Exam Questions

Section A
 Instructions:
• Explain what you understand about the
following terms or topics that relate to
petroleum geoscience. Use a sketch or
example as appropriate.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Paleozoic is an era – the oldest
Pliocene (exact numerical of the three (approx 540 to
ages are not important) 250 Ma).
2. Basin Devonian is a period within the
3. Transgression and Paleozoic era (~395 to 345)
regression Pliocene is a epoch within the
4. Fractures Tertiary period of the
5. Plunging anticline Cenozoic era (the youngest
era).
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
A basin is a large-scale
(regional) depression where
sedimentation is occurring
and subsidence is
continually creating
accommodation space for
more sediments to
accumulate.
Basins form in many different
plate tectonic settings, with
subsidence caused by
thinning of the crust
(extension) or by loading
(during compression).
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Transgression and regression
refer to rise and fall of
relative sea-level.
Transgression occurs when
relative sea-level rises and
the shoreline moves
landwards, regression
occurs when relative sea-
level falls and the shoreline
moves sea-wards.
higher sea level
“normal” sea level
lower sea level
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
A fracture is a break in the rock
mass across which no
relative movement has
occurred. Fractures can be
closed (by finer ground
material or by crystalline fill
creating ‘veins’) or open
(creating secondary porosity
and permeability).
Fractures occur related to faults,
folds and other structural
deformation.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, A plunging anticline is an
Pliocene (exact numerical anticline (upfold) whose fold
ages are not important) axis is non-horizontal:
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Trough cross-bedding is a
sedimentary structure, created by
the migration of megaripples or
dunes with curved crests. The
sets of cross-beds have curved
erosional boundaries (set
boundaries), and are greater than
5 cm thick (thickness is controlled
by the height of the original
beform, which is controlled by the
flow). Curved crested
megaripples represent a higher
energy flow than straight crested
megaripples.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Deltaic deposits are wedge-shaped
volumes of sediment, deposited at
the mouth of rivers where they
meet a standing body of water
(lake or sea). They are subdivided
based on the dominant process –
river, wave or tide. Reservoir
facies in deltas include mouth-bars
in fluvial dominated deltas, and
shoreline facies in wave dominated
deltas.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Turbidites are the deposits of
turbidity currents, and are
found in submarine fans
(channelised and sheet
turbidites) and on the basin
floor (sheet turbidites).
A turbidite is sharp-based
(erosive, high energy flow),
has a distinctive fining-
upwards trend (because of
the waning flow), a
succession of sedimentary
structures (massive,
laminated, cross-bedded or
convoluted, muddy) and
may have internal grain
alignment.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Secondary sedimentary
structures are formed after
the deposition of the
sediment. They include
bioturbation (the moving of
the sediment by the action
of animals), dessication
cracks, raindrop imprints,
and various soft-sediment
deformation structures,
including pillow structures,
convolute lamination and
water escape structures.
1. Paleozoic, Devonian, Crust and lithosphere are the outermost
Pliocene (exact numerical solid layers of the earth. Crust is the
ages are not important) outer layer and is subdivided into two
2. Basin different types – oceanic and
3. Transgression and continental crust. Oceanic crust in
regression thinner and composed of silica poor
igneous rocks, continental crust is
4. Fractures thicker and more silica rich, and
5. Plunging anticline contains sedimentary metamorphic
6. Trough cross-bedding and igneous rocks. The crust in
7. Deltaic deposits combination with the outermost, solid,
layer of the mantle comprise the
8. Turbidites lithosphere, which is divided into
9. Secondary sedimentary plates that move around above a
structures plastic, slowly convecting mantle layer
10. Crust and lithosphere – the asthenosphere.
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
Plate margins or plate
boundaries are the zones
where two lithospheric
plates meet. The relative
movement of the plates
means that they will either
be separating (a divergent
plate boundary), moving
towards each other (a
convergent plate boundary)
or sliding past each other (a
transform plate boundary).
1. Paleozoic, Devonian,
Pliocene (exact numerical
ages are not important)
2. Basin
3. Transgression and
regression
4. Fractures
5. Plunging anticline
6. Trough cross-bedding
7. Deltaic deposits
8. Turbidites
9. Secondary sedimentary
structures
10. Crust and lithosphere
11. Plate margin
12. Lowest known oil (LKO)
When drilling has not succeeded in
intersecting the oil-water-
contact (OWC), we should have
two levels that have been found
in wells that will constrain where
the OWC could occur – these
are the highest known water
(HKW) level and the lowest
known oil (LKO) level. The
OWC could occur between
these values, and volumetrics
can use these to determine
maximum and minimum
volumes for the reservoir.
Reasonable recoveries for oil 13. Reasonable range of oil and
and gas under different gas recovery factors for
recovery mechanisms: fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
STOIP: Stock Tank Oil
Originally/Initially In Place
GIIP: Gas Initially In Place
TD: Total Depth
TVDSS: True Vertical Depth
Sub-Sea
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
A way of defining the orientation
of a planar surface: Strike is
the orientation of a
horizontal line on the
surface, and dip is the angle
between the surface and a
horizontal plane.
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
The volume of rock in the
structure that is filled with
hydrocarbons – so between
the top of the structure and
the OWC. This can be the
volume of reservoir rock
(with the non-reservoir
removed) if the reservoir is
complex or in segments, or it
could be the volume of rock
including a certain
proportion of non-reservoir
material, which is then
removed by applying a net-
to-gross multiplier.
