showed that the transformation
depth was the full thickness of the blade, and the final result Figure 7: Longitudinal Cracking (Top) and Transverse
was to produce a residual tensile stress in the clad layer. Cracking (Bottom)

Distortion Stellite 6 is known to crack due to self stress-relief, but

The result of the complex tensile residual stresses is to impart a
degree of distortion into the blade. This is normally confined to
a local area in the vicinity of the clad layer, and being three
dimensional, results in a twist. Not all blades distort in the
same way and to the same degree. This effect is shown in
Figure 6, which is actually taken from the field trials. The
blade at the top can be seen to exhibit a clear bulge at the outer
edge compared with the blade below.
Although the distortion shown in figure 6 may appear to be
significant, in reality, the effect is small and not critical in the
performance of the blades.
generally would have sufficient toughness in this application to
avoid cracking. The longitudinal cracking is assumed to be
caused by thermal stresses generated by the through-thickness
temperature gradient and occurs at higher temperatures. The
reduced toughness increases with the amount of dilution from
the base material, and cracking was observed at over 50%
dilution. In the field trials, this type of cracking was not
anticipated since multiple layers would be used and the
thickness of the blade at the clad edge was much thinner than
that used in the laboratory trials.
Transverse cracking was observed to occur at lower
temperatures and where a high degree of distortion existed.
Transverse cracking therefore did not appear to be related to

833
dilution, but rather to residual stress. In the laboratory, it is
possible to remove some of the residual by careful grinding,
but in the field, this was not considered to be feasible.

Robot Programming
The robot used was a Motoman XRC Model UP 20. This is a
standard 6-axis machine with standard software, and the only
additional programming was to include laser on/off, powder
feed and shielding gas controls on the pedestal. The area of the
blade that needs to be clad is not flat, and in fact, changes in
two directions due to the twist. Also, there are places where the
contact between the powder/laser beam and the blade surface is
not perpendicular, and this has to be taken into account.
Different amounts of surface preparation are needed and each
turbine blade is geometrically different enough to warrant an
individual program. This is especially true after removing the
blade holding pins. Some units have blades with a high twist
and are pre-stressed, and during operation, some stress- Figure 9: Final appearance of the cladding
relieving occurs. However, this is never consistent in every
blade.
Issues Raised
During the trials, the anticipated distortion proved to be a
Field Trials reality. Although it was of little significance to the blade
One of the Power Stations supporting the research, TXU performance and only in the order of 1.0 mm, it still warrants
Torrens Island in Adelaide, Australia agreed to participate in a further investigation. Also, the anticipated issue of robot
field trial, and made a low pressure section of a 200 MW programming was obvious. However, with only a small
turbine available. The field trials were carried out in September number of blades to clad, time was not a feature, but will be in
and October of 2004 during a scheduled outage of the unit. The future. It will be necessary to install some type of self-
only additional work involved for the Power Station was to lift programming for the robot such as touch sensors or laser
the section out of the casing and support it in a cradle in the sensors to enable a substantial number of blades to be clad.
Turbine Hall.
The objective was to clad a few blades in an initial trial and
Conclusions and the Next Stage
then run the unit for approximately 18 months followed by The September 2004 trials showed that in-situ laser cladding of
detailed inspection. The first step was to remove the existing turbine blades is feasible and practical. This is the first time
shields and then repair the eroded areas beyond the shield – that such an application has been successfully demonstrated.
typically as shown in Figure 2. After suitable surface
preparation, repairs were carried out either using manual gas In August or September of this year, the Unit will be made
tungsten arc welding or with laser build-up. The results of laser available again for inspection. Assuming that the trials were
build-up are shown in Figure 8 successful, the next stage is to take the Unit off-line again in
May 2006 to clad more of the blades.

Between now and then, work will continue on robot

programming and trying to understand the distortion in an
attempt to prevent it.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the Cooperative Research Centre for
Welded Structures and the sponsor companies in the Power
Generation industry for the financial support under the Project
number 2001-306. The CRC-WS was established and is
supported under the Australian Government’s Cooperative
Research Centres Program.
Figure 8: Laser Build-up of Eroded Surface.

The actual cladding was then carried out, again after

preparation of the surface. The appearance of the clad blade is
shown in Figure 9.

834
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Risk of Skin Cancer from Arc Welding
A. Dixon
Skincanceronly, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
B. Dixon
Defence Science Technology Organisation, Maribyrnong, Victoria, Australia
Abstract
While it is well established that solar radiation causes most
skin cancers, there is a significant risk that other sources of
ultraviolet radiation, notably arc welding, can contribute.
Furthermore, since welding produces a more intensive,
shorter wavelength radiation, there is a possibility that both
the number and type of cancers experienced by welding
operators will differ from the public at large.
It is proposed that risks associated with current welding
practices for those people exposed to welding arcs;
including welding tradespeople, people in the immediate
vicinity of arc welding tradespeople and occasional users of
arc welding processes such as mechanics and farmers needs
formal review.
The paper reviews various types of skin cancer that may
occur and discusses the radiation exposure associated with
differing welding practices. Parameters considered include
parent metal being welded, welding procedures being used
(including shielding gas composition) and the efficacy of
protective equipment.
A number of skin cancers presenting on the hands and
forearms of welding workers who do not regularly wear
gloves have been assessed and empirical evidence linking
arc exposure to skin cancer has been found1. The authors
plan a systematic study of welding operators exposed to a
range of workplace environments.
Keywords
Skin cancer, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell
carcinoma, melanoma, welding, arc, radiation, ultraviolet
1
For privacy reasons, photographs of the cancers cannot be
presented in the current paper.
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
Introduction
The overwhelming majority of skin cancers are caused by
exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) from the sun.
However, there are non-solar sources of UVR that may also
cause cancer. The purpose of this review is to explore the
evidence that radiation from the welding arc may also be a
significant risk to welding tradespeople, people near arc
welding tradespeople and to occasional users of arc
welding processes such as mechanics, sculptors and
farmers.
Ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer
The full spectrum of UVR can be classified into three
groups based on wavelength.
Ultraviolet “A” (UVA) spans UVR with the longest
wavelength (400 – 315 nm). Over 98% of solar UVR
exposure is UVA. UVA penetrates the skin more deeply
than Ultraviolet “B” (UVB) or Ultraviolet “C” (UVC), but
is less associated with DNA damage. [1], [2]
UVB includes UVR with shorter wavelengths (315 – 280
nm). UVB accounts for less than 2% of our solar UVR
exposure because much of it is absorbed in the upper
atmosphere. UVB accounts for most of the DNA damage
within skin cells and most of the resultant skin cancers. [1]
,[2]
UVC covers the range of UVR with the shortest
wavelength (280 – 100 nm). UVC exposure is insignificant
for most people because solar UVC is readily absorbed in
the atmosphere before the damaging radiation reaches the
earth’s surface. Knowledge of the effects of UVC on skin
is less clear. However, UVC may be as dangerous to skin
as UVB. [2] [3]
Arc welding produces the full spectrum of UVR, and the
short air gap between the arc and the welder’s skin may not
be sufficient to absorb most of the UVB and UVC.
Arc welders may be at significantly increased risk of
developing actinic skin damage. This is a pattern of skin
damage that is recognised as resulting from significant
prior UVR exposure. Malignancies that can result from
actinic skin damage include malignant melanoma and non-
835
melanoma skin cancer (NMSC), particularly if they have
inadequate protection.
The two most common types of NMSC are the basal cell
carcinoma (BCC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).
Actinic keratoses are premalignant lesions, with a
propensity to develop into SCCs.
Apart from producing UVR, arc welding can also produce
thermal burns on the skin of welders. Such burns may also
contribute to longer-term development of skin cancer. [4]
conceivable that the UVR skin damage experienced by
those workers had not manifested as actinic changes
because they were too young.
The Emmett study also involved workers welding
predominantly with mild steel while higher intensity
welding such as welding aluminium was not explored.
Formal medical histories of those examined were not
available.

Review of evidence Furthermore, the Emmett study did not include

examination for pigmented naevi. These are small dark
A literature review has been undertaken using commercial lesions on the skin, some of which can be altered,
search engines and Table 1 summarises the limited studies becoming “atypical”. Malignant melanoma is the most
into the risk of skin cancer from arc welding that were serious of the skin cancers frequently seen and managed by
identified. dermasurgeons. At that time, the relationship between
atypical naevi and malignant melanoma was not
Table 1: Evidence linking development of cutaneous understood. We now recognise that multiple atypical naevi
malignancy with arc welding are associated with a significant increase in the subsequent
incidence of malignant melanoma. [7]
Investigator Finding
Emmett et al Case control study of 77 welders and Welding technique & UVR exposure
[5] 133 other workers in the same North
American factory. Welders more Lyon [8] describes common welding techniques and
frequently suffered redness and variables and the relative radiation exposure from each.
cutaneous burns. Neither welders nor These variables and their impact on UVR are summarised
controls were found to have NMSC. in Table 2.
The only melanoma identified was in a
non welder. Only seven workers Table 2: Factors that increase UVR exposure whilst arc
demonstrated actinic keratoses. These welding [8]
are premalignant lesions on the skin.
Currie & Review five cases of NMSC in welders Factor Effect
Monk [6] – advise that this non solar source of Working close to Radiation dose is inversely
UVR should not be overlooked arc proportional to the square of the
distance from the arc [9]
Arc energy Correlates with UVR
The only formal case control study was by Emmett[5], who Arc duration Correlates with UVR
studied 77 welders, 75 other workers exposed to welding Current Correlates with UVR
and 58 non-exposed workers. No link was found between Metal being Aluminium arc welding produces
welding and the development of cancer on the skin of welded higher levels of UVR because welding
welders. currents are higher and radiation is
However, a number of features of the Emmett study are reflected from the plate surface.
noteworthy. They studied one workplace only, described by
Emmett as “a plant where both management and workers Shielding gas Helium absorbs more UVR than
were careful to maintain hygienic practices. . . well-run argon. Shielding with helium thus
welding operations which use and enforce current safety reduces skin exposure to UVR
standards”. . .Emmett commented that “ it is not believed Angle of plate Emission is maximum at 50 – 60
these results can be extrapolated to welding operations degrees from the surface of the plate
which do not employ good practices.” being welded [9]
Other welding UVR is almost exclusively associated
It is also noteworthy that the study looked at relatively processes with the arc welding processes
young people. The average age of the workers examined
was 45, of which the average age of welders was 43. These
workers had been working for the same employer for an
Welding aluminium involves large UVR emission than
average of 16.9 years. Since skin cancer often occurs
steel as high arc energy is required and the metal is more
decades after the significant UVR exposure, it is
reflective.

836

Table 3: Welding processes and UVR emission produced
by each [8] [10]
Level of UVR Welding processes
emission
High Gas metal arc welding
Gas tungsten arc welding
Medium Most shielded metal arc welding
processes including domestic units
Low Submerged arc welding
Laser and electron beam welding
Minimal or nil Oxy-acetylene welding
Resistance welding
Friction welding
Friction stir welding
The oral presentation includes several photographs of
tumours developing on part time welders. While basal cell
carcinoma (BCC) is the most common type of skin cancer
seen by dermasurgeons and dermatologists, it is not the
predominant type of cancer noticed on the forearms and
hands of welders by the author. Skin cancers on arc welders
are virtually always squamous cell carcinomata (SCC).
Anecdotal evidence of many dermasurgeons is that they
frequently treat SCCs on welders and their assistants
despite those welders at times denying any significant solar
UV exposure.
Welding Practice
For welding tradespeople working in an uncomfortable
environment, operator comfort and convenience are major
factors. In particular, the radiant heat from welding can be
quite uncomfortable and welding on a hot day compounds
the problem. The temptation is to discard heavy welders’
clothing in favour of light, summer clothing. The wearing
of short sleeved shirts and / or no gloves while welding
places the skin of the forearm and hand at considerable
UVR exposure.
Many welders recognise the red triangle that develops just
below the mask on the neck and upper chest. This
commonly results from the welder forgetting to fasten the
top shirt buttons before welding.
A third group of welding workers, sculptors and
tradespeople doing highly intricate work, also experience
difficulties in achieving fine details with heavy clothing
over their forearms and thick gloves on their hands.
Furthermore, while tradespeople are invariably educated in
health and safety issues when learning to weld, other
workers in the same workplace may not be. Welders
working in a factory might wear thick clothing and a
837
suitable mask while other people in the vicinity have little
or no skin protection.
Sometimes these are assistants supporting the metal being
fused.
Aside from full time welders, there are many tradespeople
who perform welding as a small part of their occupation
(eg motor mechanics) and these people often find it
inconvenient to put on protective clothing in order to
undertake a quick job.
Discussion
The literature survey presented here shows that there is a
paucity of information relating to the effect of arc welding
on the incidence and type of skin cancers. Therefore, there
exists an urgent need to undertake rigorous surveys of
welding operators to assess the occupational risks
associated with welding and to then to determine
appropriate methods of protection.
The anecdotal experience of dermasurgeons further
highlights the urgency of formal studies in this are of
concern.
In the meantime, Skin protection should be considered
essential to minimize UVR exposure. Suitable protection
while arc welding includes wearing suitable gloves as well
clothing over the arms and forearms down to the gloves.
Apart from professional experienced welders who are
trained in safe welding techniques, education for others
exposed to arc welding ultraviolet needs attention.
Part time welders, sculptors, tradespeople and welding
assistants must also implement similar UVR precautions
when they are in the vicinity or arc welding.
Recommendations
While there remain many unanswered questions regarding
arc welding and skin cancer risk, there are some principles
that we can consider in prevention of skin cancer.
Arc welders must wear appropriate clothing and be
encouraged to choose sunscreens that include UVC
protection. Workers welding aluminium risk the highest
exposures to artificial UVR.
The lack of quality studies means there is uncertainty about
the risk of skin cancers from arc welding operations and
further investigations are needed.
Issues that should be considered in any future study
include:
1. Examining workers who commenced welding at least
25 years prior to the study.
2. Workers using varying arc welding processes,
shielding gases and metals.
3. Part time, poorly protected welders
4. Obtaining pathology on any suspicious skin lesions.

References

[1] G. Horneck, Adv Space Res 26 (2000) 1983-1994.

[2] World Health Forum 16 (1995) 110.
[3] J. I. Merryman, J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 18
(1999) 1-9.
[4] M. R. Ewing, Aust N Z J Surg 41 (1971) 140-147.
[5] E. A. Emmett, C. R. Buncher, R. B. Suskind, K. W.
Rowe, Jr., J Occup Med 23 (1981) 85-90.
[6] C. L. Currie, B. E. Monk, Clin Exp Dermatol 25
(2000) 28-29.
[7] J. W. Kelly, J. M. Yeatman, C. Regalia, G. Mason, A.
P. Henham, Med J Aust 167 (1997) 191-194.
[8] T. Lyon, Welding Journal 81 (2002) 28-30.
[9] T. Okuno, J. Ojima, H. Saito, Ann Occup Hyg 45
(2001) 597-601.
[10] American Welding Society 2 (1991).

838
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

In-Process Monitoring of Pinch Welding:

An Investigation into a Bond Quality Metric

∗
D.A. Hartman , P.S. Korinko† , N.R. Tolk∗∗ , S.H. Malene† , M.G. Smith∗ , M.J. Cola∗ , V.R. Dave∗ , J.P. Miller‡ and W.H.
§
King

∗
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico
†
Savannah River National Laboratory, Aiken, South Carolina
∗∗
Honeywell FM&T, Kirtland Operations, Albuquerque, New Mexico
‡
Honeywell FM&T, Kansas City Plant, Kansas City, Missouri
§
William H. King Consulting, LLC, Higganum, Connecticut

Abstract
Acoustic emission (AE) was investigated as a potential in-
process quality metric for monitoring the solid-state resistance
closure weld, commonly referred to as a pinch weld, used to
seal the 1/8th inch diameter steel tube on the tritium reservoirs.
Pinch welds were made with varying input power levels, sur-
face cleanliness, and workpiece hardness variations. Radiogra-
phy and post-weld metallography was performed on each weld
in order to establish bond quality. In-process data (current, volt-
age, force, displacement, and acoustic emission) were collected
for each weld. The on-cooling portion of the AE data were ex-
plored through a variety of feature descriptors in an attempt to Figure 1: Input and output variables of the pinch welding process.
find a correlation with bond quality. The frequency content of the
AE signal was found to contain information relevant to a pinch
weld’s metallurgical bond integrity. means:

Introduction 1. Stems are periodically destructively tested and evaluated

Westinghouse Savannah River Company uses a solid-state resis-
tance closure weld (hereafter referred to as a pinch weld) to seal
vessels filled with tritium, which is a radioactive isotope of hy-
drogen. The vessel is filled through a small diameter tube (0.125-
inch diameter by 0.035-inch wall thickness) referred to as a stem,
and the stem is then pinched shut while still under pressure to
seal the gas inside of the vessel.
Pinch welding is a resistance welding process that achieves
coalescence primarily through diffusion although some melting
may occur. Radiography, ultrasonic, eddy current, electrode dis-
placement and metallography all rely on phase transformations
of the material as a means of inspecting bond quality. Conse-
quently, unlike other traditional resistance welding processes, in-
specting pinch weld quality through various post-process NDE
techniques is difficult due to the lack of melting.
Pinch welding is the last step in the fabrication process of a
complex assembly. Furthermore, reliability of the pinch weld is
paramount to the product’s safety and performance. Verification
of weld quality on production stems is accomplished by two
metallographically in order to “bookend” the quality of the
production stems.
2. Radiography is applied to every weld to measure closure
length, extrusion ratio, weld thickness, and identify any
anomalies.
Since re-work of a non-conforming pinch weld is rarely possible,
the entire assembly is usually scrapped if geometric or other
anomalies are found in the radiograph. Therefore, a real-time,
or in-process, assessment of the quality of pinch welds is of
considerable interest.
The goal of an in-process monitoring solution is to measure
the process’s performance, the product’s quality, or both in a
real- or near-real-time manner. The successful implementation
of an in-process monitoring solution requires knowledge of the
physics of the process that pertain to the process’s performance
and the product’s quality. This knowledge is used to appropri-
ately instrument the process with sensors that can measure, ei-
ther directly or indirectly, the physical mechanisms of interest.
There are a number of variables involved in the pinch welding

