Professional Documents
Culture Documents
COMMUNICATION
AND LANGUAGE
NETWORKS OF THOUGHT AND ACTION
Editorial Board
with
Dr. J. Bronowski
James Fisher
M >' Ft * t t
4. JO L1966
A r'
4hyj.
Most animals communicate with their kind in one degree
or another, some by methods unknown to or imperfectly
understood by men. But man alone has acquired the
faculty of communication by speech. This unique achieve¬
ment has been the biggest single factor in the success
of Homo sapiens in developing complex societies. Only
now are we beginning to realize how deeply relevant
communication is to the story of human progress.
Communication theory, as it is called, is now one of
the basic areas of research into human intercourse and
understanding.
Speech was the first great leap forward in the develop¬
ment of human communication. The second was the
invention of writing. By this means, what men thought to
themselves or said to one another could be recorded,
read by others, and stored for the benefit of future
generations. There now existed a communal “memory.”
The third great leap forward came with the invention of
printing, by means of which what was written could be
reproduced and distributed in quantity, thus spreading
information and learning among ever-widening circles
of the community.
Further spectacular bursts of progress have accom¬
panied the development of electronic systems of com¬
munication—the telegraph and telephone, and especially
radio and television. And in recent years the electronic
computer has brought yet other revolutionary possi¬
bilities. Man can now have whole areas of his calculating
and communicating, as well as of his physical labor,
done for him by machine. His ability to move at speed
about the face of the earth, and beyond it, has also
increased prodigiously within the past hundred years.
There are many hundreds of written languages in use
today and thousands more that are only spoken. But
besides these there is, of course, an immense variety of
parallel means of human communication, both visual and
aural, which play an essential role in social relationships—
such as drama and dance, music, the graphic arts,
symbolic shapes and colors, even movements of the face
and body. Most of these are common to all communities,
even the most primitive; others, depending on techno¬
logical devices, are possible only in “modern” or complex
societies. Among such societies people of differing tongues
may have a specialist language in common, for instance
the language of mathematics or of science. It is possible
that other, more subtle forms of communication also
exist which as yet we do not fully comprehend. For
instance, there is the still uncracked code of communica¬
tion which controls the mystery of cellular reproduction;
there is that peculiar phenomenon called extrasensory
perception; there are the complex workings of the sub¬
conscious mind; and there are those rarer levels of
apprehension achieved by highly-developed minds which
amount to something in the nature of intellectual
intuition. But this book is primarily concerned with the
main streams of human communication which have
developed and broadened down the ages, and with the
social and cultural implications of these developments.
Man will soon have previously unimagined oppor¬
tunities for the storing and dissemination of knowledge
and ideas. Such virtually unlimited communication
resources seem likely to place unprecedented power in
the hands of central authority, with the attendant risks
of machine-made culture (regimented leisure, mass-
produced opinion, and a generally indoctrinated society),
of which our social prophets and moralists—outstand¬
ingly H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, and George Orwell—
have been warning us this last half century. One human
requirement in particular would seem to be in mortal
danger under the assault of electronic communication,
and that is the need for privacy.
Understandably, many people feel pessimistic because
of our many failures to communicate successfully in spite
of the refinements at our disposal, and, at the same time,
because of the dangers of our communicating too much.
Certainly there is plentiful evidence in the world today
of unsuccessful communication, both socially and
politically, between races, nations, and individuals.
True, despite ever-increasing opportunities, the com¬
munity-sense of society as a whole is notably weak; all
the same, this pessimism is open to challenge. It is well
within the bounds of modern man’s technical skill and
ingenuity to develop devices that will free us from the
dangers of an over-centralized culture. By enabling
groups and communities to provide their own “entertain¬
ment,” such devices might well foster a popular culture
and a more creative community-sense.
New means and methods of communication offer us
splendid opportunities if we use them wisely. The tele¬
vision picture has provided a new universal language,
invaluable for the spread of knowledge and know-how in
developing countries. Satellite communication will make
possible the rapid exchange of information and ideas
between Western, African, and Asian man, and so can
help enormously to remove the mental and emotional
barriers to harmony, and to advance the prospects of
One World. In these and other ways, despite evident Gerald Barry
disadvantages, the vast impending extensions of human J. Bronowski
communication can lead to the greater emancipation of James Fisher
mankind. Julian Huxley
Special Consultant Contributors
Walter Allen Walter Allen pages 16—31, 126-157
D. W. Davies 322-331
Advisers Dr. David Diringer 106-125
Mervyn Jones 228-245
Donald Berwick
Alec Laurie 80—105, 176-195
Pierre Lavayssiere
John McDaniel 332-341
Malcolm Ross-Macdonald
Dr. G. H. Manley 32-47
Donovan Pedelty 298-319
Professor Alan S. C. Ross 48-79
Paul Sheridan 246-267
Mary Sullivan 196-209
Irving Wardle 158-175
John L. Young 210-227
Researchers
Editorial Assistants Joan Allwork
Ken Coton Beryl de Haan
Dorothy Williams Hazel Harrison
1 COMMUNICATION AND
CIVILIZATION 16
Living together 18
Cultural evolution 20
Small worlds 22
New horizons 24
Manipulation and meaning 26
Quantity and quality 28
Lost in a crowd 30
2 ANIMAL COMMUNICATION 32
Why animals need to communicate 34
How animals communicate 36
Evolution of animal signals 38
Adding impact to signals 40
Cracking the code 42
Animal vocabularies 44
The human animal speaks 46
3 LIVING LANGUAGE 48
Mechanics of speech 50
Describing languages 52
Are all languages related ? 54
Patterns of descent 56
The main language families 58
The Indo-European family 60
Other families 62
Language follows the flag 64
Loan words 66
A much-traveled word 68
Changes of sound 70
Changes of meaning 72
Dialect 74
The art of translation 76
A universal language ? 78
4 VISUAL COMMUNICATION 80
Man and his codes 82
Living gestures 84
Identity and status 86
Symbols of belief 88
Distance and detail 90
What makes a sign clear ? 92
Communication by color 94
Pictures and magic 96
Art as communication 98
Caricature and cartoon 100
Visual persuasion 102
Visual shorthand IO4
LONG-DISTANCE
COMMUNICATION 210
Signals and codes 212
Letters by the million 214
Electric telegraphs 216
Telephony 218
Radio signals 220
Satellite relay systems 222
Communication theory 224
Social consequences 226
MASS MEDIA 2:
FILM, RADIO, AND TV 246
Development of film and radio 248
Language of film 250
The film as a mirror 252
Language of radio 254
Development of television 2 56
Language of television 258
Control and censorship 260
Entertainment 262
Education 264
Social impact 266
13 TEACHING AND LEARNING 268
How do we learn ? 270
Stages of learning 272
Teaching methods 274
Machines that teach 276
Spread of education 278
Education for tomorrow 280
14 ADVERTISING 282
Growth of advertising 284
Language of advertising 286
Who is “the customer” ? 288
Indirect promotion 290
Why advertise ? 292
Advertising and planning 294
Advertising and society 296
APPENDIX 321
Scientists measure information 322
Translation by computer 332
Literacy and education 342
Literacy and wealth 344
What the world reads 346
Mass communications 348
Development of the alphabet 35°
Index 352
Illustration credits 364
Mo man is an Hand, intire of it selfe; every man
is a peece of the Continent, apart of the maine;
if a Clod bee “washed, away by the Sea, Europe is
the lesse, as well as if a Promontorie were, as well as
if a Mannor of thy friends or of thine owne were ;
any mans death diminishes me, because I am
involved in Mankinde ....
16
Living together
31
Chapter 2
Animal Communication
32
Why animals need to communicate
Uca marionis
Uca annulipes
Living Language
48
\J 4* ■' -. —
H j »^fe;;; ^'fSraggg _ i
c" > *-]& \ wTfY JR
Mechanics of speech
English, French
The sound t is made by compressing air between the tip of
the tongue and roof of the mouth, then letting it go sud¬
Danish, German
denly. But the sound is not the same in all languages.
Picture shows the tongue position immediately before
Swedish release of air, in five languages.
The tongue also restricts the flow of air through the
mouth by pressing up against i the back of the front
teeth (the sound th in the ; { 2 the front of the roof of the
mouth (z and d); (3) the center of the roof of the mouth
(g). In th and z the airflow is only partly stopped; in d
and g, completely. The lips, too, act as modulators to
make b and m.
If the lips, tongue, and soft palate make the movements
described above but with no voiced sound from the vocal
cords, we get unvoiced consonants. The movements that
make b (voiced make/? (unvoiced . Other similar pairs
are th in the and th in thick; z and s; d and t; g and k.
This deaf child can hear a little with an aid. She listens to
But making sounds is only part of the speech process. the teacher and watches her mouth; then she watches her
There is intonation, too. Consider, for instance, the own mouth in the mirror while she imitates the lip move¬
ments made by the teacher.
difference between these sentences: Can you tell me the
time, please? (rising tone); It’s six o'clock falling ; Six
o'clock! i rising-falling-rising ; “I must run!” he shouted
over his shoulder as he left (level and low . Then there is
stress, which makes the difference between “an £.\port”
and “to export”; and between “photograph," “photo¬
grapher,” and “photographic"; and between the Ameri¬
can “detail" and the English “detail." There is also
emphasis, in which different stresses and intonations give
different meanings to the same words as, for example, in:
Ton did that, and: You did that.
All that has been said so far refers to the sounds of
the English language alone. There is German with its
guttural rs and deep, open vowels; French with its trilled
rs and front-of-the-mouth vowels; Swedish with its
sing-song tones; Chinese with its nasal vowels and rising
stresses, Afrikaans with its throat-clearing g sound, and
Acutely deaf children have to be taught how to make
so on. sounds by indirect methods. In this case the child is learn¬
The many muscles in our speech organs are controlled ing to make the p sound by puffing a table tennis ball out
of an eggcup.
by a part of the brain called the speech center. Here the
thought that the speaker wishes to voice is coded into
nerve impulses (p. 83 that actuate the muscles. We know
that the speech center is a definite department of the
brain because, if that area of the brain is damaged for
example, by an injury or a tumor , the patient suffers
from dysphasia and is unable to speak correctly; he under¬
stands a question but uses wrong words in his answer.
The sound waves of speech cause the hearer’s eardrum
to vibrate to the same pattern. The vibrations are trans¬
mitted through a linkage of tiny bones to the inner ear
or labyrinth. This contains a membrane with some
24,000 hair cells that pick up and sort out the received
sounds, and pass them on to the brain. The brain
decodes the signal in some way that we do not under¬ This very deaf child learns to speak by feeling vibrations
stand, so that if the hearer is familiar with the speaker's when the teacher speaks close to a balloon. Then he
imitates the teacher's mouth movements and pushes air
language, he “knows” what the speaker is saying.
through his vocal cords until he feels the same vibrations.
