PCI Manual For The Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls 3rd Edition MNL126 15

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M NL- 126- 15
PCI Manual for the Design of
Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
M N L- 12 6 - 1 5 E
200 West Adams Street I Suite 2100 I Chicago, IL 60606-5230

Phone: 312-786-0300 I Fax: 312-621-1114 I www.pci.org
Third Edition - Electronic Version
TCM08-0049_HCM_CVR.indd 1 9/2/15 10:41 AM

PCI
Manual for the Design
of
Third Edition - Electronic Version
Edited by
S.K. Ghosh
S.K. Ghosh Associates, Inc.
Gary A. Householder
Computerized Structural Design, S.C.
Prepared for the

PCI Hollow Core Slab Producers
Committee
Paul Kourajian, Chairman

Anil Mehta, Vice Chairman
Loei Badreddine Adam Brodal

Meiling Chen Jim Fabinski
Steven Hunsberger Pat Hynes
Karen Laptas Corey Leith
Klaus Rosenstern Sonia Saari
John Saccoman Wes Schrooten
David Wan HanChing Wu
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls i
MNL-126-15E
Copyright © 2015
By Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
All rights reserved.
This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the Pre-
cast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. Substantial effort has been made to ensure that all data and information
in this manual are accurate. However, PCI cannot accept responsibility for any errors or oversights in the
use of material or in the preparation of engineering plans. This publication is intended for use by personnel
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and able to accept responsibility for the
application of the material it contains. Special conditions on a project may require more specific evaluation of
practical engineering judgement. While every effort has been made to prepare this publication as the national
standard for the industry, it is possible that there may be some conflicts between the material herein and local
practices.
Third Edition, 2015
ISBN 978-0-9968021-0-9
ii PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
Table of Contents
Notation
Chapter 1 Hollow Core Slab Systems
1.1 Methods of Manufacturing................................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.2 Materials............................................................................................................................................................ 1-2
1.3 Advantages of Hollow Core Slabs..................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.4 Framing Concepts............................................................................................................................................. 1-3
1.5 Design Responsibilities...................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.6 Cross Sections and Load Tables....................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.7 Tolerances......................................................................................................................................................... 1-7
Chapter 2 Design of Hollow Core Slabs
2.1 General.............................................................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Flexural Design.................................................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2.1 ACI Requirements................................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.2.1.1 Permissible stresses at transfer (ACI 318-11, Section 18.4)................................................. 2-1
2.2.1.2 Permissible stresses at service loads (ACI 318-11 Section 18.4) for
Class U and Class T members.............................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.1.3 Loss of prestress (ACI 318-11. Section 18.6)........................................................................ 2-2
2.2.1.4 Required strength.................................................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.1.5 Minimum reinforcement (ACI 318-11 Section 18.8.2)............................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Stresses at Transfer.............................................................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.3 Prestress Losses.................................................................................................................................. 2-4
2.2.4 Service Load Stresses.......................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.2.5 Design Flexural Strength...................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3 Shear Design....................................................................................................................................................2-11
2.3.1 ACI Requirements...............................................................................................................................2-11
2.4 Camber and Deflection.................................................................................................................................... 2-14
2.4.1 Camber............................................................................................................................................... 2-15
2.4.2 Deflections.......................................................................................................................................... 2-15
2.5 Composite Design........................................................................................................................................... 2-18
2.6 Strand Development........................................................................................................................................ 2-21
2.6.1 ACI Requirements.............................................................................................................................. 2-21
Chapter 3 Special Design Considerations
3.1 General Information........................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Resistance for Non-uniform Loads.................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.1 Distribution Mechanisms....................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2.2 Design Guidelines................................................................................................................................. 3-2
3.3 Effect of Openings............................................................................................................................................. 3-8
3.4 Continuity......................................................................................................................................................... 3-10
3.5 Cantilevers........................................................................................................................................................3-11
3.5.1 Cantilever Load Distribution................................................................................................................ 3-13
3.6 Horizontal Joints.............................................................................................................................................. 3-15
Chapter 4 Diaphragm Action with Hollow Core Slabs
4.1 General Information........................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Design Loads..................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.3 Distribution of Lateral Forces............................................................................................................................. 4-4
4.4 Structural Integrity.............................................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.5 Elements of a Diaphragm.................................................................................................................................. 4-6
4.6 Diaphragm Strength........................................................................................................................................... 4-7
4.6.1 Longitudinal Joints................................................................................................................................ 4-7
4.6.2 Transverse Joints.................................................................................................................................. 4-9
4.7 Boundary Elements..........................................................................................................................................4-11
4.8 Topped versus Untopped Diaphragms.............................................................................................................4-11
4.9 Design Example................................................................................................................................................4-11
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls iii
Chapter 5 Hollow Core Panels
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 5-1
5.2 Architectural Considerations.............................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.2.1 Building Layout..................................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.2 Wall Openings....................................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.2.3 Finishes................................................................................................................................................. 5-4
5.2.4 Insulation.............................................................................................................................................. 5-5
5.2.5 Thermal Bowing.................................................................................................................................... 5-6
5.2.6 Architectural Details.............................................................................................................................. 5-7
5.3 Structural Considerations.................................................................................................................................5-11
5.3.1 Lateral Bracing.....................................................................................................................................5-11
5.3.2 Load-Bearing versus Non-Load-Bearing Hollow Core Wall Panels.................................................... 5-12
5.3.3 Non-Load-Bearing Hollow Core Wall Panel Design............................................................................ 5-12
5.3.4 Load-Bearing Panel Design................................................................................................................ 5-13
5.3.4.1 Interaction Curves............................................................................................................................... 5-13
5.3.4.2 Slenderness Effects............................................................................................................................ 5-17
5.4 Hollow Core Wall Panels as Shear Walls........................................................................................................ 5-21
5.5 Seismic Design of Hollow Core Wall Panels.................................................................................................... 5-23
5.5.1 Designing for Out-of-Plane Forces..................................................................................................... 5-24
5.5.1.1 Design Forces...................................................................................................................... 5-24
5.5.2 Types of Shear Walls.......................................................................................................................... 5-24
5.5.2.1 Designing for Shear Wall Forces......................................................................................... 5-26
5.5.2.2 Design Forces...................................................................................................................... 5-26
5.5.2.3 Load Combinations.............................................................................................................. 5-27
Chapter 6 Connections in Hollow Core Slabs and Panels
6.1 General.............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.2 Details................................................................................................................................................................ 6-1
6.3 Typical Details with Concrete Beams................................................................................................................ 6-3
6.4 Typical Details with Walls................................................................................................................................. 6-10
6.5 Typical Details with Steel Beams..................................................................................................................... 6-17
6.6 Typical Cantilever Details................................................................................................................................ 6-22
6.7 Miscellaneous Details...................................................................................................................................... 6-25
6.8 Typical Hollow Core Wall Panel Details........................................................................................................... 6-28
Chapter 7 Fire Resistance of Assemblies Made with Hollow Core Slabs
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 7-1
7.2 Fire Resistance Criteria..................................................................................................................................... 7-1
7.3 Determination of Fire Ratings............................................................................................................................ 7-1
7.4 Restrained versus Unrestrained........................................................................................................................ 7-3
7.5 Heat Transmission through Floors or Roofs...................................................................................................... 7-6
7.5.1 Equivalent Thickness............................................................................................................................ 7-6
7.5.2 Toppings, Undercoatings, or Roof Insulation........................................................................................ 7-6
7.5.3 Ceilings................................................................................................................................................. 7-9
7.6 Structural Fire Endurance of Floor or Roof Assemblies..................................................................................... 7-9
7.6.1 Simply Supported Slabs — Unrestrained........................................................................................... 7-10
7.6.2 Effect of Spray-Applied Coatings........................................................................................................ 7-14
7.6.3 Simply Supported Slabs—Restrained................................................................................................ 7-14
7.6.4 Structurally Continuous Slabs............................................................................................................. 7-15
7.6.5 Detailing Precautions.......................................................................................................................... 7-17
7.6.6 Existing Construction.......................................................................................................................... 7-18
7.7 Wall Panels...................................................................................................................................................... 7-19
7.7.1 Sandwich Panels................................................................................................................................ 7-19
7.7.2 Joint Treatments................................................................................................................................. 7-19
7.8 Protection of Connections................................................................................................................................ 7-21
iv PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
Chapter 8 Acoustical Properties and Vibrations of Hollow Core Slabs
8.1 Glossary............................................................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.2 General.............................................................................................................................................................. 8-1
8.3 Approaching the Design Process...................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.3.1 Dealing with Sound Levels................................................................................................................... 8-2
8.4 Sound Transmission Loss.................................................................................................................................. 8-2
8.5 Impact Noise Reduction..................................................................................................................................... 8-3
8.6 Absorption of Sound.......................................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.7 Acceptable Noise Criteria.................................................................................................................................. 8-6
8.8 Establishment of Noise Insulation Objectives.................................................................................................... 8-7
8.9 Wall Considerations........................................................................................................................................... 8-8
8.10 Leaks and Flanking...........................................................................................................................................8-11
8.11 Human Response to Building Vibrations......................................................................................................... 8-12
8.11.1 Types of Vibration Analysis................................................................................................................. 8-12
8.11.2 Natural Frequency of Vibration........................................................................................................... 8-13
8.11.3 Minimum Natural Frequency............................................................................................................... 8-13
8.11.4 Graphs of Natural Frequency............................................................................................................. 8-14
8.11.5 Damping............................................................................................................................................. 8-14
8.11.6 Vibrations Caused by Walking............................................................................................................ 8-15
8.11.7 Vibrations Caused by Rhythmic Activities........................................................................................... 8-16
8.11.8 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical Equipment..................................................................................... 8-18
Chapter 9 Guide Specification for Precast, Prestressed Hollow Core Slabs................................... 9-1
References
Index
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls v
Notation
NOTATION
a = Depth of equivalent compression stress d = Distance from extreme compression

block fiber to centroid of non–prestressed
ai = Dynamic coefficient for vibration tension reinforcement
ap = Amplification factor related to the db = Nominal diameter of reinforcement
response of a system or component as dp, d’p = Distance from extreme compression
affected by the type of seismic fiber to centroid of prestressed
attachment reinforcement in tension and
aθ = Depth of equivalent compression stress compression zones, respectively
block under fire conditions D = Dead load
A = Cross–sectional area Di = Length of shear wall i
Acomp = Cross-sectional area of equivalent Ds = Superimposed dead load
rectangular stress block Dsw = Self-weight
Acr = Area of crack face Dt = Topping weight
Ae = Net effective slab bearing area Du = Factored dead load for seismic
Aps, A’ps = Area of prestressed reinforcement in calculations
flexural tension zone and compression DW = Width of effective resisting section
zone, respectively e = Eccentricity of design load or
As = Area of non-prestressed longitudinal prestressing force parallel to axis
tension reinforcement measured from centroid of section or
ATchord = Transformed area of diaphragm chord reaction
Atrcomp = Cross-sectional area of transformed Ec = Modulus of elasticity of concrete
composite section Eci = Modulus of elasticity of concrete at the
Avf = Area of shear friction reinforcement time of initial prestress
b = Width of compression face Ed = Dynamic modulus of elasticity
b = Width of slab Eps = Modulus of elasticity of prestressing
bv = Width of cross section at contact surface reinforcement
being investigated for horizontal shear ES = Prestress loss due to elastic shortening of
bw = Net web width of hollow core slab concrete
c = Distance from extreme compression Es = Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement,
fiber to neutral axis excluding prestressing reinforcement,
cc = Clear cover of reinforcement and structural steel
C = Confinement factor for horizontal joints Ev = Vertical seismic force
C = Compressive force (with subscripts to f = Frequency of building
define specific locations) fbot = Stress in bottom fiber of cross section
C = Coefficient of thermal expansion f′c = Specified compressive strength of
C = Seismic factor dependent on site and concrete
structure fundamental period f′ci = Compressive strength of concrete at the
C = Factor for calculating steel relaxation time of initial prestress
losses as given in Table 2.2.3.2 fcds = Concrete stress at center of gravity of
Cd = Deflection amplification factor prestressing force due to all permanent
Cm = Factor relating actual moment diagram (dead) loads not used in computing fcir
to an equivalent uniform moment fcir = Concrete stress at center of gravity of
diagram prestressing force immediately after
Cs = Seismic response coefficient transfer
Ct = Building period coefficient fd = Stress at extreme tension fiber due to
Cvx = Vertical distribution factor unfactored member self weight
Cw = Factor in calculation of na ff = Forcing frequency of rhythmic activity
CR = Prestress loss due to concrete creep fn = Natural frequency of floor system
vi PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
fpc = Compressive stress in concrete (after g = Acceleration due to gravity
allowance for all prestress losses) at GCp = Product of internal pressure coefficient
centroid of cross section resisting and gust-effect factor to be used in
externally applied loads determination of wind loads on
fpe = Compressive stress in concrete due to buildings
effective prestress forces only (after h = Overall height or thickness of
allowance for all prestress losses) at component
extreme fiber of section where tensile hn = Height above the base to the highest
stress is caused by externally applied level of the building
loads hnet = Net height of grout in keyway between
fpi = Ratio of initial prestress force to area of slab units
prestressing steel H = Load due to lateral earth pressure,
fps = Stress in prestressed reinforcement at ground water pressure, or pressure of
nominal strength of component bulk materials
fpsθ = Stress in prestressing steel at nominal I = Moment of inertia of section about
strength at elevated temperature centroidal axis (with subscripts)
f′ps = Stress in prestressed reinforcement in Icomp = Moment of inertia of transformed
compression zone at nominal strength of composite section about centroidal axis
component Icr = Moment of inertia of cracked section
fpu = Specified tensile strength of transformed to concrete
prestressing steel Ie = Seismic importance factor
fpuθ = Ultimate tensile strength of prestressing Ieff = Effective moment of inertia for
steel at elevated temperature second-order analysis
fpx = Maximum steel stress in partially Ig = Moment of inertia of gross section about
developed strand centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement
fr = Modulus of rupture of concrete Ip = Component importance factor
f’r = Allowable flexural tension computed j = Height of internal couple expressed as
using gross concrete section fraction of depth
fse = Effective stress in prestressing steel J = Factor for calculating steel relaxation
(after allowance for all prestress losses) losses as given in Table 2.2.3.1
ft = Extreme fiber stress in tension in k = Fraction of total load in a horizontal
precompressed tensile zone joint in a grout column
ftop = Stress in top fiber of cross section k = Effective length factor for compression
fu = Design compressive strength of wall or members
grout, whichever is less, when walls are k = Factor in vertical distribution of seismic
reinforced against splitting and slab forces
cores are filled ka = Amplification factor for diaphragm
fu = 80% of design compressive strength of flexibility
wall or design compressive strength of K = Member stiffness
grout, whichever is less, when walls are Kcir = Factor for calculating elastic shortening
not reinforced against splitting or slab prestress losses
cores are not filled Kcr = Factor for calculating prestress losses
fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcement due to concrete creep
Fa = Short-period site coefficient Kd = Directionality factor for wind load
Fi = Portion of base shear applied at level i Kes = Factor for calculating prestress losses
Fp = Seismic force acting on component of a due to elastic shortening
building Kre = Factor for calculating prestress losses
Fpx = Force applied to diaphragm at level due to steel relaxation as given in Table
under consideration 2.2.3.1
Froof, Fmax, Fmin, Fu = Seismic design force Ksh = Factor for calculating prestress losses
Fv = Long-period site coefficient due to concrete shrinkage
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls vii
K′ u = Factor from PCI Handbook Fig. 5.14.2 N = Axial force
for calculating flexural design strength Nu = Factored horizontal or axial force
Kzt = Topographic factor at mean roof height p = Design pressure to be used for
 = Span length determination of wind loads on
 available = Strand embedment length from member buildings
end to point of maximum stress Pc = Critical buckling load
d = Development length in tension of Pe = Effective prestress force after all losses
Pex = Effective prestress force in partially
deformed bar, deformed wire, plain and
developed strand
deformed welded wire reinforcement, or
Pi = Initial prestress force (jacking force after
pretensioned strand
anchorage loss)
f = Flexural bond length
Pn = Nominal strength of joint
j = Length of joint under consideration Pn = Axial load nominal strength of
 pc = Overall member length compression component at given
eccentricity
t = Strand transfer length Po = Prestress force after transfer losses
u = Unbraced length Pu = Factored point load
L = Live load q = Wind velocity pressure
Leff = Building length parallel to wind qh = Wind velocity pressure evaluated at
direction height z =h
Lf = Span of flexible diaphragm qi = Velocity pressure for internal pressure
Lr = Roof live load determination
M = Service load moment qz = Wind velocity pressure at height z above
Mcomp = Moment applied to composite section ground
Mcr = Cracking moment Q = First moment of area
Mcre = Moment causing cracking at section due r = Radius of gyration of cross section of a
to externally applied loads compression member
Md = Moment due to service dead load R = Fire endurance rating in minutes
Mg = Unfactored moment due to weight of R = Thermal resistance
component R = Response modification factor dependent
Mmax = Maximum factored moment due to on structural system type
externally applied loads Re = Reduction factor for load eccentricity in
= Mu - Md horizontal joints
Mn = Nominal flexural strength at section Rp = Component response modification factor
Mnθ = Nominal flexural strength at elevated RE = Prestress loss due to steel relaxation
temperature RH = Average ambient relative humidity
Mnon-comp = Moment applied to non-composite Sb = Section modulus with respect to bottom
section fiber of cross section
Msd = Unfactored moment due to SD1 = Design spectral response acceleration at
superimposed dead load plus sustained a 1-sec period
live load SDS = Design spectral response acceleration at
Mservice = Moment due to unfactored loads short periods
Msuperimposed = Moment due to unfactored SMS = Maximum considered earthquake, 5%
superimposed loads damped, spectral response acceleration
Msustained = Moment due to sustained loads at short periods adjusted for site class
Mu = Factored moment at section effects
Mθ = Applied moment for fire condition SM1 = Maximum considered earthquake, 5%
n = Modular ratio damped, spectral response acceleration
na = Approximate lower bound natural at a period of 1 sec adjusted for site class
frequency effects
n1 = Fundamental natural frequency
viii PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
Ss = Mapped maximum considered wequivalent = Uniform load causing moment
earthquake, 5% damped, spectral equivalent to actual loading
response acceleration at short periods wi = Portion of W at level i
St = Section modulus with respect to the top wn = load at nominal flexural strength
fiber of a cross section wp = Component weight
S1 = Mapped maximum considered wpx = Weight tributary to a diaphragm at level
earthquake, 5% damped, spectral under consideration
response acceleration at a period of 1 sec wu = Factored total load per unit length or per
SH = Prestress loss due to concrete shrinkage unit area
teq = Area/width ww = Weight of exterior wall
tg = Width of grout column in horizontal W = Total dead load plus other applicable
joint loads for seismic design
T = Tensile force W = Wind load
T = Thermal thrust Wp = Component weight
T = Fundamental period of building x = Location in span
Ta = Approximate fundamental period of x0 = Distance from simple support to
building inflection point
TL = Long-period transition period between y’ = Distance from top fiber to centroid of
equations for the site-specific design Acomp
spectral response acceleration yb = Distance from bottom fiber to center of
u = Distance from bottom of slab to a point gravity of section
within a member yb,comp = Distance from bottom fiber to center of
V = Seismic base shear gravity of transformed composite section
Vc = Nominal shear strength provided by yt = Used as either distance to top fiber or
concrete tension fiber from neutral axis
Vci = Nominal shear strength provided by β1 = Factor relating depth of equivalent
concrete when diagonal cracking results rectangular compressive stress block to
from combined shear and moment neutral axis depth
Vcw = Nominal shear strength provided by βd = Ratio used to compute magnified
concrete when diagonal cracking results moments in compression members due
from high principal tensile stress in the to sustained loads
web βm = Modal damping ratio
Vd = Shear force at section due to unfactored γp = Factor for type of prestressing steel
self weight δall = Limit on free end slip for using ACI
Vh = Horizontal beam shear development length equations
Vi = Factored shear force at section due to δb = Braced moment magnifier
externally applied loads occurring δs = Measured free end slip
simultaneously with Mmax
δs = Unbraced moment magnifier
= Vu - Vd
∆ = Deflection
Vn = Nominal shear strength
Vnh = Nominal horizontal shear strength ∆T = Thermal bow
Vs = Nominal shear strength provided by εps = Strain in prestressing steel
shear reinforcement corresponding to fps
Vu = Factored shear force at section ε’ps = Strain in prestressing steel in
Vuh = Factored applied horizontal shear compression zone
Vx = Shear at location x εs = Strain in nonprestressed tension
V/S = Volume to surface ratio reinforcement
w = Unfactored load per unit length or per εse = Strain in prestressing steel after losses
unit area λ = Stiffness modifier for moment
w = Bearing strip width magnification in slender compression
wcr = Cracking load members
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls ix
λ = Modification factor related to unit
weight of concrete
µ = Shear friction coefficient
µe = Effective shear friction coefficient
ρ = Redundancy load factor
ρp = Ratio of Aps to bd (or bdp) producing
balanced strain conditions
φ = ACI strength reduction factor
Aps f pu
ωpu =
bd p f c'
Ωo = Amplification factor to account for
overstrength of the seismic
force-resisting system
θ = Subscript denoting fire conditions
x PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
Hollow Core Slab Systems HOLLOW CORE SLAB SYSTEMS CHAPTER 1 1
Chapter
Chapter 1
HOLLOW CORE SLAB SYSTEMS
low-slump concrete is forced through the casting
1.1 Methods of Manufacturing machine. The cores are formed with augers or
A hollow core slab is a precast, prestressed tubes, and compaction and vibration are used to
concrete member with continuous voids provided consolidate the concrete around the cores. The
to reduce weight and, therefore, cost. As a side second (wet-cast) system uses a normal slump
benefit, voids can be used to conceal electrical or concrete. In this system, the sides of the slabs are
mechanical runs. Primarily used as floor or roof formed either with stationary, fixed forms, or with
deck systems, hollow core slabs also have appli- forms attached to the machine (when the sides are
cations as both vertical and horizontal wall panels, slip formed). The cores in the wet-cast systems
spandrel members, and bridge deck slabs. are formed with either lightweight aggregate fed
An understanding of the methods used to man- through tubes attached to the casting machine,
ufacture hollow core slabs will aid in the special pneumatic tubes anchored in a fixed form, or long
considerations sometimes required in their use. tubes attached to the casting machine that slip
This manual only addresses machine cast hollow form the cores.
core slabs. Custom cast voided slabs may behave Table 1.1 lists the seven major hollow core slab
in a similar manner. However, more design and systems available today along with the basic in-
detailing options may be available with such cus- formation on the casting technique. Various
tom cast slabs. Those options are beyond the names may be used by local licensees to describe
scope of this manual. The PCI Design Handbook1 the same products. In most cases, the hollow core
would be the proper design reference. slabs are cast on long-line beds, normally 300 ft to
Machine cast hollow core slabs are cast using 600 ft long. After curing, the slabs are sawcut to
various methods in the seven major systems avail- the appropriate length for the intended project.
able today. Because each production system is The economy of the generalized hollow core
patented, producers are usually set up on a fran- slab system is in the quantity that can be produced
chise or license basis using the background, at a given time with a minimum amount of labor
knowledge, and expertise provided with the ma- required. Each slab on a given casting line will
chine development. Each producer then has the have the same number of prestressing strands.
technical support of a large network of associated Therefore, the greatest efficiency is obtained by
producers. producing slabs with the same reinforcing re-
Two basic manufacturing methods are current- quirements from several projects on a single cast-
ly used for the production of hollow core slabs. ing line. The best efficiency for a single project is
The first is a dry-cast or extrusion system where a obtained if slab requirements are repetitive.
Table 1.1 Hollow core slab systems

Manufacturer Machine type Concrete type/slump Core form
Dynaspan Slip form Dry/low Tubes
Echo Slip form Dry/low Tubes
Elematic Extruder Dry/low Auger/tube
Flexicore Fixed form Wet/normal Pneumatic tubes
Spancrete Slip form Dry/low Tubes
SpanDeck Slip form Wet/normal Filler aggregate
Ultra-Span Extruder Dry/low Augers
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls 1-1 1-1
CHAPTER
Chapter 1 1 HOLLOW CORE SLAB SYSTEMS Hollow Core Slab Systems
The latex feathering is ready for direct carpet

application.
Acoustical spray-on exposed slab ceiling.

consistently hold its shape with the forming tech-
nique used is dependent on mixture proportions
and use of admixtures.
Aggregates vary in the manufacturing process-
es depending on what is locally available. Maxi-
mum aggregate size larger than pea gravel is rare-
ly used because of the confined areas into which
Electrical and heating, ventilation, and air concrete must be placed. Lightweight aggregates
conditioning application. are occasionally used to reduce the weight of the
sections and to achieve a significant reduction in
1.2 Materials required equivalent thickness in a fire-rated applica-
As stated previously, hollow core slabs are tion. Concrete densities ranging from 110 lb/ft3 to
produced with two basic types of concrete: low 158 lb/ft3 are used in the industry.
slump and normal slump. For the low-slump con- Almost every size and type of strand produced,
cretes, water content is limited to slightly more depending on the availability to a particular pro-
than that required for cement hydration. Water- ducer, can be used in hollow core slabs. The in-
cement ratios are typically about 0.30. Mixing of dustry is primarily using ½-in.-diameter, low-
low-slump concrete is critical because the limited relaxation strand. The philosophy on strand use
water available must be well dispersed. Water- varies from using many strand sizes to optimize
reducing admixtures can be used to optimize a cost for a given project, to using only one or two
mixture by reducing water requirements while strand sizes for simplicity of inventory and pro-
still maintaining adequate workability for proper duction.
compaction of the concrete by the machine. Except for special situations, keyway grout is
Air-entraining admixtures are not effective normally a mixture of sand and portland cement
in the low-slump concrete. With the low water- in proportions of approximately 3:1. The amount
cement ratios and compaction placing method, air of water used is a function of the method used to
is difficult to disperse well and maintain. place the grout, but will generally result in a wet
Wet-cast hollow core slabs (those cast with mixture so keyways may be easily filled. Shrink-
normal-slump concrete) have water-cement ratios age cracks may occur in the keyways, but the con-
in the range of 0.40 to 0.45. Depending on the figuration of the key is such that vertical load
slip-forming system used, a concrete slump of 2 transfer can still occur with the presence of a
in. to 5 in. is used. Producing concrete that will shrinkage crack. Rarely is grout strength required
in excess of 2000 psi for vertical load transfer.
1-2
1-2 PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls
Chapter
In regions of the country subject to freezing Structurally, a hollow core slab provides the
temperatures, the guidelines of ACI 306, Cold efficiency of a prestressed member for load capac-
Weather Concreting2, should be followed. This ity, span range, and deflection control. In addition,
report indicates that once concrete reaches a com- provided proper connections and details exist, the
pressive strength of 500 psi, it will not be dam- grouted slab assembly provides a basic diaphragm
aged by a single freezing cycle and will continue for resisting lateral loads. A detailed discussion of
to cure to its design strength even with continued diaphragm capabilities is presented in Chapter 4.
exposure to cold weather. Hollow core slabs also have excellent fire re-
Although it is discouraged, non-shrink, non- sistance. Depending on thickness and strand cov-
staining grout is occasionally specified for use in er, fire ratings up to four hours can be achieved.
keyways. The use of non-shrink grout can sub- The fire rating achieved depends on the equivalent
stantially increase the cost of a project because it thickness for heat transmission, concrete cover
must generally be mixed on site rather than deliv- over the prestressing strands (for strength in a
ered from a ready-mix plant, as can be done with high temperature condition), and end restraint.
standard 3:1 grout. In evaluating the potential Underwriters Laboratories publishes fire ratings
benefits of non-shrink grout, the volume of grout for various structural assemblies. Many building
must be compared with the overall volume of codes also provide tables with empirical values
concrete in the slabs and support materials. Be- for required equivalent slab thickness and con-
cause the size of the keyway is small in relation to crete cover over the strand. In addition, most
a floor or roof assembly of slabs, the total shrink- building codes allow a rational design procedure
age of the grout will only affect the assembly to a for strength in a fire. This procedure, described in
minor degree. Shrinkage cracks can still occur in detail in Chapter 7, considers the elevated strand
the keyways and there is little benefit to be gained temperature and the resulting loss of strength in
by using non-shrink grout when compared with the flexural capacity. Required fire ratings should
the additional cost. be clearly specified in the contract documents,
and the fire rating should be considered in the pre-
1.3 Advantages of Hollow Core liminary design when determining the slab thick-
Slabs ness to be used.
Hollow core slabs are most widely known for Used as floor-ceiling assemblies, hollow core
providing economical, efficient floor and roof sys- slabs have excellent sound-transmission charac-
tems. Floor coverings can be installed on the top teristics. The sound transmission class rating
surface of a slab with proper preparation. The top ranges from about 47 to 57 (without topping) and
surface can be prepared by feathering the joints the impact insulation class rating starts at about 23
between slabs with a latex cement; by installing a for a plain slab, and may be increased to over 70
non-structural concrete topping ranging from 1/2 with the addition of carpeting and padding. De-
in. to 2 in. thick (depending on the material used), tailed information on the acoustical properties of
or by casting a composite, structural concrete top- hollow core slabs is presented in Chapter 8.
ping. The underside of the slab can serve as a fin-
ished ceiling as installed or paint or acoustical 1.4 Framing Concepts
spray may be applied. The primary consideration in developing a
When properly coordinated for alignment, the framing scheme using hollow core slabs is the
voids in hollow core slabs may be used for elec- span length. For a given loading and fire endur-
trical or mechanical runs. For example, routing a ance rating, span length and slab thickness may be
lighting circuit through the cores allows installa- optimized by consulting a producer’s published
tion of fixtures in an exposed slab ceiling without load tables. Section 1.6 presents sample load tables
an unsightly surface-mounted conduit. Slabs used and instructions for the use of the tables. The PCI
as the thermal mass in a passive solar application Design Handbook recommends limits on span-depth
can be detailed to distribute heated air through ratios for the hollow core slabs. For roof slabs, a
their cores. span-depth ratio limit of 50 is suggested and for
1-3
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow Core Slabs and Walls 1-3
CHAPTER
floor slabs, a limit of 40 is suggested. In practice, a be provided. Refer to local producers’ information
span-depth ratio of 45 is common for floors and for recommendations of proper tolerances.
roofs when fire endurance, openings, or heavy or When a hollow core slab is exposed to weather
sustained live loads do not control a design. for a long period of time during construction, wa-
The design professional must consider several ter can accumulate in the cores. The primary
factors that affect selection of hollow core slab source of water infiltration is at the butt joints.
thickness for a given span. Heavy superimposed This fact, plus the camber of the slab, causes the
loads, as required by the function of a system, water to pool at the ends of the slabs. In cold
would require a lower span-depth ratio. Similarly, weather, this water can freeze and expand, caus-
heavy partitions or a large number of openings ing localized damage. One remedy for this situa-
will result in greater load capacity requirements. tion is to install weep holes at the slab ends under
The fire resistance rating required for the applica- each core. The need for such weep holes is gener-
tion will also affect the load capacity of a slab. As ally known only after a construction schedule is
the required fire rating increases, prestressing established. The specifier and the slab supplier are
strands can be raised for more protection from the not usually in a position to know of such a need in
heat and to satisfy the code-required concrete advance.
cover for the strand. The smaller effective strand Although some manufacturing methods may
depth will result in a lesser load capacity. Alterna- allow the holes to be cast into the hollow core
tively, if a rational design procedure is used, the slab, the most common means of creating weep
strand may be raised to control the strand temper- holes is to drill into the cores through the bottom
ature, or the designer may choose to use the de- of the slab. Weep holes may be located in every
creased strand strength due to elevated tempera- core as a preventive measure or may be drilled in
ture in the design. Either of these approaches may only when and where necessary after a heavy rain
control the slab design and result in a lesser load or snow melt. Careful observation of the under-
capacity. side of the deck will generally reveal water stains
Once the hollow core slab thicknesses and at cores with accumulated water. This can mini-
spans are selected, the economics of layout be- mize the amount of overhead drilling required.
come important. While the ends of a slab can be As with any other prestressed flexural member,
designed to be cut at an angle, it is most efficient hollow core slabs will be cambered. In the plan-
if square cut ends can be used (bearing perpendic- ning stages, consideration should be given to the
ular to the span). causes of differential camber. For two slabs of
It is also desirable to have the plan dimensions identical length and prestressing, the camber may
fit the hollow core slab module. This module de- be different because of concrete and curing varia-
pends on the slab systems available in the project tions. This factor is independent of a framing
area. Non-module plan dimensions can be ac- scheme. However, joints between slabs of unequal
commodated using partial-width slabs. Some pro- spans or joints at which a change in the span di-
ducers intentionally cast narrow widths as filler rection occurs will cause a differential camber
pieces, while others use a section split from a full problem. This must be recognized and dealt with
width piece. Such a split section might be created in the design layout. Wall locations may hide
by a longitudinal sawcut, or a break if the edge such a joint, but a door swing might be directed to
will not be exposed to view. the least variable side.
Construction tolerances must be accounted for Camber must also be accommodated when a
in developing a plan layout. Tolerance on hollow topping is to be provided. The quantity of topping
core slab length may be taken up by allowing a required must consider the amount of camber and
gap at the ends in the bearing detail. On the non- the function of the floor. In occupancies where
bearing sides, clearance may be provided by using flat floors are not a requirement, a constant top-
a detail where the slabs lap over a wall or beam. If ping thickness may be used to follow the curva-
the slab edge butts a wall or beam, a gap should ture of the hollow core slabs. At the other ex-
treme, if a flat floor is required in a structure con-
1-4
Chapter
sisting of multiple bays of varying length and The engineer of record also has a responsibility
changes in slab direction, the highest point will in the review and approval of erection drawings
determine the top elevation of the topping. A prepared by the precast concrete producer. Re-
greater amount of topping will then be required in view of these drawings is the last opportunity to
low areas. These items must be considered in the ensure that the precast concrete producer’s under-
project planning stages to control costs and mini- standing of the project coincides with the intent of
mize questions. the design. Erection drawings should be checked
Camber, camber growth, and deflections must for proper design loads, proper details and bearing
be considered when hollow core slabs run parallel conditions, conformance with specified fire rat-
to a stiff vertical element such as a wall (for ex- ings, and the location of openings.
ample, slabs running parallel to the front wall of
an elevator). The door rough opening should al- 1.6 Cross Sections and Load Tables
low for camber to produce proper door installa- Each of the major hollow core slab systems has
tion. Alternatively, the slab span might be rear- a standard set of cross sections that can be pro-
ranged so the front wall is a bearing wall. This duced by its equipment. Available in thicknesses
would alleviate door problems. ranging from 4 in. to 20 in., core configurations
Camber, camber growth, and deflections must make each system unique. Each precast concrete
be taken into account in roofing details. Where producer has additional production practices that
changes in relative hollow core slab position can may affect the capabilities of its product. There-
occur, counterflashings are suggested to accom- fore, most precast concrete producers prepare and
modate such changes. distribute load tables in their market area.
Precast concrete producer load tables define the
1.5 Design Responsibilities allowable live load that a given hollow core slab
It is customary in the hollow core slab industry can safely support in addition to the slab self-
for the precast concrete producer to perform the weight. The load capacity will be a function of the
final engineering for the product to be supplied to slab thickness, the amount of prestressing provid-
the job. This includes design for vertical loads and ed, and the location of the prestressing strands.
lateral loads specified by the engineer of record, Fire-rated slabs may require additional concrete
embedded items for specified connection forces, cover below the strands, which will affect the load
and handling and shipping. However, the engineer capacity.
of record plays an important role in the design The design criteria used to develop these load
process. Prior to selection of the hollow core slab tables are defined by ACI 318 Building Code Re-
producer, enough preliminary planning should be quirements for Structural Concrete and Commen-
done to insure that the specified floor and roof tary3 as outlined in chapter 2. Depending on the
system is achievable. That is, the project should design criteria controlling a hollow core slab’s
be one that can be engineered without requiring load capacity, some advantage may be gained by
changes from the contract documents. understanding that in most applications, superim-
The contract documents must clearly indicate posed loads will consist of both dead and live
design criteria to which the hollow core slabs loads. Where ultimate strength controls, an equiv-
must conform. This is especially important when alent live load can be used to enter a load table. It
the slabs must interface with other construction is calculated as:
materials. When connections are required, the 1.2
w equivalent = DS + L
forces to be transmitted through the connections 1.6
must be specified in the contract documents. The
precast concrete producer is best able to determine However, if bottom fiber tensile stresses con-
the most efficient connection element to be em- trol, no adjustment in superimposed loads may be
bedded in the slab. However, the balance of a used.
connection that interfaces with another material Similarly, many loading conditions consist of
should be detailed in the contract documents. loads other than uniform loads. For preliminary
1-5
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
Chapter 1 11 HOLLOW
HOLLOW CORE
CORE SLAB
SLAB SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS Hollow Core Slab Systems
design
design only,
only, an
an equivalent
equivalent uniform
uniform load
load may
may be
be w == D
w DSS ++ LL
calculated
calculated from
from the
the maximum
maximum moment
moment caused
caused by
by == 20
20 ++ 75
75 == 95 lb/ft22
95 lb/ft
the
the actual
actual loads.
loads.
Four 77//16
Four 16-in.-diameter
-in.-diameter strands
strands required.
required.
88M
Msuperimposed
lb/ft22 →
→ flexural
superimposed
w equivalent =
wequivalent = capacity
capacity == 132
132 lb/ft flexural strength
strength
 22 controls
controls
Shear
Shear willwill not
not be
be properly
properly addressed
addressed in in this
this sit-
sit-
Because
Because flexural
flexural strength
strength controls,
controls, the
the analy-
analy-
uation.
uation. Thus,
Thus, the the final
final design
design must
must consider
consider the the
sis
sis may
may be
be refined.
refined.
actual
actual load
load pattern.
pattern.
Because
Because of of the
the uniqueness
uniqueness of of each
each hollow
hollow corecore 1.2
1.2
w equivalent =
wequivalent = DSS ++ LL
D
slab
slab system
system and and the
the many
many possibilities
possibilities of of strand
strand 1.6
1.6
patterns
patterns available
available from from various
various producers,
producers, aa ge- ge- 1.2
1.2
neric
neric hollow
hollow core core slabslab has
has been
been developed
developed to to w equivalent =
wequivalent = ((20
20))++ 75
75 == 90 lb/ft22
90lb/ft
1.6
1.6
demonstrate
demonstrate design design procedures.
procedures. Figure
Figure 1.6.1
1.6.1 de-de-
picts
picts the
the slab
slab section
section and and properties
properties and
and illustrates
illustrates Use four 33//88-in.-diameter
Use four -in.-diameter strands.
strands.
aa typical
typical formform for for aa producer’s
producer’s loadload tables.
tables. capacity
capacity == 90 lb/ft22 →
90 lb/ft → flexural
flexural strength
strength
Throughout
Throughout this this manual,
manual, this this section
section will
will bebe used
used controls
controls
to
to demonstrate
demonstrate various various calculation
calculation procedures
procedures
As
As indicated,
indicated, the
the load
load tables
tables are
are intended
intended pri-
pri-
where
where any any one
one of of the
the proprietary
proprietary cross
cross sections
sections
marily
marily for
for preliminary
preliminary design.
design. Realistically,
Realistically, the
the
could
could bebe substituted.
substituted. ItIt must
must be be emphasized
emphasized that that
presence
presence of of plumbing
plumbing and and mechanical
mechanical openings
openings
this
this cross
cross section
section is is not
not available
available forfor use
use andand
may
may require
require the
the use
use of
of the
the more
more heavily
heavily stranded
stranded
should
should notnot bebe specified.
specified.
series.
series. The
The designer
designer should
should bebe especially
especially careful
careful
Figures
Figures 1.6.21.6.2 through
through 1.6.81.6.8 show
show thethe proprie-
proprie-
when
when thethe preliminary
preliminary analysis
analysis indicates
indicates that
that the
the
tary
tary hollow
hollow core core slab
slab cross
cross sections
sections that
that areare cur-
cur-
highest
highest stranded
stranded series
series is
is required.
required.
rently
rently available.
available. The The section
section properties
properties areare as
as pro-
pro-
vided
vided byby the
the manufacturers,
manufacturers, but but weights
weights areare based
based
on
on 150 lb/ft33 concrete.
150 lb/ft concrete. The The actual
actual weights
weights may may Example
Example 1.6.2 1.6.2 Non-uniform
Non-uniform Loads Loads
vary
varyslightly
slightly fromfrom those
those given.
given. The
The availability
availability of of From
From the
the load
load table
table in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.6.1,
1.6.1, select
select aa strand
strand
any
any particular
particular section
section in in aa given
given area
area must
must be be veri-
veri- pattern
pattern toto carry
carry aa superimposed
superimposed uniform
uniform deaddead load
load
fied
fied with
with the the local
local producers.
producers. Figure
Figure 1.6.9
1.6.9 (a (a of
of 20 22
lb/ft plus
20 lb/ft plus live
live load
load of
of 40
40 lb/ft 22
lb/ft andand aa contin-
contin-
through
through e) e) presents
presents chartscharts ofof the
the general
general range
range of of uous
uous wall
wall load
load of
of 600
600 lb/ft
lb/ft located
located perpendicular
perpendicular
load
load capacities
capacities available
available in in aa given
given hollow
hollow core core to
to the
the span
span andand at
at midspan.
midspan. TheThe design
design span
span is is 25
25
slab
slab thickness.
thickness. As As with
with anyany chart
chart of
of this
this nature,
nature, ft.
ft.
the
the chart
chart should
should be be approached
approached carefully
carefullyand and veri-
veri-
fied
fied with
with local
local producer
producer loadload tables,
tables, especially
especiallyfor for For
For preliminary
preliminary design:
design:
the
the longest,
longest, shortest,
shortest, lightest,
lightest, and
and heaviest
heaviest condi-
condi- 2522
25 25
25
tions.
tions. Special
Special carecare isis also
also required
required when
when fire-rated
fire-rated M
M superimpos ed =
superimpos ed = ((20 40))++ ((600
20 ++ 40 600))
88 44
hollow
hollow corecore slabs
slabs must
must be be used
used on
on aa project
project (see
(see == 8438
8438 lb-ft/ft
lb-ft/ft
Chapter
Chapter 7). 7). 88MMsuperimposed
superimposed
The
The following
following examples
examples demonstrate
demonstrate the the ways
ways w equivalent =
wequivalent =
in
in which
which loadload tables
tables maymay be be used.
used.  22
88((8438
8438))
w
wequivalent
equivalent ==
Example
Example 1.6.1 1.6.1 Equivalent
Equivalent Uniform
Uniform 2522
25
Load
Load ==108
108 lblb // ftft22
From
From the the load
load table
table in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.6.1
1.6.1 select
select aa strand
strand
pattern
pattern to to carry
carry aa uniform
uniform superimposed
superimposed deaddead load
load Use four 77//16
Use four 16-in.-diameter
-in.-diameter strands.
strands.
22 22
of
of 20 lb/ft and
20 lb/ft and aa uniform
uniform live
live load
load of
of 75
75 lb/ft
lb/ft on on aa capacity
capacity == 118 lb/ft22
118 lb/ft
24
24 ftft span.
span.
1-6
1-6
Chapter
For final design, the methods found in chapter

2 must be used, particularly to check shear.
1.7 Tolerances
Figure 1.7.1 shows the dimensional tolerances
for precast concrete hollow core slabs. These tol-
erances are guidelines only and each project must
be considered individually to ensure that the toler-
ances shown are applicable.
Figure 1.7.2 shows erection tolerances for hol-
low core slabs. When establishing tolerances, the
function of the slabs should be considered. For
example, slabs covered by finish materials may
not need the close tolerances required for those
that are exposed.
1-7
CHAPTER
Figure 1.6.1 Generic hollow core slab
Section Properties
A = 154 in.2
I = 1224.5 in.4
bw = 10.5 in.
yb = 3.89 in.
Sb = 314.8 in.3
St = 297.9 in.3
wt = 53.5 lb/ft2
Sample Load Table*
Allowable Superimposed Live Load, lb/ft2

Strands, ɸMn, Span, ft
270LR kip-ft 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
4 - 3/8 in. 45.1 343 294 253 220 192 168 148 130 115 102
6 - 3/8 in. 65.4 386 337 296 262 232 207 185 166
4 - 7/16 in. 59.4 347 302 265 234 207 184 164 147
6 - 7/16 in. 85.0 341† 309† 283† 257† 237† 221†
4 - 1/2 in. 76.7 321 † 293† 267† 246† 224 202
6 - 1/2 in. 105.3 331† 303† 278† 256†
Strands, ɸMn,
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
270LR kip-ft
4 - 3/8 in. 45.1 90 80 71 63 56 49 43
6 - 3/8 in. 65.4 149 134 121 109 99 89 81
4 - 7/16 in. 59.4 132 118 106 96 86 78 70
6 - 7/16 in. 85.0 201† 187 169 154 141 128 117
4 - 1/2 in. 76.7 182 164 149 135 123 112 101‡
6 - 1/2 in. 105.3 236† 220† 203† 190† 176† 167† 154†
*Table based on 5000 psi concrete with allowable tension = 6 f'c . Unless noted, values are governed by ulti-
mate moment design. Prestress loss = 13.5% (assumed). This hollow core slab is for illustrative purposes only.
Do not specify this slab for a project.
† Values are governed by shear strength.
‡ Values are governed by allowable tension.
Note: LR = low relaxation.
1-8
Chapter
Figure 1.6.2
Trade name: Dynaspan®
lb/ft2 lb/ft2
Figure 1.6.3
Trade name: Flexicore
lb/ft2 lb/ft2
1-9
CHAPTER
Figure 1.6.4
Trade name: Echo®
lb/ft2 lb/ft2
1-10
Chapter
Figure 1.6.5
Trade name: Elematic®
Equipment manufacturer: Elematic Inc., Brookfield, Wisconsin
lb/ft2 lb/ft2
1-11
CHAPTER
Figure 1.6.6a
Trade names: Spancrete®, Ultralight Spancrete®
Licensing organization: Spancrete Machinery Corp., Waukesha, Wisconsin
lb/ft2 lb/ft2
1-12
Chapter
Figure 1.6.6b
Trade names: Spancrete®, Ultralight Spancrete®
Licensing organization: Spancrete Machinery Corp., Waukesha, Wisconsin
A Yb I wt Ycb Ic wt
in.2 in. in.4 lb/ft2 in. in.4 lb/ft2
1-13
CHAPTER
Figure 1.6.7
Trade name: SpanDeck
A Yb I wt Ycb Ic wt
in.2 in. in.4 lb/ft2 in. in.4 lb/ft2
Figure 1.6.8
Trade name: Ultra–Span
Licensing organization: Ultra–Span Technologies Inc., Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
lb/ft2 lb/ft2
1-14
Chapter
Figure 1.6.9(a) Slab load ranges 6 in. Hollow core

lb/ft2
Figure 1.6.9(b) Slab load ranges 8 in. Hollow core

lb/ft2
1-15
CHAPTER
Figure 1.6.9(c) Slab load ranges 10 in. Hollow core

lb/ft2
Figure 1.6.9(d) Slab load ranges 12 in. Hollow core

lb/ft2
1-16
Chapter
Figure 1.6.9(e) Slab load ranges 16 in. Hollow core

lb/ft2
Note: The above data are based on flexural strength. Additional measures may be required for shear.
1-17
CHAPTER
Figure 1.7.1 Product tolerances for hollow core slabs4
a = Length ...................................................................... ± ½ in. j = Center of gravity (CG) of strand group

b = Width ...................................................................... ± ¼ in. The CG of the strand group relative to the top of the slab shall be
c = Depth ...................................................................... ± ¼ in. within ± ¼ in. of the nominal strand group CG. The position of
dt = Top flange thickness any individual strand shall be within ± ½ in. of nominal vertical
Top flange area defined by the actual measured values of position and shall have a minimum cover of ¾ in.
average dt x b shall not be less than 85% of the nominal k = Position of plates ............................................................... ±2 in.
area calculated by dt nominal x b nominal. l = Tipping and flushness of plates ...................................... ± ¼ in.
db = Bottom flange thickness m = Local smoothness ............................................... ± ¼ in. in 10 ft
Bottom flange area defined by the actual measured values of (does not apply to top deck surface left rough to receive a topping or
average db x b shall not be less than 85% of the nominal to visually concealed surfaces)
area calculated by db nominal x b nominal. Slab weight
e = Web thickness Excess concrete material in the slab’s internal features is within
The total cumulative web thickness defined by the actual tolerance as long as the measured weight of the individual
measured value ∑e shall not be less than 85% of the slab does not exceed 110% of the nominal published slab
nominal cumulative width calculated by ∑e nominal. weight used in the load capacity calculation.
f = Blockout location ............................................................ ± 2 in. n = Applications requiring close control of differential camber between
g = Flange angle ................................. ⅛ in. per 12 in., ½ in. max. adjacent members of the same design should be discussed in
h = Variation from specified end squareness or detail with the producer to determine applicable tolerances.
skew ..................................................................... ± ½ in.
i = Sweep (variation from straight line parallel to centerline of
member) .............................................................. ± ⅜ in.
b
dt
e
j
c
CGS
db
CROSS SECTION
h
n
10 ft
m
g k
ELEVATION
k
f
a
PLAN
1-18
Chapter
Figure 1.7.2 Erection tolerances for hollow core floor and roof members4
a = Plan location from building datum ......................................................................................................................... ± 1 in.
a1 = Plan location from centerline of steel* ................................................................................................................... ± 1 in.
b = Top elevation from nominal top elevation at member ends
Covered with topping .................................................................................................................................. ± ¾ in.
Untopped floor ............................................................................................................................................ ± ¼ in.
Untopped roof............................................................................................................................................. ± ¾ in.
c = Maximum jog in alignment of matching edges
(both topped and untopped construction)................................................................................................................. 1 in.
d = Joint width
0 to 40 ft member length ............................................................................................................................. ± ½ in.
41 to 60 ft member length ........................................................................................................................... ± ¾ in.
61 ft plus....................................................................................................................................................... ± 1 in.
e = Differential top elevation as erected
Covered with topping ......................................................................................................................................¾ in.
Untopped floor ................................................................................................................................................¼ in.
Untopped roof† ...............................................................................................................................................¾ in.
f = Bearing length‡ (span direction) .......................................................................................................................... ± ¾ in.
g = Differential bottom elevation of exposed hollow core slabs§ ....................................................................................¼ in.
________________
* For precast concrete erected on a steel frame building, this tolerance takes precedence over tolerance on dimension a.
†
It may be necessary to feather the edges to ± ¼ in. to properly apply some roof membranes.
‡
This is a setting tolerance and should not be confused with structural performance requirements set by the architect/engineer.
§ Untopped installation will require a larger tolerance here.
a bldg. Y grid datum

bldg. Y grid datum bldg. X grid datum
a
bldg. X grid datum
a
a
f
d
d
c hollow core hollow core floor

floor or roof member or roof member
centerline of
steel structure
PLAN PLAN
e
a1
e
clearance
f
f
g
hollow core
b
g
b
floor or roof member

centerline of
precast or cast-in-place steel structure
concrete support member
bldg. elevation datum bldg. elevation datum
ELEVATION
ELEVATION
Precast element to precast or
cast-in-place concrete or masonry Precast element to structural steel
1-19
Chapter 1 Hollow Core Slab Systems
Design of Hollow Core Slabs DESIGN OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER 2 2
Chapter
Chapter 2
DESIGN OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS
2.1 General 2.2 Flexural Design

The design of hollow core slabs is in accord-
2.2.1 ACI Requirements
ance with the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Building Code Requirements for Structural Con- Chapter 18 of ACI 318-11 presents provi-
crete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary (ACI 318R- sions for the flexural design of prestressed con-
11)3. As with prestressed concrete members in crete members. Section 18.3.3 of that Code states
general, hollow core slabs are checked for pre- that prestressed flexural members shall be classi-
stressing force transfer stresses, handling fied as Class U, Class T, or Class C based on ft,
stresses, service load stresses, deflections, and the computed extreme fiber stress in tension in
design (ultimate) strength in shear and bending. the precompressed tensile zone calculated at ser-
For uniform load cases, the manufacturer’s load vice loads, as follows:
tables will take into account these various design Class U: ft ≤ 7.5 f c'
considerations and list a load capacity based on
the governing criteria. For conditions other than Class T: 7.5 f c' < ft ≤ 12 f c'
uniform loading, or for the development of load
tables, the design steps presented in this section Class C: ft > 12 f c'
are used. For Class U and Class T flexural members,
An excellent reference for prestressed mem- stresses at service loads shall be permitted to be
ber design exists in the PCI Design Handbook: calculated using the uncracked section. For Class
Precast and Prestressed Concrete.1 Charts and C flexural members, stresses at service loads
tables provide design aids to shorten the calcula- shall be calculated using the cracked transformed
tion procedures. Another excellent source for de- section. The applicable requirements of ACI 318-
sign information is the PCI Standard Design 11 are paraphrased as follows:
Practice, which reflects design practice in the
precast, prestressed concrete industry. 2.2.1.1 Permissible stresses at
The generic hollow core slab presented in transfer (ACI 318-11,
Fig. 1.6.1 will be used for the calculations pre- Section 18.4).
sented in this section. The cross section was se- a) Extreme fiber stress in compression except
lected to provide a means of demonstrating cal- as permitted in (b) is 0.6 f ci'
culation procedures and does not represent any b) Extreme fiber stress in compression at ends
hollow core slabs currently in use. Therefore, this is 0.7 f ci'
generic slab should never be specified for use on c) Extreme fiber stress in tension except as
a project. Section 1.6 of this manual provides in-
permitted in (d) is 3 f ci'
formation regarding hollow core slabs currently
available. d) Extreme fiber stress in tension at ends of
simply supported members is 6 f ci'
Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2 DESIGN OF HOLLOW CORE SLAB Design of Hollow Core Slabs
2.2.1.2 Permissible stresses at Aps f ps

service loads (ACI 318-11, a =
0.85 f c'b
Section 18.4) for Class U and
Class T members. Note: If a exceeds the top flange thickness, the
a) Extreme fiber stress in compression due compression block will encroach on the core
to prestress plus sustained loads is area. For this situation, multiple compression
0.45 f c' forces are used for the internal couple, as is done
with other flanged members.
b) Extreme fiber stress in compression due to
prestress plus total load is 0.60 f c'  γ f 
fps = f pu 1 − p ρ p pu' 
2.2.1.3 Loss of prestress (ACI 318-11,  β1 fc 
Section 18.6) Note: fps can be calculated using the strain com-
Calculation of losses shall consider: patibility and equilibrium method in lieu of the
• seating loss; simplified equation.
• elastic shortening of concrete; 2.2.1.5 Minimum reinforcement
• creep of concrete; (ACI 318-11 Section 18.8.2)
• shrinkage of concrete; and Minimum reinforcement is defined in ACI
• steel relaxation. 318-11, Section 18.8.2, as “Total amount of pre-
2.2.1.4 Required strength stressed and non-prestressed reinforcement in
members with bonded prestressed reinforcement
• Load combinations (ACI 318-11, Section shall be adequate to develop a factored load at
9.2).
least 1.2 times the cracking load computed on the
If only gravity loads are considered, the ap- basis of the modulus of rupture specified in
plicable load combinations are: 9.5.2.3.” There has been some misunderstanding
U = 1.4D of this provision. It is not meant to require special
U = 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) end-region reinforcement where Mcr is very high
U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + 1.0L and Mn is very low; the intent is to prevent brittle
fracture at first flexural cracking, not at every
• Strength reduction factors (ACI section where the theoretical cracking moment is
318-11, Section 9.3) greater than the nominal moment strength. At the
For flexure, the strength reduction factor φ is critical section, a simplification may be used as:
0.9, assuming the sections are tension-controlled, φMn > 1.2 Mcr
which means the net tensile strain is greater than
This requirement may be waived when the
or equal to 0.005. Net tensile strain is the strain
shear and flexural strength is twice that required
in the extreme tension reinforcement at nominal
by design.
strength (that is, the strength corresponding to a
strain value of 0.003 at the extreme compression 2.2.2 Stresses at Transfer
fiber of concrete), exclusive of strains due to ef- At transfer of prestress, only the self weight
fective prestress, creep, shrinkage, and tempera- of the hollow core slab is present to counteract
ture. the effects of eccentric prestress. A check of
• Flexural strength (ACI 318-11, stresses is required at this stage to determine the
Section 18.7) concrete strength required to preclude cracking
on the tension side. The concrete strength at the
To check for flexural strength, the following cal- time of transfer may be only 50% to 60% of the
culations are required: 28-day specified compressive strength, but
a should be at least 3000 psi.
Mu ≤ φ M n = φ Aps f ps ( d p − )
2
2-2
Design of Hollow Core Slabs Chapter
DESIGN OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER 2 2
Example 2.2.2.1 Transfer Stresses Md ( 4.74)(12)