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 839

process. According to Cook (Ref. [1]) and illustrated in Figure
1, the variables of a welding process can be separated into direct
weld parameters (DWP) and indirect weld parameters (IWP).
Pinch weld quality is affected to varying degrees by preselected
weld parameters, indirect weld parameters, and other uncontrol-
lable factors. Preselected variables are variables that cannot be
changed during the process and, hence, must be “preselected”
prior to initiating the weld. For pinch welding, the preselected
variables include the electrode type, size, and tip geometry, the
presence or absence of a backfill gas, and the choice of a confined
or unconfined die. Indirect weld parameters are parameters that
can be modified (or tailored) in process or from weld-to-weld.
Finally, uncontrollable factors can influence weld quality. Typi-
cally, their influence is minimized by imposing tolerances upon
them, but ultimately they are accepted as-is. Knowledge of these
variables and factors and how they affect weld quality are critical
to selecting the appropriate sensing mechanism for an in-process
monitoring solution.
Typically, data mining and analysis, in the form of feature ex-
tractors and classification methods, are required to translate the
raw data into a meaningful process metric. Development of a
in-process monitoring solution usually requires off-line, post-
process data analysis to correlate the sensor data with a metric
of interest. This involves either (1) conducting additional exper-
iments outside of the production environment or (2) collecting
data in parallel with production. In either case, correlating the
in-process data with post-process quality metrics requires exten-
sive data analysis which can consume the majority of the overall
effort.
The purpose of an in-process monitoring solution is not to re-
place post-process, non-destructive examination. Although this
can sometimes occur, an in-process monitoring solution can sig-
nificantly augment the over-reliance on post-process inspection
by transforming it into a value-added step in the manufactur-
ing effort. In particular, an in-process monitoring solution can
serve as the first line of inspection categorizing parts as, for ex-
ample, either acceptable, unacceptable, or suspect. The accept-
able parts move on to the next stage of manufacturing, while the
suspect parts are inspected further using traditional NDE tech-
niques. This “inspect-for-cause” methodology can greatly in-
crease throughput and reduce unnecessary post-process inspec-
tion. Furthermore, product quality is immediately identified dur-
ing or immediately after the process is complete. Troubleshoot-
ing an “out-of-control” process can therefore proceed imme-
diately rather than hours or days later when (or if) the non-
conformance is detected.
In-process monitoring can minimize machine downtime, re-
duce scrap, increase throughput, eliminate non-value-added op-
erations, and enhance safety. For a manufacturing environment
that is constantly concerned with their “bottom line”, the impact
of in-process monitoring can be enormous. For mission-critical
and safety-class-rated (i.e., where product safety is paramount)
manufacturing operations, an in-process monitoring solution can
provide the quantitative feedback necessary to maintain confi-
dence in product quality. In general, in-process monitoring pro-
vides the process engineer with the knowledge that his/her pro-
cess is “under control”.
840
This paper will present the investigation of using acoustic
emission for the development of an in-process monitoring so-
lution. In particular, the frequency components of the AE signal
will be analyzed relative to the pinch weld’s bond rating. A Back-
ground section provides an overview of the process and summa-
rizes some notable efforts in developing an in-process monitor-
ing system for pinch welding. The next two sections (Experimen-
tal Approach and Results and Discussion) discuss the methods
used and the results achieved for this exploratory work. Finally,
a Conclusions and Future Work Section summarizes our findings
and presents several research directions in which to extend this
work.
Background
Previous work by Pretzel and Beattie (Ref. [2]) demonstrated
the use of acoustic emission (AE) data as a potential in-process
metric for monitoring pinch weld bond quality. In particular,
through the use of simple data analysis techniques (e.g., AE
energy), the authors could distinguish between good (primarily
solid-state bond with minimal melting), hot (excessive melting
and expulsion), and cold (no metallurgical bond) welds. The
authors found that other more subtle defect conditions, such as
contaminated bore surfaces and bore conditions (air versus argon
or hydrogen fill), were not detectable through AE monitoring.
In Ref. [3], Riechman correlated AE counts to pinch weld
strength. Two variables were investigated in this study: weld
current and oxide thickness. Riechman found that a plot of the
sum of AE counts vs. electrode voltage exhibited a characteristic
shape for three different oxide thicknesses: clean, medium, and
heavy oxide layers. Suggested future work involved additional
data analysis techniques and a larger range of welding parame-
ters.
Contrary to the previously mentioned findings, Clark (Ref.
[4]) determined that AE was not a useful in-process data metric
for monitoring pinch weld quality. Clark compared AE ringdown
counts to weld power using a 60-tube (type 316L SS) experi-
mental matrix. Clark found that AE (1) lacked sufficient signal
strength at production weld power levels, (2) exhibited excessive
variability during hot welds, and (3) failed to distinguish welds
made with oxidized stems.
In Ref. [5], Bentley developed a feedback control system for
pinch welding using electrode displacement under a wide varia-
tion in weld current. Weld quality was defined as welds of con-
sistent thickness. In his paper, Bentley stated that “the challenge
associated with quality control in pinch welding is the large
amount of uncertainty in the relationship between weld quality
and weld parameters.” Furthermore, he noted that there are large
variations in weld quality under constant weld parameters from
machine to machine and over time. In particular, Bentley elabo-
rates further that weld current is difficult to control due to power
surges and dips created by other high-power equipment on the
same circuit.
Advances in computational power, signal processing rou-
tines, and data analysis techniques provide the motivation to re-
investigate the utility of acoustic emission as a means of deter-
 Table 1: Three parameters were varied in this which is perpendicular to the pinch direction, is maintained nom-
DOE.
inally the same as the original diameter. A schematic illustrating
Variable Low Nominal High the process is shown in Figure 3.
Current, [A] 3300 3650 4000
Hardness HRB64 HRB94 HRC29
Cleanliness oxidized acid aqueous

mining bond quality in pinch welding. This effort explored the

frequency content of the raw acoustic emission data in an attempt
to find a correlation with bond integrity. Although correlations
have been reported for machine parameters and physical dimen-
sions (Ref. [6]), this work investigated a needed path forward to
elucidate bond quality in a real-time and non-destructive manner.

Experimental Approach
A statistical design of experiments (DOE) with 21 trials based
on 15 unique conditions with 6 repeats was developed for this
effort. Table 1 lists the three parameters that were varied.
The data from the DOE was used to evaluate whether various
weld quality metrics can be explained by current (3300 A, 3650 Figure 3: Confined pinch welding process.
A, 4000 A), material hardness (HRB64, HRB94, and HRC29),
The welds were made using a Medar controller under constant
and stem cleanliness (aqueous solution, acid etch, and an oxi-
voltage control and in air. Weld current was monitored with
dized condition). Force was held constant at 1250 lbs to allow
an inductive pickup current meter, while the weld voltage was
for a manageable number of trials in testing. The quality metrics
adjusted manually at the transformer to provide the input power
included weld thickness, closure length, displacement, and bond
level. Tungsten-tipped copper electrodes with a 3/16" inch radius
rating, although bond rating was the focus of this present study.
were employed.
The experimental effort was conducted using tubing procured
In general, and specifically for this set of experiments, the
from the Kansas City Plant (KCP).
pinch weld consists of three distinct and sequential steps:
Materials and Preparation 1. Squeeze: After fixturing the workpiece, a preload of 1250
Seamless, cold drawn, type 304L SS tubing was used for these lbs was applied to the tube. The target force was achieved
experiments. The as-received tubes had a superficial hardness of by ramping initially at 6.25 psi/s. Upon reaching 100 lbs of
29 on the Rockwell C scale. Heat treatment of some of the tubes the target force, the ramp was reduced to 0.25 psi/s. 1
occurred in a vacuum furnace (less than 5 · 10−5 torr) followed
2. Resistance test: Prior to welding, a 3 A current was sent
by an argon gas fan cooled to 200o F. The partially annealed
through the workpiece and the response voltage was mea-
tubes were heat treated to 1700o F for 20 minutes, while the fully
sured. The test was used, primarily, to ensure that the cor-
annealed samples were heat treated at 2100o F for 2 hours. Figure
rect fixtures are in place, that the preload has been applied,
2 illustrates the metallurgical condition of the tubing used for
and that all the preliminary conditions have been met. 2
these experiments.
3. Weld: Each weld consisted of 12 cycles of alternating cur-
rent with no phase angle cutoff or additional control. Elec-
trode force was fixed at nominally 1250 lbs and was kept
constant by monitoring and adjusting the nitrogen gas pis-
ton pressure at the pinch weld station. Electrode force was
maintained throughout the duration of the AE data collec-
tion (approximately an additional 6 seconds).

Figure 2: Metallurgical condition of the type 304L SS tubing (@100X).
Welding Procedure
All welds were made using a confined pinch weld fixture. The
weld fixture uses a Hastelloy alloy with a 1/16" radius anvils
and a nominal thickness of 0.05". The anvils are applied to the
Aside from differences in parameter settings, the above steps are
representative of those followed in production.
1 The authors believe that workpiece hardness information might be available
through both AE and displacement analysis.
2 Additional information regarding the process (e.g., surface cleanliness) might

tube sides to a torque of 35-45 in-lb. so that the welded diameter, be achieved through analysis of this data.

841

Figure 4: A radiograph of the final weld is used to quantitatively
measure the geometric weld acceptance parameters.
Weld Quality Assessment
Weld quality was assessed using radiography and metallog-
raphy. The samples were first radiographed to determine weld
geometry and identify weld anomalies (in particular, expulsion).
Figure 4 illustrates the geometric acceptance parameters, and Ta-
ble 2 lists the weld acceptance parameters. Following radiogra-
phy, the samples were examined metallographically. Transverse
cross-sections were mounted in epoxy, ground, and mechani-
cally polished. The samples were then electrolytically etched
with 10% oxalic acid at 3 V for approximately 30-45 seconds.
Metallurgical bond integrity, in the form of a bond rating, was
determined for each weld by visually comparing its micrograph
to a series of typical micrographs (see Figure 5) representing ac-
ceptable and unacceptable bonds.
Table 3 summarizes the results of the welding trials. Non-
integer bond class ratings were achieved by assessing the bond
integrity at the center and edges of the weld zone and then
performing an average. This resulted in an additional class (i.e.,
“2.5”3 ) that further enhanced the metallographic scrutiny and
tested the sensitivity of the sensor and data analysis routines.
Acoustic Emission Sensing and Data Collection
A Physical Acoustics Corporation’s (PAC) MICRO30D
acoustic emission sensor was used to collect the AE activity
during and after welding. A PAC 2/4/6 external preamplifier
provided improved signal strength prior to transmitting the
signal to the wide bandwidth AE amplifier (PAC Model AE2A).
Finally, a 100-400 kHz bandpass plug-in filter was used to re-
duce unwanted noise and accentuate specific AE signals within
the 100-400 kHz region. The transducer’s differential design
was specifically chosen to provide common-mode rejection of
the electromagnetic interference induced by the high welding
currents (Ref. [7]). The output of the MICRO30D is processed
3 Only integer-based bond ratings (i.e., classes 1, 2, 3, and 4) are used in
production.
842
Table 2: Pinch weld acceptance parameters.
Acceptance Parameter Value
Closure length, [in] 0.080 - 0.180
Extrusion ratio, [E/B]∗ < 1.0
Weld thickness, [in] 0.050 - 0.060
10 mil ball† [Yes/No]
Anomalies None
Hydrostatic pressure test, [kpsig]∗∗ 40
Bond rating, [class]‡ 1 or 2
∗ Where E is the extrusion and B is the base.
† A 10 mil ball is used to measure the root radius. If the radius is less than 10,
then the weld is rejectable.
∗∗ Due to their destructive nature, hydrostatic pressure test and bond rating are
only applied to test stems.
‡ Figure 5 illustrates the four possible classes.
by a differential amplifier to provide 24dB common-mode
rejection.
The AE sensor was mounted to a milled flat on one side of the
copper electrode (see Figure 6). A thin film of silicone grease
was applied to the surface of the copper electrode to ensure good
acoustic coupling. A plastic tie wrap secured the sensor to the
electrode for the duration of the experiments.
Two data acquisition systems were employed. The pinch
welding process controller contained its own data acquisition
hardware and ran LabVIEW to both control the process and col-
lect the machine data. Voltage, current, force, electrode displace-
ment, and pressure were collected at a rate of 10 kHz per chan-
nel. A second data acquisition system collected the raw AE sig-
nal at 1.2 MHz.
The data acquisition systems were synchronized with a start
trigger that the pinch welding process controller provided shortly
before weld current was initiated. The pinch welding process
controller terminated data collection shortly after the completion
of the weld, whereas the AE data acquisition system continued to
monitor and store AE activity for approximately 6 seconds after
the weld current is terminated.
Figure 7 represents a typical AE signature for both the on-
heating and on-cooling portions of the weld. The on-heating
portion is completed in 12 cycles or 0.2 seconds (Figure 8).
Shortly following the last cycle of weld current, there is a brief
(0.09 seconds) burst of AE activity. The energy during this event
was found to be directly correlated to weld current. Figure 9
illustrates this event by zooming in on Figure 7.
This effort focused on the analysis of the AE signal during the
on-cooling portion of the weld and immediately following the
0.09-second burst of AE activity. Previous work summarized in
the Background section focused on collecting and analyzing the
AE data during welding. AE activity during this time frame is
dominated mostly by material deformation and electrical heat-
ing. As the heat diffuses away from the weld zone, it was ex-
pected that differences in recrystallization, grain growth, grain
boundary migration, and material relaxation could be discerned
in the AE data between welds with different bond ratings. There-
fore, the authors were interested in determining if the frequency
content of the AE signal could be correlated to weld integrity.
 Figure 5: Micrographs illustrating bond ratings for acceptable (class 1 and 2) and unacceptable (class 3 and 4) weld quality.

AE and Weld Current

3 6000

2 4000

AE Amplitude, [V]
1 2000

Current, [A]
0 0

−1 −2000

−2 −4000

−3 −6000
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time, [s]
Figure 6: 3/16" tungsten-tipped copper electrodes were milled flat to
accommodate the acoustic emission sensor. Figure 8: Typical AE signature and weld current during the on-heating
portion of a pinch weld.

Typical AE Signature
0.6

0.4

0.2
Voltage, [V]

−0.2

−0.4

Figure 7: Typical AE signature during the on-heating and on-cooling −0.6

portions of a pinch weld. 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
Time, [s]

Figure 9: Typical AE signature immediately following weld current

Consequently, the rest of this paper will focus its discussion on
this portion of the AE signal.
Feature Analysis
Feature analysis is the implementation of signal processing
and data analysis techniques that explore and, potentially, im-
prove upon the “raw” data. The application of a specific feature
analysis technique is called a feature descriptor. Oftentimes, the
raw data is in a format that is not conducive for direct input into a
classifier and, therefore, requires manipulation in order to reduce
and/or enhance the data for classification purposes.
Ideally, the application of a feature descriptor results in triv-
ializing the decision making process of the classifier. The task
of feature analysis is normally a domain-dependent operation. In
this work, the power spectrum of the AE signal was investigated.
termination during a pinch weld.
The power spectrum is accomplished using a discrete Fourier
transform (DFT). The DFT “transforms” an ordered sequence
of data samples from the time domain into the frequency do-
main. Spectral information about the signal can be represented
explicitly. In certain problem domains, the spectral information
can prove to be extremely revealing, e.g., when attempting to
describe physical phenomenon that exhibit periodicity.
A moving-window DFT was performed on the AE data using a
1024-point fast Fourier transform (FFT). A step size of 512 data
points was used to move through the time-domain data. Over
11700 FFTs were generated per weld.

843
 Table 3: Pinch welding results.
Current Displacement
Setpoint Actual Cold Total Closure Extrusion 10 mil Thickness Bond
Run∗ [A] [A] Hardness Cleanliness [in] [in] [in] [in] ball [in] Rating
01 4000 3932 HRB64 aqueous 0.13210 0.15403 0.163 n/a yes 0.0490 2.5
02 3650 3669 HRB94 acid 0.13181 0.15235 0.130 0.002 n/a 0.0513 2.0
03 4000 3914 HRB64 oxidized 0.13278 0.15437 0.157 n/a yes 0.0487 2.0
04 4000 3908 HRB64 acid 0.13096 0.15324 0.155 0.007 n/a 0.0510 2.0
05 3650 3651 HRB94 aqueous 0.12841 0.14981 0.139 0.004 n/a 0.0537 2.0
06 3650 3649 HRB94 oxidized 0.12927 0.15164 0.137 0.006 n/a 0.0520 2.5
07 3300 3309 HRB64 acid 0.13280 0.14928 0.100 n/a no 0.0547 3.0
08 3300 3309 HRC29 acid 0.12558 0.14656 0.140 0.001 n/a 0.0560 3.0
09 4000 3918 HRB64 aqueous 0.13310 0.15394 0.161 0.004 n/a 0.0497 3.0
10 3300 3304 HRB94 aqueous 0.13020 0.14902 0.090 n/a yes 0.0570 3.0
11 3650 3655 HRB94 aqueous 0.12943 0.15174 0.130 0.001 n/a 0.0530 2.5
12 3650 3654 HRB94 oxidized 0.13573 0.15321 0.129 n/a yes 0.0510 3.0
13 4000 3917 HRB64 aqueous 0.13397 0.15465 0.158 n/a yes 0.0490 2.5
14 3300 3300 HRB64 oxidized 0.13527 0.14972 0.107 n/a no 0.0550 3.0
15 3300 3280 HRC29 oxidized 0.12828 0.14972 0.140 0.008 n/a 0.0540 2.5
16 4000 3913 HRB64 acid 0.13368 0.15478 0.163 0.006 n/a 0.0493 2.5
17 3300 3297 HRC29 aqueous 0.12298 0.14615 0.104 n/a yes 0.0573 2.5
18 3300 3281 HRC29 oxidized 0.12390 0.14848 0.118 0.001 n/a 0.0550 2.5
19 4000 3910 HRB64 oxidized 0.13387 0.15402 0.163 0.002 n/a 0.0497 2.0
20 3300 3312 HRB64 aqueous 0.13643 0.14891 0.104 n/a no 0.0550 3.0
21 3650 3656 HRB94 acid 0.13403 0.15306 0.129 0.006 n/a 0.0477 2.0
∗ A zero precedes each single-digit weld run in order to improve upon the readability of this and subsequent tables.