I |
Italian French
In this diagram Latin is the “parent” and French and
Italian are sister languages. Actually the complete pattern
of descent from Latin is much larger, and contains io
sister languages. These are: Italian, Sardinian, Provencal,
French, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Rhaeto-Romance,
Dalmatian, and Romanian.
These relationships give us a good example of how
linguistics ties up with history. The big Latin family
coincides with a very large part of the Roman Empire
at its greatest extent, round about a.d. ioo. The parts it
does not cover are those such as Greece and Asia Minor
(where Greek was an alternative language in general
use and Hungary, North Africa, and Britain, which,
after the collapse of the Roman Empire, were overrun
English German
Once we start to give a family a name, we can then
take out the X and substitute the name itself. We call
this family the Germanic family, and instead of X we put
Primitive Germanic. A list of some of the languages that
belong to the Germanic family is shown in the tree on
page 61.
But the pattern does not stop there. We can find
enough similarity between Latin (a parent) and Primi¬
tive Germanic (also a parent) to take the pattern a stage
further. We then have this:
Y
58
o
Uro-Altaic Malayo-Polynesian
mm
mm
mm
Chinese Japanese
59
The Indo-European family
1 ¥ JfA , A
1*'"*-#//im
■>% cJgmi m
■l*' v -‘FyHiff
<?# J
French
Italian
Spanish
Portuguese
Catalan
Romanian
Russian
Polish
Bulgarian
Serbo-Croatian
Czech
Lettish
Lithuanian
Avestic
Persian
Hindustani
Urdu
Bengali
1
secondary borrowing. And die word “moose” 11613
PACKAGE AND
comes from American Indian languages as a result of
*EPE ORiG
early British exploration of North America.
The influence of the Portuguese navigators also shows
up in the word “binnacle,” the housing for a ship’s
compass, which came from the Portuguese word bitacola
originally Latin habitaculum a small house). And
there are other maritime words like “buoy” (1466) and
“dock” (1500) that were borrowed from Britain’s
seafaring neighbors the Dutch.
Both “hammock” 1555 and “hurricane” (1555)
come to us from the Caribbean by way of the Spanish
conquistadores. On the other side of the world the word
“bungalow” (1676), a corruption of “Bengali,” was
coined by the British East India Company to describe
a single-storied country dwelling that was common in
India.
Among more recent loan words we find “tycoon”
1863 , a Japanese word for a great lord, that has been
borrowed solely for describing leaders of big business.
“Goulash,” a Hungarian dish, was unknown in England
until 1900. One of the most recent loan words is “sputnik”
1957 , a Russian word that means simply a travelling
companion.
The word “carnival” (1549) comes from Italian
words meaning to put away meat; originally it referred to
the beginning of Lent, but its present meaning bears
much more heavily on the festive side of Shrove Tuesday,
which is in many countries a day of high living.
We can assume that when a loan word enters a language
it will not be long before it appears in literature, and the
best dictionaries give the date on which a word is first
found in a publication. Occasionally this can help to
solve a problem. For instance there are two different
accounts of the dying words of Lord Nelson at the battle
of Trafalgar. One is that he said to his friend, “Kismet,
Hardy.” “Kismet” is a Persian loan word meaning
“destiny”; it does not appear in English writing until
1849—44 years after Nelson’s death. It therefore seems
much more likely that the alternative version is true,
and that Nelson said, “Kiss me, Hardy.”
There are thousands of loan words in most European
languages. We should look at them as words that have
“moved in” with a ready-made meaning from foreign
sources, if only to distinguish them from a great and
growing group of borrowed words that are used in science.
These words (p. 182) have been built up from Greek and
Latin in order to describe newly discovered substances
and properties that could not be described accurately
by using existing words.
A inkivaari Finnish
B ingefara Swedish
C inbir Russian
D gingsear Irish
E ginger English
F gember Dutch
G ingwer German
H imbier Polish
J gingembre French
K gyomber Hungarian
L ghimber Romanian
M gengivre Portuguese
N jengibre Spanish
O zenzero Italian
P zenxhefill Albanian
0 zencefil Turkish
R janjapili Georgian
S zingiberis Greek
T skenjebbir Kabyl
U zenghebhil Hebrew
V zanjabil Arabic
w tangawizi Swahili
X zanjabil Persian
z singivera Middle Indian
69
Changes of sound
70
been made alike. The Old French cerchier, to seek, The English word “dough,” raw material of bread,
comes from an Indo-European root “deigh,”
becomes in time c her dm. If you try these two you will meaning to smear or mold. The word also became
find that the shape of the mouth that produces the first ch connected with molding mud walls to make an
sound is kept unchanged through the middle of the enclosure, and it reappears in Greek as “para-
deisos,” a park. From there it is a short step to
word, and is ready for the second ch. It is, in fact, less
trouble to speak the word in its new form.
applying the word to the Garden of Eden (below
left) or “paradise.” 4
Opposite to Assimilation is Dissimilation. Again, this
process makes the word easier to say. The French word
peleriti (“pilgrim” came from the Latin peregrinus. Here
the two rs have been dissimilated by turning the first
one into /. Yet another change, called Metathesis, turns
the consonants round, from, for example, Anglo-Saxon
waps to English 4'wasp.'1
So we see that almost anything can happen to the
sounds of words in the course of time.
71
Changes of meaning
72
of them would be used when addressing a father in a
slightly different relationship. We call this a difference
of connotation; often it is a very subtle thing.
To sum up so far: We have single words with multiple
meanings, according to the context, or surrounding words;
and we have synonyms whose meanings are only roughly
the same. But as if these complications were not already
enough, we also have to adjust ourselves to changes in
meaning in the course of time. Here is an example of
such a change. The Anglo-Saxon for “dog” was hund, the
same as the word for “dog” in present-day German. But
its meaning changed in English, where there was an
alternative word - “dog.” Hund became “hound,” a
meaning now confined to dogs that are used in hunting;
the word “dog” describes all the non-hunting members
of the species. Another word, “presently,” has two mean¬
ings in America- “now” (its original 16th-century
meaning) and “soon”; in England it has only the
meaning “soon.”
There are in fact no hard and fast rules that can
guide us to the correct meaning of a word. The Austrian
The word"holiday” was originally holy-day. This philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1899-1951) put the
16th-century picture shows that even in those days
a holy day was thought of by many people mainly
matter in a nutshell when he said “the meaning of a word
as a day offun and freedom from toil. is its use.”
73
Dialect
<•> mi is meg-bocsatunk azoK-nak, a kik ellen-iink vdtkeztek. Es nc vlgy minket kisertet - be, de
Hand Fire Extinguisher (Water) we too forgive those-to, those who against-us trespassed. And not lead us temptation-into, but
Extincteur a main (eau)
Handfeuerloscher (Wasser)
Extinguidor manual de incendios (agua) szabadits meg minket a gonosz-t61. Mert tidd az orsag ds a hatalom ds a dicsfi -sdg
deliver us the evil-from. For Thine the Kingdom and the Power and the glorious-ness
Extintor manual de incendios (agua)
4
Explanation of symbols
Emergency Exit
Explication des signes
Sorti de secours
Zeichenerklarung
Notausgang Like all international airlines, Swissair carries passengers
Salida de emergencia Explicacion de los signos of many nationalities. Each passenger is supplied with a
Saida de emergencia Explicapoes dos simbolos leaflet of safety instructions in five languages. 77
A universal language?
78
World population is increasing at such a rate that if
mass starvation is to be conquered, the technical skills
of the West must be imparted as quickly as possible to
less favored nations. This means that a universal language
should be one that is already linked with the technical
and scientific progress of the past 200 years. In effect this
means one of the European tongues.
If we had been discussing the possible candidate for a
universal language in 1765 instead of 1965, we should
not have hesitated to say that French was the most likely
choice. Two hundred years ago French was the leading
European language, and the expression “lingua franca”
is still used to denote a universal language. But today
English is the leading European language. It is spoken
by 250 million people, and partly understood by many
millions more. Indeed, if we except China, the Soviet
Union, and South America, its “scatter” is virtually
world-wide.
Possible rivals to English are Chinese, which is spoken
by 700 million people, and Russian 140 million . But
Chinese is a very complicated language. And Russian is
a self-contained language, little used outside the
boundaries of the Soviet Union. Moreover the Russians
have made no effort to promote the use of their language
abroad except in the Soviet-dominated states of Eastern
Europe, where Russian is a compulsory second language
in schools. On the contrary a substantial part of Russian
propaganda in foreign countries consists of offering- This poster is advertising courses in Esperanto, an inter¬
national language invented by the Pole, Lazarus Zamenhof
courses in English, and the Russians distribute many and spoken by some 8 million people. The text discusses
millions of books in English every year in the former the virtues and drawbacks of Esperanto for this purpose.
British colonies.
English has been adopted, temporarily at least, as
the official language of India, and here we see one of
the advantages of an imported language. It settles the English, the most likely universal language of the future,
problem which of several languages used in a large takes a number of forms. A New Testament in simplified
“pidgin” English (below left, the opening verses of chapter
country should become paramount by giving the answer: 2 of St. Mark's Gospel) has been written for missionaries
none of them, use a foreign language instead. to read to natives of New Guinea (below right).
Visual Communication
80
•- -
Man and his codes
i© RESTAURANT
H OTE LJ 6u*«ae1
Ww *'
Throughout history men have used visual symbols that
indicate their status. Coats of arms are such symbols. In
the Middle Ages noble families used such devices to pro¬
claim their identity and their prestige (which they
measured in terms of their ancestral connections). In an
age when even the nobility were mostly illiterate, heraldry
was an important form of visual communication. Without
using any words it was possible to display on a single coat
of arms a person’s identity, rank, and ancestry. With the
These colorful emblems, displayed on the facade growth of literacy on the one hand and a leveling out of
of a Swiss hotel, convey valuable information to class distinctions on the other, heraldry ceased to be im¬
passing travelers. They mean that the hotel is portant among individuals. But states and cities still
especially recommended by the automobile clubs
of six different nations. display coats of arms and symbolize their identity with
flags. This type of visual message is, in some respects,
similar to early forms of writing such as pictography and
ideography (p. 110 .