=
Using the generic cross section of the hollow S 297.9
core slab defined in Fig. 1.6.1, check stresses at 
transfer of prestress using the following criteria: 314.8
= +0.191 ksi top fiber
Prestressing steel: = -0.181 ksi bottom fiber
4–1/2-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation Net concrete stress at transfer point
strands. = -0.353 + 0.191 = -0.162 ksi top fiber
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in.2 = +1.723 – 0.181 = +1.542 ksi bottom
fiber
assume 5% initial loss
Stresses due to self weight at midspan:
dp = 7 in.
 pc = 30 ft-6 in.  2pc 30.5 2
Md = Dsw b = (0.0535)(3 ft)
fpi = 0.70fpu 8 8
= 18.66 kip-ft
Self weight = 53.5 lb/ft2
Md (18.66)(12)
Solution: =
S 297.9
Stresses will be checked at the transfer point and 
at midspan. 314.8
Prestress force at release is: = +0.752 ksi top fiber
Po = fpiAps (1 – loss) = -0.711 ksi bottom fiber
Po = (0.70)(0.95)(0.612)(270) = 109.9 kip Net concrete stress at midspan:
Po Po e = -0.353 + 0.752 = + 0.399 ksi top fiber
Prestress effect = 
A S = +1.723 – 0.711 = +1.012 ksi bottom fiber
109.9 109.9(2.89 )
=  Allowable stresses using f’ci = 3000 psi:
154 297.9
 Tension at end = 6 fci' = 6 3000 = 329 psi
314.8
= -0.353 ksi top fiber > 162 psi
= +1.723 ksi bottom fiber
Tension at midspan = 3 fci' = 3 3000
Stress due to self-weight at transfer point:
= 164 psi does not control
 2  Compression at end = 0.7 f ci' = 0.7 (3000)
M d =  pc  t − t  Dswb
 2 2 = 2100 psi > 1542 psi
 t = 50db = 50(1/2) = 25 in. Compression at midspan = 0.6f’ci = 0.6(3000) =
Moment at 25 in. from slab end 1800 psi > 1012 psi
If the tension or compression in the end re-
 30.5 2.082 
Md =  ( 2.08) −  ( 0.0535 )(3 ft ) gion exceeds the allowable values based on rea-
 2 2  sonable concrete release strength, strands may be
= 4.74 kip-ft debonded in some manufacturing systems. If the
allowable tension is exceeded, top mild steel re-
inforcement may be used in some manufacturing
systems to resist the total tension force.
2-3
CHAPTER
Chapter 2 2 DESIGN OF HOLLOW CORE SLAB Design of Hollow Core Slabs
Figure 2.2.3.1 Ambient relative humidity
80
70
70
80
70
60 75 70
70 75
40 50
80 30
70
70
60 40 40
50 60
70
75
If tension in the midspan region controls, ei- ACI 318-11 references several sources for
ther a high release strength must be used or mild prestress loss calculations. The method presented
steel reinforcement must be added to resist the here was developed by Zia et al.5 and considers
total tension force. Nonprestressed reinforcement the following:
can be added in wetcast manufacturing systems
1) Elastic shortening ES
or placed in concrete filled cores in drycast sys-
E
tems. ES = Kes ps fcir
Eci
2.2.3 Prestress Losses Kes = 1.0 for pretensioned members
When calculating prestress losses, the calcu-
lation method is dependent on concrete and pre-  P Pe2  M g e
fcir = Kcir  i + i  −
stressing steel material properties and external A I  I
factors, such as relative humidity. Prestress loss Kcir = 0.9 for pretensioned members
calculations affect the service-load behavior of a
hollow core slab, but have little effect on the
strength of a member.
Prestress loss calculations are required for
prediction of camber and for service-load stress
calculations. Hollow core producers should use a
prestress loss calculation procedure that best pre-
dicts the behavior of the product as produced.
2-4
Chapter
2) Concrete creep CR
Table 2.2.3.1
E
CR = Kcr ps (fcir - fcds) Type of tendon Kre, psi J
Ec
where 270 ksi stress-relieved
20,000 0.15
Kcr = 2.0 for normalweight pretensioned strand or wire
members 250 ksi stress-relieved
= 1.6 for sand lightweight pretensioned 18,500 0.14
strand or wire
members
240 or 235 ksi stress-re-
M e 17,600 0.13
fcds = sd lieved wire
I
270 ksi low-relaxation
5000 0.040
3) Shrinkage of concrete SH strand
 V 250 ksi low-relaxation wire 4630 0.037

SH = 8.2 × 10–6 Ksh Eps 1 − 0.06 
 S
× (100 - RH) 240 or 235 ksi low-relaxa-
4400 0.035
Ksh = 1.0 for pretensioned members tion wire
RH = Ambient relative humidity from 145 or 160 ksi stress-re-
Fig 2.2.3.1 6000 0.05
lieved bar
4) Steel relaxation RE
Pi = 0.7(270)(0.612) = 115.6 kip
RE = [Kre - J (SH + CR + ES)]C
Kre, J, C = factors from Tables 2.2.3.1 and  2pc
Mg = Dswb
2.2.3.2 8
5) Total loss = ES + CR + SH + RE 30.5 2
Mg = (0.0535)(3 ft)
8
Observations and experience in a plant may pro-
= 18.66 kip-ft
vide modifications to prestress loss calculations
= 224 kip-in.
to better predict the performance of hollow core
slabs.  P Pe2  M g e
fcir = Kcir  i + i  −
Example 2.2.3.1 Loss of Prestress A I  I
Using the generic cross section of the hollow
 115.6 115.6( 2.89) 2 
core slab defined in Fig. 1.6.1, calculate the loss fcir = 0.9  + 
of prestress based on the following information:  154 1224.5 
Prestressing steel: (224)(2.89)
−
1224.5
4–½-in.-dia., 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands
= 0.857 ksi
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2
dp = 7 in. Eps = 28,800 ksi
fpi = 0.70fpu Eci = 57 f ci' = 57 3000 = 3120 ksi
 pc = 30 ft-6 in. E ps
ES = K es f cir
Superimposed dead load DS = 20 lb/ft2 Eci
Solution: 28,800
= (1.0) (0.857)
3120
1) Elastic shortening ES
= 7.91 ksi
Pi = fpiAps
2-5
CHAPTER
28 ,800
Table 2.2.3.2 Values of C = (2.0) (0.857 - 0.198)
4030
Stress- Stress-relieved = 9.42 ksi
fpi /fpu relieved bar or low-re-
strand or laxation strand 3) Shrinkage of concrete SH
wire or wire
V  Volume Area
0.80 1.28   = =
Perimeter
S Surface
0.79 1.22
154
0.78 1.16 = = 1.75
2(36+8)
0.77 1.11
0.76 1.05 Use RH = 70%
0.75 1.45 1.00  V
SH = 8.2 × 10–6 Ksh Eps 1 − 0.06  × (100 - RH)
0.74 1.36 0.95  S
–6
0.73 1.27 0.90 = 8.2 × 10 (1.0) 28,800 × (1 - 0.06 × 1.75)
(100 - 70)
0.72 1.18 0.85
= 6.34 ksi
0.71 1.09 0.80
0.70 1.00 0.75
4) Steel relaxation RE
0.69 0.94 0.70 From Table 2.2.3.1:
0.68 0.89 0.66 Kre = 5000 psi, J = 0.04
0.67 0.83 0.61
from Table 2.2.3.2
0.66 0.78 0.57
C = 0.75 for fpi/fpu = 0.7
0.65 0.73 0.53
RE = [Kre - J(SH + CR + ES)]C
0.64 0.68 0.49
 5000 
0.63 0.63 0.45 =  − 0.04 × (6.34 + 9.42 + 7.91) 0.75
1000 
0.62 0.58 0.41
0.61 0.53 0.37 = 3.04 ksi
0.60 0.49 0.33 5) Total loss at midspan
Total loss = ES + CR + SH + RE
2) Concrete creep CR
= 7.91 + 9.42 + 6.34 + 3.04
2 = 26.7 ksi
M sd = pc Ds b
8
Percent loss of initial prestress:
30.52
Msd = (0.02)(3)(12) = 83.72 kip-in. total loss
8 Percent = (100 )
M e f pi
fcds = sd
I 26 .7
= (100)
=
83.72( 2.89 ) (0.7 )(270 )
1224.5 = 14.1% of initial prestress
= 0.198 ksi
2.2.4 Service Load Stresses
Ec = 57 f c' = 57 5000 = 4030 ksi Service load concrete stresses are calculated as a
E ps measure of performance or serviceability. For the
CR = K cr (fcir - fcds)
Ec in-service state when deflections must be calcu-
lated, a stress check must first be made to deter-
mine the member classification (Class U, T, or C)
2-6
Chapter
and whether gross-section properties or cracked- 2

transformed section properties are to be used. Mservice = (Dsw + Ds + L)
8
In-service stresses are checked assuming that
30 2
all prestress losses have occurred. The calculated Mservice = (0.0535 + 0.020 + 0.050)(3 ft)
stresses are compared to the permissible stresses 8
noted in section 2.2.1. Hollow core slabs are nor- = 41.68 kip-ft
mally designed to be Class U members. Tensile = 500 kip-in.
stress limits between 6 fc' and 7.5 fc' are With losses = 14.1% from Example 2.2.3.1
commonly used. In special circumstances where Pe = Apsfpi(1 – loss)
deflections will not be a problem and where Pe = (0.612)(0.7)(270) (1 - 0.141)
measures have been put in place to mitigate cor- = 99.4 kip
rosion under severe exposure, Class T members The stress in the precompressed tensile zone,
may be used. Hollow core slabs are infrequently which is the bottom fiber at midspan, is
designed as Class C members. Caution should be
exercised with the applicability of design provi- 99.4 99.4( 2.89 ) 500
fbot = + −
sions to Class C hollow core members, particu- 154 314.8 314 .8
larly with respect to shear, crack control, and de- = 0.645 + 0.913 − 1.588
flections. = -0.030 ksi (tension)
Example 2.2.4.1 Service Load Stresses ' 5000
< 7.5 fc = 7.5 = 0.53 ksi
Using the generic cross section of the hollow 1000
core slab defined in Section 1.6, calculate the ser- The member may be classified as Class U. Use
vice load stresses given the following criteria: gross section properties.
Prestressing steel: Top fiber compression with sustained loads
99.4 99.4( 2.89 ) 298
4–1/2 in. dia., 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands ftop = − +
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2 154 297.9 297.9
dp = 7 in. = 0.645 - 0.964 + 1.000
fpi = 0.70fpu = + 0.681 ksi
f c' = 5000 psi Permissible compression
 pc = 30 ft–6 in. = 0.45 f c'
 = 30 ft–0 in. = 0.45(5000)
Superimposed dead load Ds = 20 lb/ft2 = 2.25 ksi > 0.681 ksi OK
Live load L = 50 lb/ft2 Top fiber compression with total load
Solution: 99.4 99.4( 2.89 ) 500
ftop = − +
154 297.9 297.9
Calculate the sustained moment: = 0.645 − 0.964 + 1.678
2 = 1.359 ksi
Msustained = (Dsw + Ds)
8
Permissible compression
30 2
Msustained = (0.0535 + 0.020)(3 ft) = 0.60 f c'
8
= 24.8 kip-ft = 0.60(5000)
= 298 kip-in = 3.00 ksi > 1.359 ksi OK
Calculate the service moment: 2.2.5 Design Flexural Strength
The moment strength of a prestressed con-
crete member is a function of the maximum stress
2-7
CHAPTER
developed in the prestressing strands. Lower lim- f′c = 5000 psi

its are placed on the amount of reinforcement to  pc = 30 ft-6 in.
ensure that the member exhibits ductile behavior
 = 30 ft-0 in.
at first cracking. Nonprestressed members also
Superimposed dead load Ds = 20 lb/ft2
have an upper limit of reinforcement. However,
Live load L = 50 lb/ft2
under the unified design procedure adopted in
ACI 318-026 there is no upper limit of reinforce- Solution:
ment for prestressed members. ACI 318-11 Sec- Method 1: ACI Equation (18-1)
tion 18.8.1 requires that prestressed concrete
members be classified as tension-controlled, Use γp = 0.28 for low-relaxation strands
transition, or compression-controlled based on  5000 − 4000 
the net tensile strain in the extreme tensile steel.
β1 = 0.85 –   0.05
 1000 
For tension-controlled members, the net tensile = 0.80
strain must be at least 0.005 and φ = 0.9. The ad- Aps 0.612
dition of prestressed reinforcement beyond ten- ρp = = = 0.0024
sion-controlled will result in diminishing return bd p (36)(7)
as φ decreases.  γp f pu 
fps = f pu 1 − ρ p ' 
The lower limit on reinforcement requires  β1 fc 
that:
 0.28  270 
φMn ≥ 1.2 Mcr fps = 270 1 −  0.0024 
 0.80  5 
I  Pe Pee 
Mcr =  + + 7.5 f c'  = 257.7 ksi
yb  A Sb  Aps f ps 0.612(257.7 )
This ensures that when the concrete first de- a = =
'
0.85 fc b 0.85(5)(36)
velops flexural cracks, the member will not fail
in a brittle manner. However, ACI 318-11 Sec- = 1.03 in.
tion 18.8.2 allows a waiver of this requirement
for flexural members with shear and flexural The net tensile strain is
strength at least twice that required by design. a
For additional information, refer to Section c = = 1.03/0.8 = 1.29 in.
β1
2.2.1.5 of this manual.
dp − c
The stress in the prestressing steel at nominal εt = (0.003) = 7 − 1.29 (0.003)
strength may be calculated in several ways. ACI c 1.29
318-11 Eq. (18–1) may be used as an approxima- = 0.0133 > 0.005
tion, charts and tables from the PCI Design
Thus the section is tension-controlled, φ = 0.9.
Handbook may be used, or a strain compatibility
analysis may be made. φMn = φApsfps(dp – a/2)
 1.03 
Example 2.2.5.1 Design Flexural Strength φMn = 0.9 (0.612)(257.7)  7 − 
Using the generic cross section of the hollow  2 
core slab defined in Fig. 1.6.1, check the design = 920 kip-in./slab
flexural strength, given the following criteria: = 76.7 kip-ft/slab
Prestressing steel: Using ACI 318–11 Chapter 9 load combinations,

1.4 D
4–½-in.-dia., 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands wu = the larger of 
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2 1.2 D + 1.6 L
dp = 7 in. 1.4D = 1.4(0.0535 + 0.02) = 0.103 kip/ft2
fpi = 0.70fpu 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(0.0535 + 0.02) + 1.6(0.05)
= 0.168 kip/ft2 (controls)
2-8
Chapter
Therefore, wu = 0.168 kip/ft2 Method 3: Strain Compatibility

30 2 The stress-strain diagram from Fig. 15.3.3 of
Mu = (0.168)(3 ft)
8 the PCI Design Handbook, shown in Fig. 2.2.5.1,
= 56.7 kip-ft < 76.7 OK will be used for this example.
Check minimum reinforcement The maximum usable strain at the extreme
concrete compression fiber is assumed to be
φMn ≥ 1.2 Mcr 0.003 in./in. The method involves a trial and error
From Example 2.2.3.1 procedure to obtain equilibrium within the sec-
tion, where the force in the compression block
Loss = 14.1% equals the tensile force in the steel. The equations
Pe = Apsfpi(1 – loss) are developed from the strain diagram shown.
= 0.7(270)(0.612)(1 − 0.141) 0.003 0.85f'c
= 99.4 kip c a C
Bottom compression dp
99.4 99.4( 2.89 ) T

fbot = + εs
154 314.8
= 1.558 ksi
a = β 1c
1224.5  7.5 5000 
Mcr = 1.558 +  Using 14.1% loss from Example 2.2.3.1
3.89  1000  fse = fpi(1 – loss)
= 657 kip-in. fse = 0.7(270)(1 − 0.141) = 162.4 ksi
φM n f 162.4
920 εse = se = = 0.006
= = 1.4 > 1.2 OK E ps 28,800
M cr 657
Please note that this check is necessary only Assume c = 1 in., then a = 0.80(1) = 0.8 in.
at the critical section. Reference the discussion d −c
εt = p (0.003)
under section 2.2.1.5 in this manual. c
7 −1
Method 2: PCI Design Handbook = (0.003) = 0.018
1
Using Fig. 5.14.2 from the seventh edition of the εps = εse + εt
PCI Design Handbook = 0.006 + 0.018 = 0.024
Aps f pu From stress-strain curve
ωpu = '
bd p f c fps = 268 ksi
0.612(270) T = (0.612)(268) = 164 kip
=
(36)(7 )(5) C = 0.85(5)(0.8)(36) = 122.4 kip < 164 kip
= 0.131 Try c = 1.3 in. then a = 0.80(1.3) = 1.04 in.
K′u = 538
7 − 1.3
bd p2 εt = (0.003) = 0.0131
φMn = K′u 1 .3
12, 000 εps = 0.0131 + 0.006 = 0.0191
36( 7 ) 2
= 538 From stress–strain curve
12,000
= 79.0 kip-ft fps = 267 ksi
T = (0.612)(267) = 163 kip
C = 0.85(5)(1.04)(36)
= 159 kip ≈ 163 kip
2-9
CHAPTER
Figure 2.2.5.1 Stress-strain curves, prestressing strand
yield strength
elongation
yield strength
e
Stress, fps ksi
Minimum yield strength at 1% elongation
Strain, εps in./in.
The curves can be approximated by the following equations:
250 ksi strand 270 ksi strand

εps ≤ 0.0076: fps = 28,800 εps (ksi) εps ≤ 0.0085: fps = 28,800 εps (ksi)
εps > 0.0076: fps = (ksi) εps > 0.0085: fps = (ksi)
Because εt = 0.0131 > 0.005, φ = 0.9. Example 2.2.5.2 Flexural Strength

with Bars
 a
φM n = φAps f ps  d p −  Repeat Example 2.2.5.1 but add two #4 bars in
 2
cores.
 1.04 
φMn = 0.9 (0.612)(267)  7 −  Solution:
 2 
= 953 kip-in. Use strain compatibility for strength calculation
= 79.4 kip-ft with an effective depth of 5.5 in. for the #4 bars.
On occasion, conventional mild steel rein- d = 5.5 in.

forcement is added to a hollow core slab to lo- As = 2(0.2) = 0.4 in2
cally provide added flexural strength. When re- Assume c = 1.53 in.
quired, the bars are placed in cores right after the
slab is cast and concrete is added to fill the cores then a = β1c = 0.80(1.53) = 1.22 in.
with the bars. The following example illustrates
the flexural strength calculation.
2-10
Chapter
For strands are solid while the concrete is still in a somewhat

fresh state.
dp − c
εt = (0.003) = 7 − 1.53 (0.003) The provisions for shear are found in Chapter
c 1.53 11 of ACI 318-11. The requirements are summa-
= 0.0107 in./in. rized as follows:
εps = 0.006 + 0.0107
= 0.0167 in./in. Vu ≤ φVn
fps = 266 ksi The strength reduction factor φ = 0.75 for shear.
For bars Vn = Vc + Vs
d −c
εs = (0.003 ) = 5.5 − 1.53 (0.003) For the purpose of this discussion, the contri-
c 1.53 bution of shear reinforcement Vs will be taken as
= 0.0078 in./in. zero. The nominal concrete shear strength Vc may
60 be found using Eq. (11–9),
yield strain = = 0.002 in./in.
29,000  Vu d p 
Vc =  0.6λ f c' + 700 bw d (ACI 11–9)
T = (0.612)(266) + (0.4)(60) = 162.8 + 24  M u 
= 186.8 kip when the effective prestress force is not less than
C = 0.85(5)(1.22)(36) = 186.7 kip 40% of the tensile strength of the flexural rein-
≅ 186.8 kip ok forcement. The term Vudp/Mu shall not be taken
Since εt > 0.005, φ = 0.9. greater than 1.0. The minimum value for Vc may
be used as 2λ f c' bwd and the maximum value is
  a  a 
φM n = φ  Aps f ps  d p −  + As f y  d − 
  2  2  the lesser of 5λ f c' bwd or the value obtained
  1.22  from Eq. (11–12) considering reduced effective
φMn = 0.9 162.8 7 −  prestress in the transfer zone.
  2 
Alternatively, more refined shear calcula-
 1.22  tions can be made using Eq. (11–10) or (11–12),
+ 24 5.5 −  = 1042 kip-in.
 2  with Vc taken as the lesser value given by those
= 86.8 kip-ft equations.
VM
Vci = 0.6λ f c' bw d p + Vd + i cre (ACI 11–10)
2.3 Shear Design M max
2.3.1 ACI Requirements Vcw = (3.5λ f c' + 0.3fpc) bwdp (ACI 11–12)
Hollow core slabs are designed for shear ac-
Equation (11–10) calculates shear strength
cording to the same ACI provisions used in gen-
for an inclined flexure-shear failure mode. For
eral for prestressed concrete members. Stirrups
Eq. (11–10), the following relationships are used:
are not normally provided when the applied shear
I
exceeds the shear strength because of the diffi- Mcre = (6λ f c' + fpe – fd) (ACI 11–11)
culty with placing stirrups in most dry-cast pro- yb
duction systems. The placement of stirrups in a Vd = unfactored shear due to self-weight for
wet-cast system is easier than in a dry-cast ex- non-composite sections
truded system and is a viable shear enhancement Vi = Vu - Vd
method. An alternative to increase shear strength Mmax = Mu - Md
is to reduce the number of cores used in a given Md = unfactored moment due to self-weight
slab. This may be done by either leaving out a for non-composite sections
core for the entire length of a slab or by locally
breaking into the cores and filling them so they
2-11
CHAPTER
The minimum value for Vci need not be less  = 25 ft-0 in.
than 1.7λ f c' bwd or 2λ f c' bwd when the effec- Superimposed dead load Ds = 20 lb/ft2
tive prestress force is not less than 40% of the Live load L = 50 lb/ft2
tensile strength of the flexural reinforcement.
Masonry dead load = 800 lb/ft at 3 ft from one
The web width, bw, is normally taken as the sum
support
of the widths of the individual webs measured at
their narrowest point. For Eq. (11–10), (11–11), Solution:
and (11–12), the reduction in prestressing force Uniform load:
at the member end due to transfer must be con-
sidered. ACI 318-11 allows an assumption that 1.4D = 1.4(0.0535 + 0.020)(3 ft) = 0.309 kip/ft
prestressing force increases linearly from zero at 1.2 D +1.6 L = [1.2(0.0535 + 0.020)+1.6(0.050)](3)
the member end to full effective prestress in a = 0.504 kip/ft
length equal to 50 strand diameters. If debonded
strands are used, transfer of prestress for the
debonded strands must also be considered. Line load:
ACI 318-11 Section 11.4.6.1 contains a list of 1.4D = 1.4(0.800)(3 ft) = 3.36 kip
members for which minimum shear reinforce- 1.2D = 1.2(0.800)(3 ft) = 2.88 kip
ment is not required where Vu exceeds 0.5φVc. The combination of wu = 0.309 kip/ft and
The exemption from minimum shear reinforce- Pu = 3.36 kip does not govern. The governing
ment requirement in that section is for hollow combination is wu= 0.504 kip/ft and
core slabs with total untopped depth not greater Pu =2.88 kip.
than 12.5 in. and hollow core slabs of any depth Load, shear, and moment diagrams for a 3 ft
where Vu is not greater than 0.50φVcw. The com- hollow core slab width under the governing load
mentary to Section 11.4.6.1(b) points out that test combination are shown below:
results of hollow core slabs 7,8,9 with total depths
of 12.5 in. or less have shown shear strengths
greater than those calculated by Eq. (11-12) and 2.88 kips
(11-10). Test results of precast/prestressed con-
3 ft 0.504 klf
crete hollow core slabs with greater depths have
shown that web shear strengths in end regions 25 ft
can be less than those strengths computed by Eq. 8.83 kips
7.32 kips
(11-12). By contrast, flexure-shear strengths in
Vu 4.44 kips 13.2 ft
these tests equaled or exceeded strengths com-
puted by Eq. (11-10).
Example 2.3.1.1 Shear Design
Using the generic cross section of the hollow 6.65 kips
core slab defined in Section 1.6, check the slab for
shear given the following information: Mu
Prestressing steel:
4–½-in.-dia., 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands 24.2 kip-ft
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2 43.9 kip-ft
fpi = 0.7 fpu
Loss = 15%
Using the more refined approach according
fc' = 5000 psi (normal weight) to ACI Eq. (11–10) or (11–12), φVc is:
 pc = 25 ft-6 in.
2-12
Chapter
 3.5 5000   1 (3.89 − 1)(3.89)   x + 3 

φVcw = 0.75 + 0.3 f pc  (10 .5)( 7 ) fpe = 98.318  +   25 
 1000  154 1224.5  
= 13.64 + 16.54fpc  x + 3
= 1.541   ≤ 1.541 ksi
 25 
fpc is calculated as a function of the transfer of to x = 22 in.
prestress into the section along the span.
Md
 t = 50 db = 50(1/2) = 25 in. fd =
S
With bearing length = 3 in. 3(0.0535)x
(25 − x)
Full prestress transfer is achieved 22 in. from the 2 2.01x − 0.08 x 2
= =
face of support 314.8 314.8
 x + bearing   2.01x − 0.08 x 2  314.8 
Pe = Apsfpi(1 – loss)   Mcre =  0.424 + f pe − (12)  
 t   314.8  12 
 x + 3 = 11.130 + 26.23fpe − 2.01x + 0.08x2
Pe = 0.612(0.70)(270)(1–0.150)  
 25  Based on these definitions, φVcw, φVci, and Vu
 x + 3 are calculated at intervals across the span. A sum-
= 98.318   to x = 22 in. mary is presented in Table 2.3.1.1 and Fig.
 25  2.3.1.1.
P 98.318  x + 3  Alternatively, the simplified equation
fpc = e =  
A 154  25  (11–9) might be used.
98.318  x + 3    V   10.5(7 ) 
φVcw = 13.64 + 16.54   φVc =0.75 0.6 5000 +700 u (7 ) 
154  25    M u   1000 
 x + 3 V
= 13.64 + 10.56   = 2.34 + 270.1 u (Mu in kip-in.)
 25  Mu
to x = 22 in. The results of this equation are also shown in Fig.
 5000 2.3.1.1. At all points, Vu < φVc therefore shear strength is
φVci = 0.75  0.6 (10.5)(7) + Vd adequate and stirrups are not required.
 1000
VM  Table 2.3.1.1 Allowable shear
+ i cre  (11–10)
M max 
ɸVcw, ɸVci,
x, ft Vu, kip
 25  kip kip
Vd = 3(0.0535)  − x
 2  h/2 = 0.333 8.66 16.59 52.60
= 2.01 − 0.16x
0.5 8.58 17.43 46.02
Vi = shear due to factored loads minus Vd 1.0 8.33 19.96 32.50
I 1.5 8.07 22.49 28.02
Mcre = (6 fc' + fpe − fd)
yb 2.0 7.82 24.17 24.49
2.5 7.57 24.17 20.35
 1 ey  x + 3 
fpe = Apsfse  + b   3.0 7.32 24.17 17.66
A I   25  3.0 4.44 24.17 10.84
3.5 4.19 24.17 9.68
4.0 3.93 24.17 8.81
2-13
CHAPTER
Figure 2.3.1.1 Shear for Example 2.3.1.1
30
25
øVci (Eq. (11 - 10)
ø5 f 'c bwd
20
Shear, kips
øVc (Eq. (11 - 9)
15
øVcw (Eq. (11 - 12)
10
ø2 f 'c bwd
Vu (per ACI 318, Chapter 9)

5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Distance into span, ft
other factors. The sustained compression due to

2.4 Camber and Deflection
the prestressing will cause camber growth. Bal-
Camber is the upward deflection of a pre- ancing this is the effect of creep on deflections
stressed concrete member and results from the due to self-weight and other sustained loads. It is
prestressing force being eccentric from the center this time-dependent movement, in addition to in-
of gravity of the cross section. Because both the stantaneous deflections, that must be considered
prestressing force and the eccentricity are estab- in the development of framing schemes and de-
lished by the required design loads and the span tailing.
length, camber is a result of the design rather than Instantaneous cambers and deflections are
a design parameter. Therefore, camber require- predictable as long as the material properties are
ments should not be specified. known. The time-dependent cambers and deflec-
Deflections are also affected by the amount tions are difficult to predict with a high degree of
of prestressing because prestressing establishes accuracy and any calculation of long-term move-
the load at which a member will crack. If tensile ments must be considered to be only estimates.
stresses are kept below cracking stresses, deflec- This section presents calculation procedures
tions will be independent of the prestress level. for determining long-term deflections. From the
Cambers and deflections will change with hollow core producer’s standpoint, history and
time due to concrete creep, prestress loss, and
2-14
Chapter
experience must be used to modify the proce- 109.9(3.89 − 1)[28.5(12 )]

2
dures to fit the local product. From the standpoint =

(8)(3120 )(1224.5)
of the specifier, these procedures will allow only
5(3)(0.0535)(28.5) (1728)
4
approximate estimates of long-term effects and –
should be complemented with discussions with (384 )(3120 )(1224.5)
local producers. = 1.22 – 0.62 = 0.60 in.
Approximately 1/2 in. to 3/4 in. initial camber.
2.4.1 Camber Estimating long-term effects is complicated
Hollow core slabs are produced with straight because, as time passes, the prestressing force de-
strand patterns rather than draped or depressed creases due to losses and the modulus of elastic-
strands. Using (+) to indicate upward movement ity of the concrete increases with concrete
and (–) to indicate downward movement, net strength gain. Traditionally, a creep factor of 2.0
camber can be calculated as: has been applied to instantaneous deflections to
estimate the additional deflection due to creep.
Pe 2pc 5w 4pc
camber = − This has been modified by Martin10 for pre-
8 EI 384 EI stressed concrete. Table 2.4.1 presents suggested
To determine initial camber, the appropriate multipliers to determine both long-term final de-
values for the prestress force and the modulus of flections and position at erection. It should be
elasticity of the concrete must be used. When noted that in using these multipliers, a total de-
strength rather than tensile stress governs a deflection is calculated rather than the additional in-
sign, the initial strand stress may be reduced to crement due to long-term effects.
modify the anticipated camber. Additionally,
Example 2.4.2 Long-Term Camber
slab camber is sensitive to support point locations
during storage. Camber will increase as these For the slab of Example 2.4.1, determine the
support points move in from the slab ends. net camber at erection and the final camber.
Solution:
Example 2.4.1 Initial Camber
Using the generic cross section of the hollow At erection,
core slab defined in Section 1.6, calculate the in- Initial camber = 1.22 – 0.62 = 0.60 in. from Ex-
itial camber given the following: ample 2.4.1
Prestressing steel: Erection camber = 1.22(1.80) – 0.62(1.85)
4 ½-in.-dia., 270 ksi, low-relaxation strands. = 1.05 in., approximately 1 in.
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2 Final camber = 1.22(2.45) – 0.62(2.70)

fpi = 0.7 fpu = 1.32 in., approximately 1¼ in.
dp = 7 in. 2.4.2 Deflections
 pc = 28 ft-6 in. As with camber, concrete creep will also af-
Solution: fect deflections due to sustained superimposed
Estimate initial losses at 5% and use Eci = 3120 ksi loads. These long-term effects must be consid-
ered for comparison with Table 9.5(b) of ACI
Po = fpiAps(1 – loss) 318-11 to determine acceptability. This table is
Po = 0.7(270)(0.612)(1 – 0.05) = 109.9 kip reproduced here as Table 2.4.2. Engineering
Po e 2pc 5w 4pc judgment should be used in comparing calculated
Camber = −
8 Eci I 384 Eci I deflections with the ACI limits. Live loads spec-
ified in building codes quite often exceed the ac-
tual loads in a structure. While it may be implied
that the full live load be used for comparison to
2-15
CHAPTER
Table 2.4.1 Long-term Multipliers

Without With
Condition composite composite
topping topping
At erection:
1. Deflection (downward) component – apply to the elastic
1.85 1.85
deflection due to the member weight at release of prestress
2. Camber (upward) component – apply to the elastic cam-
1.80 1.80
ber due to the prestress at the time of release of prestress
Final:
3. Deflection (downward) component – apply to the elastic
2.70 2.40
deflection due to the member weight at release of prestress
4. Camber (upward) component – apply to the elastic camber
2.45 2.2
due to prestress at the time of release of prestress
5. Deflection (downward) – apply to elastic deflection due to
3.00 3.00
superimposed dead load only
6. Deflection (downward) – apply to elastic deflection caused

___ 2.30
by the composite topping
Table 9.5(b), situations may arise where it is Solution:

more reasonable to use actual anticipated live From Example 2.4.2:
loads for deflection comparisons. A further com-
plication for superimposed loads is that flexural Final camber = 1.32 in.
cracking will reduce the effective moment of in- Instantaneous deflection due to superimposed
ertia of the section. Calculations using trans-
5(0.02 )(3)(28) (1728 )
4
formed cracked section analysis are required for dead load = = 0.17 in.
Class C and Class T members when tension ex- (384)(4030 )(1224.5)
ceeds 7.5 f c' and are covered extensively in ref- Final deflection = 0.17(3.0) = 0.51 in.
erences 1 and 11. Because hollow core slabs are Instantaneous live load deflection
normally designed to be uncracked under service 5(0.05)(3)(28) (1728)
4
loads, the effects of cracking will not be consid- = = 0.42 in.

ered here.
(384 )(4030 )(1224.5)
Table 2.4.1 includes multipliers for determin- Final position = Final camber + sustained dead
ing the long-term effects of superimposed loads. load deflection + live load increment
Again, use of the multipliers gives an estimate of Final camber = + 1.32 in.
the total deflection rather than the additional
Sustained dead load deflection = – 0.51 in.
long-term deflection.
Net camber = final camber + sustained dead load
Example 2.4.3 deflection
For the slab of Examples 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, =1.32 – 0.51 = 0.81 in.
compare deflections to the ACI 318 limits due to
Live load increment = – 0.42 in.
a superimposed dead load of 20 lb/ft2 and live
load of 50 lb/ft2 on a clear span of 28 ft, including Final position = 1.32 – 0.51 – 0.42 = + 0.39 in.
long-term effects. Use Ec = 4030 ksi.
2-16
Chapter
Table 2.4.2 Maximum permissible computed deflections
Deflection to be
Type of member Deflection limitation
considered
*
Flat roofs not supporting or attached 
Immediate deflection due
to nonstructural elements likely to be
to live load L 180
damaged by large deflections
Floors not supporting or attached to 

Immediate deflection due
nonstructural elements likely to be
to live load L 360
damaged by large deflections
Roof or floor construction supporting That part of the total de-

or attached to nonstructural elements flection occurring after at-  ‡
likely to be damaged by large deflec- tachment of nonstructural 480
tions elements (sum of the long-
Roof or floor construction supporting term deflection due to all
sustained loads and the 
or attached to nonstructural elements **
not likely to be damaged by large de- immediate deflection due 240
flections to any additional live load)†
* Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of
deflection, including added deflections due to ponded water, and considering long-term effects of all sus-
tained loads, camber, construction tolerances, and reliability of provisions for drainage.
†Long-term deflection shall be determined in accordance with 9.5.2.5 or 9.5.4.2, but may be reduced by
amount of deflection calculated to occur before attachment of nonstructural elements. This amount shall
be determined on the basis of accepted engineering data relating to time-deflection characteristics of
members similar to those being considered.
‡ Limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached ele-
ments.
** But not greater than tolerance provided for nonstructural elements. Limit may be exceeded if camber is
provided so that total deflection minus camber does not exceed limit.
For comparison to the provisions of Chapter 9 of Attached to non-structural elements likely to be

ACI 318-11, when non-structural elements are at- damaged:
tached to the slabs, the portion of deflection after  28(12 )
erection may be used for comparison.
deflection limit = = = 0.70 in.
480 480
Change in camber = 1.32 – 1.05 = +0.27 in. > 0.66 in.
Sustained dead load deflection = –0.51 in. Not attached to non-structural elements likely to
be damaged:
Instantaneous live load deflection = –0.42 in.  28(12 )
–0.66 in. deflection limit = = = 1.40 in.
240 240
Compare to ACI 318 limits from Table 2.4.2 > 0.66 in.
As floor, live load deflection limit When a composite topping is used, it will be
 28(12 ) cast after a portion of the slab shrinkage has oc-
= = = 0.93 in. > 0.42 in.
360 360 curred. There will then be differential shrinkage
between the topping and the hollow core slab.
2-17
CHAPTER
This differential can cause additional deflection by local producers will normally indicate that ei-
and bottom tensile stresses. These effects will ther 3000 psi or 4000 psi concrete is required. Di-
generally be negligible. aphragm requirements may necessitate a higher
strength concrete in the topping.
Example 2.4.4 Composite Slab From a detailing standpoint, the primary
Given the hollow core slab of Example 2.4.3, consideration is that hollow core slabs will
add a 2 in. composite topping and recalculate de- have camber. If the topping is finished as a
flections. level surface, the camber will reduce the top-
Solution: ping thickness in the midspan region, which
will affect the load capacity of the slabs. With
Using Table 2.4.1, final camber significant topping thickness reduction, the in-
= 1.22(2.20) – 0.62(2.40) =1.2 in. tegrity of the topping concrete may also be
compromised. A preliminary slab design can
Instantaneous deflection due to topping weight =
provide an estimate of camber and the mini-
5(0.025)(3)(28) (1728)
4
= 0.21 in. mum topping thickness necessary to support

(384)(4030)(1224.5) the design loads. The first option is to provide
the minimum thickness topping at midspan
Long-term deflection due to topping weight
and allow the thickness to increase at the slab
= 0.21(2.30) = 0.48 in. ends to maintain a flat floor. Finish and bear-
Deflection due to superimposed dead load ing elevations can then be set to this criterion.
A second option to minimize topping con-
5(0.02 )(3)(28) (1728 )
4
= = 0.09 in. crete volume is to allow the minimum topping

(384 )(4030 )(2307 ) thickness to follow the curvature of the hollow
(Note: 2307 in.4 = composite moment of inertia core slab. This will result in a finished floor with
using a 3000 psi topping on a 5000 psi hollow camber, which may be acceptable in some occu-
core slab.) pancy categories. In this option, it is important
that all trades be made aware of the final camber,
Long-term deflection due to dead load as it may affect their work. Partitions, doorways,
= 0.09(3.0) = 0.27 in. and stairs will be particularly affected in this op-
Instantaneous deflection due to live load tion.
5(0.05)(3)(28) (1728)
4 When control joints are used in a structural
= = 0.22 in. topping, they should be located over the joints in
(384)(4030)(2307 ) the precast concrete slabs where cracks would
Final position most naturally occur in the topping. At the ends
= +1.2 − 0.48 − 0.27 − 0.22 = +0.23 in. of hollow core slabs, where movement will occur
including instantaneous live load deflection. due to camber changes, deflections, creep, or
shrinkage, control joints are desirable.
2.5 Composite Design Reinforcing of a topping may be required for
A composite, structural concrete topping is structural design. If not, consideration should be
commonly used in floor construction with hollow given to using minimum shrinkage reinforcement
core slabs. The composite action is desirable to for crack control.
add stiffness and strength for gravity loads and Because the composite topping and hollow
may also be required for force transfer within a core slabs interact to create the final structural el-
diaphragm. When a composite topping is used, ement, it is imperative that the topping bonds
consideration must be given to its strength, de- well with the slabs. While the building designer
tailing, and quality assurance. may only be interested in the final product, the
The required compressive strength of the top- process of achieving a well-bonded composite
ping may be determined from the hollow core topping is very important. The hollow core pro-
slab design requirements. Load tables provided ducer is depending on a properly bonded topping,
2-18
Chapter
yet is not involved in specifying, designing, or superimposed dead load on a non-composite hol-
installing the topping. The hollow core producer low core slab. In a wet-cast system, horizontal
is responsible for supplying a slab that is capable shear ties with 1/4 in. amplitude roughening may
of bonding with a topping. The installer of the be used to take advantage of the higher stresses
topping is responsible for surface preparation, allowed by ACI.
topping concrete design, and curing to ensure Design of a composite section is similar to
proper bond. that presented in sections 2.2 and 2.3. The fol-
As a minimum, the hollow core slab surface lowing example demonstrates the additional con-
must be clean and damp at the time of topping siderations with a composite section.
installation. It is recommended that the surface be
thoroughly saturated prior to topping placement, Example 2.5.1 Composite Design
but all standing water must be removed. ACI Using the generic cross section of the hollow
301-1012 specifies that a sand and cement grout core slab defined in Fig. 1.6.1, add a 2 in. struc-
be scrubbed into the slab surface ahead of top- tural topping and check for the following condi-
ping placement. If this procedure is used, it is im- tions:
perative that initial set not be allowed prior to Prestressing steel:
topping placement. If initial set occurs, the grout
can become a bond breaker. Similarly, bonding 4 ½-in.-dia., 270 ksi low relaxation strands
agents, which are rarely specified, will also act as Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2
a bond breaker if any initial set occurs prior to fpi = 0.7fpu
topping placement. dp = 7 in.
The topping concrete and curing techniques Hollow core slab:
will also affect bond of a composite topping.
Curling at topping edges or joints will cause lo- fc' = 5000 psi
cal delamination. Curling is a result of differ- Eci = 3120 ksi
ential shrinkage between the top and the bot- Ec = 4030 ksi
tom surfaces of the topping. Generally, water is
Topping: fc' = 3000 psi
lost more quickly from the top surface, causing
additional drying shrinkage. This can be exac- Ec = 3120 ksi
erbated by use of forced air heaters, but can be  pc = 30 ft-6 in.
minimized by proper curing techniques and use
of low-shrinkage concrete.  = 30 ft-0 in.
Design of hollow core slabs for composite ac- Loads: Dt = 25 lb/ft2
tion is usually limited to a horizontal shear Ds = 20 lb/ft2 L = 50 lb/ft2
strength of 80 psi according to Section 17.5.3.1 Solution:
of ACI 318-11. Through limited published13 and
Calculate section properties:
unpublished testing, the machine-finished sur-
face has been found to meet the requirements of Base section A = 154 in.2
that section. The horizontal shear check should I = 224.5 in.4
be based on the distribution of forces in the mem- yb = 3.89 in.
ber, rather than using an average horizontal shear Topping
over the distance from zero moment to maximum
moment, when checking compliance with the 80 Ec of topping
n =
psi limit. Ec of slab
Composite ties are not normally provided, n = 3120/4030 = 0.77
given the difficulty and expense of installing the
ties in a machine casting operation. When the Use topping width =0.77(36) = 27.7 in.
horizontal shear exceeds 80 psi and composite
ties are not used, the topping is considered to be
2-19
CHAPTER
Composite section: At the bottom of the hollow core slab

Atrcomp = 154 + 2(27.7) = 209.4 in.2 101 .3 101 .3(2.89 )(3.89 )
fbot = +
154(3.89 ) + 2( 27 .7 )(9) 154 1224 .5
yb,comp = = 5.24 in. 318 (3.89 ) 284 (5.24 )
209 .4 − − = -0.066 ksi
Icomp = 1224.5 + 154(5.24 – 3.89)2 + 1224 .5 2307
23 Calculate flexural strength

(27.7) + 2(27.7)(9 – 5.24)2 = 2307 in.4
12 wu = 1.2(0.0535 + 0.025 + 0.020)
+ 1.6(0.050) = 0.198 kip/ft2
Calculate prestress losses:
ES = 7.91 ksi from Example 2.2.3.1 30 2
Mu = (0.198)(3 ft) = 66.9 kip-ft
8
Concrete creep
30 2 Using ACI Eq. (18–1)
Msd = (0.025 + 0.020)(3) = 15.19 kip-ft
8 Aps 0.612
ρp = = = 0.0019
fcds =
15.19(12 )( 2.89 )
= 0.430 ksi bd p (36 )(9)
1224 .5 f pu 
 γp
fcir = 0.857 ksi from Example 2.2.3.1 fps = f pu 1 − ρ p ' 
28,800  β1 fc 
CR = (2.0) (0.857 – 0.430) = 6.10 ksi
 0.28
4030
SH = 6.34 ksi from Example 2.2.3.1 fps = 2701 − (0.0019) 270  = 260.3 ksi
 0.80  5 
 5000  Aps f ps 0.612(260.3)
RE =  1000 − 0.04(6.34 + 6.10 + 7.91) 0.75 a = = = 1.04 in.
0.85 f c b'
0.85(5)(36 )
= 3.14 ksi a 1.04
c= = = 1.3 in.
Loss = 7.91 + 6.10 + 6.34 + 3.14 β1 0.80
= 23.49 ksi = 12.4% d −c 9 − 1 .3
εt = p 0.003 = 0.003 = 0.0178
Calculate service load stresses: c 1 .3
Pe = 0.612(0.7)(270) (1 – 0.124) = 101.3 kip > 0.005
30 2 Thus, the section is tension-controlled,
Mnon-comp = (0.0535 + 0.025)(3ft)
8 φ = 0.9
= 26.5 kip-ft = 318 kip-in.
30 2  1.04 
Mcomp = (0.020 + 0.050)(3 ft) φMn = 0.9 (0.612)(260.3)  9 − 
8  2 
= 23.6 kip-ft = 284 kip-in. = 1216 kip-in. = 101.3 kip-ft
At top of topping Check 1.2 Mcr
284 (10 − 5.24 ) 101 .3 101 .3(2.89 )(3.89 )

ftop = (0.77 ) = 0.450 ksi fbot = + = 1.588 ksi
2307 154 1224 .5
2307  7.5 5000 
At the top of the hollow core slab Mcr = 1.588 +  = 933 kip-in.
5.24  1000 
101 .3 101 .3(2.89 )(4.11)
ftop = − φM n 1216
154 1224 .5 = = 1.30 > 1.2 ok
318(4.11) 284 (8 − 5.24 ) M cr 933
+ + = 1.082 ksi
1224 .5 2307
2-20
Chapter
Please note that this check is necessary only at Mmax = 30.9 – 15.37 = 15.52 kip-ft
the critical section. For more information, refer
101 .3 101 .3(2.89 )(3.89 )
to the discussion under section 2.2.1.5 in this fpe = + = 1.588 ksi
manual. 154 1224 .5
Check horizontal shear: 12.25(12 )(3.89 ) 3.12(12 )(5.24 )

fd = +
1224 .5 2307
φVnh = φ80bvd = 0.75(80)(36)(9) = 0.552 ksi
= 19,440 lb = 19.44 kip
2307  6 5000 
Mcre =  + 1 . 588 − 0 . 552 
5.24  1000 
At h/2,

 30 10  = 643 kip-in. = 53.6 kip-ft
Vu =  − (0.198)(3) = 8.66 kip
 2 2(12)   0.6 5000 
< 19.44 kip ok φVci = 0.75  (10.5)(9)
 1000 
Section is composite.  3.28(53.6) 
+ 0.75 3.25 +
Check web shear at h/2:  15.52 
Transfer length = 50(0.5) = 25 in. = 13.9 kip > 6.53 kip ok
At h/2 plus 3 in. bearing 2.6 Strand Development
 5+ 3 2.6.1 ACI Requirements
Pex = 101.3   = 32.4 kip
 25  Section 12.9 of ACI 318-11 covers development
For composite section, fpc is calculated at cen- length for prestressing strands. The topic has re-
troid of composite section ceived considerable discussion in
the literature.14-21 The ACI expression currently
32.4 32.4(2.89 )(5.24 − 3.89 )
fpc = − = 0.107 ksi is:
154 1224 .5
φVcw  f   f −f 
 d = se db + ps se db = (fps – 2/3fse)db
 3.5 5000   3000   1000 
= 0.75  +0.3(0.107 ) (10.05)(9 ) = A further requirement is that the development
 1000  length shall be doubled when bonding of a strand
19.81 kip > 8.66 kip ok does not extend to the end of the member and the
Check flexure-shear at 4 ft precompressed tensile zone is allowed to be in
tension at service loads.
 30  The ACI expression for development length
Vu =  − 4 (0.198)(3) = 6.53 kip
 2  describes two bond mechanisms. The first is the
transfer length, which is the bond length required
 30  to transfer the effective prestress after losses fse
Vd =  − 4 (0.0535 + 0.025)
 2  to the concrete. This portion of the development
+ 0.020 )(3) = 3.25 kip length is:
f
Vi = 6.53 − 3.25 = 3.28 kip  t = se d b
3000
 30 4 
Mu = 0.198(3)(4)  −  = 30.9 kip-ft With fse equal to 150 ksi, the transfer length
 2 2 becomes 50db, the length used for shear calcula-
 30 4  tions. The second mechanism is for bond length
Md = (0.0535 + 0.025 + 0.020)(3)(4)  − 
 2 2 after the steel stress increases above fse. To de-
= 12.25 + 3.12 = 15.37 kip-ft velop the full stress in the strand corresponding
to the nominal flexural strength fps, a bond length
2-21
CHAPTER
Figure 2.6.1.1 Strand Development Figure 2.6.1.2 Critical Section in

Development Length
fps
Steel Stress
fse
ℓt ℓf fps
ℓd {
fps req’d
greater than
Length into span fps available
Strand Development
ℓd
in addition to the transfer length is required. The

flexural bond length is expressed as: factored load in the flexural bond length, the
f ps − f se maximum value for fps can be calculated as:
f = db
1000 (x −  t ) (f - f ) = x + 2 f
fpx = fse + ps se se
Figure 2.6.1.1 depicts the increase in steel f db 3
stress along the development length of the strand. where
Section 12.9.2 of ACI 318-11 limits investi- x = the distance from the end of the member
gation of development length to the section near- to the section of interest.
est to the end of the member where full design The nominal moment capacity is then calcu-
strength is required under the specified factored lated on the basis of this maximum strand stress.
loads, except where bonding of one or more Martin and Korkosz21 suggest that with par-
stands does not extend to the end of the member tially developed strand, the full concrete com-
or where concentrated loads are applied within pressive failure strain will not be achieved. A
the strand development length. In nonprestressed strain compatibility analysis can be performed to
concrete, the rate of moment increase must be determine the concrete strain that would be con-
considered in selecting reinforcing bar sizes. This sistent with fpx and nominal strength can then be
consideration is also valid in prestressed concrete calculated using that strain.
members. As shown in Fig. 2.6.1.2, with a steep When debonded strands are mixed with fully
rate of moment increase, critical sections may oc- bonded strands, a similar strain compatibility
cur within the strand development length at less analysis may be required in the flexural bond
than maximum moment. length for the debonded strands. In this case,
Demand on strand strength above fse does not nominal strength can be calculated in two ways:
occur until after flexural cracking occurs. If flex-
ural cracking occurs in the transfer length, the 1. Analyze section with all strands at the
strand cannot accept additional stress, resulting fpx for the debonded strands.
in bond failure. Therefore, the limit on member 2. Analyze section with only fully bonded
flexural strength in the strand transfer length is strands at their fps and ignore the
the cracking moment. In the flexural bond length, debonded strands.
strand stress can increase above fse, but not to full The greater of the two results would predict
fps. Therefore, there is additional flexural strength the nominal strength of the section.
above the cracking moment but less than full For hollow core slabs, the strain compatibil-
nominal strength. If flexural cracking occurs at ity analysis for partially developed strand will
2-22
Chapter
yield variable results as compared with a tradi- There are several aspects of a bond length
tional approach where fpx is used with a full con- discussion that are significant to hollow core slab
crete strain of 0.003 in./in. If fpx is close to fse, the design. In many framing schemes, there will be a
strain compatibility analysis will predict moment requirement to use very short slabs to fill in an
capacity of about 85% of the traditional analysis. area. With fully developed strands, these slabs
When fpx is 10% greater than fse, the difference will normally have very large load capacities.
reduces to 5% or less. The additional complexity However, capacity may be reduced because the
of the strain compatibility analysis would only strands might only be partially developed. For
seem warranted when flexural cracking is ex- example, for a slab prestressed with 1/2 in. diam-
pected near the transfer point or when debonded eter, 270 ksi strands with
strands are used. fse = 150 ksi and fps = 260 ksi:
If a critical section occurs in a region where
f 
strand is not fully developed, failure may be by  d =  se d b + ( f ps − f se )d b
bond slip. Such a failure resembles a brittle shear  3 
failure. ACI 318-11 prescribes reduced φ factors  150 
to be used in these situations. For flexural sec- = + 110 (0.5) = 80 in. = 6 ft-8 in.
 3 
tions in pretensioned members where strand em-
bedment is less than the development provided in This hollow core slab would have to be two
ACI 318-11 Section 12.9.1.1, ACI prescribes a φ development lengths, or 13 ft-4 in. long in order
factor of 0.75 from the end of the member to the to develop its full design strength. A shorter slab
end of the transfer length (see ACI 318-11 Fig. would have reduced capacity.
R9.3.2.7[a], reproduced here as Fig. 2.6.1.3). Hollow core slab systems are often required
From the end of the transfer length to the end of to carry concentrated or wall loads, which may
the development length, φ may be increased from affect the rate of moment increase near the mem-
0.75 to 0.9 (Fig. 2.6.1.3). Where bonding of a ber end. As discussed earlier in conjunction with
strand does not extend to the end of the member, Fig. 2.6.1.2, it is suggested that the transfer
strand embedment is assumed to begin at the end length and flexural bond length regions be inves-
of the debonded length. For more information, tigated for reduced capacity when the moment
see section 12.9.3 of ACI 318-11 and Fig. 2.6.1.4 gradient is high.
in this manual.
Figure 2.6.1.3 Variation of φ with Figure 2.6.1.4 Variation of φ with

distance from the free end of distance from the free end of strand
strand in pretensioned members in pretensioned members with
with fully bonded strands debonded strands where 12.9.3 applies
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
Ф Ф
0.7 End of Transfer Length 0.7 End of Transfer Length
Free End of Strand
Free End of Strand
0.6 0.6
End of Transfer Length
End of Transfer Length
0.5 0.5
End of
( )
fse
3000
db 2 (3000
f
)d
se
b
*
member
End of Debonded 22λ d*
d
and free λdd member Length
end of * *λd as determined by Eq. (12-4)
d
strand
Distance from free end of strand Distance from free end of strand
2-23
CHAPTER
The development length equations in ACI potential reduction of fpx. The strain compatibil-
318 are based on testing conducted with mem- ity analysis suggested by Martin and Korkosz for
bers cast with concrete having normal water–ce- sections with partially developed strand becomes
ment ratios. As noted in the commentary to ACI more complex, as there can be variations in de-
318, no-slump concrete requires extra precau- velopment lengths within a given member.
tions. Hollow core slabs produced with the extru- Figure 2.6.1.5 illustrates the change in mo-
sion process fall into this category. As originally ment strength for the generic hollow core slab of
presented by Anderson and Anderson15 and rein- Fig. 1.6.1 from normal slip to 5/32 in. slip on all
forced by Brooks, Gerstle, and Logan23, a meas- strands. In the upper diagram, the span length is
ure of satisfactory bond is the free end strand slip 30 ft and there would be no change in slab
in a member after it is cut to length. A limit on strength for uniform load. In the lower diagram,
free end slip expressed as: the span is reduced to 25 ft and it is clear that the
extended development length would result in re-
f se f pi
δall = db duced flexural strength, even with uniform load.
6 E ps End slip in excess of normal slip has a more sig-
has been suggested as a maximum free end strand nificant effect in shorter slabs.
slip for using the ACI development lengths. This The following example demonstrates the use
expression approximates the strand shortening of the Martin and Korkosz strain compatibility
that would have to occur over the transfer length. analysis for partially developed strand and the
For a ½-in.-diameter strand stressed initially to use of free end slip for evaluating strength. The
189 ksi, the free end slip should not exceed about procedure is also valid with normal end slip by
3 using the appropriate transfer and flexural bond
/32 in. if the ACI transfer and development
lengths are to be achieved. lengths.
When free end slip exceeds δall, the transfer
length and the flexural bond length will exceed Example 2.6.1.1 Initial Strand Slip
ACI values. Shear strength in the transfer length Given the generic cross section of the hollow
region and moment strength in the flexural bond core slab defined in Fig. 1.6.1, calculate the de-
length region will be reduced and the distance sign flexural strength, given the following:
into the span where the full moment strength is Prestressing steel:
developed will increase.
4 ½-in.-dia., 270 ksi low-relaxation strands.
If the free end strand slip is known from qual-
Eps = 28,800 ksi
ity control measurements, the member strength
dp = 7 in.
can be evaluated with consideration of extended
transfer and flexural bond lengths. As a function f′c = 5000 psi
of measured end slip, the transfer length and flex- fpi = 185 ksi
ural bond length can be calculated for each strand fse = 163.4 ksi
as follows: fps = 267 ksi
δs = 3/16 in. all strand
2δ s E ps 6δ s E ps ( f ps − f se ) Solution:
t = f = 2δ s E ps
f pi f pi f se t =
f pi
= 2(3 / 16 )(28,800)/185
Shear strength can be evaluated by substitut-
= 58.4 in.
ing the calculated transfer length for 50 db in
evaluating the rate of increase of prestress. Flex-
ural strength calculations are affected only by the
extension of the strand development length and
2-24
Chapter
Figure 2.6.1.5 Effect of end slip
80
Moment (ft-kips)
60
Moment Capacity
with 5/32″ End Slip
40
Uniform Load Moment Capacity

20 with Normal End Slip
Moment Diagram
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance Along Member Length (ft)
80
Moment (ft-kips)
60
Moment Capacity
40 with 5/32″ End Slip
Moment Capacity
20 Uniform Load with Normal End Slip
Moment Diagram
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance Along Member Length (ft)
6δ s E ps ( f ps − f se ) Apsfpx = 4(0.153)(221) = 135.3 kip

f =
f pi f se Traditional analysis:
6 ( 3 /16 )( 28,800)( 267 − 163.4) a =
135.3
= 0.88 in.
= 0.85(5)(36)
185 (163.4)
= 111 in. Mn = 135.3(7 − 0.88/2)/12 = 74 kip-ft
 d = 58.4 + 111 = 169.4 in. Strain compatibility analysis
The minimum hollow core slab length re- Ecεc
quired to achieve full flexural strength is C1
c
2(169.4)/12 or about 28 ft. Calculate flexural C1
dp
strength at 10 ft.
T = Apsfpx
fpx = fse +
(x −  ) (f t
− fse)
ps εs
f
10 (12 ) − 58.4 
= 163.4 +  (267 – 163.4)
111 εps = εse + εt
= 221ksi εse = 163.4/28,800 = 0.00567 in./in.
2-25
CHAPTER
εps = 222/28,800 = 0.00771 in./in.