Data Mining
Data mining of the AE data was accomplished through a
statistical learning method called clustering. Clustering is an
unsupervised learning technique in which the unlabeled objects
are organized into groups whose members are similar in some
way. A cluster, therefore, is a collection of objects which are
similar to each other and dissimilar to objects of other clusters.
A similarity criterion is required before clustering can occur.
A common similarity criterion is distance in which two or more
objects belong to the same cluster if they are “close” according
to a given distance metric, e.g., geometrical distance.
The k-means method is a simple and well-known clustering
algorithm that provides k clusters (determined a priori) to a given
data set. The method treats each observation in the data set as
an object having a location in space. The method partitions the
objects within a cluster as close to each other as possible and
as far from objects in other clusters as possible. The algorithm
minimizes the following objective function:
2. Assume the number of clusters, k, is known, where 2 < k <
n.
3. Randomly select k initial cluster centroids.
4. Assign all data points to a cluster defined by the nearest
cluster center.
5. Move the cluster centroids to the geometric centroid (i.e.,
center of mass) of the data points in their respective clusters.
6. Repeat from (4) until the overall objective function is less
than a given tolerance or until the centroids remain station-
ary.
The k-means algorithm will always terminate with a solution;
however, the solution is not guaranteed optimal. Furthermore,
the algorithm is sensitive to the initial randomly selected cen-
troid locations. Nevertheless, the algorithm provides an excellent
starting point for mining the AE data relative to bond quality.
The k-means clustering algorithm was applied to the AE
power spectrum data in an attempt to further reduce the data. In
particular, the clustering algorithm reduced the 11700+ power
k n 2
spectrums to six (6) representative power spectrums for each

( j)
J= − c j  (1)
 
∑ ∑ xi weld. The six clustered power spectrums were sorted in ascend-
j=1 i=1
 2 ing order by power.
 ( j)
where xi − c j  is a chosen distance measure between the

( j)
data point xi and the cluster’s centroid c j . The centroid of each
cluster is the point at which the sum of distances from all objects
in that cluster is minimized.
The k-means algorithm is composed of the following steps
(Ref. [8]):
1. Consider a set of n data points to be clustered.
Figures 10 through 12 illustrate representative plots from the
power spectrum clustering effort for 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 bond
ratings, respectively. The title for each plot lists the cluster
number (preceded by the letter C) and the number of power
spectrums (i.e., objects) that fall within that particular cluster
(preceded by the letter F). The power spectrums are sorted
according to increasing power, where C1 < C2 < ... < C6.
As can be seen from the representative power spectrum clus-
ters, the amplitude varied greatly between clusters 2 through 6.

844
However, the amplitude from cluster 1 across all three bond rat-
ings remained relatively close. Cluster 1 represents the frequency
content during the “quiet” portion of the AE activity. Further-
more, based upon the number of power spectrums that fall into
cluster 1, cluster 1 constitutes over 99% of the AE data.
One might be inclined to immediately draw conclusions about
the relative frequency components, peak amplitudes, and general
shape of the clustered power spectrums. However, upon cursory
inspection, the authors found no visually consistent and repeat-
able features across clusters with the same bond rating. It is sus-
pected that the three-variable DOE might induce sufficient vari-
ability within the AE power spectrums while maintaining con-
sistency indicative of bond rating.
Figure 10: Clustering results from a weld with a 2.0 bond rating.
Figure 11: Clustering results from a weld with a 2.5 bond rating.
Figure 12: Clustering results from a weld with a 3.0 bond rating.
845
Bond Quality Classification
After clustering the data, a single hold-out method was applied
to the data set to investigate the similarity of the clustered power
spectrums to bond rating. The distance measure used in the
clustering algorithm was applied as a similarity metric to identify
welds with similar clusters. The top three similarities per cluster
were considered.
The clustered power spectrums were analyzed in two formats:
raw and normalized. The raw format maintains both the fre-
quency and absolute power of the AE activity, while the nor-
malized format eliminates the power component by scaling all
values within each power spectrum such that the largest value is
1.0.
Results and Discussion
Based on the pinch welding results listed in Table 3, the follow-
ing comments can be made:
• With the exception of the cold welds, all three bond ratings
were generated by all three variables within the DOE (i.e.,
current, hardness, and cleanliness). In particular, it should
be noted that the presence of an oxide layer had no consis-
tent deleterious effect on the bond rating. This is evidenced
by comparing runs 01, 03, 04, 09, 16, and 19 and by com-
paring runs 08, 15, 17, and 18.
• No correlation appears to exist between total electrode dis-
placement and bond rating; however, the amount of cold
electrode displacement is slightly correlated to hardness.
• Expulsion (commonly referred to as “spits”) was not found
in any of the hot welds.
AE analysis similar to Pretzel’s and Clark’s efforts was able to
confirm Clark’s findings (Ref. [4]). In particular, large variability
in the AE energy was found to exist across all three bond ratings.
Pretzel’s effort conducted a much larger range of weld current
conditions (hot and cold), and it is therefore expected that the
electrical heating might manifest itself more prominently in the
AE data as reported by Pretzel.
Tables 4 and 5 summarize the classification results for the raw
and normalized clusters, respectively. The top three similarities
per cluster for each weld are listed in column format with the first
column of each cluster identifying the weld that is most similar.
Tables 6 and 7 summarize the bond rating prediction results
for cluster 1 from the raw data and cluster 6 from the normalized
data, respectively. Prediction of bond rating consisted of four
different approaches:
• Winner takes all (WTA): The most similar weld was chosen
as the predictor for bond rating.
• Average: The bond ratings from the three most similar
welds were averaged and used as the predictor for bond
rating.
• Weighted Average (Weighted): The bond ratings from the
three most similar welds were incorporated into a weighted
average (i.e., ((3 ∗ B1) + (2 ∗ B2) + (B3))/6 where B1 is the
 bond rating for the most similar weld, etc.) and used as the
predictor for bond rating.
• Majority Wins (Majority): The bond ratings from the three
most similar welds were voted upon in which the majority
was used as the predictor for bond rating. If no majority
existed, then a winner takes all method was used.
The average error and the standard deviation for each prediction
method is tabulated at the bottom of each table.
It was originally expected that any metallurgical bond qual-
ity indications (i.e., bond rating) or process conditions would be
contained within the large bursts of AE activity that are captured
in clusters 4, 5, and 6 and possibly in clusters 2 and 3. How-
ever, initial analysis of Table 4 indicates that the best correlation
between AE content and bond rating exist in cluster 1. In partic-
ular, the raw data from cluster 1 was most effective in predicting
bond rating over all other raw clusters (the average error ranged
from 0.36 up to 0.52 for all other clusters). It is suspected that the
large variability in amplitude seen in clusters 2 through 6 domi-
nated all other characteristics of the clustered power spectrums,
whereas the relatively small amplitude variability in cluster 1
coupled with the distribution of frequency components was ef-
fective in identifying welds of similar quality. Most importantly,
it is shown that the bond rating can be predicted from the “quiet”
portion of the on-cooling AE signal.
Analysis of the normalized power spectrum clusters had a
different effect. It was found that cluster 6 contains the most
effective information pertinent to the weld’s bond rating (see
Table 5). In particular, an improved bond rating prediction was
achieved over the raw data in cluster 1. An average error of
0.17 was realized in which any single prediction was off by no
more than 0.5 (which is also the minimum numerical resolution
imposed upon the classification/prediction system). The average
error ranged from 0.29 to 0.43 for all other clusters. Using the
normalized version of cluster 6, welds with 2.0 bond ratings
were accurately identified as 2.0 or 2.5, and welds with 3.0 bond
ratings were accurately identified as 2.5 or 3.0.4 This implies
that the frequency content of the AE signal during on-cooling
(in terms of the existence or absence of frequency components
and the frequency component’s shape and relative amplitude)
contains information regarding the metallurgical bond quality of
a pinch weld.
Table 3 demonstrates that bond quality variability exists under
all three parameter variations (i.e., current, hardness, and clean-
liness). A cursory investigation of the raw version of cluster 1’s
top-three similarities reveals that the power spectrum’s are more
closely based upon initial conditions (in particular, current and
hardness) rather than bond rating. On the contrary, the normal-
ized version of cluster 6’s top-three similarities reveals that the
power spectrum’s are a function of both initial conditions and
the bond rating. This possibly explains the improvement in the
4 Assessing the weld’s bond class from its micrograph is, in and of itself, a
subjective process. According to Ref. [9], internal statistical studies show that
inspectors are on average 85% consistent in their bond rating assessment both
in terms of consistency (i.e., repeat assessments) and agreement with other
inspectors.
846
prediction accuracy of the normalized data from cluster 6 over
the raw data from cluster 1.
Conclusions and Future Work
This work demonstrates that the AE signal during the on-cooling
portion of a pinch weld contains relevant information regarding
the weld’s metallurgical bond quality (i.e., bond rating). Further-
more, the following additional conclusions can be drawn from
this work:
• An in-process monitoring system that utilizes the AE signal
during on-cooling can consistently and non-destructively
predict and interrogate a weld’s bond rating without the
ambiguity typically found by a human inspector.
• Additional information regarding the process, e.g., hardness
variability, surface cleanliness, and current drift, can be
coupled with the AE data to improve upon the bond rating
prediction.
• Energy and RMS calculations of the AE contain large
amounts of variability and fail to reveal metallurgical or
process information.
• Clustering provides a simple, yet effective, method of find-
ing structure within a data set without imposing structure
upon it.
Future work includes the following:
• Improved data analysis and AE understanding:
– Currently, it is not clear what characteristics of the
power spectrum are correlated to bond rating. There-
fore, further data mining and knowledge discovery are
necessary to better understand the structure of the AE
data as it pertains to microstructural evolution, in gen-
eral, and bond rating, in particular.
– Additional data exploration of the machine data (volt-
age, current, dynamic resistance, force, and displace-
ment) and the AE data during on-heating is warranted.
It is expected that additional process knowledge (e.g.,
hardness variability, surface cleanliness, and current
drift) can be detected through the in-process data.
– Different approaches to the feature analysis effort are
necessary. In particular, an investigation into the exis-
tence of any non-stationary phenomena within the AE
data should be undertaken through signal processing
techniques such as the wavelet transform, empirical
mode decomposition, and blind source separation.
• Improved process knowledge and understanding:
– An improved understanding of the mechanical and
metallurgical phenomena and how they are manifested
in the AE data is necessary. This might include the
following additional efforts:
* A larger DOE that generates welds with all four
bond ratings and includes a finer range of param-
eter changes.
* A cycle-by-cycle experimental effort to accu-
rately capture the evolution of a weld.
Table 4: Top three similarities per cluster for each weld using the raw power spectrum clusters.
Clusters
Run 1 2 3 4 5 6
01 03 04 09 09 13 07 07 09 16 07 09 15 05 08 21 07 09 02
02 06 14 13 10 04 18 04 18 10 04 18 14 18 04 03 18 19 03
03 04 09 02 04 02 10 04 02 19 19 04 18 02 18 04 19 14 20
04 03 09 02 02 19 18 19 02 20 19 18 20 14 19 18 19 18 03
05 07 11 08 11 01 09 12 11 08 06 08 11 10 01 21 06 11 21
06 02 11 07 08 17 11 12 16 15 08 05 15 08 10 21 19 02 03
07 05 13 11 03 02 21 03 21 04 03 21 02 02 18 03 02 04 03
08 10 12 05 17 11 01 01 11 15 15 11 07 21 11 10 02 10 06
09 14 13 02 16 15 13 03 21 16 03 21 16 03 04 02 02 19 03
10 12 08 05 02 19 18 18 19 20 02 14 18 18 04 02 14 20 18
11 05 06 07 09 15 13 15 09 16 15 09 07 10 16 13 04 02 07
12 10 08 05 11 15 07 11 07 16 05 06 11 10 09 16 11 07 10
13 07 14 05 15 16 03 03 02 04 02 10 18 04 18 02 02 18 19
14 13 07 06 20 19 18 20 18 19 20 18 04 04 18 19 20 19 03
15 17 18 21 21 16 03 16 03 21 16 13 21 10 11 03 09 13 03
16 15 19 17 03 21 04 03 21 13 03 10 04 03 02 18 11 10 04
17 18 15 21 11 01 15 08 11 01 16 10 13 05 01 10 21 18 11
18 17 21 15 19 20 14 20 14 19 20 14 04 14 04 19 19 20 03
19 21 17 16 18 20 14 20 18 14 04 18 20 04 14 18 18 20 14
20 18 21 17 14 19 18 14 19 18 14 18 04 14 04 18 14 19 03
21 17 18 15 04 02 10 04 02 10 02 04 19 03 04 18 04 18 11

Table 5: Top three similarities per cluster for each weld using the normalized power spectrum clusters.
Clusters
Run 1 2 3 4 5 6
01 04 09 03 04 14 19 04 19 14 04 14 19 05 21 18 15 21 17
02 06 05 07 13 04 01 18 04 05 10 04 14 18 08 04 05 11 13
03 09 04 01 18 20 19 01 19 13 18 16 04 02 08 18 04 05 19
04 01 09 03 14 01 16 19 01 14 14 01 19 05 19 21 21 19 11
05 08 10 07 14 21 07 10 14 12 06 12 10 21 10 14 21 19 11
06 11 02 05 08 17 12 12 17 10 08 13 12 21 12 10 14 05 12
07 05 08 10 14 05 08 12 11 14 14 04 01 12 21 09 01 11 16
08 12 10 05 17 12 06 14 15 18 13 06 11 14 10 18 10 12 15
09 04 03 01 20 04 19 04 07 21 14 11 04 12 21 05 01 02 04
10 08 12 05 14 11 05 05 17 14 14 11 12 21 04 12 12 16 15
11 06 08 10 15 05 10 15 10 12 14 10 15 14 21 15 16 21 05
12 08 10 05 08 17 07 10 14 06 14 10 06 09 10 21 10 16 14
13 07 14 11 17 14 15 02 18 04 17 08 11 18 17 19 19 15 17
14 13 11 07 05 04 21 10 21 12 10 11 12 10 05 21 12 10 16
15 17 18 20 11 17 21 11 18 10 11 10 14 21 12 10 16 10 01
16 19 15 17 14 04 19 14 05 10 04 01 19 18 14 19 10 15 12
17 18 15 21 08 15 06 10 18 15 13 11 08 05 15 21 21 15 19
18 17 21 15 19 04 01 10 17 15 04 14 19 10 21 14 17 19 21
19 16 15 04 04 16 01 04 01 21 04 01 09 15 18 05 21 17 15
20 18 21 17 19 01 04 21 09 04 14 01 04 21 18 05 14 09 01
21 18 17 20 05 14 07 14 19 18 14 19 01 05 10 12 17 01 16

847
 * A modeling effort that is closely coupled with this
and future experimental efforts.
Table 6: Bond rating predictions from cluster 1 for the raw
power spectrum clusters. Acknowledgments
Bond Rating
Run Actual WTA Average Weighted Majority This work was conducted at Los Alamos National Laboratory
and Savannah River National Laboratory. Los Alamos National
01 2.5 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.0 Laboratory is operated by the University of California for the
02 2.0 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.5
03 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.3 2.0 United States Department of Energy under Contract Number
04 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.3 2.0 W-7405-ENG-36. Savannah River National Laboratory is oper-
05 2.0 3.0 2.8 2.8 3.0 ated by Westinghouse Savannah River Company for the United
06 2.5 2.0 2.5 2.3 2.5 States Department of Energy under Contract Number DE-AC09-
07 3.0 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.5 96SR18500. Initial funding for this effort came from the ADAPT
08 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.8 3.0 Readiness Campaign (Dan Knobeloch, Program Manager) un-
09 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.7 2.5
10 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.8 3.0 der Project FY04.1.2.105.01, Machining In-Process QA. The
11 2.5 2.0 2.5 2.3 2.5 authors are grateful for Dan’s support, leadership, and encour-
12 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.8 3.0 agement. Additional funding was provided by the NNSA’s NA-
13 2.5 3.0 2.7 2.8 3.0 123 Future Technology Investment (FTI) Project FY04.1.3.802,
14 3.0 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.5 NORMAN. The authors gratefully acknowledge Rueben Roy-
15 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.5 bal, Brad Meyer, David Lohmeier, Will Schmitz, Karl Arnold,
16 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.5
17 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.4 2.5
Marty Cunningham, and Bill West for their technical support and
18 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.5 guidance. Finally, the authors greatly appreciate Dr. Ray Dixon’s
19 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.5 technical support and critical review of this manuscript.
20 3.0 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.5
21 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 References
Error 0.29 0.34 0.34 0.26
Std. Dev. 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.20 1. Cook, G., Metal Construction, 13, 551–556 (1981).
2. Pretzel, C., and Beattie, A., Acoustic emission characterization
of pinch welds, Tech. Rep. SAND85-8890, Sandia National
Table 7: Bond rating predictions from cluster 6 for the normal- Laboratories (1986).
ized power spectrum clusters. 3. Riechman, A., “Correlation of Pinch Weld Strength with Acoustic
Emission,” in Proceedings of the 46th DAMSUL Committee
Bond Rating Meeting, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1985.
Run Actual WTA Average Weighted Majority 4. Clark, E., Feasibility study of acoustic emission monitoring of
01 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.5 pinch welding tritium reservoir fill stems at the savannah river site,
02 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.5 Tech. Rep. WSRC-TR-90-507, Savannah River Technology Center
03 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 (1990).
04 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.1 2.0 5. Bentley, A., Feedback control of pinch welding using "quantitative
05 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.1 2.0 feedback theory", Tech. Rep. SAND90-8676, Sandia National
06 2.5 3.0 2.7 2.7 3.0 Laboratories (1990).
07 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 6. Bowers, J., and Korinko, P., Exploration of summary data sheets of
08 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.9 3.0 pinch weld experiments and draft neural network models forcasting
09 3.0 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.0 weld closure length (u), Tech. Rep. WSRC-TR-2003-00455,
10 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.8 2.5 Savannah River Technology Center (2003).
11 2.5 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.0 7. Gedeon, S., Sorensen, C., Ulrich, K., and Eagar, T., Welding
12 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.8 3.0 Journal, 66, 378s–385s (1987).
13 2.5 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.5 8. Duda, R., Hart, P., and Stork, D., Pattern Classification, Wiley
14 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.9 3.0 Interscience, New York, New York, 2001, second edn.
15 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.7 2.5 9. West, B., personal communication (2005).
16 2.5 3.0 2.8 2.8 3.0
17 2.5 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.0
18 2.5 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.0
19 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.2 2.5
20 3.0 3.0 2.8 2.9 3.0
21 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Error 0.17 0.28 0.25 0.29
Std. Dev. 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.30

848
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Friction Model Parameter Optimization for Friction Welding Simulation of Ti-6246

J. P. Åström, M. O. Näsström
The Polhem Laboratory, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden

Abstract The friction coefficient can therefore be regarded as the key

parameter when a friction welding process is simulated.
One of the most important manufacturing processes for
welding of large rotationally symmetric structures in
aerospace industry is the rotary friction welding process. In Flash
this process two work-pieces are welded together by fixing
one, while rotating the other under influence of an axial load.
Due to the frictional heat generation in the interface, the
material in the interface is almost melted, but the process is
still a solid-phase joining process. When this stage is reached,
the rotation is stopped and the axial load is momentarily
increased. This is referred to as the forging stage. The two
work-pieces are then allowed to cool and the joint is ready.