In modern society there is still an enormous variety of
ways in which a person can proclaim his status to anyone
who knows the code. Take, for instance, the way he
dresses. Sometimes, of course, the way that a man dresses
is directly concerned with his job. Sometimes clothing is
suited to needs that are long past. For example, Anglican
bishops in Britain wear gaiters and an apron. Nowadays
such clothing simply distinguishes them from lower
ranks of the Church. In times past, however, this was a
*
Top: the fish sign used by early Christians. Center:
mankind seems unable to do without them.
Among the most important of such symbols are
symbols of belief. In Christian countries the major symbol
of belief is the cross. To early Christians it was a reminder
of Jesus’s execution; it carried the same grim overtones
as a symbol of the gallows, garrote, or guillotine would
Initial letters of the Greek description of Christ
spell out the Greek for fish. Bottom: ancient carry today. If, after nearly 2000 years, the cross still
Christian monograms—{left) first two letters of
served merely to remind us of a brutal and lingering death,
Christos superimposed; (right) the “Tan" cross
with Greek letters from the beginning and end of its meaning would be extremely limited. In fact, the cross
alphabet -“/ am the Alpha and the Omega, the symbol has come to stand for all aspects of Christianity.
beginning and the end."
It stands not only for the historical parts of the Christian
story but also for the Christian message, including its
moral code and its promise of immortality.
As a constant reminder of all these things, the symbol
of the cross appears as a solid object on church altars,
walls, and spires, as an imprint on Bibles, prayer books.
priestly vestments, and even in the ground plans of man)
church buildings (where the nave and choir form the
upright, crossed by the “arms” of the transepts . Historic¬
ally the shape of the cross has varied at different times and
places. There was, for instance, the eight-pointed Maltese
cross of the crusading Order of St. John (founded about
1070 . But none of these variations has such widespread
authority as the familiar simple cross.
Earl\ Christians used many other symbols of their faith
that have become less common. There was, for instance,
the symbol of the fish, derived from the initial letters of the
Greek description of Christ. Then there was the mono¬
gram based on the first two letters of Christos in Greek
see illustrations opposite .
The triumph of the simple cross over these more com¬
plex symbols points to something that is fundamental in
constructing a symbol: To be acceptable and enduring it
must be simple and easily recognized. For example, the
Fascist parties that came to power in Italy and Germany
betweeri the world wars had as their symbols the fasces
and the swastika, respectively. The fasces a complex
emblem has disappeared; the swastika, because of its
simplicity and geometrical form, is still a universal symbol
of Fascist ideology. Similarly, the original Communist
emblem of the hammer and sickle, symbolizing the A Sikh wears four of the “five K\s" of his cult. Uncut hair
triumph of the manual worker, is beginning to look dated {kes) wound on springs (beneath turban) for protection,
dagger (khanda) for militarism, bangle (kara) for
in a mechanical and automated age; and the simple, reverence, knee-length drawers (kadi) for restraint. He
brightly colored, geometrical pattern of the red star is also carries a comb (khanga) for purity.
taking its place.
Thus even symbols of great antiquity can survive Below: Nazi rally in Berlin, 1934. The
swastika—a form of the cross widely
almost any social change, provided that they gain new
used in pre-Christian times—was
meanings to fit new circumstances. And the simpler the adopted by the Nazis, the German
symbol like the cross, the star, and the swastika the fascists. The word “fascism” comes
from the Latin fasces, a bundle of rods
easier it is for new meanings to become attached to it. tied to an ax (right) which was carried
Complex symbols like the fasces and the hammer and in front of Roman magistrates as an
sickle are less adaptable, and so less likely to survive. emblem of authority. It became the
symbol of the Italian Fascist Party.
rr ‘
ii jflPjk 11 It
CSpQMHI Bill *
iMtSHEilli
jgi m
1
Distance and detail
When we say that we look at an object, the form of words The widespread belief that the eye is an active instrument
that can influence its surroundings is shown in this picture
suggests that we actively do something to the object.
of an Afghan bus. The eyes painted on the front are in¬
Actually, when you look at something, your eyes auto¬ tended to out-stare misfortune, i.e. to avert the “evil eye”
matically focus on the object and adjust to the amount of
light that enters the eye (adjustments that are very similar
to those we make to a camera before taking a photograph .
From then on the process of seeing is passive. Light from
the object falls onto the retina and generates nerve im¬
pulses, which, as we saw on page 83, are relayed by the
optic nerve to the brain.
A close examination of the retina reveals that it has two
distinct parts. One part (98 per cent of the whole area
is equipped with nerve cells called “rods.” Rods are
extremely sensitive to light and movement, but they are
not able to transmit an accurate, detailed image. The
93
Communication by color
:. ki t; n k I l
. r»lULIvALj
Painted portraits are seldom purely representational. Above: an Egyptian painting (about 1200 B.C.)
in which people are portrayed as animals —a form
Whereas the camera may catch some of the sitter’s of caricature that is often used by modern
personality in a photograph, the portrait painter uses all cartoonists. Below: a famous caricature of King
his skill to produce an image that expresses as much as Louis Philippe of France (reigned 1830 48).
Drawn by the French newspaper editor Charles
possible of the sitter’s whole character, and in so doing he Phil ip on, it provoked a law-suit, because it
reveals something of his own character. That is why, depicted the King as a pear, which in everyday
French slang means ‘ fathead.”
even in an age of advanced photographic technique,
many people still prefer a painted portrait to a photo¬
graph. When this process of characterization goes a stage
further, when, that is, the artist deliberately exaggerates
certain features of a person, the result is a caricature. The
exaggerations invite the viewer to laugh at the person
portrayed, either affectionately or scornfully.
We saw that communication depends on the use of a
common code by both sender and receiver. In caricature
part of the code is an image, already in the viewer’s mind,
of what the person caricatured normally looks like
either from personal acquaintance or from photo¬
graphs. The viewer immediately recognizes the subject
or victim of the caricature, and, at the same time, gets
some amusement from seeing prominent features exag¬
gerated. Because of the need to know who the victim is,
caricature is mostly confined to well-known public
figures, usually politicians. Such caricatures can tem¬
porarily symbolize a political party, generally as seen by
an opposed party or group. The most powerful carica¬
tures are almost always hostile, showing individuals (and
sometimes recognizable classes of people communist
“butchers,” capitalist “wolves,” etc. in the worst possible
light.
In the past, caricatures were often published as isolated
distortions of a person’s appearance. Today we see them
mainly in the form of political cartoons in which the
attitudes and policies of personages or political parties
are derided p. 308 . A single cartoon may contain
several caricatures.
The modern cartoon is particularly interesting because
of the extraordinarily large amount of information that
can be suggested by a very simple drawing. The cartoon
is perhaps the most economical code that artists have ever
devised. A person or an animal may be depicted so
economically as to be only hinted at; the viewer fills in the
Anatomical drawing of 1543, showing l.'ven this clear-cut photograph of a A modern drawing of the digestive
position of liver, stomach, and intes¬ rat's intestines fails to convey more system, which clearly shows the
tines. Detailed portrayal of smaller than a very general idea of the position of each organ used in the
organs complicates the picture. animal's digestive system. process, excluding irrelevant details.
Two contrasting diagrams of a pumping
station. Diagram below {from
Diderot's Encyclopedia) is compli¬
cated by superfluous detail and diffi-
cult-to-read lettering. The modern
diagram on the right though less
picturesque—is easier to understand
because it contains only the essential
information.
Chapter 5
Written Language
106
iffV">
The dawn of writing
These stone and ivory seals, relics of the Indus In pictography, the simplest kind of writing, each picture
Valley civilization (about 2500 B.C.), are in¬ means what it represents and no more. It follows that an
scribed with characters that are midway between
pictures and ideographic symbols. The script has abstract idea—like “light” or “heat” cannot be con¬
not yet been deciphered. veyed pictographically. But abstract ideas can be
communicated by another method called ideography.
Ideography extends greatly the possibilities of pic¬
tography. Pictures are still used, but they can stand not
only for the thing they show, but also for ideas associated
with that thing. The modern road sign that shows a
railway engine in order to warn drivers that they are
approaching a rail crossing is ideographic. Naturally, an
ideographic symbol can still carry a literal meaning if
necessary: A drawing of the sun can mean simply “sun,”
even though at other times it can also mean “day,”
“light,” or “heat.”
Ideography does not convey particular sounds, nor
even particular words. But if a language has only one
word for any given idea, then the ideogram, or symbol
representing the idea, will be linked exclusively with that
word, and may in time be connected with the sound of
the word. When this happens, and the symbol is then
used to represent the same sound in different words, the
A Sumerian tablet of the late fourth millennium
symbol is no longer ideographic but phonetic Greek
B.C., inscribed with pictographic symbols. The
script is the ancestor of cuneiform (see text), and phone, sound).
probably represents the earliest systematic Some scripts have been found, in all continents but
writing in the world.
Europe, that are purely ideographic and have no phonetic
symbols. But the most important scripts include phonetic
elements. These scripts, based on ideography, are com¬
monly called “ideographic,” although they are really a
stage between ideography and pure phonetic writing.
Because of this, they have also been called “transitional
scripts”; but “transitional” is a misleading expression for
scripts that in fact lasted more than 3000 years. Even the
modern technical term analytic (indicating that the basic
units are words does not clearly describe their nature.
The oldest analytic script is Sumerian. In southern
Mesopotamia, more than 5000 years ago, the Sumerians
developed first pictography, then an ideography with
some phoneticism. The Sumerian scribes produced a
style that used short, wedge-shaped lines, pressed into the
surface of wet clay tablets. This style is usually called
cuneiform (Latin cuneus, wedge . Both script and style of
writing spread to almost all the major peoples of the
ancient Near East, including the Babylonians, Assyrians,
116 JL
? >
m
9 L’f. rc
.Hi '.s-iV’ ks
time they were carried by missionaries, not armies.
In the case of the Indian scripts the absence of symbols
for vowel sounds that did not follow any regular pattern,
as in the Semitic tongues, eventually caused a relapse
into syllabic writing. But the Greeks recognized and
overcame this problem at an early stage by transforming
into vowels five Semitic consonants whose sounds were
not needed for Greek. They invented four new letters for
sounds that did not exist in Semitic, and they changed the
Semitic letter names slightly. For example, the Semitic A,
B, and C aleph, beth, and gimel became the Greek
alpha, beta, and gamma. And, of course, the word “alpha¬
bet” comes from the first two Greek letters.