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
 A contour (line joining points of 13. Reasonable range of oil and
equal height) of true gas recovery factors for
stratigraphic thickness fields: a) under gas
values. depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
Θ (dip) 15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
True Stratigraphic
Thickness (isopach)
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
True Vertical 19. Primary migration
Thickness (isochore)
20. Metamorphic rocks
TST = TVT x cos Θ 21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
The organic rich (5-20%) 13. Reasonable range of oil and
sedimentary rock that under gas recovery factors for
the right temperature and fields: a) under gas
pressure conditions depletion, and b) under
generated hydrocarbons, waterflood
which migrate upwards into 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
reservoirs and traps. GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
SEAL
SEALING:
IF: seal is deposited before migration
17. Isopach
impermeable &: it is sufficiently impermeable
TRAPPING: 18. Source rock
RESERVOIR TRAP IF: trap formation occurs
porous and permeable before migration
19. Primary migration
SECONDARY MIGRATION
CARRIER BED
20. Metamorphic rocks
porous and permeable
21. Biostratigraphy
SOURCE ROCK 22. Walther’s Law
organic rich
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Primary migration is the initial 13. Reasonable range of oil and
migration out of the source gas recovery factors for
rock (probably by means of fields: a) under gas
hydraulic fracturing within the depletion, and b) under
low permeability source due to waterflood
overpressuring from volume 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
expansion as hydrocarbons GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
are created), into the 15. Strike and Dip
surrounding rocks. Further
migration of the hydrocarbons 16. Gross rock volume
away, along carrier beds and 17. Isopach
into reservoir rocks is called 18. Source rock
secondary migration.
SEAL
SEALING:
IF: seal is deposited before migration
19. Primary migration
impermeable &: it is sufficiently impermeable
TRAPPING: 20. Metamorphic rocks
RESERVOIR TRAP IF: trap formation occurs
porous and permeable before migration
21. Biostratigraphy
SECONDARY MIGRATION
CARRIER BED
22. Walther’s Law
porous and permeable
23. Triangulation
SOURCE ROCK 24. True vertical thickness
organic rich
25. Seismic resolution
Metamorphic rocks are created
when heat or heat and
pressure on original
sedimentary or igneous
rocks causes changing of
the mineral structures
(recrystallization) without
melting of the rock. Heating
rocks (adjacent to igneous
intrusions) create spotted
rocks or hornfels, rocks
under heat and pressure
(burial) turn into schists and
gneiss. The final rock type
is dependent on the original
rock composition – for
example muddy sediments
turn to schists, limestones to
marble and quartz
sandstones to quartzite.
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Biostratigraphy is the subdivision of 13. Reasonable range of oil and
the stratigraphic record (rocks) gas recovery factors for
into units based on the fields: a) under gas
presence, absence or grouping depletion, and b) under
of fossils. Biostratigraphic units waterflood
can be defined based on 14. The abbreviations STOIP,
appearance and GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
dissappearance of organisms, 15. Strike and Dip
or by abundance of particular
species. 16. Gross rock volume
Appearance and disappearance 17. Isopach
are linked to evolution and 18. Source rock
extinction of species, so that
fossil species that are useful 19. Primary migration
for biostratigraphy need to be 20. Metamorphic rocks
types that occur in many 21. Biostratigraphy
different environments (are 22. Walther’s Law
wide ranging) so that
evolutionary changes affect the 23. Triangulation
whole population, worldwide 24. True vertical thickness
simultaneously. 25. Seismic resolution
Walther’s Law states that facies
which appear in a vertical
conformable succession, must
have been deposited in
adjacent depositional
environments.
The movement of these
environments through time, for
example due to transgression
and regression, causes
deposition of the different
facies above previously
deposited facies from a
different (but adjacent)
depositional environment.
If facies which cannot be
deposited in adjacent
depositional environments
appear in vertical succession,
then the presence of an
unconformity can be inferred.
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Triangulation is a techniques used
for creation of contour maps,
which is based on subdividing
the area of the map into
triangles with a data point at
each corner, assuming each
triangle represents a plane with
a single gradient, and then
contouring in straight lines
across the assumed plane. This
results in an unrealistic map,
because of the angles of
intersection of the final contour
lines. It is therefore rarely used,
but can be used in situations
where different geologists have
different interpretations of the
available data. A map
constructed by triangulation
should be the same not matter
who constructs it.
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
 Thickness of a rock unit
measured vertically – this is
always greater than true
stratigraphic thickness,
depending on the dip. A
contour of true vertical
thickness is called an
isochore.
Θ (dip)
True Stratigraphic
Thickness (isopach)
True Vertical
Thickness (isochore)
TST = TVT x cos Θ
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution
Seismic resolution is the minimum
thickness that a rock layer
must be in order that the top
and bottom surfaces will be
imaged by the seismic
reflection survey (the unit will
be ‘seen’ on the seismic line).
It is generally assumed to be
approximately ¼ of the
wavelength of the seismic
pulse.
13. Reasonable range of oil and
gas recovery factors for
fields: a) under gas
depletion, and b) under
waterflood
14. The abbreviations STOIP,
GIIP, TD and TVDSS.
15. Strike and Dip
16. Gross rock volume
17. Isopach
18. Source rock
19. Primary migration
20. Metamorphic rocks
21. Biostratigraphy
22. Walther’s Law
23. Triangulation
24. True vertical thickness
25. Seismic resolution