A friction model is suggested that takes into account the

variation of the friction coefficient as a function of the normal
pressure in the contact, the temperature, and the relative
sliding velocity. Friction model parameters are determined
using optimization techniques. The finite element software
MSC. Marc™ is coupled with the optimization code INVSYS
and friction welding of two cylindrical Ti 6246 specimens is
simulated while optimizing parameters in the friction model.
The optimization technique used in the work presented here is
the subspace searching simplex method described by Rowan
[1]. An objective function is formulated that minimizes the
error between the measured and the calculated torque during a
friction welding sequence. The aim is to obtain a generic
model for the friction behavior that together with simple
experiments on the same material can generate a heat input
model to be used on large-scale components.
Introduction
Friction welding is a solid-state process that produces a weld
under compressive forces applied to a couple of work-pieces
with a relative angular velocity. Frictional heat generation in
the work-piece interface cause the material in the fusion zone
to become soft and a so-called flash is expelled in the interface
region, see Fig. 1.
The rotational velocity, the pressure and the welding time are
the process parameters. The friction coefficient essentially
couples the process parameters to the resulting heat input rate.
Figure 1: Flash development in the interface region.
In the friction welding of two cylindrical specimens with an
interface area of Ωa, the radius of the cylindrical work-pieces
is denoted r, the angular velocity ω, the pressure P, the
coefficient of friction μ, the welding time t, and the heat input
rate q. The pressure P and the relative sliding speed V(=rω)
together with the friction coefficient μ give the heat input rate
q according to:
q= ∫ Ωa
PμVdΩ a , where dΩ
a
= 2πrdr Eq. (1)
The frictional torque generated over an area segment with
width dr located at a radius r is:
dM = 2πr 2 μPdr
In the friction welding process studied, the axial displacement
of one of the specimens is prescribed. It is only the friction
phase of the welding process that is considered and used to
obtain parameters for the friction model while the forging
phase of the friction welding process is neglected. The angular
velocity is considered to be constant during the process. The
friction coefficient is dependent on temperature, velocity, and
pressure. It is in other words dependent on factors that are not

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 849

directly controlled in the process, but rather a result from the
direct parameters such as the pressure, time and relative
velocity in the process. Moore states in [5] that the results of
most investigations on the sliding speed influence suggest that
it is reasonable to assume the following relationship as valid,
μ = (a + brω )e −crω + d Eq. (2)
where a, b, c, and d in Eq. 2 are constants that depend on the
sliding material and the normal pressure while the product rω
is the relative sliding speed in the contact. Equation 2 is
plotted in Fig. 2 as a function of the relative sliding speed rω
for various contact pressures.
Coefficient of
Low pressure
friction (μ)
Medium pressure
High pressure
Relative sliding
velocity (rω)
Figure 2: Relation between coefficient of friction and relative
sliding speed at various pressures.
Moore also pointed out in [5] that the physical and mechanical
properties vary due to temperature variations in the contact
and that the constants in Eq. 2 cannot be considered to be
constant during the friction welding process. If , as done by
Sluzalec [2], the friction behavior is studied as a function of
temperature during a friction welding process, the principal
behavior is similar to that stated by Moore. This is of course
not unexpected since a greater relative sliding velocity cause a
greater heat generation and hence a higher temperature.
Balasubramanian et. al. [6] have studied the friction welding
of a pair of 1045 steel cylinders. They performed a regression
analysis to obtain a multiparameter expression for the friction
coefficient. Balasubramanian et al. further suggest a single
expression for the coefficient of friction that takes into account
the combined effects of temperature, pressure and relative
sliding velocity. Eq. 3 shows the suggested expression with
exponents obtained by Balasubramanian et. al. for a 1045
steel.
μ = α 0 [T ]−α1 [P ]−α 2 [V ]−α 3 , Eq. (3)
where α0=35.7, α1=0.395, α2=0.022 and α3=0.601
850
The work presented in this paper is based on using the same
principal expression for the friction behavior as in Eq. 3 and
determine the exponents α0, α1, α2 and α3 for Ti 6246
cylinders by combining finite element analysis of the friction
welding process with optimization techniques.
Optimization technique
The optimization technique used in the work presented herein
is the unconstrained subspace searching simplex method [1].
The optimization code is an in-house code named INVSYS
developed by Wikman and Bergman [3] [4]. The method uses
so-called direct searching, which means that the value of the
objective function is sequentially evaluated and compared in
order to find the optima without requiring analytic or
numerically estimated derivatives of the function. One
advantage with the simplex method is its’ insensitiveness to
noisy and non-smooth objective functions.
The optimization loop starts with the specification of an input
file to INVSYS. The input file contains information about
design variables, convergence criteria, executables to be used
for the system control etc. INVSYS is started and an
executable script is invoked that controls the entire
optimization process. The design variables are sent to the
application software, in this case the finite element code MSC.
Marc™, and the analysis of the direct problem starts. When
the direct problem is solved and the objective function is
calculated via an external executable, the objective function is
returned to INVSYS which produce a new set of design
variables and the process continues.
The objective function used to evaluate the finite element
solution in this paper is calculated as,
∑ abs(M (x ) − M
p
f ( x) = calc
f ,i
exp
f ,i ) Eq. (4)
i =1
where x = [α 0 , α 1 , α 2 , α 3 ]
In Eq. 4 above M calc
f ,i ()
x is the calculated frictional torque
over the entire area of contact in the friction welding
procedure at a specific time increment i. In the same way,
M exp
f ,i is the experimentally obtained frictional torque at a
specific time increment i.
Friction welding experiments
A number of friction welding samples of Ti 6246 were made
in an AI Verson conventional friction welding machine at
TWI, Cambridge, UK. One of the samples is depicted in Fig.
3.
 Computational model

Fig. 5 show the computational model used to simulate the

friction welding process. The model is axisymmetric and there
are two discretized bodies, one which represents the rotating
work-piece and one which represents the stationary work-
piece. Symmetry is also assumed around the plane defined by
the area of contact between the two work-pieces. The purpose
of the discretized stationary work-piece is thus only to allow
the friction generated flux to be specified on a body not being
Figure 3: Section of friction welded specimens made from Ti remeshed during the analysis. The contact heat transfer
6246. coefficient between the stationary work-piece and the rotating
work-piece is 1.0E+06 W/mK. The symmetry axis and the
The diameter of a cylindrical work piece is 20 mm and the load body have been modeled using rigid bodies. No heat
length is 70 mm. Angular velocity, axial displacement and transfer occurs across the boundary representing the symmetry
torque were captured during the welding process. The process axis while the contact heat transfer coefficient between the
parameters used are listed in table 1. Note that the axial load body and the rotating work-piece is set to 8 W/mK.
displacement of the rotating work-piece is divided between
deformation in both the stationary and the rotational work-
piece at the welding interface.
Stationary
Table 1: Friction welding process parameters. Rotating
work-piece Load body
Angular velocity 1500 rpm work-piece
Friction force ~25 kN
Forge force ~30 kN A Loading
Total axial displacement 5.1 mm direction
during friction phase B
Rigid body
representing
Immediately prior to welding, the specimens were faced in the C
symmetry
lathe and degreased using acetone fluid in order to remove any
traces of grease present on the friction surfaces. The torque
measured during the friction welding process is plotted in Fig.
Figure 5: Computational model for friction welding of
4 as a function of time.
cylindrical titanium specimens.

Filtered experimental torque Unfiltered experimental torque

Temperature dependent material properties for the rotating
120 work-piece can be seen in Fig. 6. The material model is an
isotropic material model with temperature dependent
100
mechanical- and thermal properties and no work hardening.
Latent heat effects are also accounted for. The melting range is
80
between 1595 and 1675 degrees centigrade. Material
Torque [Nm]

parameters used for the stationary work-piece have been

60
scaled from the Ti 6246 material data of the rotating work-
40
piece to reproduce a rigid body behavior without heat
conduction. Thus, material parameters for the stationary work-
20
piece have been scaled according to table 2.

0
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60
Time [s]

Figure 4: Measured torque during the friction welding of Ti

6426 cylindrical rods. The broken line represents the
unfiltered experimental data and the solid line represents the
filtered experimental data used in the objective function
calculation.

851
 In the FE-analysis of the friction welding process studied in
this work, the time step is chosen so that the time at every
fortieth increment is equal to the time of sampling in the
friction welding experiment. A total of 36 sampling points is
used during a friction welding process time of 1.50012
seconds. The rotating work-piece constitutes originally of 600
four-node, isoparametric, arbitrary quadrilaterals with four
integration points written for axisymmetric applications.
During remeshing, the target element length has been chosen
the same as the initial in order to keep the analysis time to a
minimum. The stationary work-piece constitutes of 280
elements of the same type as in the rotating work-piece.

Results

An optimization run was submitted with initial parameter

values according to table 3. The optimization took 130 hours
Figure 6: Temperature dependent mechanical and thermal on a PC (Linux operating system) with an AMD 1900+
properties for Ti 6246. processor (1.6 GHz) and 1GB RAM. The best parameter set
found can be seen in table 4 with the corresponding objective
Table 2: Scaling factors for stationary work-piece material function value. Table 5 lists the parameter set for one of the
relative to the material data presented in Fig. 6. solutions that produces a solution with better flash geometry
Material property Scaling factor agreement compared to that of the experiment. Complete
Young’s modulus 100 parameter iteration history can be seen in Fig. 8. The objective
function value iteration history is visible in Fig. 9.
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Thermal expansion 0.01 Table 3: Initial parameter set with corresponding objective
Yield stress 10 function value.
Thermal conductivity 0.02 Parameter Value Objective function value
α0 49.0800 690.17
Specific heat 1
α1 0.4550
The load is introduced via a prescribed axial displacement in α2 0.0130
the negative x-direction according to Fig. 7 of the load body α3 0.2560
indicated in Fig. 5. The stationary work-piece is fixed in space
while relative motion between the symmetry axis and the Table 4: Optimized parameter set with corresponding
rotating work-piece is allowed in the x-direction. Relative objective function value.
motion is also allowed in the y-direction (radial) between the Parameter Value Objective function value
rotating work-piece and the load body and between the α0 78.6035 384.53
stationary and the rotating work-piece. α1 0.5047
α2 0.02034
0,0030 α3 0.2409
0,0025
Table 5: Parameter set with corresponding objective function
Displacement [m]

0,0020 value for an iteration (#2) that produces a better flash

geometry agreement.
0,0015 Parameter Value Objective function value
0,0010 α0 112.8840 689.07
α1 0.4550
0,0005
α2 0.0130
0,0000 α3 0.2560
0,00 0,50 1,00 1,50
Time [s]

Figure 7: Prescribed axial displacement [m] of load body as a

function of time [s].

852
 α0/100 −α1 −α2∗50 −α3
The temperature history for the nodes labelled A, B, and C in
1,6 Fig. 5 can be seen in Fig. 11 for the solutions with parameter
1,4 sets according to table 4 and 5.
Parameter value

1,2
1 Position A-Parameters according to table 4
Position A-Parameters according to table 5
0,8 Position B-Parameters according to table 4
Position B-Parameters according to table 5
0,6
Position C-Parameters according to table 4
0,4 Position C-Parameters according to table 5
1400

Temperature [deg C]
0,2 1200
0 1000
0 50 100 150 800
Iteration number
600
400
Figure 8: Parameter value iteration history
200
0
4500 0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60
4000 Time [s]
3500 Figure 11: Temperature history for nodes labelled A, B, and C
Objective function value

3000 in Fig. 5.
2500

2000
A comparison between the calculated final flash geometry and
1500
that of the experiment is found in Fig. 12 and Fig.13 for the
two parameter sets listed in table 4 and 5.
1000

500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Iteration number

Figure 9: Objective function value iteration history.

The computed torque histories using the two parameter sets

listed in table 4 and 5 are plotted in Fig. 10 together with the
experimentally obtained torque histories. One parameter set is
the one producing the minimum objective function value
during the optimization and the other a set that inputs more Figure 12: Comparison between calculated final flash
heat compared to the optimized solution. The results are geometry in experiment and analysis with parameter set
commented and discussed in the “Results and Conclusion” according to table 4.
section of this paper.

Filtered experimental torque

Unfiltered experimental torque
Computed torque-minimum objective function value
Computed torque-geometry agreement
140

120

100
Torque [Nm]

80

60
Figure 13: Comparison of final flash geometry in experiment
40
and analysis with parameter set according to table 5.
20

0 Discussion and conclusion

0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60
Time [s]
Numerical problems producing local torque peaks have been a
Figure 10: Torque history for experiment and analysis
problem in the analyses. When comparing the calculated
respectively.
torque history obtained via the parameter set producing the
minimum objective function value (table 4) with the

853
experimental torque history, the initial experimental torque
peak is underestimated. In fact, if the torque peaks originating
from numerical problems are neglected, the torque is
consistently underestimated using this parameter set as can be
seen in Fig. 10. The numerical problems mentioned tend to
drive the optimization software to find solutions where the
temperature gradients are smaller.
If the final geometry for the solution producing the minimum
objective function value is compared with that of the
experiment (Fig. 12), it is evident that, with the material data
used, the heat input rate is to low. A greater heat input rate
would produce a thinner flash geometry, as for example the
one shown in Fig. 13. In fact, if a solution where more heat is
generated is chosen (table 5), the flash geometry agreement is
better, but then the torque is overestimated. This behaviour
indicates that the material data temperature dependency for
higher temperatures is wrong and specifically that the yield
strength supplied is overestimated at higher temperatures.
Using FE-analysis together with optimization has still proven
to be a powerful way to determine parameters in a friction
model for friction welding. The results are considered to be in
reasonable agreement taking into account the simplifications
made.
Figure 11 show the temperature history for the nodes indicated
in Fig. 5 for the parameter sets found in table 4 and 5. Since
no temperature measurements have been performed, the
accuracy of the obtained temperature distribution will not be
extensively discussed. Still, since the friction welding process
is a solid-phase joining process and the maximum
temperatures obtained in the analysis are below the melting
point of the material (1250 degrees centigrade for the
parameter set in table 5), the temperature results are believed
to be physically reasonable. It would be of value to
incorporate temperature measurements during the friction
welding experiments. In this way, temperature correlation
could be easier obtained by implementing the temperature
difference between analysis and experiment in the objective
function.
The competitive advantage of using this FE-analysis together
with optimization codes for parameter estimation is reduced if
the computational time for each FE-analysis is allowed to
increase over a certain limit. It is therefore important for the
realization of a combined FE-analysis/optimization system
that the computational time for each analysis is kept to a
minimum.
One way of reducing the computational time in analyses that
use global remeshing is to allow for graded remeshing. Graded
remeshing is used in order to specify which zones are
important and which are not by enabling the element sizes to
be defined differently in different parts of the model when
remeshing. Graded remeshing would reduce the computational
854
effort to some extent or allow for larger models to be used
with the same computational effort.
Using remeshing, it is not obvious how to handle boundary
conditions applied to the original mesh when remeshing. It
would therefore be of great interest to be able to apply
boundary conditions to underlying geometry rather than to the
discretized model. Applying boundary conditions to
underlying geometry would make the remeshing independent
of the applied boundary condition and enable specification of
boundary conditions directly via the pre-processor. The
boundary conditions could after remeshing be mapped onto
the new mesh and the analysis could continue.
Suggestions for further work are to include temperature as a
parameter in the objective function calculation and thus to
perform experimental temperature measurements while
friction welding specimens. More extensive high-temperature
material data is also needed in order to enable an accurate
torque agreement between analysis and experiments. The
origin of the numerical noise in the torque history must as well
be investigated further. If these matters can be solved, the
combined usage of finite element simulation and optimization
seem promising in the effort to find a generic model for the
friction behavior that together with simple experiments on the
same material can generate a heat input model to be used
when simulating friction welding on full-scale components
References
[1] T. H. Rowan, Functional stability analysis of numerical
algorithms, Doctoral thesis, The University of Texas at
Austin, USA (1990)
[2] A. Sluzalec, Thermal effects in friction welding,
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 32, no. 6,
467-478 (1990)
[3] B. Wikman and G. Bergman, INVSYS-An Inverse
Modeling System, User Manual, Version 1.0,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Luleå
University of Technology (2002)
[4] B. Wikman and G. Bergman, INVSYS-An Inverse
Modeling System, Etc commands, Version 1.0,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Luleå
University of Technology (2002)
[5] D. F. Moore, Principles and Applications of Tribology,
Pergamon Press (1975)
[6] V Balasubramanian et. al., Numerical simulation of
inertia welding of INCONEL 718, Recent Advances in
Solids/Structures and Application of Metallic Materials,
PVP-Vol. 369, ASME (1997)
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA

Process Optimization for Linear Friction Welding of Ti6Al4V

P. Wanjara, C. Booth-Morrison, E. Hsu and M. Jahazi
National Research Council-Institute for Aerospace Research,
Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Abstract The application of LFW has extended the commercial