By 600 b.c., the Greek form of the alphabet had spread
through the many Greek colonies that were scattered
around the Mediterranean coast. It was transformed into
Lydian, Lycian, Carian, and Phrygian in Asia Minor;
Coptic in Egypt; and Messapian in Italy. The Greek
alphabet also inspired the Gothic alphabet, invented by
Ulfilas in the fourth century a.d., and the 43-letter
script invented by St. Cyril in the ninth century a.d. The
Cyrillic alphabet became, in turn, the basis of the
scripts of those parts of Europe that adopted the Greek
Orthodox faith, including Russia, White Russia, the
Ukraine, Serbia, and Bulgaria. But the form of Greek
writing that was to prove most important in the Western
world was that used by the people of Tuscany in central
Italy from the eighth century b.c. onwards.
The original Etruscan alphabet apparently consisted
of the 22 North Semitic letters in the same order, followed
by the four new Greek letters. Within a century, this
version had been adopted by the Romans. But in passing
from one people to another, it had already lost something
of its efficiency. For example, in Greek the letter C
(gamma) represented the sound g. However, the
Etruscans pronounced C sometimes as g and sometimes
as k, which meant that they had two letters for the
sound k. The Romans, finding they needed to write down
the sound g, invented a new letter G, or C with a bar
instead of restoring the C to its original phonetic value.
The Romans tacked T and £ on at the end of the
alphabet in the first century b.c. in order to make it
easier to transliterate Greek words into Latin. The classical
Latin alphabet was then almost exactly the same as the
alphabet we use today; the only later additions that
survived were [/, W, and J. These letters, transformed
from / and V were added in the Middle Ages.
Let us now see how the knowledge of this alphabet and
t«^i m . ff nc Mil miir. ti ka
the arts of reading and writing were preserved and
popularized in the West.
ZiKfAH . AfiffHiMNnr • wcm*; rni.
1. Gold brooch of seventh century B.C., with earliest extant Latin in¬ itoBHHiiA/w,nA«rTit ru/KiMH &**
scription (right to left “Marius made me for Numasius”)• 2. Roman T1H ;
monumental script of first century A.D. 3. Runes (ancient script of North HHTMI<M<TUH<T jfyu. iffy cSi lt!pcuc •
Germanic tribes) inscribed on eighth-century Northumbrian casket.
4. Stone engraved with oghams—system of writing used by British e • TAl«H BIK e ntA<1ABHAHT«t'6ifij,
Celts in fifth and sixth centuries. 5. Bilingual Ms (in Romanian-Cyrillic
and Greek minuscule). Gospels written in 1429 by a monk, Gabriel.
r vb4\ju . MKHimfiHA<«<oc\
JLtHJLfiK(fi’l<*£'CHEr<KJLATl * ft*'
. - ' _J I _*•_ . Oldi icyDlMJHI tVJUMTTU .
Writing and reading
440
1961 million
Today, India faces an illiteracy problem of gigantic Diagram shows how population growth has delayed the
proportions. She has the second biggest population in the spread of literacy in India. In 1951, 80 per cent of the total
population of 216 million was illiterate (black figures).
world 450 million and about 75 per cent of adult By 1961, although illiteracy had been reduced to 76 per
Indians are unable to read and write. The root of the cent, the population had doubled, and so the total number
of illiterates had increased.
problem lies in the fact that primary education was
traditionally restricted to a tiny, privileged social group.
And because tradition also decreed that it was undesirable
for girls to be educated, the illiteracy rate today is far
higher among women than among men. Only about
eight per cent of the country’s female population is
literate.
Most of India’s population is still dispersed in strug¬
gling agricultural communities. Living in small, isolated
villages, people have virtually no contact with the
outside world. Economically, their isolation has meant
continuing poverty; politically, it means that they have
little or no sense of India’s national unity. And illiteracy
is much higher in rural areas than in the towns.
In order to improve conditions in the villages, the
Indian government launched a comprehensive social-
education scheme in 1951. For the purpose of this scheme,
selected rural areas were divided into “community
blocks.” Each block, which contained about a hundred
villages, was put under the supervision of two specially
trained organizers.
Literacy classes were only a part of this ambitious
scheme. In addition, organizations were formed within
each community to educate people in citizenship, and
libraries and reading rooms were opened. By 1959 the
scheme covered some 180 million people in 360,000
villages. There were about 29,000 literacy classes for
adults, and 40,000 part-time literacy teachers, who had
been recruited from the staff of local primary schools'.
The educators had to face extraordinary problems in
choosing the language and script that would be taught,
for India’s illiterates speak about a hundred different
tongues. And since the only effective medium for instruc¬
tion is the pupil’s own language, each Indian state was
bound to provide oral teaching and textbooks in its own
tongue. Such books are now available in most but not
in all Indian states.
to speak it. Yet, the fact that speech and writing are by tttftvcri |it ml pvfttftf t mf
•AiywJJ. | f t «*+*«»-
to stand for the sounds that were not provided for in the
original alphabet. This “spring-cleaning” of the written
language, or Spelling Reform, is not a new idea; in fact
it was attempted by the Romans 1900 years ago, at a
time when comparatively few people were literate. Even
so, with fewer people to influence, the idea failed to
catch on. It would be very much more difficult now, in
an age of high literacy, to persuade millions of people into
changing their spelling habits.
Words in Print
126
The new art of printing
iiiaa Ditto fflftfeftuenf 21 years, towns as far apart as Budapest, Lisbon, and
London had presses that used movable type.
In the beginning the printer’s aim was imitation to
produce mechanically a book that looked as much as
m
Like other such industries, it flourished on simplification
and standardization. We find that very early on printers
f set about standardizing the spelling of words and the
punctuation of sentences. Before printing every man
spelled and punctuated as he chose; today we spell and
n
punctuate according to printers’ conventions.
Thus printing helped to accelerate the evolution of
standardized national languages, a process that the
frara teurfua nqi?;q its social and regional variations. Such variations persist
in speech: The language we speak is not the same as the
language we write and read; as a rule it is more abrupt
ijr fuo©ft Witter and less grammatically correct. In short, printing
separates the written from the spoken word a point
Fa rirt^pfirmbuC f| that will occur again in connection with poetry (p. 152).
The most revolutionary effect of the invention of
prrojta in rafilia lufF the 15th century, it has been calculated, some nine
million copies of printed books were in existence, as
compared with the few score thousand manuscripts
lira iulftnpitrr imp which, until Gutenberg’s invention, had contained all
the recorded knowledge and wisdom of the Western
world.
131
Bibles in print
The birth of printing coincided with a period of bitter Martin Luther preaching, from a painting by the 16th-
century German artist Lucas Cranach. Luther's transla¬
religious controversy that centered on interpretations of
tion of the Bible was widely circulated in Germany and
the Bible. It is therefore not surprising that so many elsewhere. It ran into 430 authorized editions in his own
editions of the Bible were published during the first lifetime, apart from many pirated versions.
century of printing.
Gutenberg’s 42-line Bible opposite), the first printed
book, was a copy of the Vulgate, the official Bible of
the Church of Rome. Because it was in Latin, the Vulgate
was beyond the grasp of ordinary people. The English
reformer William Tyndale (about 1492 1536), who
translated parts of the Bible into English, spoke for all
the reformers when, arguing with a religious adversary,
he prophesied that he would cause “a boy that driveth
the plough” to know the scriptures better than his
learned opponent.
By 1500 there were 30 printed editions of the Bible in
living European languages, mostly German, compared
with 94 editions of the Latin Vulgate; and by the end
of the 16th century the people of every European nation
could read the Bible in their own tongue. These trans¬
lations broke the monopoly of the Roman Church in
religious instruction by making the Scriptures available
to everyone, for even those who could not read could
listen to those of their fellows who could.
Translations of the Scriptures also had a powerful
formative influence on living European languages,
which literate people had considered to be vulgar and
graceless compared with Latin. Since the Bible was a
sacred book, the very words in which it was written were
felt to be sacred too; and now those words were not Latin,
but German, English, Dutch, Hungarian, and so on.
i
atlas -a copy of Cosmographia, by the second-century
Greek astronomer Ptolemy -was printed as early as
0m
1478. Its printing was made possible by the development
of map-engraving. Ptolemy’s work was impaired by a
serious error in estimating the earth’s circumference and
by insufficient knowledge of geographical features.
Cosmographia was regarded as authoritative even by
Columbus, but was later displaced by the work of
Mercator, whose atlas was published by his grandson
A page from the first edition of Euclid's Elements
of Geometry {1482}— an important revival from in Holland in 1595. During the century that followed,
the classical past. Printed by the Bavarian Erhard the Dutch, the leading seafaring people of the age, were
Ratdolt, it included copies of the author's 200-odd
Europe’s chief printers of maps.
diagrams and over 400 woodcuts.
With the spread of literacy and learning and the
standardization of national languages both processes
partly the result of printing there arose a demand for
dictionaries; indeed the first book to be printed in
Spanish, in 1490, was a Spanish dictionary. Then in
1540 the great French printer, Robert Estienne, pub¬
lished his Latin-French, French-Latin dictionaries. He
also published shorter school editions of them, which
were often reprinted. A famous multi-language dictionary
was the Gates of Tongues series first published in Spain in
1611, which gave the meanings of words in four languages
Latin, English, French, and Spanish.
These dictionaries, however, were selective glossaries,
not comprehensive vocabularies that set out to give the
spelling, meaning, use, history, and pronunciation of all
the words in a language. The first true dictionary ap¬
peared in Italy in 1612; the French Academy produced
a dictionary in 1694; but England had to wait until 1754
for her first true dictionary: Dr. Samuel Johnson’s
Dictionary of the English Language.
the new taste for reading brought onto the scene a new yes 1
1 ^'jonR(Vvie?fcr Ct’rilvm Iv<> t> juc.*,fVthaiie6<3lc #»!
figure the professional author who writes books to
meet a specific demand.
From the beginning, publishers and printers were
organized in powerful guilds that protected their
interests and restricted competition. But the position of
the author was weak; and it remained weak until it was
legally recognized that the products of his own mind and
art were his property. More often than not he was paid
136
nothing by the publisher, but had to find financial
TO*THE MOST MIGH- support from a wealthy patron, who derived prestige
TIE AND MAGNIFI¬
CENT EMPRESSE ELI- The firft Bookc of from his patronage (which was generally praised in an
g
ZABE.TH, BY THE
RACE 0PG0DQVEENE
F ENGLAND, FRANCE
the Faerie Qgcene.
effusive dedication to the patron written by the author).
AND IRELAND DE¬
T£c Legend of the Knight
In other cases the author would publish his book himself
FENDER OF THE FAITH1
Ac. OR
“by subscription,” that is, by inviting people to promise
Of&0Snt$e.
to buy the book when it was published. These patrons
also won prestige by seeing their names printed in the
Her mcft bumble list of those who had made the book possible. Or the
author would sell his work outright to a publisher, as
Tbywak* Nosttawpefoniwiaywitl, Milton sold Paradise Lost for the ridiculously small sum
***** of £5 down and £5 more on the sale of each of the first
three editions.
