LECTURE NOTES

EMT 2402 CONTROL ENGINEERING I

MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING
Y4 S1
DeKUT

By
Inno Odira

c Copyright by Inno Odira, 2018
Table of Contents

Table of Contents iii

1 Modelling Systems 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Types Of Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Differential equations and difference equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 State space representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

iii
Chapter 1

Modelling Systems

1.1 Introduction
The first step in the control design process is to develop appropriate mathematical models
of the system derived either from physical laws or experimental data

Two definitions of mathematical modelling

Definition 1
System description by mathematical expression that appropriately relates the physical sys-
tem quantities to the system components. This mathematical relation constitutes the math-
ematical model of the system.

Figure 1.1: Illustration of System quantities and system components

As an example, consider a resistor whose voltage v, current i, and resistance R are related in
the well-known equation v = Ri. This expression relates the physical quantities (variables) v
and i with the component R and constitutes a description; i.e., it constitutes a mathematical
model of this simple (one-component) system.

1
 2
As another example, consider a circuit composed of a resistor and an inductor connected in
series. In this case, the voltage v across the circuit, the current i, the resistance R of the
resistor, and the self-inductance L of the inductor are related with the well-known relation
di
v = L( dt ) + Ri. This expression relates the physical quantities v and i with the components
R and L and constitutes a mathematical model of the system.

Based on three-fold element concept (input, system, and output), a more strict definition of
the mathematical model of a system can be given.

Definition 2
The mathematical model of a system is a mathematical expression which relates the input,
the system, and the output. This relation must be such as to guarantee that one can deter-
mine the systems output for any given input.(Important)

Importance of mathematical modelling

• Offers the capability of system analysis, i.e.,the capability to determine the systems
response under any excitation.

• useful for other purposes, as for example to study the systems stability and other
properties, to improve the systems performance by applying control techniques, etc.

Mathematical modelling as approximation of systems

The problem of determining a systems mathematical model is essentially a problem of ap-

proximating the behavior of a physical system with an ideal mathematical expression. For
example, the expression v = Ri is an approximation of the physical relation between v, i, and
R. To have greater accuracy, one must take into account additional factors: for example, that
the resistance R changes with temperature and, consequently, the relation v = Ri should
have the nonlinear form v = R(t)i, where R(t) denotes that R is a nonlinear function of the
current i. However, it is well known that this more accurate model is still an approximation
of the physical system. The final conclusion is that, in general, the mathematical model can
only give an approximate description of a physical system.

Two ways of mathematical modelling

The problem of deriving the mathematical model of a system usually appears as one of the
following two cases.
 3
Derivation of Systems Equations
In this case, the system is considered known: for example, the network shown in Figure 1.1 a.
Here, we know the components R, L, C1, and C2 and their interconnections. To determine
a mathematical model of the network, one may apply Kirchhoffs laws and write down that
particular system of equations which will constitute the mathematical model. From network
theory, it is well known that the system of equations sought are the linearly independent
loop or node equations.

Figure 1.1:An RLC network

System Identification In this case the system is not known. By not known, we mean that
we do not know either the systems components or their interconnections. The system is
just a black box. In certain cases, we may have available some a priori (in advance) useful
information about the system, e.g., that the system is time-invariant or that it has lumped
parameters, etc. Based on this limited information about the system, we are asked to deter-
mine a mathematical model which describes the given system satisfactorily. A well-known
technique for dealing with this problem is depicted in Figure 1.1b. Here, both the physical
system and the mathematical model are excited by the same input u(t). Subsequently, the
difference e(t) of the respective responses y1 (t) and y2 (t) is measured. If the error e(t) is
within acceptable bounds, then the mathematical model is a satisfactory description of the
system. The acceptable bounds depend on the desired degree of accuracy of the model, and
they are usually stated in terms of the minimum value of the following cost function:
 4

Figure 1.1:Schematic diagram of system identification

1.2 Types Of Mathematical Models

Several types of mathematical models have been proposed for the description of systems.
The most popular ones, which we will present in this chapter, are the following:

1. The differential equations

2. The transfer function

3. The state equations (State space models)

Note, however, that there are other ways of describing a system, aiming to give a schematic
overview of the system. Two such popular schematic system descriptions are

1. The block diagrams

2. The signal-flow graphs

These diagrams and graphs are particularly useful in giving a simplified overall picture of a
system.