Ti6Al4V was linear friction welded using varying processing
conditions of frequency (15-70Hz), amplitude (1-3mm),
pressure (50-90MPa), and shortening (1-2mm). Examination
of the joints was performed using microscopy techniques as
well as microhardness and tensile testing to define the
optimum processing conditions for producing both
microstructural integrity and mechanical properties similar to
the parent material. Microscopic analysis of the as-welded
joints indicated that the process requires certain critical
conditions to be established at the weld interface and the
thermomechanically affected zones to produce joints with
structural integrity, i.e. without defects such as voids, oxide
inclusions, or cracks. Through examination of the mechanical
properties, the impact of the various welding parameters, as
well as the concomitant structural characteristics of the joints,
was evaluated to effectively optimize the process conditions.
Introduction
potential of friction bonding techniques since non-asymmetric
parts with precise angular alignment can be joined using
materials such as steel, aluminum, titanium and intermetallic
alloys for fabricating gears, turbine wheels, electric busbars,
bimetal cutter blades and broaches [4]. Also, for a compressor
assembly, the use of LFW to bond re-furbished blades to
replace damaged parts offers a cost-effective solution to
machining blisk assemblies from solid billets (Fig. 2),
especially due to the relatively high costs for manufacturing
titanium alloys combined with the difficulties for joining by
conventional fusion welding techniques [5]. Previous work on
Ti6Al4V LFW involved analysis of the thermal and
mechanical aspects of the process [1-3]. In the present study
on Ti6Al4V LFW, the effect of various process parameters
(frequency, amplitude, pressure and shortening) on the weld
microstructure and mechanical properties was investigated.
L Initial Transition Equilibrium Deceleration
V V V

H
The solid state joining of materials using linear friction W
welding (LFW) involves the relative motion of two
Pfriction Pfriction Pfriction Pforge
components under compressive forces through four distinct
phases (Fig. 1): the initial phase, the transition phase, the Figure 1: Four phases of LFW [3].
equilibrium phase, and the deceleration (or forging) phase [1-
3]. The pressurized reciprocating motion during the initial
phase results in plasticization of the weld interface between
two work pieces, one that is stationary and the second that
oscillates linearly. During the intial phase, frictional heat and
deformation strain are generated and result in continued
plasticization of the interfacial region between the work
pieces, which then leads to the displacement of plastically
deformed material towards the weld edges during the
transition phase. The equilibrium phase then involves
shortening in the length of the part as material is expelled from Rubbing
the interface. Once plasticization has occurred (0.6-0.8Tm, direction
and Tm is the melting temperature), a forging force is applied
in the deceleration phase, to produce a consolidated joint seam
with a limited thermomechanically-affected zone (TMAZ). Figure 2: LFW schematic of a blade to disk (blisk) assembly.

Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 855

 Experimental Conditions
Materials
Hot rolled, mill-annealed Ti6Al4V was received in bar form
with a composition as given in Table 1 and a nominal β-
transus of 995°C. The as-received microstructure (Fig. 3a)
consisted of a bimodal α-β in the form of alternating bands of
equiaxed α grains with transformed β grains (Fig. 3b) and
elongated α with intergranular β (Fig. 3c). The tensile
properties at room temperature of the Ti6Al4V consisted of a
yield strength of 980MPa, a ultimate strength of 1030MPa,
and a total elongation to fracture of 9.8%. Samples for LFW
were machined from the bar stock to a configuration of 13mm
in width x 26mm in height x 35mm in length with a tolerance
of 0.02mm (Fig. 4) and a 320 grit finish for the contacting
surfaces, which were cleaned with ethyl alcohol prior to LFW.
a b c grain size was measured manually using the linear intercept
Figure 3: As-received bimodal Ti6Al4V microstructure:
(a) banded structure, (b) the equiaxed α and transformed β
grains (α-β lamellae) and (c) elongated α and intergranular β.
L The hardness across the weld (axial centerline) was measured
Reciprocating
P Stationary Piece
Piece
H hardness profiles across the weld interface that terminated in a
W layer with a structure of equiaxed α and transformed β grains.
A In this way, five hardness profiles were normalized for each
Figure 4: Schematic showing the specimen length (L), width
(W), height (H), oscillation amplitude (a) and pressure (P).
Linear Friction Welding Conditions
Using a MTS Process Development System (PDS), the LFW
studies were performed under atmospheric conditions at room
temperature through in-plane and forge actuators that applied
a load and oscillated the two work pieces (Fig. 4). The PDS
control software was used to program and record various LFW
parameters, including the (1) frequency, f (15-70Hz), (2)
amplitude, a (1-3mm), (3) pressure, P (50-90MPa) and (4)
shortening, s (1-2mm). Three welds were performed for every
set of test parameters for ensuring accuracy and repeatability.
Table 1: Composition of Ti6Al4V in weight percent.
C Fe N2 O2 H2 Al V Ti
0.06 0.19 0.04 0.15 0.01 6.0 4.0 Bal.
856
Sample Preparation, Examination and Testing
Using a diamond saw, the welded samples were sectioned into
five pieces: four with a thickness of 4 mm for tensile testing,
and one piece, 6 mm thick, for metallurgical examination
(Fig. 5). The metallographic specimen was prepared by (1)
grinding with successive SiC papers down to 600 grit, (2)
rough polishing with a 9μm diamond suspension and an
alcohol lubricant on a silk cloth and (3) final polishing with
0.02μm SiO2 on a porous pad. After ultrasonic cleaning, the
specimens were etched by immersion in Kroll’s reagent.
Microstructural examination of the parent metal, weld zone,
and TMAZ was performed using an optical light microscope
and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an
X-ray detector. To measure the prior-β grain size in the weld
zone, the grain boundaries of the transformed β structure were
manually delineated using imaging software. The prior-β
method according to ASTM E112. The grain size reported,
for each process state, is the average of 150 grains.
Metallurgical Analysis Piece
Tensile Test Piece
Figure 5: Side view sketch of sectioned work piece.
with a Vickers microhardness tester (100g load). Due to the
banded structure of the Ti6Al4V, the specimen surface was
lightly etched prior to testing, so as to reliably perform
process state to give averaged hardness values as a function of
the distance from the weld center. Using a Materials Testing
System, room temperature tensile tests were performed with a
strain rate of 1x10-4 to the yield, and followed by a crosshead
rate of 0.04mm·s-1 (ASTM E8M-01). The properties reported
are an average of four specimens at each process condition.
Results and Discussion
Macroscopic Examination
Visual inspection revealed a flash layer from all sides of the
joint (Fig. 6) that was comprised of plastically deformed or
extruded material, as a result of the applied pressure and
oscillatory movement during LFW. The flash length was
found to be larger in the oscillation direction, i.e. parallel to
the height, as compared to the width. Additionally the flash
along the height showed little evidence of ridges while that
along the width usually consisted of a series of ripples
(Fig. 6c) due to the oscillation in the height direction.
 a b c quenching conditions from the β phase region (greater than
1 mm
Figure 6: (a) Front and (b) side views of linear friction welded
Ti6Al4V with (c) ridges on the flash layer (specimen width).
Microscopic Examination
Examination of the weld region in the linear friction bonded
Ti6Al4V revealed three distinct zones: the parent material (P),
the weld center (W) and the TMAZ as shown in Fig. 7.
Parent Material
The mill annealed Ti6Al4V consisted of a bimodal α-β with
alternating layers of equiaxed α grains with transformed β
grains and elongated α with intergranular β (Fig. 3). Overall,
the α and β fractions were 85.2% and 14.8%, respectively and
the width of the intergranular or interlamellar β phase ranged
from 0.1-2 μm with an aspect ratio of 8:1.
Weld Center
To assess the integrity of the joint produced in Ti6Al4V by
LFW, the weld centerline characteristics were examined
initially for defects such as cracks, voids and/or oxides with
varying processing condition. It was determined that joints
produced with either a low frequency (≤ 30Hz) or amplitude
(< 2mm) resulted in the presence of oxides along the weld
centerline (Fig. 8a), while a shortening value less than 2mm
was observed to result in residual porosity with voids roughly
0.5μm in size at the weld centerline (Fig. 8b).
The structure in the central weld region was observed to
transform from bimodal α-β for the parent material (Fig. 3) to
Widmanstätten α-β within a prior-β grain structure (Figs. 9a-
b). For Ti6Al4V, this structural evolution is related to the
α→β transformation temperature at 995°C. During LFW, the
temperature increase at the proximity of the weld interface
results in a progressive transformation of α to β. At the weld
center, where the temperature is the highest, the presence of
prior-β grains suggests complete transformation of α to β,
which is consistent with previous LFW work on titanium
alloys that have found peak temperatures exceeding the β-
transus at the weld interface [1, 3, 6] as well as work on
Ti6Al4V that have determined joint periphery temperatures in
excess of 1100°C using a two-color pyrometer [7].
The transformation characteristics of the prior-β grain
structure of Widmanstätten α-β (Fig. 9b) is then a result of the
cooling conditions after LFW of Ti6Al4V. In particular, the
transformed β morphology can be martensitic for rapid
857
410°C·s-1) that achieves diffusionless transformation of β to α
[8]. Alternatively, diffusional transformation occurs when
cooling at slower rates from the β region, and nucleation and
growth of α occurs at the β grain boundaries. Depending on
the cooling rate, the appearance of α-β phases in Ti6Al4V can
vary considerably ranging from α plates with multiple-
orientations within one prior-β grain (20°C·s-1 to 410°C·s-1) to
a coarse lamellar structure (< 20°C·s-1) of parallel plates of α
that are delineated by the β phase [8-9]. This diversity in the
β phase structure is a result of the cooling rate that affects the
α plate thickness and orientation. At high cooling rates, the
large driving force for transformation achieves rapid growth of
the nucleated α, giving the multi-oriented appearance of the
lamellae in Widmanstätten α−β, while, if the cooling rate was
slower, selective growth of the nucleated α allows the
lamellae to be arranged in colonies.
TMAZ W TMAZ
Figure 7: SE image of the weld region in linear friction
welded Ti6Al4V.
As compared to the average grain size of 12.5μm for the
equiaxed α or transformed β phases in the parent material, the
microstructure in the weld center was finer with a prior-β
grain size of 3.8-5.3μm depending on the process conditions.
Previous results have determined that β phase deformation
processing of Ti6Al4V can cause dynamic recrystallization,
depending on the strain rate and strain conditions [10].
Specifically, deformation at a strain rate of 1 s-1 to 0.7 strain
was observed to give 30% recrystallization at 1050°C [11].
To determine the role of restoration processes during Ti6Al4V
LFW, the maximum strain rate was calculated using [1-2]:
frequency × amplitude
ε& = (1)
length
For the present frequency (15-70Hz), amplitude (1-3mm) and
length (35mm), the local strain rate at the Ti6Al4V interface
during LFW ranged between 0.9-4.3s-1. Given that the
welding time ranged between 1-6s, the average strain value at
the interface is 3-6, and indicates that restoration processes are
indeed operative during LFW of Ti6Al4V [11-12].
 a b
Figure 8 Weld centerline for (a) low frequency (<30Hz) or
low amplitude (<1mm) and (b) shortening less than 2mm.
a b
Figure 9: SE images of the central weld region microstructure
produced by LFW Ti6Al4V: (a) the transformed β grain
structure having (b) a Widmanstätten morphology.
TMAZ
This narrow region between the weld center and the parent
material was observed to consist of a highly deformed α-β
structure (Fig. 10a). Specifically, the original parent material
grains were re-oriented during LFW, and elemental analysis
using a SEM indicated the presence of broken β phase
particles between the deformed α grains (Fig. 10b). This
finding is supported by previous work that has indicated the
existence of elongated α with intergranular β, as well as the
considerable presence of dislocations in the α phase of the
TMAZ [7]. It is noteworthy that the existence of fragmented
grains of the bimodal microstructure suggests that the
temperature in the TMAZ did not surpass the β-transus.
a b
Figure 10 TMAZ structure: (a) deformed and reoriented α-
β grains and (b) broken β phase in elongated α structure.
858
Microhardness Examination
The variation in the microhardness profile across the Ti6Al4V
weld interface are plotted as a function of the frequency,
amplitude, pressure and shortening in Figs. 11a-d,
respectively. For the parent material, the hardness of banded
bimodal structure was determined to have a value of 349 Hv
for layers of equiaxed α grains with transformed β grains (Fig.
3b) and 321 Hv for the layers of elongated α with intergranular
β regions (Fig. 3c). These mean values are delineated on the
hardness profiles and labeled (α+β)Trans and (α+β)Int,
respectively. The hardness measurements in this work are
consistent with other friction welding work on Ti6Al4V, that
reported a hardness value of 330 Hv for a base metal with an
elongated α and intergranular β structure [7].
Overall, from the hardness profiles, the highest hardness of
398 Hv occurred at the weld interface. This increase in
hardness, as compared to the parent material, may be
attributed to the phase transformation and grain refinement in
the weld center [6]. Specifically, Ivasishin and Lütjering have
shown that the yield strength of a Widmantstätten α−β
structure in Ti6Al4V is a function of the cooling rate and grain
size [13]. During cooling from the β-transus, increasing the
cooling rate from 15 to 150°C·s-1 increases the tensile yield
strength from 930MPa to 1100MPa and from 1050MPa to
1280MPa for a structure with a prior-β grain size of 600 and
50 μm, respectively. As an estimate, conversion of the
hardness value of 398 Hv determined in this work for the
interface using the relation H = 3σy [9] gives 1300MPa for the
yield strength, which is reasonable in light of the fine prior-β
grain size of 3.8-5.3μm. Moreover, in previous Ti6Al4V
friction welding work, the hardness of the base metal,
consisting of elongated α grains with intergranular β, was
determined to be 330 Hv, while at the weld centerline the
recrystallized transformed β structure was observed to have a
hardness of 390 Hv [7], which supports the present results.
For conditions giving either oxides or voids at the interface,
the hardness at the weld center was observed to deviate from
the average of 398 Hv. Specifically, in the frequency relation
(Fig. 11a), a peak in the hardness (404 Hv) was remarked for
process conditions of 15 and 30Hz, which can be related to the
oxides present at the weld interface (Fig. 8a). Similarly, an
amplitude of 1mm (Fig. 11b) gave a maximum hardness of
406 Hv, which was related to oxide entrapment at the
interface. For the shortening (Fig. 11d), a drop in the hardness
to 375 Hv at the weld center was detected for the 1mm
upsetting condition, due to weld centerline porosity (Fig. 8b).
With increasing distance from the weld interface the hardness
was observed to decrease and in the TMAZ, an average value
of 331 Hv was determined. Essentially, the occurrence of the
low hardness value in the TMAZ is probably related to the
mixing of the banded microstructure during deformation of the
parent material in this region (Fig. 7) that had one layer with a
hardness of 349 Hv, and another at 321 Hv.
410 410 12a), the YS and UTS decreased (1002 to 991MPa and 1078
(a) (b) to 1039MPa, respectively), while the TE increased (6.6 to
11.6%). For frequencies of 15 and 30Hz, the presence of
15 Hz
1 mm oxides at the weld centerline suggests general embrittlement
30 Hz
of the weld interface with oxygen, which is the most probable

Hardness (HV)
Hardness (HV)

2 mm
50 Hz
reason for the higher strength properties with considerably
poor ductility of the weldments. For the relation with
Parent Parent increasing amplitude (Fig. 12b), the YS and UTS initially
Material Material decreased from 995 to 987MPa and 1047 to 1040MPa,
350 (α-β)Trans 350 (α-β)Trans respectively between 1 to 2 mm, followed by an increase to
999 and 1054MPa at 3mm. However, between 1 to 3mm, the
TE increased progressively from 8.8 to 12.2%. The
combination of high strength and low ductility for amplitude
conditions of 1 mm may be related to the embrittlement of the
(α-β)Int (α-β)Int
weld, similar to the observations for low frequency (15 and 30
300 300 Hz). On the other hand, the increase in YS and UTS with the
Weld Weld simultaneous increase in TE and UE beyond 2mm may be
0 1 2 0 1 2
Center
Distance (mm)
Center
Distance (mm)
related to grain refinement of the transformed β microstructure
410 410 in the weld center (Fig. 9a), which would tend to improve both
(c) (d) the strength and ductility characteristics. The change in YS
(998 to 992MPa), UTS (1052 to 1037MPa), and TE (11.6 to
50 MPa 10.8%) with increasing pressure from 50 to 90MPa was
1 mm
70 MPa determined to be minimal most probably due to the absence of
Hardness (HV)

Hardness (HV)

2 mm
90 MPa defects in the welds. Increasing the axial shortening from 1 to
2mm was observed to improve both the strength and ductility
characteristics with the YS and UTS increasing from 982 to
Parent Parent
Material Material
993MPa and 1032 to 1048MPa, respectively and the TE
increasing from 8.9 to 11.2%. The combination of low
350 (α-β)Trans 350 (α-β)Trans
strength and ductility for the 1mm upsetting condition is most
probably related to the voids present at the weld centerline.

