REPORT OF INVESTIGATION 88

Record Winter Storms in Illinois,

1977-1978
by STANLEY A. CHANGNON, JR., and DAVID CHANGNON

Title: Record Winter Storms in Illinois, 1977-1978.

Abstract: The Midwest, including Illinois, experienced in 1977-1978 its most severe winter since
weather records began in the early Nineteenth Century. Illinois had a record-breaking number of 18
severe winter storms; 4 such storms is normal. The record winter began with 3 snowstorms in late
November and ended with an extremely damaging ice storm in late March. Unusual snow patterns
occurred with several storms and they lasted much longer than usual. Weather conditions (low pres­
sure centers) producing many of the storms were more often of Canadian origin than usual, and
these lows had lower pressure and moved slower than normal, resulting in higher surface winds
and longer lasting and hence more severe storms. Cold temperatures along with frequent snows re­
sulted in record long lasting snow cover with up to 120 days with ≥1 inch cover in northern Illinois
and 90 days in southern Illinois. The storms led to 62 deaths and more than 2000 injuries.
Utilities, communication systems, and transportation suffered great losses, though railroads benefit­
ed with increased use and helicopters and snowmobiles proved valuable in rescue service. Local,
state, and federal institutions were beset with enormous and costly problems including care of roads
and lost taxable income due to absenteeism.
Reference: Changnon, Stanley A., Jr., and David Changnon. Record Winter Storms in Illinois,
1977-1978. Illinois State Water Survey, Urbana, Report of Investigation 88, 1978.
Indexing Terms: blizzards, glaze, heavy snow, ice storms, Illinois, lake effect, severe storms, snow,
storm damages, synoptic analysis, wind with snow and glaze.
 STATE OF ILLINOIS
HON. JAMES R. THOMPSON, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION

JOAN G. ANDERSON, B.S., Director

BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

Joan G. Anderson, B.S., Chairman
Thomas Park, Ph.D., Biology
H. S. Gutowsky, Ph.D., Chemistry
Stanley K. Shapiro, Ph.D., Forestry
Laurence L. Sloss, Ph.D., Geology
John C. Guyon, Ph.D.,
Southern Illinois University
William L. Everitt, E.E., Ph.D.,
University of Illinois

STATE WATER SURVEY DIVISION

WILLIAM C. ACKERMANN, D.Sc, Chief

URBANA
1978

Printed by authority of the State of Illinois-Cb. 127, IRS, Par. 58.29

(12/78/1500)
 CONTENTS

PAGE
Abstract 1
Introduction 1
Review of severe winters 1
Notable severe winter storms in 1977-1978 2
Acknowledgments 4
Analytical methods 5
Analyses of storms 5
Storm patterns 5
Storm characteristics 9
Snow cover 12
Monthly and seasonal snow totals 12
Impacts of storms 15
Summary 21
References 23
 Record Winter Storms in Illinois, 1977-1978

Stanley A. Changnon, Jr., and David Changnon

ABSTRACT

The Midwest, including Illinois, experienced in 1977-1978 its most severe winter
since weather records began in the early|Nineteenth Century. The major impact in Illinois
came from a record-breaking number of 18 severe winter storms. In a normal year only 4
storms occur. The record winter began with three snowstorms in late November and
ended with an extremely damaging ice storm in late March. Unusual snow patterns oc-
curred with several storms and they lasted in Illinois much longer than usual. Weather
conditions (low pressure centers) producing many of the storms were more often of
Canadian origin than usual, and these lows had lower pressure and moved slower than
normal, resulting in higher surface winds and longer lasting and hence more severe storms.
Cold temperatures coupled with the frequent snowstorms resulted in record long lasting
snow cover with up to 120 days with 1 inch or more cover in northern Illinois and 90
days in southern Illinois.
The storms led to deaths of 62 persons and injuries to more than 2000. Utilities
and communication systems suffered great losses due to damages to lines, poles, and
towers. Transportation losses included damaged vehicles, delayed shipments, and great
delays in bus and airline service; however, railroads benefited with increased usage and
helicopters and snowmobiles proved valuable in rescue service. The local, state, and fed-
eral institutions were beset with enormous and costly problems including care of roads
and lost taxable income due to absenteeism.

INTRODUCTION

Record winter storms and the resulting record totals of
snowfall, accumulations of ice, and snow coverage occurred
in Illinois during the winter of 1977-1978. Eighteen major
storms occurred in 4-month period, bringing losses that
caused an enormous economic impact and great human suf-
fering with 62 deaths and more than 2000 injuries. The se-
verity of these storms impacts on the design of future struc-
tures and on the individual and institutional adjustments to
be considered in future years.
It is not easy to specifically name one winter as being
worse than another over a large area, particularly when one
considers the amount of snowfall, the length of the winter,
and the severity of the temperatures. Nevertheless, by most
standards, the winter 1977-1978 in Illinois will rank as one
of the worst since Illinois was settled more than 180 years
ago. This monstrously severe winter, which claimed many
lives and cost billions of dollars, has had a great and contin-
uing impact on the industry, commerce, utilities, and local
and state governments of Illinois.
Review of Severe Winters
The severity of winter is often characterized by certain
conditions. For example, in the past, Illinois has had ex-
tremely cold periods of 1 to 2 months duration, with or
without much snowfall. Examples of extremely cold, short
winters of this kind are the December 1976—January 1977
period with an average temperature of 17.0°F (—8.3°C) and
the December 1917—January 1918 period with a mean tem-
perature of 16.8°F (—8.4°C). However, neither of these pe-
riods was accompanied by excessive snowfalls nor prolonged
cold and heavy snow cover throughout the typical 4-month
winter of Illinois which generally lasts from late November
through late March.
Another important way that Illinois winters have been
categorized is by the severity of the snowfall, including the
amount that falls, the frequency of severe winter storms,
and the duration that snow covers the ground. A classical
example of an extreme snow situation is the famous winter
of 1830-1831 (Ludlum, 1968). Heavy snowfalls in late De-
cember 1830 led to snowfall depths of 2 to 4 feet over the
entire state. This enormous deep cover lasted for two
months, and was followed by a major thaw in late February.
That winter also had some extremely low temperatures in
the —10 to —20°F (—23.3 to —28.8°C) range in northern
Illinois. It remains one of the most severe winters on record.
The question can be raised, "How does the winter of
1977-1978 rank among other severe winters?" With all fac-
tors considered, it quite likely ranks as the worst in Illinois
since the first form of weather records began shortly after
1800. There were not record numbers of extremely low
daily temperatures in 1977-1978, nor did the 2-month pe-

