CHAPTER 7

FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND
GRID DESIGN

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO GROUND GRID DESIGN

The grounding or earthing system is a total set of measures used to connect the elec-
trically conductive components of a power system to earth. The design of electrically
safe workplaces has been developed at considerable depth in the ield of ground-
ing system design for electrical substations. The effects of potentials and currents
on workers in substations has been carefully evaluated with regard to the electrical
properties of the human body and the magnitudes of electrical current and voltage
which are harmful, resulting in designs which are much safer than they otherwise
would have been. This process has been greatly helped by industry standards which
set forth design procedures and calculation techniques which will result in a safe
design within the selected parameters.
The grounding system is an essential part of both high- and low-voltage elec-
trical power networks, and has at least four important roles:
1. To protect against lightning by
∘ providing an electrically and mechanically robust path for current to flow to
ground;
∘ limiting potential differences across electrical insulation on stricken towers;
∘ reducing the number of flashovers that occur.
2. To minimize energy for correct operation of the power system by
∘ providing unambiguous identiication of faults, so that the correct protection
systems operate;
∘ providing low zero-sequence impedance for return of the unbalanced fraction
of AC system currents.
3. To minimize energy to ensure electrical safety by
∘ rapidly identifying system faults, leading to reduce fault duration;
∘ limiting touch or step voltages to levels that restrict body currents to safe
values.

Principles of Electrical Safety, First Edition. Peter E. Sutherland.

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

118
 7.2 SUMMARY OF GROUND GRID DESIGN PROCEDURES 119

4. To eliminate some hazards and reducing the energy of others to contribute to

electromagnetic compatibility.
All of these functions are provided by a single grounding system. Some ele-
ments of this system may have speciic electrical purposes, but all elements are nor-
mally bonded or coupled together, forming one system to be designed or analyzed.

7.2 SUMMARY OF GROUND GRID DESIGN

PROCEDURES

Design of a ground grid is part of the overall design of a substation. The ground
rods are driven in and the ground grid constructed before the surface layer of gravel
is poured and the above-ground portions of the substation constructed. The design
goals, as listed in IEEE Standard 80-2000 are
“To provide means to dissipate electric currents into the earth without exceed-
ing any operating and equipment limits.”
“To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to
the danger of critical electrical shock.”
The critical parameters in the design of the ground grid are listed in Table 7.1.
The ground grid procedure is listed in Table 7.2.

7.2.1 Site Survey

The shape and area of the substation are determined and ground resistivity measure-
ments are taken to determine �.

7.2.2 Conductor Sizing

The most important factor in terms of overcurrent phenomena is the sizing of the
ground grid conductors.
The design procedure makes two assumptions:
1. Adiabatic heating of the conductor. The instantaneous power per unit
length is
�
p(t) = i2 (t) W∕m (7.1)
A

TABLE 7.1 Critical Parameters in Ground Grid Design

Symbol Name Equation Typical values Units

IG Maximum grid current IG = Df × Ig 0.5–10 kA

tf Fault duration — 0.25–1.0 s
ts Shock duration ts = t f 0.25–1.0 s
� Soil resistivity Measured 101 –104 Ωm
�s Resistivity of surface — 21–6×106 (Wet) to 4000–109 (Dry) Ωm
layer measured
120 CHAPTER 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND GRID DESIGN

TABLE 7.2 Sample Procedure for Ground Grid Design

Step Description Results

1 Site survey, soil resistivity test A, �

2 Conductor size, zero sequence current, fault-clearing time Amm 2 , 3I0 , tc
3 Step and touch potentials Estep , Etouch
4 Conductor loop design, conductor spacing, ground rod locations Various dimensions
5 Estimated resistance of grounding system in uniform soil RG
6 Recalculate ground current and fault durationa IG , tf
7 If GPR < tolerable touch voltage, go to step 12 IG RG < Etouch
8 If GPR > tolerable touch voltage, calculate mesh and step voltages Em , Es , various K
9 If mesh voltage < tolerable touch voltage, go to step 10, otherwise Em < Etouch
go to step 11
10 If step voltage < tolerable touch voltage, go to step 12, otherwise Es < Etouch
go to step 11
11 If mesh or step voltage > tolerable touch voltage, revision of design Decision
is required
12 Add equipment ground conductors, additional grid conductors, Final design
ground rods as needed
a Based on current splits, worst-case fault and future expansion.