εt = 0.00771 − 0.00567 = 0.00204 in./in.
Using trial and error for
T =C
Find
c = 2.25 in.
εc = 0.000966 in./in.
Concrete stress at top
ftop = 4030(0.000966) = 3.894 ksi
Concrete stress at top of core
(2.25 − 1.25) (3.894) = 1.731
= ksi
2.25
3.894 + 1.731
C1 = (1.25)(36) = 126.6 kip
2
1.731
C2 = (10.5)(2.25 − 1.25) = 9.1 kip
2
The locations of the concrete compressive forces
C1 and C2 are determined assuming a triangular
distribution of the concrete compressive stress.
2 (1.0 / 2.25) + 1
dC1 = (1.25) = 0.54 in.
3 (1 + 1.0/2.25)
dC2 = 1.25 + 1.0/3 = 1.58 in.
Mn = (135.3(7 − 0.54) – 9.1(1.58 − 0.54)) /12
= 72 kip-ft
2-26
Special Design Considerations Chapter
SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER 3 3
Chapter 3
SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
own weight or any load superimposed on the wall
3.1 General Information as a deep beam spanning between vertical sup-
The application of hollow core slabs as roof ports. However, when such loads must be sup-
and floor deck members creates several situations ported by the slab system, a method is required to
for consideration in design that are either not decide how many slabs will contribute in carrying
completely covered by ACI 318-113 provisions or a given load in a given location. This section pre-
that involve consideration of production process- sents a design method that may be used when the
es. This section presents information that may be hollow core slabs do have to support non-uniform
used as a guideline for the situations described, loads.
but are not hard and fast rules. The criteria pre-
sented represent conservative practices and should 3.2.1. Distribution Mechanisms
be verified with local precast concrete producers. As load is applied to one hollow core slab in a
Published data relative to each situation are refer- system, the response of the slab system is to de-
enced. However, extensive in-plant testing has flect and also twist if the load is not on the longi-
been conducted by hollow core slab producers, tudinal centerline of the system. As the loaded
which may allow less conservative criteria to be slab edges try to move down, the interlock of the
used because of the unique characteristics of a grout in the joints with the keyways formed in the
particular slab. slab edges causes adjacent slabs to deflect a simi-
lar amount. The flexural and torsional stiffnesses
3.2 Resistance for Non-uniform Loads of the adjacent slabs reduce the deflection of the
As demonstrated in Chapter 2 of this manual, loaded slab from what might be expected if it act-
hollow core slabs are designed as individual, one- ed alone. Shear forces are developed along the
way, simple-span slabs. When the hollow core keyways and the loaded slab then gets some sup-
slabs are installed and grouted together at the port from the adjacent slabs. Many times, shrink-
keyways, the individual slabs become a system age cracks will occur in the grouted joints at the
that behaves similarly to a monolithic slab. A ma- interface between the grout and hollow core slab
jor benefit of slabs acting together is the ability to edge. This cracking does not impair the mecha-
transfer forces from one to another. In most hol- nism described previously because the configura-
low core slab deck applications, non-uniform tion of the keyways in the slab edges still provides
loading occurs in the form of line loads, concen- mechanical interlock even in the presence of a
trated loads, or load concentrations at openings. crack.
The ability of individual slabs to interact allows Shear forces transferred along keyways create
these load concentrations to be shared by several two sets of forces that are normally not considered
slabs. The ability to distribute loads among sever- in hollow core slab design. The first is torsion,
al slabs has been demonstrated in several pub- which develops because the shear on one edge of
lished tests24-30 and many unpublished tests. a given slab is different in magnitude than the
In many cases, load concentrations do not shear on the opposite edge. As depicted in Fig.
have to be carried by the hollow core slabs. For 3.2.1, the keyway shear reduces as the distance
example, a header at a large opening may be sup- from the load increases. This torsion causes shear
ported directly by a foundation or vertical support stress in the slabs that is additive to the direct
element; a beam might be installed to directly car- shear stress.
ry a heavy concentrated load; or a heavy wall par-
allel to a slab span might be designed to carry its
CHAPTER
Chapter 3 3 SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Special Design Considerations
Figure 3.2.1
V1 > V2 > V3
The second set of forces is induced because

3.2.2 Design Guidelines
the system tends to behave as a two-way slab.
Transverse bending moments occur because of the ACI 318-11 recognizes the load transfer capa-
edge support provided by adjacent slabs. The re- bilities of hollow core slabs in Section 16.3.1.
sult is transverse tensile stress developed in the That section requires that distribution of forces be
bottom of the slab and compressive stress in the established by analysis or test. The guidelines pre-
top. Hollow core slabs do not contain transverse sented here are based on extensive, full-scale test-
reinforcement. Therefore, transverse tensile ing of a specific hollow core slab system. Addi-
stresses must be resisted by plain concrete. The tionally, a comparison of these guidelines with an
magnitude of load concentration causing the analytical study has been done. Therefore, these
transverse tension must be limited to preclude a guidelines should satisfy the requirement of
splitting failure (see Section 3.2.2). ACI 318-11, Section 16.3.1.
Several factors affect the ability of a hollow The two basic design parameters considered
core slab system to distribute loads to adjacent for hollow core slabs are flexure and shear. De-
slabs. As the width of an assembly of slabs gets sign for flexure is straightforward, with the effec-
narrower than the span length, a reduction in the tive load-resisting width being a function of the
number of slabs contributing to the support of a span length. Conversely, shear design is compli-
concentration of load occurs. This occurs because cated by torsions developed in the system. If tor-
the freedom to deflect and twist at the unsupport- sion is not used as a design parameter, direct shear
ed edges of the system becomes more significant. must be modified to reflect the increase in shear
A second factor is the spacing of the slab joints. stress due to the torsion.
With hollow core slabs available in widths rang- Figure 3.2.2 depicts a method of establishing
ing from 2 ft to 8 ft, some differences in load dis- an effective resisting section for any type of load
tribution behavior can be expected. Finally, the to be distributed between hollow core slabs. In the
span length affects the number of slabs that con- midspan regions, the effective width is defined as
tribute to load distribution. As span length chang- a function of span length. At the supports, the ef-
es for a wide system, the interaction of flexural fective width is defined as an absolute width. The
and torsional stiffnesses changes. For longer width at the support is restricted to account for
spans, flexural stiffness reduces relative to tor- shear stresses due to torsion. Use of these resisting
sional stiffness, resulting in relatively less slab sections will result in prediction of peak values of
rotation and less transverse curvature. The result moment and shear. That is, the effective width
is that more slabs can contribute to load resistance concept is simply a mechanism used to determine
on longer spans as long as the system is wide rela- the maximum design moments and shears rather
tive to its length. than a depiction of the actual load path through
the system.
3-2
Special Design Considerations SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS CHAPTER 3 3
Chapter
Figure 3.2.2 Effective resisting width of slab for load anywhere along span
The performance of hollow core slab systems 2) For extremely large span-depth ratios (in
indicates that shear and moment might affect ad- excess of approximately 50), the effective
ditional slabs. For example, for a load located section at midspan may be reduced by 10
some distance from a free edge, the peak moment to 20%.
due to that load can be predicted by assuming the 3) For spans less than about 10 ft, the
load is resisted by a width equal to 0.50ℓ. In reali- effective width at the support may become
ty, in flexure, a total width equal to 85% to 90% narrower.
of the span length might have some additional 4) Local load concentrations can cause longi-
moment attributable to that load. In shear, the 1 ft tudinal splitting failures due to transverse
effective section at the support at a free edge may bending in the system. Punching shear
be used to predict the peak shear, but, because of failures can also occur. The magnitude of
torsion, the total reaction due to an edge load will concentrated loads must be limited to pre-
not actually be concentrated in the edge 1 ft. clude such failures. These limits are best
Several limitations should be recognized for established by test for each hollow core
Fig. 3.2.2. slab system.
1) As the width of the system becomes nar-
rower than the span length, the effective
resisting widths will become narrower.
3-3
CHAPTER
Figure 3.2.3
DL 2
D ==
1010 psf
lb/ft ww1D1D==650
650 #/ft
lb/ft PP = 500 #
1D1D= 500 lb PP2D==
2D
1000
1000 lb #
LL
L = =4040 psf
lb/ft
2 w1L1L ==1040
w 1040lb/ft
#/ft PP = 1000 #
1L1L= 1000 lb PP2L2L==3000
3000lb #
The concept of using an effective resisting Step 1: Evaluate the shear and moment diagrams
section is subtly different from the traditional for the non-distributable loads.
concept of load distribution width. Traditionally, wu = 1.2D + 1.6L
loads have been divided by distribution widths for w u = 1.2 (53.5 + 10) + 1.6 (40)= 140 lb/ft 2
design. Using an effective resisting section means
that a given load is resisted by a varying width Vx = w ( / 2 − x ) = 0.140 (25 / 2 − x )
depending on the location of the section being in- x 0.140 x
vestigated in the span. Shears and moments are
Mx = w ( − x ) = (25− x )
 2 2
divided by the width of the effective resisting sec-
Step 2: Evaluate the shear and moment diagrams
tion rather than the loads. This is best illustrated
for the non-distributable loads.
by example.
w1u = 1.2 (650) + 1.6 (1040) = 2444 lb/ft
Example 3.2.1 General Case P1u = 1.2 (500) + 1.6 (1000) = 2200 lb
Using the generic hollow core slab shown in Fig. P2u = 1.2 (1000) + 1.6 (3000) = 6000 lb
1.6.1 and the plan shown in Fig. 3.2.3, determine
the slab design loads. Hollow core slab weight is Step 3: Evaluate the effective width along the
53.5 lb/ft2. span.
Solution: At support
See Table 3.2.1 for the first four steps. DW = 4.0 ft
3-4
Chapter
Table 3.2.1 Shears and moments for Example 3.2.1

Non-distributed Distributable Effective Final
x, ft loads loads Width
Vux Mux Vux Mux DWx Vu (k/ft) Mu (k-ft/ft)
0 1.75 0.00 31.42 0.00 4.00 9.60 0.00
h/2 1.70 0.58 30.60 10.34 4.45 8.58 2.90
1 1.61 1.68 28.97 30.20 5.36 7.02 7.31
2 1.47 3.22 26.53 57.95 6.72 5.42 11.84
3 1.33 4.62 24.09 83.26 8.08 4.31 14.92
4 1.19 5.88 21.64 106.12 9.44 3.48 17.12
5 1.05 7.00 19.20 126.54 10.80 2.83 18.72
6 0.91 7.98 14.55 143.42 12.16 2.11 19.77
7 0.77 8.82 12.11 156.75 12.50 1.74 21.36
10 0.35 10.50 0.00 179.39 12.50 0.35 24.85
11 0.21 10.78 0.00 179.39 12.50 0.21 25.13
12.5 0.00 10.94 0.00 179.39 12.50 0.00 25.29
At 0.25  = 0.25 (25) = 6.25 ft

Example 3.2.2
DW = 0.5  = 0.5 (25) = 12.5 ft
Between x = 0 and x = 6.25 ft
x D = 250 lb/ft
DW = 4 + (12.5 − 4 )
6.25 D = 10 lb/ft
2
= 4 + 1.36 x L = 40 lb/ft
2
2
Slab wt. = 53.5 lb/ft
Step 4: Divide the shears and moments from step
2 by the effective width from step 3 and
add to the shears and moments in step 1.
Step 5: Design the slabs for the web shear, in- Given the system shown, determine the design
clined shear, and moments obtained from load.
step 4. Solution:
The solution for the general case where the
Check flexure only as shear is judged not to be
shears and moments are calculated at intervals
critical
along the span is best suited for use with a com-
puter. The information could also be used to cal- From Fig. 3.2.2, the effective width resisting the
culate shear strength at the same time. line load is 0.50  = 0.50 (25) = 12.5 ft. Determine
For many cases, a general solution is not nec- the design superimposed load.
essary. Simplifying shortcuts can be used to 250
w = 40 + 10 +
shorten the design process. Consider the case 12.5
where shear is known not to be a problem. = 70 lb/ft 2
Using the generic hollow core slab load table in

Fig. 1.6.1, select an 8-in.-thick slab with
4 3/8-in.-diameter strands.
3-5
CHAPTER
If it is not known whether shear is critical, simple φVci = 2.95 kip/ft No Good
iterative checks may be made. Second shear check
Example 3.2.3 Inclined shear did not check at 4 ft into the span,
so determine the effective width at 4 ft, recalcu-
late the distributed load, and check shear.
D = 250 lb/ft At  / 4 , DW = 0.5 = 0.5 (25) = 12.5 ft
L = 400 lb/ft At support, DW = 4 ft
2
D = 10 lb/ft Interpolate at 4 ft into span
2
L = 40 lb/ft
4
2
DW = (12.5 − 4) + 4 = 9.44 ft
25 / 4
wu = 140 + 940/DW
Given the system shown, select a generic hollow
core slab from Fig. 1.6.1 to support the loads = 140 + 940/9.44
shown. = 240 lb/ft2
Solution: Again check shear at 4 ft and beyond and find:
Make preliminary selection based on flexure:
φVci > Vu at all points.
Superimposed w
Therefore, the shear check is complete and the
= 10 + 40 +
(250 + 400) = 102 lb/ft2 slab is adequate.
(0.5)(25) To summarize the steps taken to check shear
in Example 3.2.3, distributable loads were divided
Select 47/16-in.-diameter, 270 ksi low-relaxation
by the effective width at the support to make a
strands from Fig. 1.6.1
conservative shear check. If shear along the span
First shear check is found to be satisfactory, no additional steps are
effective width at support, DW = 4 ft required and the shear check is complete. If shear
in the span is found to be inadequate at some
wu = 1.2(10 + 53.5) + 1.6(40 ) +
[1.2(250 ) + 1.6(400)] point, the effective width at that point is used to
DW calculate a new load, which will then be conserva-
940 tive for points farther into the span. Shear is
= 140 +
DW checked again. This iterative approach is used un-
Using DW = 4 ft til all points farther into the span are adequate for
wu = 140 + 940 / 4.0 = 375 lb/ft2 shear. If shear capacity is sufficient for a given situa-
tion, generally no more than three iterative calculation
Check shear based on this load and find cycles will be required.
at h/2 Vu = 4.56 kip/ft and A combination of loads will be used to demon-
φVcw = 5.34 kip/ft ok strate this method in the following example.
at 4.0 ft Vu = 3.19 kip/ft and
3-6
Chapter
Example 3.2.4
D = 1800 lb
D = 300 lb/ft L = 3500 lb
L = 550 lb/ft
2
2
D = 10 lb/ft
2
L = 40 lb/ft
530 lb/ft 530 lb/ft

Example 3.2.4
Given the center bay of an apartment building as
shown, design for the applied loads
using the generic hollow core slab shown in 85 lb/ft2 85 lb/ft2
Fig. 1.6.1.
50 lb/ft2
Solution:
Select a preliminary slab section based on flexure:
1962 lb/ft 1962 lb/ft
DW = 0.50  = 0.5 (25) = 12.5 ft
Because wall and point loads are spaced closer Msuperimposed = 12,777 lb-ft/ft
than 12.5 ft, conservatively use 10 ft spacing of
loads as DW. 8M superimposed
wequivalent =
At design strip: 2
8(12777 )
=
Point load =
(1800 + 3500 ) = 530 lb/ft 252
10 =164 lb/ft2
Parallel wall =
( 300 + 550 ) = 85 lb/ft 2
Select 41/2-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation
10 strands with a capacity of 164 lb/ft2 at 25 ft.
Uniform load = 10 + 40 = 50 lb/ft2 Check shear
For design strip, including slab weight.
3-7
CHAPTER
wu =1.2 ( 10 + 53.5 ) + 1.6 (40)

5.25
(1.2 × 300 + 1.6 × 550 ) (0.5 − 4) + 4
+ 0.25
DW =11.14 ft
= 140 + 1240 / DW
Note that loads are located only 10 ft apart, which
Pu =
( 1.2 ×1800 + 1.6 × 3500 ) means that design strips would start to overlap.
DW For this case, the maximum effective width might
= 7760 / DW be used as the distance between loads, or 10 ft,
rather than 0.5  .
Start at support where effective width is 4 ft
wu = 140 + 1240 / 10 = 264 lb/ft2
2
wu = 140 + 1240 / 4 = 450 lb/ft
Pu = 7760 / 4 = 1940 lb/ft Pu = 7760 / 10 = 776 lb/ft
Obtain the following results: With these loads, it is found that Vu < φVn for the bal-
ance of the span. Therefore, the selected slab is ade-
x h/2 1.25 ft 2.00 ft 2.75 ft 3.5 ft
quate except for the shear enhancement required for
Vu (kip/ft) 6.48 6.07 5.74 5.40 5.06 web shear, as previously noted.
øVn (kip/ft) 5.46 6.88 6.83 5.06 4.02
3.3 Effect of Openings
Note that web shear at h/2 does not work. No other Openings may be provided in hollow core slab
modifications can be made to adjust the shear calcula- systems by saw cutting after a deck is installed
tion. Shear enhancement is required in the form of stir- and grouted, by shoring and saw cutting, by form-
rups, solid cores, greater concrete strength, or using a ing or sawing the openings in the plant, or by in-
deeper section. stalling short slabs with steel headers. Some typi-
cal header configurations are shown in Section
Proceed to check inclined shear, which was not
6.7. In laying out openings for a project, the least
adequate at 2.75 ft.
structural effect will be obtained by orienting the
Recalculate effective width at 2.75 ft as: longest dimension of an opening parallel to a
2.75 span, coring small holes to cut the fewest pre-
= (0.5 − 4) + 4 stressing strands, or, when several openings must
0.25 be provided, aligning the openings parallel to the
2.75 span to cut the fewest number of prestressing
= (12.5 − 4) + 4
6.25 strands.
= 7.74 ft For hollow core slab design, openings cause
load concentrations, which may be distributed
wu = 140 + 1240 / 7.74 = 300 lb/ft2 over the slab system as discussed in Section 3.2.
Pu = 7760 / 7.74 = 1003 lb/ft As with non-uniform loads, openings cause tor-
Obtain the following results: sion in the slabs. Therefore, determining the shear
adequacy of the slab must consider the effects of
x 2.75 ft 3.50 ft 4.25 ft 5.00 ft 5.25 ft
torsion as well as the direct shear on the section.
Vu (kip/ft) 3.45 3.23 3.00 2.78 2.70
In flexure, the primary consideration is the length
øVn (kip/ft) 5.05 4.01 3.33 2.85 2.71 of strand embedment available from the end of an
opening to the point of maximum moment.
Inclined shear is now adequate to a distance of
5.25 ft into the span. Recalculate the effective
width at 5.25 ft.
3-8
Chapter
Example 3.3.1 non-uniform loads are superimposed near an

Figure 3.3.1 Effects of openings opening, the effective resisting section shown in
Fig. 3.2.2 would then be used for determining the
resistance to those non-uniform loads.
Figure 3.3.1(b) shows a similar condition
where an opening is located with an end closer to
the support than 3/8ℓ. In this case, shear is consid-
ered as though the opening created a free edge.
That is, load from the short slabs or opening will
be transmitted as an edge load to the adjacent
slabs. The resulting torsion on the adjacent slabs
requires the use of a reduced effective width at the
support if torsional shear stresses are not directly
calculated.
Figure 3.3.1(c) depicts an extreme condition
where an opening is located at the end of a span.
Again, the reduced effective resisting section ad-
jacent to the opening is required to reflect torsion-
al shear stresses. When considering flexure, an
opening that extends less than 0.125  and 4 ft
from the slab end into the span may be neglected.
However, a slab with an opening may have a re-
duced capacity when the strand embedment length
is less than the full, required development length.
When non-uniform loads are superimposed near
an opening at the end of a slab, these loads should
be considered as being at a free edge for shear
calculations.
Example 3.3.1
2
D = 10 lb/ft
2
L = 40 lb/ft
2
Fig. 3.3.1 shows some general opening loca- Slab wt. = 53.5 lb/ft
tions with suggested interpretations of the effec-
tive resisting slab width described in Section 3.2.
Local hollow core slab producers may have in-
formation that would allow different design ap- Given the hollow core slab system shown, select a
proaches for their particular slab. generic slab from Fig. 1.6.1 to resist the applied
Figure 3.3.1(a) depicts a relatively small open- loads considering the opening.
ing located at midspan. In flexure, slabs within Solution:
0.25ℓ on each side of the opening can resist the
load from the short slabs. As a guideline, if an end Check the proximity of the opening to the support.
of the opening shown is not closer to the support 3
/8  = 0.375 (25) = 9.38 ft
than 3/8ℓ, there will be no special considerations 11.5 ft > 9.38 ft
for shear design with only uniform loads. When
3-9
CHAPTER
Therefore, no special shear considerations are re- 311/ 2

w = 10 + 40 +
quired. 0.25 (25)
Distribute load from strip with opening: = 75 lb/ft 2
Superimposed w = 10 + 40 = 50 lb/ft2 Try 4 3/8-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, low-relaxation
strands.
The load on the strip containing the opening is:
Check shear:
w = 2 (10 + 40 + 53.5) = 207 lb/ft
The effective width at support = 1 ft each side
Distributing half of the strip load to each side of
the opening:
wu = 1.2(10+53.5)+1.6(40 )
207 / 2 3[1.2(10+53.5)+1.6(40)]/2
w = 50 + +
0.25 DW
207 / 2 = 140 + 210 / DW
= 50 +
0.25(25) where
= 67 lb/ft 2 DW = effective width on each side
From Fig. 1.6.1, select 4 3/8-in.-diameter, 270 ksi, wu = 140 + 210 / 1 = 350 lb/ft2
low-relaxation strands. Using this load, obtain:
x h/2 0.75 ft 1.50 ft 2.25 ft 3.00 ft
Example 3.3.2 Vu (kip/ft) 4.25 4.12 3.86 3.59 3.33
φ Vn (kip/ft) 5.21 5.69 6.12 4.20 3.24

2
D = 10 lb/ft
L = 40 lb/ft
2
Shear resistance is adequate to 2.25 ft into span.
Modify effective width at 2.25 ft.
2.25
DW = (0.25 − 1) + 1
0.25
2
Slab wt. = 53.5 lb/ft 2.25
= (6.25 − 1) + 1
6.25
= 2.89 ft
Given the floor system shown, select a generic wu = 140 + 210 / DW
hollow core slab from Fig. 1.6.1 to resist the given = 140 + 210 / 2.89
loads. = 213 lb/ft2
Solution: Shear is found to be adequate at 2.25 ft and all
points further into span. Use 43/8-in.-diameter, 270
The ends of the opening are closer than 3/8  to the
ksi, low-relaxation strands.
support on both ends. Therefore, consider the
opening as though it were a free edge. 3.4 Continuity
The load on the strip containing the opening is: Hollow core slabs are normally designed as
w = (10 + 40 + 53.5)(3 ft) part of a simple span system. However, continuity
= 311 lb/ft over supports can be achieved by placing reinforc-
For flexure and preliminary slab selection, use an ing steel in the grouted keyways, in a composite
effective width of 0.25  to each side of the open- structural topping, or in concrete-filled cores.
ing. Within limits, the result will be a better control of
superimposed load deflections and a lower re-
quirement for positive moment capacity.
3-10
Chapter
With reinforcing steel located in either a com- When top strands are used, the length of the
posite topping or in cores, elastic moments with cantilever is usually not sufficient to fully develop
allowance for negative moment redistribution de- a strand. A reduced value for fps is required and
termine the amount of reinforcing required. Be- the design procedures given in section 2.6 should
cause of the relative efficiencies of positive pre- be used. In dry-cast systems, the bond of the top
stressing steel and negative mild-steel reinforce- strands to the concrete may be less than desired,
ment, it is difficult to economically justify a con- so a further reduction in fps is required. This re-
tinuous system design. duction may be substantial and each precast con-
When reinforcement such as structural integri- crete producer should be consulted for top strand
ty ties or diaphragm connections are required at bond performance.
supports, the reinforcement ratios are generally When top strands are not economical, non-
very low, and therefore, little moment capacity prestressed reinforcement may be placed in the
can develop. While this reinforcement may be cores or, in the case of a wet-cast product, directly
considered when calculating service-load deflec- in the slab. This is generally done while the slab
tions, it is recommended that the full, simple- concrete is still fresh so that the fill concrete may
span, positive-moment capacity be provided for bond with the slab. The reinforcement is selected
strength design unless moment-curvature relation- based on conventional design with due considera-
ships existing at the supports at ultimate loads are tion given to development length.
known. With either top strands or reinforcing bars, it
One situation where the designer may consid- may be necessary to debond portions of the bot-
er a reduction in the positive moment require- tom prestressing strand in the cantilever region to
ments is when the rational design procedure is help minimize the top tension under service loads.
used to develop the required fire rating of the sys- However, because hollow core slabs are generally
tem. In this case, a limit analysis approach would handled near their ends and not at the in-place
be reasonable. support points, it is recommended that a portion of
The negative moment reinforcement, which is the bottom strands remain bonded for the full
unaffected by fire loads, can develop its full yield length of the slab. Not all producers have the abil-
moment potential and effectively provide a plastic ity to debond bottom strands. This could poten-
hinge at the support. As a result, the positive mo- tially limit the allowable cantilever length or the
ment at midspan may be correspondingly reduced. cantilever load capacity.
A detailed discussion of this is presented in Sec- It is desirable to limit the service-level tensile
tion 7.6.4. stresses in cantilevers so that the uncracked sec-
tion properties may be used to more accurately
3.5 Cantilevers predict deflections. The tensile stress limit may
Cantilever design for hollow core slabs differs vary for different hollow core slab systems used.
from that for conventional precast concrete mem- For example, the practice with some dry-cast sys-
bers because of the production procedures used tems is to limit tensile stresses to 100 psi. In other
for hollow core slabs. Guidelines noted here are dry-cast systems and in wet-cast systems, the limit
conservative and may be exceeded depending on
may be raised to 6 f c' . The tension limit is basi-
the specific product used.
Because long-line casting beds are frequently cally a function of a precast concrete producer’s
used for the production of hollow core slabs, top past experience.
prestressing strands may be economical only As a general rule, cantilever lengths between 6
when the full bed capacity is used. Even then, us- and 12 times the slab thickness will be achievable,
ing substantial amounts of prestressing strand may depending on the superimposed load and individ-
be inefficient because of debonding requirements. ual precast concrete producer’s capabilities.
The local precast concrete producer must deter-
mine the economics of using top strands.
3-11
CHAPTER
Applied moment:
Figure 3.5.1
Mservice = 4.06(3 ft) = 12.18 kip-ft
200 lb/ft D
12.18(12)(4.11)
2 f top =
40 lb/ft L
2
1224.5
15 lb/ft D = -0.491 ksi (tension)
Net tension with fully bonded bottom strands:
ftop = -0.176 + 0.463 − 0.491
= -0.204 ksi
Allow 6 5000 = 0.424 ksi ok
Note that some of the bottom strands could have
been debonded for the length of the cantilever if
the top tensile stresses had exceeded a desirable
level.
Example 3.5.1 Cantilever Design Stresses in backspan:
Using the generic hollow core slab section defined Because the backspan is long in this example,
in section 1.6, design for the conditions shown in stresses will not be critical in the backspan region
Fig. 3.5.1. of the hollow core slab. When the backspan is
Solution: short relative to the cantilever length, stresses may
require a check in the backspan to determine the
From the load table in Fig. 1.6.1, select
length of bonding of the top strands.
4 3/8-in.-diameter, 270 ksi strands as the primary
reinforcement. Try 2 3/8-in.-diameter, 270 ksi Ultimate strength:
strands at dp = 7 in. as cantilever reinforcement. At the cantilever, strain compatibility will gener-
Assume 15% losses and 70% initial stress. ally show that the bottom strands may be ignored
Check stresses at cantilever: in determining the nominal moment capacity.
When the bottom prestress is very heavy or the
Bottom strands:
bottom strands are located high in the section, a
Pe = Apsfpi(1 − loss) strain compatibility analysis should be performed
= 4(0.085)(0.7)(270)(1 − 0.15) considering both strand layers.
= 54.6 kip For this example, assume the bottom strands may
be ignored.
 1 2.89(4.11) 
f top = 54.6 − 
 154 1224.5   γ f 
f ps = f pu 1 − p ρ p pu' 
= -0.176 ksi (tension)  β1 fc 
Top strands:
  0.28   2 ( 0.085 )( 270 )  
Pe = 2(0.085)(0.7)(270)(1 – 0.15) f ps = 270 1 −     
= 27.3 kip   0.80   ( 36 )( 7 )( 5)  
= 267 ksi
 1 3.11(4.11) 
f top = 27.3 +  A f
 154 1224.5  a = ps ps'
0.85 f c b
= 0.463 ksi
2 ( 0.085 )( 267 )
a=
( 0.85)( 5)( 36 )
= 0.296 in.
3-12
Chapter
 a diameters, 12db, or the effective depth d past the

φM n = φAps f ps  d p −  inflection point under the worst load condition or
 2 1
/6 of the backspan. For this example, a bonded
( 2 )( 0.085 )( 267 )  7 −
0.9 0.296  length of 67 in. is required.
φMn = 
12  2 
Alternate design: Provide mild-steel reinforce-
= 23.29 kip-ft
ment instead of top prestressing strands.
Mu = (5.26)(3 ft)
Try 2 #5 grade 60 bars at d = 7 in.
= 15.79 kip-ft
Per Section 18.8.2 of ACI 318-11, the reinforce-
As f y
a=
ment must be adequate to develop a factored load 0.85 f c' b
of at least 1.2 times the cracking load. The mini- 2 ( 0.31)( 60 )
mum reinforcement check is required at the criti- a=
cal section, so based on φMn = 23.29 kip-ft:
( 0.85 )( 5 )( 36 )
Find factored load: = 0.243 in.
φwn 2  a
= φM n φM n = φAs f y  d − 
2  2
( 2 )( 0.31)( 60 )  7 −
φ wn 7 2 0.9 0.243 
= 23.29 φMn = 
2 12  2 
φ wn = 0.95 kip/ft = 19.19 kip-ft > 15.79 ok
Top stress = -0.176 – 0.491 = -0.667 ksi with fully
Find cracking load:
bonded bottom strands
wcr  2 Note that a cracked section must be considered in
− = −7.5 f c' + f top
2 St calculating cantilever deflections because the top
wcr 7 2 (12 ) 7.5 5000 stress exceeds a tensile stress of 6 f c' .
− =− + 0.176 − 0.463
2(297.9 ) 1000
3.5.1 Cantilever Load Distribution
wcr = 0.83 kip/ft
φwn 0.95 Stair reactions, posts, or walls may apply non-
= = 1.15 < 1.20 uniform loads to cantilevered hollow core slabs,
wcr 0.83 as shown in Fig. 3.5.2.
Add one #4 top bar per slab A finite element analysis was used to deter-
mine the shear and moment distribution widths for
Check length of top strand to be bonded: these loads. As shown in Fig. 3.5.3, two load cas-
 available = (7)(12) = 84 in. es were analyzed: a concentrated load at the end
 d = ( f ps − 2 / 3 f se )d b of the cantilever and a line load parallel to the
span. In addition, these loads were both placed
= [267 − 2(0.7 )(0.85)(270 ) / 3]0.375 along the free edge and mid-width of a multi- slab
= 60 in. < 84 in. system.
Therefore, the strand is fully effective in the canti- Similar to the load distribution discussed in
lever. If the development length is found to be Section 3.2, it was determined that the distribution
greater than the length available, the moment ca- width varies with the cantilever length and the lo-
pacity will have to be recalculated by the proce- cation of the load along the length. The distribution
dures discussed in section 2.6. width is significantly greater for the moment de-
Bond of the top strands in the backspan must sign than for the shear check. The slab thickness
be long enough to develop the fps required in the and the backspan length were found to have little
cantilever design. The top strands should also be or no effect. Figures 3.5.4 and 3.5.5 summarize
bonded for a distance of the greater of 12 strand the cantilever load distribution widths.
3-13
CHAPTER
Figure 3.5.2 Figure 3.5.4
P2 P1
w2 w1
ℓ1
ℓ2
Edge Loads
Moment DW = 1 + 0.45ℓ (ft)

Figure 3.5.3 Shear DW = 1.5 ft
ℓ = distance from support to point load
or
ℓ = distance from support to end of
parallel line load
Figure 3.5.5
P2 P1
w2 w1
ℓ1
ℓ2
Interior Loads
Moment DW = 1.6 + 0.8ℓ (ft)

Shear DW = 1.5 + 0.2ℓ (ft)
ℓ = distance from support to point load
or
ℓ = distance from support to end of
parallel line load
3-14
Chapter
Example 3.5.2 Total M u = 1538 + 1600 + 3676

= 6814 lb-ft/ft
PD= 700 lb The cantilever should be designed for an ultimate
PL=500 lb moment of 6814 lb-ft/ft.
2
wD= 10 lb/ft
wD= 800 lb/ft
wL= 80 lb/ft
2
3.6 Horizontal Joints
Figure 3.6.1 depicts three conditions typically
used in a multistory wall-bearing building where
hollow core slabs are used in a platform detail.
Several expressions31-34 have been proposed to
describe the transfer of axial load through this
horizontal joint.
With hollow core slabs used for floors, the
8” Generic Slab
2 most efficient detail is to build the slab ends into
Wt. = 53.5 lb/ft
the wall. Depending on the butt joint size, the
strength of the joint for transfer of vertical loads
Given the cantilever loading shown, determine can be enhanced with the addition of grout in the
the equivalent cantilever bending moment. butt joint (Fig. 3.6.1b) or in both the butt joint and
cores (Fig. 3.6.1c). Grout fill in the cores increas-
Solution: es the net slab width and provides confinement for
For the end point load the grout column.
The strength of the joint for vertical load
Pu = 1.2(700) + 1.6(500) transfer can be predicted using Eq. 3.6.1 for an
= 1640 lb ungrouted joint (Fig. 3.6.1a). For a grouted joint
DW = 1.6 + 0.8(6) (Fig. 3.6.1b or 3.6.1c), the greater of
= 6.4 ft Eq. 3.6.1 and Eq. 3.6.2 can be used. Both grouted
1640(6) and ungrouted joints can have the slab cores either
Mu =
6.4 filled or not filled. Both equations include a ca-
= 1538 lb-ft/ft pacity reduction term for load eccentric from the
For the parallel wall load centerline of the joint. With single-story walls
braced at the top and bottom, this eccentricity will
wu = 1.2(800) be negligible.
= 960 lb/ft
DW = 1.6 + 0.8(4) φ Pn = φ 0.85 Ae fc′ Re (Eq. 3.6.1)
= 4.8 ft φPn = φ tg fuCRe / k (Eq. 3.6.2)
960(4 2 )
Mu = where:
2(4.8)
Ae = 2wbw
= 1600 lb-ft/ft
w = bearing strip width
Uniform loads bw = net web width of slab when cores are not
wu = 1.2(53.5 + 10) + 1.6(80) filled
= 204 lb/ft2 = slab width as solid slab when cores are
filled
204 (6 2 )
Mu = tg = grout column thickness
2
= 3676 lb-ft/ft
3-15
CHAPTER
Figure 3.6.1 Common platform details
w w w tg w
(a) (b)
w tg w
(c)
 = width of slab being considered of force in the grout column will be altered. A
fu = design compressive strength of wall or theoretical approach presented in reference 34
grout, whichever is less, when walls are considers pad stiffness, grout column strength as
reinforced against splitting and slab compared with grout strength, and confinement of
cores are filled the grout column. A comparison of this theoretical
= 80% of design compressive strength of procedure with the values calculated using Eq.
wall or design compressive strength of 3.6.1 and 3.6.2 indicates that a conservative ca-
grout, whichever is less, when walls are pacity will be predicted by substituting the actual
not reinforced against splitting or slab pad modulus of elasticity for 50,000 when calcu-
cores are not filled lating k.
C = 1.0 when cores are not filled The bearing strips also need to be checked
against the manufacturer’s recommended stress
2500 limits. Figure 3.6.2 summarizes the forces in the
= 1.4 ≥ 1.0 when cores are filled
f (grout )
'
c joint and the recommended effective bearing strip
width.
k = 0.65 + [f'c (grout) – 2500]/50,000
Another set of forces acting on the horizontal
Re = 1 – 2e/h
joint develops from the negative moments in-
e = eccentricity of applied load measured
duced in the floor slabs due to the clamping effect
from joint centerline
of a bearing wall on the slab ends. This results in
h = wall thickness
two consequences: the splitting strength of the
φ = 0.65 bearing wall is reduced when the normal force
Where bearing strips with a modulus of elas- restraining slab end rotation is considered and the
ticity other than 50,000 psi are used, the amount joint or slab may crack to relieve the frictional
3-16
Chapter
Roof:
Figure 3.6.2 Forces in joint wu =  [1.2 (D) +1.6 (L)]
wu = 28 [1.2 (53.5+15) +1.6 (30)]
= 3.65 kip/ft
Pu Floors:
wu = 28 [1.2 (53.5+10) +1.6 (40)]
V1 V2
= 3.93 kip/ft
Walls:
wu = 1.2 (800)
= 0.96 kip/ft/story
1-k
2
Pu + V1
kPu
1-k
2
Pu + V2 Accumulate loads above floor noted.
2/3w
2/3w
Floor wu ∑wu
18 3.65 + 0.96 4.61
17 3.93 + 0.96 9.50
restraint. This condition is undesirable from the 16 4.89 14.39
standpoint of either joint or slab integrity. Rein- 15 4.89 19.28
forcing located perpendicular to the slab butt joint 14 4.89 24.17
is most effective for controlling this condition. To 13 4.89 29.06
date, there are no published studies to evaluate 12 4.89 33.95
effects of this rotational restraint. No adverse ef- 11 4.89 38.84
fects have been cited when nominal diaphragm or 10 4.89 43.73
structural integrity reinforcement has been pro- 9 4.89 48.62
vided across the joint. 8 4.89 53.51
7 4.89 58.40
Example 3.6.1 6 4.89 63.29
Using the generic hollow core slab section de- 5 4.89 68.18
fined in section 1.6, determine the grouting require- 4 4.89 73.07
ments for an interior butt joint as depicted in Fig.
3 4.89 77.96
3.6.1a given the following criteria:
2 4.89 82.85
slab span  = 28 ft
18 story building with: a) Evaluate capacity of ungrouted joint
8 in. concrete bearing walls (Fig. 3.6.1a)
f'c (wall) = 5000 psi
bw = 10.5 in. for generic hollow core slab
Superimposed loads: = 3.5 in./ft of width
Roof D = 15 lb/ft2 f'c ( slab) = 5000 psi
Roof L = 30 lb/ft2 3 in. bearing strips
Floor D = 10 lb/ft2
Floor L = 40 lb/ft2 φPn = φ0.85 Ae f'c Re (Eq. 3.6.1)
Walls D = 800 lb/ft/story  2 ( 0) 
Live load reduction: None for example φ Pn = 0.65 ( 0.85)( 2 )( 3)( 3.5)( 5) 1 − 
 8 
Solution: = 58 kip/ft
Loads Adequate for floors 8 through roof:
3-17
CHAPTER
b) Evaluate strength of grouted joint using 3000 This example may overstate the height of a build-
psi grout for ing that can be supported on an ungrouted joint.
Concentrated loads due to corridor lintels, wall
(1) A 2 in. butt joint with no filled cores
openings, or exterior spandrels must also be con-
(Fig. 3.6.1b)
sidered in most buildings resulting in an increase
φPn = φ 0.85 Ae fc′ Re (Eq. 3.6.1) in load to be transferred through the horizontal
joint.
 2 ( 0) 
= 0.65 ( 0.85)( 2)( 3)( 3.5)( 5) 1 − 
 8 
= 58 kip/ft
or
φPn = φ tg fuCRe / k (Eq. 3.6.2)
fu = 3000 psi
C = 1.0
k = 0.65 + (3000 − 2500)/50,000
= 0.66
 2 ( 0) 
φ Pn = 0.65 ( 2)(12)( 3)(1.0) 1 −  / 0.66
 8 
= 70.9 kip/ft > 58 kip/ft
Therefore φPn = 70.9 kip/ft
(2) A 1/2 in. butt joint with cores filled
(Fig. 3.6.1c)
φ Pn = φ 0.85 Ae fc′ Re (Eq. 3.6.1)
 2 ( 0) 
= 0.65 ( 0.85 )( 2 )( 3)(12 )( 3) 1 − 
 8 
= 119.3 kip/ft
or
φPn = φ tg fuCRe / k (Eq. 3.6.2)
fu = 3000 psi
C = 1.4 2500/ 3000 = 1.28
K = 0.65 + (3000 − 2500)/50,000
=0.66
 2 ( 0) 
φ Pn = 0.65 ( 0.5)(12)( 3)(1.28) 1 −  / 0.66
 8 
= 22.7 kip/ft < 119.3 kip/ft
Therefore φPn = 119.3 kip/ft
Use 1/2 in. butt joint with cores filled below eighth
floor.
3-18
DIAPHRAGM
Diaphragm Action with Hollow Core Slabs ACTION WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER 4 4
Chapter
Chapter 4
DIAPHRAGM ACTION WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS
4.1 General Information tion details should be shown in the contract doc-
When hollow core slabs are used to construct uments.
floor or roof decks that support vertical loads, the An additional consideration in detailing dia-
natural extension is to use the same decks as diaphragms is the need for structural integrity. Sec-
phragms to transmit lateral loads. Lateral loads act tion 16.5 of the American Concrete Institute’s
on building structures in the form of lateral earth Building Code Requirements for Structural Con-
pressures, wind loads, or seismic forces. The crete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary (ACI 318R-
function of a diaphragm is to receive these loads 11)3 provides minimum requirements to satisfy
from the building elements to which they have Section 7.13 of ACI 318-11 for precast concrete
been applied or in which they originate and structures. For large-panel bearing wall structures,
transmit the loads to the lateral force-resisting el- minimum requirements are specified to provide
ements that carry the lateral loads to the founda- ties throughout the structure. For other types of
tion. The design issues in a diaphragm system precast concrete structures, only general detailing
comprised of hollow core slabs are the design of philosophies are specified. In either case, the fun-
connections to get loads into the diaphragm (alt- damental requirement is to provide a complete
hough most of the earthquake forces originate in load path from any point in a structure to the
the diaphragm itself), the strength and ductility of foundation. Clearly, a diaphragm is a significant el-
the system to transmit these loads to the lateral ement in this load path. A tie system that satisfies
force-resisting elements, and the design of the the strength and force transfer demands on a dia-
connections required to direct the lateral forces phragm will generally satisfy the detailing require-
from the diaphragm to the lateral force-resisting ments for structural integrity.
elements.
4.2 Design Loads
Clear communication is required between the
building designer and the hollow core supplier In plane forces in hollow core diaphragms can
when a deck comprised of hollow core slabs is to be due to lateral earth pressures, wind loads, or
be used as a diaphragm. Some elements of the di- seismic forces. Lateral earth pressures are estab-
aphragm design may be delegated to the hollow lished by the characteristics of the soil being re-
core supplier. However, only the building design- tained. Wind loads and seismic forces are dictated
er is in a position to know all of the parameters by the applicable building code for the structure.
involved in generating the lateral loads. Because Soil and wind loads are actually applied to the
of the many design issues, only the building de- structure. Seismic forces are generated within the
signer can determine the locations and relative structure as inertial forces due to lateral displace-
stiffnesses of the lateral force-resisting elements. ment from ground motions. While soil and wind
These parameters dictate the distribution of loads can be safely treated as static loads, seismic
forces in the diaphragm. If any design responsi- forces must be considered as dynamic in nature.
bility will be delegated to the hollow core sup- In all cases, the same elements will comprise a
plier, the location and magnitude of the lateral complete diaphragm, but the ductility demands on
forces acting in the diaphragm and the location a seismic force-resisting system are significantly
and magnitude of the forces to be transmitted to more important.
the lateral force-resisting elements must be The balance of the discussion in this chapter
specified. Where hollow core slabs must con- will be concerned with lateral wind loads and
nect to building elements made of other build- earthquake forces. This is not intended to dimin-
ing materials, or where demands on connections ish the importance of considering unbalanced soil
go beyond simple strength demands, the connec- pressures, which can commonly be a significant
CHAPTER
Chapter 4 4 DIAPHRAGM ACTION WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS
Diaphragm Action with Hollow Core Slabs
consideration in many projects using hollow core Also, Cs must not be less than
slabs. The basic principles of hollow core dia-
phragms that will be discussed are equally appli- Cs = 0.044SDSIe ≥ 0.01 (Eq. 4.2.5)
cable to diaphragms subject to in-plane forces due
to lateral soil pressures. For structures located where S1 ≥ 0.6g (where
There are many documents that cover design g is the acceleration due to gravity), Cs must not
for wind and seismic forces. The reference used be taken less than that determined from
for this chapter is the 2012 International Building
Code (IBC).35 The IBC refers to ASCE 7-1036 for 0.5S1
Cs = (Eq. 4.2.6)
wind loads based on wind speeds that directly re- R
 