1
riod of December-January reach the degree of coldness that
they had in three prior winters. However, the mean temper-
atures of the winter season, defined climatologically as from
December through March, produced an average temperature
that was lower than any 4-month period since reliable tem-
perature records began in the middle of the 19th Century.
The Chicago winter average was 22.4 F (—5.3 C), that at
Urbana was 23.5°F (—4.7°C), and that at Mt. Vernon was
28.1 F (—2.2°C), all record low values for northern, central,
and southern Illinois, respectively. Winter temperatures
were generally 7°F (north) to 9°F (south) below long-term
normals. Nearly continuous below-normal temperatures ex-
isted throughout Illinois for this 4-month period. Only brief
excursions above normal occurred in mid-December and
early January. Below-normal daily temperatures persisted
for more than two months, from early January to mid-March,
throughout the state. Moline in northern Illinois had
41 winter days with minimum temperatures below 0 F
(—17.8 C), and St. Louis had a total of 53 days with below
freezing temperatures during the 90 days of 'official winter'
(December, January, February). Thus, on the temperature
side, the total winter of 1977-1978 in Illinois was a record
breaker. However, it did not have the short periods of ex-
treme cold found in a few other past winters.
In relation to snowfall, the winter of 1977-1978 was also
a record breaker in many parts of Illinois. November
through March snowfall totals in Chicago and northeastern
Illinois exceeded 80 inches (203 cm) where 30 inches is
normal. In several central Illinois locales, totals were over
60 inches (152 cm) and most areas had 40 to 50 inches
where 20 inches (51 cm) is normal. In southern Illinois,
totals ranged from 30 to 40 inches (76 to 102 cm) where
averages are 10 to 15 inches (25 to 38 cm). Thus, snow
totals were two to three times the average values in this
record winter. The values obtained in northeastern, central,
and southern Illinois were new winter records. In most
other areas of the state, the 1977-1978 snow totals ranked
second or third behind large seasonal totals of 1911-1912,
1917-1918, 1925-1926, and 1959-1960.
The state experienced 18 severe winter storms, each of
which produced 3 inches (7.6 cm) or more snowfall some-
where in the state, and half of the storms were accompanied
by extensive freezing rain. This was 50 percent more severe
winter storms than the record number of 12 storms that oc-
curred in 1911-1912 (Changnon, 1969). Most points in the
state experienced 7 or 8 severe storms, each producing 3
inches or more snow in 24 hours. An example is Urbana in
central Illinois. There, eight snow storms occurred including
ones that produced 4.2 inches on 27 November, 8.7 inches
on 5-6 December, 4.7 inches on 8 December, 5.0 inches on
15-16 January, 7.0 inches on 25-26 January, 11.3 inches on
13-14 February, 4.7 inches on 2 March, and 7.1 inches on
7 March. This was followed by an extremely damaging ice
storm on 24-25 March depositing between 0.5 inch (1.3 cm)
2
and 1.0 inch (2.6 cm) of ice on streets, trees, and exterior
surfaces. Importantly, many of the 18 snow storms brought
large parts of Illinois to their knees with transportation
halted and businesses and schools closed repeatedly due to
the heavy snow and drifting from high winds, often coupled
with damaging ice deposited beneath the snow.
There were three periods, each composed of 1 or more
storms, which were extremely damaging. These were the
periods of 2-9 December, 24-29 January, and 24-28 March.
Notable Severe Winter Storms in 1977-1978
The 2-9 December period was a series of three snow
storms in close sequence, each preceded by glaze in certain
parts of the state and later accompanied by high winds.
Record cold persisted throughout the eight days. These
storms were particularly bad in central Illinois where certain
locales had a 3-storm total of over 14 inches (35.6 cm) of
snow. Figure 1 is a series of newspaper headlines from
central Illinois where the storms closed schools, stranded
thousands of travelers, closed many businesses, and stopped
inter-city transportation for four days. This period was
ended by above-normal temperatures in mid-December.
The second major severely damaging storm and follow-on
period was 24-29 January. This storm was uniquely bad in
the eastern half of Illinois. It began as an ice storm followed
by a major blizzard. Paralysis resulted, as shown in figure 2.
Towns were isolated, 15 people died largely by freezing or
suffocating in stranded autos, 317 were injured in a storm-
induced wreck of two commuter trains in Chicago, and more
than 500 automobile accidents occurred. Three days of high
winds in the 30 to 60 mph range kept snow blowing and
drifting so that plows could not even attempt to clear the
roads. Temperatures remained below normal for weeks
after the storm, but transportation systems were reopened
by early February.
The final extremely severe period resulted from a major
ice storm on 24-25 March. Rain fell throughout the state
and began freezing over the northern two-thirds of Illinois
on the morning of the 24th with freezing rain continuing
until the morning of the 25th. In a 90-mile wide belt, ori-
ented east to west across the state, the ice layer varied from
0.5 to 2.0 inches (1.3 to 5.1 cm) thick, bringing extreme
damage to wires and trees, and resulting in power outages
that took up to two weeks to repair. One million people
were without power for more than 24 hours, over 1000
automobile accidents occurred, and an estimated $20 mil-
lion in tree losses occurred. In the area of severe ice dam-
age, rainfall varied between 1.0 and 2.5 inches (2.5 and 6.4
cm), and most of this froze. In fact, the amount of rain
largely determined the severity of the damage, being worst
in the southwest portion of the state. The Governor later
declared 24 counties as a disaster area. Warm temperatures
beginning 28 March led to melting of the ice cover.
 Another set of impressive snow statistics from the 1977-
1978 winter pertained to the duration of snow cover on the
ground. The heavy snowfalls, high winds, and nearly con-
tinuous below-normal (and freezing) temperatures provided
the circumstances for record long periods of snow cover. In
northern Illinois, there was measurable snow on the ground
for 130 consecutive days following a heavy late November
snowfall, and for 95 consecutive days the cover exceeded 1
inch (2.5 cm) in northern Illinois. Southern Illinois, where
average snowfall is low and snow cover is usually brief, had
a run of 50 straight days of 1 inch or more from late Jan-
uary through early March. In fact, snow of more than 1
inch depth covered the ground over most of Illinois for two
months after January 12. Everywhere records for the num-
ber of days of snow cover were set.
All these facts combined (prolonged cold, record number
of severe storms, and record snow cover) to make the win-
ter of 1977-1978 the worst since the white man settled in
Illinois in the early 1800's and began keeping weather rec-
ords. Therefore, an in-depth investigation of the snow and
glaze conditions of the winter of 1977-1978 has been made.
The first part of this report examines, in detail, the 18 severe
storms. Treated are their magnitude, the storm motion, the
areal extent of heavier snow, time of occurrence, and those
synoptic weather conditions that produced each of them.
This storm discussion is followed by a storm and winter
snow summary. The monthly and seasonal totals and snow
cover are evaluated. In the final section of the report, a va-
riety of impacts resulting from these severe winter storms
are discussed.
3
 Figure 2. Headlines from central Illinois newspapers pertaining to the late January storms

Acknowledgments in the preparation of this manuscript are deeply appreciated

and we dedicate this to Phyllis Changnon. The editing of
This report was prepared in response to many requests the manuscript by Loreena Ivens is deeply appreciated.
for data and information about the severe winter storms of John Brothers helped by preparing the graphics and securing
1977-1978. The patience and encouragement of our family photographs from news services.

