CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2-1 Previous Studies on Study Area
Due to the importance of groundwater as water resources in the study
area, different geological and hydrological researches have been done.
These studies were done by the following researchers.

Parson's company (1957) [3] made comprehensive geological

and
hydrological studies in Iraq, it referred to the geological of this area, that
the Euphrates limestone of Lower Miocene age which is the oldest
exposed formation and is overlain successively by Lower and Upper Fars
formation of Middle and Upper Miocene age, respectively. On the other
hand Bakhtiari formation of Pliocene age is exposed in the northern and
eastern parts of this area. Alluvial deposits of Pleistocene and Recent age
overlie Bakhtiari and Upper Fars strata in the various parts of the region.
Macdonald (1960 ) [4] presented numerous reports dealing with
land
reclamation issues of the alluvial fans aquifer system in Mandali-
Badra- Teeb region.

Krasny (1982) [5] referred through an evaluation study of compiled

available data on the areas of Kut, Ali Al-Grabi, and Al-Teeb , that the
depth of groundwater ranged (10.0 - 20.0m). In general the direction of
groundwater movement is from mountains area and hills which
located in the boundary between Iraq and Iran to the southwest.

5
Chapter Two Literature Review

Al-Dabage and Murad (1998) [6] made hydrological and

hydrochemical studies about Bai-Hassan and Mukdadia (Bakhtiari)
formations in Kut and Ali Al-Grabi. They indicated that this area may be
subdivided into two hydrogeological regions. The first one represents the
mountains and hills area which lies in the boundary region between Iraq
and Iran. This region is considered as recharge area into the main
aquifers, while the other one is Al-Kut region. They noted that the trend
of groundwater movement is from northeast to the southwest, and its
value of TDS ranged from 595 to 11500 ppm, and generally increases
towards the southwest in the same direction of groundwater flow.
Lazim (2002) [7] presented a two-dimensional mathematical model
for representing the groundwater flow in both steady and unsteady states.
She showed that the groundwater may be used for injecting to maintain
the pressure in the oil reservoir in Buzurgan oil field.
Bashu (2004) [8] indicated in his study, that the water in some wells
is not suitable for human consumption according to WHO and Iraqi
standards. He, also, referred that the groundwater in the region can be
used in agriculture with caution especially where the TDS level
exceeds 3000ppm
Al-Jaburi (2005) [9] showed through a hydrogeological and
hydrochemical study of Ali Al-Garbi area that the study area can be
divided into two major aquifers depending on chemical composition of
groundwater. The first aquifer represents mountain (Bai-Hassan and
Mukdadia formations) and characterized by sulphate type, while the
other one represents aquifer within Mesopotamian plain and
characterized by chloride type.
Al-Moozani (2008) [10] studied the main aspects of
geomorphological and hydrological conditions of eastern part of
Missan governorate. Her study showed a spatial variation in quality and

6
Chapter Two Literature Review

quantity of the groundwater and the general direction of flow match

the topography and its surface and subsurface linear structures from
north and northeast toward south and southeast. For the groundwater
quality, she reported that most of the groundwater is sulfate in nature
in the eastern plateau region, while being chloride in the sedimentary
plain area.
Al-Kaabi (2009) [11] indicated in his study, that the general
flow direction of groundwater is in a concordance with topography,
which means from northeast to southwest. According to Scholler and
Scholler-Sulin classification the most common water types are ( Na-SO4),
while the other wells located in the southern parts of area were classified
as (Mg-SO4, Na-Cl) types. Hydrochemical modeling results indicated
that, the ionic strength of groundwater samples increases with an
increasing of total dissolved solids content
Al- Aboody (2011) [12] presented a two-dimensional mathematical
model for representing the groundwater flow in both steady and unsteady
states and optimal groundwater management in Teep area, using
Modflow and genetic algorithm technique. He found that; there is a
direct relationship between the values of hydraulic conductivity and
hydraulic heads, and in unsteady state flow, the model improves
marginally when changing the values of specific yield.
Al- Abadi (2011) [13] presented hydrological and hydrogeological
analysis of northeast Missan governorate, south of Iraq using geographic
information system. He found from the geomorphological point of view,
that the study area is flat and featureless surface bounded by the foothill
zone in the northeast along the Iraqi-Iranian border. The most common
landforms within the interested area are valleys network, alluvial fans,
flood plain, Sebkhahs, Ahwar (marshs), and Sand dunes. Tectonically,
the largest part of the study area lies in the Mesopotamian structure zone.