(α-β)Int
300 300
Weld Weld
0 1 2 0
Center Center
Distance (mm)
Figure 11 Microhardness variation from the weld center:
(a) frequency, (b) amplitude, (c) pressure and (d) shortening.
Mechanical Property Examination
The as-received parent material properties consisted of
YS=980MPa, UTS=1030MPa and TE=9.8%, which conform
to ASTM Grade 5 Ti6Al4V. The variation in the tensile
properties, namely yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) and total elongation (TE) are plotted as a
function of the frequency, amplitude, pressure and shortening
(Figs. 12a-d) for the as- welded Ti6Al4V. For the various
LFW conditions, the YS and UTS, were observed to surpass
the values obtained for the parent material. However, for
processing conditions giving poor weldability at the axial
centerline in the form of oxides (at frequencies below 30Hz
and amplitudes below 2mm) or voids (at shortening below
2mm), the TE of as-welded Ti6Al4V was determined to be
lower than the nominal value of 9.8% for the parent material.
Specifically with increasing frequency from 15 to 70Hz (Fig.
Process Optimization
Analysis of the effect of the LFW process parameters on the
(α-β)Int evolution of the microstructure and properties in Ti6Al4V
indicates that critical conditions at the weld interface are
1 2 necessary for producing integral joints without defects. In this
Distance (mm) work, a frequency below 30Hz was observed to leave oxides
at the weld centerline that reduced the tensile ductility. An
amplitude of 2mm was critical for preventing the tenacious
oxide layer from being entrapped along the joint interface.
Alternatively, since LFW using a pressure between 50-90MPa
was observed to produce integral welds without defects at the
weld centerline, processing at 50MPa is sufficient. For the
forging stage during LFW, it was determined that a shortening
of 2mm was necessary to prevent residual porosity at the weld
centerline. Hence, processing conditions of f=50Hz, a=2mm,
P=50MPa and s=2mm produces an integral weld without
defects and with a transformed recrystallized β grain structure
having an average grain size of 4μm. The properties of
welded Ti6Al4V for such process conditions were observed to
be YS=998MPa, UTS=1051MPa, and TE=11.6%. Also,
during tensile testing of as-welded Ti6Al4V processed by
LFW using these parameters, failure occurred consistently in
the base metal, suggesting inherently better weld properties
(Fig. 13a). The fracture surface (Fig. 13b) consisted of a
mixture of flat cleavage-like facets and fast fracture dimples,
which is common for the bimodal structure in Ti6Al4V.

859
 YS UTS TE (a) (b)
1100
12
(a)
10 Fracture

Elongation (%)
Strength, MPa

1050 8

6
Weld
1000 4

2
Figure 13. (a) Failure region and (b) fracture surface of
950 0 Ti6Al4V (LFW at 50Hz, 50MPa, a=2mm and s=2mm).
15 30 50 70
Frequency, Hz Conclusions
1100
(b) 12
In this work, the evolution in the weld microstructure
10 and properties of Ti6Al4V joints produced by LFW indicated
Elongation (%) that processing at f=50HZ, a=2mm, P=50MPa and s=2mm
Strength, MPa

1050 8
produces integral welds with properties that surpass that of the
6 parent material. This was related to the refined prior-β grain
size of the weld zone and the Widmanstätten α-β structure that
1000 4
resulted from processing conditions favoring β phase
2 recrystallization and rapid cooling after welding.

950 0 Acknowledgments
1 2 3
Amplitude, mm
1100
This work was conducted under NRC (IAR-AMTC) project
12 No. 46M3-I002 with the financial support of Canada
(c)
Economic Development for the procurement of the LFW
10
facility.
Elongation (%)
Strength, MPa

1050 8
References
6

1000 4 1. A. Vairis and M. Frost, Wear, 217, 117-31 (1998)

2. A. Vairis and M. Frost, Mater. Sci. Eng., A271, 477-84
2 (1999)
3. A. Vairis and M. Frost, Mater. Sci. Eng., A292, 8-17
950 0
(2000)
50 70 90
Pressure, MPa
4. E.D. Nicholas and W.M. Thomas, Int. J. Mater. Prod.
1100 Technol., 13, 45-55 (1998)
(d) 12
5. W.A. Baeslack: J. Mater. Sci. Lett., 1, 229-31 (1982)
10 6. W.A. Baeslack, T.F. Broderick, M. Juhas and H.L. Fraser,
Mater. Char., 33, 357-67 (1994)
Elongation (%)
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1050 8 7. D. Sun, Z. Ren, Z. Zhou, T. North, Y. Zhai and S.

Sathian, J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 16, 59-62 (2000)
6
8. T. Ahmed and H. J. Rack, Mater. Sci. Eng., 243, 206–11
1000 4 (1998)
9. M.J. Donachie Jr., A technical guide: Titanium, p. 13,
2 ASM international, Metals Park, OH (2000.)
10. T. Seshacharyulu, S.C. Medeiros, W.G. Frazier and
950 0 Y.V.R.K. Prasad: Mater. Sci. Eng., A325, 112–25 (2002)
1 2 11. R. Ding and Z.X. Guo, Mater. Sci. Eng., A365, 172-79
Shortening, mm
(2004)
12. P. Wanjara and M. Jahazi, Met. Mater. Trans. A, in press.
Figure 12: Properties in relation to (a) frequency, (b)
13. O.M. Ivasishin and G. Lütjering, J. Adv. Mater., 33, 33-43
amplitude, (c) pressure and (d) shortening.
(2001)

860
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Effect of Substrate Grain Size and Orientation on the Transient Liquid-Phase
Bonding of Ferritic Oxide Dispersion Strengthened Alloys
Venu G. Krishnardula*, Nofrijon I. Sofyan, Jeffrey W. Fergus, and William F. Gale
Materials Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Alabama - 36849
* Corresponding author: Email: krishvg@eng.auburn.edu, Phone: +1 334 844 3891, Fax: +1 334 844 3400
Abstract
This paper reports the microstructural features of transient
liquid phase (TLP) bonding of two mechanically alloyed
(MA) ferritic oxide dispersion strengthened (ODS) alloys,
MA956 and PM2000. The influence of the substrate faying
surface orientation with respect to the extrusion direction on
the bond microstructural development is investigated.
Physical vapor deposited boron thin films were used as
interlayers for bonding. Post bond heat treatment (PBHT)
was performed to induce recrystallization across the
bondline. Better microstructural continuity occurred when
the substrates were used in the unrecrystallized fine grain
condition, with the faying surface aligned in the working
direction, as compared to the substrates aligned in the
direction normal to the working direction.
Keywords: Transient Liquid-Phase Bonding; Oxide
Dispersion Strengthened Alloys; Grain Size; Orientation
Introduction
Mechanical alloying (MA) is a powder metallurgy technique
that allows mixing of elements with different melting
temperatures to form alloys, which are difficult to
synthesize by conventional solidification [1]. Addition of
inert oxides to the alloying powders in mechanical alloying
can form material with a fine oxide dispersion and a coarse
columnar grain structure. No melting of the material occurs
throughout the process of mechanical alloying. The yttria
particles are very stable at elevated temperature, and under
irradiation, unlike particles that coarsen in precipitation
strengthened alloys [2-4]. These nanosize dispersoids are
very effective in pinning dislocations. ODS alloys undergo
recrystallization at very high homologous temperature in the
order of 0.9 melting temperature to form coarse columnar
grain structures. Hence, resulting in high creep strength,
Copyright © 2006 ASM International® 861
which makes ODS alloys ideal for high temperature
structural applications. In addition, ODS alloys also possess
good oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance [5, 6].
Low void swelling of ferritic steels, as compared to
austenitic steels [7], makes ferritic ODS alloys promising
materials for fuel cladding applications in the nuclear
industry.
Joining of two ferritic ODS alloys, MA956 and PM2000, is
investigated in this paper. During bonding of ODS alloys it
is especially crucial to maintain the nanosize yttria
dispersion, coarse columnar grain size, and to obtain
microstructural continuity across the bondline, without
formation of brittle secondary phases and yttria
agglomerates, which can lead to premature fracture of the
bond [8]. Fusion welding techniques, such as arc welding,
laser welding and electron beam welding, require melting of
the base metal resulting in a microstructure containing
dispersoid-free regions, which defeats the purpose of
dispersion strengthening. Solid-state friction welding results
in the formation of grains at the bondline which are
perpendicular as compared to the parent metal
microstructure [9]. Solid-state diffusion bonding of ODS
alloys under high loads was performed by earlier
researchers [10-12]. Solid state diffusion bonding of ODS
alloys using unrecrystallized fine grain material under low
stresses is under investigation and the results are presented
by the same author in the current proceedings. Brazing
techniques can be used to join ODS alloys, however, the
joint remains as a low-melting region and may consist of
brittle second-phase particles [13]. Transient liquid phase
(TLP) bonding is employed in the current research due to its
potential to achieve metallurgically sound bonds with
properties comparable to those of parent material [14]. TLP
bonding of ODS alloys has been conducted in earlier
investigations [15], however, the effect of substrate
orientation on the bond development has not been studied.
This paper reports the effects of different substrate
orientations on the bond development using fine interlayers.
 Transverse
longitudinal
longitudinal
Transverse
Transverse
longitudinal
longitudinal
(b)
(a)
Transverse-Transverse Longitudinal-Transverse
Figure 1. Substrate orientations with respect to direction of extrusion (a) transverse – transverse , (b) longitudinal - transverse
and (c) longitudinal – longitudinal.
Experimental Work
MA956 used was received in both the fine grain
(unrecrystallized) and the coarse grain (recrystallized)
conditions as 11 mm square section billets and 20 mm
diameter round bars, respectively. PM2000 used was
received in the fine grain (unrecrystallized) condition as 25
mm and 50 mm diameter round bars. An electric discharge
machine (EDM) was used to cut 11 mm x 10 mm x 2 mm
thick substrates in longitudinal and transverse orientations
(along and normal to the direction of extrusion,
respectively). The substrates were then surface ground and
cleaned ultrasonically in acetone. Physical vapor deposition
(PVD) was employed to deposit 250 nm, 500 nm and 1 µm
thick boron films to be used as interlayers, which react with
the faying surfaces of the substrates to form eutectic liquid.
Bonding was conducted in a Gleeble 1500, a thermo-
mechanical system, at 1250 °C in vacuum of less than 1 x
10-3 Pa. Compressive stresses in the range of 1 – 5 MPa,
were employed to extrude the excess liquid formed at the
bondline. Substrates were joined in different orientations
with respect to the working direction (see figure 1). Post
bond heat treatment (PBHT) was conducted, in a radiantly
heated furnace, in a vacuum less than 1 x 10-3 Pa at 1300 °C
and 1385 °C for MA956 and PM2000 materials,
respectively, to induce recrystallization in the bonds. A
solution of 2g copper chloride, 40 ml hydrochloric acid and
40 – 70 ml methanol for 2 - 10 seconds was used for
etching. Microstructural evaluation was performed using
optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy
(JEOL – 840 SEM, operating at 20 kV). Energy dispersive
spectroscopy (EDS) was also conducted using the JEOL 840
to investigate the material composition across the bondline.
862
Direction of Extrusion
Transverse
longitudinal
Transverse
longitudinal
(c)
Longitudinal-Longitudinal
Results and Discussion
Effect of Substrate orientation
Different bond orientations, with respect to the working
direction, employed in this study were transverse to
transverse (T-T), longitudinal to transverse (L-T), and
longitudinal to longitudinal (L-L) orientations as shown in
Fig. 1. Initial bonding trials were conducted using MA956
fine grain material at 1250 °C for bonding times varying
from 20 seconds to 1 hour, followed by post bond heat
treatment at 1300 °C for up to 8 hours. Boron diffusion
occurred during the PBHT and the amount of borides at the
bondline decreased with increasing bond time. Compressive
stresses (1 - 5 MPa) used to extrude the excess liquid
formed at the bondline resulted in complete bonding.
However, unbonded regions were found when compressive
stresses lesser than 1 MPa were used and the bonds failed
while machining or handling.
Joining the substrates with faying surfaces in the L-L
orientation resulted in an almost invisible bond line as
compared to the T-T and L-T orientations. The coarse
columnar grain structure in the ferritic ODS alloys occurs as
a result of the nano size yttria particles [16], aligned in the
extrusion direction, retarding the grain growth in the
transverse direction. Any disturbance to the yttria alignment
can cause formation of fine equiaxed grains. The number of
yttria stringers cut by the bond line, governed by the
substrate orientation, is higher when the faying surface is
machined in the transverse orientation, as compared with the
longitudinal orientation. During transient liquid phase
bonding, the faying surface of the substrates reacts with
interlayer forming the liquid and further dissolution then
 transverse
fine grains formed at bondline
(a)
transverse
longitudinal
An almost invisible bondline
(c)
longitudinal
occurs. Hence, some uncontrolled recrystallization in the
substrates can be expected. Secondary recrystallization
occurred at the bondline to a varying extent in different
bond orientations. The thickness of the region with
unwanted fine grain formation in the L-L and T-T bonds
varied from zero up to 20-30 µm. However, in the L-T
bonds the fine grain formation occurs occasionally up to 100
µm near the bond interface in the longitudinal substrate of
the bond (see Fig. 2). Although the amount of liquid formed
is several times larger than the as-deposited interlayer
thickness, the use of compressive stresses extrudes the
excess liquid formed at the bondline and reduces the amount
of boron that remains to diffuse into the substrates. Further,
the use of compressive stresses reduces porosity at the
bondline [15]. EDS analysis across the bondline in the L-L
orientation showed uniform composition. Initial bonding
trials on PM2000 fine grain material in the L-L orientation
using a 250 nm boron interlayer and compressive stresses
around 5 MPa followed by post bond heat treatment at 1385
°C for 2 hours resulted in recrystallization across the
bondline (see Fig. 3).
863
transverse
Equiaxed grains at bond region
(b)
longitudinal
Figure 2. MA956 fine grain bonds 1 µm boron
interlayer (a) transverse –transverse, 256 s, 1250 °C +
PBHT 1 h, 1300 °C (b) transverse – longitudinal 300 s,
1250 °C + PBHT 8 h, 1300 °C and (c) longitudinal –
longitudinal 120 s, 1250 °C + PBHT 1 h, 1300 °C .
Note the secondary recrystallized equiaxed grains at the
bondline marked by a two- end white arrow in (a) and
(b).
Effect of interlayer composition and thickness
The amount of secondary recrystallized equiaxed grains and
boride formation was reduced when a 500 nm thick boron
interlayer was used as compared to a 1 µm thick boron
interlayer. For comparison, bonding conducted using a 25
µm thick Fe-16Si-5B interlayer resulted in a well wetted
bond interface (see Figs. 4(a) and 4(b)). However, the bond
microstructure was discontinuous across the bondline.
Effect of substrate grain size
MA956 was joined in both the fine and coarse grain
conditions at 1250 °C, using 1 µm thick interlayer, in L-L
orientation. Bonding occurred in fine grain to fine grain,
fine grain to coarse grain and coarse grain to coarse grain
conditions. As a result of substrate dissolution, uncontrolled
recrystallization occurred at the bond interface, however, to
a varying extent in all the three cases. Unlike, in the fine
grain to fine grain bonds, where secondary recrystallized
equiaxed grain formation ranges from minimal (zero) up to
20 µm, see Figs. 2(c) and 3, a continuous layer of 10-30 µm
thickness containing equiaxed grains was observed in
 fine grain

recrystallized grain
growth across bondline

fine grain

Figure 3. PM2000 fine grain bond L-L orientation 250 nm boron interlayer, 30 s, 1250 °C + PBHT 2 h, 1385 °C.

transverse fine grain

equiaxed grains at bond interface
(a) (a)
bondline

transverse coarse grain

transverse coarse thin layer of equiaxed grains

(b) (b) at bond interface
discontinuous microstructure

transverse coarse

Figure 4. MA956 fine grain bonds T-T orientation (a) 500 Figure 5. MA956 L-L orientation bonds, 1 µm boron
nm boron interlayer 343 s 1250 °C + PBHT 1h, 1300 °C , interlayer (a) fine grain to coarse grain 99 s, 1250 °C +
(b) 25 µm Fe-16Si-5B foil 150 s, 1190 °C, PBHT 1h, 1300 PBHT 1h, 1300 °C and (b) coarse grain to coarse grain
°C. 240 s, 1250 °C + PBHT 1h, 1300 °C.

the fine grain to coarse grain and the coarse grain to coarse fine grain material to itself can result in better bonds than
grain condition bonds, Figs. 5(a) and 5(b), respectively. bonding of recrystallized material, as has been observed
These results suggest that TLP bonding of unrecrystallized previously by T.I. Khan [15].

864
 Conclusions 14.
Physical vapor deposited thin-film boron interlayers can be 15.
successfully used to bond ferritic ODS alloys.
Unrecrystallized fine grain substrates with a faying surface 16.
orientation aligned parallel to the direction of extrusion
resulted in better microstructural continuity across the bond
interface as compared to the transverse to transverse and
transverse to longitudinal bond orientations.
W.F. Gale and D.A. Butts, Sci. Technol. Weld.
Join., 9(4), 283-300 (2004)
T.I. Khan, Ph.D. Thesis, Cambridge University,
October (1992)
C. Capdevila, Y.L. Chen, A.R. Jones, and
H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, ISIJ Int., 43(5), 777-83
(2003)

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the United States Department
of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy, under Idaho National
Laboratory Subcontract No. 00020828. The authors would
like to thank the INL program manager, Dr. Terry C.
Totemeier, for his valuable guidance. The authors would
also like to express their gratitude to Mr. Charles Ellis of
Auburn University’s Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering for providing the EBPVD thin-film
coatings.