4
 ANALYTICAL METHODS
The analysis of the individual storms began with the
weather records of each station. Records from 70 stations
in Illinois that report snowfall were used to plot storm
maps.' This procedure was identical to that used to define
winter storms in 1900-1960 (Changnon, 1969). These maps
represented periods, ranging from a few hours duration up
to 61 hours, during which the winter precipitation, snow
and/or glaze, fell nearly continuously over all or parts of the
state. At each station, the following information was plot-
ted on the individual storm maps: the beginning and ending
times and dates, the amount of snowfall, the amount of pre-
cipitation, and the occurrence of other weather phenomena
such as high winds, sleet, and glaze. These storm maps then
became the basis for further analysis of each storm.
The beginning times were used to plot isochrones across
the state, allowing determination of the direction in which
the advancing storm moved. The times also allowed deter-
mination of the earliest beginning and latest ending times of
the storm within the state. The beginning and ending times
at the stations in the heaviest storm area (typically 5 to 10
stations) were used to develop and calculate point durations,
and these values in turn were averaged to get a mean storm
point duration. Isohyetals, based on the point snowfall
values on each map, were constructed to develop the storm
snowfall pattern. The extent of areas with greater than 3
ANALYSES OF STORMS
Storm Patterns
The patterns of the 18 severe winter storms in the winter
season are portrayed in figures 3-5. These show that three
began in November, five in December, three in January, four
in February, and three in March. Normally, severe winter
storms in Illinois are slightly more common in January with
an average of one per year in the months of January, Decem-
ber, February, and March (Changnon, 1969). The 18 in
1977-1978 was 4.5 times the average frequency and 50 per-
cent more than the prior record (12 in 1911-1912). Pre-
vious maximum values for each month included one storm
in October, two in November (record broken in November
1977), four in December (record broken in December 1977),
four in January (one less in January 1978), three in Febru-
ary (record broken in February 1978), and five in March
(two less in March 1978). Hence, new monthly record fre-
quencies occurred in November, December, and February
with near record values in January and March. This reveals
the prolonged storminess that characterized the winter of
1977-1978.
inches (7.6 cm) and greater than 6 inches (15.2 cm) were
determined by planimetering these maps. The highest and
lowest snowfall values on each storm were identified. Ex-
amples of the storm maps appear on figures 3-5.
Snowfall totals for each month in the season were ob-
tained from Climatological Data for Illinois (EDS, 1977,
1978). Monthly maps and seasonal maps were constructed
from these values. These totals were compared with rec-
ords for 25 Illinois stations distributed throughout the state
and with records back to 1900 so as to determine the rank
of the 1977-1978 values. In a similar vein, the snow depth
data, taken at representative stations in northern Illinois
(Antioch), central Illinois (Urbana), and southern Illinois
(Mt. Vernon), were analyzed and compared with their his-
torical records, extending back to before 1890.
The variety and magnitude of impacts resulting from
these severe storm conditions were studied.. Damage infor-
mation as reported in Storm Data (EDS, 1978) and Weather
wise (1978) was used. Much of the impact information
came from extensive examinations of Illinois newspapers
published throughout the November 1977-March 1978 peri-
od. An absolute measure of the economic and human costs
cannot be derived. However, available information presents
a general estimate of the types of impacts and some measure
of their severity.
Inspection of the 18 patterns reveals that effects of Lake
Michigan to increase snowfall were apparent in 3 of the 18
storms: those on 8-9 December, 12-14 January, and 6-7
February. As Changnon (1969) noted, lake-effect heavy
snowfalls in extreme northeastern Illinois usually result when
intense low pressure areas are located east of Illinois and pro-
duce strong flow from the northeast across Lake Michigan.
This air picks up moisture over the lake because the lake is
relatively warmer than the air, resulting in a production of
snowfall over the land area adjacent to the lake as the air is
cooled and lifted.
Another interesting snowfall pattern was obvious in four
storms when relatively narrow east-west oriented bands of
snowfall extended across the state. The dates of these storms
included 2-3 December, 12-14 February, 2-3 March, and 6-8
March. The last three of these storms had quite heavy snow-
falls. These all occurred with the passage of deep low pres-
sure centers across the southern edge of Illinois.
Still another severe storm pattern occurred on 24-26 Jan-
uary (figure 4). This unique pattern (none comparable oc-
curred in the 1900-1977 period) resulted from an extremely
5
 Figure 3. Snowfall patterns of the first six severe winter storms in 1977-1978 winter

6
Figure 4. Snowfall patterns of the second six severe winter storms in 1977-1978 winter

7
 2-3 Mar 1978 6-8 Mar 1978 24-25 Mar 1978
Figure 5. Snowfall patterns of the last six severe winter storms in 1977-1978 winter

8
deep low pressure center that advanced from the southern
United States across Indiana where it then intersected with
a second low from Alberta. It deepened over Ohio to pro-
duce record low pressure values and extreme damage in
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The south-to-north motion of
this deep low (until it joined the Alberta low) produced the
essentially north-south orientation of the isohyets shown
for this storm. Lake related enhancement of the snow also
occurred as the low deepened farther east of Illinois.
An uncommon snowfall pattern, but one occasionally
found in Illinois, is revealed for the storm of 22-23 Feb-
ruary which had a northwest-southeast oriented axis. This
was produced by an Alberta low that moved from the north-
west across the Dakotas, Missouri, and on just south of
Illinois.
Inspection of the 18 storm maps in figures 3-5 reveals
that freezing rain occurred in some parts of Illinois in nine
of the storms. Those storms occurring on 24 January, 12
February, and 24-25 March produced light damage. Rela-
tively widespread glaze and moderate damages occurred in
six of these storms including those beginning on 30 Novem-
ber, 4 December, 31 December, 24 January, 12 February,
and 24 March. The most severe of the ice storms occurred
on 24-25 March when two-thirds of Illinois had glaze (the
northern two-thirds) and a broad belt across central Illinois
had an extremely damaging ice storm.
Several of the patterns on figures 3-5 reveal the more
typical snowstorm patterns found in Illinois. The most typ-
ical is that with a heavy snow area oriented WSW-ENE and
across northwestern Illinois.
Areas of most frequent snowstorm maximization, as
based on study of 304 storms in the 1900-1960 period, in-
clude 1) the area from near Moline to Rockford, 2) the
Chicago area, 3) the area from St. Louis to Urbana, and 4)
the area near Harrisburg in southeastern Illinois. Interest-
ingly, the positions of the centers or cores of the 18 storms
of the 1977-1978 winter revealed most maximizations oc-
curred in these same four state centers. In that sense, the
18-storm sample appears representative of the general dis-
tribution of heavy snowfall areas in severe winter storms in
Illinois (Changnon, 1969).
Storm Characteristics
Table 1 presents for each storm the first beginning time
anywhere in Illinois and the latest ending time. The 18
storms began in Illinois anytime between 1500 and 0500
CST, with 10 beginning between 1500 and 1900 CST. This
nocturnal-focused distribution differs from the historical
storm distribution which shows a maximization between
0900 and 1400 CST.
The average point duration at locales with the heaviest
snowfall is also listed for each of the 18 storms in table 1.
These show values ranging from 6 to 61 hours. Eleven
storms had point durations in the heaviest storm areas of