sult in strength-level rather than service-level de-  Ie 
sign wind pressures. A basic wind speed is select-
ed based on the building location and the risk cat- The spectral response quantities are:
egory (previously occupancy category) of the
building, an exposure category is selected based 2
SDS = Fa S s (Eq. 4.2.7)
on the surrounding terrain, modifying factors are 3
determined for the geometry of the building and
its site, and the design positive and negative wind 2
SD1 = Fv S1 (Eq. 4.2.8)
pressures are calculated. 3
The 2012 IBC also refers to ASCE 7-10 for
seismic design. ASCE 7-10 allows an equivalent Ss and S1 for a particular site can be deter-
lateral force approach for many buildings. For mined by interpolation between contours on maps
buildings assigned to high seismic design catego- included in ASCE 7-10 or in the 2012 IBC. They
ries (D, E, or F), depending upon height or the are preferably found on the website of the U.S.
presence of structural irregularities, modal re- Geological Survey, based on the latitude and the
sponse spectrum analysis or seismic response his- longitude or the street address of the location
tory procedures may be required. The equivalent within the United States.
lateral force approach allows design for a base The elastic fundamental period T may be tak-
shear of: en equal to the approximate fundamental period
Ta given by
V = Cs W (Eq. 4.2.1)
Ta = 0.016(hn)0.9 (Eq. 4.2.9)
The seismic response coefficient Cs is determined
by for concrete moment frames resisting lateral forc-
es, or
S DS Ta = 0.020(hn)0.75 (Eq. 4.2.10)
Cs = (Eq. 4.2.2)
R
  for other lateral force-resisting systems.
 Ie 
The base shear is distributed over the height of
The value of Cs need not exceed the structure in the manner prescribed by ASCE
7-10.
S D1 Where diaphragms are not flexible, provision
Cs = for T ≤ TL (Eq. 4.2.3) must be made for the increased horizontal forces
R
T   induced in vertical elements of the lateral force-
 Ie  resisting system, resulting from torsion due to ec-
centricity between the center of application of the
S D1TL lateral forces (center of mass) and the center of
Cs = for T > TL (Eq. 4.2.4)
 R  rigidity of the seismic force-resisting system
T 2   (through which the resultant of the resistances to
 Ie 
4-2
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
the lateral forces acts). Additionally, an accidental 0.2 SDSIewpx. Other requirements are included in
torsion must be considered. To compute the acci- ASCE 7-10, which are not restated in this sum-
dental torsion, the mass at each level must be as- mary. It is important to note that ASCE 7-10 pro-
sumed to be displaced from the calculated center visions yield forces that are already factored and
of mass in each direction a distance equal to 5% are intended to be used with strength design
of the building plan dimension at that level per- methods with no additional load factors.
pendicular to the direction of the force under con- In light of the performance of some dia-
sideration. Forces in the vertical elements of the phragms in earthquakes, the seismic demand on
seismic force-resisting system are not to be de- diaphragms has been an area of focus in recent
creased when accidental torsion effects result in times. Many knowledgeable professionals feel
forces opposite to the direction being considered. that diaphragms should remain elastic during a
Every structure, depending upon its occupan- design-level seismic event to ensure that post-
cy or use and the values of SDS and SD1 at its site, elastic behavior can be achieved in the lateral
is assigned to one of six seismic design categories force-resisting elements. By designing a dia-
(SDCs): A through F. Structures assigned to es- phragm to remain elastic, several things are ac-
sentially non-seismic SDC A require only ordi- complished. Diaphragm flexibility, discussed in
nary detailing by Chapters 1 through 18 of ACI section 4.3 of this manual, will be less significant.
318-11. Structures assigned to (often referred to The ductility requirements for connection details
as low) SDC B also require only ordinary detail- will be of less concern. The horizontal distribution
ing as in the case of SDC A, but now Section 21.2 of forces to lateral force-resisting elements will
is additionally invoked. Structures assigned to (of- not change during the response of a structure to a
ten referred to as moderate) SDC C require, as a design-level earthquake.
minimum, intermediate detailing by Chapters 1 The building code provisions summarized previ-
through 18 and Sections 21.3 and 21.4. Structures ously are based on the expected post-elastic response
assigned to (typically described as high) SDC D, of structures. To keep a diaphragm compatible with
E, or F, require special detailing by Chapters 1 post-elastic seismic response of the lateral force-
through 18, Sections 21.1.3 through 21.1.7, and resisting system, an analysis can be done to evaluate
Sections 21.5 through 21.12. Structural members the total potential post-elastic strength required in the
that are not part of the seismic force-resisting sys- lateral force-resisting elements. Providing a diaphragm
tem of a building assigned to SDC D, E, or F must with strength beyond this required level will achieve
satisfy Section 21.13 in addition to Chapters 1 compatibility, but will involve significant analysis.
through 18. Note that Chapter 21 at times super- Alternatively, the diaphragm design forces prescribed
sedes the requirements of Chapters 1 through 18. by the building codes can be increased by a factor to
Height limits on structural systems and other im- keep the diaphragm elastic and minimize required
portant code requirements (such as whether the analysis.
equivalent lateral force procedure shall be permit- The following recommendations have been
ted for design) also depend on the seismic design made in the second edition of PCI’s Seismic De-
category to which a structure is assigned. sign Manual,37 based on the results of research:
ASCE 7-10 requires that a floor or roof dia- For structures assigned to low and moderate
phragm resist a force equal to seismic design categories (A, B, C), if every floor
diaphragm is designed for the force at the upper-
n
most level derived from the IBC, additional load
F
i=x
i
factors are not required for elastic diaphragm re-
Fpx = n
w px (Eq. 4.2.11) sponse under the design earthquake.
w
i=x
i For structures assigned to high seismic design
categories (D, E, F), if lateral forces are resisted
entirely by special moment frames, additional
The magnitude of Fpx need not exceed
load factors are also not required if every floor
0.4SDSIewpx and shall not be less than
4-3
CHAPTER
diaphragm is designed for the force at the upper- to be considered as a non-rigid diaphragm. For
most level derived from the IBC. most low- and mid-rise structures in low-seismic-
For structures assigned to high seismic design risk areas, an assumption of a rigid diaphragm
categories (D, E, F), if shear walls are part of the would be reasonable.
seismic force-resisting system, it is sufficient to The difference in behavior of flexible and rig-
apply a diaphragm load factor of 2 to the force at id diaphragms is illustrated in Fig. 4.3.1. In (a),
the uppermost level derived from the IBC and to the flexible diaphragm with rigid supports be-
design each floor for that force. haves as a continuous beam. Shears and moments
in the diaphragm are a function of the plan ge-
4.3 Distribution of Lateral Forces ometry. In (b), the deflections of the flexible sup-
The design base shear given by Eq. 4.2.1, ports must be equal because of the rigid dia-
when distributed along the height of the structure phragm. The diaphragm shears and moments are a
in the manner described by ASCE 7-10, results in function of the relative stiffnesses of the supports.
lateral forces (Fx at level x) acting at various floor The differences between (a) and (b) can be con-
levels, the story shear in any story is the sum of siderable. Actual behavior will fall between the
the lateral forces acting above the story. Non- two cases, tending toward one or the other, de-
seismic lateral forces can also be converted to sto- pending on the diaphragm stiffness.
ry shears. The next issue is to determine the dis- In seismic applications, the topic of diaphragm
tribution of the story shears to the lateral force- flexibility becomes a very significant issue. ASCE
resisting elements that will carry the forces down 7-10 requires consideration of diaphragm flexibil-
to the foundation. This problem is usually struc- ity for the horizontal distribution of seismic story
turally indeterminate, which means that defor- shears. A flexible diaphragm is defined by ASCE
mation compatibilities must be considered in ad- 7-10 as one having a maximum in-plane lateral
dition to equilibrium. The stiffnesses to be con- deflection more than twice the average inter-story
sidered are those of the diaphragm and the lateral drift of the supporting lateral force-resisting ele-
force-resisting elements. Concrete diaphragms are ments. Section 12.3 of ASCE 7-10 also sets forth
normally considered to be rigid when compared conditions under which diaphragms can be ideal-
with the lateral force-resisting elements. Depend- ized as either flexible or rigid.
ing on the type and magnitude of lateral forces When diaphragm flexibility must be consid-
applied, a hollow core slab diaphragm may need ered in determining the distribution of lateral
Figure 4.3.1 Diaphragm bending moments
w w
M-
Moment Moment
M+ M+
M+ M+
Flexible diaphragm on Rigid diaphragm on
rigid supports flexible supports
(a) (b)
4-4
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
forces because the diaphragms are neither flexible For buildings other than bearing-wall struc-
(in which case the lateral forces are distributed to tures, the connection to the diaphragm of mem-
the lateral force-resisting elements in proportion bers being laterally braced by the diaphragm shall
to the diaphragm areas tributary to those ele- have a minimum nominal tensile strength of 300
ments) nor rigid (in which case distribution can be lb/ft. Note that in ASCE 7-10 and the 2012 IBC,
in proportion to the rigidities of the lateral force- this force is dependent on the seismic design cate-
resisting elements), a cracked moment of inertia gory and the minimum will almost always be dif-
calculation is suggested in Reference 38 and a Vi- ferent from the above. In general, the 2012 IBC
rendeel truss model is suggested in Reference 39. would supersede ACI 318-11. However, in cases
Since the analysis of a structure with a semi-rigid where the code minimum is lower than the ACI
diaphragm is dependent on so many factors beyond 318-11 minimum, it may be advisable to comply
the diaphragm itself, such analysis is beyond the with the ACI minimum.
scope of this manual. For large-panel bearing-wall structures, a
summary of the tie forces is given in Fig. 4.4.1
4.4 Structural Integrity and the ties are required to have the following
As noted in the introduction to this chapter, minimum nominal strengths:
ACI 318-11 requires consideration of structural
integrity for all precast concrete structures. While T1 - 1500 lb/ft of floor or roof span
proper detailing for lateral loads will satisfy the T2 - 16,000 lb
complete load path requirement of structural integri- T3 - 1500 lb/ft of wall
ty, there are some minimum provisions in section These minimum strengths shall not control if the
16.5 of ACI 318-11 that must be met. With specific actual forces in the diaphragm are greater.
regard to diaphragms, the provisions to be aware of For seismic loading, it is preferable to use
are the following. conventional reinforcing steel for these types of
Figure 4.4.1 Tie forces in bearing wall buildings
ℓ1
b T2 ℓ2
ℓ3
T3 T1
T3 T1
T2
T1 = Transverse
T2 = Peripheral
T2
T3 = Longitudinal
4-5
CHAPTER
ties, to limit the elongations and deformations. Longitudinal joint: Joint oriented parallel to the
When structural integrity requirements control in slab span.
non-seismic areas, untensioned prestressing Transverse joint: Joint oriented perpendicular to
strands may be used to satisfy the strength re- the slab span.
quirements. To satisfy structural integrity, all diaphragms
4.5 Elements of a Diaphragm should have boundary elements of some type. The
Figure 4.5.1 illustrates the various elements boundary elements are essential to ensure that a
that comprise a complete diaphragm. The follow- diaphragm will have the strength to transfer lateral
ing definitions will be used to describe the various loads to the lateral force-resisting system. Tension
elements: reinforcement is placed in the boundary element
to enable it to act as a chord, to allow the dia-
Boundary element: Edge member around the pe- phragm to act as a deep horizontal beam or tied
rimeter of a diaphragm or the perimeter of an arch. This reinforcement can also provide shear
opening in a diaphragm, which ties the diaphragm friction steel for shear transfer along the longitu-
together. The boundary element may function as a dinal joints.
chord or a collector. Collectors are required in all diaphragms to
Chord: A diaphragm boundary element perpen- transfer shear forces from the diaphragm edges to
dicular to the applied load that is assumed to take the lateral force-resisting elements, unless the en-
axial stresses due to the diaphragm moment. tire edge of a diaphragm is supported continuous-
ly on shear walls or frames resisting lateral forces.
Collector or Drag strut: A diaphragm boundary ele- Such collectors are also required for structural in-
ment parallel to the applied load that collects and tegrity, to provide a complete load path for lateral
transfers diaphragm shear forces to the vertical forces to the foundation. Collectors may also
elements of the lateral force-resisting system or function to get forces into a diaphragm, in which
distributes forces within the diaphragm. case, they are often referred to as distributors.
Figure 4.5.1 Diaphragm elements
Lateral Force-Resisting
Drag Strut Element
or Collector Boundary Element
(chord)
Drag Strut
or Collector
Lateral
Force-Resisting
Element
A Transverse
Joint
Connector between
Diaphragm and
Collector
Lateral Force-Resisting Load Longitudinal
Boundary Element Joint
Element (chord)
4-6
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
Figure 4.5.2 Boundary elements
Section A Section A
from Fig. 4.5.1 from Fig. 4.5.1
(a) (b)
Note that a chord or a collector may consist in a seismic situation and should be used in struc-
entirely of reinforcing bars accommodated within tures assigned to SDC C, D, E, or F.
the thickness of the slab.
When a bonded structural topping is used with 4.6 Diaphragm Strength
a hollow core slab diaphragm, boundary elements The diaphragm must have the strength to
can be provided directly by reinforcement in the transfer imposed lateral forces from the point of
topping. When no topping is provided, these ele- application or origin to the point of resistance.
ments are developed as grouted or concrete ele- The diaphragm spans between lateral force-
ments external to the hollow core slabs. As a sim- resisting elements as a deep beam or tied arch.
ple example, Fig. 4.5.2 depicts two common Tensile and compressive stresses due to flexure
boundary conditions. In (a), the boundary rein- and shear stresses will develop and must be resist-
forcement is placed in a masonry bond beam and ed in the diaphragm.
the reinforcement connecting the shear wall or
4.6.1 Longitudinal Joints
boundary element to the diaphragm is placed in
the keyways between slabs. In (b), the boundary The grouted keyways between slabs do have
reinforcement is placed in a grouted or concrete- the capacity to transfer longitudinal shear from
filled space at the end of the slabs. The reinforce- one slab to the next. Using a shear stress of 80 psi,
ment connecting the shear wall or boundary ele- the useable (design) strength for longitudinal
ment to the diaphragm is again placed in the key- shear is:
ways between slabs. The primary difference be- φVn = φ(0.08)hnet  j (Eq. 4.6.1)
tween the details is that the boundary reinforce-
where
ment in (a) is eccentric from the diaphragm web,
while it is nearly concentric in (b). The concentric φ = 0.75
boundary element will exhibit better performance
4-7
CHAPTER
Figure 4.6.1 Shear friction steel in butt joint
When the grout strength is exceeded or ductile cause congestion. Figure 4.6.2(b) shows weld
behavior is required, shear friction principles may plates in the slabs and a loose plate welded across
be used to design reinforcement to be placed per- the longitudinal joint. Use of this detail should be
pendicular to the longitudinal joints.40 This rein- carefully coordinated with the hollow core suppli-
forcement may be placed in the transverse joints er to ensure that proper anchorage of the weld
at the slab ends rather than being distributed along plates in the slabs can be accomplished.
the length of the joints. Placed as shown in Fig. Where the diaphragm must transfer shear into
4.6.1, the area of steel is calculated as: a lateral force-resisting element, boundary ele-
ment, or interior drag strut, a condition similar to
Vu the longitudinal joint exists. For longitudinal
Avf = (Eq. 4.6.2)
φ fyµ shear, shear friction again can be used to design
reinforcement to cross potential crack planes and
where transfer the shear. Figure 4.6.3 depicts an example
µ = 1.0 for shear parallel to longitudinal of such a detail.
joints While drag struts and boundary elements may
have a vertical stiffness similar to that of the deck,
φ = 0.75
the lateral force-resisting elements will usually
While the detail shown in Fig. 4.6.1 is the most have a significantly higher vertical stiffness. The
economical means of providing a mechanical connections to the lateral force-resisting elements
connection across the longitudinal joints, alternate will tend to be vertically rigid. While strength and
connections are available, which may be desirable toughness of such connections are certainly im-
in certain circumstances. Figure 4.6.2(a) shows portant, it is equally important to consider every-
reinforcing steel placed across the longitudinal day performance of the structure. At rigid vertical
joint and grouted into the cores. This detail might elements, it may be desirable to allow hollow core
be considered when the amount of reinforcement slab camber growth or deflection to occur without
required in the transverse joints is great enough to distress at the connection.
4-8
DIAPHRAGM
Diaphragm Action with Hollow Core Slabs ACTION WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER 44
Chapter
Figure 4.6.4 shows potential damage at the transferred to maintain the full effective depth of
first interior longitudinal joint when a vertically the diaphragm.
rigid connection is used. The potential for distress Drag strut reinforcement is calculated simply
is dependent on the span and the actual applied as:
loads. Short, lightly loaded spans may experience
Nu
no problems. As = (Eq. 4.6.3)
The effect of different vertical stiffnesses may φ fy
be accounted for by: Chord tension is resisted by reinforcement that
• determining that distress will not affect provides flexural strength to the diaphragm. It is
the strength or performance of the sys- suggested41 that the effective depth of the rein-
tem; forcement from the compression edge of the dia-
• locating vertically rigid connections near phragm be limited to 0.8 times the depth of the
the hollow core slab supports where ver- diaphragm. Hence, the chord reinforcement is cal-
tical movement is minimized; or culated as:
• providing allowance for vertical move-
ment in the connection detail. Mu
As = (Eq. 4.6.4)
φ df y
4.6.2 Transverse Joints
The transverse joints serve many functions. As Where d is taken as 0.8 times the depth of the
described in Section 4.6.1 of this manual, rein- diaphragm and
forcement in the transverse joints may provide the φ = 0.9
shear friction reinforcement for shear in the longi-
tudinal joints. The transverse joint may also have Note that the seventh edition of the PCI Design
to act as part of a drag strut with axial tension or Handbook1 has made the following recommenda-
compression to carry diaphragm loads to the lat- tion:
eral force-resisting elements. A transverse joint Since no additional factor on the diaphragm
may also be part of the chord member where flex- seismic design force of ASCE 7-10 is used in
ural tension is resisted. Finally, an interior trans- Seismic Design Categories A and B, it is recom-
verse joint disrupts the web of the horizontal mended, based on earlier versions of the NEHRP
beam where horizontal shear would have to be Provisions, that perimeter diaphragm rein-
Figure 4.6.2 Alternate longitudinal shear connections
Reinforcement across Welded connection

grouted keyway
(a) (b)
4-9
CHAPTER
A shear parallel to the transverse joints is devel-

Figure 4.6.3 Collector detail oped in the web of the diaphragm. Shear friction rein-
forcement perpendicular to the transverse joint and
embedded in the hollow core slab keyways can be
Bar Spaced used to reinforce for this shear. The applied shear can
per Design
be calculated as:
Intermittent slab
cut-outs Vu Q
Vh =
I
or
Mu
Boundary Vh = (Eq. 4.6.5)
Reinforcement d
In the first case, a unit shear is calculated and
Section B from Fig. 4.5.1 shear friction reinforcement is distributed accord-
ing to the shear diagram. In the second case, the
total shear is calculated as the tension or compres-
forcement be designed based on strength reduc- sion of the internal couple. In this case, shear fric-
tion factors, φ, as follows: For continuous bars, φ tion reinforcement is uniformly distributed over
= 0.9. For bars spliced with mechanical or welded the length between zero moment and maximum
connections, φ = 0.7. For shear design of dia- moment. It is suggested that the shear friction re-
inforcement be distributed according to the shear
phragms, φ = 0.6 for shear friction reinforcement
diagram in structures assigned to SDC C, D, E, or
and for mechanical connections in the joints.
F to minimize the force redistribution required
Because diaphragms tend to act as tied arches
with a uniform spacing.
rather than beams, tension in the chord reinforce-
Resistance for shear parallel to the transverse
ment does not go to zero at the ends of the dia-
joints is provided by reinforcement placed per-
phragm. The chord reinforcement must be an-
pendicular to the transverse joints. Design of this
chored at the ends of the diaphragm where stand-
reinforcement is similar to that described in Sec-
ard hooks at the ends of the chords will suffice.
tion 4.6.1 for longitudinal joints. Equation 4.6.2
Figure 4.6.4 Potential effects of rigid lap connections
Vertically rigid
lap connection
Potential joint
cracking and
grinding
4-10
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
may be used for the calculation of shear friction compatible with the system used.
reinforcement, except µ may be taken as 1.4 when
the grout provided in the transverse joints is al- 4.8 Topped versus Untopped Diaphragms
lowed to flow into the ends of the cores in the When a composite structural topping is
slabs. This forces the shear crack to propagate provided, it should have a minimum thickness
through monolithic grout rather than following a of 2 in. to 21 /2 in. The topping can then be de-
cold joint. signed as the diaphragm without consideration
In view of of the orientation of the joints and of the hollow core slabs. When the topping pro-
the loading directions considered, the reinforce- vides the strength and the stiffness for the dia-
ment in the transverse joint discussed previously phragm but the connections are made in the hol-
is not all additive. Typically, the chord tension low core slabs, shear stresses will be present at the
and longitudinal joint shear will be concurrent. interface of the topping and the hollow core slabs.
The drag strut tension will typically occur with These stresses will generally be well distributed
loads applied in the perpendicular direction. throughout the interface, but may be more highly
localized near the connections. As discussed in
4.7 Boundary Elements Chapter 2 of this manual, horizontal shear stresses
The preceding discussion has indicated that should be kept below a nominal strength of 80 psi.
reinforcing bars may be used to connect bound- The primary benefits of a composite structural
ary elements to diaphragms using shear friction topping are to increase stiffness and to allow easi-
design procedures. As shear friction reinforce- er continuous ties in plans with irregular shapes or
ment, the steel is used in tension to resist a large openings. However, in seismic areas, the
shear force. In detailing the steel, a crack plane additional topping weight increases the seismic
is defined and the bars must be anchored for full design forces. Topped diaphragms may be a ne-
strength on each side of the crack plane. For an- cessity in buildings assigned to high SDC, and
chorage at a transverse boundary element, the with plan irregularities or large diaphragm span-
bars may be grouted into the keyways or into to-depth ratios.
hollow core slab cores where the top of the core Untopped hollow core slab diaphragms may
is cut away. Concrete is then used to fill the be sufficient when the diaphragm force system is
cores for the length of the bar embedment. straightforward and the in-plane diaphragm de-
Based on a review of the literature, it is not flections are acceptable. An example in Section
clear when anchorage of the connector bars in 4.9 illustrates a procedure for determining dia-
keyways is sufficient and when the connector phragm deflections.
bars should be placed in hollow core slab cores. Current practice is to generally use topped
There is a concern that as the boundary element hollow core slab diaphragms in high seismic are-
and keyway crack, anchorage for a connector as. Local codes may limit the use of untopped di-
bar in a keyway may be lost. Deformations and aphragms in areas of high seismicity.
reversible loading in a seismic event would
suggest that anchoring connector bars in hollow 4.9 Design Example
core slab cores would be preferable in more in- Given the building plan in Fig. 4.9.1, design and
tense seismic situations. In keeping with code detail the untopped hollow core slab diaphragm
philosophy, it is suggested that bars be anchored assuming:
in hollow core slab cores in structures assigned a. Wind design per ASCE 7-10.
to SDC C and higher. b. Seismic design per ASCE 7-10 for SDC B.
In non-seismic and low-seismic design situa-
tions, the connectors need not be reinforcing Building data:
bars. Particularly for direct connections to lat- 6 stories without parapet
eral force-resisting elements, welded and bolted Risk Category II
connections will suffice for the boundary ele- 14 ft floor-to-floor
ment to diaphragm connections when they are
4-11
CHAPTER
Figure 4.9.1 Example Problem
8 @ 25' -0" = 200' -0"
30'
80'
20'
30'
30'
30'
N
Weight of 8-in. hollow core slabs Therefore, approximate natural frequency, na, may be
= 53.5 lb/ft2 used for fundamental natural frequency, n1.
Weight of partitions and mechanical The approximate lower-bound natural frequency
equipment = 20 lb/ft2 of the building is:
Weight of precast concrete framing system 385(C w )
0.5
= 32 lb/ft2 na = (ASCE 7-10 Eq. 26.9-5)

Weight of exterior wall system (average) h
= 35 lb/ft2 where
2
100 n  h  Ai
Solutions: Cw =  
AB i =1  hi
  
2
h 
a. Wind design; basic wind speed 130 mph 1 + 0.83 i  
For wind design, it is assumed that the build-   Di  
ing is located in an area with a basic wind speed In the N-S direction:
of 130 mph, per Fig. 26.5-1A of ASCE 7-10.
The mean roof height h is 14 ft × 6 = 84 ft >  
60 ft. Thus use the Part 1 directional procedure in  
ASCE 7-10 Chapter 27 for the design of the main 100  2(30 ) 20 
Cw = +
16000   84  
2 2
wind force-resisting system (MWFRS).  84 
1 + 0.83  1 + 0.83  
h = 84 ft < 300 ft   30   20  
Leff = 80 ft for wind in the N-S direction 1
= 200 ft for wind in the E-W direction = [7.9923 + 1.2787] = 0.0579
160
h/smaller Leff =84/80 < 4
4-12
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
Table 4.9.1 Calculation of velocity pressures, qz, along height of building

Level Height, z, ft Kz1,2 Kzt Kd V, mph qz3, lb/ft2
6 84 1.220 1 0.85 130 44.8
5 70 1.174 1 0.85 130 43.2
4 56 1.120 1 0.85 130 41.2
3 42 1.054 1 0.85 130 38.7
2 28 0.968 1 0.85 130 35.6
1 14 0.849 1 0.85 130 31.2
1 Kh = 1.220
2 Combined height and exposure coefficient, Kz = 2.01(z/zg)2/α for z ≥ 15 ft
= 2.01(15/zg)2/α for z ≤ 15 ft
from ASCE 7-10 Table 27.3-1
Coefficient α = 9.5 and gradient height, zg = 900 lb for exposure C from ASCE 7-10 Table 26.9-1
3q = 44.8 lb/ft2
h
385(C w ) Windward wall: Cp = 0.8

0.5
na = Leeward wall: Cp = -0.5 for north-south wind,

h
(L/B = 80/200 = 0.4)
385(0.0579)
0.5
= = 1.10 Hz > 1.0 Hz Cp = -0.3 for east-west wind,
84 (L/B = 200/80 = 2.5)
In the E-W direction Side walls: Cp = -0.7
  Design wind pressure for the MWFRS of rigid
 
100  2(30 ) 
buildings of all heights is
Cw =
16000   84  
2
p = qGC p − qi (GC p i )
1 + 0.83  
  30   where q = qz for windward walls at height z above
1 the ground; q = qh for leeward walls, side walls,
= [7.9923] = 0.05 and roof evaluated at mean roof height h; and qi =
160
qh for windward, leeward, sidewalls, and roof of
385(0.05)
0.5
na = = 1.02 Hz > 1.0 Hz enclosed buildings. The values for qz (calculated
84 in Table 4.9.1), qzGCp (windward pressure),
Thus, according to the definition in ASCE 7-10 qhGCp (leeward pressure), and design wind forces
Section 26.2, the building is rigid in both direc- in the north-south (NS) and east-west (EW) direc-
tions. tions are summarized in Table 4.9.2.
Directionality factor: Kd = 0.85 • Consider load applied parallel to the

Exposure category: C hollow core spans (NS direction).
Topographic effect factor: Kzt = 1.0 The maximum load in the NS wind direction oc-
Gust effect factor: taken as 0.85 because building curs at floor level 5 (from Table 4.9.2).
is rigid.
Enclosure classification: enclosed F5 = 135.5 kip
Internal pressure coefficient for MWFRS: The corresponding uniformly distributed wind
GCpi = ±0.18 load is:
External pressure coefficients for MWFRS: w5 = 135.5/200 = 0.678 kip/ft

4-13
CHAPTER
Table 4.9.2 Wind forces in the north-south and east-west directions

North-south direction East-west direction
Tributary qzGCp, qhGCp, Total Total qzGCp , qhGCp , Total Total

2 2 2
Level Height, qz, lb/ft2 lb/ft design design lb/ft lb/ft design design
lb/ft2 wind pres- wind wind pres- wind
ft
sure, lb/ft2 forces, sure, lb/ft2 forces,
kip kip
6 7.00 44.8 30.5 -19.1 49.6 69.4 30.5 -11.4 41.9 23.5
5 14.00 43.2 29.3 -19.1 48.5 135.5 29.3 -11.4 40.7 45.7
4 14.00 41.2 28.0 -19.1 47.1 131.8 28.0 -11.4 39.4 44.2
3 14.00 38.7 26.3 -19.1 45.4 127.1 26.3 -11.4 37.7 42.3
2 14.00 35.6 24.2 -19.1 43.3 121.1 24.2 -11.4 35.6 39.9
1 14.00 31.2 21.2 -19.1 40.3 112.8 21.2 -11.4 32.6 36.5
∑ 697.7 232.1
Assuming a rigid diaphragm, the shear distri- 667

bution to the walls is based on the relative = (135.5)
2(2250) + 667
stiffnesses of the walls which can be approx-
= 0.129(135.5) = 17.5 kip
imated by flexural stiffness.
The diaphragm equilibrium is shown in the fol-
303 (1) lowing illustration:
K 30 = = 2250 and
12
203 (1)
K 20 = = 667 0.678 klf
12
100 ft. 100 ft.
for a 12 in. thick wall. 59.1 kips 17.5 kips 59.1 kips
The shear force distributed to each wall is: 59.1 kips

8.75 kips
30 ft walls: V
87.1 ft 8.75 kips

K 30 59.1 kips
V30 = F5
2( K 30 ) + K 20 M
2250
= (135.5)
2(2250) + 667 2577 kip-ft
= 0.436(135.5) = 59.1 kip
20 ft wall: Location of maximum moment

K 20 59.1
V20 =
2( K 30 ) + K 20
F5 = (100) = 87.1 ft from
(59.1 + 8.75)
left support
4-14
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
Maximum moment pi = qi GC pi = 44.8(0.18) = 8.1 lb/ft2,

= 59.1(87.1) – 0.678(87.12/2) assuming qi = qh and that building
= 5148 – 2571 = 2577 kip-ft is enclosed
wu = (19.1 + 8.1)(14) = 381 lb/ft
• Chord forces:
larger than 300 lb/ft for structural integrity,
Using the perimeter beams as chords: use 381lb/ft. (Fig. 4.9.2 detail A)
M The same forces must be resisted at the trans-
N u = u where d is taken as 0.8
φd verse joints. Use shear friction for the shear
times the depth of the diaphragm with bars placed in the keyways perpendicular
to the transverse joint. With keyways at 3 ft
2577
= = 44.7 kip on center:
0.9(0.8)(80)
Nu V
Connect beams to columns for this force plus As = + u
φ fy φ fyµ
forces due to volume change and gravity
loads. (Fig. 4.9.2 detail C) 3 ( 0.381) 3 ( 0.46 )
As = +
The chord must continue through the 0.9 ( 60 ) 0.75 ( 60 )(1.4 )
center wall. = 0.043 in.2/keyway
N Use #3 bar at every second keyway
As = u (φ was included in Nu)
fy (Fig. 4.9.2 detail F)
44.7 • Longitudinal shear (shear parallel to
=
60 longitudinal joints)
= 0.75 in.2 The maximum longitudinal joint shear is at the
first joint from the 30 ft shear wall. Since connec-
tions will be made directly from the center bay to
Use two #6 bars (Fig. 4.9.2 detail F)
the shear wall, only the center bay joint length
• Connect diaphragm web to chords should be considered.
M
Vuh = u Vu30 = 59.1 kip
d φVn = φ(0.08)hnet  j
= 0.75(0.08)(8 - 2)(20 × 12)
where d is taken as 0.8 times the = 86.4 kip
depth of the diaphragm
2577 With concerns for shrinkage cracking in joints,
Vuh = transverse shear friction reinforcement can be
0.8(80)
provided in the transverse joints at each end of
= 40.3 kip the center bay.
Distribute over length from zero moment to Vu
Avf =
maximum moment φ fyµ
40 .3 59.1
Vuh = = 0.46 kip/ft =
87 .1 0.75(60)(1.0)
Additionally, this connection must resist the neg- = 1.3 in.2 / 2 transverse joints
ative wind pressure from the exterior wall sys- = 0.65 in.2 per joint
tem, which is the sum of external and internal Use one #8 bar in each transverse joint
pressure on the exterior wall. (Fig. 4.9.2 detail B)
Internal pressure • Shear connection to 30 ft wall
4-15
CHAPTER
Vu30 = 59.1 kip The diaphragm equilibrium is shown in the fol-

Additionally, negative wind pressure must be lowing illustration:
resisted across this joint, but would not be
concurrent with shear. Structural integrity ties
will control for this case. 0.571 klf
Nu = (0.3)(20)
= 6 kip for bay 22.9 kips 22.9 kips
Using shear friction reinforcement 22.9 kips

2
Avf = 1.3 in. (from above) or V
N 6
As required = u = = 0.11 in.2
φ f y 0.9(60)
22.9 kips
does not control
Use six #5 bars located near hollow core slab ends M
(Fig. 4.9.2 detail D)

457 kip-ft
Alternatively, mechanical connections of hol-
low core slab to wall could be used to transfer
the same forces.
Maximum moment = 0.571(80)2/8
• Shear at center 20 ft wall: = 457 kip-ft
With the rigid diaphragm assumption:
• Chord force:
Vu20 = 8.75 kip on each side of wall Mu
Vu Nu = where d is taken as 0.8
Avf = φd
φ fyµ times the depth of the diaphragm
8.75 457
Avf = =
0.75(60)(1.0) 0.9(0.8)(200)
= 0.19 in.2 = 3.2 kip
Use two #3 bars located near hollow core slab N 3.2
As = u = = 0.053 in.2
ends or use mechanical connections f y 60
(Fig. 4.9.2 detail E)
The #3 bars across the transverse joints will be
• Consider load applied perpendicular to the adequate for the chord force. (Fig. 4.9.2 detail
hollow core spans (EW direction). B)
The maximum load in the EW wind direction Longitudinal shear (shear parallel to longitu-
occurs at floor level 5 (from Table 4.9.2). dinal joints)
M
F5 = 45.7 kip Vuh = u where d is taken as 0.8 times
d
The corresponding uniformly distributed wind the depth of the diaphragm
load is
457
w = 45.7/80 = 0.571 kip/ft =
0.8(200)
Shear distribution to 30 ft walls is = 2.9 kip will not control when
V30 = 45.7/2 = 22.9 kip compared to 59.1 kip applied
in the NS direction
4-16
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
• Shear connection to walls Ss = 0.217g

S1 = 0.069g
Using shear friction reinforcement
Site coefficients (from ASCE 7-10 Tables
Vu = 22.9 kip/30 ft wall
11.4-1 and 11.4-2):
= 0.76 kip/ft
Fa = 1.6, Fv = 2.4
With bars in keyways at 3 ft on center
SMS = FaSs
Vu
Avf = = 1.6(0.217g) = 0.35g
φ fyµ SM1 = FvS1
3(0.76) = 2.4(0.069g) = 0.17g
Avf = 2
0.75(60)(1.4) SDS = SMS = 0.23
= 0.036 in.2 per keyway 3g
Use a #3 bar in every second keyway
2
SD1 = SM 1 = 0.11
3g
(Fig. 4.9.2 detail F)
According to ASCE 7-10 Tables 11.6-1 and
• Shear in transverse joint
11.6-2, the building is assigned to SDC B.
Vu = 22.9 – 0.571(30)
• Seismic weight
= 5.77 kip
Vu The building weight attributable to a typical
Avf = floor is:
φ fyµ
5.77 wi = 80(200)[ 0.0535 (hollow core)
Avf = + 0.020 (partitions) + 0.032 (precast
0.75(60)(1.0)
framing)]
= 0.13 in.2 + 14(0.035)(200 + 80)(2) (exterior
A #3 bar at every second keyway will be ade- walls)
quate = 1962 kip
(Fig. 4.9.2 detail B) For the roof:
b. SDC B Seismic design wroof = 80(200)(0.0535 + 0.020
+ 0.032)
For seismic design, it is assumed that the
+ 7(0.035)(200 + 80)(2)
building, with zip code 02110, is located in
= 1825 kip
Boston, Mass.
The total weight is
Risk category: II
W = 5(1962) + 1825
Importance factor: Ie = 1.0
= 11,635 kip
Site class: D
• Base shear
• Seismic design category
The approximate building period is:
The mapped spectral accelerations at this
site (based on its latitude and longitude or Ta = Ct hnx (ASCE 7-10 Eq. 12.8-7)
postal address), corresponding to = 0.02(84)0.75
0.2-second and 1-second periods, are: = 0.55 sec
4-17
CHAPTER
Figure 4.9.2 Wind design summary
8 @ 25' -0"= 200 '-0"
A C F
30'
E
20 '
30'
80'
D
30 '
30 '
0.38k/ft #3 near each

end of wall
0.46k/ft
44.7k
Chord Force
Intermittent slab
cut-outs
A C
E
#3 @ every
2nd keyway 3-#5 near each
#8 cont. end of bay #3 every
2nd keyway
2-#6
Intermittent slab
cut-outs
B D F
4-18
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
The seismic base shear is • Diaphragm design force

V = Cs W n
Cs = DS
S F
i=x
i
R Fpx = n
w px
 
 Ie 
w
i= x
i
= 0.23/5.0 = 0.046
wpx, kip ΣFi, kip Σwi, kip Fpx, kip
where R = 5 for a building frame system with
1825 128 1825 128
ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls
(ASCE 7-10 Table 12.2-1). 1962 242 3787 125
1962 332 5749 113
Cs need not exceed
1962 399 7711 102
S D1
Cs = For T ≤TL 1962 443 9673 90
R
T   1962 465 11,635 78
 Ie  The forces need not exceed
0.11
= = 0.040 0.4SDSIewpx= 0.4(0.23)(1.0)(1962)
0.55(5)
= 181 kip (168 kip for the roof
where TL = 6 sec for Boston (from diaphragm)
ASCE 7-10 Fig. 22-12)
The forces must not be less than
Cs shall not be less than 0.044SDSIe
[=0.044(0.23)(1) = 0.01] nor less than 0.01. 0.2SDSIewpx = 90 kip
Thus Thus, the design lateral force for the roof dia-
phragm is
Cs = 0.040
V = 0.040(11,635) = 465 kip Fp = 128 kip
• Vertical distribution Note that in the seventh edition of the PCI

Design Handbook, low and moderate seismic
Fx = CvxV design categories (SDC B and C) will be
w hk grouped together; no amplification of the
Cvx = n x x code-specified seismic design force is consid-
k
 w ihi
i =1 ered necessary if the design force at the up-
k = 1.03 for Ta = 0.55 sec (from permost level is used for every floor dia-
ASCE 7-10 Section 12.8.3) phragm. The same recommendation will apply
also to structures assigned to high seismic de-
wx, kip hx, ft w xh x k Fx, kip
sign categories (D, E, F) if lateral forces are
resisted entirely by special moment frames.
1825 84.0 175,094 128
For SDC D, E, and F structures where shear
1962 70.0 156,009 114 walls are part of the lateral force-resisting sys-
1962 56.0 123,975 90 tem, a multiplier of 2 applies to the roof-level
1962 42.0 92,182 67 diaphragm design force; this amplified force
1962 28.0 60,712 44 is then to be kept constant down the height of
1962 14.0 29,731 22
the building.
∑= 637,703 ∑= 465 • Consider diaphragm design force acting paral-
lel to the hollow core spans (NS direction).
4-19
CHAPTER
The equivalent uniformly distributed lateral Four #4 bars would satisfy this requirement.
load is (However, four #6 bars are provided because
the force in the EW direction perpendicular to
wu = 128/200 = 0.64 kip/ft
the spans controls, as shown later.)
Using a rigid diaphragm, the shear distribution
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail A)
to the walls is:
30 ft walls:Vu30 = 55.7 kip • Connect diaphragm web to chord
20 ft wall: Vu20 = 16.5 kip Mu
Vuh = where d is taken as 0.8
The diaphragm equilibrium is shown in the d
following illustration. times the diaphragm depth
2426
=
0.8(80)
0.64 klf
= 37.9 kip
Distribute over length from zero moment to
55.7 kips 16.5 kips 55.7 kips maximum moment
55.7 kips 37 .9
8.3 kips
Vuh = = 0.44 kip/ft
V 87 .1
87.1 ft 8.3 kips Additionally, this connection must resist the
outward force from the exterior wall system.
55.7 kips
Per section 12.11 of ASCE 7-10, the design
M force for wall anchorage Nu should be the
greater of the following:
2426 kip-ft • 0.4SDS ka Ieww
where ka = 1.0 for rigid diaphragms
= 0.4(0.23)(1.0)(1.0)(0.035 × 14)
Location of maximum moment [Note that ½ the wall height could
be used at the top level, but con-
55.7
= (100) = 87.1 ft from left servatively use the full wall
( 55.7 + 8.3) height since the 5th level lateral
support force is about the same as the top
Maximum moment level.]
= 0.045 kip/ft
= 55.7(87.1) – 0.64(87.1)2/2 = 2426 kip-ft
• 0.2 ww = 0.2(0.035 × 14)
• Chord forces: = 0.098 kip/ft
Using reinforcement in a perimeter boundary • Per ACI 318-11
element
Nu = 0.300 kip/ft (at nominal tensile
Mu strength)
As = where d is taken as 0.8 times
φdf y
Nu V
the diaphragm depth As = + u
φ fy φ fyµ
2426
= 0.300 0.44
0.9(0.8)(80)(60) = +
= 0.7 in.2 1.0(60) 0.75(60)(1.4)
= 0.012 in.2/ft
4-20
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
Use #3 bars at 3 ft on center, grouted into Note that in the seismic calculation, this shear
cores friction reinforcement was distributed over four
joints as opposed to two joints in the wind calcu-
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail A)
lation. In the seismic detailing, a collector is pro-
At the transverse joint, the same shear parallel vided so the shear can be distributed over the full
to the transverse joint as at the chord must be width of the building and the outside bays are
transferred. However, the tension should con- available for the shear transfer. No collector was
sider the inertial force from the weight of the used in the wind calculation so this shear had to
exterior bay, which is the largest of the fol- be resisted in the center bay only. With shear fric-
lowing: tion reinforcement provided at the outside edges
• 0.4SDS ka Iewp = 0.4(0.23)(1.0)(1.0) (3.66) of the outer bays, the demand for chord rein-
= 0.34 kip/ft forcement must also be considered as additive to
the shear friction reinforcement since both cause
where wp = 14(0.035) + 30(0.0535 tension in the reinforcement. In this example,
+0.020 + 0.032) chord reinforcement was checked at maximum
= 3.66 kip/ft moment without shear and is checked here for
• 20% of wp = 0.2(3.66) moment associated with maximum shear.
= 0.73 kip/ft (controls) At first joint
N V Mu = 55.7(3) – 32(0.64)/2
As = u + u = 164 kip-ft
φ fy φ fyµ Vu N
0.73 0.44 As = + u
As = + φ fyµ φ fy
0.9(60) 0.75(60)(1.4) 164
= 0.021 in.2/ft As = + 0.35
0.9(0.8)(80)(60)
Use #3 bars at 3 ft on center in keyways = 0.4 in.2
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail B) Four #6 bars OK
• Longitudinal shear (shear parallel to (Fig. 4.9.3 detail A)
longitudinal joints)
In transverse joints,
The maximum longitudinal shear is at the first
joint away from the 30-ft wall. Provide shear As = 0.35 in.2
friction reinforcement in the two transverse Use two #5 bars.
joints and the two boundary elements for
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail B)
shear resistance. Conservatively consider 5%
minimum eccentricity being resisted only in • Shear connection to 30 ft wall:
end walls.
Transfer shear to wall and collector element
Vu30 = 55.7 + (0.05 × 200)(128)/200
62 .1
= 62.1 kip Vu30 =
Vu 80
Avf = = 0.78 kip/ft
φ fyµ Vu
62.1 Avf =
Avf = φ fyµ
0.75(60)(1.0) 0.78
= 1.38 in.2 / 4 joints Avf =
0.75(60)(1.0)
= 0.35 in.2 per joint
= 0.017 in.2/ft
4-21
CHAPTER
Use #4 hairpins at 8 ft on center • In-plane deflection of diaphragm

(Fig. 4.9.3 detail D) Idealize the diaphragm section as
Collector element reinforcement nA s

4.3"
80 − 30 8"
N = (0.78)
2 8"
= 19.5 kip
x
Special Note: In SDC B, amplification of the
collector design force is not required. It is in- 956"
cluded here only to demonstrate the proce-
dure.
With 4000 psi concrete in chord
Nu = Ω0N= 2.5(19.5)
= 48.8 kip Ec = 57000 f c′
48.8 = 57000 4000 = 3605 ksi
As =
0.9(60)
With 5000 psi concrete in hollow core slab
= 0.9 in.2
Use two #7 bars Ec = 57000 5000 = 4030 ksi
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail C) Normalize with respect to concrete compres-
sive strength in hollow core slabs
• Shear connection at 20 ft wall
nchord = 3605/4030 = 0.89
Vu20 = 8.3 kip ATchord = 0.89(8)(8)
over building width = 57 in.2
nsteel = 29,000/4030 = 7.2
8.3 nAs = 7.2(area of 4 #6 bars)
Vu20 = = 0.104 kip/ft
80 = 7.2(1.76)
Vu = 12.67 in.2
Avf =
φ fyµ Solve for the neutral axis
0.104
Avf = 57(x – 4) + 4.3(x – 8)2/2 = 12.67(956 – x)
0.75(60)(1.0) find x = 67.6 in.
= 0.002 in.2/ft
About the neutral axis
Use #4 bars at 8 ft on center.
Icr = 57(67.6 – 4)2 + 4.3(67.6 – 8)3/3
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail F) + 12.67(956 – 67.6)2
Collector element reinforcement = 10,533,867 in.4
= 508 ft4
80 − 20
N = (0.104)(2) If the diaphragm is considered rigid, the fac-
2 tored load deflection between end shear walls
= 6.2 kip can be calculated as the deflection due to a
Nu = Ω0N = 2.5(6.2) = 15.5 kip uniform load spanning between the end shear
15.5 walls minus the deflection due to the reaction
As =
0.9(60) at the center shear wall.
= 0.29 in.2
5 w 4 P 3
Use two #4 bars ∆= −
384 EI 48 EI
(Fig. 4.9.3 detail E)
4-22
DIAPHRAGM
Chapter
5  0.64(200 4 )  • Chord force

∆ =
384  (4030 )(508)(12 )  Mu
Nu = where d is taken as 0.8 times
16.5(200 ) 3
φd
−
48(4030 )(508)(12 ) diaphragm depth
= 0.43 in. (ignoring shear 1280
=
deflections) 0.9(0.8)(200)
If the diaphragm is considered flexible with = 8.9 kip
rigid supports, the deflection will be substan- 8.9
As = = 0.15 in.2
tially smaller. The diaphragm deflection plus 60
the deflection of the lateral force-resisting sys- The #3 bars across the transverse joints at 3 ft
tem is used to evaluate the gravity-load sup- on center will be adequate (Fig. 4.9.3 detail B)
port members for integrity when deformed.
Longitudinal shear
• Consider diaphragm design force acting per-
pendicular to the hollow core slabs (EW direc-
Mu
Vuh =
tion). jd
Total Vu = 128 kip 1280
≅
0.8(200)
Distribution to walls is
= 8 kip will not control because it is
Vu = 128/2 = 64 kip much smaller than the longitudinal
The equivalent uniformly distributed lateral shear caused by the diaphragm de-
load is: sign force acting in the orthogonal
w = 128/80 = 1.6 kip/ft direction
The diaphragm equilibrium is shown in the • Shear connection to walls

following illustration With 5% eccentricity
Vu = 0.55(128) = 70.4 kip
Transfer shear to wall and collector element
1.6 klf
Vu = 70.4/200 ft
= 0.35 kip/ft
64 kips 64 kips
The #3 bars at 3 ft on center in the grout key is
64 kips
adequate. (Fig. 4.9.3 detail G)
V
Collector reinforcement
200 − 30
N = (0.35)
64 kips 2
M
= 29.8 kip
Nu = Ω0N = 2.5(29.8) = 74.5 kip
74.5
As = = 1.38 in.2
1280 kip-ft 0.9(60)
The chord reinforcement of four #4 bars is not
enough. Use four #6 bars. (Fig. 4.9.3 detail A)
Maximum moment = 1.6(80)2/8 = 1280 kip-ft
4-23
CHAPTER
• Shear in transverse joint • 0.4SDS ka Iewp = 0.4(0.23)(1.0)(1.0)(22.1)

= 2.0 kip/ft
Considering 5% eccentricity, the shear force re-
sisted by one EW exterior wall is: • 20% of wp = 0.2(22.1)
= 4.4 kip/ft (controls)
Vu = 64 + 0.05(80)(128)/80 = 70.4 kip
Vu = 4.4(20)(0.55)
The shear force at the transverse joint is: = 48.4 kip per transverse joint
Vu = 70.4 – 1.6(30) = 22.4 kip including 5% eccentricity
= 48.4/200 = 0.24 kip/ft shear
In center bay
through transverse joint
wp = 200(0.0535 + 0.020 + 0.032)
+ 14(0.035)(2) Diaphragm design force in NS direction parallel
= 22.1 kip/ft to hollow core slabs at 0.44 kip/ft will control.
Conservatively use the largest of the following:
Figure 4.9.3 Seismic design summary
8 @ 25' -0"= 200' -0"
A G
30 '
E
F
30'
20'
80'
D
30 '
30'
#3 @ 3ft. o.c. #3 @3ft o.c.

2-#7 cont. 2-#4 cont. #4 @ 8ft. o.c.
grout in cores
#4 @ 3ft. o.c.
4 - #6 Intermittent slab 4 - #6 cont.

cont. cut-outs
A C E G
#4 @ 8ft. o.c. #4 @8ft. o.c.

2 - #5 cont. #3 @ 3ft. o.c.
in keyways
2 - #7 cont.
Intermittent slab
cut-outs 2 - #4 cont.
B D F
4-24
Hollow Core Panels HOLLOW CORE PANELS CHAPTER 5 5
Chapter
Chapter 5
HOLLOW CORE PANELS
5.1 Introduction Although absolute adherence to these guidelines
As an extension of their production of hollow is not required, costs are likely to rise as the econ-
core floor and roof slabs, many manufacturers al- omy of repetition is lost.
so produce hollow core wall panels. Hollow core While hollow core wall panels can be stacked
wall panels, floor slabs, and roof slabs are all pro- horizontally, used as spandrels between horizontal
duced in the same manner as discussed in Chapter ribbon windows, or stacked vertically for multi-
1 of this manual. In wall panels, prestressing story buildings, the majority of panels are de-
strands are added to the top flange of the slab to signed as single-piece panels spanning vertically
produce uniform compression in the cross section in one- or two-story structures. Therefore, this
and to provide flexural reinforcement for the re- manual will emphasize this type of building.
versible lateral loads imposed. Some systems al- The structural design of hollow core wall pan-
low for the use of reinforcing bars or welded-wire els is based on standard engineering principles;
reinforcement as transverse reinforcement, while however, many aspects of the detailing and pro-
many panels are produced with no transverse rein- duction are a function of the casting method.
forcement. The availability of hollow core wall Items such as corner details, available finishes,
panels varies throughout the country based on insulation values, and connection details are often
market demand and the production capabilities of based on production limitations and past experi-
the manufacturer. ence. Because of this, it is imperative that the hol-
Because appearance is more important for low core wall panel supplier be consulted early in
wall panels than for floor and roof slabs, the pro- the design phase to assist in developing the most
duction of hollow core wall panels requires addi- efficient and economical design.
tional emphasis on such factors as finish appear-
ance, uniformity of color, and consistency of 5.2 Architectural Considerations
joints. While acknowledging that the project will Hollow core wall panels are often considered
be judged on the basis of appearance as well as to be architectural products by owners and archi-
structural performance, the owner and architect tects. However, to maintain the economy of mass
should be made aware that hollow core wall pan- production, the wall panels are produced essen-
els are a machine-manufactured, structural prod- tially the same as hollow core slabs; in essence, a
uct. As such, they are produced and erected to structural product being used architecturally. As
structural product tolerances rather than the more such, they will exhibit more variation in uniformi-
restrictive tolerances for architectural panels. If ty of color and finish and greater dimensional tol-
more stringent tolerances are required, they must erances than a true architectural panel.
be listed in the contract documents, and increased In sandwich wall panel construction, the struc-
costs are likely to be incurred. tural wythe is generally designed to remain
As with hollow core floor slabs, hollow core uncracked, but some cracking may occur in the
wall panels are most economical when certain finish wythe due to production methods, panel
guidelines are followed. handling, or thermal gradients. For aesthetic rea-
sons, steps should be taken to minimize or control
• Select building and opening dimensions to
this cracking. However, minor cracking of the fin-
fit the standard panel module whenever
ish face does not affect the structural integrity of
possible.
the wall panel and should be considered accepta-
• Minimize openings.
ble.
• Select repetitive connections and details.
• Choose a standard finish with few, if any,
horizontal reveals or accents.
CHAPTER
Chapter 5 5 HOLLOW CORE PANELS Hollow Core Panels
5.2.1 Building Layout cial width will add to the cost of the project.
Hollow core wall panels are produced in Figure 5.2.1 shows a number of different cor-
standard widths ranging from 2 ft to 8 ft, with 4 ft ner details. Factors such as insulated versus non-
and 8 ft being the most common. To maximize the insulated panels, overall panel thickness, dimen-
cost-efficiency of a hollow core wall panel build- sions of corner filler (if any), and mitered versus
ing, the building should be laid out using standard butt-jointed corners will affect the overall build-
width panels whenever possible. Casting special ing dimensions.
width panels or cutting standard panels to a spe-
Figure 5.2.1 Corner details
5-2
Chapter
5.2.2 Wall Openings building elevation.