The joule heating is

tc tc
�r (1 + �r (T − Ta )) ��
∫0 ∫0
Q= p(t)dt = i2 (t) dt = r r IF2 tc J∕m (7.2)
A A
2. The thermal capacity per unit volume remains constant (this is usually true
for short fault durations). The temperature rise from ambient (Ta ) to the maximum
conductor temperature (Tm ) occurs in the fault clearing time tc (Sverak, 1981).
T

∫Ta K0 + T
m
dT
Q = TCAP × A J∕m (7.3)
�r
TCAP × A = ( ) I2 t (7.4)
K0 + Tm F c
A ln
K0 + Ta
�r �r tc
A2 = ( ) I 2 m2 (7.5)
K0 + Tm F
TCAP ln
K0 + Ta
The conductor size can then be determined:
IF 2
Am2 = √( ) ( ) m (7.6)
TCAP K0 + Tm
ln
tc �r �r K0 + Ta
For standard conductor sizes in mm2 ,
Amm2 = Am2 × 106 mm2 (7.7)
 7.2 SUMMARY OF GROUND GRID DESIGN PROCEDURES 121

For asymmetrical faults,

IF = Df If (7.8)
For English units,
Akcmil = 197.4 Amm2 kcmil (7.9)
where
As2 = conductor cross sectional area in m2 .
Amm 2 = conductor cross sectional area in mm2 .
IF = rms total fault current in kA.
TCAP is the material thermal capacity in J∕(m3 × ∘ C). Typical values are
3.42 × 106 for soft-drawn copper, 3.85 × 106 for 40% conductivity copper-clad steel
wire, and 3.28 × 106 for a steel conductor.
tc = time duration of the current flow in s.
Akcmil = conductor cross sectional area in kcmil.
�r is the thermal coeficient of resistivity at 20 ∘ C reference in ∘ C−1 . Typi-
cal values are 3.93 × 10−3 for soft-drawn copper, 3.78 × 10−3 for 40% conductivity
copper-clad steel wire, and 1.60 × 10−3 for a steel conductor.
�r is the resistivity of the ground conductor at 20 ∘ C reference in Ω m. Typi-
cal values are 17.2 × 10−9 for soft-drawn copper, 44.0 × 10−9 for 40% conductivity
copper-clad steel wire, and 159.0 × 10−9 for a steel conductor.
1
�r =
K0 + Ta
If is the rms symmetrical fault current in kA.
It is assumed that the symmetrical rms fault current If ≈ 3I0 from the ground
fault calculations for the substation.
Tm is the material-fusing temperature in ∘ C. Typical values are 1083 ∘ C for
soft-drawn copper, 1084 ∘ C for 40% conductivity copper-clad steel wire, and 1510 ∘ C
for a steel conductor.
Ta is the ambient temperature, typically 40 ∘ C.
K0 = 1∕�r − Ta is the thermal constant for the material. Typical values are
234 for soft-drawn copper, 245 for 40% conductivity copper-clad steel wire, and 605
for a steel conductor.
Df is the decrement factor. Where fault durations are less than 1 s or the X∕R
ratio is greater than 5, the asymmetry of fault current waveforms produces additional
heating, which must be taken into account:
√ ( )
�a −2tc
�
Df = 1 + 1−e a (7.10)
tc
where
�a = is the time constant (X∕R)2�f in s
This is illustrated in Figure 7.1 for several X∕R ratios.
122 CHAPTER 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND GRID DESIGN

2
1.9
1.8
Decrement factor

1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fault duration cycles

10 20 30 40

Figure 7.1 Decrement factor versus fault duration for four different X/R ratios.