Table 1. Storm Time and Motion Inventory

Average
duration (hours)
Begin End at locales Direction
with heaviest from which
Storm date Hour, CST Locale Hour, CST Locale snowfall* storm moved
23-25 Nov 23 Aledo 09 Chicago 21 W
26-27 Nov 19 Edwardsville 15 Urbana 14 WSW
30 Nov-1 Dec 19 Griggsville 08 Chicago 8 SW
2-3 Dec 18 Quincy 03 Urbana 6 W
4-6 Dec 18 Anna 02 Ottawa 28 SW
8-9 Dec 03 Galena 24 Newton 14 NW
19-21 Dec 18 Griggsville 22 Urbana 39 W
31 Dec-1 Jan 17 Freeport 09 Freeport 10 SW
12-13 Jan 01 Anna 16 Urbana 50 WSW
15-17 Jan 21 Edwardsville, Anna 18 Paris 38 SW
24-26 Jan 01 Anna 16 Ottawa, Paris 61 SSW
6-7 Feb 18 Antjoch 06 Park Forest 10 NNW
12-14 Feb 22 Edwardsville 03 Paris 23 W
22-23 Feb 15 Griggsville 13 Mattoon 13 W
27-28 Feb 17 Edwardsville 11 Harrisburg 12 WSW
2-3 Mar 05 Griggsville 07 Ottawa 15 WSW
6-8 Mar 16 Edwardsville, Quincy 16 Paris 46 WSW
24-25 Mar 01 Newton 24 Wheaton 49 S
*Typically based on values of 5 to 10 stations in each storm

9
 Table 2. Storm Snowfall Summary

Highest state Lowest state

Areal extent (square miles)
values (inches) values (inches)
Storm date and locale and locale * ≥ 3 inches ≥ 6 inches
23-25 Nov 8.5 Galena 0 8,000 500
26-27 Nov 8.1 Jacksonville 1.0 Galena 27,000 3,000
30 N o v - 1 Dec 4.5 Monmouth 0 11,500 0
2-3 Dec 6.7 Peoria 0 4,700 450
4-6 Dec 10.5 Pana 0.2 Cairo 31,400 8,900
8-9 Dec 9.1 Antioch 0 29,100 2,800
19-21 Dec 8.5 Antioch Trace 18,600 7,600
31 D e c - 1 Jan 7.7 Dixon 0 12,000 2,700
1 2 - 1 4 Jan 8.8 Chicago 1.4 Nashville 29,200 1,600
15-17 Jan 15.5 Anna 0 26,800 19,300
2 4 - 2 6 Jan 12.4 Chicago Trace 21,100 8,700
6-7 Feb 10.3 Chicago 0 1,800 300
12-14 Feb 11.3 Urbana 0.2 Cairo 21,700 5,800
2 2 - 2 4 Feb 3.5 Mt. Vernon Trace 1,700 0
27-28 Feb 3.3 Cairo 0 4,200 0
2-3 Mar 8.4 Paris 1.5 Mt. Carmel 47,300 6,500
6-8 Mar 14.2 Pana 0 17,800 12,000
24-25 Mar 5.0 La Harpe 0 7,200 0
*Locale listed if lowest values occurred at only one station; in all storms of 0 or trace,
these values were reported by 2 or more stations.

between 6 and 24 hours. The median duration of the 18
storms was 18 hours. Study of the 304 storms of the
1900-1960 period revealed a median point duration of 14.2
hours which is considerably less than the median of the
1977-1978 sample. The record longest storm of the past
was 48 hours (in the storm core) compared with 61 hours
for the storm of 24-26 January. Basically, the duration in­
formation reveals that the storms in the 1977-1978 winter
were much longer than the typical severe winter storms in
Illinois. This suggests slower moving synoptic weather con­
ditions which could result in greater precipitation and more
damage. The prolonged intensity of high winds associated
with several of the 1977-1978 winter storms further indi­
cates the presence of quite deep low pressure centers.
Also shown in table 1 is the direction in which the storms
moved across Illinois. The frequency by direction included
five storms from the W, five from the WSW, four from the
SW, and one each from the SSW, S, NW, and NNW. Com­
parison of these motions with those in the 1900-1960 cli-
matological sample reveals some similarity and some dis­
similarities. The preference for motion from WSW and SW
is common in the 1977-1978 winter and in the 61-year sam­
ple. However, the number of storms in 1977-1978 from the
W, from the SSW, and S are relatively large. They reflect the
difference in the tracks of the cyclones that produced sev­
eral of the winter storms.
Table 2 presents a summary of the snowfall with the 18
storms. Shown are the maximum point amount and the lo­
cation where it occurred and the lowest point amount and
location. Storms with low values of only a trace or zero ex­
tended over many stations and these are not shown. Exami­
nation of figures 3-5 reveals where these low areas occurred.
Examination of the lowest measurable values (those greater
than a trace) reveals that in five storms, measurable snowfall
occurred over the entire state, 56,400 square miles. Inter­
estingly, none of the three storms producing the heavier
point amounts, those with values greater than 12 inches, pro­
duced snowfall over the entire state.
The snowstorm producing the greatest total was that in
extreme southern Illinois, an oddity into itself, on 15-17
January. Anna with 15.5 inches (39.4 cm) in 30 hours had
the heaviest fall and a new record at Anna. Other storms
with point totals over 12 inches (30.4 cm) included the
storm of 6-8 March with 14.2 inches at Pana in 41 hours,
and the 12.4 inches in Chicago (Midway Airport) on 25-26
January (46 hours duration). None of these totals nor oth­
ers in table 2 were record single storm values.
Also shown in table 2 are values for the areal extent of
regions with more than 3 inches (7.6 cm) and more than 6
inches (15.3 cm) of snowfall for each storm. In nine storms
snow in excess of 3 inches fell over more than one-third of
Illinois. In six storms about half the state was covered by 3