1.2.1 Differential equations and difference equations

A differential equation is any algebraic equality which involves either differentials or deriva-
tives. They are useful in relating rates of change of variables and other parameters
 5
Consider a system whose output is y(t) , whose input u(t) and contains constant coefficients
of values a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an and b0 , b1 , b2 , ..., bn . If the system produced a first order differential
equation, it would be represented as

dy
+ a0 y = b0 u(t) (1.2.1)
dt
If the system dynamics produced a second-order differential equation, it would be repre-
sented by

d2 y dy
2
+ a1 + a0 y = b0 u(t) (1.2.2)
dt dt
If the dynamics produced a third order differential equation, its representation would be

d3 y d2 y dy
+ a 2 + a1 + a0 y = b0 u(t) (1.2.3)
dt3 dt2 dt
These are linear differential equations with constant coefficients. The order of the differ-
ential is the order of the highest derivative.
Example 1 Consider the network shown in Figure 1.2.1. Derive the networks differential
equation mathematical model.

Figure 1.2.1: RLC Circuit

Solution 1
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law,
Z
di 1
v=L + idt + Ri
dt C
When rearranged gives Z
di 1
L + Ri + idt = v
dt C
To eliminate the integral, both sides of the equation are differentiated with respect to
time,resulting in the desired differential equation
d2 i di i dv
L 2
+R + =
dt dt c dt
The above integrodifferential equation constitutes a mathematical description of the net-
work. To complete this description, two appropriate initial conditions must be given, since
 6
the above mathematical model is essentially a second-order differential equation. As initial
conditions, we usually consider the inductors current iL (t) and the capacitors voltage vC (t)
at the moment the switch S closes, which is usually at t0 . Therefore, the initial conditions
are iL (t) = I0 and vC (t0 ) = V0 ; where I0 and V0 are given constants. The integrodifferential
equation and the two initial conditions constitute a complete description of the network
shown in Figure 1.2.1.

1.2.2 Transfer Functions

• The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable.

• a transfer function is an input-output description of the behavior of a system. Thus the

transfer function description does not include any information concerning the internal
structure of the system and its behavior.

• A transfer function may be defined only for a linear, time invariant (stationary or
constant parameter) system with all initial conditions assumed to be zero. . A non-
stationary system often called a time-varying system, has one or more time-varying
parameters, and the Laplace transformation may not be utilized.

The transfer function G(s) of a linear, time-invariant system with zero initial conditions
is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output y(t) to the Laplace transform of the input
u(t), i.e.,

L(y(t)) Y (s)
G(s) = =
L(u(t)) U (s)]
In practice, the input-output relation of a linear time-invariant system with continuous-
data input is often described by the differential equation, so it is more convenient to derive
the transfer function directly from the differential equation.

Let us consider that the input-output relation of a linear time-invariant system is de-
scribed by the following nth-order differential equation with constant real coefficients:
 7

Figure 1.2: Block diagram representation of a transfer function

Comments on the Transfer Function (TF).