The size and location of openings will also Hollow core producers who form the openings
affect the efficiency of a hollow core wall panel or cut them prior to erection will generally prefer
project. Again, the standard panel module should the configuration of Fig. 5.2.2(a). The advantages
be the basis for establishing the opening layout. include:
There are three common methods to create
openings: • Fewer linear feet of sawcutting;
• No concern about aligning door / window
• Formed on the casting bed heads across the vertical joint; and
• Sawcut in the yard or field prior to erec- • The remaining panel is stocky enough to
tion be handled and erected without cracking
• Sawcut in-place after erection through the reduced section.
The method used will affect the desirable place- Producers who sawcut the openings after erec-
ment of the openings. Figure 5.2.2 shows two ap- tion often prefer the layout shown in Fig. 5.2.2(b).
proaches to laying out a series of openings in a Its advantages include:
Figure 5.2.2 Wall openings
5-3
CHAPTER
• A structural frame may not be required at cores, it can be designed to support the panels
the overhead door opening; and above the opening, transfer lateral forces to adja-
• Symmetric placement of openings within cent panels, and provide armoring for the panel
panels is often preferred architecturally. edges.
5.2.3 Finishes
The hollow core producer should be consulted
early in the design process, because the preferred Numerous finishes are available with hollow
method is a function of the panel production sys- core wall panels. The most common are smooth,
tem, the cost and availability of sawcutting ribbed, raked, and exposed aggregate.
equipment and subcontractors, and past experi- Smooth finishes include the plain, as-cast fin-
ence. ish or a sand-blasted finish. The hollow core wall
No matter how the hollow core wall panels are panels may be used as supplied or finished with a
laid out or the openings cut, there must be suffi- paint or stain. Ribbed finishes may include either
cient panel remaining adjacent to or between a regular or a random spacing of flutes. Some hol-
openings to resist the design loads. This will be low core producers are able to combine the ribbed
addressed in more detail in section 5.3 of this finish with exposed aggregate. Raked finishes are
chapter. created as the name implies. The surface is literal-
Framing of openings must also be considered ly raked in a regular or random pattern to create a
with hollow core wall panels. As shown in Fig. deeply textured surface. Exposed-aggregate fin-
5.2.3, the jamb of a cut opening may expose a ishes use chemical means to expose the aggregate
wall panel core. Similarly, cores will be exposed to view. The color and texture of the finished pan-
at the head of an opening. Although most manu- el will vary based on the size, shape, and color of
facturing systems allow for the cores around the aggregate used.
openings to be provided as solid, this may require Many variations of the above finishes are
additional labor in the production process and, available; however, not all finishes may be avail
therefore, become an added expense. At service able from all hollow core producers. Some finish-
doors, a wide, hollow, metal door frame is often es may only be available with hollow core sand-
adequate to cover the exposed cores. At overhead wich wall panels. Therefore, final selections
doors, a precast concrete frame or a steel frame should be made after consultation with local hol-
made of plates and structural steel sections is of- low core producers.
ten used. This frame not only covers the exposed
Figure 5.2.3 Head and jam details
5-4
Chapter
5.2.4 Insulation selection of insulation type and thickness. Table

Hollow core wall panels may be supplied as 5.2.2 lists approximate U-values for hollow core
either insulated or non-insulated panels. The insu- sandwich wall panels.
lated wall panels may have their cores filled with An additional thermal performance benefit of
an insulating material or may be cast as a sand- concrete wall panels is their ability to absorb and
wich panel. Sandwich wall panels are created by store large quantities of heat. This thermal storage
placing a layer of rigid insulation on the hollow effect means that concrete walls are slow to warm
core section, then casting a finish layer of con- and cool, thereby reducing peak heating and cool-
crete (Fig. 5.2.4). ing loads and delaying the time these peak loads
Hollow core wall panels with insulation-filled occur by several hours.
cores have far less thermal resistance than hollow For example, as the temperature of the exteri-
core sandwich wall panels; however, depending or face of a wall rises, the temperature of the in-
on the climate and the building usage, this may be side face rises much more slowly for a concrete
an economical solution. Calculation of the thermal wall than for a metal or wood stud wall. By delay-
resistance of insulation-filled hollow core wall ing the temperature rise by several hours, the exte-
panels is complicated by the thermal bridges cre- rior temperature will have begun to moderate be-
ated by the concrete webs. fore the interior face reaches the peak tempera-
Various types of insulation are available to fill ture.
the hollow core wall panel cores. Table 5.2.1 lists Figure 5.2.5 compares the heat flow through
the approximate thermal resistance properties for three walls made of different materials but each
wall panel assemblies with and without filled with the same U-value. The walls were exposed to
cores. temperatures simulating a typical spring day. Be-
The thermal resistance of hollow core sand- cause of the heat storage effects, the peak loads
wich wall panels can be calculated more accurate- for the concrete wall were approximately 13%
ly because the insulation layer will provide the lower for heating and 30% lower for cooling than
majority of the thermal resistance. In addition, the for the stud walls.
thermal performance can be readily varied by the
Figure 5.2.4 Hollow core sandwich wall panel
5-5
CHAPTER
Figure 5.2.5 Heating and cooling load 5.2.5 Thermal Bowing

comparison A full discussion of thermal bowing is pre-
sented in Section 5.8.5 of the PCI Design Hand-
book: Precast and Prestressed Concrete1, seventh
edition. To summarize that section, as the warm
side of a concrete wall expands relative to the cool
side, the wall will bow. Differential shrinkage be-
tween the inside and outside faces of the concrete
will also cause bowing. The thermal bowing can
be reasonably estimated by the equations in Sec-
tion 5.8.5; however, the calculation of shrinkage
bowing is much more approximate and is seldom
done.
For non-load-bearing wall panels, bowing is
primarily an aesthetic issue. For vertical panels,
bowing at the building corners may be visually
noticeable and may result in joint sealant failure.
If the building has a mid-height mezzanine, bow-
ing may create a gap between the back face of the
panel and the edge of the floor. Bowing in hori-
zontal panels is most noticeable when a gap is
created at a mezzanine floor, or waviness appears
Table 5.2.1 Wall assembly U-values, hollow core wall panels
Concrete Thickness, in. Resistance, R, U-value, Winter U-value,

density, of concrete Rfo = 0.17 Summer
lb/ft3 Rfi = 0.8 Rfo = 0.25
Rfi = 0.68
145 6 (o) 1.07 0.52 0.50

(f) 1.86 0.37 0.36
8 (o) 1.34 0.46 0.44
(f) 3.14 0.25 0.25
10 (o) 1.73 0.39 0.38
(f) 4.05 0.20 0.20
12 (o) 1.91 0.36 0.35
(f) 5.01 0.17 0.17
110 8 (o) 2.00 0.35 0.34

(f) 4.41 0.19 0.19
12 (o) 2.59 0.29 0.28
(f) 6.85 0.13 0.13
Note: (o) and (f) designate cores open or cores filled with insulation.
5-6
Hollow Core Panels Chapter 5
HOLLOW CORE PANELS CHAPTER 5
Table 5.2.2 Wall assembly U-values, hollow core wall panels

U-value, Winter U-value, Summer
Con- Rfo = 0.17 Rfo = 0.25
Resistance, Rfi = 0.68 Rfi = 0.68
crete Thickness, R,
density, in. Insulation resistance, R
lb/ft3 of concrete
4 6 8 10 4 6 8 10
145 6 (o) 1.07 0.17 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.17 0.13 0.10 0.08
(f) 1.86 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.08
8 (o) 1.34 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.16 0.12 0.10 0.08
(f) 3.14 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.07
10 (o) 1.73 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.08
(f) 4.05 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07
12 (o) 1.91 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.08
(f) 5.01 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.06
110 8 (o) 2.00 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.08
(f) 4.41 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.07
12 (o) 2.59 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07
(f) 6.85 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06
Note: (o) and (f) after thickness designates cores open or cores filled with insulation.
where the panels support horizontal ribbon win- Section 5.3.4.2 in this chapter for a more complete
dows. discussion of this analysis.
At these conditions, panel-to-panel connec-
tions at the corner or connections to the mezza- 5.2.6 Architectural Details
nine may be required to minimize the movement. Figures 5.2.6 through 5.2.8 present a selection
Equations in Section 5.8.5 of the PCI Design of architectural details used in the precast concrete
Handbook can be used to calculate the restraint industry. These details are only a representative
forces and resulting bending moments developed. sample of the details available. Local precast con-
Bowing of tall, slender, load-bearing wall crete producers should be consulted for their in-
panels can significantly affect the factored design put.
moment by increasing the curvature of the panel
and, consequently, increasing the P-∆ effects. See
5-7
CHAPTER
Figure 5.2.6 Wall opening details — Steel frame
5-8
Chapter
Figure 5.2.7 Wall opening details — Concrete frame
5-9
CHAPTER
Figure 5.2.8 Roof Details
5-10
Chapter
5.3 Structural Considerations Less commonly, they may be tied into the floor
Hollow core wall panels may be used as the slab and designed as a cantilever (Fig. 5.3.1).
hollow core section only or may be cast as a Because it is the more common approach, this
sandwich panel with insulation and a concrete fac- manual will focus on the simple-span, hollow core
ing (Fig. 5.2.4). wall panel building system. The concepts present-
The facing wythe of hollow core sandwich wall ed can be extrapolated to other bracing systems by
panels must be attached to the hollow core panel substituting the appropriate equations for flexure
to resist both handling and in-place forces. Most and deflection.
hollow core sandwich wall panels are designed as Figure 5.3.1 Cantilever wall system
non-composite panels. To ensure non-composite
behavior, flexible ties are used to allow the facing
to expand and contract independently of the hol-
low core section.
There is generally adequate adhesion between
the facing, insulation, and hollow core slab to
prevent movement of the face during the initial
handling and erection. However, this adhesion
tends to break down through time and seasonal
cycles. To keep the face wythe from creeping
down, panel support details should provide full
support for both the hollow core slab and the fac-
ing. If this is not possible and a rigid connection is
required between the facing and the hollow core
slab to support the face wythe, this connection
should be made at only one location to avoid de-
veloping thermal restraint forces.
For non-load-bearing panels, there is no mini-
mum prestress requirement beyond that required
to limit stresses and provide the ultimate moment
capacity. Load-bearing panels are typically While a continuous section of hollow core
stressed to provide a minimum prestress level wall panel and reinforcement spanning from the
greater than 225 psi. By doing so, Section 18.11.2 foundation to the roof is required for flexural in-
of ACI 318-113 allows the minimum wall rein- tegrity, it is often interrupted by windows, doors,
forcement requirements of Section 14.3 to be and mechanical openings. If the opening is small,
waived. There is no structural requirement to pre- the remaining wall panel may have adequate re-
stress the face wythe of a hollow core sandwich serve capacity to compensate for the panel and
wall panel. Some hollow core producers choose to strands that have been cut by the opening.
do so to minimize or close any incidental cracks As the opening reaches and exceeds a full
that may occur. panel width, a frame is generally provided. This
5.3.1 Lateral Bracing frame is designed both to support the gravity
weight of the panel and to span horizontally to
The design concept for a building using hol-
transfer the lateral loads on the cut wall panel to
low core wall panels is no different than that using
the adjacent wall panels. The lateral loads to be
other precast concrete walls. A load path must be
transferred may include the horizontal bracing
provided to carry all design loads, both gravity
force caused by eccentric gravity loads as well as
and lateral, from their point of application to their
wind forces normal to the panel face.
final point of resistance.
Continuing the load path, the wall panels adja-
Vertical hollow core wall panels are typically
cent to the opening must be designed for loads
designed to span from the foundation to the roof.
5-11
CHAPTER
applied directly to them plus the added lateral resist the reactions normal to the face of the wall
loads from the frame. A finite element study indi- panel and, possibly, transverse shear and uplift
cates that the effective hollow core wall panel forces.
width for resisting edge loads can be predicted as:
5.3.2 Load-Bearing versus Non-Load-
0.7 Bearing Hollow Core Wall Panels
b
width = 0.51  ≥ 4 ft Because most hollow core wall panels have
 substantial axial load capacity, designing the pan-
where b = panel width (ft) els to be load-bearing rather than only cladding
 = span length (ft) may be economically beneficial. A load-bearing
panel generally requires little or no additional re-
At the top of the hollow core wall panels, lat- inforcement than a non-bearing panel. Using the
eral resistance must be provided by the roof sys- wall panels to support the roof structure elimi-
tem. Connections must be made between the walls nates a beam and column line at each load-bearing
and the roof to transfer wall panel reactions into elevation. These savings should be balanced
the roof structure and, possibly, diaphragm forces against the likely need for additional or heavier
out of the roof. If the roof system is not supplied connections and the possible increased erection
by the wall panel producer, coordination is re- costs due to temporary bracing requirements.
quired to ensure that the roof has adequate integri-
ty to transfer the panel reactions to the vertical 5.3.3 Non-Load-Bearing Hollow Core
Wall Panel Design
bracing elements of the building.
At the hollow core wall panel base, connec- Non-load-bearing hollow core wall panels are
tions are made to the footing, foundation wall, or designed as flexural members as described in
interior slab on ground. These connections must Chapter 2. In addition to checking the bending-
moment capacity against the ultimate (factored)
Example 5.3.1 Interaction curve
A = 303.2 in.2 d'p= 1 in. Sb = 652.2 in.3
I = 2537.5 in.4 dp = 7 in. St = 617.5 in.3
bw = 20.0 in. b = 72 in. wt = 52.6 lb/ft2

yb = 3.89 in.
Prestressing: Six ⅜ in., φ, 270 ksi, low relaxation strands each face
Initial prestress = 70% fpu Prestress loss = 15%
Eps = 28500 ksi
Concrete: f'c = 5000 psi Ec = 4300 ksi
5-12
Hollow Core Panels Chapter
HOLLOW CORE PANELS CHAPTER 5 5
loads, service load stresses are usually checked ε t = ε ps – fse /Eps

against the modulus of rupture. To avoid cracking
Using these equations, the interaction curve is de-
a wall panel during handling, shipping, and erec-
veloped by assuming a value of a, then calculating
tion, stresses should be limited to the modulus of
the remaining values including Pn and Mn. This is
rupture with a factor of safety of 1.5. repeated several times to generate points to be
' 7.5 λ fc' plotted. Extra care must be taken with hollow core
f ≤
r = 5 λ fc' wall panels. If the compression area is deeper than
1.5
For transitory loads such as wind, using a limit the flange thickness, compression on the web area
must be included.
of 7.5 λ fc' is appropriate. The higher limit rec- Section 9.3 of ACI 318-11 prescribes the ap-
ognizes the small likelihood of the full load occur- propriate φ factors to apply to the calculated ca-
ring, the short duration of the load, and the fact pacities. When the net tensile strain ε t ≤ 0.002, the
that the prestressing will readily close any cracks section is compression-controlled and φ = 0.65.
that may occur. When ε t ≥ 0.005, the section is tension-controlled
5.3.4 Load-Bearing Panel Design and φ = 0.90. For sections in which ε t is between
The analysis of a load-bearing hollow core these limits,
wall panel is similar to that of other prestressed φ = 0.48 + 83ε t.
compression members such as solid wall panels Given the cross section shown, develop the ten-
and columns. An interaction curve plotting ulti- sion portion of the interaction curve.
mate axial load φPn versus ultimate moment φMn
is developed using strain compatibility and inter- Solution:
nal equilibrium. The ultimate loads and moments, Assume a = 0.80 in.
including magnification due to slenderness ef-
β1 = 0.85 – 0.05(f'c – 4000)/1000
fects, are calculated at critical points in the panel = 0.85 – (1)(0.05) = 0.80
and compared to capacities along the interaction
c = a / β 1 = 0.80 / 0.80 = 1.0 in.
curve.
fse = (initial P/S)(1 – loss)fpu
5.3.4.1 Interaction Curves = (0.7)(0.85)(270) = 160.6 ksi
An interaction curve showing the relationship ε 'ps = fse/Eps – (0.003/c)(c – dp)
of axial load versus moment capacity is developed = 160.6 / 28800 – (0.003 / 1.0)(1.0 – 1)
by calculating points on the curve using strain = 0.00558 in./in.
compatibility and internal equilibrium. Unless ε ps = fse /Eps + (0.003/c)(dp – c)
more accurate curves are available, the stress- = 160.6 / 28800 + (0.003 / 1.0)(7 – 1.0)
strain diagram shown in Fig. 2.2.5.1 can be used = 0.02358 in./in.
for the prestressing strand. For most hollow core f'ps = ε’psEps
wall panels, the axial load is relatively light and = (0.00558)(28800)
flexure is dominant; therefore, the lower portion = 160.6 ksi
of the interaction curve is most important. fps = fpu – 0.04 / (εps – 0.007)
The stress and equilibrium equations are as = 270 – 0.04 / (0.02358 – 0.007)
follows: = 267.6 ksi
a = β1 c Acomp = (a)(b) = (0.8)(72) = 57.6 in.2
ε 'ps = fse / Eps – (0.003/c)(c − d'p) ≤ 0.035 Pn = (Acomp – A'ps)(0.85f'c) –A'psf'ps
ε ps = fse / Eps + (0.003/c)(dp − c) ≤ 0.035 − Apsfps
= [57.6 – 6(0.085)](0.85)(5)
Pn= (Acomp − A'ps)0.85f'c − A'ps f'ps − Aps fps − 6(0.085)(160.6) – 6(0.085)(267.6)
Mn = Pne = 24 kip
= (Acomp − A'ps)(yt − y')(0.85f'c)
− A'ps f'ps(yt − d'p) + Aps fps(dp – yt)
5-13
CHAPTER
Mn = (Acomp – A'ps)(yt - y')(0.85f'c) larger than the flange thickness, the compression
- A'psf'ps(yt – d'p) + Apsfps(dp – yt) area must be adjusted accordingly. Continuing
= [57.6 – 6(0.085)][(0.85)5](4.11 – 0.8/2) this example results in an interaction curve as
– 6(0.085)(160.6)(4.11 – 1) shown in Fig. 5.3.2.
+ 6(0.085)(267.6)(7 – 4.11) This interaction curve was developed assum-
= 1039.8 kip-in. = 86.6 kip-ft ing the strands are fully developed. This requires
that the location at which Mu is being checked be
Determine φ
a minimum of a full development length ℓd from
ε t = 0.02358 – 160.6 / 28800 the hollow core wall panel end. Situations may
= 0.0180 > 0.005 arise where the critical moment occurs near the
end of the wall panel. A load-bearing wall panel
Therefore: φ = 0.9
with heavy loads or large eccentricities, or a canti-
φPn = 0.9(24) = 22 kip lever wall panel as shown in Fig. 5.3.1, may have
φMn = 0.9(86.6) = 78.3 kip-ft large bending moments within a distance less than
the full development length.
Additional points on the interaction curve are
calculated by assuming values of a and computing
the remaining terms. As the dimension a becomes
Figure 5.3.2 Typical stress-strain curve, 7-Wire low relaxation prestressing strand
125
100
75
ФPn, (kips)
50
25
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
ФMn, (ft-kips)
5-14
Chapter
Figure 5.3.3 Design stress for underdeveloped strands
When the point of maximum moment occurs Example 5.3.2 Underdeveloped

within the development length of the hollow core Strands
wall panel, Fig. 5.3.3 can be used to determine a Given the data from Example 5.3.1, develop
maximum value for fps. A lower bound capacity the interaction curve at 3 ft from the end of the
can be established using fse as a maximum value hollow core wall panel.
for fps. This requires a minimum bond length
equal to the strand transfer length ℓt. If the point Solution:
of maximum moment is less than the transfer Referring to Fig. 5.3.3, the maximum availa-
length from the wall panel end, the only available ble stress at 36 in. is 203 ksi. Repeating the strain
moment capacity is the cracking moment. Refer to compatibility analysis from the previous example:
Section 2.6 for a more complete discussion of this Assume a = 0.80 in.
topic. In this instance, reinforcing bars may be
required. β1 = 0.85 – 0.05(f'c – 4000)/1000
If the strands are not fully developed, Section = 0.85 – (1)(0.05) = 0.80
9.3.2.7 of ACI 318-11 states that φ equals 0.75 c = a / β 1 = 0.80 / 0.80 = 1.0 in.
from the end of the member to the transfer length ε 'ps = fse /Eps – (0.003/c)(c – dp)
with a linear increase to 0.9 at the development = 160.6 / 28800 – (0.003 / 1.0)(1.0 – 1)
length. Therefore, when constructing the interac- = 0.00558 in./in.
tion diagram, this limit must be compared with the ε ps = fse /Eps + (0.003/c)(dp – c)
= 160.6 / 28800 + (0.003 / 1.0)(7 – 1.0)
φ based on the steel strain and the lesser value
= 0.02358 in./in.
used.
f'ps = ε'psEps
= (0.00558)(28800)
= 160.6 ksi < 203 ksi
5-15
CHAPTER
fps = fpu – 0.04/(ε ps – 0.007) Determine φ

= 270 – 0.04 / (0.02358 – 0.007)
ε t = 0.02358 – 160.6 / 28800
= 267.6 ksi > 203 ksi
= 0.0180 > 0.005
Use 203 ksi
Acomp = (0.8)(72) = 57.6 in.2 Therefore: φ1 = 0.9
Pn = (Acomp –A'ps)(0.85f'c) –A'psf'ps− Apsfps With the available length falling between the
= [57.6 – 6(0.085)](0.85)(5) transfer length and the development length, φ is
– 6(0.085)(160.6) – 6(0.085)(203) limited to:
= 57 kip
 36 − 20 
Mn = (Acomp – A'ps)(yt - y')(0.85f'c) φ2 = 0.75 +  (0.9 − 0.75)
– A'psf'ps(yt – d'p) + Apsfps(dp – yt)  61.25 − 20 
= [57.6 – 6(0.085)][(0.85)5](4.11 = 0.81
– 0.8/2)− 6(0.085)(160.6)(4.11 – 1)
+ 6(0.085)(203)(7 – 4.11) φPn = 0.81(57) = 46.2 kip
= 944.6 kip-in. = 78.7 kip-ft φMn = 0.81(78.7) = 63.7 kip-ft
Figure 5.3.4 Interaction curves with underdeveloped (ℓ available = 36 in.) and fully
developed strands
125
100
Underdeveloped
75
ФPn, (kips)
Fully Developed
50
25
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
ФMn, (ft-kips)
5-16
Chapter
By assuming additional values of a, the inter- Practice for the Design of Prestressed Walls and
action curve shown in Fig. 5.3.4 (superimposed Columns42 allow this procedure to be used for
on the fully developed strand curve) is generated. slenderness ratios up to 150.
It should be noted that this curve is only valid at The most accurate method to account for slen-
36 in. or more from the hollow core wall panel derness effects in hollow core wall panels is the
end. If the maximum moment occurs closer to the P-∆ analysis. This analysis method is recom-
end of the hollow core wall panel, a new interac- mended for all slender compression members and
tion curve must be developed. is required for all members with a slenderness ra-
5.3.4.2 Slenderness Effects tio greater than 150.
The P-∆ analysis procedure involves calculat-
The interaction curves developed in Section
ing the deflected shape of the hollow core wall
5.3.4.1 provide the design strength of the hollow
panel under factored loads, applying the axial load
core wall panel section. For short walls, k ℓu/r ≤
to this deflected shape to cause increased deflec-
25, the bending moments from a first order analy-
tion, and continuing iterations until the panel sta-
sis using ultimate loads are computed and com-
bilizes or fails. The final, stabilized wall panel and
pared with values within the interaction curves.
its moments are the magnified design forces for
As the hollow core wall panels get taller, the
comparison with the interaction curve.
first order bending moments are magnified by the
effect of the axial load acting through the deflect- Example 5.3.3 P-∆ Analysis, Iterative
ed shape. This deflected shape may be caused by Solution
eccentric axial loads, applied lateral loads, ther- Given the cross section and prestressing from
mal bowing, camber due to unsymmetrical pre- Example 5.3.1, check the adequacy of the hollow
stressing, and manufacturing tolerance. core wall panel for the loading shown above.
Section 10.10 of ACI 318-11 outlines a proce-
dure for calculating magnified moments for pan- Solution:
els with a slenderness ratio less than or equal to Although all relevant load cases must be
100. Modifications developed by Nathan and checked, assume that ACI 318-11 (Eq 9-4) will
summarized in the PCI manual Recommended control this example.
U = 1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5S
Example 5.3.3 P-Δ Analysis Pu = 1.2 (7.5) + 0.5 (10.5)
= 14.25 kip
wu = 1.0 (0.037 kip/ft2)(6 ft)
= 0.221 kip/ft
Thermal bow due to 40 ˚F temperature differential
C (T1 − T2 ) 2 6 × 10−6 (40)(30 × 12)
2
∆T = =
8h 8(8)
= 0.49 in.
Based on the hollow core producer’s experience,
assume initial out-of-straightness plus shrinkage
bowing equals 0.75 in.
Per Section R10.10.3 in ACI 318-11, use a
stiffness reduction factor φK of 0.80 to account for
variability in properties and in the analysis. Divid-
ing I by (1 + βd) accounts for the stiffness reduc-
tion caused by sustained loads.
5-17
CHAPTER
0.80 Ec I g ∆Total 2 = 1.85 + 0.040

EI eff = = 1.89 in.
1 + βd
0.80 (4300)(2537.5) With a second iteration:
=
1 + βd ∆2 = 0.0216 (1.89)
= 0.041 in.
8.729 ×10 6
= ∆Total 3 = 1.85 + 0.041
1 + βd = 1.891 in.
For dead load plus live load: Because the final deflection is converging, the
β d = 1.2(7.5) / 14.25 panel is stable. Use a final deflection of 1.891 in.
= 0.63 and calculate the ultimate moment.
EIeff = 8.729 × 106 / (1 + 0.63) 14.25(7 )
= 5.350 × 106 M D+L =
2(12)
For wind load: = 4.16 kip-ft at midheight
βd = 0 0.221(30)
2
EIeff = 8.729 × 106 MW =

8
Deflection due to eccentric axial load:
= 24.86 kip-ft
Pu e 2
14.25(1.891)
∆1 = M P−∆ =
16 EI 12
14.25(7 )(30 × 12 )
2
= = 2.25 kip-ft
16(5.35 × 10 6 )
The ultimate design moment equals
= 0.15 in.
Mu = 4.16 + 24.86 + 2.25
Deflection due to wind suction: = 31.27 kip-ft
5wu  4 Because all of the preceding deflection calcu-
∆1 =
384 EI lations were made based on the assumption of an
5(0.221)(30 ) (1728) uncracked section, this assumption must be
4
= checked. Unlike most stress checks, this calcula-

384(8.729 × 10 6 )
tion must be done using factored loads and mo-
= 0.46 in. ments to verify that the hollow core wall panel
Total first order deflection: remains uncracked at the design level used in the
analysis.
∆Total 1 = 0.49 + 0.75 + 0.15 + 0.46
= 1.85 in. P Mu
ft = −
Calculate the second order deflections. A S
12 (0.085)(270)(0.7)(0.85) 14.25
Pu ∆ 2 = +
∆2 = 303.2 303.2
16 EI
31.27(12)
14.25(30 × 12) −
2
= ∆ 617.5
16(5.35 × 10 6 ) = 0.540 + 0.047 − 0.608
= 0.0216∆ = −0.021 ksi Net tension
Inserting the first order deflection from above:
7.5 5000
∆2 = 0.0216 (1.85) fr = = 0.530 ksi > 0.021 ok
= 0.040 in. 1000
5-18
Chapter
The section is not cracked; therefore, the anal- Example 5.3.4 P-∆ Analysis, Direct
ysis is valid. Solution
Using the interaction curve of Fig. 5.3.2, Solve Example 5.3.3 using the direct solution
it can be seen that the panel is adequate for Pu = equation.
14.25 kip and Mu = 31.27 kip-ft.
Solution:
The section at the top of the hollow core wall
panel should also be checked due to the underde- From Example 5.3.3
veloped strands. The full dead load plus full live ∆1 = 1.85 in.
load combination will be critical at this location. 1.85
This moment is not required to be magnified. ∆=
14.25(30 ×12) 2
1− 2
Mu =
[1.2(7.5) + 1.6(10.5)](7) π (5.35 ×106 )
12 = 1.917 in.
= 15.1 kip-ft M1 = 4.16 + 24.86 = 29.02 kip-ft
Comparison with the interaction curve of Fig. 14.25[1.917]
5.3.4 verifies that the hollow core wall panel is M u = 29.02 +
adequate at this location also. 12
For the particular case of a hollow core wall = 31.30 kip-ft
panel braced at the top and bottom with pinned These values are approximately equal to the
connections, there is a closed form solution to values computed by the iterative process.
simplify the P-∆ analysis. Although both ACI and PCI recommend the
The deflected shape of the hollow core wall P-∆ analysis method, moment magnification is an
panel is a sine curve. Therefore, the total deflec- acceptable design procedure. Using this approach
tion can be expressed as for hollow core wall panels will generally result in
P∆ 2 overly conservative designs. For comparison’s
∆= + ∆1 sake, the Nathan moment magnification design
π 2 EI procedure, as modified by the PCI Recommended
where ∆1 = first order deflection Practice, will be presented.
Solving for ∆ yields: The basic equations are as follows:
∆1 Mc = δbM2b + δsM2s
∆= 2
P Cm
1− δb = ≥ 1.0
π 2 EI Pu
1−
And the final moment equals: φPc
Mu = M1 + P ∆ 1
δs = ≥ 1 .0
= M1 +
P ∆1
1−
P u
P 2 φ P c
1− 2
π EI
π 2 EI
where M1 = first order moment Pc =
(k )
u
2
where:
Cm = 0.7 + 0.3(M1b / M2b)
if braced against sidesway and without trans-
verse loads
5-19
CHAPTER
Cm = 1.0 for all other cases λ = ηθ = 70(0.191)

Ec I g / λ = 13.39
EI =
(1 + β )d Mu = 29.02 kip-ft
λ = ηθ ≥ 3.0 1.2 ( 7.5 )( 7 )
MuD =
2 (12 )
1.6
η = 2.5 + = 2.62 kip-ft
Pu / Po
6 ≤ η ≤ 70 M uD 2.62
βd = = = 0.090
Mu 29.02
For cross sections without a compression flange:
27 Ec I g / λ
θ= − 0.05 EI =
(k u / r ) 1 + βd
For cross sections with a compression flange: 4300 (2537.5) /13.39
EI =
35 1 + 0.090
θ= − 0.09
(k u / r ) = 7.48 ×105
For the typical hollow core wall panel, span-
ning vertically, braced at the top and bottom, and π 2 (7.48 ×105 )
Pc =
resisting wind loads, δs is not used and Cm is equal (30 ×12) 2
to 1.0. = 56.9 kip
Example 5.3.5 Moment Magnifier Using φK = 0.75 as recommended in Section
Analysis R10.10.6 of ACI 318-11 results in:
Given the information from Example 5.3.3,
1.0
solve for the magnified design moment. δb =
14.25
Solution: 1−
0.75(56.9)
Calculate EI = 1.50
Po = 0.85 f c' ( A− Aps' − Aps )− ( Aps' + Aps )( f se − 0.003E ps )
= 0.85(5)[303.2 − 6(0.085)− 6(0.085)] This is greater than the 1.4 limit in Section
10.10.2.1 of ACI 318-11 so the panel would be
−[6(0.085)+ 6(0.085)][160.6 − 0.003(28800)] judged too slender to be used.
= 1208 kip The primary reason for this is that the moment
magnifier method assumes the panel will crack,
1.6 resulting in a drastically reduced moment of iner-
η = 2.5 +
14.25 / 1208 tia and increased deflections and moments. The P-
= 138.1 Use 70 ∆ method requires a check for flexural cracking.
Because most wall panels are prestressed suffi-
I 2537.5 ciently to prevent cracking, the resulting deflec-
r= =
A 303.2 tions and moments are not arbitrarily and unnec-
= 2.893in. essarily increased.
35
θ= − 0.09
(30 )(12 ) / 2.893
= 0.191
5-20
Chapter
The P-∆ analysis may show extremely slender number of hollow core wall panels necessary to
hollow core wall panels to be structurally ade- resist the design loads should be connected. Con-
quate even while indicating very large and unrea- crete shrinkage and temperature change will cause
sonable deflections. Therefore, Reference 42 lim- transverse movement of the hollow core wall pan-
its the lateral deflection under factored loads to els. As more hollow core wall panels are connect-
 u / 100. ed, restraint forces will develop in the panel-to-
panel connections. Minimizing the number of hol-
5.4 Hollow core Wall Panels as low core wall panels connected will minimize
Shear Walls these restraint forces.
For the most common hollow core wall panel- Example 5.4.1 Shear Walls
clad building−one- and two-story structures with Given the building shown in Figure 5.4.1, de-
vertically spanning wall panels−the panels are of- sign the hollow core wall panels to act as shear
ten designed to act as shear walls. This approach walls. The panels are 6-ft-wide panels, as shown
requires that the roof be designed to brace the top in Example 5.3.1.
of the wall panels and then act as a diaphragm to Solution:
deliver the lateral forces to perpendicular shear
walls. If the wall panel supplier does not provide Determine the forces applied to the shear walls.
the roof, there must be coordination to ensure that Force applied to roof diaphragm
there is a mechanism and adequate connection
0.029(33)
2
capacity to provide this force transfer. wu =
Ideally, the resisting elevation is designed us- 2(30)
ing individual shear walls, with the weight of each = 0.526 kip/ft
panel serving to resist the overturning moment.
This procedure minimizes the connection re- At north and south elevations
quirements. However, depending on the lateral 0.526 (150 )
forces, building dimensions, and available walls, Vu = = 39.4 kip
this approach may not provide adequate resistance 2
against overturning. If this is the case, additional Resist this shear with forty-six 6-ft-wide hollow
resistance can be gained by providing tie-down core wall panels.
connections near the wall panel edges or by con-
The critical load case is U = 0.9D + 1.0W
necting panels along the vertical joint to create
multi-panel units. 39.4 ( 30 )
Section 16.5.1.3(b) of ACI 318-11 requires all Mu = = 25.6 kip-ft / panel
46 panels
vertical, structural wall panels, except cladding, to
be connected to the foundation with a minimum Considering self-weight as tiedown:
of two connections, each having a minimum nom- Tu = 0.9 (0.0526)(6)(33)
inal strength of 10 kip. Because the structural in- = 9.37 kip per panel
tegrity requirement is not additive to the actual
design forces, this connection capacity is available 9.37
a=
to provide additional overturning resistance. Be- 0.85 ( 5 )( 8 )
cause some casting systems allow only shallow
= 0.28 in. = 0.023 ft
anchors with limited capacities, the local hollow
core producer should be consulted before design-  6 0.023 
ing for larger tie-down forces. M n = 0.9(9.37 ) − 
2 2 
Alternatively, shear connections can be used
along the vertical joint between hollow core wall = 25.2 kip-ft ≈ Mu
panels to create a wider, stiffer shear wall ele- Therefore, these elevations are adequate with
ment. If this technique is used, the minimum minimal tie-down connections.
5-21
Chapter 5
CHAPTER 5 HOLLOW CORE PANELS Hollow Core Panels
Figure 5.4.1 Hollow Core Panel Shear Walls
50 panels @ 6'-0" = 300'
25 panels @ 6'-0" = 150'

18 psf Wind
18 psf Wind
N
33'-0"
33'-0"
Therefore, one solution is to provide a tie-
At east and west elevations down connection designed for 24 kip. Because
this is a fairly large force, try connecting the hol-
0.526 ( 300 ) low core wall panels along the vertical joint to
Vu = = 78.9 kip
2 form six 18-ft-wide shear wall units. These two
Resist this shear with eighteen 6-ft-wide hollow options are illustrated in Fig. 5.4.2.
core wall panels. 78.9 ( 30 )
Mu = = 395 kip-ft / unit
78.9 ( 30 ) 6 units
Mu =
18 panels Force due to self-weight:
= 131.5 kip-ft / panel Tu = 0.9(0.0526)(18)(33)
Because Mu > φMn with self-weight alone, a tie- = 28.12 kip per unit
down connection is required. Estimate the tie-down force as 12 kip.
Estimate the tie-down force as 24 kip. 28.12 + 12
a=
9.37 + 24 0.85(5) (8)
a=
0.85 ( 5 )( 8 ) = 1.18 in. = 0.098 ft
= 0.98 in. = 0.082 ft
  18 0.098   0.098 
φM n = 0.928.12 −  +1217 − 
φM n = 0.99.37 −

 6 0.082   0.082   2 2   2 
 + 24 5 − 
 2  2   2 
= 409.62 kip-ft > Mu
= 132.1 kip-ft > Mu
5-22
Chapter
Figure 5.4.2 Shear wall connection forces at east and west elevations
0.98 ( 30 )
Further iterations calculate the required tie- Vu = = 9.8 kip / connection
3
down force to be approximately 11 kip. The panel-to-panel connections along the ver-
To achieve this resistance, the panels must be tical joints must be designed for this shear force.
adequately connected along the vertical joints to
create a composite shear wall unit. 5.5 Seismic Design of Hollow core
Wall Panels
VuQ Table 12.6-1 of ASCE 7-1036 summarizes the
Vuh =
I permissible seismic analysis procedures and the
78.9 criteria for their use. Nearly all buildings that use
Vu = = 13.2 kip / unit hollow core wall panels will meet the criteria for
6
analysis by the equivalent lateral force procedure
 18 6  as outlined in Chapters 12 and 13 of ASCE 7-10.
Q = 6  −  = 36 ft 2
 2 2 This procedure requires that the building and its
components resist a percentage of their weight
183 acting horizontally. The percentage varies based
I= = 486 ft3
12 on factors such as the seismic design category
13.2(36) (SDC), the importance factor, and the response
Vuh = design coefficients, which reflect strength, tough-
486 ness, ductility, and redundancy.
= 0.98 kip/ft along vertical joint Once the lateral forces are determined, hollow
core wall panels and their connections are de-
Using three connections along the panel height:
signed to resist seismic forces in a manner similar
to the design for wind loads. It is important to
5-23
CHAPTER
note that seismic forces calculated in this manner 5.5.1.1 Design Forces
are considered factored design loads. Table 5.5.1 summarizes the out-of-plane seis-
Because it is nearly impossible for hollow mic design forces. If more than one force is listed
core wall panels to satisfy the requirements of a for an element, the largest of the forces must be
special reinforced concrete shear wall, the use of used. The referenced sections should always be
hollow core wall panels was effectively limited to reviewed for a more complete explanation of terms
buildings in SDC A and B (plus SDC C if trans- and possible footnotes or exceptions.
verse steel was provided) prior to the adoption of One notable exemption from these require-
ASCE 7-05 and ACI 318-05. With the addition of the ments is Section 13.1.4(3) of ACSE 7-10, which
intermediate precast concrete shear wall as a sys- allows architectural wall panels (cladding panels)
tem category, ASCE 7-05 and ACI 318-05 did not in SDC B to be exempt from seismic design re-
automatically preclude the use of hollow core wall quirements, provided the component importance
panels in any SDC. However, the design loads factor Ip is equal to 1.0. The component im-
increase and the detailing requirements become portance factor is equal to 1.0 unless any of the
more stringent in regions of high seismic risk. following conditions apply.
Combined with the requirements for transverse • The component is required for life-safety
reinforcement and the shallow embedment depths purposes after an earthquake.
of most embedments in hollow core slabs, there • The component supports or contains toxic,
may be practical or economic limitations to the explosive, or hazardous material.
use of hollow core wall panels in moderate or • The component is in or attached to an oc-
high seismic areas. cupancy category IV structure and is
Because the intermediate precast concrete needed for continued operation of the fa-
shear wall is a new system category, many of its cility.
design and detailing requirements are only now It should be noted that seismic design criteria
being interpreted and clarified by designers and are cumulative. That is, an element in SDC D
building officials. Therefore, it is essential that the must satisfy all of the requirements of SDC A
building designer, the precast concrete producer, through C in addition to the requirements for SDC
and the local building official work together in D.
establishing whether hollow core wall panels are
an efficient selection as the lateral force resisting 5.5.2 Types of Shear Walls
system in SDC C through F. ACI 318-11 and ASCE 7-10 recognize three
The fundamentals of seismic design and the types of precast concrete shear walls. Note that
determination of the SDC have been covered in ACI uses the term structural wall. For the purpos-
Chapter 4 of this manual and will not be reviewed es of lateral load resistance, this is the same as a
here. Having determined the SDC, the design shear wall. Note also that there is some discrepan-
forces to be applied to the panel and its connec- cy in the types of walls that are given formal defi-
tions can be calculated. nitions.
The intent of the analysis and detailing re-
5.5.1 Designing for Out-of-Plane
quirements is the same in both documents and the
Forces
terminology will likely be coordinated in future
Designing a hollow core wall panel for out-of- editions. There are three types of precast concrete
plane seismic loads is seldom a problem. The lat- shear walls.
eral seismic forces are generally of a smaller
magnitude than the design wind loads. However, • Ordinary precast concrete shear walls
because the cyclic, reversible nature of a seismic are walls that comply with the require-
event requires increased ductility and toughness, ments of ACI 318-11, Chapters 1 through
the seismic connection forces are often substan- 18, and Chapter 22. This wall type re-
tially greater than the wind loads. quires no special seismic detailing and is
used in SDC A and B.
5-24
Hollow Core Panels Chapter
HOLLOW CORE PANELS CHAPTER 55
Table 5.5.1 Out-of-plane seismic design forces

Seismic ASCE 7-10 reference
Design Element section
Category
Structural Walls
0.01 Wp 1.4.3
Connections
A 0.2 Wp 1.4.5
5 lb/ft2 1.4.5
Non-structural walls
Exempt from seismic design requirements 11.7
Structural walls – Hollow core panels
0.10 Wp ≤ 0.4 SDS Ie Wp 12.11.1
Connections
0.2 ka Ie Wp ≤ 0.4 SDS ka Ie Wp 12.11.2.1
where ka = 1.0 for a rigid diaphragm or 12.11.2.2.2
Lf
ka = 1.0 + ≤ 2.0 for a flexible diaphragm
100
These forces are multiplied by 1.4 for steel elements of the connections
for SDC C through F
B Non-structural walls – Hollow core panels*

Through
F 0.4 S DS I pW p  z
0.3 SDS Ip Wp ≤ 1+ 2  ≤ 1.6 SDS Ip Wp 13.3.1**
2.5  h
Connections (rigid diaphragm)
0.4 S DS I pW p  z
1+ 2  Body of connection 13.4.1
2.5  h 
 z 13.3.1
0.5S DS I pW p 1+ 2  Fasteners of connection
 h
Connections (flexible diaphragm)
0.2 ka Ie Wp ≤ 0.4 SDS ka Ie Wp 12.11.2.1

*Per Section 13.1.4(3) of ASCE 7-10, non-structural panels in SDC B are exempt from seismic design require-
ments if Ip is 1.0
**Rp = 2.5 and ap =1.0 from Table 13.5-1
5-25
CHAPTER
• Intermediate precast concrete shear One significant difference is that the lateral
walls satisfy the requirements of an ordi- force acting on the shear walls is not only a por-
nary precast concrete shear wall, but must tion of the weight of the braced hollow core wall
also meet the criteria of Section 21.4 of panels but also a portion of the roof weight and
ACI 318-11. This section requires that the weight of the shear wall itself. Consequently,
connections fail by yielding of steel ele- seismic forces will often control the shear wall
ments or reinforcement and those portions analysis, particularly if there is a precast concrete
of the connection that are not designed to roof.
yield must develop 150% of the yield In addition to the increased forces required in
strength of the connection. These walls SDC C through F, the detailing requirements for
may be used for buildings in SDC C anything other than an ordinary precast concrete
through F (with height restrictions in cate- shear wall may prevent, or make cost-prohibitive,
gories D through F). the use of hollow core wall panels as shear walls.
• Special precast concrete shear walls 5.5.2.2 Design Forces
must comply with Sections 21.1.3 through
Having determined the spectral response ac-
21.1.7, 21.9, and 21.10 of ACI 318-11.
celerations SDS and SD1, the importance factor Ie,
Commonly referred to as emulative de-
and the elastic fundamental period T as outlined in
sign, this approach requires that the pre-
chapter 4, the seismic response coefficient CS is
cast concrete wall needs to be designed
calculated as the lesser of:
and perform the same as a cast-in-place
concrete wall. With its requirements for S DS
Cs =
full strength reinforcement splices and R
joints that are (or behave as if) cast mono- Ie
lithically, emulation design is not well
suited for use with hollow core wall pan- S D1
els. Cs = for T ≤ TL
R
T  
Section 21.1.1.8 of ACI 318-11 does allow an  Ie 
alternative to emulation if “it is demonstrated by
experimental evidence and analysis that the pro- But not less than:
posed system will have strength and toughness CS = 0.044SDSIe ≥ 0.01
equal to or exceeding those provided by a compa-
rable monolithic reinforced concrete structure sat- In addition, if S1 is equal to or greater than 0.6g,
isfying this chapter.” Hollow core wall panel sys- where g is the acceleration of gravity:
tems have been or are being developed that use 0.5S1
post-tensioning strand or self-limiting ductile base Cs ≥
R
connections to satisfy this requirement. However,  
these systems are experimental or proprietary and,  Ie 
as such, are outside the scope of this manual.
The response modification factor R is
5.5.2.1 Designing for Shear Wall based on the seismic force-resisting system. The
Forces values of R are listed in Table 12.2-1 of ASCE 7-
The analysis of hollow core wall panels to act 10 and partially summarized in Table 5.5.2.
as shear walls for resisting seismic forces is simi- Using the equivalent lateral force procedure,
lar to the analysis for wind loads. The panels are the seismic base shear is calculated as:
typically braced at the foundation and the roof.
The roof diaphragm braces the top of the hollow V = Cs W
core wall panels and delivers the lateral forces to
the available shear walls.
5-26
Chapter
If the structure is a single story, as are the ma- U = (1.2 + 0.2SDS)D + ρQE + L + 0.2S
jority of hollow core wall panel buildings, this U = (0.9 – 0.2SDS)D + ρQE +1.6H
base shear is applied at the roof and distributed to
For buildings in SDC C through F, some ele-
the available shear walls using the guidelines of
ments of the seismic force-resisting system must
Section 4.3 and Example 4.9.1 of this manual.
be designed for an overstrength factor Ω0 (Table
Factors to consider in the distribution include
5.5.2). Chapter 4 of this manual discusses the use
flexible versus rigid diaphragm, configuration and
of Ω0 when designing diaphragms and collectors.
stiffness of the shear walls, and inherent and acci-
Section 12.10.2.1 of ASCE 7-10 also requires that
dental eccentricity of the lateral force.
collectors and their connections to the shear walls
Although the design of the diaphragm and the
include the overstrength factor. If the connection
shear walls are inherently related, in a multistory
supports gravity loads in addition to unloading the
building they may not be designed for the same
diaphragm, the overstrength factor is applied only
lateral force. Section 12.8.3 of ASCE 7-10 speci-
to the horizontal seismic forces and is not required
fies the vertical distribution requirements for the
for the vertical component Ev.
shear wall analysis, while Section 12.10 lists spe-
The following examples demonstrate the cal-
cial requirements for the design of the diaphragm.
culation of seismic forces required for the design
In this case, the diaphragm and its connections to
of a warehouse with hollow core wall panels.
the shear walls should be designed for the greater
These forces must be compared with those gener-
of the calculated forces, but the design of the
ated by the wind load analysis, with the greater
shear walls is based on the loads and vertical dis-
value used in the final design. Because embed-
tribution of Section 12.8.3.
ments and connection types vary widely among
5.5.2.3 Load Combinations hollow core producers due to the various produc-
For buildings in SDC D through F, Section tion methods, the design of the connection itself is
12.3.4 of ASCE 7-10 requires that a redundancy not covered. Chapter 6 of this manual illustrates
some connection types and their usage.
load factor ρ equal to 1.3 be applied to the seismic
force-resisting system unless it can be demon-
strated by the criteria of Section 12.3.4.2 that the
existing shear wall layout provides redundant load Table 5.5.2 Design coefficients and
paths. If the redundancy factor is required, it does factors
not need to be used for design of the diaphragm or Seismic-force-resisting R Ω0 Cd
for any elements to which the overstrength factor system
Ω 0 has been applied.
Because a seismic event may include both ver- Bearing wall systems
tical and horizontal ground motion, the ACI load Special reinforced concrete 5 2½ 5
combinations that include seismic forces must be shear walls
modified to include the potentially damaging ef- Intermediate precast 4 2½ 4
fects of vertical movements. The vertical seismic concrete shear walls
force is defined as Ordinary precast concrete 3 2½ 3
shear walls
Ev = 0.2 SDSD
Building frame systems
and is assumed to act in the direction that creates
the most critical load combination. Therefore, Special reinforced concrete 6 2½ 5
shear walls
when designing for maximum axial effects, Ev is
added to the factored gravity loads. However, Intermediate precast 5 2½ 4½
concrete shear walls
when checking overturning, Ev is subtracted from
the resisting loads. With QE defined as the effects Ordinary precast concrete 4 2½ 4
shear walls
of horizontal seismic forces, the seismic load
combinations become:
5-27
CHAPTER
Example 5.5.1(a) ASCE 7-10, Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2

Given the building shown and the information Fa = 1.6
below, determine the seismic design forces for the Fv = 2.4
wall panels. Note that wind would also have to be
checked for a complete design. SMS = 1.6 × 0.173 = 0.277g
SM1 = 2.4 × 0.058 = 0.138g
Cleveland, Ohio Zip code 44110
Occupancy category: II 2
Importance factor Ie = 1.0
S DS = (0.277) = 0.185g
3
Site class D 2
Steel joist / Metal deck roof 20 lb/ft2 S D1 = (0.138) = 0.092 g
3
8 in. thick, 6-ft-wide hollow core wall panels with
a weight of 52.6 lb/ft2 Per Tables 11.6-1 and 11.6-2 of ASCE 7-10, the
building is in SDC B.
Solution:
From USGS SS = 0.173g
S1 = 0.058g
TL = 12 sec
Example 5.5.1 Seismic forces on hollow core wall panels
5-28
Chapter
Building period: Fmin = 0.2SDSIeWp

= 0.2 (0.185)(1.0)(1192)
T = Ct hnx
= 44.1 kip
0.75
= 0.020 ( 26) Therefore, use V = 73.9 kip
= 0.23 sec < TL Applying the required 5% accidental torsion,
Building weights: the force applied to the top of the shear wall is:
wroof = (240 × 180) 0.020 = 864 kip Fu = 0.55 × 73.9
wwalls = 0.0526 × 26 = 1.37 kip/ft = 40.6 kip
Design for seismic motion acting north-south: With twenty-six 6-ft-wide panels available, the
The east and west elevations will be designed top connections must be designed for a shear
as ordinary precast concrete shear walls. Because force of:
these elevations are load-bearing, R = 3. If the
hollow core wall panels and their connections are 40.6
Vu =
designed to satisfy the criteria of intermediate or 26
special reinforced shear walls, a larger value of R = 1.56 kip/panel
may be used. A judgment must be made regarding
Shear wall design forces
the economics of possible reduced forces versus
increased detailing requirements. The analysis of the shear walls is similar to the
analysis for wind presented in section 5.4.
S
Cs = DS Froof = 40.6 kip applied at h = 25 ft
R
  Fwalls = 0.062(1.37)(180)
 Ie  = 15.3 kip applied at h = 13 ft
0.185
= = 0.062 40.6 ( 25 ) + 15.3 (13)
3 Mu =
  26 panels
1
= 46.7 kip-ft/panel
S
C s = D1 The resisting dead load is:
R
T  
 Ie   30 
D =  26(0.0526 )+ (0.020 )6
0.092  2 
= = 0.133
 3 = 10.0 kip/panel
0.23 
1 Du = (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D
Use Cs = 0.062 = (0.9 − 0.2(0.185))10.0
Load to roof diaphragm
= 8.63 kip
1.37
W = 864 + 2 ( 240) Assuming the tie-down Tu equals 10 kip:
2
= 1192 kip 8.63 + 10
a= = 0.55 in. = 0.046 ft
Diaphragm to shear wall forces 0.85 ( 5)(8 )
Froof = CsW   6 0.046   0.046  
46.7 = 0.9 8.63  −  + Tu  5 −
= 0.062(1192)
 2 2   2  
= 73.9 kip
Fmax = 0.4SDSIeWp Solving for Tu yields:
= 0.4(0.185)(1.0)(1192)
Tu = 5.3 kip
= 88.2 kip
5-29
CHAPTER
40.6 + 15.3 Therefore, use V = 51.1 kip

And Vu = = 21.5 kip / panel
26 Including 5% accidental torsion, the force ap-
Therefore, the hollow core wall panel and its plied to the top of the shear wall is:
base connections must be designed for an in-plane Fu = 0.55(51.1)
shear of 2.15 kip and a tie-down force of 5.3 kip. = 28.1 kip
Tie-back forces on the north and south With thirty 6-ft-wide hollow core wall panels
Since the panels on the north and south eleva- available, the top connections must be designed
tions are non-load-bearing and do not act as shear for a shear force of:
walls for north-south forces, they may be de-
signed as nonstructural walls. Applying the ex- 28.1
Vu = = 0.94 kip/panel
emption from Section 13.1.4(3) of ASCE 7-10, 30
these panels are exempt from seismic design re- Shear wall design forces
quirements.
Froof = 28.1 kip applied at h = 25 ft
Design for seismic motion acting east-west: Fwalls = 0.046(1.37)(240)
As non-load-bearing, ordinary precast con- = 15.1 kip applied at h = 13 ft
crete shear walls, the north and south elevations
will be designed using R equal to 4. 28.1(25 )+15.1(13)
Mu =
30 panels
S DS
Cs = = 30.0 kip-ft/panel
R
  The resisting dead load is:
 Ie 
=
0.185
= 0.046 D = 26(0.0526)(6)
4
  = 8.21 kip/panel
1 Du = (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D
S = (0.9 − 0.2(0.185))8.21
C s = D1
R
T   = 7.1 kip
 Ie  Assuming the tie-down Tu equals 5 kip:
0.092
= = 0.10 7.1 + 5
4 a= = 0.36 in. = 0.030 ft
0.23  0.85 ( 5)(8 )
1
  6 0.030   0.030 
30.0 = 0.9 7.1 −  + Tu  5 −
2 
Use Cs = 0.046
 2 2  
Load to roof diaphragm Solving for Tu yields:
1.37 Tu = 2.4 kip
w = 864 + 2 (180)
2 28.1 + 15.1
= 1111 kip and Vu = = 1.44 kip / panel
30
Diaphragm to shear wall forces Therefore, the hollow core wall panel and its
Froof = Cs W base connections must be designed for an in-
= 0.046(1111) plane shear of 1.44 kip and a tie-down force of
= 51.1 kip 2.4 kip.
Fmin = 0.2SDSIeWp
= 0.2(0.185)(1.0)(1111)
= 41.1 kip
5-30
Chapter
Tie-back forces on the east and west A complete design must include designing the
wall panel for bending and shear and will require
Because the panels on the east and west eleva-
transverse steel equal to the greater of the mini-
tions are load-bearing, tie-backs must satisfy Sec-
mum horizontal wall reinforcement or the calcu-
tions 1.4.5 and 12.11 of ASCE 7-10.
lated shear reinforcement. The precast designer
The out-of-plane tie-back force is the greatest
should evaluate if the required connection ductili-
of the following:
ty and overload factors can be accomplished in
Vu = 0.4S DS I eW p their product.
 26 
= 0.4(0.185)(1.0)(0.0526 )(6 )  San Francisco, Calif. Zip 94110
 2  Occupancy category: II
= 0.3 kip Importance factor Ie = 1.0
Lf Site class D
180
ka =1.0 + =1.0 + = 2.8 Use 2.0 Steel joist / Metal deck roof 20 lb/ft2
100 100
Vu = 0.2ka I eW p 8 in. thick, 6-ft-wide hollow core wall panels
weighing 52.6 lb/ft2
 26 
= 0.2(2.0)(1.0)(0.0526 )(6 )  Solution:
 2 
From USGS SS = 1.500g
=1.64 kip
S1 = 0.600g
but not greater than TL = 12 sec
Vu = 0.4S DS ka I eW p ASCE 7-10, Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2
 26  Fa = 1.0
= 0.4(0.185)(2.0 )(1.0 )(0.0526 )(6 )  Fv = 1.5
 2 
SMS = 1.0 (1.500) = 1.500g
= 0.61 kip SM1 = 1.5(0.600) = 0.900g
Vu = 0.2W p
2
 26 
S DS = (1.500) = 1.000
= 0.2(0.0526 )(6 )  3
 2  2
S D1 = (0.900 ) = 0.600
= 0.82 kip 3
 26  Per Tables 11.6-1 and 11.6-2, the building is in
Vu = 0.005(6 )  = 0.39 kip
 2  SDC D.
The connections at the top and bottom of the Building period:
hollow core wall panel should be designed for a
tie-back force of 0.82 kip per panel. T = Ct hnx
= 0.020 (26) 0.75
Example 5.5.1(b)
Given the same building, but located in San = 0.23 sec < TL
Francisco, Calif., determine the seismic design Building weights:
forces for the wall panels.
Note: This example is included to demonstrate wroof = (240 × 180)0.020 = 864 kip
the analysis procedure and the magnitude of de- wwalls = 0.0526 × 26 = 1.37 kip/ft
sign forces that may be encountered in a high- Design for seismic motion acting north-south:
seismic-risk area. Careful consideration should be The east and west elevations will be designed
given as to whether hollow core wall panels are as intermediate precast concrete shear walls in a
suitable for this application. bearing wall system. Therefore, R is equal to 4.
5-31
CHAPTER
S DS
CS =
 R Shear wall design forces
 I 
e Froof = 164 kip applied at h = 25 ft
1.000 Fwalls = 0.25(1.37)(180)
= = 0.25 = 61.6 kip applied at h = 13 ft
 4
 