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8. T.J. Kelly, Conf. Proc. Trends in Welding Research
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U.S.A., ed. S.A. David, American Soceity for
Metals, Nov 16-18 (1981), 471-85
9. C.Y. Kang, T.H. North, and D.D. Perovic, Metall.
Mater. Trans. A, 27A, 4019-29 (1996)
10. G. Zhang, R.S. Chandel, H.P. Seow, and H.H. hng,
Mater. Manuf. Process., 18(4), 599-608 (2003)
11. I.A. Bucklow, in Advances in Joining Newer
Structural Materials, p 299, Elmsford, New York:
Pergamon (1990)
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13. S. Wei, Rare Metals, 15(1), 16-22 (1996)

865
 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Transient Liquid Phase Joining of a Current Generation Gamma TiAl
Alloy – Gamma Met PX
D. A. Butts
Plasma Processes, Inc., Huntsville, AL 35811, formerly with
Materials Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn AL 36830
W. F. Gale
Materials Research and Education Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830
Abstract
Empirical and mechanical studies of wide-gap transient liquid
phase (TLP) bonding of a current generation γ-TiAl alloy,
known as Gamma Met PX, have been carried out. In this
study, the TLP joining technique employed a composite inter-
layer consisting of a non-melting constituent and a liquid
forming constituent. The microstructures of the bonds, which
were characterized using light and scanning electron micros-
copy, are correlated with room-temperature mechanical prop-
erties. Mechanical testing suggested that joints can retain
properties similar to those of the bulk material when employ-
ing a suitable composite interlayer ratio, bonding condition
and post-bond heat treatment. Furthermore, comparisons are
drawn between wide-gap TLP bonding of an earlier generation
γ-TiAl alloy, Ti−48Al−2Cr−2Nb (at.%) and wide-gap TLP
bonding of Gamma Met PX. These comparisons include dif-
ferences and similarities in microstructure and joining mecha-
nisms associated with TLP bonding. Joining mechanisms in-
vestigated include solubility, diffusivity, and wettability of the
liquid forming constituent in/on the Ti−48Al−2Cr−2Nb (at.%)
and Gamma Met PX substrate materials.
Keywords: Transient liquid phase (TLP) joining, TiAl,
Gamma Met PX, microstructure, mechanical properties.
Introduction
The ever-increasing demand to conserve energy and improve
efficiency in the aerospace industry has lead to an interest in
replacing various relatively dense, high temperature compo-
nents with metallic systems that are capable of higher service
temperatures, higher operational speeds and are lightweight.
Gamma-TiAl alloys based on the intermetallic phases γ(TiAl)
and α2(Ti3Al) are widely recognized as having potential to
meet the latter criteria. Gamma-TiAl alloys offer attractive
properties of reasonable resistance to oxidation and corrosion
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
and good elevated temperature mechanical properties, as well
as low densities (3800 – 4200 kg m-3). Although good, the
properties of conventional γ-TiAl alloys, at the intended ser-
vice temperature of 650-750°C, are inferior to those shown by
nickel-base superalloys. In an attempt to improve the high
temperature properties of γ-TiAl alloys, GKSS Research Cen-
ter Geesthacht, Germany, has developed a current generation
γ-TiAl alloy known as Gamma Met PX (GMPX). Compared
to earlier generation γ-TiAl alloys, GMPX offers a remarkable
increase in room temperature yield strengths and high tem-
perature properties. Hence GMPX offers an attractive alterna-
tive to nickel-base superalloys [1-2].
Effective implementation of γ-TiAl alloys is likely to require
fabrication of complicated geometries for which a high per-
formance metallurgical joining technique, which is compatible
with the temperatures, stresses and atmospheres that the alloys
will see in service, must be developed. Although a number of
processes, such as vacuum or induction brazing [3], gas tung-
sten arc (GTA) welding [4] and diffusion bonding [5] have
been investigated, all have limitations when used in joining γ-
TiAl alloys.
Transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding has proved to be a toler-
ant and versatile method of producing joints with microstruc-
tural characteristics and hence mechanical, oxidation and cor-
rosion properties similar to those of the substrate material [6].
Thus, TLP bonding is well suited to the joining of components
intended for elevated temperature service. For these reasons,
TLP bonding is widely used in aerospace, land-based power
generation and other industries for primary fabrication, pre-
service and post-service repairs [7]. For an overview of the
TLP process, see Reference [8].
In the case of γ-TiAl alloys, selecting suitable interlayer and
appropriate bonding conditions are a persistent challenge.
Many interlayers have been proposed for TLP bonding of
867
γ-TiAl alloys [9], but most contain constituents with low solu-
bilities and/or diffusivities in γ-TiAl. Thus, unless very nar-
row gaps are employed, bonding times tend to be undesirably
long.
“Wide-gap” TLP bonding of an earlier generation cast γ-TiAl
alloy of composition Ti−48Al−2Cr−2Nb (at.%) (abbreviated
here to 48−2−2) has previously been researched and proved to
be quite successful in producing bonds of significant strengths
[10-11]. This bonding technique employed a composite pow-
der interlayer consisting of a non-melting phase (gas atomized
48−2−2 alloy), plus a liquid forming constituent. The incorpo-
ration of a non-melting constituent serves two purposes. First,
it reduces the amount of liquid necessary to fill the joint. Sec-
ond, it provides a satisfactory diffusion sink when added in the
powder form. Thus, use of composite interlayers decreases
the bonding time and is less damaging to the substrates as
compared to standard TLP bonding, since less solute must dif-
fuse into the substrates. For this reason, Cu was chosen as the
liquid forming phase, since Cu has some solubility in γ-TiAl
[12] and offers good wettability of the 48−2−2 substrate sur-
face [13].
Recent studies by the present authors, have attempted to apply
the TLP bonding technique developed originally for 48−2−2
to GMPX. However, due to different observed behaviors in
the 48−2−2 and GMPX bonds and post-bond heat treated
samples, modifications to the joining process were necessary.
These modifications included selection of a composite inter-
layer ratio that is suitable for the GMPX substrates. Initially
these modifications were based purely on empirical and phe-
nomenological studies; however detailed mechanistic studies
of the underlying joining mechanisms were conducted to aid
in selecting these modifications. Compositions and micro-
structures of γ-TiAl alloy are not yet fixed and will probably
continue to evolve as intended application requirements and
the capability of meeting these requirements are more clearly
defined. Thus, the knowledge gained from the detailed
mechanistic studies will aid in avoiding a large empirical join-
ing test matrix with every change to the alloy.
Experimental Methods
The materials used in this study were GMPX, Gamma Met,
and Cu. The substrate material, GMPX, had a chemical com-
position of Ti−45Al−(Nb, B, C) (at.%)1 and a near lamellar
microstructure with an average grain size of 20 µm. The
composite interlayers were comprised of gas-atomized
Gamma Met powders2 of −200 mesh (≤ 75 µm diameter parti-
1
Gamma Met PX is based on TNB alloys developed by GKSS Research Cen-
ter, Germany. The full composition of this family of alloys is proprietary to
GKSS.
2
As with previous work on 48−2−2, the TiAl interlayer powder chosen for
GMPX bonds was based on the substrate composition. Since atomized
GMPX powder was unavailable and pulverizing GMPX material was unsuc-
cessful, gas-atomized Gamma-Met powder was chosen.
868
cles) and commercially pure Cu powders of −325 mesh (≤ 45
µm diameter particles). The Gamma Met powders had a
nominal composition of Ti−46.5Al− 2.5Cr−1Nb−0.5Ta−0.1B
(at.%) with a cellular microstructure and a grain size of a few
µm.
Various ratios of Gamma Met and Cu powders were mixed us-
ing a jar mill. The powder mixture was manually placed di-
rectly onto one of the two substrates. A few drops of ethanol
were then placed atop the interlayer, as this seemed to enhance
the evenness of the interlayer (which typically ranged from
350 to 500 µm). After the interlayer was appropriately lo-
cated, the other substrate was placed on top of the interlayer.
Bonding was conducted using a Gleeble (Duffers Sci., Inc.,
Model 1500) at a temperature above the melting temperature
of Cu, TB, for X hr3. Following the bonding process, some
samples were subjected to a post-bond heat treatment (PBHT),
which were conducted using a Lindberg single zone tube fur-
nace with, at best, a 1.3 mPa vacuum atmosphere. Heating
and cooling rates employed were approximately 5 and 3 oC s-1.
The samples were sectioned using a Struers Accutom-5 high
speed wafering saw employing a cubic boron nitride (CBN)
blade. Once sectioned, the samples were mounted using a
Struers Labopress-3 and ground to a 1200 FEPA (Federation
of European Producers of Abrasives) grit finish. The fine pol-
ishes were done by using a 6 µm diamond spray followed by a
0.04 µm alumina suspension solution. The metallographic
samples were etched for a few seconds at room temperature in
a solution consisting of 97% distilled water, 1% hydrofluoric
acid, 1% hydrochloric acid, and 1% nitric acid. The bonds
were then characterized by light microscopy (LM) and scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM) supplemented with SEM-
based energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Sessile
drop tests and reactions within the composite interlayer were
dynamically observed using hot-stage light microscopy
(HSLM), Leitz 1750 heating stage mounted on a Leitz DMRM
metallurgical light microscope. A nominal temperature of TB
was used for the sessile drop tests, conducted in a 1.3 mPa
vacuum atmosphere. The sessile drop tests were video re-
corded, so that measurements of displacement of the solid-
liquid interface could be made as a function of holding time.
All bonds discussed in the present work relied on manually
deposited interlayers.
Although successful for small sized coupon samples, this in-
terlayer deposition method might be not suitable for full sized
industrial applications. Extensive TLP joining of 48−2−2 sub-
strates using an automated interlayer deposition method has
been conducted and reported elsewhere by some of the present
authors [11].
3
Detailed GMPX bonding and post-bond heat treatment conditions are re-
stricted by ITAR (International Traffic in Arms Regulation). X refers to an
undisclosed numerical factor.
 Results and Discussion
Microstructural Development
Previous microstructural development studies of 48−2−2
wide-gap TLP bonds suggested that bonds employing a 6:1
weight ratio of 48−2−2 plus Cu powders, produced bonds with
bend and tensile strengths that were a significant fraction of
the bulk material. Average as-bonded bend strengths were de-
termined to be ~68% of that of the bulk material subjected to
same thermal treatment [11]. Thus, initial TLP bonding of
GMPX began by employing an interlayer with a 6:1 weight ra-
tio of Gamma Met to Cu. Following the bonding process, a
significant number of regions contained large Cu-rich inter-
metallics with a diameter as large as 20 µm (see Figure 1).
These Cu-rich intermetallics had a nominal composition of 27
at.% Al, 38 at.% Ti, 32 at.% Cu and 2 at.% Cr and were pri-
marily observed in regions of the bond-line where the Gamma
Met powder particles were completely dissolved.
a intermetallics were observed. A few random regions of (a)
20 µm
Figure 1: LM micrograph of an as-bonded GMPX joint using
6:1 Gamma Met to Cu interlayer ratio. (a) Cu containing
phases with a concentration of 5-6 at.% Cu were found sur-
rounding the Cu saturated Gamma Met powder particles and
(b) large Cu containing intermetallics with average Cu con-
tent of 32 at% was observed.
A key variable in the wide-gap process is the selection of a ra-
tio of liquid former to non-melting phase that is suitable for
the substrates employed. If insufficient liquid former is em-
ployed, the liquid will begin to isothermally solidify and hence
cease to spread, before it has been able to penetrate throughout
the joint. This would result in a joint with excessive porosity.
In contrast, if too much liquid is formed, then the amount of
the solid-phase that must be dissolved to produce local equi-
librium at the solid-liquid interface will be very high and the
joint will resemble a (very wide) conventional TLP bond.
Thus, the benefits of using the composite interlayer would be
lost. Considering the large regions of completely dissolved
Gamma Met powders and Cu-rich intermetallics, observed
869
when using a 6:1 interlayer ratio, would likely be detrimental
to mechanical performance, an empirical study was conducted
employing a range of composite interlayers with a lower con-
centration of Cu.
In bonds employing a 20:1 interlayer ratio, numerous regions
of completely dissolved Gamma Met powders were observed,
however, no Cu-rich intermetallics were apparent. The aver-
age hardness of the entire bond-line was found to be less than
that of the substrates. The latter is attributed to the large re-
gions of completely dissolved Gamma Met powders in the
bond-line following the bonding process.
Figure 2: LM micrograph of an as-bonded GMPX joint em-
ploying a 50:1 Gamma Met to Cu interlayer ratio. No Cu-rich
completely dissolved Gamma Met powders and (b) regions
consisting solely of Gamma Met powders which had sintered
during bonding were observed.
In an attempt to eliminate the large regions of completely dis-
solved Gamma Met powders, the Cu content of the composite
interlayer was further reduced. Bonds using a 30:1 interlayer
ratio had microstructures that closely resemble those of bonds
employing a 20:1 interlayer ratio. The only discernable dif-
ference was that the regions of completely dissolved Gamma
Met powders were observed less frequently. A GMPX bond
employing a 50:1 interlayer ratio is shown in Figure 2. Al-
though some regions of completely dissolved Gamma Met
powders were observed, the majority of the bond-line con-
tained Cu saturated Gamma Met powders surrounded by
phase(s) containing 2-3 at.% Cu. Unlike the bonds employing
a 20:1 and 30:1 interlayer ratio, only the centerline of the bond
using a 50:1 interlayer ratio had a microhardness considerably
less than that of the substrates. Furthermore, less epitaxial
growth of the Gamma Met powder particles and GMPX sub-
strates was observed in the bonds employing a 50:1 interlayer
ratio, as compared with bonds using interlayers with a higher
content of Cu. In GMPX bonds employing composite inter-
layer ratios of 65:1, 100:1 and 150:1, numerous porous regions
were observed. This observation suggests the employment of
insufficient liquid former.
Mechanical properties of as-bonded joints
Four-point bend testing suggested that TLP bonding of
GMPX, when using a suitable Gamma Met plus Cu interlayer
ratio, can produce as-bonded joints with mechanical properties
somewhat comparable to those of the bulk material. Bonds
employing a 50:1 interlayer ratio resulted in an average bend
strength of 1100 ±160 MPa. This as-bonded bend strength
value was more comparable to that of the bulk GMPX mate-
rial subjected to the same thermal cycle, which averaged 1510
±80 MPa, than the other interlayer ratios tested (see Figure 3).
Tensile testing results correlated well with those of four-point
bend testing. Although relatively high bend and tensile
strengths were obtained, there is inconclusive evidence that
50:1 is the optimum interlayer ratio. Further studies are
needed to determine if GMPX bonds employing a composite
powder interlayer with slightly more or less Cu would produce
bonds of greater bend strengths.
Figure 3: Results of four-point bend testing for as-bonded
wide-gap TLP joints employing various Gamma Met to Cu in-
terlayer ratios: B1= as-received bulk material, B2 = bond
cycled bulk material, B3= as-bonded-6:1, B4 = as-bonded-
20:1, B5 = as-bonded-30:1, B6 = as-bonded-50:1, B7 = as-
bonded-65:1, B8 = as-bonded-100:1, and B9 = as-bonded-
150:1. Error bars represent standard deviation of data.
Microstructure and Mechanical properties of PBHT joints
Das [14] suggested a heat treatment of 3X hr at 1340°C4 was
suitable to produce a fully lamellar (FL) microstructure in the
bulk substrates. When applied as a PBHT, a fine grained (230
±70 µm) FL microstructure was produced in the bulk, how-
ever this PBHT did not sufficiently allow Cu diffusion into the
4
As before, X refers to an undisclosed numerical factor. For example, if X =
0.33, then 3X hr equals 1 hr.
870
substrates. Residual Cu in the bond-line prohibited the forma-
tion of a FL γ(TiAl) + α2(Ti3Al) microstructure across the en-
tire bond-line. Thus, a dual heat treatment process was stud-
ied. PBHT at 1290°C (a temperature near, but below the alpha
transus temperature of GMPX) for 24X hr followed by 3X hr
at 1340°C provided sufficient time to allow for Cu diffusion
into the bulk substrates and produce a relatively fine grained
FL microstructure in the bulk and at the original bond-line.
Figure 4 shows an image of a GMPX TLP bond using 50:1 in-
terlayer ratio subjected to the bonding cycle followed by a
PBHT of 24X hr at 1290°C plus 3X hr at 1340°C. A rela-
tively fine grain FL microstructure was formed in the bulk and
at the original bond-line, and no Cu was detected in the bond
region by EDS analysis (and so the center-line Cu content is
assumed to be less that 1 at.% Cu). Furthermore, the micro-
hardness of the bond-line was found to be similar to that of the
substrate.
GMPX bonds employing a 50:1 interlayer ratio subjected to a
PBHT of 24X hr at 1290°C plus 3X hr at 1340°C produced
bend and tensile strengths very similar to that of the bulk ma-
terial exposed to the same thermal cycle. Bonded specimens
subjected to the latter PBHT produced average bend and ten-
sile strengths of 790 ±80 MPa and 580 ±50 MPa. Bulk sub-
strate material exposed to the same thermal cycle produced
average bend and tensile strengths of 790 ±70 MPa and 570
±30 MPa.
Figure 4: LM micrograph of an as-bonded GMPX joint em-
ploying a 50:1 Gamma Met to Cu interlayer ratio after a
PBHT of 24X hr at 1290°C plus 3X hr at 1340°C. A fine grain
FL microstructure was formed in the bulk and at the original
bond-line (indicated by arrows). Although no Cu was detect-
edable by SEM-based EDS analysis, the lighter contrast of the
bond region is attributed to residual Cu which influences the
response to the etchant used to prepare this sample.
Mechanistic studies
During microstructural and mechanical property studies, some
obvious differences in GMPX and 48−2−2 wide-gap TLP
bonds were observed, when employing a 6:1 TiAl alloy to Cu
composite interlayer ratio. In addition to what have been dis-
cussed so far, some other differences were also noticed. (1)
Although Cu-rich intermetallics were observed in 48−2−2
bonds, they were observed less frequently and had a lower
concentration of Cu (i.e. ~20 at.% compared to ~30 at.% Cu)
than those observed in GMPX. (2) The overall Cu content in
the bond-line of GMPX joints was determined to be 6-7 at.%
Cu, whereas the overall Cu content in the bond-line of 48−2−2
joints was 4-5 at.% Cu. (3) Larger fillets were observed in
48−2−2 bonds compared to GMPX bonds. Average cross-
sectional area of fillets observed in 48−2−2 and GMPX bonds
was 0.25 ±0.06 mm2 and 0.18 ±0.11 mm2 respectively. (4)
Mechanical testing revealed a significant difference in as-
bonded GMPX and 48−2−2 four-point bend strengths (relative
to the bulk) employing a 6:1 interlayer ratio. Average as-
bonded GMPX bend strength was determined to be ~48 % of
bulk GMPX material subjected to the same thermal cycle,
whereas Zhou [11] determined average as-bonded 48−2−2
bend strength to be ~68% of the 48−2−2 substrate subjected to
a similar thermal cycle. (5) Concerning PBHT specimens,
there was an obvious difference in the time necessary to com-
plete the solid-state homogenization process. Although not
discussed in detail here, GMPX bonds required a significantly
more protracted PBHT that 48−2−2 bonds.
In an effort to understand these observed differences, detailed
mechanistic studies of the underlying joining mechanisms as-
sociated with TLP bonding were conducted. These studies
concentrated on the diffusivity, solubility and wettability of
Cu in/on 48−2−2 and GMPX substrate material.
Diffusion coefficients of Cu into GMPX and 48−2−2 were de-
termined (in the temperature regime of 850°C to 1450°C) us-
ing a rough order of magnitude estimate. The activation en-
ergy of Cu diffusion in 48−2−2 and GMPX was determined to
be 185 and 179 kJ/mol respectively5. Thus, difference in the
activation energy of Cu diffusion would not appear to account
for the observed differences in 48−2−2 and GMPX TLP
bonds. It should be noted that the apparent activation energy
of Cu diffusion seems very low provided Cu diffuses in TiAl
as a substitutional element. However, Mishin and Herzig [15]
determined similar values for some transition elements such as
Fe, Co and Ni in γ(TiAl) and suggested that this diffusion be-
havior can be explained by substitutional and interstitial medi-
ated diffusion. Thus, the results obtained here for the Cu dif-
fusion coefficients in 48−2−2 and GMPX seem plausible. It
should be noted that due to the non-planar interfaces observed
between the bonds and substrates, accurately defining the
5
Corresponding pre-exponential diffusion coefficients, D0, for GMPX and
48−2−2 were determined to be 2 x 10-6 and 2.4 x 10-6 m2 s-1, respectively.
871
starting position for Cu diffusion was somewhat difficult and
this could have led to errors.
In modeling of wide-gap TLP bonding of 48−2−2 materials,
Zhou and Gale [16] suggested that the 48−2−2 powder parti-
cles were rapidly saturated with Cu and that most of the re-
maining Cu must diffuse into the substrates during the re-
mainder of the isothermal solidification process and the sub-
sequent homogenization process. Assuming this is valid with
Gamma Met in GMPX bonds, one possibility for accounting
for the observed differences in 48−2−2 and GMPX TLP bonds
is that the Cu solubility in GMPX is less than that of 48−2−2.
Hence, Cu not absorbed by the bond-line powder particles or
the substrate material, ends up as Cu-rich bond-line intermet-
allics. Thus, experiments to approximate the Cu solubility in
GMPX and 48−2−2 were conducted. The solubility of Cu at
the bonding temperature in GMPX and 48−2−2 was deter-
mined to be 1 at.% and 2 at.%, respectively. The exact reason
for this determined difference in solubility of Cu in the GMPX
and 48−2−2 materials is not well understood, but could possi-
bly be attributed to a difference in phases present in the bulk
substrates. The Ti-Al-Cu ternary phase diagram [12] suggests
that Cu has a lower solubility in α2(Ti3Al) than γ(TiAl) at
800°C. Thus, the greater presence of the α2(Ti3Al) phase in
the GMPX substrates could account for the lower Cu solubil-
ity.
The lower solubility of Cu in GMPX substrates could account
for some of the differences in GMPX as-bonded and as-PBHT
specimens. These differences include numerous Cu-rich in-
termetallics, higher Cu content in bond-line, and the need for a
more protracted PBHT of GMPX bonds than 48−2−2 bonds.
In any capillary joining process, wettability is vitally impor-
tant and can govern the microstructural and mechanical prop-
erties of the bond. Wettability testing of GMPX and 48−2−2
by liquid Cu at the bonding temperature was conducted via the
sessile drop method and observed by HSLM. Although the
initial spreading rates of liquid Cu on 48−2−2 and GMPX
were quite similar, the terminal spreading distance of the liq-
uid on the two substrates appeared significantly different (see
Figure 5). Isothermal solidification of the spreading front on
GMPX occurred very quickly, while the spreading front on
48−2−2 continued out of the field of view of the microscope.
Therefore, sessile drop tests to measure the terminal spreading
distance of the liquid on GMPX and 48−2−2 were conducted.
The resulting AreaFinal / AreaInitial for the droplets was deter-
mined to be 1.8 ±0.3 mm2 and 2.5 ±0.3 mm2 for GMPX and
48−2−2, respectively.
The exact reason for this observed difference in terminal
spreading distance is not well understood, but could be attrib-
uted to a difference in composition of the two alloys. Klein-
Wassink [17] determined that a relation exists between mutual
solubility of alloying elements in the base metal and wetting
properties. Thus, wetting can be improved by adding a rela-
tively small amount of a suitable element to the base metal.
The only major alloying element in 48−2−2 that is not present
in GMPX is Cr. The binary Cr-Cu phase diagram shows that
~3 at.% Cr is soluble in liquid Cu, up to the temperature of TB.
Another possible explanation is that compositional changes in
the liquid droplet could increase the melting point, such that
spreading is terminated more rapidly by solidification during
isothermal holding [18]. It should be noted that these possible
explanations are very speculative and can only be verified by
detailed studies.
Despite the lack of clear reason(s) for the difference in wet-
tability of Cu on the two substrates, this dissimilarity could
amount (either directly or indirectly) to the observed differ-
ences in TLP bonds. These differences include dissimilarities
in fillet size and Cu concentration of bond region.
Figure 5: Spreading data for liquid Cu on GMPX and
48−2−2, with a nominal set point of TB and zero time defined
as melting of Cu foil. The decrease in diameter of the droplet
a few seconds after melting is due to an initial dewetting stage
before the onset of spreading. The undulations apparent in
the data are associated with the flow of the liquid over a
“dam” of solid produced by the onset of isothermal solidifica-
tion at the spreading front.
Conclusions
Microstructural and mechanical property studies suggested
that GMPX wide-gap TLP bonds, employing a 50:1 weight ra-
tio Gamma Met to Cu interlayer ratio, can produce joints with
properties (compositional and mechanical) comparable to the
bulk material, when subjected to suitable bonding and post-
bond heat treatment conditions. Mechanistic studies were
conducted to aid in understanding the observed microstruc-
tural and compositional differences in GMPX and 48−2−2
wide-gap TLP bonds. These studies suggested that dissimi-
872
larities in Cu solubility and wettability in/on the GMPX and
48−2−2 bulk substrates are likely to have contributed to these
observed differences.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by NASA Glenn Research Center
under award number NAG3-2682, monitored by S. Draper.
The authors are grateful to S. Chitti and R. Love of Auburn
University Materials Research and Education Center for con-
ducting the sessile drop experiments and analyzing the data.
The authors also are grateful to N. Sofyan for his contributions
to the non-ITAR restricted portions of this work, such as SEM
and EDS analysis of as-bonded and PBHT specimens.
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Mater. Trans. A, 1999, 30A, pp. 2723-2726.
11. W. F. Gale, D. A. Butts, M. D. Ruscio, and T. Zhou: Met-
all. Mater. Trans. A, 2002, 33A, pp. 3205-3214.
12. G. Petzow, and G. Effenberg (Eds.), VCH Publ., New
York, 1991.
13. Y. Shen, W. F. Gale, J. W. Fergus, and X. Wen: Mater.
Sci. Tech., 2001, 17, pp. 1293-1298.
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15. Y. Mishin, and C.Herzig: Acta Mater., 2000, 48, 589-623.
16. T. Zhou, and W. F. Gale: Mater. Sci. Tech., 2003, 19, pp.
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17. R. J. Klein-Wassink: J. I. Met., 1967, 95, pp. 38-43.
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 Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, May 16–20, 2005, Callaway Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Georgia, USA
Joining of Inconel 617 Sheets in TLP bonding Using
Ni - P and Ni - Si - B Alloys
F. Jalilian, R. A. L. Drew
Metals and Materials Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
M. Jahazi
Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Abstract
Micostructural characterization has been performed on
a TLP (Transient Liquid Phase) bonded Inconel 617
superalloy. In the present work, the influences of
holding time, bonding temperature and thickness and
composition of the interlayer on microstructure, extent
of the diffusion layer, morphology and composition of
the precipitates in TLP bonded Inconel 617 were
studied. Ni-11% P and Ni-4.5% Si-3 B% alloys with
two different thiknesses were employed as the
interlayer. Finally, two bonding temperatures,
1065˚C and 1150˚C, were used in the experiments.
Microstructural examination was carried out using
optical microscopy, SEM, FEG-SEM, and EBSD
(electron back scattered diffraction) to identify the
phases present, principal morphologies of the
precipitates, and the characteristics of the diffusion
layer with processing parameters. XRD was also
employed to confirm the presence of precipitates in the
joint area. Microstructural analysis showed that with
increasing holding time the size of precipitates changed
from coarse to fine. The growth of precipitates was
observed to begin at grain boundaries and migrated to
the interior of the grains via volume diffusion.
Keywords
Superalloy, Inconel 617, TLP bonding, Carbides,
Borides, Phosphides
Introduction
Inconel 617 is a solid solution strengthened nickel base
superalloy used in hot gas ducts of land based gas
turbine engines because of its superior thermal
efficiency and mechanical properties at high
temperatures [1 - 4]. The alloy is usually joined by
fusion welding techniques. Although it exhibits good
weldability, cracking commonly occurs in the fusion
and heat affected zone. Therefore solid - state bonding
have been recommended as an alternative
manufacturing method. Transient Liquid Phase (TLP)
bonding is one of the preferred solid-state joining
techniques for nickel-based superalloys [5,6].
Copyright © 2006 ASM International®
According to previous reports, TLP bonding can be
classified into three main stages (1) dissolution of the
substrate (2) isothermal solidification and (3)
homogenization [5,7].
Isothermal solidification is the most important stage in TLP
bonding and it requires a long holding time. If isothermal
solidification is not completed during bonding, the liquid
phases remain in the bonding area and form brittle phases.
These brittle phases decreased the mechanical properties
and reduce the life cycle. On the other hand, the important
parameters in TLP bonding such as bonding temperature,
holding time and thickness and composition of interlayer
can affect the microstructure and mechanical properties of
the joint. An understanding of the important parameters in
TLP bonding is imperative for optimizing the life cycle and
quality of the joints. Therefore, it is necessary to pay
attention to the microstructural analysis and important
parameters of the TLP process for achieving the optimum
microstructure and mechanical properties of joints.
In this study, we investigated microstructures of TLP
bonded solid solution hardened nickel base superalloy,
Inconel 617 using Ni - P and Ni - Si - B, for various holding
times ranging from 5 min to 24 hours at 1065˚C and 1150˚C
with two thicknesses of interlayer. Furthermore, we
compared the results and studied the effect of process
parameters on joint microstructure.
Experimental procedures
The substrate used in the present work was Inconel 617 that
was prior annealed at 1177 ºC for one hour and air cooled.
The test specimens were 25 mm in length, 5 mm wide and
1mm thick. The as received composition is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Composition (wt%) of the base metal
Element (wt%)
Cr Co Mo Al Ti B C Ni
22 12 9 1.2 0.3 0.0006 0.07 Base
873
The filler metals selected for this investigation were
Ni-P (American Welding Society designation BNi-6)
and Ni-Si- B (American Welding Society designation
BNi-3) which contain melting point depressants such as
phosphorous in Ni-P, and boron and silicon in Ni-Si-B
in order to reduce bonding time. The foils of the filler
metals containing phosphorous had thicknesses of 25.4
and 38.1 µm and for those containing boron, 25.4 and
76.2 µm and their chemical compositions are shown in
Table 2.
Results and Discussion
Analysis of joint microstructures
Fig. 1(a, b) illustrates the typical optical microstructure of
the TLP bonded joints. It was found that with sufficient
holding time or complete isothermal solidification liquid
(eutectic) phases are not present (a), and in the interlayer
whereas for athermal solidification (b) residual liquid phase
was observed.