10
 Table 3. Synoptic Weather Types with Winter Storms

Historical
1977-1978 storms frequency
Synoptic type Number Percent (percent) *
1 Alberta low 5 26 11
2 Colorado low (south
to north track) 6 32 45
3 Colorado (north track) 0 0 8
4 Colorado (south track) 3 16 7
5 Texas low 2 10 24
6 Miscellaneous 3 16 5
19** 100 100
*Based on 304 severe winter storms in Illinois during 1900-1960
**There were 18, not 19, storms, but in one storm (24-26 January 1978) types 1 and 5
both occurred and a count was given to each

inches or more of snow, and in one storm, 2-3 March, 84
percent of Illinois was covered by 3 inches or more. Seven
storms produced snowfall of 6 inches or more over more
than 5000 square miles (12,950 k m 2 , or about 10 percent of
Illinois). The most extensive storms, based on areas of 6
inches or more, were those on 6-8 March (see figure 6) and
15-17 January. In these, more than 20 percent of the state
was covered by ≥6 inches of snow.
The basic synoptic weather type (cyclone and/or front)
that produced each of the 18 severe winter storms in Illinois
was determined. These were categorized into six synoptic
types, according to the typing derived from study of 304
past winter storms in Illinois (Changnon, 1969). These six
types are shown in table 3. The first five are classified as to
their source area, and in the case of the Colorado types, the
general direction of travel of the track of the storm is also
used. Most miscellaneous typings relate to frontal passages
without any notable low center in or within a few hundred
miles of Illinois.
The frequency of winter storms with each of these syn­
optic types is listed in table 3. Since one storm, that of
24-26 January, was produced by two types, a type 1 and
type 5, a count was given to each type in table 3. The fre­
quencies in each type are expressed as a percent of the total
19 events. Also shown in table 3 are the percentages based
on historical frequencies of 304 storms for 1900-1960.
Comparison of the two. sets of percentages shows that the
single record winter of 1977-1978 experienced relatively
more Alberta storms (which approach from the NW or
WNW) than in the historical frequency. This likely ac­
counted for the greater frequency of storms with westerly
components of motion. The record winter also had more
type 4 than did the historical group. This helps account for
the greater frequency of heavy snowfalls in the southern
portion of Illinois during 1977-1978 since this storm tracks
W to E south of Illinois. Relatively fewer instances of the
type 2, type 3, and type 5 storm situations were experi­
enced in 1977-1978 than in the historical group.
The climatological study of 304 severe winter storms
(Changnon, 1969) found that the Colorado low types 2 and
4 were the primary producers of 'extreme damage' storms.
These were defined as those producing more than $200,000

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 8, 1978

Area Snowfall Strands Hundreds

Record-Busting Snow Chokes Area

Figure 6. Headlines from southern Illinois newspapers relating to the early March period

11
in damages (in 1960 dollars) and one or more deaths in the
state. Examination of the damages and deaths for the 18
storms under study revealed that seven of these were ex­
tremely damaging. By synoptic type these included 4-6
December and 24-26 January (type 1); 8-9 December, 15-16
January, and 12-14 February (type 2 storms); and the 6-8
March and 24-25 March (type 4). Hence, five of the seven
most damaging storms of 1977-1978 were related to syn­
optic types 2 and 4, noted as the most frequent producers
of extreme damages in Illinois.
The storms produced by synoptic types 1, 4, and 5 were
noted in the historical sample to be producers of heavy snow
with little or no glaze in Illinois. Storm types 2 and 3 were
often a mixture of glaze and snow or just totally glaze
storms. These characteristics, based on the prior large 304
storm sample, were common to the severe 1977-1978 win-
ter sample.
Examination of the surface pressure patterns for the pe­
riod of 23 November 1977 through 26 March 1978, which
encompasses the 18 storms, reveals that 32 cyclones passed
either across Illinois or adjoining states. Fifteen of these 32 under its all time record depth. Thus, the maximum depths
cyclones, or 46 percent, produced severe winter storms in
Illinois, a much higher ratio than the 10 percent noted in
prior studies (Changnon, 1969). Thus, in one sense, the high
frequency of severe winter storms and the resulting record
snowfalls occurred because more of the winter cyclones in
the Midwest produced heavy snow and damaging storms in
Illinois.
Although no synoptic climatic study of cyclonic storms
and their characteristics was made, the results from the
1977-1978 storms in Illinois suggest the key atmospheric in­
gredients. First of all, the great frequency of high winds,
with ≥30 mph in 12 of the 18 storms (and lasting 1 to 2
days in seven of the storms), indicates the presence of very
deep low pressure centers in these cyclones. Eurther, the
relatively longer point durations of the severe winter storms
of the 1977-1978 winter and the higher snowfall totals, both
at points and over large areas, suggest many of the cyclones
were moving slower than normal. The greater frequency of
type 1 (Alberta) and type 4 (Colofado south) reveals more straight days with snow cover of 1 inch or more (from 20
frequent southward penetrations of cold air. Hence, deeper
more slowly moving cyclones penetrating more southerly
and more often across the central United States appear to be
the unusual feature of this record winter that led to the fre­
quent production of heavy snowfall in Illinois.
Snow Cover
The record number of severe winter storms distributed
throughout a 4-month period beginning in late November
1977, coupled with long periods of below normal temper­
atures particularly after early January 1978, led to pro­
longed accumulations of snow on the ground. Data from
12
three stations considered representative of northern Illinois,
central Illinois, and southern Illinois were chosen for a de­
tailed investigation of the snow cover. These three stations
are shown on the inset map on figure 7.
Figure 7 presents the height profiles of the daily recorded
values of snow on the ground, or snow cover, for these three
stations. The impacts of the late November and mid-Decem­
ber heavy snow storms are clearly reflected as peaks on this
graph, followed by rapid lowering due to melting and evap­
oration. The advent of the heavy snow storms beginning in
mid-January and continuing on through February and early
March, coupled with persistent below freezing temperatures
throughout the state in this period, produced the prolonged
periods of continuous deep snow cover.
In mid-January, Mt. Vernon reached a snow cover of
16 inches, which is a new record exceeding the previous
value of 12 inches. Urbana reached a maximum in early
March of 13 inches, but this was inches less than the prior
record depth on the ground. Antioch achieved its maximum
depth of 17 inches at the end of January, a value 6 inches
of snow cover were not of record proportions in central and
northern Illinois, although some structural damage did occur
in these regions due to snow loads on roofs. For example, a
factory in the Chicago area had a roof collapse from the
snow load. When evaluated by snowfall and by snow depth,
thewinter of 1977-1978 was probably most extreme, as de
termined by departures (from normal, in the southern third
of Illinois where snowfall totals were three to four times the
average and maximum snow depths broke existing records.
The snow cover durations of these three stations are also
displayed in table 4. Shown are the longest consecutive runs
of days at these three stations (and the dates of beginning
and ending) for snow depths of a traee or more, 1 inch or
more, and 10 inches or more (25.9 cm). All the duration
values shown for tnese depths represent new records for
these stations. Also shown in table 4 are the totals, not just
consecutive, for number of days of snow cover equal to or
greater than 1 inch (2.6 cm). Thus, Antioch had a run of 95
December through 24 March), but it also had another 23
days in the other parts of November and early December to
total 118 days of 1 inch or more snow cover.
Monthly and Seasonal Snow Totals
November snowfall was relatively high throughout Illi­
nois. Totals in the southwestern and southern third of
Illinois were high ranked, being the greatest on record at
Quincy, and the second greatest on record at White Hall,
Mt. Vernon, and Harrisburg. Elsewhere the November 1977
snow totals ranked in the top ten totals of this Century.
 Figure 7. Temporal records of snow depth at three Illinois stations