1 164 ( 25 ) + 61.6 (13 )
Mu =
S D1 26 panels
CS =
 R
T  = 189 kip-ft/panel
 Ie 
The resisting dead load is:
0.600
= = 0.65  30 
 4 D = 26(0.0526)+ (0.020)6
0.23    2 
 1
=10.0 kip/panel
Use Cs = 0.25 Du = (0.9 − 0.2S DS )D
Load to roof diaphragm = (0.9 − 0.2(1.000))10.0
= 7.0 kip
1.37
w = 864 + 2 ( 240 ) Because using single panels will result in a
2 tie-down of over 38 kip, try connecting the panels
= 1192 kip to form thirteen 12-ft-wide hollow core units. This
Diaphragm to shear wall forces results in Mu = 378 kip-ft per unit and Du = 14.0
kip.
Froof = CsW
= 0.25(1192) Assuming Tu equals 32 kip:
= 298 kip 14.0 + 32
Fmax = 0.4SDSIeWp a= = 1.35 in. = 0.113 ft
= 0.4(1.000)(1.0)(1192) (.85)( 5)( 8 )
= 477 kip   12 0.113   0.113  
378 = 0.9 14.0  −  + Tu  11 − 
Fmin = 0.2SDSIeWp  2 2   2  
= 0.2(1.000)(1.0)(1192)
= 238 kip Solving for Tu yields:
Therefore, use V = 298 kip Tu = 30.8 kip
Applying the required 5% accidental torsion, 164 + 61.6
and Vu =
the force applied to the top of the shear wall is 13
Fu = 0.55 × 298 = 17.4 kip / unit
= 164 kip Therefore, the two-panel hollow core unit and
With twenty-six 6-ft-wide hollow core wall panels its base connections must be designed for an in-
available the top connections must be designed for plane shear of 17.4 kip and a tie-down force of
a shear force of 30.8 kip.
164 As an intermediate precast concrete shear
Vu = wall, special care must be taken in detailing the
26 base connections and panel-to-panel connections.
= 6.3 kip/panel
Section 21.4 of ACI 318-11 requires that the weak
5-32
Chapter
link in the connection be yielding of steel ele- Design for seismic motion acting east-west:
ments or reinforcement. All other components of The north and south elevations are non-load-
the connection must be designed for 150% of their bearing, intermediate precast concrete shear walls
yield strength. and will be designed using R equal to 5.
Tie-back forces on the north and south S DS
The panels on the north and south elevations Cs =
R
may be designed as nonstructural walls using  
ASCE 7-10, chapter 13.  Ie 
From Table 5.5.1 with a flexible diaphragm, flex- 1.000
= = 0.20
ural design of the panels is based on: 5
 
0.4 S DS w p  z 1
w= 1+ 2  S D1
2 .5  h Cs =
0.4(1.000 )(52.6 )  2(13)  R
= 1+  T  
2 .5  26   Ie 
=16.8 psf controls 0.600
= = 0.52
wmin = 0.3S DS I p w p 5
0.23  
= 0.3(1.000 )(1.0 )(52.6) 1
=15.8 psf Use Cs = 0.20
wmax =1.6 S DS I p w p Load to roof diaphragm
=1.6(1.000)(1.0)(52.6 ) 1.37
w = 864 + 2 (180)
= 84.2 psf 2
= 1111 kip
Connections:
Diaphragm to shear wall forces
 26 
Fp = 0.20W p = 0.20(0.0526 )(6 )  Froof = CsW
 2  = 0.20(1111)
= 0.82 kip = 222 kip
Fp = 0.4 S DS ka I eW p Fmin = 0.2SDSIewp
= 0.2(1.000)(1.0)(1111)
 26 
= 0.4(1.000 )(2.0 )(1.0 )(0.0526 )(6 )  = 222 kip
 2 
Therefore, use V = 222 kip
= 3.28 kip/panel
Including 5% accidental torsion, the force ap-
plied to the top of the shear wall is:
Fp min = 0.2ka I eWp Fu = 0.55(222)
 26  = 122 kip
= 0.2 ( 2.0)(1.0)( 0.0526)( 6)  
 2 With thirty 6-ft-wide hollow core wall panels
= 1.64 kip / panel available, the top connections must be designed
for a shear force of
These connection forces would be per panel at the
top and bottom of the panel. 122
Vu =
30
= 4 kip / panel
5-33
CHAPTER
Shear wall design forces Vu = 0.4S DS I eWp

Froof = 122 kip applied at h = 25 ft  26 
Fwalls = 0.20(1.37)(240) = 0.4(1.000)(1.0)(0.0526)(6) 
= 65.8 kip applied at h = 13 ft  2 
=1.64 kip
122 ( 25 ) + 65.8 (13 )
Mu = Vu = 0.4S DS ka I eWp
30 panels
 26 
= 130 kip-ft / panel = 0.4(1.000)(2.0)(1.0)(0.0526)(6) 
The resisting dead load is:  2 
= 3.28 kip
D = 26(0.0526)(6)
= 8.21 kip / panel Vu min = 0.2ka I eWp
Du = (0.9 – 0.2SDS)D  26 
= (0.9 – 0.2(1.000))8.21 = 0.2(2.0)(1.0)(0.0526 )(6) 
 2 
= 5.74 kip
=1.64 kip
Assuming the tie-down force equals 26 kip:
5.74 + 26 The controlling out-of-plane force is 3.28 kip
a= = 0.93in. = 0.078 ft per panel at the top and the bottom.
(0.85)(5)(8)
  6 0.078   0.078 
130 = 0.9 5.74 −  +Tu  5 − 
 2 2   2 
Solving for Tu yields:
Tu = 25.7 kip
122 + 65.8
and Vu = = 6.26 kip/panel
30
The hollow core wall panel and its base con-
nections must be designed for an in-plane shear of
6.26 kip and a tie-down force of 25.7 kip, with
detailing that satisfies the requirements of an in-
termediate precast concrete shear wall.
Tie-back forces on the east and west
The hollow core wall panels on the east and
west elevations are load-bearing structural walls.
As such, they must meet the requirements of Sections
1.4.5 and 12.11 of ASCE 7-10.
The out-of-plane tie-back force is the greatest
of the following:
5-34
CONNECTIONS
Connections in Hollow Core Slabs andIN HOLLOW
Panels CORE SLABS AND PANELS CHAPTER 6 6
Chapter
Chapter 6
CONNECTIONS IN HOLLOW CORE SLABS AND PANELS
6.1 General tion possibilities that exist. The commentary pro-
Connections will be required in hollow core vided with each detail is intended to give a better
slab systems for a variety of reasons. If the slabs understanding of the merits of each detail. The
are required to perform as a diaphragm, internal details are only conceptual and are intended as a
connections and connections to the lateral force- guide that can be used for further discussions with
resisting elements will be required as outlined in local producers. A final design requires
Chapter 4. For an untopped system, minimal con- knowledge of both the project design forces and
nections may be required to satisfy the structural the hollow core producer’s capabilities.
integrity requirements of ACI 3183. In addition, Differences between wet cast and dry cast
localized forces such as bracing an interior or ex- hollow core slabs will be evident in the embedded
terior wall, laterally bracing the top flange of a anchors that can be provided. Without forms to
beam, or hanging mechanical equipment or a ceil- which anchors might be secured, dry cast systems
ing may require connections. Hollow core wall may be limited to shallow anchors that can be tied
panels will require connections that may include directly to strands or to inserts that can be placed
tie-backs to the structure, shear wall connections, after casting. Wet cast systems can accommodate
and gravity support of floors or roofs. In many a wider variety of anchors placed directly in the
instances, a connection will be designed to resist form prior to casting. Therefore, details of the
forces in multiple directions, either separately or embedment in the hollow core slabs are not
simultaneously. Other connections are specifical- shown. Other connection details perform func-
ly designed to provide resistance in only one di- tions similar to those shown. Consult a local PCI
rection to avoid generating unexpected loads to producer for information on relative economy and
either the panel or the structure. design capabilities.
Connections are an expense to a project and, if
used improperly, may have detrimental effects by
not accommodating volume change movements
that occur in a precast structure. Forces may de-
velop in connections as they restrain these move-
ments. In specifying connection requirements, the
actual forces in the connection must be addressed.
If no force can be shown to exist, the connection
should not be used. When a connection is deter-
mined to be necessary, the force in the connection
should be specified, particularly at an interface
between the hollow core and another material.
The hollow core supplier is generally responsible
for designing and detailing only those items that
will be supplied with the hollow core product.
6.2 Details
Sections 6.3 through 6.8 show a number of
conditions where forces are likely to exist that
need to be transmitted into or through a hollow
core slab or wall panel. Common details are illus-
trated to give the designer an idea of the connec-
CHAPTER
Chapter 6 6 CONNECTIONS IN HOLLOW COREConnections
SLABS AND PANELS
in Hollow Core Slabs and Panels
Chapter 6 Figure List

Figure Description Figure Description
6.3.1 Slab to Inverted Tee Beam 6.5.8 Slab into Steel Beam
6.3.2 Slab to Inverted Tee Beam 6.5.9 Slab on Double Angle
6.3.3 Slab to Inverted Tee Beam 6.5.10 Slab to Nonbearing Steel Beam
6.3.4 Slab to Inverted Tee Beam 6.6.1 Cantilever Slab on Bearing Wall
6.3.5 Slab to Inverted Tee Beam 6.6.2 Cantilever Slab on Bearing Wall
6.3.6 Slab to Composite Beam 6.6.3 Cantilever Slab on Bearing Wall
6.3.7 Slab to Composite Beam 6.6.4 Side Cantilever over Wall
6.3.8 Slab to Ledger Beam 6.6.5 Side Cantilever over Wall
6.3.9 Slab to Rectangular Beam 6.7.1 Header Detail
6.3.10 Slab to Rectangular Beam 6.7.2 Header Detail
6.3.11 Slab to Rectangular Beam 6.7.3 Hanger Details
6.3.12 Slab to Rectangular Beam 6.8.1 Wall Panel to Foundation
6.3.13 Slab to Ledger Beam 6.8.2 Wall Panel to Foundation
6.3.14 Slab to Rectangular Beam 6.8.3 Wall Panel to Foundation
6.4.1 Slab to Bearing Wall 6.8.4 Wall Panel to Foundation
6.4.5 Slab to Bearing Wall 6.8.8 Wall Panel to Slab
6.4.6 Slab to Nonbearing Wall 6.8.9 Joist Bearing on Wall Panel
6.4.10 Slab to Nonbearing Wall 6.8.13 Wall Panel Top Tieback to Structure
6.4.12 Slab to Bearing Wall 6.8.15 Wall Panel Top Tieback to Structure
6.5.1 Slab on Steel Beam 6.8.17 Wall Panel Top Tieback to Structure
6.5.2 Slab on Steel Beam 6.8.18 Wall Panel Vertical Joint Connection
6.5.5 Slab on Steel Beam 6.8.21 Wall Panel Corner Connection
6.5.6 Slab into Steel Beam 6.8.22 Wall Panel Corner Connection
6.5.7 Slab into Steel Beam
6-2
CONNECTIONS
Connections in Hollow IN HOLLOW
Core Slabs and Panels CORE SLABS AND PANELS CHAPTER 6 6
Chapter
6.3 Typical Details with Concrete Beams
Design Considerations:
• Can transfer internal diaphragm forces

• Can be designed as structural integrity tie
Fabrication Considerations:
• Advantageous to not have hardware in slab

• Beam embedments must line up with slab
joints
• Accommodates variations in slab length
Erection Considerations:
• Advantageous to have connection

completed by follow-up crew
• Difficult for welder to hold loose plate in
position
Figure 6.3.1

• May increase beam reinforcement for

shallower beam
• Layout must have opposing slab joints lined
up
• Clean and simple
Figure 6.3.2
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
6-3
CHAPTER
Chapter 6 6 CONNECTIONS IN HOLLOW CORE Connections
SLABS AND in PANELS
Hollow Core Slabs and Panels
6.3 Typical Details with Concrete Beams (Continued)
• Should not be relied on to transfer

lateral or diaphragm forces
• Structural integrity ties may be required
if no topping is provided
Figure 6.3.3

• Can be designed as structural integrity
tie
• Consider concrete cover on
reinforcement over beam
• Slab layout must have opposing joints

lined up
Figure 6.3.4
6-4
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

• Will develop volume change restraint
forces that must be considered in design
of connections
• Slab manufacturing system must allow

bottom weld anchors
• Beam inserts must align with slab inserts
allowing fabrication tolerances
• Connections can be completed by follow

up crew
• Access for welding may require ladders or
scaffold
• Spacer may be required to make weld
Figure 6.3.5

• Horizontal shear from beam cap must be
transferred
• Opposing slab joints must line up
• Clean and simple for slabs
• Beam may have to be shored until cap is

cured
• Horizontal shear reinforcement may
present safety hazard for erector
• Core dams must be placed
Figure 6.3.6
6-5
CHAPTER
SLABS AND in PANELS
Reinforcement
• Can transfer internal diaphragm forces grouted in
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie slab keyway
• Horizontal shear from beam cap must be Reinforcement per
transferred design CIP
CIP
• Opposing slab joints must line up Topping
Erection Considerations: Bearing strip

Dam
cores
• Beam may have to be shored until topping is
cured
Rectangular
Rectangular
• Horizontal shear reinforcement may present
PC or CIP
safety hazard for erector
concrete beam
• Core dams must be placed
Figure 6.3.7
• Can transfer diaphragm shear

• Can provide lateral brace for beam
• Potential for negative moment in slabs
• Slab insert difficult to install. Because of

tolerance on sawcut ends, the insert should
be installed after slabs are cut to length
• Beam and slab inserts must align
• If required for lateral beam stability, welding

may have to be completed as slabs are set
Figure 6.3.8
6-6
CONNECTIONS
Connections in Hollow Core Slabs and IN HOLLOW
Chapter
Plate with deformed
bar anchor grouted in
• Can transfer diaphragm shear slab keyway
• Can provide lateral brace for beam
• Potential for negative moment in slabs Topping
if required
• Plates in beams must align with slab joints

allowing tolerance
Plate with headed Bearing strip
concrete anchors
• Connection can be completed by follow up
crew
• Lateral bracing for beam will not be provided
until keyway grout cures
PC or CIP
concrete beam
Figure 6.3.9


• Keyway dimensions may limit the
reinforcement diameter
Figure 6.3.10
6-7
CHAPTER
SLABS AND in PANELS

• Clean and simple for both beam and slabs
• Reinforcement must be tied in place

• Concrete must be cast around
reinforcement
• Edge form is required for cast-in-place
concrete
• Dowels from beam may present safety
hazard
Figure 6.3.11

• Will develop volume change restraint forces
that must be considered in design of
connection

bottom weld inserts
• Beam and slab inserts must align with
allowance for tolerance
• Connections can be completed by follow-up

crew
scaffold
Figure 6.3.12
6-8
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

• Torsional and lateral beam restraint can be
provided
that must be considered in design

bottom weld inserts
• Beam and slab inserts must align with
allowance for tolerance
• Connections can be completed by follow-up

crew
scaffold
• If required for lateral or torsional stability, Figure 6.3.13
welding may have to be completed as slabs
are set
• This detail is not recommended because of

installation difficulties which may result in an
unreliable connection
• Great difficulty aligning bars with keyways
• Potential difficulties in bending bars

• Possible fracture of bent bars
• Second rebar bend may be required to align
with slab joints
• Cast-in-place concrete required around
reinforcement
• Edge forming required
Figure 6.3.14
6-9
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS
6.4 Typical Details with Walls

• Can provide lateral brace for wall
• Consider axial force path through slab ends

• Small tolerance for placement of bars in
walls
• Small tolerance for length of slabs to
accommodate bars in joint
• With longitudinal bar, have potential for

congestion
• Slab erection must consider tight tolerance
on butt slab joint gap Figure 6.4.1
• With precast walls, consider method of
installing vertical dowel


• Wall is not braced until grout is placed and
cured
Figure 6.4.2
6-10
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
6.4 Typical Details with Walls (Continued)

• With proper bar detailing, can provide lateral
brace for wall
• Consideration should be given to forces
developed as slab ends rotate

walls
• Simple for slab erection

• Mason can set bars independent of the slab
joints
• Some block cutting may be required for bars
from keyways
Figure 6.4.3

• With proper bar detailing, can provide lateral
brace for wall
developed as slab ends rotate

walls
• Simple for slab erection

• The mason can set bars independent of the
slab joints
• Grout at slab end may be difficult to place
Figure 6.4.4
6-11
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS

• Mason will have great difficulty locating bars

at slab joints
• Potential difficulties to field bend bars
including fracture
• Second bend may be required to align bars
with joints
Figure 6.4.5
• Wall will not be braced at this level

• No lateral or diaphragm forces can be
transferred
• Small tolerance in slab layout
Figure 6.4.6
6-12
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

• Allows for vertical deflection and camber
growth

bottom weld anchors

• Connections can be completed by follow up
crew
scaffold
• Wall is not braced until connection is made
• After setting bolt, nut should be backed off Figure 6.4.7
to “finger-tight”
• Walls will not be laterally braced at this level

developed from deflections or camber
growth
• Dry pack may be required under slab for
transferring axial wall load
• Allowance must be made for slab camber

• Wall will not be laterally braced at this level
Figure 6.4.8
6-13
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS

developed from deflection or camber growth
• Consider axial load path
• If not done in field, slots and holes must be

cut for steel
• In stack casting system, slots and holes
might not be practically cut in plant
• Allowance must be made for slab camber

• If not done in plant, holes and slots must be Figure 6.4.9
cut for steel
• Wall is not braced until steel is grouted
• Wall thrust from earth pressure can be

resisted
• Can transfer diaphragm shear only with
special detailing of keyway and
reinforcement
• For long spans consider effects of restraint
of vertical movement
• Edge joint must be grouted which may not

be standard practice
Figure 6.4.10
6-14
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

developed from deflections or camber
growth
• If not done in field, edge core must be cut

open
• In stack casting operation, holes might not
be practical to cut in plant
• If not done in plant, holes must be field cut

into edge core
• Mason may have to cut block to install
reinforcement
Figure 6.4.11

• Connection capacity must be verified by test
• Minimum edge distances must be

maintained
• Holes must be drilled through slabs into
masonry
Figure 6.4.12
6-15
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS

• Consider effects of vertical restraint
• Connection capacity must be verified by test
• Minimum edge distances must be

maintained
• Holes must be drilled through slabs into
masonry
Figure 6.4.13
6-16
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
6.5 Typical Details with Steel Beams
• Top beam flange should be considered

unbraced,
• Select beam flange width to allow minimum
bearing considering tolerances

• Beam flange width must be sufficient for
slab bearing length
• Unsymmetrical loading may cause beam

instability
• Beam may need to be braced against
rotation during erection
Figure 6.5.1

• Provides lateral brace for steel beam
• Slab layout must align slab joints

• Stabilizer bars might be installed in the field
or steel plant depending on local regulations
or agreements
minimum slab bearing
• Grouting of slabs must include the butt joint

• Steel erection may require that stabilizer
bars be field installed
• Steel beam will not be laterally braced until Figure 6.5.2
grout cures
• Unsymmetrical loading may cause beam
instability
6-17
CHAPTER
SLABS AND in PANELS
6.5 Typical Details with Steel Beams (Continued)

connection
• Slab manufacturing system must allow for

installation of bottom weld anchors
• Welding of slabs to beam should be done as

erection proceeds to laterally brace beams
Figure 6.5.3

• Potential torsion on steel beam should be
considered
connection
• Slab manufacturing system must allow for

installation of bottom weld anchors
• Welding of slabs to beam should be done as

erection proceeds to brace beam
Figure 6.5.4
6-18
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

• Welding of bars must be coordinated with

slab erection for alignment
• Depending on forces to be transferred,
concrete may have to be cast along edge
• Beam will not be braced until keyway grout
cures
Figure 6.5.5
• Internal diaphragm forces can be

transferred only through topping
• Consider potential torsion on beam during
slab erection

minimum slab bearing
• Slab notching will require a hand operation
in field or, preferably, in plant
• Slab erection will be very difficult with this

detail on both ends. Slabs must be slid into
beams, possibly through access holes in
flanges
• Beams will not be braced during slab
erection
Figure 6.5.6
6-19
CHAPTER
Chapter 6 6 CONNECTIONS IN HOLLOW CORE SLABS AND
Connections in PANELS
• Internal diaphragm forces can be transferred

only through topping
• Consider potential torsion on beam during
slab erection
• Angle legs must be sufficient for minimum

slab bearing
• Beam depth must be sufficient for clearance
under top flange
• Slab erection will be very difficult with this

detail on both ends. Slabs must be slid into
beams, possibly through access holes in
flanges
• Beams will not be braced during slab Figure 6.5.7
erection
• Torsion design must consider erection

tolerance
• Lintel must be securely anchored at span
ends
• Connection to slab may be required to brace
lintel
• Watch for stability of lintel prior to slab

erection
Figure 6.5.8
6-20
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
• Butt joint must be grouted to brace vertical

angle legs
• Lintel must be securely anchored at span
ends
• Lintel must be securely anchored prior to

setting slabs
Figure 6.5.9
• Clearance must be allowed for slab camber

• Beam will not be braced until topping is cast
• Camber must be monitored to stay within

clearance
• Erection may be difficult if slab support

beams are also raised
Figure 6.5.10
6-21
CHAPTER
6.6 Typical Cantilever Details
• Should not be relied on to transfer lateral or

diaphragm forces
• Wall bracing would only be accomplished by
questionable friction
• Additional structural integrity ties may be
required
• None other than top reinforcement required

for cantilever
Figure 6.6.1

• Provides lateral brace for wall
• If not field drilled, slots in keyways and

aligning holes in masonry are required
• If not field drilled, alignment will be difficult
• If not preformed, holes must be drilled

through slabs into masonry
• Wall may not be braced until grout cures
• Grout placement may be difficult
Figure 6.6.2
6-22
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
6.6 Typical Cantilever Details (Continued)

• Mason will have great difficulty aligning

dowels with slab joints
• Most keyway configurations will require
notches for dowels
• Field bending of dowels into keyways will be
very difficult
Figure 6.6.3
• Wall will not be braced by slabs

• Depending on end support conditions, wall
may have to support edge slab
• No thermal break provided between interior
and exterior
• Depending on bearing conditions, the

overhang dimension may be limited by the
producer’s ability to install transverse
reinforcement
• None
Figure 6.6.4
6-23
CHAPTER
SLABS AND in PANELS
6.6 Typical Cantilever Details (Continued)
• Wall will not be braced by slabs

• Depending on end support conditions, wall
may have to support edge slab
• No thermal break provided between interior
and exterior
• When transverse reinforcement cannot be

installed, steel strap must serve as external
reinforcement
• Anchorage of a steel strap to the slabs will
depend on the producer’s ability to install
top weld anchors
• Depending on end support conditions,

temporary shoring may be required until
steel strap is installed and keyways are
Figure 6.6.5
grouted
6-24
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
6.7 Miscellaneous Details
Figure 6.7.1
6-25
CHAPTER
6.7 Miscellaneous Details (Continued)
Figure 6.7.2
6-26
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
6.7 Miscellaneous Details (Continued)
Figure 6.7.3
6-27
CHAPTER
6.8 Typical Hollow Core Wall Panel Details
• Detail resists force normal to the face of

panel only
• May need additional structural integrity
connections

• Wall is not fully braced until grout cures
Figure 6.8.1
• Detail can transfer forces in any direction

• Angle may be continuous or intermittent
• Continuous angle may need to be designed
for load applied between embedded plates
in foundation
• If intermittent angle, embedded plates in

foundation and weld plates in wall panel
must be aligned

angle may need to be welded to embedded
plate prior to setting panel
• Continuous angle aids erection by acting as
a setting guide
Figure 6.8.2
6-28
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
6.8 Typical Hollow Core Wall Panel Details (Continued)
• Forces that can be transferred depend on

anchorage of bar
• Access holes must be cast or drilled into

panel for installation of grout
• Casting reinforcing bar into foundation may

create safety hazard for erector
• Alternate installation is to grout or epoxy
reinforcing bar into field drilled holes in
foundation
• Base of panel may need to be dammed to
prevent grout from flowing out
Figure 6.8.3

for load applied between expansion anchors
• Use of expansion anchors eliminates need

for accurate placement of embedded plates
in foundation
• Allows foundation to be cast prior to
finalizing wall panel layout
Figure 6.8.4
6-29
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS
• If bent plate is not welded to angle, detail

resists force normal to the face of panel only
• If bent plate is welded to angle, detail can
also resist force in the plane of the panel
in foundation

must be aligned
• Slab manufacturing systems must allow
installation of deep slotted insert

plate prior to setting panel
• Continuous angle aids erection by acting as Figure 6.8.5
a setting guide
• Embedded plates in foundation and weld

plates in wall panel must be aligned
• Little tolerance for misalignment of face of

foundation wall relative to inside face of wall
panel
Figure 6.8.6
6-30
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

in foundation

must be aligned
• Horizontal leg of angle allows for tolerance

in alignment of faces of foundation wall and
wall panel
plate prior to setting panel Figure 6.8.7
• Continuous angle aids erection by acting as
a setting guide
• Detail can transfer force normal to face of

panel and in the plane of the panel
• If no axial tension exists at base of wall,
detail can be used to satisfy structural
integrity requirements

• Panel must be temporarily braced against

backfill soil pressures
• Panel base is not braced until floor slab is
cast and cured
Figure 6.8.8
6-31
CHAPTER
SLABS AND in PANELS
• Applying gravity loads concentrically on the

panel allows heavier gravity loads on
slender panels
• With proper detailing by joist designer, detail
can resist lateral forces normal to face of
panel or in the plane of the panel
• Additional connections to deck may be
required for large diaphragm forces
• Depending on manufacturing system,

bearing plate may need to be grouted into
panel after casting
• Panel must be braced until joists and

decking are installed
Figure 6.8.9
• Applying gravity loads concentrically on the

panel allows heavier gravity loads on
slender panels
• Depending on manufacturing system,

bearing plate may need to be grouted into
panel after casting
• Intermittent pockets allow for a parapet
• Panel must be braced until joists and

Figure 6.8.10
6-32
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

• Weld plate should be designed for greater of
uniform load or maximum joist reaction.
• Continuous angle allows for greater
flexibility of joist spacing
• With some manufacturing systems, weld

plates may not have capacity for heavy
eccentric gravity loads
• Panel must be braced until joists and Figure 6.8.11


• Stiffener plate can be located above or
below continuous steel beam
• Continuous beam allows for greater
flexibility of joist spacing
• With some manufacturing systems, weld

plates may not have capacity for heavy
eccentric gravity loads
• By using temporary cantilevered columns,

the joists and deck can be in place at time of
panel erection, minimizing or eliminating the Figure 6.8.12
need for bracing
6-33
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS
• With proper weld design, detail can resist

lateral forces normal to face of panel or in
the plane of the panel
• Precast supplier may be responsible for
designing and providing embedments in
structure
• Slotted insert allows vertical movement of
structure without generating unintended
vertical forces
• If intermittent plates in structure, insert in

wall panel must be aligned with weld plates
• Panel manufacturing system must allow
• Clean and simple Figure 6.8.13
• With proper weld design, detail can resist

lateral forces normal to face of panel or in
the plane of the panel
structure
• Vertical movement of wall panel or structure
may generate unintended vertical forces
• If intermittent plates in structure, embedded

plates and weld plates in wall panel must be
aligned
Figure 6.8.14
6-34
CONNECTIONS
Chapter
• If bent plate is not welded to angle, detail

resists force normal to the face of panel only
• If bent plate is welded to angle, detail can
also resist force in the plane of the panel
structure

plates and slotted inserts in wall panel must
be aligned
• Requires additional length of panel above
structure in comparison to similar details
• Panel manufacturing system must allow
• Weld of clip plate to angle, if required, can

be completed by follow-up crew Figure 6.8.15
• With proper weld and angle design, detail

structure
• Vertical movement of wall panel or structure
may generate unintended vertical forces

plates and weld plates in wall panel must be
aligned
Figure 6.8.16
6-35
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS
• With proper weld and angle design, detail

• Angles should be intermittent
structure
• With threaded insert, angle should be
slotted vertically for erection tolerance and
to allow for vertical movement of structure
• If intermittent plates in structure, inserts in

wall panel must be aligned
• If only forces normal to panel are resisted,

shim space may be provided between panel
Figure 6.8.17
and angle allowing for future adjustment
• Used primarily to resist vertical shear

between panels
• Use in multiple, consecutive panels may
generate volume change forces that should
be considered in design
• Capacity of insert at edge of panel may be

limited
• Visible loose plate may be objectionable in

some usages
Figure 6.8.18
6-36
CONNECTIONS
Chapter

between panels
• Some manufacturing systems will not allow

installation of a corner angle
• Rod may be difficult for welder to hold in

position
Figure 6.8.19

between panels
• Some manufacturing systems will not allow

installation of an edge plate
• Loose plate may be difficult for welder to

hold in position
• Erector may need loose plates of varying
thickness to accommodate variations in joint
width
• Hidden detail is preferable in some usages
Figure 6.8.20
6-37
CHAPTER
SLABS AND PANELS
• Used primarily to control panel bowing at

corners
• May be difficult to match finish on edge of

wall panel with finish on face
• Difficult to install if corner column is present
Figure 6.8.21
• Used primarily to control panel bowing at

corners
• Mitered corner eliminates concern about

matching finishes
• Cutting or forming mitered edge may be
difficult for some manufacturing systems
• Difficult to install if corner column is present
Figure 6.8.22
6-38
FIRE
Fire Resistance RESISTANCE
of Assemblies OF with
Made ASSEMBLIES MADE
Hollow Core WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
Chapter 7
FIRE RESISTANCE OF ASSEMBLIES MADE WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS
7.1 Introduction is defined as the length of exposure to this stand-
To provide for public safety and limit property ard fire before any of the “end point” criteria are
damage, building codes require that resistance to reached.
fire be considered in the design of buildings. The The conditions of acceptance or end point cri-
fire rating required depends on the size of the teria are also defined by ASTM E119. For typical
building, its occupancy, the proximity of other floor and roof slabs, there are three potential end
structures, and the presence of other fire-detecting points.
or extinguishing equipment. • Structural endpoint – the assembly must
The inherent insulating capacity of concrete support the applied load for the length of
makes hollow core slabs an efficient component the rating exposure.
in fire-rated assemblies. With proper design and • Flame passage end point – holes or cracks
detailing, fire-resistance ratings up to four hours may not develop that allow the escape of
can be achieved for hollow core floors, roofs, and gases that are hot enough to ignite cotton
walls. waste.
• Heat transmission end point – the average
7.2 Fire-Resistance Criteria temperature of the unexposed surface may
A time-temperature relationship (Fig. 7.2.1) as not increase more than 250 °F or may not
defined by ASTM E11943 provides a standard fire at any one point increase more than 325 °F.
exposure for measuring the fire resistance of a In addition to the three conditions listed previous-
component or assembly. While a fire of this inten- ly, wall panels must withstand a hose stream test
sity and duration bears little resemblance to most (simulating a firefighter’s hose).
actual fires, it does provide a benchmark for com- Because the concept of restrained versus unre-
paring the fire performance of similar products strained fire ratings was not introduced until 1970,
and materials. The fire resistance of an assembly long after many of the original fire tests were
conducted, an additional criterion for converting
Figure 7.2.1 Standard time- restrained fire tests to unrestrained ratings is re-
temperature relationship (ASTM E119) quired. If a slab was tested in a restrained condi-
tion, the unrestrained fire test endpoint occurs
when the temperature of the tension steel reaches
1200 800 °F for prestressing steel and 1100 °F for mild
steel reinforcement. It should be noted that there
are no limitations on the steel temperatures for
restrained slab assemblies.
7.3 Determination of Fire Ratings
Historically, fire ratings were established by
actual tests of the structural assembly. For a floor
system, the floor was built over a test furnace, the
maximum permissible gravity load was applied,
and fuel was burned to match the standard ASTM
E119 time-temperature curve. The fire rating was
the actual time measured before reaching one of
the end point criteria.
Through the years, more than 30 standard fire
Time, hr
tests have been conducted on hollow core floor
Chapter 7 Fire Resistance of Assemblies Made with Hollow Core Slabs
CHAPTER 7 FIRE RESISTANCE OF ASSEMBLIES MADE WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS
Table 7.3.1
Minimum Protection of Structural Parts Based on Time Periods
Minimum thickness of
insulating material for the
Structural parts to Item following fire-resistance pe-
Insulating material used
be protected number riod, in.
4 3 2 1
hour hour hour hour
Solid slabs — carbonate, lightweight,
Bonded, preten- and sand-lightweight aggregate — 2 1.5 1
sioned reinforcement concrete
3-1.1
in prestressed con-
Solid slabs — siliceous aggregate
crete — 2.4 1.8 1.3
concrete
Rated Fire-Resistance Periods for Various Walls

Minimum finished
Item thickness face-to-face
Material Construction
number 4 3 2 1
hour hour hour hour
Siliceous aggregate concrete 7.0 6.2 5.0 3.5
Carbonate aggregate concrete 6.6 5.7 4.6 3.2
Solid concrete 4-1.1
Sand-lightweight concrete 5.4 4.6 3.8 2.7
Lightweight concrete 5.1 4.4 3.6 2.5
Minimum Protection for Floor and Roof Systems

Thickness of floor or roof
Floor or roof Item slab, in.
Ceiling construction
construction number 4 3 2 1
hour hour hour hour
Siliceous aggre-
1-1.1 7.0 6.2 5.0 3.5
gate concrete
Carbonate
aggregate con- 2-1.1 6.6 5.7 4.6 3.2
crete Slab (no ceiling required)
Sand-lightweight
3-1.1 5.4 4.6 3.8 2.7
concrete
Lightweight
4-1.1 5.1 4.4 3.6 2.5
concrete
assemblies. The Underwriters Laboratories Inc. ASTM E119 fire criteria, but make use of existing
(UL) Fire Resistance Directory44 includes more test data and basic engineering principles to deter-
than 50 design numbers for hollow core slabs that mine the fire resistance of the concrete members.
qualify for ratings of 1, 2, 3, or 4 hours. The 2012 Section 721 of the 2012 IBC contains pre-
International Building Code35 (IBC) allows the scriptive details for fire-rated building elements.
building official to accept a UL-listed design Those requirements that apply to hollow core
number in lieu of the original test report. slabs are reproduced in Table 7.3.1. Although the
As an alternative to UL ratings, the 2012 IBC section refers to solid slabs and walls, the criteria
also allows prescriptive and empirical designs and are equally valid for hollow core slabs provided
analytical methods to determine fire ratings. equivalent thickness is substituted for the actual
These alternate methods are all based on the thickness.
7-2
FIRE
of Assemblies OFwith
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
IBC Section 722 contains a series of tables Standard Methods of Fire Endurance Tests of
that can be used to determine the fire-resistance Building Construction on Materials47. While the
rating of hollow core slabs. For each fire- general principals set forth in this manual are fully
endurance rating, the equivalent thickness and re- valid in that they are based on material properties
quired strand cover are designated. If these provi- and structural engineering procedures, manual
sions are met, the heat transmission and structural users are cautioned that in Canada, fire-resistance
end point criteria are considered to be satisfied ratings should be determined strictly in accord-
and neither a UL rating nor rational design calcu- ance with applicable building code requirements.
lation is required. The relevant tables are summa-
rized in Tables 7.3.2 and 7.3.3. 7.4 Restrained versus Unrestrained
In addition, the 2012 IBC recognizes the fire- Many of the early fire tests were conducted in
resistance ratings calculated in accordance with furnaces in which the specimens were locked into
the procedures of the PCI manual, Design for Fire the test fixtures such that they were restrained
Resistance of Precast, Prestressed Concrete45. against rotation and thermal expansion. It was
Commonly referred to as the rational design recognized early on that testing in this manner
method, the method used in that manual uses in- yielded fire-resistance durations significantly
formation gathered from previous fire tests to de- longer than those achieved with supports that al-
termine the strand temperature and the resulting lowed the member to freely expand and rotate.
reduced steel strength at the required fire endur- However, it wasn’t until 1970 that a dual system
ance. Basic structural engineering principles are of ratings for restrained and unrestrained members
then applied to compute the reduced load-carrying was developed.
capacity of the member. Having officially recognized the beneficial
The National Building Code of Canada46 re- effects of restrained construction, the ASTM E5
quires that fire-resistance ratings be determined Committee developed a guide for determining if a
either on the basis of Appendix D of the code, component or assembly was restrained or not. Ta-
“Fire Performance Ratings,” or on results of tests ble X3.1 of ASTM E119 is reproduced here as
conducted in accordance with CAN/ULC-S101, Table 7.4.1.
Table 7.3.2
Minimum Equivalent Thickness of Precast Concrete Walls and Slabs, in.
Fire-Resistance Rating, hr
Concrete Aggregate type
1 1.5 2 3 4
Siliceous 3.5 4.3 5.0 6.2 7.0
Carbonate 3.2 4.0 4.6 5.7 6.6
Sand-lightweight 2.7 3.3 3.8 4.6 5.4
Lightweight 2.5 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.1
Table 7.3.3
Cover Thickness for Prestressed Concrete Floor or Roof Slabs, in.
Fire-Resistance Rating, hr
Concrete Aggregate type Restrained Unrestrained
1 1.5 2 3 4 1 1.5 2 3 4
3/ 3/ 3/ 3/ 3/
Siliceous 4 4 4 4 4 11/8 11/2 13/4 23/8 23/4
3/ 3/ 3/ 3/ 3/
Carbonate 4 4 4 4 4 1 13/8 15/8 21/8 21/4
Sand-lightweight or Light- 3/ 3/ 3/ 3/ 3/
4 4 4 4 4 1 13/8 11/2 2 21/4
weight
7-3
CHAPTER
Chapter 7 7 FIRE RESISTANCE OF ASSEMBLIES MADE WITH
Fire Resistance HOLLOW CORE
of Assemblies SLABS
Made with Hollow Core Slabs
Table 7.4.1 Construction Classification, Restrained and Unrestrained

I. Wall bearing:
Single span and simply-supported end spans of multiple bays:*
(1) Open-web steel joists or steel beams, supporting concrete slab, precast units, or
unrestrained
metal decking
(2) Concrete slabs, precast units, or metal decking unrestrained
Interior spans of multiple bays:
(1) Open-web steel joists, steel beams, or metal decking, supporting continuous
restrained
concrete slab
(2) Open-web steel joists or steel beams, supporting precast units or metal decking unrestrained
(3) Cast-in-place concrete slab systems restrained
(4) Precast concrete where the potential thermal expansion is resisted by adjacent
restrained
construction†
II. Steel framing:
(1) Steel beams welded, riveted, or bolted to the framing members restrained
(2) All types of cast-in-place floor and roof systems (such as beam-and-slabs, flat
slabs, pan joists, and waffle slabs) where the floor or roof system is secured to restrained
the framing members
(3) All types of prefabricated floor and roof systems where the structural members
are secured to the framing members and the potential thermal expansion of the
restrained
floor or roof system is resisted by the framing system or the adjoining floor or
roof construction†
III. Concrete framing:
(1) Beams securely fastened to the framing members restrained
(2) All types of cast-in-place floor or roof systems (such as beams-and-slabs, flat
slabs, pan joists, and waffle slabs) where the floor system is cast with the fram- restrained
ing members
(3) Interior and exterior spans of precast concrete systems with cast-in-place joints
restrained
resulting in restraint equivalent to that which would exist in condition III (1)
(4) All types of prefabricated floor or roof systems where the structural members are
secured to such systems and the potential thermal expansion of the floor or roof
restrained
systems is resisted by the framing system or the adjoining floor or roof construc-
tion†
IV. Wood construction:
unrestrained
All types
* Floor and roof systems can be considered restrained when they are tied into walls with or without tie beams,
the walls being designed and detailed to resist thermal thrust from the floor or roof system
† For example, resistance to potential thermal expansion is considered to be achieved when:
(1) Continuous structural topping is used

(2) The space between the ends of precast concrete units or between the ends of units and the vertical
face of supports is filled with concrete or mortar
(3) The space between the ends of precast concrete units and the vertical faces of supports, or between the
ends of solid or hollow core slab units does not exceed 0.25% of the length for normal weight concrete
members or 0.10% of the length for structural lightweight concrete members
7-4
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
For purposes of this analysis method, a floor ered to be restrained unless evidence satisfactory
or roof assembly is considered restrained when to the building official is furnished by the regis-
the adjacent structure is capable of resisting sub- tered design professional showing that the con-
stantial thermal expansion. Construction that does struction qualifies for a restrained classification in
not satisfy this definition is assumed to be free to accordance with ASTM E119 or UL 263.”
rotate and expand and should be considered unre- Often, the precast concrete engineer must de-
strained. termine (and perhaps to convince a building offi-
Even with these guidelines, restraint remains cial) whether the floor or roof may be considered
one of the most controversial topics in precast restrained using calculations, standard engineering
concrete design. Appendix X3 of ASTM E119 practice, and historical precedent.
recognizes the difficulty in determining whether a Typically, the interior bays of multibay floors
system is restrained or not with paragraph X3.5: and roofs can be considered restrained provided
This definition requires the exercise of engi- one of the conditions listed in the second footnote
neering judgment to determine what consti- of Table 7.4.1 is satisfied. Note that in addition to
tutes restraint to “substantial thermal expan- a continuous structural topping or filling the butt
sion.” Restraint may be provided by the lateral joints with grout, adequate restraint can be devel-
stiffness of supports for floor or roof assem- oped if the end gap is kept sufficiently small, as
blies and intermediate beams forming part of illustrated in Fig. 7.4.1.
the assembly. In order to develop restraint, the Single spans or end bays of wall-bearing
connections must adequately transfer thermal structures may be considered restrained if the slab
thrusts to such supports. The rigidity of ad- is adequately connected to walls that are designed
joining panels or structures should be consid- and detailed to resist the thermal thrust from the
ered in assessing the capability of a structure floor or roof system. Similarly, end bays of steel-
to resist thermal expansion. or concrete-framed buildings may be considered
Section 703.2.3 of the 2012 IBC goes so far as to restrained if thermal expansion of the deck is re-
state, “Fire-resistance-rated assemblies tested un- sisted by the framing system or by the adjoining
der ASTM E119 or UL26348 shall not be consid- floor or roof construction.
Figure 7.4.1 Typical examples of restrained floors and roofs of precast construction
c1 Hollow Core Slabs or Double Tees c2
c1 Hollow Core or Solid Slabs c2
To be considered as restrained:
c1 + c2 < 0.0025ℓ for normal weight concrete
c1 + c2 < 0.0010ℓ for lightweight concrete
Example: Determine maximum value of c1 + c2 for normal weight hollow core span of 30 ft
Solution: c1 + c2 = 0.0025 (30 x 12) = 0.90 in.
7-5
CHAPTER
of Assemblies Made SLABS
with Hollow Core Slabs
It is in defining and providing this restraint to terion is often called the heat transmission end point.
thermal expansion that the difficulties lie. In addi- For solid concrete slabs, the temperature rise
tion to direct axial thrust provided by the support- of the unexposed surfaces depends mainly on the
ing structure, alternate load paths for resistance to slab thickness and aggregate type. Figure 7.5.1
thermal expansion are often inherently present in shows the relationship between slab thickness and
a hollow core deck. If the fire is localized, the fire endurance as determined by the heat transmis-
grouted keyways will provide substantial longitu- sion end point criterion.
dinal shear capacity for the cooler areas of the
deck to restrain the fire-affected areas. Perimeter 7.5.1 Equivalent Thickness
reinforcement, such as that provided to satisfy The information in Fig. 7.5.1 is applicable to
structural integrity requirements, will act as shear- hollow core slabs by entering the graph with the
friction reinforcement to further tie the heated slab “equivalent thickness” of the slab instead of the
to adjacent cooler slabs. thickness. Equivalent thickness can be calculated
Past performance of precast concrete struc- by dividing the net area of the cross section of a
tures subject to fire would indicate that typical hollow core slab by its width.
design practices and the inclusion of structural In Fig. 7.5.1, concrete aggregates are desig-
integrity reinforcement provide fire resistance nated as lightweight, sand-lightweight, carbonate,
equivalent to that provided by a restrained system. or siliceous. Lightweight aggregates include ex-
However, if the designated restraint mechanism does panded clay, shale, slate, and slag that produce
not fully comply with Table 7.4.1, it is recommended concretes having densities between about 95 lb/ft3
that the governing building official be consulted. and 105 lb/ft3 without sand replacement. Light-
weight concretes in which sand is used as part or
7.5 Heat Transmission through Floors all of the fine aggregate and weigh less than about
or Roofs 120 lb/ft3 are designated as sand-lightweight. For
The standard fire test method, ASTM E119, normalweight concrete, the type of coarse aggre-
limits the average temperature rise of the unex- gate influences the fire endurance; the type of fine
posed surface (the surface of floor or roof not ex- aggregate has only a minor effect. Carbonate ag-
posed to fire) to 250 °F during a fire test. This cri- gregates include limestone, dolomite, and
limerock (those consisting mainly of calcium or
magnesium carbonate). Siliceous aggregates in-
Figure 7.5.1 Fire endurance (heat clude quartzite, granite, basalt, and most hard
transmission) of hollow core slabs rocks other than limestone or dolomite.
5 7.5.2 Toppings, Undercoatings, or Roof
cf)
Insulation
5p
cf)
(11
All 8-in.-deep hollow core slabs that are cur-

0p
(10
ht
4
rently manufactured in North America qualify for
eig
ht
tw
eig
at least a one-hour fire-endurance rating as deter-

h
at
g
tw
eg
i
on nd-L
Fire Endurance, Hr
gr
mined by heat transmission, and some qualify for

Lig
Ag
3
e
at
Sa
eg
two hours or more. The addition of toppings, un-

at
gr
Ag
rb
dercoatings, fire-resistive ceilings, roof insulation,

Ca
us
eo
2
or filling the cores with dry aggregates will in-
lic
Si
crease the heat transmission fire endurance.

1
Figure 7.5.2.1 shows the thickness of spray-
applied undercoating required for heat transmis-
sion fire endurances of 2, 3, and 4 hours. Figure
0
1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7
7.5.2.2 shows the thickness of sand-lightweight
Equivalent
Equivalent Thickness
Thickness concrete, insulating concrete, and high-strength
of Hollow Core Unit,in.
in.
of Hollow Core Slab, gypsum concrete overlays required for 2, 3, and 4
7-6
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
hours. Figure 7.5.2.3 shows data for 2- and 3-hr Solution:

roofs with mineral board or glass-fiber board insu- Equivalent thickness
lation with 3-ply built-up roofing. Data shown in
Area
Fig. 7.5.2.1, 7.5.2.2, and 7.5.2.3 apply directly to teq =
hollow core slabs made with siliceous aggregates width
and are conservative for slabs made with car- 154
= = 4.28 in.
bonate or lightweight aggregates. 36
Example 7.5.1 Equivalent Thickness From Fig. 7.5.1, the thickness of carbonate aggre-
Determine the thickness of topping required to gate concrete required for 3 hours is 5.75 in. Thus,
provide 3-hr fire endurance (heat transmission) the thickness of topping needed is:
for the generic hollow core slab shown in 5.75 – 4.28 = 1.47 in.
Fig. 1.6.1. Both the slab and the topping are made
with carbonate aggregate concrete.
Figure 7.5.2.1 Hollow core slabs undercoated with spray applied materials (Heat
transmission fire endurance)
Hollow core slab made with

siliceous aggregate concrete
Sprayed mineral fiber or

vermiculite cementitious material
1.0
0.8
4h
Thickness of SMS
r
or VMC, in.
0.6
3h
r
0.4
0.2 2h
r
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
of Hollow
of Hollow Core
Core Slab,
Unit, in.
in.
7-7
CHAPTER
of Assemblies SLABS
Figure 7.5.2.2 Floors with overlays of sand-lightweight concrete (120 lb/ft3 maximum),
insulating concrete (35 lb/ft3 maximum), and high strength gypsum concrete
Overlay
Hollow Core slab made with

Sand-Lightweight Concrete Insulating Concrete

Overlay Overlay
2.5
4h
r
2.0
Overlay Thickness, in.
4h
r
1.5
3h 3h
r r
1.0
2h
r 2h
r
0.5
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5 5.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5 5.5
Equivalent Thicknessof
Equivalent Thickness ofHollow
HollowCore
CoreUnit,
Slab,in.in.
High Strength Gypsum Concrete

Overlay
2.5
y
2.0 verla
.C .O y
Fire Endurance, Hr
.G erla
1 in . Ov
1.5 .C
1 / 2 in
.G
1.0
0.5
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5 5.5
Equivalent Thickness of
of Hollow CoreUnit,
Hollow Core Slab,
in.in.
7-8
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
Figure 7.5.2.3 Roofs with insulation board and 3-ply built-up roofing (Heat transmis-
sion fire endurance)
3-Ply built-up roofing
Mineral board or glass

fiber board insulation
Hollow Core slab made with

Thickness of Mineral Board or
0.75
Glass Fiber Board, in.
0.50
3h
r
0.25 2h
r
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5 5.5
of Hollow
of Hollow Core
CoreUnit, in. in.
Slab,
Example 7.5.2 have been conducted using concrete floors with

Determine if a hollow core slab roof will qual- gypsum wallboard ceilings, and no such tests have
ify for a 2-hr fire endurance (heat transmission) if been conducted using hollow core slabs. To be
the slabs are made with carbonate aggregate con- effective, gypsum wallboard must remain in place
crete, have an equivalent thickness of 4.28 in., and throughout most of the fire-endurance period. Be-
the roof insulation consists of a layer of 3/4-in.- cause most hollow core slabs by themselves have
thick mineral board. The roofing is a standard 3- heat-transmission fire endurances of 1 hr to 2 hr
ply built-up roof. and longer, the wallboard must remain in place
during fire exposure for long periods of time. For
Solution: a fire endurance of 3 hr, a layer of 5/8 in., type X
From Fig. 7.5.2.3, it can be seen that with an gypsum wallboard can be used. The wallboard
equivalent thickness of 4.28 in., a layer of mineral should be installed as shown in Fig. 7.5.3.1.
board 0.16 in. thick with 3-ply roofing qualifies
for a 2-hr heat-transmission rating when made 7.6 Structural Fire Endurance of Floor
with siliceous aggregates. Because this curve is or Roof Assemblies
conservative when used with carbonate aggre- During standard fire tests, specimens must
gates, the roof assembly will qualify for a fire en- support the anticipated superimposed loads
durance significantly longer than 2 hours. throughout the fire-endurance period. Failure to
support the loads is called the structural end point.
7.5.3 Ceilings
Gypsum wallboard used in a ceiling increases
the fire endurance of the assembly. Few fire tests
7-9
CHAPTER
of Assemblies SLABS
Figure 7.5.3.1 Details of three hour assembly consisting of hollow core slabs with a
gypsum wall board ceiling
1. Precast concrete hollow slabs – Minimum equivalent thickness = 2.75 in.