TABLE 7.3 Fusing Currents in Symmetrical kA for Annealed Soft-Drawn 100% Conductivity
Copper Conductors Versus X/R Ratio. All Clearing Times 0.5 s.

Cross-sectional Area (mm2 )

X/R 33.6a 35 67.4b 70 95 107.2c 120 150

0 13.4 14.0 26.9 27.9 37.9 42.7 47.8 59.8

10 13.7 14.3 27.6 28.6 38.9 43.8 49.1 61.4
20 14.1 14.7 28.3 29.3 39.8 44.9 50.3 62.9
30 14.4 15.0 28.9 30.0 40.8 46.0 51.5 64.4
40 14.7 15.4 29.6 30.7 41.7 47.0 52.7 65.8
a #2 AWG.
b #2/0 AWG.
c #4/0 AWG.

The conductors of a ground grid should be designed for a particular maximum

fault current, X∕R ratio, and clearing time. Examples are shown in Table 7.3. A safety
factor is usually applied in the design to allow for future growth in fault current
magnitudes.

7.2.3 Step and Touch Voltages

If a person standing on a surface whose potential has risen owing to the flow of ground
current touches a grounded object, they experience a touch voltage (Figure 7.2). A
Thévenin equivalent circuit of the person exposed to the touch voltage is also shown.
Whether the touch voltage is hazardous can be determined by comparison with the
calculated safe level of touch voltage for that substation. Similarly, if a person is
standing on the surface, and the flow of ground current causes a dangerous voltage
drop to occur between their feet, they are exposed to a step voltage (Figure 7.3).
A Thévenin equivalent circuit of the person exposed to the step voltage is also shown.
 7.2 SUMMARY OF GROUND GRID DESIGN PROCEDURES 123

Zsys If

Vsys

Ig

RB

Ib
ETouch

Rf
Vth = Touch voltage
Zth = Rf /2

Ground grid

Figure 7.2 Touch voltage.

Zsys If

Vsys

Ig

RB

Ib Ib
EStep
Rf Rf
1m

Vth = Step voltage

Zth = 2Rf
Ground grid

Figure 7.3 Step voltage will approach 1.0 as hs → � increases and as �s → � . It will
approach 0 as �s → 0.

The safe levels of step and touch potentials are deined on the basis of a person’s body
weight and the length of exposure. The usual standards used are for 50 and 70 kg (110
and 154 lb) body weights. The step and touch potentials are calculated using
K
EXW = (1000 + m ⋅ A ⋅ CS ⋅ �S ) √W (7.11)
ts
124 CHAPTER 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF GROUND GRID DESIGN

where
X = either “step” or “touch”
W = either “50” or “70”
1000 Ω = the typical resistance of the human body
m = 0 for metal-to-metal touch voltage, 1 otherwise
A = 6 for “step” or 1.5 for “touch”
�s = the resistivity of the surface material in Ω m
�s = � = if there is no surface layer.
Normally �s > �
KW = 0.116 for “50” or 0.157 for “70”
ts = the duration of the shock current, s
Cs = the surface layer-derating factor
Cs = 1.0 if there is no surface layer, otherwise an approximate formula (within
5% of computer models) may be used:
( )
0.09 1 − ��
s
Cs = 1 − (7.12)
2hs + 0.09
where
hs = depth of the surface material in m
Cs will approach 1.0 as hs increases and as �s → �. It will approach 0 as �s → 0.

7.2.4 Ground Grid Layout

Using the shape and area previously determined, a grid is laid out at a depth, h, with
spacing D, and total length of buried conductor LC . If ground rods, unequal spacing,
or a shape other than square are used, other parameters will apply as well.

7.2.5 Ground Resistance Calculation

The resistance of the grounding grid, Rg , can be estimated using Sverak’s equation:
[ ( )]
1 1 1
Rg = � +√ 1+ √ (7.13)
LT 20A 1 + h 20∕A
where
Rg = resistance in Ω
�Z = earth resistivity in Ω m
LT = total length of buried conductors in m
A = total area of the grid in m2 .