The monthly snowfall patterns for December, January,
February, and MarcnSppear in figure 8. The December
snowfall pattern reflects the repeated occurrence of heavy
snows in the northern third of the state. Normal Decem­
ber snow totals range from 2 inches (5.1 cm) in the south
to 7 inches (17.8 cm) in the north. More than 20 inches
fell over 4000 square miles (10,360 k m 2 ) , and the northern
half of Illinois had more than 1 foot (30.5 cm) of snow in
December. In general, the December snowfall totals in the
central part of the state ranked in the top five on record at
various stations including first at Ottawa and Monmouth;
second at Kankakee, Dixon, and Rushville; and third at
Urbana. Most December values ranked in the top ten since
1900.
The January snowfall pattern, figure 8b, does not show
exceptionally heavy snowfall values except in extreme south­
ern, east central, and northeastern Illinois. Average January
snow totals vary from 3 inches (7.6 cm) in southern Illinois
to 8 inches (20.3 cm) in northern Illinois. The areas of 5
inches in western Illinois (figure 8b) experienced average
January snow totals. The January totals in southern Illinois
were exceptionally high and those in parts of central Illinois
ranked in the highest five totals on record. Values at Anna
and Mt. Vernon ranked as highest on record, and those at
Antioch, Chicago, and Urbana ranked as the second highest
on record.
The February snowfall pattern (figure 8c) does not re­
flect exceptionally high values except in extreme northeast­
ern Illinois. Average values range from 2 inches in the south
to 8 inches in the north. At very few locations does this
come close to record fall, ranking fifth at Quincy and sev­
enth at a few other locations such as Urbana and Harrisburg.
Chicago Midway Airport with 19.7 inches experienced a rec­
ord high value.

Table 4. Snow Cover Statistics for Stations in Northern,

Central, and Southern Illinois

Consecutive longest runs Total

Cover ≥10 inches Cover ≥1 inch Cover ≥ trace days
Dates Total Dates Total Dates Total cover
from to days /ram to days from to days ≥1 inch
Antioch
(north) 1/14 3/14 60 12/20 3/24 95 11/24 4/3 130 118
Urbana
(central) 2/14 3/10 25 1/12 3/18 66 11/27 3/24 118 95
Mt. Vernon
(south) 1/17 2/5 19 1/13 3/12 49 1/8 3/12 54 67

13
 Figure 8. Patterns of monthly total snowfall, in inches

14

Figure 9. Pattern of the total snowfall
for the 1977-1978 winter, in inches
IMPACTS OF STORMS
The record 18 severe winter storms of 1977-1978 and
the ensuing record or near seasonal snow totals and pro-
longed snow cover produced a myriad of impacts, largely of
a disbeneficial nature. Most of the impacts resulted from
the effects of the winter on the movement of people and
goods. Other serious effects occurred on 'linear systems'
such as communication and power lines. Various impacts
are illustrated in the photographs (figures 10-12).
Available information does not allow an accurate assess-
ment of the economic losses produced in Illinois by the win-
ter of 1977-1978. A detailed study of the economic losses
to individuals in one central Illinois area resulted in an esti-
mate of costs attributable to the abnormality of the winter
of approximately $1 billion to individuals and their house-
holds (Changnon, 1979). This estimate did not include costs
to industries, commercial establishments, communication
systems, utilities, transportation systems, or to government
entities. Accumulation of available information indicates
that sizeable losses much in excess of $1 billion occurred to
The March pattern (figure 8d) reflects the intense snow-
storms across south central Illinois. The totals ranked as
record high in this area including those at Effingham and
Hillsbbro, and March totals at locations like Jacksonville,
Decatur, and Urbana ranked as third highest on record.
April snowfall was negligible in Illinois with no measurable
amounts over most of the state; the highest was 1.4 inches
at Waukegan in northern Illinois.
Figure 9 presents the snowfall pattern for the entire win-
ter season which includes November 1977 through April
1978. The highest values are found in the northeastern, cen-
tral, and southern parts of the state. The lowest amounts,
slightly less than 30 inches (76.2 cm), found in southwestern
Illinois were still more than twice the seasonal averages for
that area.
The 70 inches in east central Illinois was four times the
average for that area, and the 80 inches in northeastern Illi-
nois was more than twice the normal for that region. Totals
in most areas were between two and four times their aver-
ages.
Seasonal totals ranked as the highest on record over ap-
proximately half of Illinois including northeastern, most of
south central, and the eastern half of southern Illinois. At
most other stations in 1977-1978 seasonal totals ranked
second, third, or fourth. Prior winters with greater totals at
these locations included 1911-1912, 1917-1918, 1 9 5 1 -
1952, or 1959-1960. The factor that made the totals so
great was the continued above average totals in five consec-
utive months, November through March.
the transportation industries, utilities, commercial establish-
ments, and to government institutions (through costs of
added services and lost taxable income).
Although quantified losses are not available to derive an
accurate statewide measure of loss, research has allowed
identification of the myriad impacts. Table 5 lists those
identified, grouped, and sorted by five categories (excluding
deaths and injuries). These came largely from a study of
newspaper accounts of the storms and their aftermath.
Transportation systems and vehicles, a major item in ta-
ble 5, presents largely undesirable impacts, but some bene-
ficial ones are shown. Benefits accrued to bus companies
and Amtrak because of the greater use of in-city buses and
railroads. Importantly, intercity bus service and airlines
service were greatly affected with major delays (and loss of
travelers) through the closing of highways and airports. The
effect on automobiles and truck traffic was a story of many
disbenefits with vehicles stuck, stranded, and damaged in a
variety of accidents. In central Illinois, state highways and
15
 Table 5. Assorted Impacts from the Severe Winter Storms of 1977-1978