Table 2: Chemical compositions (wt%) of the nickel

base filler metals

Element (wt%) Ni – Si – B Ni – P

(BNi-3) (BNi-6)

Co 0.01 -----
Al 0.02 0.01
C 0.017 0.02
B 2.96 -----
Ti 0.01 0.01
Fe 0.18 -----
Si 4.35 -----
P ----- 10.8
Zr ----- 0.01
Ni 90.64 90.14
(a)

The bonding surfaces of the base metals were ground

and polished with a final finish of 0.05 µm Al2O3 in
order to obtain an oxide - free mating surface. They Liquid Phase
were ultrasonically cleaned in an acetone bath prior to
joining. All samples were joined in a tube furnace for
5 min to 24 hours holding times at the 1065 and 1150˚C
under a vacuum of 1 ȋ 10-5 mbar. The eutectic
temperature of the binary alloy Ni-B is reported to be in
the range of 1080˚C to 1140˚C [8]. The bonding
temperatures in this investigation were selected below
and above than eutectic of Ni-B and used for Ni-P [9].
The filler metals were placed on the two base metals
and a stainless steel fixture was used to prevent the
molten filler metal from flowing out during the
bonding. Finally, each assembly was placed on a boron
nitride tray within the tube furnace. After the bonding,
the specimens were polished mechanically and then
chemically etched. The etchant was Kalling’s reagent
(b)
(5 g CuCl2 + 100 cm3 HCl + 100cm3 C2H5OH). The
joints were examined using light and scanning electron
Figure 1: Typical Microstructure of joints (a) 6 hours with
microscope. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) for
25.4 µm thick filler metal containing boron at 1150˚C (b)30
all of scanning electron microscopes was employed for
min with 38.1 µm thick filler metal containing phosphorous
elemental analysis. A JEOL 840-A was used for SEM
at 1065˚C
studies, a Hitachi S-4700 for FEG-SEM, and a Hitachi
S-3000 coupled with HKL Nordlys II for EBSD were
The results for 25.4 µm thick interlayer containing boron
used for microstructural and phase identification
showed that at 1065˚C for 2 hour holding time, no liquid
purpose. A Max 3100 X-ray generator was employed in
phase was observed and for a 76.2 µm interlayer and 6
X-ray diffraction studies of the bulk diffusion layer.
hours holding the liquid phase was completely eliminated.

874
With increasing bonding temperature to 1150˚C
the liquid phase for 25.4 µm interlayer thickness
disappeared after 30 min and for 76.2 µm thick after
2 hours.
The microstructural examinations showed that the joints
with interlayer containing phosphorous at 1065˚C,
25.4 µm interlayer thickness after 18 hours holding
time, the liquid phase disappeared whereas for the 38.1
µm interlayer after 24 hours, the liquid phase was still
present. With increasing the bonding temperature to
1150˚C, the liquid phase was eliminated after 14 hours
for the 25.4 µm interlayer but remained for the 38.1 µm
interlayer even after 24 hours.
The morphology of precipitates in the diffusion layer is
illustrated in Fig. 2. It can be found that main
precipitate morphologies in joints containing boron
were either (a) platelike or (b) blocky and in joints
containing phosphorous the precipitates were (c)
irregular shaped.
(a)
(b)
875
(c)
Figure 2:Morphology of precipitates in the boron interlayer
(a) platelike (b) blocky and (c) the phosphorous interlayer,
irregular shape
For boron containing interlayers with increasing holding
time, the thickness of diffusion layer increased from 15 µm
(1065˚C) to 230 µm (1150˚C) and for interlayers containing
phosphorous from 5 µm (1065˚C) to 99 µm (1150˚C). On
the other hand, the observations showed that the quantity of
precipitates in interlayers containing boron were greater
than for interlayers containing phosphorous. This is because
the diffusion rate of boron is much faster than for
phosphorous.
At the same time, with increasing the holding time the
growth of the precipitates started at the grain boundaries and
continued within the grains. Essentially, the results showed
that with longer holding time the size of precipitates
changed from coarse to fine in both interlayer compositions.
Simultaneously, with changing size of precipitates in the
boron interlayers, dissolution and separation occurred with
cracking of precipitates inside the grains and at the grain
boundaries.
Micro - chemical analysis
M23C6, M(C, N) and M6C are major precipitates in Inconel
617 superalloy [1,2,3]. Also, Ni3Al and boride precipitates
have been reported for Inconel 617 [10,11]. The carbide
precipitates are generally found at both the grain boundaries
and within the grains. It has been reported that the M23C6 is
observed in the temperature range 649-1093˚C and the
composition is considered to be Cr21Mo2C6 [12]. The
microanalysis (EDS) indicated that the only M23C6 and TiC
were found in the diffusion layer for both compositions. The
observations showed that most of the carbides in the boron
interlayer were platelike and blocky whereas in the
phosphorous interlayer they were blocky and irregular. The
microanalysis of the interlayer indicated that those
containing boron, silicon – boron and nickel were present
after the shorter holding times of 5min to 2 hours. With
increasing holding, boron continued to diffuse into the base
metals. It should be noted that boron was not detected in the
interlayer for the 25.4 µm and 76.2 µm interlayers after
holding times of 10 hours and 18 hours respectively.
With longer holding times (18 to 24 hours) most of the
silicon was detected at the interface of the interlayer
and the base metal and only nickel was observed in the
interlayer. The results of interlayer containing
phosphorous showed that presence of only nickel and
phosphorous (5 min to 24 hours).

The phase identifications by EBSD and XRD showed

that in interlayers containing boron, Ni3B, Ni3Si, Ni5Si2
were detected within the interlayer after short times.
Fig. 3 illustrates the Ni3B precipitates. With increasing
holding the amount of Ni3B in the interlayer decreased
and Ni3Si and Ni5Si2 accumulated at the interface of the
(c)
base metal and the interlayer. The results of phase
identification of specimens with phosphorous interlayer
Figure 3:Phase identification of Ni3B at 5 min holding time
indicated that only Ni3P was present in the interlayer
with 25.4 µm thick and 1150˚C bonding temperature on
after short holding time. The results of bulk XRD
liquid phase (a) image (b) EBSD pattern (c)
confirmed the same phases as those detected by EBSD.
crystallographic indexing

The observations show that in the diffusion layer containing

boron, Ni3B, MoB, Mo2B precipitates were detected. Also,
M23(C, B)6 was observed in the diffusion layer. It should be
noted that with regard to the Mo-B binary phase diagram
and the boron content, Mo2B precipitates should form in the
diffusion layer [13]. It is because with shorter holding times
the concentration of boron in the diffusion layer was
increased and formed MoB. It is interesting to note that the
crystal structures of MoB are either orthorhombic or
tetrahedral, whereas only orthorhombic type was detected in
this study [14,15]. The borides were detected at grain
boundaries and their morphologies were blocky and
platelike. The EBSD pattern of diffusion layer demonstrated
the presence of Mo2B precipitates at the grain boundary in
Fig. 4.

20 µm The Mo3P, MoP, MoNiP and Ni3P were detected in the

diffusion layer of phosphorous containing joints.
(a)
Considering of Mo-P binary phase diagram and the amount
of phosphorous, Mo3P precipitates should be formed in the
diffusion layer. However, MoP with higher amounts of
phosphorous was detected [13]. It should be noted that the
liquid phases are present in the interlayer with long holding
times (18 to 24 hours) and with increasing the bonding