The author’s rights in his own creation were first
Title page from the first edition of The Faerie Queene recognized by law in England in 1709. In time other
(1590), the allegorical romance written by English poet countries followed suit, although it was 1793 before
Edmund Spenser and dedicated to Elizabeth I. It earned
another big country, France, protected copyright. Nor
him a royal pension of £50 a year.
could these laws give an author in one country protection
in another. During the 19th century, for example, the
Below: royal charter of the English Stationers' Company, novels of Dickens and other British authors were
1684. This craftsmen's guild, which received its first regularly pirated (usually with little or no payment) in
charter in 1557, had an absolute monopoly of printing the United States. It was not until 1886 that the first
until 1842. Every printer had to serve an apprenticeship
to a member of the guild, and every publication had to be international agreement on authors’ copyright was
entered at Stationers' Hall (which secured copyright). reached. Even now not every country has signed the
The guild even had the power to burn prohibited books
latest agreement, the Universal Copyright Convention
and imprison offenders.
of 1955-
Long after the passing of the first copyright laws, the
author was still not in a strong enough position to bargain
freely with publishers. The epigram attributed to the
poet Thomas Campbell (1777 1844), “Now Barabbas
was a publisher,” sums up the traditional attitude of
authors to publishers. The author came into his own with
the emergence in the 19th century of the great inter¬
national novelists, such as Scott, Balzac, Dumas, Dickens,
Dostoevski, Turgenev, and Tolstoi. Their popularity
was so great that they became more important than
uCv .1- Oumil'ua 1*1 J'w ifw J-Ukfltt# pwifitV Artuleta Cmil IMS&yfH# ,t 5
iW&mUo drigriKtr iwinr l«r .tmi 0 ? <«U *-< p-*-fu the men who published them. It gradually became the
'fj.niuh VSbtlt* ttcreio |«ifr^'.»uwl>y-£iwuctu*
CVtlfctittfri*- Itfcci* fw.miiift:*1' #itvi uV&f ^(uiwurf ■CitHlaliSyi-o*-! accepted practice to pay authors on a “royalty” basis,
* >-a.«
#* 4*tVu* «*«,„
ClV-U-cV
L'tOiiuit'ct' sTlv-U-cV
fcmW—‘3* « *»«• A
fclct cl
fclcv ft <Cou|ti'hi<r f-rap.. ’
^u.‘ whereby the author is paid a percentage of the published
pv&UVJriktt. ^'a.K-^.tVmvjruw
B« UfjSKrt <3Ur
ta.»
TUftE**
*Sf«U*kN(?»"«* ■
price of each copy sold, the percentage sometimes rising
iy.TTut.itBte... ^w*****- •Cn t
with the sales.
? ' i^lu Today the author’s situation is changing again.
! Cw Wtl^un^Jiotwm fvi-frttmat ^ifripUOA UHtftitftij&r4&4b,xi l
• <■
Kw»«uhir (vt-,,«««u‘7fty«(?riv+^«|w. eitV&tutnStaH Increasingly, books have become the raw materials for
rzr^:* »’•' hrEivfti * d- ijutft'ilitf iwumii&i tjtmtt <j h i-uf'rtiayt.Wmij.
other media of communication newspaper and maga¬
■tnltJL ^ ,u frttrotf <.VmnraiJ-ci-tto£tl^tt*|wRwWTfcuj»uitW««aic>,
137
Books for entertainment
LKKll blat
j0ieu, biltoa fagt me Jtfiefpie 1
gel we lit fc$i»g vff eiit $ellt ffen wg ^fltumb t$ t«c§
Most of the best-sellers of the 15th and 16th centuries
nwetjer fm % verboiKij pet et fan motwg ftete (ole
were religious books; but from the beginning publishers
also provided books whose main object was to entertain.
By the late 16th century there was a lively trade in what
we now call “escapist” literature.
Popular among the upper classes were stories of idyllic
life among “nymphs” and “shepherds,” who were often
fine ladies and gentlemen in disguise. Examples are Sir
Philip Sidney’s Arcadia in England and Honore' d’Urfe’s
UAstree in France. Such stories strike us today as remote
and fanciful. But for less refined tastes there was very
different fare: sensational stories of low life whose aim
was to make their readers’ flesh creep at revelations of
the wickedness of the world and the perils of life in big
cities.
These stories came originally from Spain and are
called “picaresque” (Spanish picaro, a rogue 1. The hero
of these tales, who generally tells his story in the first
person, is an adventurer who lives by his wits. The first
Henfpiegel gen Jteno
Wfl cl r!>et ce firtf fur cm wulle wcbcc
picaresque novel was Lazarillo de Tormes, which was 1' M v(l vfi wj vff ctu fontag 94 fa$t $ wnlleii
published in Spain in 1554. Translated into English in ** (fclte at*
1586, it went into four editions within 50 years. It was fiertag c,tri mewgvn welcfrt flegt gcrit
followed in the next hundred years or so by a wave of 3u t0i5n/ it ftobc t$ nit gem lit memet flrbeft er mts*
books and pamphlets of the sort we now call “true
confession” stories. One of the best is Daniel Defoe’s Page from the oldest surviving text of Till Eulenspiegel,
Moll Flanders, the imaginary confessions of a prostitute, published in Strasbourg in 1515. These tales of a wily
peasant who wandered Europe playing practical jokes
which was published in 1722. won widespread popularity in Germany, and were trans¬
Picaresque writing established one of the permanent lated into many other European languages.
patterns of fiction- the adventures of a person who
wanders from place to place or from job to job. Examples
in different languages and from different times are:
England -Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding (1707-54);
France—Candide, by Voltaire (1694-1778); America
Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain (1835-1910); Ger¬
many- The Confessions of Felix Krull, by Thomas Mann
(1875 1955). The early picaresque novels were written
not for scholars but for ordinary people, and they helped
to make possible the novel as we now know it. More than
any other literary form, the novel depends on a more or
less realistic representation of the actual world. It caters
for the curiosity that had been greatly stimulated by the
voyages of discovery of the 16th and 17th centuries
voyages that brought back news of other continents and
of peoples who lived and behaved in ways astonishingly
different from those of Europeans. Books about these
voyages were enormously popular and were received
with equal credulity whether they were genuine or
invented.
No one exploited this credulity more successfully than
Daniel Defoe. He published Robinson Crusoe, in 1719, not
142
production. He deduced from this that society evolves in
a predictable way, the inevitable end of which is
communism.
After an exciting early life as an active revolutionary
in Germany and France, Marx settled down to the quiet
life of a scholar in London, spending much of his time in
the British Museum. But his writings circulated among
small groups of dedicated socialists throughout Europe,
giving them at once a gospel and a plan of campaign.
And this despite the fact that his style is obscure and
difficult. In fact, in one case the difficulty actually helped
Marx: The censors of the Tsarist regime allowed his
greatest work, Das Kapital, to be published in Russia on
the grounds that it was not written in a popular style and
was therefore unlikely to find many readers. The Russian
edition, published in 1872, was the first translation, the
Above: picture drawn by a 14-year-old boy to describe
a dream in which he got out of bed and won a fortune at original work having appeared in German in 1867.
a slot machine. Sigmund Freud's writings have taught There was a French translation in 1875, but no English
that the repressed wishes revealed in such dreams may
edition until 1885, two years after Marx’s death. Since
be causes of mental illness. Below: detail from The
Metamorphosis of Narcissus (1937), by Spanish-born then it has been published in 210 different languages
surrealist artist Salvador Dali. The surrealists—greatly and has become second only to the Bible as an inter¬
influenced by Freud's theories of psychoanalysis—created
such dreamlike images in an attempt to express activities national best-seller.
of the unconscious mind. History has failed to fulfill some of Marx’s predictions
or has fulfilled them in a way he never foresaw. But just
as Darwin permanently changed our ideas of “biological”
man, so Marx, by insisting on the economic foundations
of society, contributed enormously to a major change in
our ideas of “social” man.
The third author, the Viennese physician Sigmund
Freud (1856-1939), effected a similar revolution in our
conception of the human mind. He was the first man to
make a systematic attempt to map the unconscious mind.
Freud’s starting point was mental illness, to cure which
he developed the theory and techniques of psychoanaly¬
sis. But the picture he drew (in The Interpretation of Dreams,
published in 1900, and in other books) was deeply dis¬
turbing, since it seemed to suggest that the sane, no less
than the insane, were at the mercy of unconscious proces¬
ses over which they had no control.
Both Darwin and Freud (and, as far as most of his
writings are concerned, Marx too) were learned men
addressing themselves primarily to specialists in their
own fields. But the content of their books was so explosive
that—given the increased speed of communication and
the growth of literacy—their ideas could not long be con¬
fined to specialists. They had an almost immediate
influence on contemporary literature, art, and philo¬
sophy, and through popularizations in books and in the
press they were soon influencing the thinking of ordinary
people.
143
Censorship and control
| PENGUIN BOOKS
LADY
CHATTSRLEY*S
LOVER
Left: In November 1960, Londoners
queue to buy the first unexpurgated
edition authorized in Britain of D. H.
Lawrence's Lady Chatterley’s Lover,
written in 1928. Its release came after
9.H.
a six-day trial in which the publishers,
LAWRlNCS prosecuted under the Obscene Publica¬
tions Act (1959), successfully defended
the novel as a work of literary merit.
Best-sellers
r
How writers use words
LJ i ORE
Lltteralre. Artiitlque. So dale
153
From manuscript to reader
156
part to play. The position of the writer who contributes
to this kind of book is very different from that of a
novelist; it is more like that of a script-writer in films
or television, where language is only one element in
the total means of communication. Pictures and captions
play as big a part as the text in putting over information
and ideas.
Because illustration, especially in color, is very costly,
it would be impossible to produce such books at a
moderate price for one country only. However, by
printing all the illustrations for every language edition
in one operation, the cost of production can be spread
over a much bigger market than one country alone could
provide. The original text and captions to the pictures
are produced in one country and translated into the
languages of the other countries.
These money-saving methods make it possible to
produce books for the international market that would
otherwise be too costly to publish. But that is not all.
The fact that such books are read by people in many
different countries has an effect on the way the books
are written. They must, as far as possible, take a world¬
wide rather than a national point of view. They are both
products of modern international co-operation and
conscious expressions of the 20th-century view that our
world is essentially one world.