2. Grout – (Not Shown) – Sand-cement grout along full length of joint.
3. Hanger Wire – No. 18 SWG galvanized steel wire. Hanger wire used to attach wallboard furring channels
to precast concrete units. Wire to be located at each intersection of furring channels and joints between
hollow core slabs, but not to exceed 4 ft o.c.
4. Wallboard Furring Channels – No. 26 ga. Galvanized steel, 7/8 in. high, 23/4 in. base width, 13/8 in. face
width and 12 ft long. Channels to be installed perpendicular to hollow core slabs and spaced 24 in. o.c.,
except at wallboard butt joints where they are spaced 61/2 in. o.c. Channels secured to concrete units with
double strand of hanger wire looped through fasteners. At furring channel splices, channels to be over-
lapped 6 in. and tied together with hanger wire at each end of splice.
5. Wallboard – 5/8 in. thick, 4 ft wide. Type X, installed with long dimension perpendicular to furring channels.
Over butt joints, a 3 in. wide piece of wallboard to be inserted with end extending a minimum 6 in. beyond
board width.
6. Wallboard Fasteners – 1 in. long. Type S, bugle head screws. Fasteners spaced 12 in. o.c. along each
furring channel except at butt joints where fasteners spaced at 6 in. o.c. At butt joints, fasteners located 31/4
in. from board edge. Along side joints, fasteners located 3/4 in. from board edge.
7. Joint System – (Not Shown) – Paper tape embedded in cementitious compound joint, and covered with two
layers of cementitious compound with edges feathered out. Wallboard fastener heads covered with two
layers of cementitious compound.
The most important factor affecting the struc- 7.6.1 Simply Supported Slabs—Unrestrained
tural fire endurance of a floor or roof assembly is Figure 7.6.1.1 illustrates the behavior of a
the method of support, as in, whether the assembly simply supported slab exposed to fire from be-
is simply supported and free to expand (unre- neath. Because strands are parallel to the axis of
strained) or if the assembly is continuous or ther- the slab, the ultimate moment capacity is constant
mal expansion is restricted (restrained). throughout the length:
φMn = φApsfps(dp – a/2) (Eq. 7.6.1)
See chapter 2 for evaluating fps.
7-10
FIRE
Fire Resistance ofRESISTANCE OF ASSEMBLIES
Assemblies Made MADE
with Hollow Core WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
Figure 7.6.1.1 Moment diagrams for Note that, when calculating the fire-rated ca-
simply supported slab before and pacity, the load factors and strength reduction fac-
during fire exposure tor are taken as 1.0. The factors of safety are built
into the ASTM E119 conditions of acceptance. If
a greater safety factor is desired than is inherent in
the load tests, a proportional increase in the fire-
rating time period should be specified.
Figure 7.6.1.2 shows the relationship between
Fire
Fire
@
temperature and strength of various types of steel.
@ 00 hr
Hr
Figures 7.6.1.3, 7.6.1.4, and 7.6.1.5 show temper-
atures within concrete slabs during standard fire
tests. The data in those figures are applicable to
M=
M = applied
applied moment
moment hollow core slabs as well as solid slabs. By using
the equations given above and the data in
Fig. 7.6.1.2 through 7.6.1.5, the moment capacity
Mnn = moment
M capacity
moment capacity
@ 2 Hr
hr
of slabs can be calculated for various fire endur-
@2
ance periods.
Table 7.6.1 shows values of u for simply sup-
ported, unrestrained hollow core slabs. For a giv-
MM=
θ =applied
applied moment
moment
en moment ratio and fire endurance, a value of u
Mnθθ ==reduced
reduced moment
moment capacity
capacity can be selected to satisfy the structural end point.
The values shown are based on ωpu = 0.05 and can
be reduced by 1/16 in. for ωpu = 0.10.
Example 7.6.1
If the slab is uniformly loaded, the moment
diagram will be parabolic with a maximum value Determine the maximum safe superimposed
at midspan of: load that can be supported by an 8-in.-deep hol-
low core slab with a simply supported unre-
w 2 strained span of 25 ft and a required fire endur-
Mθ = (Eq. 7.6.2)
8 ance of 3 hours.
As the material strengths diminish with elevated Given:
temperatures, the retained moment capacity be- h = 8 in. u = 1.75 in. b = 36 in.
comes: 6 1/2- in.-dia., 270 ksi strands
Aps = (6)(0.153) = 0.918 in.2
Mnθ = Apsfpsθ (dp – aθ /2) (Eq. 7.6.3)
dp = 8 – 1.75 = 6.25 in.
where θ signifies the effects of high temperatures. Dsw = 54 lb/ft2
Note that Aps and dp are not affected, but fps is re-  = 25 ft
duced. Similarly, a is reduced, but the concrete
carbonate aggregate
strength at the top of the slab f'c is generally not
reduced significantly because of its lower temperature. Solution:
Flexural failure can be assumed to occur when (a) From Fig. 7.6.1.3, estimate strand
Mnθ is reduced to Mθ. From this expression, it can temperature at 3 hours. With u = 1.75 in.
be seen that the fire endurance depends on the ap- above fire-exposed surface, θs = 925 °F.
plied loading and on the strength-temperature (b) Determine fpuθ from Fig. 7.6.1.2.
characteristics of the steel. In turn, the duration of For cold-drawn steel at 925 °F:
the fire before the “critical” steel temperature is fpuθ = 33% (fpu)= (0.33)(270) = 89.1 ksi
reached depends on the protection afforded to the
reinforcement.
7-11
CHAPTER
of Assemblies SLABS
Figure 7.6.1.2 Temperature-strength relationships for hot-rolled and cold-drawn steels
100
High strength
alloy steel bars
(tensile strength)
80
Percent of strength at 70 °F
Hot-rolled steel
(yield strength)
60
40
Cold-drawn
prestressing steel
250 or 270 ksi
(tensile strength)
20
0
70 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, °F
Figure 7.6.1.3 Temperatures within Figure 7.6.1.4 Temperatures within sili-

carbonate aggregate concrete slabs ceous aggregate concrete slabs during
during fire tests fire tests
Carbonate aggregate concrete Siliceous aggregate concrete
1600 1600
1500 1500
in.
in.
4
1
1400 1 4
1400
2
in.
1
1300 1300 n.
Temperature, °F
in.
Temperature, °F
12 3 4i
in.
1200 1200 1
3 4 in.
1100 in. 1100
1
1 2 in.
1000 1000 1
1 in.
12 n.
900 900 2i
2 in.
800 800
n.
700 3i
700
3 in.
600 600
n. n.
4i 4i
500 500
1
1
2 1 112 2 3 4 2 1 112 2 3 4
Fire
Fire test
test time,
time, hr
hour Fire
Fire test
testtime,
time,hour
hr
7-12
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
Figure 7.6.1.5 Temperatures within (c) Determine Mnθ and w.

lightweight aggregate concrete slabs
 0.28  0.918 89.1 
during fire tests f psθ = 89.1 1 −  
 0.80  36 ( 6.25) 5  
1600
Sand-lightweight aggregate concrete = 86.8 ksi
1500 0.918 ( 86.8)
aθ = = 0.52 in.
i n.
0.85 ( 5)( 36)

4
1
1400 .
1 2 in
1300 .
Temperature, °F
3 4 in
1200 Mnθ = 0.918(86.8)(6.25 – 0.52/2)/12

in.
1
1100 = 39.8 kip-ft
1000 in.
8 ( 39.8) 1000
1 2
1
900 w= = 170 lb/ft2
800 2i
n. ( 25 ) ( 3 ft )
2
L = w – Dsw = 170 – 54 = 116 lb/ft2

700
n. (d) Calculate maximum allowable live load at
600 3i
room temperature.
500
1 112
 0.28  0.918 270  
2 1 2 3 4
Fire test time, hour
f ps = 270 1 −  
 0.80  36 ( 6.25) 5  
= 249 ksi
0.918 ( 249)
a= = 1.49 in.
0.85 ( 5)( 36)
φMn = 0.9(0.918)(249)(6.25 – 1.49/2)/12
= 94.4 kip-ft
Table 7.6.1 u for simply supported unrestrained hollow core slabs*

Fire Aggregate Type
endurance, M / Mn
hours Siliceous, in. Carbonate, in. Sand-lightweight, in.
1 0.50 11/4 11/16 11/16
1 0.40 11/16 15/
16
15/
16
1 0.30 15/ 13/ 13/

16 16 16
2 0.50 115/16 113/16 113/16

2 0.40 13/4 19/16 19/16
2 0.30 19/16 15/16 15/16
3 0.50 21/2 25/16 21/8
3 0.40 23/16 2 115/16
3 0.30 115/16 111/16 111/16
*u is the distance from bottom of slab to center of strands with all strands having the same u.
Based on Apsfpu/bdpf’c = 0.05; conservative for values greater than 0.05.
7-13
CHAPTER
of Assemblies Made SLABS
Figure 7.6.2.1 Equivalent concrete cover thickness for spray-applied coatings

5
Equivalent Concrete Cover Thickness, in.

4
bs)
sla
)(
M
VC
3 l(
eria s)
at s lab
u sM F )(
t itio S M
en r(
m ibe
2 Ce al
F
lite ine
r
icu M
r m ed
Ve r ay
Sp
1
0
1 1 3
0 /4 /2 /4 1 11/4 11/2
Thickness of Spray-Applied Insulating Material, in.
8 ( 94.4)(1000) 2
cover. Thus, if strands are centered 3/4 in. above
wu = = 403 lb/ft the bottom of a hollow core slab and 1/4 in. of
( 25 ) ( 3 ft ) 2
sprayed mineral fiber is applied, the u distance to
With load factors of 1.2D + 1.6L be used in Figures 7.6.1.3, 7.6.1.4, or 7.6.1.5 is
3
/4 in. plus the equivalent cover of 0.9 in. obtained
403 − 1.2 ( 54) from Fig. 7.6.2.1.
L= = 211 lb/ft2
1.6
Conclusion: L = 116 < 211; 116 lb/ft2 governs
7.6.3 Simply Supported Slabs—
(e) To complete the analysis, heat transmission
Restrained
should also be checked. As calculated in
Example 7.5.1, teq = 4.28 in. Figure 7.2.1 As stated earlier, a restrained hollow core
indicates that, for a 3-hr fire rating,the re- floor will have a significantly longer fire-
quired equivalent thickness is 5.65 in. resistance rating than an unrestrained floor. Stated
Therefore, some type of undercoat or over- conversely, a restrained floor will support signifi-
lay is required to satisfy the 3-hr heat trans- cantly more load for a given fire duration than an
mission. unrestrained floor.
As the heated portion of the floor expands and
7.6.2 Effect of Spray-Applied Coatings pushes against the surrounding unheated area,
The addition of a spray-applied coating of compressive forces, or thrusts, develop. These
vermiculite cementitious material (VCM) or thrusts act near the bottom of the slab when the
sprayed mineral fiber (SMF) can be used to in- fire starts and rise as the fire progresses. Never-
crease the equivalent strand cover. Figure 7.6.2.1 theless, the thrust is generally great enough to in-
shows the relationship between thickness of crease the fire endurance significantly, in some
spray-applied coatings and equivalent concrete instances by more than 2 hours. In most fire tests
7-14
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
of restrained assemblies, the fire endurance is de- a 4-hr fire rating. Because there is no limitation on
termined by the heat transmission end point rather strand temperature for restrained slabs, the slab
than the structural end point. capacity will be controlled by typical (non-fire)
The effects of restraint to thermal expansion design criteria and no rational fire design is re-
can be characterized as shown in Fig. 7.6.3.1. The quired.
thermal thrust T acts in a manner similar to an ex- For all methods, the heat transmission re-
ternal prestressing force inducing negative end quirements must still be checked. Heat transmis-
moments, which increase the positive moment sion is not affected by restraint and must be
capacity. checked for the full required rating.
7.6.4 Structurally Continuous Slabs
Figure 7.6.3.1 Moment diagrams for Continuous members undergo changes in
axially restrained slab during fire ex- stresses when subjected to fire, resulting from
posure. Note that at 2 hours Mnθ is temperature gradients within the structural mem-
less than M, but axial restraint permits bers, or changes in strength of the materials at
slab to continue to support load high temperatures, or both.
Figure 7.6.4.1 shows a continuous beam
dT
whose underside is exposed to fire. The bottom of
T T
Fire the beam becomes hotter than the top and tends to
expand more than the top. This differential tem-
perature causes the ends of the beam to tend to lift
from their supports, thereby increasing the reac-
@
@00hr,
Hr,TT==00
Mn M tion at the interior support. This action results in a
redistribution of moments, that is, the negative
moment at the interior support increases while the
@ 2 Hr,
Mnθ
positive moments decrease.
MT = During the course of a fire, the negative mo-
a
T dT –θ – ∆ ment reinforcement remains cooler than the posi-
2
(curved due to beam deflection) tive moment reinforcement because it is better
protected from the fire. Thus, the increase in ly,
the redistribution that occurs is sufficient to cause
yielding of the negative moment reinforcement.
If a hollow core floor is determined to be re- The resulting decrease in positive moment means
strained, there are three methods for evaluating that the positive moment reinforcement can be
the fire endurance of a restrained slab. heated to a higher temperature before a failure
Appendix C of PCI Manual MNL 124-11 out- will occur. Therefore, the fire endurance of a con-
lines calculation methods where either a required tinuous concrete beam is generally significantly
thrust is calculated or the effect of thrust on the longer than that of a simply supported beam hav-
moment capacity is calculated. These procedures ing the same cover and loaded to the same mo-
are seldom used except as an academic ment intensity.
exercise.
If the slab has been tested and received a UL
restrained fire rating, this design number can be
used to justify the fire endurance and no rational
fire design is required.
The simplest and most common method is to
use the prescriptive requirements given in Table
7.3.3. A review of this table shows that a re-
strained slab with 3/4 in. strand cover will develop
7-15
CHAPTER
of Assemblies SLABS
Figure 7.6.4.1 Moment diagrams for Values for M n+θ , can be calculated by the pro-
continuous 2-span beam before and cedures given in section 7.6.1.
during fire exposure
Values for M n−θ , and xo can be calculated as:
w 2 2 M n+θ
M n−θ = ± w 2 (Eq. 7.6.4)
2 w 2
Fire Fire
M n−θ
– xo = 2 (Eq. 7.6.5)
Mn w
– In most cases, redistribution of moments oc-
M
curs early during the course of a fire before the
negative moment capacity has been reduced by
+
M the effects of fire. In such cases, the length of xo is
+
Mn increased (the inflection point moves toward the
@@0 0hrHr
simple support.) For such cases:
– 2 M n−
M nθ xo = (Eq. 7.6.6)
-
w
xo
MM
θ Figure 7.6.4.3 shows a symmetrical beam or slab
+ in which the end moments are equal. In that case:
@
@ 33 hr x1
+
M nθ Hr w 2
M n−θ = − M n+θ (Eq. 7.6.7)
It is possible to design the reinforcement in a 8
continuous beam or slab for a particular fire en- wx22
durance period. From Fig. 7.6.4.1, the beam can and = M n+θ (Eq. 7.6.8)
8
be expected to collapse when the positive moment
In negative moment regions, the compressive
capacity M n+θ is reduced to the value indicated by zone is directly exposed to fire, so calculations for
the dashed horizontal line (when the redistributed dθ and aθ must be modified by using f'cθ from Fig.
moment at point x1, from the outer support, 7.6.4.4 and neglecting concrete hotter than
Mθx1 = M n+θ ). 1400 °F.
Figure 7.6.4.2 shows a uniformly loaded beam Figure 7.6.4.3 Symmetric uniformly
or slab continuous (or fixed) at one support and loaded member continuous at both
simply supported at the other. Also shown is the supports
redistributed applied-moment diagram at failure.
Figure 7.6.4.2 Uniformly loaded
member continuous at one support M -n θ
w
M -n θ
M -n θ
w
2/8
M -n θ
wℓwl2
/8
M -n θ M+nθ
xo x2 xo
M +nθ
x1
x2 xo
7-16
FIRE
Fire Resistance of RESISTANCE OF ASSEMBLIES
Assemblies Made MADE
with Hollow Core WITH HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
Figure 7.6.4.4 Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures
120
Carbonate
aggregate
100
Percent of original compressive strength
Sand-lightweight
80 aggregate
Siliceous
aggregate
60
40
20
Original strength = f 'c
Average f 'c = 3900 psi
Stressed to 0.4f 'c during heating
0
70 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Temperature, °F
complete redistributed moment and change in the

7.6.5 Detailing Precautions inflection points. It should be noted that the worst
It should be noted that the amount of moment re- condition occurs when the applied loading is
distribution that can occur depends on the amount smallest, such as dead load plus partial or no live
of negative reinforcement. Tests have clearly load. It is recommended that at least 20% of the
demonstrated that the negative moment rein- maximum negative moment reinforcement be ex-
forcement will yield, so the negative moment ca- tended throughout the span.
pacity is reached early during a fire test, regard-
less of the applied loading. The designer must ex- Example 7.6.4
ercise care to ensure that a secondary type of fail- Determine the amount of negative moment
ure will not occur. To avoid a compression failure reinforcement needed to provide a 3-hr fire endur-
in the negative moment region, the amount of ance for sand-lightweight hollow core slabs, 8 in.
negative moment reinforcement should be small deep, 5000 psi concrete, 48 in. wide, with 6-7/16
enough so that ωθ (Asfyθ/bθdθ f'cθ) is less than 0.30, in. dia., 270 ksi strands and 2 in. of 4000 psi com-
before and after reductions in fy, b, d, and f'c are posite topping. Slabs span 25 ft of an exterior bay
taken into account. Furthermore, the negative (no restraint to thermal expansion). D = 65 lb/ft2;
moment bars or welded-wire reinforcement L = 100 lb/ft2. Center of gravity of strands = 13/4
(WWR) must be long enough to accommodate the in.
7-17
CHAPTER
of Assemblies SLABS
Solution: 2 M n− 2 ( 31.0 )
The value for M n+θ can be calculated (using xo = = = 3.76 ft
w 0.66 ( 25 )
the procedure discussed in section 7.6.1) to be
40.8 kip-ft. Solving Eq. 7.6.4. With half live load
4(65 + 100)(252 ) 2 M n− 2 ( 31.0 )

w = 2 xo = = = 5.39 ft
1000 w 0.46 ( 25 )
= 412.5 kip-ft Place the WWR throughout to satisfy the 20%
requirement. Half of the #4 bars should extend 6 ft
412.5  40.8 
M n−θ = − 412.5 2  on each side of the interior support and half
2  412.5  should extend 4 ft.
= 22.8 kip-ft Use grade 60, #4 bars 10 ft long at 18 in. on
Determine As- neglecting concrete above 1400 °F center and stagger their placement across the
in negative moment region. From Fig. 7.6.1.5, ne- joint.
glect 3/4 in. above bottom and assume steel cen-
tered in topping.
d = 10 – 3/4 – 1 = 8.25 in. 7.6.6 Existing Construction
Due to changes in occupancy, fire endurance
Assume f'cθ in compressive zone = 0.8 f'c = 4 ksi of existing construction may have to be evaluated.
aθ− The following example presents some options that
−
Assume d − = 8.1 in. may be helpful when fire endurance of existing
2
construction must be improved.
22.8 (12 )
As− = = 0.563 in.2 Example 7.6.6
60 ( 8.1)
Hollow core floor slabs were installed in a
0.56 ( 60) building several years ago when a 1-hr fire endur-
Check aθ− = = 0.21 in. ance was required. The occupancy of the building
0.85 ( 4)( 48) will be changed and the floors must qualify for a
3-hr fire endurance. What can be done to upgrade
aθ− 0.21
d− − = 8.25 − = 8.15 ≅ 8.1 in. ok the fire endurance?
2 2
Use 6 × 6 - W2.1 × W2.1 WWR throughout plus Given:
grade 60, #4 bars at 18 in. on center in the nega- Slabs are 4 ft wide, 8 in. deep, prestressed
tive moment region. with five 3/8 in. dia., 270 ksi strands located 1 in.
above the bottom of the slab, and span 24 ft. Slabs
48 are made with 5000 psi siliceous aggregate con-
As− = 4 ( 0.041) + ( 0.20) = 0.697 in.2
18 crete, have an equivalent thickness of 3.75 in., and
Calculate xo for fully loaded condition and for weigh 47 lb/ft2. The slabs are untopped and the
dead load plus one-half live load. superimposed load will be 50 lb/ft2.
0.697 Solution:
M n−θ = ( 22.8) = 28.2 kip-ft There are a number of possible solutions. The
0.563
appropriate solution will depend on architectural
full load = 4(0.065 + 0.100) = 0.66 kip/ft or functional requirements and economics.
pattern load = 4(0.065 + 0.050) = 0.46 kip/ft For some parts of the building, the slabs might
M n− = 31.0 kip-ft (calculated at room temperatures) be made to qualify as restrained in accordance
with Table 7.4.1 and Fig. 7.4.1, in which case
From Eq. 7.6.6 those slabs would qualify structurally for 3 hours,
With full load
7-18
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
but would still have to be upgraded to qualify for same as for a solid wall of the same concrete type
3 hours by heat transmission. and the same overall thickness.
A gypsum wallboard ceiling installed as
7.7.1 Sandwich Panels
shown in Fig. 7.5.3.1 would provide 3 hours both
Hollow core wall panels are often made with a
structurally and for heat transmission. Calcula-
hollow core structural wythe, a layer of rigid insu-
tions of the ultimate capacity and stresses should
lation, and a 2 in. to 3 in. facing wythe. When the
be made to ensure that the added weight of the
insulation is sandwiched between two layers of
ceiling can be adequately supported.
concrete in this fashion, the IBC limits the flame-
A spray-applied undercoating of VCM or
spread index to 100, except that foam plastic insu-
SMF can also be used. For heat transmission, the
lation may not exceed 75.
required thickness of undercoating for 3 hours is
While the facing wythe is considered non-
0.6 in. (Fig. 7.5.2.1). From Fig. 7.6.2.1, it can be
composite for structural purposes, it does improve
seen that with a thickness of 0.6 in. of VCM or
the fire resistance of the panel. The fire endurance
SMF, the equivalent thickness of concrete cover is
of such a panel can be calculated as:
approximately 2 in. Thus, the equivalent u dis-
tance is 2 in. plus 1 in. or approximately 3 in. R = (R10.59 + R20.59 +R30.59)1.7 (Eq. 7.7.1)
From Fig. 7.6.1.4, with u equal to 3 in., the strand where Rn is the fire endurance of each layer in
temperature will be 690 °F at 3 hours, resulting in minutes. Limited testing indicates that R equals 5
the strength of the prestressing steel being 63% of minutes for a 1-in.-thick layer of cellular polysty-
its 70 °F strength (Fig. 7.3.1.5) or 0.63 × 270 ksi = rene. Based on this, IBC Section 722.2.1.2.2 al-
170 ksi. Calculations can be made in accordance lows the use of 5 minutes as the value of R for any
with the procedures of section 7.6.1, but if the foam plastic insulation equal to or greater than 1
strand strength exceeds about 50% of its room in. thick.
temperature strength, the assembly will generally
be satisfactory structurally. Example 7.7.1
Calculate the fire endurance of an assembly
7.7 Wall Panels consisting of an 8-in.-thick hollow core panel
The fire endurance of hollow core wall panels (carbonate aggregate, teq = 4.28 in.), 2 in. of poly-
is nearly always governed by the heat transmis- urethane insulation, and a 2 in. facing wythe.
sion criteria of ASTM E119, rather than by struc-
Solution:
tural requirements during fire tests. This is likely
From Fig. 7.5.1, the fire endurance of the hol-
due to the fact that gravity load bending moments
low core panel is 102 minutes and the 2 in. wythe
are so small that even fire-reduced steel strengths
is 30 minutes.
are more than adequate. In fact, the 2012 IBC
Therefore, the fire endurance of the assembly
does not list any cover requirements for reinforc-
is:
ing steel (mild or prestressed) in walls. For protec-
R = (1020.59 + 50.59 + 300.59)1.7
tion against weather and other effects, it is rec-
= (15.3 + 2.6 + 7.4) 1.7
ommended that the cover requirements of ACI
= 243 minutes = 4 hr 3 min
318-11 Section 7.7.3 be satisfied.
The calculation of equivalent thickness for 7.7.2 Joint Treatments
hollow core wall panels and the required mini- Section 715.1 of the IBC requires joints be-
mum thickness for 1- through 4-hour fire ratings tween wall panels to have the same fire-resistance
is the same as for a hollow core floor or roof slab. rating as the wall itself. An exception is made for
These requirements are addressed in Section 7.5.1 walls that are allowed to have unprotected open-
and Table 7.3.2 of this chapter. In addition, IBC ings. Table 705.8 of the IBC summarizes the per-
section 722.2.1.1.2 states that if all of the cores of mitted percentages of protected and unprotected
a hollow core wall panel are filled with loose-fill openings in a wall. These percentages are based
material, such as expanded shale, clay, slag, ver- on the building occupancy and the fire-separation
miculite, or perlite, the fire-resistance rating is the distance.
7-19
CHAPTER
of Assemblies SLABS
Figure 7.7.1 Fire endurance of one-stage butt joint with joint treatment of backer rod
and sealant
Joint Width
3
Sealant
6
Backup Rod
in
Fire Endurance, Hr
.P
2 5i
Panel Thickness
an
n.
el
Pa
Equivalent
ne
l
4 in
1 .P
ane
l
0
0 1
/4 1
/2 3
/4 1 Fire Side
Joint Width, in.

If unprotected openings are allowed, the un- quirements, is influenced by the equivalent pan-
protected joints must be included as openings in el thickness, joint size, and type and thickness of
calculating the opening percentage for compari- the insulating material. Figures 7.7.1, 7.7.2, and
son with the permitted percentages from Table 7.7.3 can be used to determine the joint treat-
705.8. If unprotected openings are not permit- ment needed to achieve the required fire-
ted, or the percentage of openings exceeds that resistance rating.
which is allowed, the joints must be protected to Figure 7.7.1 shows the fire endurance of a
satisfy the same fire endurance as the wall. one-stage butt joint treatment of polyethylene
Fire tests of wall panels indicate that the fire backer rod and sealant. Figure 7.7.2 provides data
endurance, as limited by heat transmission re- for a two-stage cavity joint incorporating a 11/4-in.-
Figure 7.7.2 Fire endurance of two-stage cavity joint with joint treatment of 11/4 in. ce-
ramic fiber blanket, backer rod, and sealant
7i
n. Joint Width
4 Pa
ne
l
Sealant
6 in
Fire Endurance, Hr
. Pa Backup Rod
Panel Thickness
nel
3
Equivalent
5 in. Pa
nel 11/4 in. Ceramic
2 Fiber Blanket
4 in. P Bond Breaker
anel Sealant
Fire Side
1
0
1 1 3
0 /4 /2 /4 1
Joint Width, in.
7-20
FIRE
Slabs 7 7
Chapter
thick ceramic blanket. Figure 7.7.3 provides a 7.8 Protection of Connections

design aid to estimate the thickness of ceramic Bearing in mind that the purpose of fire-
fiber blanket required for a one-stage butt joint of resistance design is not to eliminate all damage,
a specific joint width, panel thickness, and fire but only to maintain stability and prevent col-
endurance. lapse, many types of connections do not need pro-
Example 7.7.2 tection. Gravity connections where the slabs bear
Given a hollow core wall panel with an equiv- directly on a ledge or wall generally do not re-
alent thickness of 5 in. and a joint width of 3/4 in., quire special treatment. In the event of a fire, the
determine the thickness of ceramic fiber blanket bearing pad or strip may melt or burn, but no col-
required to achieve a 2-hr fire rating. lapse will occur. A bearing angle or bracket weld-
Solution: ed to the inside face of a wall panel may require
From Fig. 7.7.3, with an equivalent thickness protection if weakening of this support steel will
of 5 in. and a 2-hr fire endurance, a 1 in. joint re- cause the collapse of the floor or roof. Critical
quires 2.1 in. and a 3/8 in. joint requires 0.7 in. of connections should be protected to the same ex-
ceramic fiber blanket. Interpolating between tent as the supported structure.
these values gives a required thickness of approx-
imately 1.6 in.
Figure 7.7.3 Design aid for estimating the thickness of ceramic fiber blanket required
in one-stage butt joints for various fire endurances
“C” Thickness 0f Ceramic Fiber Blanket, in.
1 in. Joint Width 3/8 in. Joint Width

4 3
“C” Thickness 0f Ceramic Fiber Blanket, in.
4h
r
3 2
3h
r
2 1
4h
3h
hr
2h
2
r
r
r
1
hr
1 0
1h 3 4 5 6 7 8
r
Panel Thickness, in.
0
3 4 5 6 7 8
Panel Thickness, in.
Joint Width
Sealant
Backup Rod
Panel Thickness
Elevation
C
Ceramic
Fiber Blanket
Fire Side
7-21
CHAPTER
Fire Resistance HOLLOWMade
of Assemblies CORE SLABS
Figure 7.8.1 Thickness of protection materials applied to connection consisting of

structural steel shapes
t =t =minimum thickness
minimum thickness of steel
of steel subjected
subjected Concrete or Dry-Pack
Concrete or Dry-PackMortar
Morter
to firefrom
to fire from both
both sides
sides b = minimum widthwidth
b = minimum of concrete
of concreteprotection
protection
4 4
THICKNESS OF PROTECTION MATERIAL, in.
3 3
F
M
.S M
in
VC
n.
6
5 /1 in.
8i
t= = 5 /16
=
t b
2 2
in .
12
F or b≥
SM 1 16 in.
/
1 t=1 1
IM
5 16 in.
t= /
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
FIRE Endurance,
Fire ENDURANCE, hrhr
(a) (b)
IM = intumescent mastic SMF = sprayed mineral fiber VCM = vermiculite cementitious material
IM = intumescent mastic SMF = sprayed mineral fiber VCM = vermiculite cementitious material
The amount of protection required is a func-

tion of the stress-strength ratio in the steel at the
time of the fire and the intensity and duration of
the fire. The required thickness of protection ma-
terial increases as the stress level and fire intensity
increase.
Figure 7.8.1 shows the thicknesses of common
fire-protection materials required for fire endur-
ances of 1 hr to 4 hr. The values shown corre-
spond to a critical steel temperature of 1000 °F (a
stress-strength ratio of 0.65). Values in
Fig. 7.8.1b apply to concrete encasement of struc-
tural steel shapes used as brackets or lintels.
7-22
ACOUSTICAL
Acoustical PROPERTIES
Properties and VibrationsAND VIBRATIONS
of Hollow OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS
Core Slabs CHAPTER 8 8
Chapter
Chapter 8
ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES AND VIBRATIONS OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS
8.1 Glossary Sabin – the unit of measure of sound absorption
Airborne Sound – sound that reaches the point of (ASTM C423).
interest by propagation through air. Sound Absorption Coefficient α – the fraction of
Background Level – the ambient sound pressure randomly incident sound energy absorbed or oth-
level existing in a space. erwise not reflected off of a surface (ASTM
C423).
Decibel (dB) – a logarithmic unit of measure of
sound pressure or sound power. Zero on the deci- Sound Pressure Level (SPL) – ten times the com-
bel scale corresponds to a standardized reference mon logarithm of the ratio of the square of the
pressure (20 μPa) or sound power (10-12 watt). sound pressure to the square of the standard refer-
ence pressure of 20 μPa. Commonly measured
Flanking Transmission – transmission of sound by
with a sound level meter and microphone, this
indirect paths other than through the primary barrier.
quantity is expressed in decibels.
Frequency – the number of complete vibration
Sound Transmission Class (STC) – the single
cycles per second (in units of Hz).
number rating system used to give a preliminary
Impact Insulation Class (IIC) – a single figure rat- estimate of the sound insulation properties of a
ing of the overall impact sound insulation merits partition system. This rating is derived from
of floor-ceiling assemblies in terms of a reference measured values of transmission loss (ASTM
contour (ASTM E98949). E41351).
Impact Noise – the sound produced by one object Sound Transmission Loss (TL) – ten times the
striking another. common logarithm of the ratio, expressed in deci-
Noise – unwanted sound. bels, of the airborne sound power incident on the
partition that is transmitted by the partition and
Noise Criteria (NC) – a series of curves, used as radiated on the other side (ASTM E9052).
design goals, to specify satisfactory background
sound levels as they relate to particular use functions. Structure borne Sound – sound that reaches the
point of interest over at least part of its path by
Noise Reduction (NR) – the difference in decibels vibration of a solid structure.
between the space-time average sound pressure
levels produced in two enclosed spaces by one or 8.2 General
more sound sources in one of them. The basic purpose of architectural acoustics is
to provide a satisfactory environment in which
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) – the arith-
desired sounds are clearly heard by the intended
metic average of the sound absorption coefficients
listeners and unwanted sounds (noise) are isolated
at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz expressed to the
or absorbed.
nearest multiple of 0.05 (ASTM C42350).
Under most conditions, the architect/engineer
Reverberation – the persistence of sound in an can determine the acoustical needs of the space
enclosed or partially enclosed space after the and then design the building to satisfy those
source of sound has stopped. needs. Good acoustical design uses both absorp-
Room Criteria (RC) Curves – a revision of the NC tive and reflective surfaces, sound barriers, and
curves based on empirical studies of background vibration isolators. Some surfaces must reflect
sounds. sound so that the loudness will be adequate in all
areas where listeners are located. Other surfaces
absorb sound to avoid echoes, sound distortion,
8-1
CHAPTER
Chapter 8 8 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES AND VIBRATIONS
Acoustical PropertiesOF
andHOLLOW
VibrationsCORE SLABS
of Hollow Core Slabs
and long reverberation times. Sound is isolated insulation is not available from a porous, light-
from rooms where it is not wanted by selected weight material that may be applied to room sur-
wall and floor-ceiling constructions. Vibration faces. It is important to recognize that the basic
generated by mechanical equipment must be iso- mechanisms of sound absorption and sound insu-
lated from the structural frame of the building. lation are quite different.
Most acoustical situations can be described in
terms of sound source, sound transmission path, 8.4 Sound Transmission Loss
and sound receiver. Sometimes the source Sound-transmission loss measurements are
strength and path can be controlled and the re- made at 16 frequencies at one-third octave inter-
ceiver made more attentive by removing distrac- vals covering the range from 125 to 4000 Hz. The
tion or made more tolerant of disturbance. Acous- testing procedure is ASTM E90. To simplify
tical design must include consideration of these specification of desired performance characteris-
three elements. tics, the single number sound transmission class
(STC) was developed.
8.3 Approaching the Design Process Airborne sound reaching a wall, floor, or ceil-
Criteria must be established before the acous- ing produces vibration in the element and is radi-
tical design of a building can begin. Basically, a ated with reduced intensity on the other side. Air-
satisfactory acoustical environment is one in borne sound-transmission losses of walls and
which the character and magnitude of all sounds floor-ceiling assemblies are a function of their
are compatible with the intended space function. weight, stiffness, and vibration-damping charac-
Although a reasonable objective, it is not al- teristics.
ways easy to express these intentions in quantita- Weight is the greatest asset of concrete when
tive terms. In addition to the amplitude of sound, it is used as a sound insulator. For sections of sim-
properties such as spectral characteristics, conti- ilar design, but different weights, the STC in-
nuity, reverberation, and intelligibility must be creases approximately six units for each doubling
specified. of weight, as shown in Fig. 8.4.1.
People are highly adaptable to the sensations Precast concrete walls, floors, and roofs usual-
of heat, light, odor, and sound, with sensitivities ly do not need additional treatments in order to
varying widely. The human ear can detect a sound provide adequate sound insulation. If desired,
intensity of rustling leaves, 10 dB, and can toler- greater sound insulation can be obtained by using
ate, if even briefly, the powerful exhaust of a jet a resiliently attached layer(s) of gypsum board or
engine at 120 dB, 1012 times the intensity of the other building material. The increased transmis-
rustling sound.
Figure 8.4.1 Sound Transmission
8.3.1 Dealing with Sound Levels
Class as a function of weight of floor
The problems of sound insulation are consid-
erably more complicated than those of sound ab-
sorption. The former involves reductions of sound
level, which are of the greater orders of magnitude
than can be achieved by absorption. These reduc-
tions of sound level from space to space can be
achieved only by continuous, impervious barriers.
If the problem also involves structure borne
sound, it may be necessary to introduce resilient
layers or discontinuities into the barrier.
Sound-absorbing materials and sound-
insulating materials are used for different purpos-
es. There is not much sound absorption from an 8-
in.-thick hollow core slab; similarly, high-sound
8-2
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
Figure 8.4.2 Acoustical test data of hollow core slabs (normal weight concrete)
sion loss occurs because the energy flow path is mance specification purposes, the single number
increased to include a dissipative air column and impact insulation class (IIC) is used.
additional mass. Hollow core floors used in combination with
The acoustical test results of both airborne resilient materials effectively control impact
sound-transmission loss and impact insulation of sound. One simple solution consists of good car-
6 in. and 8 in. hollow core slabs are shown in Fig. peting on resilient padding. Table 8.4.1 shows that
8.4.2. Tables 8.4.1 and 8.4.2 present the ratings a carpet and pad over a bare slab will significantly
for various floor-ceiling assemblies and precast increase the impact noise reduction. The overall
concrete walls. efficiency varies according to the characteristics
of the carpeting and padding, such as resilience,
8.5 Impact Noise Reduction thickness, and weight. So-called resilient flooring
Footsteps, dragged chairs, dropped objects, materials, such as linoleum, rubber, asphalt, vinyl,
slammed doors, and plumbing generate impact and the like, are not entirely satisfactory when ap-
noise. Even when airborne sounds are adequately plied directly on concrete, nor are parquet and
controlled, there can be severe impact noise prob- strip-wood floors. Impact sound may also be con-
lems. The test method used to evaluate systems trolled by providing a discontinuity in the struc-
for impact-sound insulation is described in ASTM ture such as would be obtained by adding a resili-
E49253. As with the airborne standard, measure- ent-mounted plaster or drywall suspended ceiling.
ments are made at 16 one-third octave intervals,
but in the range from 100 to 3150 Hz. For perfor-
8-3
CHAPTER 8 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES AND VIBRATIONS OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS
Table 8.4.1 Airborne sound transmission and impact insulation class ratings from
laboratory tests of hollow core floor-ceiling assemblies
Assembly
No. Description STC IIC
1 6 in. hollow core slabs 48 23
2 Assembly 1 with carpet and pad 48 69
3 Assembly 1 with 1/2 in. wood-block flooring adhered directly 48 48
4 Assembly 1 with 1/2 in. wood-block flooring adhered to 1/2 in. sound- 49 49
deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete
5 Assembly 1 with 1/2 in. gypsum concrete 50 41
6 Assembly 1 with 3/4 in. gypsum concrete on 1/2 in. sound-deadening board 50 50
underlayment adhered to concrete
7 Assembly 1 with carpet and pad on 3/4 in. gypsum concrete on 1/2 in. 50 72
sound-deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete
8 8 in. hollow core slabs 50 28
9 Assembly 8 with carpet and pad 50 73
10 Assembly 8 with 1/2 in. wood-block flooring adhered directly 51 47
11 Assembly 8 with 1/2 in. wood-block flooring adhered to 1/2 in. sound- 52 54
deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete
12 Assembly 8 with 1/2 in. wood-block flooring adhered to 1/2 in. plywood ad- 52 55
hered to 7/16 in. sound-deadening board underlayment adhered to con-
crete
13 Assembly 8 with 5/16 in. wood-block flooring adhered to 1/4 in. polystyrene 50 51
underlayment adhered to concrete
14 Assembly 8 with vinyl tile adhered to 1/2 in. plywood adhered to 7/16 in. 50 55
sound-deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete
15 Assembly 8 with vinyl tile adhered to 1/4 in. inorganic felt-supported, cush- 50 51
ion underlayment adhered to concrete
16 Assembly 8 with vinyl tile adhered to 1/8 in. polyethylene foam underlay- 50 58
ment adhered to concrete
17 Assembly 8 with 11/2 in. concrete topping with carpet and pad 50 76
18 Assembly 8 with 11/2 in. concrete topping with vinyl tile adhered to concrete 50 44
19 Assembly 8 with 11/2 in. concrete topping with vinyl tile adhered to 3/8 in. 52 55
plywood adhered to 1/2 in. sound-deadening board adhered to concrete
20 Assembly 8 with 11/2 in. concrete with 11/2 in. wood-block flooring adhered 51 53
to 1/2 inch in. sound-deadening board adhered to concrete
21 Assembly 8 with 11/2 in. concrete with 5/16 in. wood-block flooring adhered to 51 54
foam backing adhered to concrete
22 Assembly 8 with 3/4 in. gypsum concrete with 5/16 in. wood-block flooring 50 53
adhered to foam backing adhered to concrete
23 Assembly 11 with acoustical tile 59 61
24 Assembly 8 with quarry tile, 11/4 in. reinforced mortar bed with 0.4 in. nylon 60 54
and carbon black spinnerette matting
25 Assembly 24 with suspended 5/8 in. gypsum board ceiling with 31/2 in. insulation 61 62
Note: STC = sound transmission class; IIC = impact insulation class.
energy incident, but not reflected, per unit of sur-

8.6 Absorption of Sound face area. Sound absorption can be specified at
A sound wave always loses part of its energy individual frequencies or as an average of absorp-
as it is reflected by a surface. This loss of energy tion coefficients (NRC).
is termed sound absorption. It appears as a de- A dense, nonporous concrete surface typically
crease in sound pressure of the reflected wave. absorbs 1% to 2% of incident sound and has an
The sound absorption coefficient is the fraction of NRC of 0.015. In the case where additional sound
8-4
ACOUSTICAL
Acoustical PropertiesPROPERTIES
and Vibrations AND VIBRATIONS
of Hollow Core Slabs OF HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER 8 8
Chapter
Table 8.4.2 Airborne sound transmission class ratings from laboratory tests of hollow
core wall systems
Assembly
No. Description STC
1 6 in. hollow core walls 48
2 Assembly 1 with 2 in. rigid insulation and 2 in. concrete facing 51
3 Assembly 1 with wood furring, 3/4 in. insulation and 1/2 in. gypsum board 51
4 Assembly 1 with 1/2 in. air space, 15/8 in. metal stud row, 11/2 in. insulation, and 1/2 in. 56
gypsum board
5 8 in. hollow core walls 50
6 Assembly 5 with 2 in. rigid insulation and 2 in. concrete facing 53
7 Assembly 5 with wood furring, 3/4. insulation and 1/2 in. gypsum board 53
Note: STC = sound transmission class.
absorption of precast concrete is desired, a coating absorption of sound.

of acoustical material can be spray-applied, acous-
tical tile can be applied with adhesive, or an Ao + Aa
NR = 10 log (Eq. 8.6.1)
acoustical ceiling can be suspended. Most of the Aa
spray-applied fire-retardant materials used to in- where
crease the fire resistance of precast concrete and NR = sound-pressure level reduction, dB
other floor-ceiling systems can also be used to Ao = original absorption, sabins
absorb sound. The NRC of the sprayed fiber types Aa = added absorption, sabins
range from 0.25 to 0.75. Most cementitious types
have an NRC from 0.25 to 0.50. Values for Ao and Aa are the products of the
If an acoustical ceiling were added to assem- absorption coefficients of the various room mate-
bly 11 of Table 8.4.1 (as in assembly 23), the rials and their surface areas.
sound entry through a floor or roof would be re- A plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 8.6.1.
duced by 7 dB. In addition, the acoustical ceiling For an absorption ratio of 5, the decibel reduction
would absorb a portion of the sound after entry is 7 dB. Note that the decibel reduction is the
and provide a few more decibels of quieting. The same, regardless of the original sound-pressure
following expression can be used to determine the level and depends only on the absorption ratio.
intra-room noise or loudness reduction due to the This is due to the fact that the decibel scale is
Figure 8.6.1 Relation of decibel Figure 8.6.2 Relation of percent loud-

reduction of reflected sound to ness reduction of reflected sound to
absorption ratio absorption ratio
8-5
CHAPTER
Chapter 8 8 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES Acoustical
AND VIBRATIONS
PropertiesOF
andHOLLOW
Figure 8.7.1a NC (Noise Criterion) Figure 8.7.1b RC (Room Criterion)

Curves urves Curves
itself a scale of ratios, rather than a difference in

sound energy.
Region A: High probability that noise-induced vibration
While a decibel difference is an engineering levels in lightweight wall/ceiling construction
quantity that can be physically measured, it is also will be clearly felt; anticipate audible rattles in
important to know how the ear judges the change light fixtures, doors, windows, etc.
Region B: Noise-induced vibration in lightweight
in sound energy due to sound conditioning. Apart wall/ceiling construction may be moderately
from the subjective annoyance factors associated felt; slight possibility of rattles in light fix-
with excessive sound reflection, the ear can make tures, doors, windows, etc.
Region C: Below threshold of hearing for continuous
accurate judgments of the relative loudness be- noise
tween sounds. An approximate relation between
percentage loudness, reduction of reflected sound, The most widely accepted and used noise cri-
and absorption ratio is plotted in Fig. 8.6.2 teria are expressed as the noise criterion (NC)
The percentage loudness reduction does not curves (Fig. 8.7.1a). The values in Table 8.7.1
depend on the original loudness, but only on the represent general acoustical goals. They can also
absorption ratio. (The curve is drawn for loudness be compared with anticipated noise levels in spe-
within the normal range of hearing and does not cific rooms to assist in evaluating noise reduction
apply to extremely faint sounds.) Referring again problems.
to the absorption ratio of 5, the loudness reduction The main criticism of NC curves is that they
from Fig. 8.6.2 is approximately 40%. are too permissive when the control of low- or
high-frequency noise is of concern. For this rea-
son, room criterion (RC) curves were developed
8.7 Acceptable Noise Criteria (Fig. 8.7.1b). These curves are the result of exten-
As a rule, a certain amount of continuous sive studies based on the human response to both
sound can be tolerated before it becomes noise. sound-pressure levels and frequency and take into
An “acceptable” level neither disturbs room occu- account the requirements for speech intelligibility.
pants nor interferes with the communication of A low background level is necessary where
wanted sound. listening and speech intelligibility is important.
Conversely, higher levels can exist in large busi-
8-6
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
ness offices or factories where speech communi- tain ambient sound level to ensure adequate
cation is limited to short distances. Often, it is just acoustical privacy between spaces, thus minimiz-
as important to be interested in the minimum as in ing the transmission loss requirements of unwant-
the maximum permissible levels of Table 8.7.1. In ed sound (noise).
an office or residence, it is desirable to have a cer- These undesirable sounds may be from an ex-
terior source such as automobiles or aircraft, or
Table 8.7.1 Recommended category they may be generated as speech in an adjacent
classification and suggested classroom or music in an adjacent apartment.
noise criteria range for They may be direct impact-induced sound
steady background noise as such as footfalls on the floor above, rain impact
heard in various indoor on lightweight roof construction, or vibrating me-
functional activity areas* chanical equipment.
NC or RC Thus, the designer must always be ready to
Type of Space accept the task of analyzing the many potential
Curve
Private residences 25–30 sources of intruding sound as related to their fre-
Apartments 30–35 quency characteristics and the rates at which they
Hotels/motels occur. The level of toleration that is to be ex-
Individual rooms or suites 30–35 pected by those who will occupy the space must
Meeting/banquet rooms 30–35 also be established. Figures 8.7.2 and 8.7.3 are the
Halls, corridors, lobbies 35–40
Service/support areas 40–45
spectral characteristics of common noise sources.
Offices With these criteria, the problem of sound iso-
Executive 25–30 lation now must be solved, namely, the reduction
Conference rooms 25–30 process between the high noise source and the de-
Private 30–35 sired ambient level. For this solution, two related,
Open-plan areas 35–40 yet mutually exclusive, processes must be incor-
Computer/business machine areas 40–45 porated, that is, sound transmission loss and sound
Public circulation 40–45
Hospitals and clinics
absorption.
Private rooms 25–30
8.8 Establishment of Noise Insulation
Wards 30–35
Operating rooms 25–30 Objectives
Laboratories 30–35 Acoustical control is often specified as to the
Corridors 30–35 minimum insulation values of the dividing parti-
Public areas 35–40 tion system. Building codes, lending institutions,
Churches 25–30† and the Department of Housing and Urban Devel-
Schools
opment (HUD) list both airborne STC and IIC
Lecture and classrooms 25–30
Open-plan classrooms 30–35† values for different living environments. For ex-
Libraries 30–35 ample, the International Building Code35 requires
Concert halls † both an STC and an IIC of 50 (45 if field tested),
†
Legitimate theaters while the HUD minimum property standards are:
†
Recording studios Location STC IIC
Movie theaters 30–35
Note: NC = Noise criterion curve; RC = room crite- Between living units 45 45
rion curve. Between living units and 50 50
* Design goals can be increased by 5 dB when public space
dictated by budget constraints or when noise intru-
sion from other sources represents a limiting con- Once the objectives are established, the de-
dition. signer should refer to available data, such as those
†
An acoustical expert should be consulted for in Fig. 8.4.2 or Table 8.4.1, and select the system
guidance on these critical spaces that best meets these requirements. In this respect,
concrete systems have superior properties and
8-7
CHAPTER
AND VIBRATIONS
PropertiesOF
andHOLLOW
Figure 8.7.2 Sound pressure levels — Figure 8.7.3 Sound pressure levels —
exterior noise sources interior noise sources
noise sources nose sources
can, with minimal effort, comply with these crite- 8.9 Wall Considerations
ria. When the insulation value has not been speci- An acoustically composite wall is made up of
fied, selection of the necessary barrier can be de- elements of varying acoustical properties. Doors
termined analytically by identifying exterior and windows are often the weak link in an other-
and/or interior noise sources and by establishing wise effective sound barrier. The sound transmis-
acceptable interior noise criteria. sion loss of windows will be affected by the type
of glass assembly specified, as seen in Table
Example 8.8.1 8.9.1. Mounting of the glass in its frame should be
Given an apartment building with hollow core done with care to minimize noise leaks and reduce
floor slabs, use Fig. 8.4.2, 8.7.1b, and 8.7.3 to the glass-plate vibrations.
determine the degree of acoustical insulation re- Sound transmission loss of a door is depend-
quired of the floor-ceiling assembly. ent on its material and construction and the seal-
Table 8.8.1 contrasts the sound-pressure level ing between the door and frame. Gaskets, weath-
generated (stereo source noise) with the accepta- erstripping, and raised thresholds serve as excel-
ble threshold (RC). Using the 500 Hz requirement lent thermal and acoustic barriers and are recom-
(47 dB) as the first approximation of the floor mended.
STC category, an 8-in.-thick hollow core slab is For best results, the distances between adja-
selected. Table 8.8.2 summarizes the comparison cent door and/or window openings should be
of the required insulation to the acoustical values maximized, staggered when possible, and held to
of this size slab. a minimum area. Minimizing the opening area
Ideally, the selected floor should meet or ex- retains the acoustical properties of the precast
ceed the insulation needs at all frequencies. How- concrete.
ever, experience has shown that deficiencies of 3 Figure 8.9.1 can be used to calculate the
dB at two frequencies or 5 dB at one frequency acoustic properties of a wall system that consists
point can be tolerated. of a composite of elements, each with known
transmission-loss values.
8-8
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
Table 8.8.1 Example 8.8.1 ─ Acoustical insulation demand

Sound Pressure Level (dB)
Frequency (Hz) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Stereo source noise 60 72 84 82 82 80 75 60
(Fig. 8.7.3)
Bedroom room criteria 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15
RC30 (Fig. 8.7.1b)
Required insulation 10 27 44 47 52 55 55 45
Table 8.8.2 Example 8.8.1 ─ Acoustical insulation provided

Sound Pressure Level (dB)
Frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Required insulation 27 44 47 52 55 55
8-in.-thick hollow core slab (Fig. 8.4.2) 34 39 47 53 58 63
Deficiencies — 5 — — — —
Figure 8.9.1 Chart for calculating the Example 8.9.1

effective transmission loss of a Given a precast concrete office building adja-
composite barrier cent to a major highway, with private offices
along the perimeter, determine the degree of insu-
lation required for the exterior wall system. Con-
sidering the precast concrete wall without any
openings, Table 8.9.2 compares the generated
sound levels with the acceptable threshold to de-
termine the required acoustical insulation.
The 500 Hz requirement, 38 dB, is used as the
first approximation of the wall STC category.
Recognizing that there will be windows in the
wall, a system with an STC of 50 is selected. Ta-
ble 8.9.3 summarizes the comparison of a win-
dowless, 8-in.-thick, hollow core wall (STC of 50)
with the insulation requirements.
To complete the design, the effect of the win-
dow openings must be considered. Assuming the
following:
1. The glazing area represents 10% of the ex-
terior wall area.
2. The windows are double glazed with a 38
STC acoustical rating.
Table 8.9.4 includes the effects of windows on the
acoustical performance of the wall.
8-9
CHAPTER
Chapter 8 8 ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIESAcoustical
AND VIBRATIONS OF Vibrations
Properties and HOLLOWofCORE SLABS
Hollow Core Slabs
Table 8.9.1 Acoustical properties of glass

(a) Sound Transmission Class (STC)
Construction Outside
Type and Overall Thickness Inside Light STC
Space Light
1/
8 in. plate or float — — 1/
8 in. 23
1/
4 in. 28
1/
2 in. 31
1 in. insulated glass 1/
4 in. 1/
2 in. air space 1/
4 in. 31
1/
4 in. laminated 1/
8 in. 0.030 in. vinyl 1/
8 in. 34
11/2 in. insulated glass 1/
4 in. 1 in. air space 1/
4 in. 35
3/
4 in. 36
4 in.
1/
1 in. insulated glass 1/
4 in. 1/
2 in. air space 38
laminated
1 in. plate or float — — 1 in. 37
2 in. 39
2 in. 40
4 in.
1/
4 in. 6 in. air space 42
laminated
(b) Transmission Loss, dB

Frequency, Hz
125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1000 1250 1600 2000 2500 3150 4000
1/ in. plate glass — 28 STC
4
24 22 24 24 21 23 21 23 26 27 33 36 37 39 40 40
1 in. insulating glass with 1/ in. air space — 31 STC
2
25 25 22 20 24 27 27 30 32 33 35 34 29 31 33 36
1
1 in. insulating glass laminated with /2 inch air space — 38 STC
30 29 26 28 31 34 35 37 37 38 38 40 41 40 41 41
Table 8.9.2 Example 8.9.1 ─ Acoustical insulation demand

Sound-Pressure Level, dB
Frequency, Hz 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Bus traffic 80 83 85 78 74 68 62
Source noise (Fig. 8.7.2)
Private office 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
Room criteria curve 35 (Fig. 8.7.1b)
Required insulation 25 33 40 38 39 38 37
8-10
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
Table 8.9.3 Example 8.9.1 ─ Acoustical insulation provided (no windows)

Frequency, Hz 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Required insulation 33 40 38 39 38 37
8-in. thick hollow core wall (Fig. 8.4.2) 33 39 47 53 58 63
Table 8.9.4 Example 8.9.1 ─ Acoustical insulation provided (10% windows)

Frequency, Hz 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
8 in. hollow core wall (Fig. 8.4.2) 33 39 47 53 58 63
Double glazed windows 30 28 35 38 41 44
(Table 8.9.1[b])
Correction (Fig. 8.9.1) 0 -4 -4 -6 -8 -9
Combined transmission loss 33 35 43 47 50 54
Insulation requirements 33 40 38 39 38 37
The maximum deficiency is 5 dB and occurs