/. Transportation Systems and Vehicles

Public transportation
Intercity and in-city buses
Stopped
Delayed
Many wrecks and many stuck
Greater use of in-city bus service
Trains
Delayed
Freight trains stuck in snow on branch lines
Hauled 50 percent more passengers
Accidents in Chicago
Airlines
O'Hare Airport at Chicago closed 1 day
Central Illinois airports closed 12 days
Passengers stranded in terminals
Other transportation
Snowmobiles used to rescue motorists
Helicopters widely used to deliver food and medicine, to take sick
people to hospitals, and to rescue trapped motorists
Automobiles and trucks
Stranded by the thousands
Stuck by the thousands
Accidents in the hundreds
Major roads blocked partially or totally in central Illinois on 12 days
2. Utilities
Power lines downed, outages, line repairs
Higher sales of gas and electricity
Broken water mains
Unable to get service trucks to line breaks
Broken telephone lines
Great use of long-distance services
Television and radio towers damaged or destroyed
3. Commercial and Industrial Establishments
Sales reduced
Sales of goods delayed
Stores closed because of power loss
Purchases of winter gear, clothing, and CB radios increased
Purchases of space heaters, fireplaces, and firewood increased
Food stores ran out of supplies
Service stations sold more gas, did more service work
Tire stores sold snow tires
Motel business increased
Taxi firms bought snow tires
Roofs collapsed
Employee absenteeism and layoffs high
Deliveries of critical materials for manufacturing delayed
Delays, damaged trucks, perished goods, and business losses hurt shippers
4. Human Activities
Sporting events delayed or canceled
Stranded travelers by thousands in
Motels
Civic centers
Airports
Homes
More sharing with neighbors and others
Greater use of telephone services and delays in telephone communications
'Farmer protest' efforts called off and/or delayed

16
 Table 5. Concluded

4. Human Activities (Continued)

More walking to shops and school
Homes burn — fire protection services unable to reach them'
Playing in snow increased
Babies born in homes, restaurants, cars, etc.
Deliveries of goods and services delayed or stopped
Natural gas deliveries to rural areas delayed
Mail between cities stopped
Mail to citizens stopped or delayed
Medical and food supplies delayed
Garbage removal halted
Emergency vehicles (ambulances, fire trucks, etc.) delayed or blocked
Many pleasure and business trips delayed or canceled
5. Institutional Impacts
Court trials delayed
Illinois license plate deadline delayed
Illinois Emergency Services and Disaster Agency made extensive rescues
(80 in one week of January)
Schools closed 7 to 12 days and school extended later in summer
U. S. Postal Service delayed
City, township, county, and state street and highway departments
Crews overworked and tired
Added crew members hired
Salt supplies exhausted or nearly so
Stuck and stranded cars blocked highways and delayed plowing
Lost work cost state in taxable income
Fire departments
Unable to reach fires
More fires to fight
Police
Fewer crimes
More accident calls
More minor problems (snowball fights, etc.)

interstate expressways were totally closed for 12 days during
the winter. Two vehicles were found to be of extreme util-
ity, the snowmobile and the helicopter. They were widely
used to rescue people and to deliver needed food and medi- -
cal supplies.
Utilities, including the telephone, power, water, and com-
munication systems (television and radio) had a variety of
impacts and most were largely disbeneficial. The energy in-
dustries benefited by higher sales of gas and electricity, and
although the telephone companies benefited by great usage
of long distance services, the extensive damage to their lines
and poles greatly exceeded the benefits. For example, the
ice storm of 24-25 March produced damages estimated at
$3.5 million to telephone lines in central Illinois. This same
storm caused two major television transmitting towers and
four radio towers to collapse.
Commercial establishments (table 5) had a mixed set of
impacts. There generally was a reduction in the sales of
goods, and great absenteeism. Department stores in commu-
nities of 100,000 population reported lost sales totaling
$50,000 per day on several days. Power failures and blocked
in-city transportation essentially closed stores on six days in
parts of central and southern Illinois. Food stores were
hampered in sales by the lack of food deliveries. Purchases
of winter clothing, gear, and equipment such as snow tires
and CB radios were greatly increased. Service stations re-
ported large profits. Motels received increased business due
to frequently stranded motorists. Many commercial instal-
lations also suffered property damages from the deep snow
and ice storms.
Several of the effects on human activities noted from the
storms are listed under section 4 of table 5. As expected,
many events, including high school and college athletic
events, were either delayed or canceled. A major problem
for travelers was being stranded. Many people spent unex-
pected days and nights in motels, civic centers, airports, and
farm homes when they found themselves trapped in transit.
People reported doing more walking within cities because of
vehicular travel problems. Travel problems led to babies
being born in a variety of non-hospital locations including
homes, restaurants, and autos. A major problem for many
individuals related to the delays or stoppage of deliveries of