157
Chapter 7
158
1Vs0
Expressive range
Theatre, music, and dance all arise from man’s need for
physical expression, but each translates into a separate
language. The language of theatre is primarily words;
that of music, sounds; and that of dance, movement.
Originally there was no barrier between them: Greek
tragedy, for instance, is said to have sprung from the
dithyramb, a religious chant sung and danced in honor of
the god Dionysus. And according to Hindu mythology,
drama had its beginnings in the rites enacted by the gods
Brahma and Siva when they created the world. In India
the unity persists in the principle of sangita, meaning the
fusion of dance, music, and drama into a single art.
Even where they diverge, the three arts retain certain
fundamental properties in common: They all involve
movement in time, and they are all performing arts—
they evoke emotions and states of mind by using perfor¬
mers to play on the senses of the spectator. And we can
still rediscover their close primitive relationship by ob¬
serving the way in which children’s speech turns into a
kind of song under the pressure of strong emotion, and
dance steps move spectators into beating out a rhythmic
accompaniment. However, such links tend to become
weaker as these three arts become more highly developed.
Drama and music show this tendency to separation
at its most extreme, for drama is addressed to the think¬
ing mind as well as the emotions, music is not. Because
drama is primarily a verbal art, it cannot help deal¬
ing with ideas, human character, and impressions of
society. Indeed, it is so much bound up with life outside
the theatre that it frequently parts company with art
altogether. But whether a drama sets out to reflect life
or to re-enact universal myths, its success depends on how
skilfully it transforms its material into action.
Music, on the other hand, is not usually about things at
all; it need contain no direct reference to the world out¬
side it. Its properties are pitch, rhythm, and timbre
(quality of sound), but it is impossible to convey the
appeal of these properties to anyone who has not ex¬
perienced their force. The closest one can come, in non¬
musical language, to describing the meaning of music is
to say that it conveys the eternal human emotions without
relying on any particular human situation. It can evoke
the emotions of love, defiance, or sorrow, as feelings in¬
separable from the general human condition. But drama
cannot say anything about such universal human
moods unless it speaks through one particular group of
men. Nor at least so far as Western drama is concerned
—can it sustain emotion for the length of time that music
can. True, m the ballet-like No plays of Japan attention
is focused on the characters’ reactions to events rather
tr n A
1
i+myt+smAS.
Language of music
171
Language of dance
176
mm
mm
Scientific and everyday language
ll
mm \1: ■
1
w
1? ^
e X ER GIT AT 10
ANATOMICA DE
MOTV CORDIS ET SAN- to describe new things and also to avoid using old and
GVINIS IN ANIMALI- familiar words; meanwhile let us look briefly at a simple
B VS,
word that is only a few years old and is already being mis¬
gVILIELMI HARVEI ANGLI,
MediciRtgii, <3" Trofejfom <sAnatomU in CoU used. Scientists are defending the enormous cost of the
UgiUMeMcnum tindwekfh program to put a man on the moon by saying that even
if it fails the amount of experience gained in many
branches of science makes the whole operation well
worthwhile. These “by-products” of the space program
have been described as “technological fallout.” Now the
word “fallout” was coined quite recently to describe the
deadly particles that poison the atmosphere after a
nuclear explosion, and the word already has an extremely
unpleasant and even frightening significance both for
scientists and the general public. In fact its use for any
other purpose is or should be already out of the question.
This single example shows how important it is that
descriptive words in science should be used only for the
purpose for which they were intended, and not dragged
out of their original context.
Because science concentrates on facts and figures, its
language contains no shades of meaning, no humor, no
Accurate observation led England's William excitement (except perhaps to another scientist), and no
Harvey to conclude that the heart was a pump and
that blood circulated around the body. His lyrical passages of the kind we find in novels. The language
account of his work was published in 1628. of science is in fact dull and even boring to the layman, and
it makes no appeal to people who love literature for its
own sake. But its precision gives it one very valuable
property: It can be translated from one language to
another without loss of information. (Such losses often
occur in translations of novels or poems, whose words and
idioms often have no exact equivalent in other languages.)
This means that the results of scientific research in one
country can be made available in any other country. And
since (apart from military and commercial secrets),
scientific research is international, the free exchange of
accurate information across national boundaries makes
for economy of effort and prevents the same work from
being done twice over. In this respect scientists, for all
their restrictive use of words, actually have an advantage
over novelists and poets.
There is one further difference between scientific and
ordinary language. In our daily lives we use two
languages, one spoken, the other written, and there are
considerable differences between them. The scientist, on
the other hand, must place his findings on record, and for
this purpose he uses a written language. For this written
language there is no spoken equivalent, no slang, no easy
colloquialisms. This is yet another reason why scientific
language, and the scientists who use it, appear to the lay¬
man to be stilted, pompous, and remote from the affairs
of everyday life.
Secondhand qarr
Furniture- PAVLS GVL.
MMMLXXXI
A large part of scientific information is purely descriptive; This London shopfront aims to attract attention
by displaying its telephone number in Roman
it tells us about things as they are. A textbook on zoology,
numerals. The number is shown decoded into
for instance, will describe the anatomy and habits Arabic numerals, which are quicker to read and to
of animals in their relationships to one another. In manipulate and so more efficient.
3V or r — 3^V
r3
47t5 4 X K
Scientific names made up Jrom Greek and Latin words: (1) Pterodactyl
(pteron wing, daktylos =finger). (2) A triangle with two equal sides is
isosceles (isos equal, skeios leg). (S) The watering can is made of
polyethylene (polys many). [Ethylene is an organic gas the gas
molecules are crowded together to form a new solid called a polymer
(meros part)]. (4) Stained specimens 0/Bacillus dysenteriae (bacillum
small stick, dys - ill, enteron intestines). (5) Electroencephalograph,
for measuring the electrical activity of the brain (electro electric,
en in, kephalon head, grapho I write).
word is made. Some of the simpler words arc made up by
a prefix (like “super” that is coupled to a sicffix like
“sonic”). Literally translated “supersonic” would mean
“above sound” ; scientifically it means a speed that is
faster than sound. “Ultrasonic” (literally “beyond
sound”) describes a sound of such high pitch that the
human ear cannot hear it.
Words that contain even more information are made
up by combining two or more classical nouns, adjectives,
or verbs. Thus a barograph (boros, weight; gmpho, I write)
is an instrument that records the changes in the weight of
the atmosphere that accompany changes of weather or of
altitude. It has no connection with any other weight¬
recording machine.
In the field of chemistry the naming of substances has
been less systematic. The word “gas” is an invention, a
deliberate corruption of “chaos.” Some elements, because
they were identified in a pre-scientific age, are named
unsystematically, like sulfur (which comes from a Sans¬
krit word). Again, the compounds of certain elements
were known before the basic elements were discovered;
thus the Persian borax gives us the name for the element
boron, and beryl is the Greek name for a semi-precious
stone that contains the element we now call beryllium.
Others like ytterbium are named after the places where
their discoverers were born in this case Ytterby in
Sweden;. The Austrian abbe Gregor Mendel (1822-84) laid
It is in the field of organic chemistry that the made-up the foundations of genetics by breeding hybrid
sweet peas. The name “Mendelism” has been
word really comes into its own, as a guide to the composi¬ given to the principles by which the characteristics
tion of very complicated compounds. One example is of parents are passed on to the offspring.
“trinitrotoluene,” a compound in which a hydrocarbon
(composed only of hydrogen and carbon i called toluene
has had three (tri) of its hydrogen atoms replaced by a
group containing nitrogen [intro). Since this word is too
big a mouthful for common use, we shorten it to TNT, the
well-known high explosive.
Finally, there is a small group of scientific words that
have no Greek or Latin origins. These are the words that
define quantities in electricity (itself of Greek origin,
from elektron meaning amber). Because electricity is in¬
visible and intangible, Latin and Greek had few useful
words to describe its properties. The problem was solved
by naming the various units of quantity after the scientists
who pioneered this branch of science. Thus, to give three
examples only, we have the unit of current or “ampere,”
named after Andre Marie Ampere of France (1775
1836), the unit of electrical pressure or “volt” after
Alessandro Volta of Italy (1745 -1827), and the unit of
electrical capacity or “farad” in honor of Britain’s
Michael Faraday (1791 1867).
\
************ »
I i
/ I \
►; *###»» *
** m* %
9 »
% *** 999 4*
9999 999 **»*»* I!
'* »»*»»* / **
r
99
& I t
9
t9
x
I9
A molecular model (see text) of the nucleic acid thymine 9
(which forms part of the heredity-code-carrying DNA
i « 99 3’i *
molecule). Black carbon, blue nitrogen, white
hydrogen, red oxygen. Right: part of a radio circuit
printed in raised plastic dots that convey information to a
i
9999999999 !
i
r:*«' 1
9
9
blind electrician who can read Braille. 9
sea can have complete confidence in the map because it
has been constructed in accordance with the rules of
trigonometry. Another important point about the map is
that although the paper on which it is printed is two-
dimensional that is it has only length and breadth the
map maker has succeeded in showing information in
three dimensions, that is to say he has shown how deep the
water is, by means of numbers. And by coloring he
separates the deep-water channel from shallower water,
and the shallow water from the land.
This method of presentation is an economical way of
showing things that have fixed relationships to one
another. The anatomical model pictured on these pages
is simply a three-dimensional map of part of the human
body. It does more than many hundreds of words to fix
in the mind the relations of tissues to one another.
Another representation that is useful to scientists is a
model of something that is too small to be seen in detail.
For instance, the chemist can combine the information
that he gets from chemical analysis with details revealed
by an electron microscope so as to construct a model of a
chemical compound in which the various atoms are
shown in their correct relations to one another. When the
model is completed (and it is often a laborious task), it
helps the chemist to visualize the molecule and to deduce
what its properties are likely to be.
In these and other ways, then, we can make factual
pictures of the world so as to show fixed relationships. But,
compass rose marked in degrees from both true and as we see in the following pages, we can also present
magnetic north, so that any bearing on a fixed object can varying relationships by means of pictures. And, again,
be transferred to the chart. The chart is a compact visual
such pictures are more economical and informative than
record of literally thousands of separate observations,
calculations, and carefully plotted results. words or figures.
*»f9
*
9
*
» »
l * i
»»&
9 r
” i
r t
v , / :
»-•
»»*»*»*«■*
How do we illustrate quantities that have a continuously A barograph tracing shows the variations in
varying relationship with each other? It may be that we atmospheric pressure continuously for a week.
The vertical lines are slightly curved so as to agree
want to make a pictorial record of the fluctuations of the with the pen, which, being pivoted, rises and falls
barometer from day to day; in this case, the variables are in the arc of a circle.