The applicability of the concept of the Transfer Function (TF) is limited to LTI differential
equation systems. The following list gives some important comments concerning the TF of
a system described by a LTI differential equation:
1. The TF of a system is a mathematical model of that system, in that it is an operational
method of expressing the differential equation that relates the output variable to the
input variable.
2. The TF is a property of a system itself, unrelated to the magnitude and nature of the
input or driving function.
3. The TF includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output; however it does
not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system. (The TF
of many physically different systems can be identified).
4. if the TF of a system is known , the output or response can be studied for various
forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the system.
5. If the TF of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally by introducing
known inputs and studying the output of the system. Once established, a TF gives
a full description of the dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct from its
physical description
6. The transfer function is said to be strictly proper if m < n. If m ≤ n then the transfer
function is proper. If m = n then the transfer function is Biproper. It is improper if
m > n.
Example 2 Consider the network shown in Figure 1.2.1. Derive the transfer function
G(s) = VI(s)
(s)
.
 8
solution 2

The differential equation is given as

d2 i di i dv
L 2
+R + =
dt dt c dt
Taking Laplace transform of both sides the differential equation, we obtain

I(s)
Ls2 I(s) + RsI(s) + = sV (s)
C
Rearranging we obtain

I(s) s Cs
G(s) = = 1 =
V (s) [Ls2 + Rs + C ]Is LCs2 + RCs + 1

1.2.3 State space representation

• Requirements for control systems has increased in scope, Hence the use of classical con-
trol design seems inadequate. Many systems do not have just a single input. Multiple-
input, multiple-output systems can be compactly represented in state space with a
model similar in form and complexity to that used for single-input, single-output sys-
tems.

• To address the multiple input and output system a convenient matrix based system
is used in representing the state space. They may be applied to a very wide category
of systems, such as linear and nonlinear systems, time-invariant and time-varying sys-
tems, systems with nonzero initial conditions, and others. In addition, the state space
approach is also attractive because of the availability of numerous state-space software
packages for the personal computer

• State-space equations, or simply state equations, is a description in the time domain

using first order differential equations. The term state of a system refers to the past,
present, and future sets of quantities which completely determine the evolution of the
response of a system (in the absence of external inputs). and State Variables - Set of
variables that define the state.

From the mathematical point of view, the state of a system is expressed by its state
variables. Usually, a system is described by a finite number of state variables, which are
designated by x1 (t); x2 (t); ...; xn (t) and are defined as follows:

We begin our state space equation with selection of state variables. The number of state
variables for any individual differential equation will be equal to the order of the differential
 9
equation.

Example 1
For a first order system
dy
+ a0 y = b0 u(t)
dt
There is only one state variable
x1 (t) = y
Generate first order differential equations from the state variables

ẋ1 (t) = ẏ

From the differential equation make ẏ the subject

ẏ = −a0 y + b0 u(t)

Substitute the state variables in the previous equation to obtained state equation

ẋ1 (t) = −a0 x1 (t) + b0 u(t) (1.2.4)

The output equation is given by

y = x1 (t) (1.2.5)
Example 2
For a second order system
d2 y dy
2
+ a1 + a0 y = b0 u(t)
dt dt
There are two state variable
x1 (t) = y
x2 (t) = ẏ
Generate first order differential equations from the state variables

ẋ1 (t) = ẏ

ẋ2 (t) = ÿ
From the differential equation make ÿ the subject

ÿ = −a0 y − a1 ẏ + b0 u(t)
 10
Substitute the state variables in the first order differential equations to obtain state
equations 
ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t) 
State equations (1.2.6)
ẋ2 (t) = −a0 x1 (t) − a1 x2 (t) + b0 u(t),
The output equation is given by
y = x1 (t) (1.2.7)
State space model
We begin our state space equation with a state equation. A state equation consist of the
state equation and output equation as follows:

Now A, B, C and D are all matrices involved in a state space equation

A = (n × n) state matrix that describes internal (homogenous) motion
B = (n × r) input matrix that describes how r inputs affect n states
C = (m × n)output matrix that describes how n states contribute to m outputs
D = (m × r) direct transmission matrix that describes how r inputs are fed through to m
outputs.
Overall, state equations is a description which relates the following four elements: input,
system, state variables, and output. In contrast, the differential equations, the transfer func-
tion, and the impulse response relate three elements: input, system, and outputwherein the
input is related to the output via the system directly (i.e., without giving information about
the state of the system). It is exactly for this reason that these three system descriptions
are called inputoutput descriptions.