17
 Figure 10. Examples of transportation problems
18
Figure 1 1 . Effects of snows on normally busy city streets

19
 Figure 12. Examples of hardships experienced by people

20
goods and services. This included supplies of natural gas for
heating in rural areas, the delivery of mail, food and medical
supplies, and delays (or stoppages) in the movement of emer-
gency vehicles such as ambulances and fire trucks.
The aforementioned impacts on individuals, commercial
establishments, transportation systems, and utilities, in a
sense, are integrated into a group of costly impacts on gov-
ernment institutions. Part 5 of table 5 lists some of the im-
mense number of impacts on community, state, and federal
institutions. Of prime importance was the effect on street
and highway entities attempting to keep streets and high-
ways open. The several days of lost work throughout the
state cost the state in taxable income. An economist esti-
mated the 2 days of lost work throughout most of Illinois
on 26-27 January cost the state $4,000,000 in taxable in-
come. Police services were impacted with fewer crimes dur-
ing the winter but more accident related calls and even many
calls relating to outside snowball fights and broken windows.
Court trials were delayed and Illinois had to delay its dead-
line for vehicular license purchases. Of great significance
was the closing of schools. In some areas school closings oc-
curred on 12 days with a minimum of 7 days in other parts
of the state.
Table 6 presents available information on the injuries and
deaths resulting from the winter. The best but gross esti-
mate of injuries is that at least 2000 people were injured in
Illinois due largely to a variety of vehicular accidents involv-
ing buses, trains, and automobiles. Examples noted in var-
ious storms are listed in table 6. Many injuries resulted from
SUMMARY
The winter of 1977-1978 was the worst in Illinois since
records began in the mid 19th Century, and the resulting im-
pacts were of record proportions in human suffering, frus-
trations, and costs, For these reasons, the dimensions of
these record winter storms have been studied and delineated
to provide information and design criteria needed for future
structures and activities in Illinois.
The temperatures, number of severe storms, the seasonal
snow totals, and persistent snow coverage were all records.
Abnormally severe winter conditions lasted from 25 No-
vember till the end of March. In one sense the bad winter
was exceptional because it was so prolonged (4½ months).
Three extremely bad weather periods combining severe icing,
heavy snow, and high winds occurred: 2-9 December,
24-29 January, and 24-28 March.
There were 18 severe winter storms, 14 more than aver-
age and 6 more than the previous record of 1911-1912. The
number of severe storms in November (3), December (5),
and February (4) were record highs for these months, and
Table 6. Injuries and Deaths Due to Winter 1977-1978
Injuries
Examples:
Bus accident on 26 January = 40 hurt
Train accident on 27 January = 3 1 7 hurt
Car accidents on 8 March = 47 hurt
Car accidents on 9 December = 24 hurt
Car accidents on 26-28 January = 79 hurt
Falls = unknown numbers, but many
Estimate is > 2000 injuries
Deaths
Hit by train (snow blinded) = 1
Auto accidents = 28
Suffocated in cars = 16
Frozen to death = 8
Could not reach doctor = 3
Fell on ice = 1
Shoveling snow = 5
Total 62
falls on the ice and snow but there is no count of the total.
Deaths resulted from seven types of causes. The greatest
number related to auto accidents although 16 deaths result-
ed from suffocation in cars trapped in snow drifts. Eight
also froze to death largely due to being trapped in vehicles in
deep snow. A total of 62 winter deaths is the greatest ever
recorded in a single season. Normally, 12 deaths occur due
to severe winter storms in Illinois (Changnon, 1969).
the number in January (3) and March (3) were near records.
The snowfall patterns in some storms were typical but a
few unusual ones were noted. These unusual patterns in-
cluded very heavy snow in narrow (<100 miles wide) E-W
bands across the state. Another (24-26 January) had heavy
snow all along the eastern edge of Illinois and essentially
none in western Illinois. The cores (highs) of the 18 storms
clustered in four areas (NW, extreme NE, extreme SE and in
a band from St. Louis to Urbana) where winter storms are
normally heaviest.
The maximum storm snowfalls were not new records,
except for one storm in southern Illinois when 15.5 inches
fell (15-17 January). However, storm durations in 1977-
1978 were much longer; their median was 18 hours com-
pared with the long-term historical value of 14 hours. The
61-hour duration of one storm (24-26 January) was a new
record. A preponderance of the storms moved across Illinois
from the SW but an unusually large number came from the
west and south.
21
 Study of the synoptic weather conditions associated with
the 18 storms revealed that the 1977-1978 conditions were
generally different from those commonly occurring with se-
vere winter storms in Illinois. Many more of the 1977-1978
storms were produced by Alberta lows and Colorado lows
(with south track) than would be expected in a random sam-
ple of 18 storms. This indicates more frequent and more
southerly incursions of cold air into the Midwest. Various
storm information reveals the unusual nature of the 15 lows
that produced 15 storms (3 were produced by fronts). The
greater than normal frequency of W and WSW storm mo-
tions relates to the greater Alberta and Colorado low (south
track) incidence, both of which often sweep across or near
to Illinois with a west-to-east motion. The longer storm dur-
ations and lower speeds reveal that the motion of the lows
was generally slower and their pressure lower. The great fre-
quency of prolonged high winds (>30 mph) also indicates
the deepness of the lows.
Finally, the fact that 46 percent of the lows in the Illinois
area produced severe storms, as opposed to 10 percent in a
normal winter, reveals the uniqueness of the lows, both as
to their frequency and intensity of circulation. The seven
really damaging storms in 1977-1978 were produced by
synoptic conditions (Alberta, Colorado low with SW-NE
track, and Colorado low with south track) that in the past
have caused the most damaging storms. This indicates that
the characteristics of storms produced by each weather con-
dition were largely as expected, but often just more pro-
longed and hence more severe.
Snow coverage, due to repeated storms and persistent be-
low freezing (and below normal) temperatures from early
January through mid-March, was prolonged. Record long
periods of depths for 1 and 10 inches were set throughout
Illinois. The depth of the coverage set new records in south-
ern Illinois but was not record breaking elsewhere. The
total numbers of days with 1 inch or more of snow were
records with 110 to 120 days in extreme northern Illinois,.
90 to 110 days in central Illinois, and 60 to 90 days in south-
ern Illinois.
The monthly snow totals were exceptionally high, at-
taining record highs (for 1900-1978) in some parts of Illi-
nois in each of the five months from November through
March. November totals ranked first or second in south-
western Illinois, and those in December ranked first or sec-
ond highest in north central Illinois. January totals in south-
22
eastern Illinois were the greatest on record. The February
totals in extreme northeastern Illinois ranked as the heaviest
ever, and south central Illinois experienced its greatest March
totals.
The cold season of 1977-1978 (November-March) pro-
duced snow totals in southern Illinois that ranged from 30
to 50 inches which were two to four times the average for
that area. Central Illinois with totals of 40 to 70 inches ex-
perienced two to three times its normal, and totals of 50 to
80 inches in northern Illinois were also two to three times
normal values. The seasonal falls were greatest essentially in
the eastern portions of the state. Totals were the greatest
on record over half the state with records in southern, south
central, east central, and northeastern Illinois. Elsewhere
the 1977-1978 totals ranked second, third, or fourth (large-
ly in the northwestern third).
The storms caused an estimated $1 billion loss to individ-
uals (houses and personal property), and at least $1 billion
more to 1) transportation systems, 2) communication indus-
tries, 3) utilities, 4) commercial and industrial entities, and
5) institutions. Most impacts of the storms were to these
five entities plus those to the general public — their activities,
health, and safety. Sixty-two persons were killed from
storm activity and at least 2000 were injured.
Impacts on transportation were mixed; losses were exces-
sive to vehicles (autos, trucks, and intercity bus lines) and
airlines suffered lost business. However, railroads benefited,
and helicopters and snowmobiles proved invaluable. Basical-
ly, utilities and communication systems suffered great losses
due to damages to lines and poles, and to towers.
Business and industry also suffered as they lost income
with delayed or damaged shipments of goods, absenteeism,
and damaged vehicles and structures. Certain commercial
establishments who provided winter goods and services ben-
efited. These myriad impacts integrated to present a set of
enormous problems, requirements for added effort, and
higher costs to local, state, and federal institutions. Trans-
portation system costs were the major items and lost taxable
income was another blow. Impacts on human activities re-
lated largely to efforts to travel and their delays. Individual
and group activities were delayed or canceled, and deliveries
of goods and services were delayed or halted.
The record winter weather conditions ended by 31 March
1978, but the impacts including higher costs of living and
higher taxes will be felt for years.
 REFERENCES
Changnon, S. A., Jr. 1969. Climatology of severe winter ministration, Asheville, NC, v. 82,83.
storms in Illinois. Illinois State Water Survey Bulletin 53, Environmental Data Service. 1978. Storm data. National
45 pp. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ashville, NC,
Changnon, S. A., Jr. 1979. How the 1977-78 severe winter v. 20.
impacts on individuals. Submitted for publication to Bul- Ludlum, D. M. 1968. Early American winters II, 1821-
letin American Meteorological Society, 16 pp. 1870. American Meteorogical Society, Boston.
Environmental Data Service. 1977, 1978. Climatological Ludlum, D. M. 1978. Weatherwatcb. Weatherwise
data of Illinois. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- v. 36:111-115.

23