7
Chapter Two Literature Review

The small part along the Iranian boundary belong to the folded zone.
Geologically, most part of the study area is covered with fluviatile,
lacustrine, aeloian sediments of recent age
2.2 Groundwater modeling
Unfortunately, there are many groundwater flow problems for which
analytical solutions are difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. The reason
is that these problems are complex, possessing non-linear features that
cannot be included in analytical solutions. Owing to the difficulties of
obtaining analytical solutions to complex groundwater flow problems,
there has long been a need for techniques that enable meaningful
solutions to be found. Such techniques exist nowadays in the form of
mathematical or numerical modeling [14].
Of the great variety of numerical techniques, all of them have in
common that an approximate solution is obtained by replacing the basic
differential equation that describe the flow system by another set of
equations that can easily be solved by a digital computer.
The earliest method used in groundwater analytical was the finite
difference method. It replaces the partial differential equations for two-
dimensional flow in an aquifer by an equivalent system of finite
difference equations which are solved by the computer. Unlike the
analytical method, which gives a solution to a continuous boundary-value
problem, the finite difference method provides a set of water table
elevations at a finite number of points in the aquifer. This allows
reduction of the system of a number of algebraic equations that can be
solved by computer.
Generalized digital computer listings presented by pricktt and
Lonnquist (1971) [15] can simulate one, two and three-dimensional
unsteady flow of groundwater in heterogeneous aquifer under water

8
Chapter Two Literature Review

table. The finite difference equations are solved by using modified

alternating direction implicit method, cited in [16].
Rushton and Redshaw (1979) [17] demonstrated the use of
analog and digital computer methods in solution of both two and three-
dimensional problems in steady state and time variant situations.
Regional groundwater flow, external and internal boundary effect and
analysis of pumping test were described in detailed with listing of all
computer programming.
A two-dimensional model applied to an unconfined, semi
confined or confined aquifers, or to any combination of these was
presented by Boonstra and Deridder (1981) [18]. The model is facilitated
to use both regular or irregular nodal networks and iteration or Gauss
Seided technique in solving finite difference equations.
Al –Bader (1987) [19] introduced numerical methods for
analyzing the two dimensional flow in unconfined aquifer using implicit
finite difference scheme for steady state as well as unsteady state flow.
The alternating direction implicit (ADI) method was used for analyzing
steady state two dimensional flow in a vertical plane of unconfined
aquifer; the analysis includes both saturated and unsaturated flows.
A continuous modified MODFLOW is a U. S. Geological survey,
two and three-dimensional groundwater flows model. It is flexible and
powerful groundwater flow simulation model and can be applied to a
relatively simple or very complex aquifer system. The first version of
MODFLOW was use by Rasheeduddin et al. (1989) [20], to simulate
Alat and Khobar multi-aquifer system in
Eastern Saudi Arabia. The second version of MODFLOW was used by
Al- suhail (1996) [21] in modeling of Baher Al-Najaf area, Western
desert of Iraq. The version published U. S. Geological survey (Mc
Donald and Harbough, 1996) was used by Alwan (1998) [22] to simulate

9
Chapter Two Literature Review

the groundwater flow in the first aquifer, east of Tigris River in Tikrit-
Sammara. A numerical solution has been obtained using the finite
difference approach of Boonstra and DeRidder (1981) [18]. Version of
MODFLOW – 1998 BY Chiang and Kinzelbach [24] was used by Al-
Aboodi (2003) [25] to simulate aquifer in Safwan-Zubair area.
AL-Marj (2010) [26] presented a two dimensional numerical
model by using MODFLOW (three dimensional finite –difference)
program for the ground water flow in both steady and unsteady states
which has depended the collection data about hydraulic characteristics of
the aquifer in Safwan-Zubair area.
The finite element method of analysis is a very powerful modern
computation tool. It requires the use of a digital computer because of the
large number of computations involved. The basic idea behind the finite
element method is to divide the region being analyzed into a large
number of finite elements. These elements may be one, two, or three
dimensional, and joined to each other by nodes existing on element
boundary. The variation of field variable on each element is represented
approximately by continuous functions depending on the nodal values of
the field variable, then the flow mechanisms can be constructed a finite
elelment formulation either by variation approach or weighted residual
method.
A three dimensional finite element simulated water flow in variable
saturated porous media was presented by Huyakorn et.al(1986) [27]. The
model formulation is general and capable of accommodation complex
boundary conditions associated with seepage faces and infiltration or
evaporation on the soil surface.

A number of theoretical improvements were made, first, the

Galerkin method was combined with the collection method to handle the

10
Chapter Two Literature Review

time derivative term of the governing equation, second, and the resulting
system of ordinary differential equations was solved by using finite
integration, more detailed treatments to leaky boundaries, surface flux
boundaries, non-homogeneous and anisotropic aquifers, and sources
sinks were presented. For example cases were used to verify the model. It
was found that the model is stable, accurate and numerically oscillation
free if proper time-step size is used, (Sadoon,2005) [28].
The boundary element method or the boundary integral equation
method is a third numerical technique introduced for groundwater flow
analysis. This method based on transforming the partial differentia
equation governing a given flow domain into an equivalent integral
equation on the boundary of the domain to be solved.
Selman (1991) [29] introduced a numerical model using the
Boundary Element Method (BEM) for simulation of both steady and
transient two-dimensional unconfined flow through homogeneous and
isotropic porous media. The results of the BEM are presented
comparatively with the results of other techniques, either experimental or
numerical, and considerable agreement can be noticed between them. He
mentioned that the BEM is an accurate and efficient numerical technique
for the simulation of a wide variety of steady and transient free surface
flows through porous media .
Nasser (1993) [30] used the boundary element method as a
numerical technique for the simulation of two-dimensional free surface
flow through homogeneous and isotropic porous media. The accuracy
and efficiency of the model was checked by simulating different
groundwater flow problems. These problems included flow through a
square embankment and flow through a ditch-drain aquifer subjected to
uniform vertical recharge on ground surface.