8.10 Leaks and Flanking
at only one frequency point. This is generally con-
sidered acceptable. The performance of a building section with an
otherwise adequate STC can be seriously reduced
by a relatively small hole or any other path that
Figure 8.10.1 Effect of safing allows sound to bypass the acoustical barrier. All
insulation seals noise that reaches a space by paths other than
through the primary barrier is called flanking.
Common flanking paths are openings around
doors or windows, at electrical outlets, telephone
and television connections, and pipe and duct
penetrations. Suspended ceilings in rooms where
walls do not extend from the ceiling to the roof or
floor above allow sound to travel to adjacent
rooms.
Anticipation and prevention of leaks begins at
Combined the design stage. Flanking paths (gaps) at the pe-
No closure
Transmission Loss
14 STC
rimeters of interior precast concrete walls and
With steel vent plate closure 28 STC floors are generally sealed during construction
With 4 in.- thick safing insulation 30 STC
steel bent plate added 42 STC with grout or drypack. In addition, all openings
With 6 in.- thick safing insulation 38 STC around penetrations through walls or floors should
steel bent plate added 45 STC
be as small as possible and must be sealed air-
tight. The higher the STC of the barrier, the great-
er the effect of an unsealed opening.
8-11
CHAPTER
Acoustical PropertiesOF HOLLOW
and VibrationsCORE SLABS
Perimeter leakage more commonly occurs at ation. Therefore, vibration calculations should on-
the intersection between an exterior curtain wall ly be considered guidelines and not strict limits.
and floor slab. It is of vital importance to seal this When the acceptability of a floor system is in
gap to retain the acoustical integrity of the system, doubt, the best solution is to compare it, using the
as well as provide the required fire stop between same system of analysis, with similar structures
floors. One way to achieve this seal is to place a that are known to be acceptable.
4 lb/ft3 density mineral wool blanket between the Present analysis is based on a resonant vibra-
floor slab and the exterior wall. Figure 8.10.1 tion model54. That is, when the natural frequency
demonstrates the acoustical isolation effects of of the floor system is close to a forcing frequency
this treatment. and the deflection is significant, motion will be
In exterior walls, the proper application of perceptible and perhaps disturbing. Whether a
sealant and backup materials in the joints between motion is considered disturbing is a function of
walls will not allow sound to flank the wall. the activity of the occupant and the damping char-
If the acoustical design is balanced, the maxi- acteristics of the floor system. An occupant who is
mum amount of acoustic energy reaching a space seated or lying down is much more sensitive to
via flanking should not equal the energy transmit- vibrations than one who is standing or moving. If
ted through the primary barriers. the floor system dissipates the forcing motion
Although not easily quantified, an inverse re- quickly, the occupant is less likely to find the vi-
lationship exists between the performance of an brations objectionable.
element as a primary barrier and its propensity to Much of the vibration theory has been de-
transmit flanking sound. In other words, the prob- rived from experience with wood and steel floors.
ability of existing flanking paths in a concrete While the theories are still valid, the mass and
structure is much less than in one with a steel or stiffness of hollow core concrete floors make
wood frame. them less susceptible to vibration problems. How-
In addition to using basic structural materials, ever, certain circumstances, such as long, shallow
flanking paths can be minimized by interrupting spans, and isolated systems, such as walkways
the continuous flow of energy with dissimilar ma- and footbridges, may have problems and should
terial, such as expansion or control joints or air be investigated.
gaps; or increasing the resistance to energy flow
with floating floor systems, full height and/or 8.11.1 Types of Vibration Analysis
double partitions, and suspended ceilings. Three types of vibrations may need to be ana-
lyzed. The analyses differ because the inputs
8.11 Human Response to Building causing the vibration differ.
Vibrations
Modern buildings often use components with Walking
low weight-to-strength ratios, which allow longer As a person walks, the footsteps create vibra-
spans with less mass. This trend increasingly re- tion of the floor system. In a quiet area such as an
sults in transient vibrations that may be annoying office, church, or residence, this vibration may be
to the occupants. These vibrations often went un- annoying to other persons sitting or lying down in
noticed in older structures with heavier framing the same area. Although more than one person
and more numerous and heavier partitions, which may be walking in the same area at the same time,
provided greater damping and other beneficial their footsteps are normally not synchronized.
dynamic characteristics. Therefore, the analysis is based on the effect of
While vibration analysis has progressed great- the impact of the steps of one individual walker.
ly, there are still many aspects that require engi-
Rhythmic activities
neering judgment rather than pure calculations.
Human perception and degree of damping can on- There are many activities in which a large or
ly be estimated and are subject to substantial vari- small group of people participate in more or less
synchronized motion. Spectators at sporting
8-12
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
events, rock concerts, and other entertainment The natural frequency of a vibrating slab is
events often move in unison in response to a determined by the ratio of its mass (or weight) to
cheer, music, or other stimuli. Dance and exercise its stiffness. The deflection of a simple span slab
classes may involve rhythmic, synchronized also depends on its weight and stiffness. A simple
movements. relationship exists between deflection and the nat-
In these instances, both the people involved in ural frequency of a uniformly loaded simple-span
the activity, as well as those nearby engaged in a slab on rigid supports:
quieter activity, may be affected by the vibrations.
However, the people engaged in the rhythmic ac- g
tivity have a higher level of tolerance for the in- f n = 0.18 (Eq. 8.11.2.1)
∆j
duced vibrations than those working nearby.
Mechanical equipment 5 w 4
∆j = (Eq. 8.11.2.2)
Mechanical equipment may produce a con- 384 EI
stant impulse at a fixed frequency, causing the
structure to vibrate. Because many vibration problems are more
critical when the mass (or weight) is low, w
Analysis methods should include the dead load plus a minimum re-
Because the nature of the input varies, each of alistic live load, not the building code specified
the three input types described requires a different live load.
solution. However, all cases require calculation of The dynamic modulus of elasticity, as meas-
an important response parameter of the floor sys- ured by the natural frequency, is higher than the
tem, its natural frequency of vibration. static modulus given in ACI 318-11. Therefore, it
is recommended that the modulus in ACI 318-11
Using consistent units
be multiplied by 1.2 when computing ∆j for use in
Because these calculations involve equations determining fn.
and measures for which most engineers have no The deflection of beams or girders supporting
“feel,” it is important to be careful about main- the floor system also affects the natural frequency
taining consistent units. of the floor system. The simple-span deflection ∆g
All of the equations in this section are dimen- of the floor girder may be calculated in the same
sionally correct when using units of kips, inches, manner as ∆j. The natural frequency of the floor
and seconds. When quantities using other dimen- system may then be estimated by the following
sions (such as span in feet, weight in pounds per equation:
square foot) are used, they must be converted to
kips, inches, and seconds. g
f n = 0.18 (Eq. 8.11.2.3)
8.11.2 Natural Frequency of Vibration ∆ j + ∆g
The natural frequency of a floor system is im-
portant both for determining how the floor system For concrete floor systems supported on walls,
will respond to forces causing vibrations and for ∆g may be assumed to be zero. For concrete floor
determining how human occupants will perceive systems supported by concrete girders, ∆g is nor-
these vibrations. It has been found that certain mally small and often neglected, unless the gird-
frequencies seem to set up resonance with internal ers are unusually long or flexible. For concrete
organs of the human body, making these frequen- floor slabs supported on steel beams, the beam
cies more annoying to people. deflection can have a significant effect, and
The human body is most sensitive to frequen- should usually be included when computing fn.
cies in the range of 4 Hz to 8 Hz (cycles per sec-
ond). This range of natural frequencies is common 8.11.3 Minimum Natural Frequency
for typical floor systems. Floors and floor systems with natural frequen-
cies lower than 3 Hz are not recommended be-
8-13
CHAPTER
AND VIBRATIONS
PropertiesOF
andHOLLOW
cause people may more readily synchronize their Damping is usually expressed as a fraction or
actions at lower frequencies. percent of critical damping. A critically damped
system is one where the motion slowly returns to
8.11.4 Graphs of Natural Frequency zero without ever completing a cycle of motion in
Equations 8.11.2.1 and 8.11.2.2 may be com- the opposite direction. Real building structures
bined to produce the following equation for a have damping from 1% to a few percent of critical.
floor slab on stiff supports:
Types of damping
 1.58  E Ig There are two types of damping used in the
fn =  2  d (Eq. 8.11.4.1) literature on building vibration, modal damping,
   w
and log-decrement damping. All equations and
Figure 8.11.1 shows the relationship between references in this section are based on modal
span and expected natural frequency for various damping. Because the two damping types are not
hollow core floor slabs. interchangeable, if damping values are obtained
from other sources, it is imperative that they are
8.11.5 Damping verified to be modal damping values.
Damping determines how quickly a vibration
Estimation of damping
will decay and die out. This is important because
humans will more readily tolerate a vibration of Damping of a floor system is highly depend-
short duration than one that is long lasting. ent on the non-structural items (partitions, ceil-
ings, furniture) present. The modal damping ratio
Figure 8.11.1 Natural frequency of hollow core floor slabs
8-14
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
of a bare structure can be very low, on the order

of 0.01. Non-structural elements may increase this Table 8.11.1
up to 0.05. Occupancies Constant K, Modal damp-
Affected by kip ing ratio
The results of a vibration analysis are greatly the Vibrations βm
influenced by the choice of the assumed damping, Offices. 0.02*
residences, 13 0.03†
which can vary widely. Yet this choice is based
churches 0.05§
more on judgment than science.
Shopping malls 4.5 0.02
8.11.6 Vibrations Caused by Walking Outdoor foot-
1.8 0.01
bridges
Vibrations caused by walking are seldom a * For floors with few non-structural components
problem in hollow core floor systems because of and furnishings, open work areas, and churches
the mass and stiffness of the slab. When using † For floors with non-structural components and
hollow core floor systems of ordinary proportions, furnishings, cubicles
it is usually not necessary to check for vibrations § For floors with full-height partitions
caused by walking.
When designing long-span or isolated hollow
core floor systems, this section may be used to Recommended values
evaluate their serviceability with respect to vibra- The recommended values of K and βm for use
tions. in Eq. 8.11.6.1 are given in Table 8.11.1.
Minimum natural frequency Example 8.11.1 Vibrations Caused by
An empirical formula, based on resonant ef- Walking
fects of walking, has been developed to determine Given: 6-ft-wide by 30-ft-span footbridge made
the minimum natural frequency of a floor system from the generic slab in Fig. 1.6.1
needed to prevent disturbing vibrations caused by
walking: Check for vibration from walking.
Use: K = 1.8 kip Table 8.11.1

  K 
f n ≥ 2.86  ln   (Eq. 8.11.6.1) βm = 0.01
  β mW f  
Effective weight:
where: W = 53.5 lb/ft2 (self weight)
K = a constant given in Table 8.11.1 + 25 lb/ft2 (non-composite hollow
βm = modal damping ratio core slab)
Wf = weight of floor area affected by a + 15 lb/ft2 (assumed live load)
point load = 93.5 lb/ft2 Total
The constant 2.86 has units of 1/sec. Converting to units of kips and inches yields:
Effective weight Wf
w=
(
3 ft 93.5 lb/ft 2 ) 1 kip
The effect of an impact such as a footfall is
12 in./ft 1000 lb
strongly influenced by the mass (or weight) of the = 0.0234 kip/in.
structure affected by the impact. This weight Wf is
normally taken as the unfactored unit dead load Wf = 0.0935(6)(30)
(per square foot) of the floor slabs plus some (not = 16.8 kip
full code) live load, multiplied by the span and by
a width B. For hollow core slabs, which are stiff
in torsion, it is recommended that B equal the
lesser of the span or the actual width available.
8-15
CHAPTER
AND VIBRATIONS
PropertiesOF
andHOLLOW
From Eq. 8.11.6.1, find the minimum required fn:  k   α i wp 

fn ≥ f f 1+  r  (Eq. 8.11.7.1)
 ao / g   wt 
  1.8 
f n = 2.86 ln  
  0.01(16.8)   where:
= 6.78 Hz ff = forcing frequency
kr = a dimensionless constant
Using Eq. 8.11.4.1, calculate the fundamental = 1.3 for dancing
frequency of this floor system: = 1.7 for a lively concert or sporting
event
 1.58  (1.2)(4030)(1224.5)(386) = 2.0 for aerobics
fn =  2  αi = dynamic coefficient
 360  0.0234
ao/g = ratio of peak acceleration limit to the
= 3.81 Hz
acceleration due to gravity
Note that the dynamic modulus of elasticity, wp = effective distributed weight of
rather than the static modulus, is used, as ex- participants per unit area
plained in section 8.11.2. wt = effective total distributed weight per
Because the fundamental frequency is less unit area (weight of participants plus
than the minimum required frequency, the walk- floor system)
way should be stiffened by shortening the span (if
See Table 8.11.2 for limiting values of ao/g
possible) or selecting a stiffer/deeper section.
and Table 8.11.3 for αi and ff.
8.11.7 Vibrations Caused by Rhythmic
Activities The natural frequency of the floor system fn is
Rhythmic excitation occurs when a group of computed as discussed in section 8.11.2.
people move in unison such as during exercises, Recommended values for all of the parameters
coordinated cheers, or in response to a musical on the right side of Eq. 8.11.7.1 are given in Ta-
beat. Because much more mass (weight) is put bles 8.11.2 and 8.11.3, except for wt, which in-
into motion than when an individual is walking, cludes the actual distributed dead weight of the
the input forces are far more powerful. A reso- floor system. Note that Eq. 8.11.7.1 uses the dis-
nance can occur when the input frequency is at or tributed weight wt not the total weight of a panel
near the fundamental frequency of the floor sys- Wf that was used in Eq. 8.11.6.1.
tem. Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the Higher harmonics
floor system must be sufficiently higher than the Equation 8.11.7.1 will always require a higher
input frequency to prevent resonance. natural frequency fn than the forcing frequency ff.
Harmonics
Table 8.11.2 Recommended Accelera-
A harmonic of a frequency is any higher fre- tion Limits for Rhythmic Activities
quency that is equal to the fundamental frequency
multiplied by an integer. If the fundamental fre- Occupancies Affected Acceleration Limit,
by the Vibration Fraction of
quency of a floor system is equal to a harmonic of Gravity, αo/g
the exciting frequency, resonance may occur.
Office or residential 0.004 — 0.007
Recommended minimum natural Dining 0.015 — 0.025
frequency Weightlifting 0.015 — 0.025
The following design criterion for the mini-
Rhythmic activity only 0.040 — 0.070
mum natural frequency for a floor system subject-
ed to rhythmic excitation is based on dynamic re-
sponse of the floor system to dynamic loading:
8-16
ACOUSTICAL
Chapter
Table 8.11.3 Estimated Loading during Rhythmic Events

Forcing Fre- Weight of Dynamic Dynamic
Activity quency Participants* Coefficient Load
ff, Hz wp, lb/ft2 αi αiwp
Dancing
First harmonic 1.5 – 3 12 0.50 6.0
Lively concert or sports event
First harmonic 1.5 – 3 30 0.25 7.5
Second harmonic 3–5 30 0.05 1.5
Jumping exercises
First harmonic 2 – 2.75 4 1.50 6.0
Second harmonic 4 – 5.5 4 0.60 2.4
Third harmonic 6 – 8.25 4 0.10 0.4
* Based on maximum density of participants on the occupied area of the floor for commonly encountered
conditions. For special events, the density of participants may be greater.
Thus, a critical decision is the determination of Adjacent activities

whether the forcing frequencies for higher har- A space with a quiet activity may be located
monics need to be considered. Equation 8.11.7.2 next to a space with rhythmic activity. In such
gives the peak acceleration apeak/g for a condition cases, it is desirable to have a rigid wall between
of resonance. the two spaces, supporting the floor system in
each space. If this is not practical, the acceleration
a peak  1.3   α i wp  limits for the quiet activity should be used in
= (Eq. 8.11.7.2)
g  2 βm   wt  combination with the rhythmic loading for the
rhythmic activity. This combination can often be
critical for hollow core floor systems, requiring a
In applying Eq. 8.11.7.2, the literature55 rec-
stiffer floor than needed for supporting gravity
ommends a value for the damping ratio βm as fol- loads.
lows: “Because participants contribute to the
damping, a value of approximately 0.06 may be Example 8.11.2 Vibrations Caused by
used, which is higher than … for walking vibra- Rhythmic Activities
tion.” Given: Span = 20 ft
If βm or the total distributed weight wt is great 8 in. generic hollow core slab (Fig. 1.6.1)
enough, the dynamic load αiwp from Table 8.11.3 with 2 in. composite topping
for higher harmonics may result in a peak acceler- Aerobics gym adjacent to a restaurant
ation apeak/g within the acceleration limits ao/g
given in Table 8.11.2. If this is true, that harmonic Determine the suitability of this design.
need not be considered.
Many untopped and most topped hollow core From Eq. 8.11.4.1, the natural frequency of the
floors weigh 75 lb/ft2 or more. For these floors, floor system is calculated as:
the weight wt is such that the resonant acceleration
at the third harmonic frequency will usually be  1.58  E Ig
within limits. Generally, only the first and second fn =  2  d
   w
harmonics need be considered for hollow core
floors.
where: ℓ = 20 ft = 240 in.
Ed = (1.2)(4030) = 4837 ksi
8-17
CHAPTER
Acoustical PropertiesOF
andHOLLOW
I = 2529.6 in.4 (composite section) floor system, decreasing the span, or isolating the
g = acceleration due to gravity aerobics gym from the quiet space.
= 386 in./sec2
8.11.8 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical
w=
(
3ft 82.5lb/ft 2
) 1 kip Equipment
Vibration produced by equipment with unbal-
12 in./ft 1000lb
anced operating or starting forces can usually be
= 0.0206 kip/in. isolated from the structure by mounting the
equipment on a heavy concrete slab placed on re-
 1.58 
fn = 
( 4837)( 2529.6)( 386) silient supports. This type of slab, called an inertia
 2402  0.0206 block, provides a low center of gravity to com-
= 13.1 Hz pensate for thrusts such as those generated by
large fans.
Using Eq. 8.11.7.1 to find the minimum natural For equipment with less unbalanced weight, a
frequency for the first harmonic: “housekeeping” slab is sometimes used below the
resilient mounts to provide a rigid support for the
 k   α1 w p  mounts and to keep them above the floor so they
fn ≥ f f 1+  r   are easier to clean and inspect. This slab may also
 ao / g   wt  be mounted on pads of precompressed glass fiber
or neoprene.
where: kr = 2.0 for aerobics The natural frequency of the total load on re-
ff = 2.5 Table 8.11.3 silient mounts must be well below the frequency
ao/g = 0.020 Table 8.11.2 (note that the generated by the equipment. The required weight
dining limit is used) of an inertia block depends on the total weight of
αi w p = 6 Table 8.11.3 the machine and the unbalanced force. For a long-
wt = 53.5 + 25 + 4 = 82.5 lb/ft2 stroke compressor, five to seven times its weight
might be needed. For high pressure fans, one to
Note that unit conversion is not necessary provid- five times the fan weight is usually sufficient.
ed that the units of wp and wt are consistent. A floor supporting resiliently mounted equip-
ment must be much stiffer than the isolation sys-
 2.0   6  tem. If the static deflection of the floor approaches
f n = 2.5 1+ 
 0.020   82.5  the static deflection of the mounts, the floor be-
= 7.19 Hz comes a part of the vibrating system, and little
vibration isolation is achieved. In general, the
Because the natural frequency is greater than the floor deflection should be limited to about 15% of
required minimum, the floor system is satisfactory the deflection of the mounts.
for the first harmonic. Simplified theory shows that for 90% vibra-
Check the minimum natural frequency of the tion isolation, a single resilient supported mass
second harmonic in a similar fashion. (isolator) should have a natural frequency of about
one-third the driving frequency of the equipment.
The natural frequency of this mass can be calcu-
 2.0   2.4 
f n = 5.0 1+ 
 0.020   82.5 
= 9.89 Hz lated by:
1
The natural frequency is also greater than the f n = 188 (Eq. 8.11.8.1)
second harmonic. Therefore, the floor system is ∆i
acceptable for this usage. If more stringent vibra- where:
tion limits were required, the performance could fn = natural frequency of the isolator, cycles
be improved by increasing the stiffness of the per minute (CPM)
Δi = static deflection of the isolator, in.
8-18
ACOUSTICAL
and VibrationsAND VIBRATIONS
Chapter
The required static deflection of an isolator

can be determined as follows:
fd 1
fn = = 188 or
3 ∆i
2
 564 
∆i =  (Eq. 8.11.8.2)
 f 
d
and:
Δf ≤ 0.15 Δi (Eq. 8.11.8.3)
where:
fd = driving frequency of the equipment
Δf = static deflection of the floor system
caused by the weight of the equipment,
including the inertia block, at the loca-
tion of the equipment
Example 8.11.3 - Vibration Isolation
Given:
A piece of mechanical equipment has a driv-
ing frequency of 800 CPM.
Determine the approximate minimum deflec-

tion of the isolator and the maximum deflection of
the floor system that should be allowed.
2
 564 
Isolator, Δi = 
 800 
= 0.50in.
Floor, Δf = 0.15(0.50) = 0.07 in.
8-19
GuideGUIDE
Specification for Precast,
SPECIFICATION FORPrestressed
PRECAST, Hollow Core Slabs HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER
PRESTRESSED Chapter
9 9
Chapter 9
GUIDE SPECIFICATION FOR PRECAST, PRESTRESSED HOLLOW CORE
SLABS
This Guide Specification is intended to be used as a basis for the development of an office
master specification or in the preparation of specifications for a particular project. In either
case, this Guide Specification must be edited to fit the conditions of use.
Particular attention should be given to the deletion of inapplicable provisions. Necessary
items related to a particular project should be included. Also, appropriate requirements should
be added where blank spaces have been provided. Coordinate the specification with the infor-
mation shown in the Contract Drawings to avoid duplication or conflicts.
The Guide Specifications are on the left. Notes to Specifiers are on the right.
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS

1. GENERAL
1.01 Description
A. Work Included: 1.01.A This Section is to be in Division 3 of

Construction Specifications Institute format.
1. These specifications cover manufacture,
transportation, and erection of precast, pre-
stressed concrete hollow core slabs including
grouting of joints between adjacent slab
units.
B. Related Work Specified Elsewhere:

1. Cast-in-Place Concrete: Section ____. 1.01.B.l Includes structural or non-structural
topping. See Section 2.5 for discussion of compo-
site, structural topping.
2. Architectural Precast Concrete: Section
____.
3. Precast Structural Concrete: Section ____. 1.01.B.3 Beams, columns, etc.

Prestressed concrete may be specified in Section
4. Structural Metal Framing: Section ____. 1.01.B.4 Includes support framework not sup-
plied by Hollow Core Slab Manufacturer.
5. Masonry Bearing Walls: Section ____. 1.01.B.5 Include any inserts or anchoring devic-
es required for slab connections.
6. Underlayments: Section ____. 1.01.B.6 Underlayment may be any of the following

general types: asphaltic concrete, gypsum con-
crete, latex concrete, mastic underlayment.
7. Caulking and Sealants: Section ____. 1.01.B.7 Caulking between slab edges at exposed
underside of floor members and/or perimeter caulk-
ing may be included in this section.
9-1
Chapter 9 9 GUIDE SPECIFICATION FORGuide
CHAPTER Specification
PRECAST, for Precast,
PRESTRESSED Prestressed
HOLLOW COREHollow
SLABSCore Slabs

8. Holes for Mechanical Equipment: Section 1.01.B.8 Holes may be drilled or cut and trimmed
____. with a chisel. Cut outline of hole through lower
portion of slab from underside, after which the top
side may be removed from above. Do not cut pre-
stressing strand without permission of Specialty
Structural Engineer.
9. Painting: Section ____. 1.01.B.9 Prime coat should be a latex base paint.
Finish coat may be an oil base, flat wall or emulsi-
fied finish.
10. Carpet and Pad: Section ____. 1.01.B.10 Specify minimum 55 oz. pad when no
cast-in-place topping is used.
11. Roofing and Roof Insulation: Section ____. 1.01.B.11 Non-absorbent rigid board insulation
1" or more in thickness should be used on roofs.
Check local energy code for exact requirements.
1.02 Quality Assurance

A. The precast concrete manufacturing plant shall 1.02.A Structural Precast Products must meet the
be certified by the Precast/Prestressed Concrete requirements of PCI Manual, MNL-116.
Institute (PCI) Plant Certification Program.
Manufacturer shall be certified at the time of bid- In Canada, the manufacture, transportation and
ding in Category C2. erection of precast prestressed hollow core slabs is
governed by the Canadian Standards Association
Standard A23.4-94, "Precast Concrete - Materials
and Construction".
Assurance of plant capability to produce quality

precast concrete products is set by the CSA Stand-
ard A23.4-94.(2014) This Standard forms the basis
of a certification program which sets rigid capabil-
ity criteria for precast manufacturers, their per-
sonnel and operations.
B. Erector Qualifications: Regularly engaged for

at least _________ years in the erection of pre-
cast structural concrete similar to the require-
ments of this project.
1. Erector Certification: A precast concrete
erector with erecting organization and all
erecting crews Certified and designated, prior
to beginning work at project site, by PCI’s
Certified Erectors Certificate to erect [Cate-
gory S1 (Simple Structural Systems) for hori-
zontal decking members and single-lift wall
panels]
9-2
Guide GUIDE
Specification for Precast,FOR
SPECIFICATION Prestressed
PRECAST, Hollow Core Slabs HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER
PRESTRESSED Chapter
9 9
C. Qualifications of Welders: Qualify procedures 1.02.C Qualified within the past year.
and personnel according to AWS
Dl.l/D1.1M.
D. Testing: In general compliance with applicable

provisions of Precast/Prestressed Concrete Insti-
tute MNL-116, Manual for Quality Control for
Plants and Production of Precast Prestressed
Concrete Products.
E. Requirements of Regulatory Agencies: All lo- 1.02.E Always include the specific year or edition
cal codes plus the following specifications, of the specifications, codes and standards used in
standards and codes are a part of these specifica- the design of the project and made part of the speci-
tions: fications. Fire safety and resistance requirements
1. ACI 318-Building Code Requirements are specified in local or model codes. When re-
for Structural Concrete. quired, fire rated products shall be clearly identified
2. AWS D1.1/D1.1M-Structural Welding on the design drawings.
Code - Steel. For projects in Canada, the National Building
3. AWS D1.4/D1.4M-Structural Welding Code Code of Canada governs design. Canadian Stand-
Reinforcing Steel. ards Association Standards A23.3-14, "Design of
4. ASTM Specifications- As referred to in
Concrete Structures" and A23.4-94,(2014) "Pre-
Part 2 - Products, of this Specification
cast Concrete - Materials and Construction" also
apply. Fire resistance is specified in the National
Building Code and the National Fire Code.
1.03 Submittals
A. Shop Drawings
1. Erection Drawings
a. Plans locating and defining all hollow core 1.03.A.1.a Openings shown on erection draw-
slab units furnished by the manufacturer, ings are considered in the slab design. Verify slab
with all openings larger than 10 in (250 mm) adequacy for any other openings with the
shown and located. S tr u ct ur al Engineer of Record.
b. Sections and details showing connections,
edge conditions and support conditions of
the hollow core slab units.
c. All dead, live and other applicable loads
used in the design.
d. Estimated cambers.
1.03.A.1.d Floor slabs receiving cast-in-place
topping. The elevation of top of floor and amount of
concrete topping must allow for camber of pre-
stressed concrete members.
9-3
CHAPTER
Chapter 9 9 GUIDE SPECIFICATION FORGuide
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED
Specification HOLLOW
for Precast, CORE
Prestressed SLABS
Hollow Core Slabs

2. Production Drawings 1.03.A.2 Production drawings are normally sub-
a. Plan view of each hollow core slab unit mitted only upon request
type.
b. Sections and details to indicate quantities,
location and type of reinforcing steel and
prestressing strands.
c. Lifting and erection inserts.
d. Dimensions and finishes.
e. Prestress for strand and concrete
strength.
f. Estimated camber at release.
g. Method of transportation.
B. Product Design Criteria 1.03.B and C Contract drawings normal-
1. Loadings for design ly will be prepared using a local precast
a. Initial handling and erection stresses. prestressed concrete hollow core slab
b. All dead and live loads as specified on manufacturer's design data and load ta-
the contract drawings. bles. Dimensional changes which would
c. All other loads specified for hollow core not materially affect architectural and
slab units where applicable. structural properties or details usually
2. Design calculations of products not complet- are permissible.
ed on the contract drawings shall be per- Be sure that loads shown on the contract
formed by a registered engineer experienced draw-ings are easily interpreted. For instance, on
in precast prestressed concrete design and members which are to receive concrete topping,
submitted for approval upon request. be sure to state whether all superimposed dead and
3. Design shall be in accordance with ACI live loads on precast prestressed members do or do
318 or applicable codes. not include the weight of the concrete topping. It is
C. Permissible Design Deviations best to list the live load, superimposed dead load,
1. Design deviations will be permitted only af- topping weight, and weight of the member, all as
ter the Architect/Engineer of Record’s writ- separate loads. Where there are two different live
ten approval of the manufacturer's proposed loads (e.g., roof level of a parking structure) i n d i -
c a t e h o w t h e y a r e to be combi ned. Where ad-
design supported by complete design calcu-
ditional structural support is required for open-
lations and drawings. ings, design headers in accordance with hollow
2. Design deviation shall provide an installation core slab manufacturer’s recommendations.
equivalent to the basic intent without incur-
ring additional cost to the owner.
D. Test Report: Reports of tests on concrete and

other materials upon request.
9-4
Guide Specification for Precast,FOR
GUIDE SPECIFICATION Prestressed
PRECAST,Hollow Core Slabs HOLLOW CORE SLABS CHAPTER
PRESTRESSED Chapter
9 9

2. PRODUCTS
2.01 Materials 2.01 Delete or add materials that may be re-
quired for the particular job.
A. Portland Cement:
1. ASTM C150 – Type I or III
B. Admixtures: 2.01.B Verify ability of local producer to use admix-
1. Air-Entraining Admixtures: ASTM C260. tures.
2. Water Reducing, Retarding, Accelerating,
High Range Water Reducing Admixtures:
ASTM C494
C. Aggregates:
1. ASTM C33 or C330.
D. Water:
Potable or free from foreign materials in
amounts harmful to concrete and embedded
steel.
E. Reinforcing Steel: 2.01.E.1 When welding of bars is required, weld-
1.Bars: ability must be established to conform to AWS
Deformed Billet Steel: ASTM A615/A615M. D1.4/D1.4M.
Deformed Low A l l o y Steel: ASTM
A706/A706M.
2.Wire:
Cold Drawn Steel: ASTM A1064/A1064M.
F. Prestressing Strand: 2.01.F Low-relaxation strand is the predominant
1. Uncoated, 7-Wire, Stress-Relieved strand in use. References to stress-relieved strand
Strand: ASTM A416/A416M (including sup- are from the ASTM titles.
plement) - Grade 250K or 270K.
2. Uncoated, Weldless 2- and 3-Wire Strand:
ASTMA910/A910M
3. Indented, 7-Wire, Stress-Relieved Strand:
ASTM A886/A886M (including supplement)
G. Welded Studs: In accordance with AWS Dl.l.
H. Structural Steel Plates and Shapes: ASTM 2.01.H When required for anchorage or lateral
A36/A36M. bracing to structural steel members, some meth-
ods of manufacturing hollow core slabs preclude
the use of anchors and inserts
9-5
CHAPTER
Chapter 9 9 GUIDE SPECIFICATION FOR PRECAST,
Guide PRESTRESSED
for Precast, CORE
Prestressed SLABS
Hollow Core Slabs

I. Grout: 2.01.I Grout strengths of 2000 psi to 3000 psi
1. Cement grout: Grout shall be a mixture of not ( 13.8- 20.7 MPa) can generally be achieved with
less than one part portland cement to 2 ½ to
the proportions noted. Rarely is higher strength
3 parts fine sand, and the consistency shall be
grout required. Non-shrink grout is not required
such that joints can be completely filled but
for satisfactory performance of hollow core slab
without seepage over adjacent surfaces.
Any grout that seeps from the joint shall be systems.
completely removed before it hardens.
J. Bearing Strips: 2.01.J.1 Standard guide specifications are not

1. Random Oriented Fiber Reinforced: available for random-oriented, fiber-reinforced
Shall support a compressive stress of 3000 pads. Proof testing of a sample from each group
psi (20.7 MPa) with no cracking, splitting or of 200 pads is suggested. Normal design working
delaminating in the internal portions of the stresses are 1500 psi ( 10.3 MPa), so the 3000 psi
pad. One specimen shall be tested for each (20.7 MPa) test load provides a factor of 2 over
200 pads used in the project. design stress. The shape factor for the test speci-
mens should not be less than 2.
2. H i g h D e n s i t y Plastic: Multi- 2.01.J.2 Plastic pads are widely used with hollow
monomer plastic strips shall be non- core slabs. Compression stress in use is not normal-
leaching and support construction loads ly over a few hundred psi and proof testing is not
with no visible overall expansion. considered necessary. No standard guide specifi-
cations are available.
3. Tempered Hardboard: AHA A135.4 Class 1, 2.01.J.3 Hardboard bearing strips should not be
smooth on both sides. used in areas where undesirable staining is possible
or where bearing strips may be continually wet.
4. Untempered Hardboard
2.02 Concrete Mixes

A. 28-day compressive strength: Minimum of 2.02.A and B Verify with local manufacturer.
psi. 5000 ( 35 MPa) psi for prestressed products is normal
B. Release strength: Minimum of psi. practice, with release strength of 3000 psi (20.7
MPa).
C. Use of calcium chloride, chloride ions or other
salts is not permitted.
2.03 Manufacture
A. Manufacturing procedures shall be in compli-
ance with PCI MNL-116.
B. Manufacturing Tolerances: Manufacturing toler-
ances shall comply with PCI MNL-135.
9-6
Guide GUIDE
PRESTRESSED Chapter
9 9

C. Openings: Manufacturer shall provide for those 2.03.C This paragraph requires other trades to
openings 10 in (250 mm) round or square or field drill holes needed for their work, and such
larger as shown on the structural drawings. trades should be alerted to this requirement through
Other openings shall be located and field drilled proper notation in their sections of the specifica-
or cut by the trade requiring them after the hol- tions. Some manufacturers prefer to install open-
low core slab units have been erected. Openings ings smaller than 10 in (250 mm)
and/or cutting of prestressing strand shall be ap- which is acceptable if their locations are properly
proved by Architect/Engineer of Record and identified on the contract drawings
manufacturer before drilling or cutting.
D. Patching: Will be acceptable providing the
structural adequacy of the hollow core unit is not
impaired.
3. EXECUTION
3.01 Product Delivery, Storage, and Han-
dling
A. Delivery and Handling:
1. Hollow core slab units shall be lifted and
supported during manufacturing, stock-
piling, transporting and erection operations
only at the lifting or supporting point, or
both, as shown on the shop drawings, and
with approved lifting devices. Lifting in-
serts shall have a minimum safety factor of
4. Exterior lifting hardware shall have a
minimum safety factor of 5.
2. Transportation, site handling, and erection
shall be performed with acceptable equip-
ment and methods, and by qualified person-
nel.
B. Storage:
1. Store all units off ground.
2. Place stored units so that identification
marks are discernible.
3. Separate stacked members by battens
across full width of each slab unit.
4. Stack so that lifting devices are accessible
and undamaged.
5. Do not use upper member of stacked tier as
storage area for shorter member or heavy
equipment.
9-7
CHAPTER
Chapter 9 9 GUIDE SPECIFICATION FOR PRECAST,
Guide PRESTRESSED
for Precast, CORE
Prestressed SLABS
Hollow Core Slabs

3.02 Erection
A. Site Access: The General Contractor shall be
responsible for providing suitable access to the
building, proper drainage and firm level bearing
for the hauling and erection equipment to oper-
ate under their own power.
B. Preparation: The General Contractor shall be re- 3.02.B Construction tolerances for cast-in-place
sponsible for: concrete, masonry, etc., should be specified in
1. Providing true, level bearing surfaces on all those sections of the specifications.
field placed bearing walls and other field
placed supporting members.
2. All pipes, stacks, conduits and other such 3.02.B.2 Should be in Electrical, Mechanical,
items shall be stubbed off at a level lower than and Plumbing sections of project specifications.
the bearing plane of the prestressed concrete
products until after the latter are set.
C. Installation: Installation of hollow core slab

units shall be performed by the manufacturer or
a certified erector. Members shall be lifted by
means of suitable lifting devices at points pro-
vided by the manufacturer. Bearing strips shall
be set, where required. Temporary shoring and
bracing, if necessary, shall comply with manu-
facturer's recommendations. Grout keys shall
be filled.
D. At Slab Ends (where shown on Drawings): Pro- 3.02.D If a bearing wall building, special care
vide suitable end cap or dam in voids as required. must be taken. Delete when end grouting is not re-
quired.
E. For areas where slab voids are to be used as

3.02.E Delete when voids not used for electrical or
electrical raceways or mechanical ducts pro- mechanical.
vide a taped butt joint at end of slabs, making
sure the voids are aligned.
F. Alignment: Members shall be properly aligned 3.02.F Tolerances should comply with industry
and leveled as required by the approved shop tolerances published in Tolerance Manual for Pre-
drawings. Variations between adjacent members cast and Prestressed Concrete Construction (PCI
shall be reasonably leveled out by jacking, load- MNL 135-00), P r e c a s t / Prestressed Concrete In-
ing, or any other feasible method as recommend- stitute,2000.
ed by the manufacturer and acceptable to the
9-8
Guide GUIDE
PRESTRESSED Chapter
9 9

Architect/Engineer.
3.03 Field Welding

A. Field welding is to be done by qualified welders
using equipment and materials compatible with
the base material.
3.04 Attachments
A. Subject to approval of the Architect/Engineer of
Record, hollow core slab units may be drilled or
"shot" provided no contact is made with the
prestressing steel. Should spalling occur, it shall
be repaired by the trade doing the drilling or the
shooting.
3.05 Inspection and Acceptance

A. Final observation of erected hollow core slab
units shall be made by Architect/Engineer o f
R e c o r d for purposes of final payment.
9-9
Chapter 9 Guide Specification for Precast, Prestressed Hollow Core Slabs
REFERENCES
References
1. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. PCI Journal, V. 22, No. 1 (January-

2010. PCI Design Handbook: Precast and February): pp. 100-108.
Prestressed Concrete. MNL-120-10, 7th 11. Mast, R.F. 1998. Analysis of Cracked
Edition, Chicago, IL (PCI). Prestressed Concrete Sections: A Practical
2. ACI Committee 306. 2010. Guide to Cold Approach, PCI Journal, V. 43, No. 4
Weather Concreting (ACI 306R-10), (July-August), pp. 80-91.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington 12. ACI Committee 301. 2010. Standard
Hills, MI. Specifications for Structural Concrete
3. ACI Committee 318. 2011. Building Code (ACI 301-10), American Concrete
Requirements for Structural Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
(ACI 318–11) and Commentary (ACI 13. Scott, Norman L. 1973. Performance of
318R–11), American Concrete Institute, Precast, Prestressed Hollow Core Slab
Farmington Hills, MI. with Composite Topping. PCI Journal, V.
4. PCI Committee on Tolerances. 2000. 18, No. 2, (March-April): pp. 64-77.
Tolerance Manual for Precast and 14. Martin, Leslie D.; Scott, Norman L. 1976.
Prestressed Concrete Construction. (PCI Development of Prestressing Strand in
MNL 135-00) Chicago, IL. Pretensioned Members. ACI Journal, V.
5. Zia, Paul, Preston, H. Kent, Scott, Norman 73, No. 8, (August): pp. 453-456.
L, and Workman, Edwin B., 1979. 15. Anderson, Arthur R., and Anderson,
“Estimating Prestress Losses”, Concrete Richard G. 1976. An Assurance Criterion
International, (June) pp. 32–38. for Flexural Bond in Pretensioned Hollow
6. ACI Committee 318. 2002. Building Code Core Units. ACI Journal, V. 73, No. 8
Requirements for Structural Concrete (August): pp 457–464.
(ACI 318–02) and Commentary (ACI 16. Discussion and Closure. 1977.
318R–02), American Concrete Institute, Development of Prestressing Strand in
Farmington Hills, MI. Pretensioned Members. ACI Journal,
7. Angelakos, D.; Bentz, E.C.; and Collins, (March): pp. 136-137.
M.D. 2001. Effect of Concrete Strength 17. Discussion and Closure. 1977. An
and Minimum Stirrups on Shear Strength Assurance Criterion for Flexural Bond in
of Large Members. ACI Structural Pretensioned Hollow Core Units. ACI
Journal, V. 98, No. 3 (May-June): pp.290- Journal, (March): pp. 137-140.
300. 18. Zia, Paul; Mostafa, Talat. 1977.
8. Lubell, A.S.; Sherwood, E.G.; Bentz, E.C.; Development Length of Prestressing
and Collins, M.D. 2004. Safe Shear Strands. PCI Journal, (September–
Design of Large Wide Beams. Concrete October): pp. 54–65.
International, V. 26, No. 1 (January): pp. 19. Discussion and Closure. 1978.
66-78. Development Length of Prestressing
9. Brown, M.D.; Bayrak, O.; and Jirsa, J.O. Strands. PCI Journal, V. 23, No. 4 (July-
2006. Design for Shear Based on Loading August): pp. 97-107.
Conditions. ACI Structural Journal, V. 20. Buckner, C. Dale. 1995. A Review of
103, No. 4 (July-August): pp. 541-550. Strand Development Length for
10. Martin, L.D. 1977. A Rational Method for Pretensioned Concrete Members. PCI
Estimating Camber and Deflection of Journal, V. 40, No. 2, (March-April): pp.
Precast, Prestressed Concrete Members, 84-105.
References
21. Discussion and Closure. 1996. A Review V. 84, No. 5 (September-October): pp.
of Strand Development Length for 371–382.
Pretensioned Concrete Members”. PCI 31. Harris, Harry G.; Iyengar, Srikanth. 1980.
Journal, V. 41, No. 2 (March-April): pp. Full Scale Tests on Horizontal Joints of
112-116. Large Panel Precast Concrete Buildings.
22. Martin, Leslie D.; Korkosz, Walter J. PCI Journal, Vol. 25, No. 2 (March-
1995. Strength of Prestressed Concrete April): pp. 72-92.
Members at Sections Where Strands are 32. Johal, L.S.; Hanson, N.W. 1982. Design
not Fully Developed. PCI Journal, V. 40, for Vertical Load on Horizontal
No. 5 (September-October): pp. 58-66. Connections in Large Panel Structures.
23. Brooks, Mark D.; Gerstle, Kurt H.; and PCI Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1 (January-
Logan, Donald R. 1988. Effect of Initial February): pp. 62-79.
Strand Slip on the Strength of Hollow 33. PCI Committee on Precast Bearing Wall
Core Slabs. PCI Journal, V. 33, No. 1, Buildings. 1976. Considerations for the
(January-February): pp. 90-111. Design of Precast Concrete Bearing Wall
24. LaGue, David J. 1971. Load Distribution Buildings to Withstand Abnormal Loads.
Tests on Precast Prestressed Hollow Core PCI Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2. (March-
Slab Construction. PCI Journal, April): pp. 18-51.
(November-December): pp. 10-18. 34. Fintel, Mark; Schultz, Donald M. 1976. A
25. Van Acker, A. 1983. Transversal Philosophy for Structural Integrity of
Distribution of Linear Loadings in Large Panel Buildings. PCI Journal, Vol.
Prestressed Hollow Core Floors. 21, No. 3 (May-June) pp. 46-69.
BMA/MKT 84/006, September. 35. International Code Council. 2012.
26. Johnson, Ted; Ghadiali, Zohair. 1972. International Building Code. (IBC)
Load Distribution Test on Precast Hollow Country Club Hills, IL.
Core Slabs with Openings. PCI Journal, 36. American Society of Civil Engineers
(September-October): pp. 9-19. (ASCE). 2010. Minimum Design Loads
27. Pfeifer, Donald W.; Nelson, Theodore A. for Buildings and Other Structures.
1983. Tests to Determine the Lateral (ASCE/SEI 7-10) Reston, VA.
Distribution of Vertical Loads in a Long– 37. Cleland, Ned; Ghosh, S.K. 2012. Seismic
Span Hollow Core Floor Assembly. PCI Design of Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Journal, Vol. 28, No. 6 (November- Structures. (PCI MNL 140-12) Chicago,
December): pp. 42-57. IL.
28. Aswad, Alex; Jacques, Francis J. 1992. 38. Cosper, Steven J.; Anderson, Arthur R.;
Behavior of Hollow Core Slabs Subject to Jobse, Harold J. 1981. Shear Diaphragm
Edge Loads. PCI Journal, V. 37, No. 2 Capacity of Untopped Hollow Core Floor
(March-April): pp. 72-83. Systems. Concrete Technology
29. Stanton, John F. 1992. Response of Associates, Technical Bulletin 80B3.
Hollow Core Slab Floors to Concentrated 39. Clough, D.P. 1985. Design of Connections
Loads. PCI Journal, V. 37, No. 4 (July- for Precast Prestressed Concrete Buildings
August): pp. 98-113. for the Effects of Earthquake. National
30. Stanton, John F. 1987. Proposed Design Science Foundation.
Rules for Load Distribution in Precast 40. Moustafa, Saad E. 1981. Effectiveness of
Concrete Decks. ACI Structural Journal, Shear–Friction Reinforcement in Shear
Diaphragm Capacity of Hollow Core
References
Slabs. PCI Journal, Vol. 26, No. 1 Airborne Sound Transmission Loss of
(January-February): pp. 118-132. Building Partitions and Elements. (ASTM
41. Elliott, Kim S. 1996. Multi-Storey Precast E90-09) West Conshohocken, PA.
Concrete Framed Structures. Blackwell 53. ASTM International. 2009. Standard Test
Science Ltd., Oxford, UK. Method for Laboratory Measurement of
42. PCI Committee on Prestressed Concrete Impact Sound Transmission through
Columns. 1988. Recommended Practice Floor-Ceiling Assemblies Using the
for the Design of Prestressed Concrete Tapping Machine. (ASTM E492-09) West
Columns and Walls. PCI Journal, V. 33, Conshohocken, PA.
No. 4 (July-August): pp. 56-95. 54. Mast, R.F. 2001. Vibration of Precast
43. ASTM International. 2008. Standard Test Prestressed Concrete Floors. PCI Journal,
Methods for Fire Tests of Building V. 46, No. 6: pp. 76-86.
Construction and Materials. (ASTM E119- 55. American Institute of Steel Construction.
08a) West Conshohocken, PA. 1997. AISC Design Guide 11. Floor
44. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. Fire Vibrations Due to Human Activity.
Resistance Directory. Northbrook, IL. Chicago, IL.
45. PCI Fire Committee. 2011. Design for
Fire Resistance of Precast Prestressed
Concrete. (PCI MNL 124-11) Chicago, IL.
46. Canadian Commission on Building and
Fire Codes. 2010. National Building Code
of Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
47. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. 2007. Fire
Endurance Tests of Building Construction
and Materials. (CAN/ULC S101)
Northbrook, IL.
48. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. 2007. Fire
Tests of Building Construction and
Materials. (ANSI/UL 263) Northbrook,
IL.
49. ASTM International. 2012. Standard
Classification for Determination of Impact
Insulation Class (IIC). (ASTM E989)
West Conshohocken, PA.
50. ASTM International. 2009. Standard Test
Method for Sound Absorption and Sound
Absorption Coefficients by the
Reverberation Room Method. (ASTM
C423-09a) West Conshohocken, PA.
51. ASTM International. 2010. Classification
for Rating Sound Insulation. (ASTM
E413-10) West Conshohocken, PA.
52. ASTM International. 2009. Standard Test
Method for Laboratory Measurement of
References
Index
A E
Acoustical properties.....................................1-2, 1-3, 8-1 Effective resisting section...................... 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-9
Admixtures...........................................................1-2, 9-5 End slip...................................................................... 2-24
Aggregates..................................... 1-2, 7-6, 7-7, 7-9, 9-5 Equivalent thickness.....1-2, 1-3, 7-2, 7-3, 7-6, 7-10, 7-19
Air entrainment.....................................................1-2, 9-5
F
B Finishes.........................................................5-1, 5-4, 9-4
Bearing strips........................... 3-15, 3-16, 7-21, 9-6, 9-8 Fire................................. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, 3-11, 7-1
Bonding agents......................................................... 2-19 Flanking.....................................................8-1, 8-11, 8-12
Boundary element................................4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-11 Flexural bond length................................2-22, 2-23, 2-24
Bowing.........................................................5-6, 5-7, 5-17 Flexural design............................................................ 2-1
C G
Camber............................. 1-4, 1-5, 1-18, 2-4, 2-14, 2-15, Grout.........................1-2, 1-3, 2-19, 3-1, 3-8, 3-10, 3-15,
2-18, 4-8, 5-17, 9-3, 9-4 4-7, 4-11, 7-5, 7-10, 9-1, 9-6, 9-8
Cantilevers.................. 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 6-22, 6-23, 6-24
Chord......................................... 4-6, 4-7, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, H
Collector............................................ 4-6, 4-7, 4-10, 5-27
Headers............................................. 3-1, 3-8, 6-25, 6-26
Composite topping............... 2-16, 2-17, 2-18, 2-19, 3-11
Heat transmission.........1-3, 7-1, 7-3, 7-6, 7-9, 7-15, 7-20
Connections......................... 1-3, 1-5, 3-11, 4-1, 4-8, 4-9,
Horizontal joints................................................3-15, 3-16
4-10, 4-11, 5-1, 5-7, 5-12, 5-21,
Horizontal shear........................................2-19, 4-9, 4-11
5-23, 5-24, 5-25, 5-26, 5-27, 6-1,
Impact insulation................................... 1-3, 8-1, 8-3, 8-4
7-5, 7-21, 9-1, 9-3
Impact noise.........................................................8-1, 8-3
Continuity................................................3-10, 7-15, 7-16
Control joints...................................................2-18, 8-12,
Cracking......................... 2-2, 2-8, 2-14, 2-16, 2-22, 2-23,
I
3-1, 4-10, 5-1, 5-3, 5-13, 5-15, 5-20 Insulated panels...................................................5-2, 5-5
Cracking load.....................................................2-2, 3-13
Creep........................................ 2-2, 2-5, 2-14, 2-15, 2-18 J
Curling....................................................................... 2-19
Joints, fire resistance..................... 7-10, 7-19, 7-20, 7-21
D L
Damping................................. 8-2, 8-12, 8-14, 8-15, 8-17
Lateral loads.................................. 1-3, 1-5, 4-1, 4-5, 4-6,
Debonding strand................... 2-3, 2-12, 2-22, 2-23, 3-11
5-1, 5-11, 5-12, 5-17,
Decibel..........................................................8-1, 8-5, 8-6
Load concentrations.................................2-22, 2-23, 3-1,
Deflection....................1-3, 1-5, 2-1, 2-6, 2-7, 2-14, 2-15,
3-2, 3-3, 3-8, 3-13
2-16, 2-17, 2-18, 3-1, 3-10, 3-11, 3-13,
Load distribution.................................. 3-1, 3-2, 3-4, 3-13
4-4, 4-8, 4-11, 4-22, 5-11, 5-17, 5-19,
Longitudinal shear................................................4-7, 4-8
5-20, 5-21, 8-12, 8-13, 8-18, 8-19
Loss of prestress.........................................2-2, 2-4, 2-21
Development length..................... 2-21, 2-22, 2-23, 2-24,
3-9, 3-11, 5-14, 5-15, 5-16
Diaphragm............................... 1-3, 2-18, 3-11, 3-17, 4-1,
O
5-12, 5-21, 5-25, 5-26, 5-27 Openings....................................... 1-4, 3-1, 3-8, 3-9, 5-3,
Differential shrinkage.................................2-17, 2-19, 5-6 5-4, 5-8, 5-9, 9-4, 9-7,
Drag strut..............................................4-6, 4-8, 4-9, 4-11
Index
P T
Partially developed strand.......................2-22, 2-23, 2-24 Tolerances.................................. 1-7, 1-18, 1-19, 5-1, 9-6
Prestressing strand...................... 1-1, 1-2, 2-10, 9-4, 9-5 Topping................................. 2-16, 2-17, 2-18, 2-19, 3-11
Transfer length..................... 2-21, 2-22, 2-23, 2-24, 5-15
Q Transverse bending..............................................3-2, 3-3
Quality assurance........................................................ 9-2

V
R Vibration.............8-12, 8-13, 8-14, 8-15, 8-16, 8-17, 8-18
Volume change............................................................ 6-1
Release strength...........................................2-3, 2-4, 9-6
S W
Wall panels................................. 1-1, 5-1, 7-1, 7-19, 7-20
Seismic design..................... 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-7, 4-9, 4-11,
Weep holes.................................................................. 1-4
5-23, 5-24, 5-25, 5-26, 5-27
Wind design.............................. 4-1, 4-2, 4-12, 5-13, 5-26
Service load stress.............. 2-1, 2-2, 2-6, 2-7, 3-11, 5-13
Shear friction.............................. 4-6, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11
Shear walls..............................................5-21, 5-24, 5-26
Slenderness.....................................................5-13, 5-17
Sound absorption.................................. 8-1, 8-2, 8-4, 8-7
Sound insulation............................................8-1, 8-2, 8-3
Sound Transmission Class.... 1-3, 8-1, 8-2, 8-4, 8-5, 8-10
Spray-applied coatings...................... 7-6, 7-7, 7-14, 7-19
Structural endpoint...................................................... 7-1
Structural integrity................... 3-11, 3-17, 4-5, 4-6, 5-21,
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By Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute

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Third Edition, 2015

a = Depth of equivalent compression stress d = Distance from extreme compression

Table 1.1 Hollow core slab systems

The latex feathering is ready for direct carpet

Acoustical spray-on exposed slab ceiling.

For final design, the methods found in chapter

Figure 1.6.1 Generic hollow core slab

Sample Load Table*

Allowable Superimposed Live Load, lb/ft2

Note: LR = low relaxation.

Figure 1.6.9(a) Slab load ranges 6 in. Hollow core

Figure 1.6.9(b) Slab load ranges 8 in. Hollow core

Figure 1.6.9(c) Slab load ranges 10 in. Hollow core

Figure 1.6.9(d) Slab load ranges 12 in. Hollow core

Figure 1.6.9(e) Slab load ranges 16 in. Hollow core

Figure 1.7.1 Product tolerances for hollow core slabs4

a = Length ...................................................................... ± ½ in. j = Center of gravity (CG) of strand group

a bldg. Y grid datum

c hollow core hollow core floor

floor or roof member

2.1 General 2.2 Flexural Design

2.2.1.2 Permissible stresses at Aps f ps

Example 2.2.2.1 Transfer Stresses Md ( 4.74)(12)

Figure 2.2.3.1 Ambient relative humidity

 V 250 ksi low-relaxation wire 4630 0.037

and whether gross-section properties or cracked- 2

developed in the prestressing strands. Lower lim- f′c = 5000 psi

Prestressing steel: Using ACI 318–11 Chapter 9 load combinations,

Therefore, wu = 0.168 kip/ft2 Method 3: Strain Compatibility

99.4 99.4( 2.89 ) T

Figure 2.2.5.1 Stress-strain curves, prestressing strand

Minimum yield strength at 1% elongation

Strain, εps in./in.

The curves can be approximated by the following equations:

250 ksi strand 270 ksi strand

Because εt = 0.0131 > 0.005, φ = 0.9. Example 2.2.5.2 Flexural Strength

On occasion, conventional mild steel rein- d = 5.5 in.

For strands are solid while the concrete is still in a somewhat

 3.5 5000   1 (3.89 − 1)(3.89)   x + 3 

Figure 2.3.1.1 Shear for Example 2.3.1.1

øVci (Eq. (11 - 10)

øVc (Eq. (11 - 9)

øVcw (Eq. (11 - 12)

Vu (per ACI 318, Chapter 9)

other factors. The sustained compression due to

experience must be used to modify the proce- 109.9(3.89 − 1)[28.5(12 )]

dures to fit the local product. From the standpoint =

Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2 Final camber = 1.22(2.45) – 0.62(2.70)

Table 2.4.1 Long-term Multipliers

6. Deflection (downward) – apply to elastic deflection caused

Table 9.5(b), situations may arise where it is Solution:

loads, the effects of cracking will not be consid- = = 0.42 in.

Table 2.4.2 Maximum permissible computed deflections