(i) atmospheric pressure and (2) time. Or we might want
to show the amount of salt that will be dissolved in a fixed
volume of water at different temperatures; the variables
are (1) weight of salt and (2) temperature. Any situation
in which one thing varies in relation to another can be
shown in a pictorial form known as a graph.
What are the advantages of this form of display? The
first benefit we get is that a large number of observations
can be shown in a compact form that can be taken in at a
glance. The barograph record shown on this page gives a
continuous record because the pen that traced the curve
was coupled to a barometer, but much the same graph
could have been made by observing the pressure on an
ordinary barometer every hour, writing it down and then
transferring the results to a piece of squared paper.
In fact, behind every graph except those made auto¬
matically, like the barogram, there is a large number of
observations recorded in the form of figures. Not only is it
much easier to read the graph than the figures, but, by
noting the steepness or flatness of the curve we can also
detect the rate of change. A steep curve indicates a rapid
change; a shallow one, a slow change.
To put results into the form of a graph is therefore
economical, vivid, and informative. It helps a scientist to
convey a mass of information to others. It also helps the
scientist himself, because he lays out his results in a way
that makes it easier for him to look at them as a whole and
to see whether his experiments reveal a consistent relation¬
ship between the quantities that he is measuring.
Another feature of graphs is that their shape is itself
informative. If two variables are plotted against each
other and the resulting graph is a straight line then we
know that the relationship is a direct one: Increase one
variable by a certain amount, and you automatically
increase the other by a fixed amount. But if the graph is
curved then we know that the relationship between the
Graph (right) relates jet velocity (in meters per second) to height 0/
water column (in meters) of the fountain in the picture above. By inter¬
polation (see text) we can be sure that a jet velocity of 35 meters per
second would be needed to make a 65-meter-high water column, or a
velocity of 43 meters per second to make one 95 meters high. Circled
points are discussed in the text.
variables is more complex. It may, for instance, contain a
square or square root.
In order to say what the relationship is, the scientist
must learn by experience the meaning of different curves
in his graphs. Those curves reveal the mathematical
relationship that exists between the variables.
There is another way in which we can get information
from graphs. Take, for instance, the graph on the opposite
page of the Geneva fountain. This graph could have been
constructed in two ways: either by observing the height
of the column of water for known jet velocities, or (as in
this case) by making calculations based on known
physical laws. Either way the shape of the curve can be
established by observing or calculating three fixed points
(circled in graph). We join these points with a smooth
curve, the lower end of which naturally fits into the corner
where both height and velocity are zero. -300 -200 -100 0 100
Now we have a graph that will give a great deal of
information. We can choose any jet velocity inside the The relation between temperature (horizontal
limits of the graph, and we can read off directly what the scale in C) and pressure (vertical scale in milli¬
meters of mercury) is shown for three gases. The
fountain height would be for that velocity. Or we can
observations are the dots that fall on straight lines,
work the other way round. We can take different fountain which extend (broken lines) to converge at
heights and read off what jet velocity would be necessary —273 C. The importance of this temperature is
made clear in the text.
to produce them. In either case, the graph saves us the
trouble of doing fresh calculations. This way of working is
called interpolation.
There is yet another way in which graphs can yield
extra information. The graph on this page (top right)
plots a number of relationships, which, we find, give
direct or straight-line graphs. If we extend these lines until
0-31
they meet the bottom scale (temperature), we find that
they all converge at the same point: 2730 c. At the
same time the reading on the vertical (or pressure) scale
is zero. Actually, we have never reached 2730 c. in any
experiment; but, even so, the graph tells us that there is
something very special about this temperature. We call
it Absolute Zero, the temperature at which gases have no
molecular activity (or pressure). We call this method of
getting information extrapolation.
Lastly, graphs can be very informative in showing a Variations in the intensity of radio noise from the direction
correlation between two (or more) events that we suspect of the sun are plotted (above) against a horizontal time
are in some way tied together. The middle graph shows scale of 64 days. A graph (below) of variations in the area of
visible sunspots for the same period shows very similar
how the radio c‘noise” (p. 225) that comes from the sun fluctuations. This “correlation” suggests a connection
fluctuates with time; the lower graph shows the varia¬ between noise and sunspots. Correlations of this kind are
useful guides to further research, but they do not by them¬
tions over the same period in the total area of visible sun¬
selves prove or disprove anything.
spots. Because both curves have the same general shape,
we can conclude that sunspots and noise are connected in
some way. It would be difficult to show this correlation
clearly without converting the observations into this
graphical form.
4 14 24 34 44 54 64
Time (days)
Scientific shorthand
atom of copper and one only, and this rule applies to all • Carbon
We cut this long description down to two words when O CD O Nitric oxide no2
we call marble “calcium carbonate”; but even that is
too long if we want to go further and describe how marble Ilu chemist John Dalton (J766-IX44) invented a
behaves with other compounds. So we use the symbols of set of symbols for elements. Four of the simplest
are shown here, singly and in combination. This
the elements it contains, and we call it CaCO;r We add shorthand” was unsuccessful: There were too
the number 3 after the oxygen symbol to show how many many patterns to memorize.
H 10
Hydrogen
Li 69 Be 90 B 10-8 C 12 0 N 14 0 O 16-0 F 19 0
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine
Rn 222 0 Mendeleev's Periodic Table {left) is discussed in the text. The elements
Radon
he knew of are shown on a white background; he also knew of the 15
“rare earthswhich he placed in Group III {grey box). Elements
Cm 245
predicted and later found consist of those shown on red background
Am 243 0
plus the six so-called inert gases {extreme right, grey), which fitted into a
Americium Curium
specially created group that was labeled zero.
Scientist and layman
Stored Communication
Man’s memory was the first and simplest tool for record¬
ing information; memory gave the first means of an
intellectual continuity. But the human mind does not
simply record facts; it assimilates and interprets them, and
so alters them, however subtly. Legends and stories
handed down through the ages may retain the traditional
outline, but they are changed in many of their details by
successive storytellers. The written word was the de¬
velopment that gave durability to communication.
Further, as soon as writing was developed, history
could be recorded permanently and in detail, technical
discoveries could be handed on, and records of every
kind could be kept. There was no longer any barrier to
communication between living men or between the past
and the present.
But information in itself is of no use unless it is stored in
such a way that it is easily and quickly available, and can
be readily used to the best advantage. It is the task of
libraries to store communication to this end, collecting,
organizing, and preserving it for use. Other kinds of
collections too are stores for our use and pleasure. In libraries ami museums nv can find
Archives, museums, and art galleries are all means of facts on every subject, from ancient
literature to the development of the
preserving material for present and future generations; wheel. Without such storehouses of
for it is not only the written word that can instruct and information, progress would be
virtually impossible, for each new de¬
delight us.
velopment in the sciences and in the
In the following pages we shall see how the storing of realm of ideas is based on work done
communication has developed, what are some of its in the past. Over the centuries, man
has gathered an immense mass of
extensions and allied concerns, and what are some of the information. As the sum of his know¬
problems involved. The storing of information is of great ledge grows, he mast continually seek
importance to us, for progress in every social activity more efficient methods of storing it so
that it will be readily available when
depends upon it. he needs it.
196
'//!** m
Mil
\—
litSuKjj
«ji T$ii|
•-
>
? £
■«»
What a library is
1 'if **
develop writing, there were two kinds of library. One was
the government archive, which contained records of
rulers, taxation, administration, and so on; the other
kind was the religious or temple library of sacred writings.
In both kinds of library, the records were written on
papyrus rolls and stored in clay jars. In the Mesopotamian
kingdoms of Babylonia and Assyria records were made on
baked clay. From the evidence of the thousands of
such “books” that have survived, it seems that as far back
as 3000 b.c. there were public and private libraries con¬ Part of a Greek astronomical papyrus written in Egypt
between the fourth and second century B.C. Greeks built
taining works on a great variety of subjects including many libraries to house their records and other writings.
medicine and astronomy. The greatest of these was at Alexandria, the city founded
During the great age of Greek civilization in the fifth in Egypt by Alexander the Great, which contained half a
million parchment and papyrus transcriptions.
and fourth centuries b.c., each city-state had its own
library, but little is known about them. It was the first of
the Greek rulers of Egypt, Ptolemy I, who founded the
great library of Alexandria in the last years of the fourth
century b.c. It was called the Museum, or home of the
Muses (the deities of art and learning and the daughters
of Memory), and this is the first use of a word that we
now apply to collections of things other than books. The
Alexandrian library was the greatest in the ancient
world. It was properly catalogued and contained half a
million manuscripts. It was destroyed in a.d. 391 by
order of the Roman emperor Theodosius, a Christian,
who aimed to stamp out pagan learning and belief; with
this destruction went much of the accumulated know¬
ledge of the ancient world including, for example, one of
the books of Euclid’s geometry.
The Romans took from colonies like Greece not only
the idea of libraries, but the books themselves. In the first
century b.c. the Roman scholar Lucullus threw his own
library open to other scholars. Later, emperors founded
public libraries, so that by the middle of the fourth
century a.d. there were 29 libraries in Rome alone.
Anyone, from nobleman to slave, could use them.
Another library, founded in the fourth century at
Constantinople, grew in 300 years to be what was then
flSSoT THE FINANCIAL times : Some of the material making up popular culture today is stocked
by a few special libraries. Montage, left, illustrates the kind of services
tfkoCfty: WBIT- Interview mit Professor J. M. Bochenski (FmuiH^ton) that these libraries provide, though not all are available at the same
library. From top to bottom: photographs; phonograph records; sheet
music; films; national and foreign magazines; jig-saw puzzles; and
newspapers. Many of these items can be borrowed and taken home.
Displaying collections
Long-distance Communication
210
Iff
mm
iM
Signals and codes
The above diagram charts the course of three letters (identified in key). local office for sorting. The local letter is delivered directly
The left half of the diagram represents a city in one country; the right from this office. The other two go on to a central sorting
half a city in another country. In column A stand postmen; column B, office. One is sent to a local office across the city. The
mail boxes; C, local sorting offices; D, central sorting offices. The three other goes abroad (broken line) for sorting and delivery.
letters begin their journeys in the mailbox at the top left. All go to one A similar story could have been told for the other offices.
Electric telegraphs
241
TELEGRAPHS DEPARTMENT
Most countries now have special forms or en¬
velopes jor telegrams containing messages of
greetings, condolence, and good will. Here are
examples from several countries. Top, Formosa;
center, Finland; far left top, Greece; jar lejt
bottom, France. In India they have standard
telegrams, but different envelopes (right).