11
Chapter Two Literature Review

Optimization models have been widely used to solve groundwater

problems over the past two decades. The objective of management of
aquifer may be achieved by simulation and/or optimization model. In the
purely simulation models, the primary objective is to measure the effects
of given stress such as pumping and recharge on the behavior of the
aquifer. The simulation and optimization model seek to provide the
"best" policy which satisfies a set of complex institutional and
environmental constraints. In order to achieve this, groundwater
simulation models are often combined with optimization models by
means of various techniques.
The application of optimization techniques to groundwater flow
began in 1970 with the paper by Deninger. Prior to this, optimization had
been combined with porous media models in oil reservoir applications
[16].
DeRidder and frez (1977) [14] presented a methodology to find
an optimum use of surface water and groundwater available for irrigation
in the Varamin plain, Iran. The linear programming was applied to the
problem of optimum joint development and supply of the two tests each
linear programming solution of irrigation water supply to find out the
effect it would have on the water table. By doing so, several technically
feasible water supply solutions were obtained giving decision-makers a
firmer basis on which to choose the direction in which the ultimate
solution to the problem must be sought. However, the developed models
were of limitations and weakness due to the fact that oversimplifications
and assumptions had to be made.
Willis and finney (1988) [31] presented a study describing the
development of a planning model for the Yun Lin groundwater basin of
south western Taiwan. The aim of the planning model was to control
saltwater intrusion and maintain water-supply and recharge targets.

12
Chapter Two Literature Review

Finney et al. (1992) [32] developed a simulation-optimization

model for the control of saltwater intrusion in a multi-layer aquifer
system in Jacarta, Indonesia. The management model combines a quasi
three-dimensional sharp interface model with a non-linear programming
model.
Recent applications of the optimal hydraulic control approach to
groundwater system were reviewed by Ahlfeiled and Heidari (1994)
[33]. The weighted sums of withdrawal and recharge rates were
represented as the objective function. A linearity assumption of head
response to pumping was useful in application of superposition to the
problem of head prediction.
Sophocleous et al. (1999) [34] developed and implemented a
comprehensive computer model for simulating the surface-water,
groundwater, and stream-aquifer interactions on a continuous basis for
the Rattlesnake Creek basin in south central Kansas. The model was used
as a tool for evaluating long-term water-management strategies. The
agriculturally based watershed SWAT and the groundwater model
MODFLOW with stream-aquifer interaction routines, suitably modified
and were linked into proposed model called as SWATMOD. The
hydrologic response unit concept was implemented to overcome the
quasi-lumped nature of SWAT and represent the heterogeneity within
each sub-basin of the basin model. A graphical user-interface and
decision support system were also developed to evaluate scenarios
involving manipulation of water rights and agricultural land uses on
steam-aquifer system response. A time step of one day was implemented
for the SWAP model, whereas a monthly time-step was utilized for
MODFLOW simulations to satisfy the computational constraints and to
reflect the differences in the flow rates in the surface and subsurface

13
Chapter Two Literature Review

systems. So, this model was able of representing the variation of stream
aquifer interactions more accurately on long term basis.

Alwan (1998) [23] made optimal management model by connecting

the groundwater simulation model which is MODFLOW -96 with
Rosenbrock technique for Tikrit-Sammarra area considering the
agricultural demand.

Al-Abadi(2002) [35] developed the optimum management model of

groundwater utilization in Safwan-Zubair area.
Galloway et al. (2003) [36] presented a very important seven case
studies of various basins have a different optimal management model
issues with a developed management strategies including depletion and
produced by the U.S. Geological Survey and supported by the federal
agencies.

Peralta (2004) [37] developed hybrid and robust algorithmic

approaches called SOMOS " Simulation/Optimization Modeling
Systems" which are useful for optimizing management of the more
nonlinear systems. SOMOS-developed strategies were (20-33%) better
for the combined
formulations than the designs developed by trial-and-error.

14
Chapter Two Literature Review

2.3 Concluding Remarks

The previous literature reflects the following points:-
1- Numerical groundwater flow modeling is a valuable tool for better
understanding groundwater flow in aquifers. Also many analytical
models require that the medium should be homogeneous and
isotropic. For this reason the use of numerical models is a very
realistic situation.
2- There is a direct relationship between the values of hydraulic
conductivity and hydraulic heads, it seems that the changes in
hydraulic conductivity values lead to a significant matching
between the observed and calculated heads.
3- The study area may be subdivided into two hydrogeological
regions. The first one represents the mountains and hills area
which lies in the boundary region between Iraq and Iran. This
region is considered as recharge area into the main aquifers,
while the other one is Al-Kut region.
4- The trend of groundwater movement in the study area is from
northeast to the southwest in a concordance with topography.

15