;_2nPB63
--
i. XX- 241 -
_
X
litre O?
"V
,
0/,
217
C\ V’ A
< va
Telephony
We have seen that when people are too far apart to com¬
municate by speech or gesture, they have been driven to
devise alternative and sometimes roundabout ways of
passing on information. And we have seen too, how
spectacular advances both in speed and distance of
communication came in the 19th century with the under¬
standing of some of the properties of electricity. The 19th
century also gave us the telephone, the invention that
first enabled man to go back to using speech, this time
at any distance.
The idea of extending the range of human speech had
long intrigued scientists. As far back as 1667 the English
scientist Robert Hooke invented a crude telephone, in
which the sound waves set up by the speaker’s voice
struck a diaphragm of stretched skin or parchment that
was itself connected to a tight string or wire. At the other
end of the wire he placed another diaphragm that roughly
converted the original speech into audible air vibrations.
Hooke’s invention was effective for only a few yards,
because the vibrations died away in the wire.
What made the instrument that we call a telephone
possible was the discovery that electric currents can be
made to vary in strength or intensity very rapidly. The
American pioneer of telephony, Alexander Graham Bell,
put the problem in a nutshell when he said: “If I could
make a current of electricity vary in intensity precisely
as the air varies in density (that is, vibrates ) during the
production of sound, I should be able to transmit speech
telegraphically.” Bell succeeded in doing this by 1876.
He invented a crude microphone whose resistance to an
electrical current varied in harmony with the sound
In the early 1900s telephone lines, bunched into wax es striking its diaphragm, so that a current could be
cables, ran over city rooftops; today the wires are made to vary rapidly. At the other end of the wires was a
out of sight below pavements.
receiver, consisting of an electromagnet, through which
Below: Calls to and from foreign countries arc the now varying current flowed, vibrating another
handled at international exchanges where each
operator can speak at least two languages. diaphragm. This diaphragm converted the current back
into sound waves. Today’s telephone uses a more sensitive
microphone, invented by another American, Thomas
Alva Edison. It contains carbon granules, whose resis¬
tance to a steady current is influenced by the vibrations
of a diaphragm pressing against them.
Today, anyone with a telephone can speak to over 135
million other telephone users all over the world. Indeed,
the telephone has become so much a part of our business
and social life that we are inclined to take it for granted,
like gas and electricity. However, it is worthwhile con¬
sidering for a moment what telephone communication
gives us that we cannot get in any other way.
The first big advantage is that a telephone makes it
possible to hold a two-way conversation. We can ask
questions and get immediate answers, and we can discuss
a personal or business matter in detail. Conversation is
much more intimate because we can at once detect the
slightest changes of tone and expression in the other
person’s voice. There is only one way of saying “yes” in a
telegram, but there are many possible shades of ex¬
pression, from eagerness to reluctance, in the pronuncia¬
tion of the same word.
While the telephone is primarily an instrument for
two-way communication, most telephone services also
provide information that we can obtain by simply dialing
a number. A recorded voice then tells us the time, the
weather forecast, the latest sporting results, or even a
bedtime story. Familiar too are the emergency services
that we can call on, such as police, ambulance, and fire
brigade, by dialing an easily remembered number.
The telephone was the first instrument to make long¬
distance signaling personal and intimate. But what we do
not get in a telephone conversation is the full interchange
that is possible only when two people can both hear and
see each other (p.221 . However, most of us who regularly
use the telephone compensate for this almost uncon¬
sciously by taking more trouble over what we say. We try
to put more expression into our speech in order to replace
the facial expression and gestures that we would use in
talking face to face.
ABC
100
New communication systems, set up to satisfy the demand
200 for more and better channels through which messages
Frequency in kilocycles per second
700
Television Left: The diagram shows the allocation of radio frequencies to different
800 classes of communication. A frequency of 100 kilocycles per second {at
top) equals a wave length of3000 meters; at the bottom 1000 megacycles
900 per second equals 30 centimeters. All the available frequencies are in use.
This sometimes causes interference between stations, adds to the radio
1000 engineer's problems.
conversations into one wire through a special, very-high¬
speed electronic switch. The current corresponding to
each speaker’s voice is chopped by the switch into
bursts lasting less than a millionth of a second at intervals
of one ten-thousandth of a second. Another switch at the
receiving end sorts out these brief portions of speech
current; each listener thinks he is hearing an unchanged
voice, whereas in fact he is getting only a series of brief
samples. To him it is as good as the complete message,
just as a series of 24 still pictures a second thrown onto a
cinema screen appears to he a smoothly moving picture.
One of the basic facts with which communication
theory is concerned is that the rate at which information
can be sent through a cable or by radio is limited by the
range of frequencies or “band width55 that is available. A Highly schematic diagram above illustrates the action of
a maser. Crystal (A) is “pumped up” with microwave
simple message of the “on55and ‘6ofP’ kind, like Morse,
energy (B) by an electromagnet (dark grey). Weak in¬
needs only a very narrow band; but a television program coming signal (C) takes energy from the crystal atoms and
in which millions of bits of information are sent out in emerges amplified (D). Signal-to-noise ratio {see text) is
high, allows million-times amplification.
every second to make up the picture—calls for a wide
band of frequencies. As we can see in the diagram left a
very small change of wave length in the ultra-short-wave
part of the spectrum results in a huge change in frequency.
Thus, in that part of the spectrum there is room for a
large number of high-information transmitters, each with
its own allocation of frequencies, or band width.
Communication theory is also concerned with “noise,”
a word that is used in communications to describe any
unwanted interference. If you are trying to talk to some¬
one across a crowded room, you will not he heard unless
your voice is strong compared with the level of conversa¬
tion. The engineer would say that the signal-to-noise ratio
must reach a definite figure before the message can be
intelligible. Noise in telegraph and telephone systems,
whether by line or by radio, can come from a number of
sources, for example, amplifiers or “repeaters55 in a tele¬
phone cable, or devices for amplifying signals in radio
receivers.
Thunderstorms and the bombardment of the atmos¬
phere by particles from the sun also cause interference.
Even the flow of electrons in a wire can cause noise, and a
great deal of research goes into designing electronic
apparatus that will keep the signal-to-noise ratio at a
satisfactory level. One such instrument is the maser (see
diagram) a crystal that can be “pumped up55 with The U.S. Naval Research Laboratory's radio telescope
electronic energy, in which state it can receive a very (1above) is fitted with a maser {in “box” at focus, top left)
that enables it to amplify the very feeble signals that are
weak signal and give out an enormously amplified
received from outer space.
replica. The maser is very silent in proportion to the
amplification it gives, and it can be made even more Long-distance telephone calls must be amplified at regular
silent by keeping it at a very low temperature (about intervals. Below is a section through a repeater {amplifier)
of the kind that is spliced into submarine cables every
— 268° c.) in a bath ofliquid helium. 20-odd miles.
Social consequences
Mass Media 1 :
The Press
228
Growth of the press
Above: Postboys took 10 days to carry news the The idea of supplying news for sale dates from Renais¬
370 miles from London to Edinburgh in the mid-
nth century. Mail coaches {right), introduced in sance times. As cities grew and trade spread through
1784, cut this time to two days. Europe, people found it necessary to know what was
happening in places far afield. But the printers (who were
the first journalists) .had to rely on news from chance
travelers, and so they gave their customers “news
pamphlets” produced at irregular intervals.
In 1622 a dozen printers in London, the Low Countries,
and some Rhineland towns arranged to exchange regular
letters and were thus able to produce weekly newspapers.
At first these were concerned mainly with foreign news,
but they gradually came to give most of their space to
domestic politics, which had become too complex for the
ordinary citizen to follow by word of mouth. The situa¬
tion was now ripe for the daily newspaper, and the first
the London Daily Courant -was founded in 1702.
The 18th century brought improvements in printing
and in the regularity of mail coaches, both of which aided
news gathering and the building up of newspaper circula¬
tions. Journalism became a profession instead of a side
line for the enterprising printer. The newspaper became
an accepted part of life in Western Europe and America.
Monarchs and governments, however, looked with
disfavor on papers that expressed independent opinions or
published facts that authority wished to conceal. Editors
were openly bribed by the agents of ministers; those who
refused to be subservient were harried and imprisoned.
In most countries a paper could not appear at all without
an official license. Even governments that were not dicta¬
torial believed that only the educated few should concern
themselves with public events, and they sometimes limited
circulation (notably in England) by imposing a heavy tax
on each copy of a newspaper. Even in 1815 The Times of
London, with a circulation unrivaled in the world, sold
Political candidates bribing a voter—scene
only 5000 copies a day. Its selling price was 7d., of which
depicted by the English artist William Hogarth
{1697 1 764). In Hogarth's time newspapers that 4d. was tax.
exposed such practices were liable to be silenced Great changes came at about the middle of the 19th
by the government. In many other cases, editors
were bribed to suppress news.
century. Political liberty became the rule rather than the
exception. Taxes on the press were abolished. News came
Early English railway train, 1831. The coming of
the railways greatly speeded up both news into the offices speedily by telegraph and later by tele¬
gathering and the distribution of papers. phone. Printing could be done far more quickly (p. 140),
and railways rushed the papers to distant towns and
villages. The large-scale exploitation of the Canadian
forests and the use of improved machinery in paper mills
made paper cheaper. In England and America advertis¬
ing began to contribute significantly to revenue pp. 241,
285 . For all these reasons, newspapers could be pro¬
duced in large numbers and far more cheaply than before.
Most papers reduced their prices to what the clerk or the
craftsman if not yet the laborer could afford.
Even the cheaper papers, however, were serious in tone.
Their long descriptive accounts were written by well-
educated men for well-educated readers. It was in the
1890s that a quite new style was introduced, in Britain
by Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord Northcliffe), in the
United States by William Randolph Hearst, both of
whom soon had imitators. They served up the news in
short items, rewritten in the office in simple and standard¬
ized prose, under large headlines; they gave space to
crime reports, scandals, and personal interviews. Their
papers sold at a price within the reach of the poorest, and
appealed to a new generation whom free and compulsory
education had made literate.
Viennese coffeehouse, about 1900. In Europe, coffee¬
houses have been centers for newspaper reading and dis¬ In Britain, and in small countries such as the Nether¬
cussion since the early days of the press; many still supply lands, speed of transport had produced the national news¬
newspapers as part of their service to customers.
paper, which reached breakfast tables throughout the
country. Harmsworth’s Daily Mail was soon selling a
million copies. In most European countries, in America,
and on other continents, the regional newspaper re¬
mained and still remains the rule. But, especially in
such centers as New York and Chicago, popular news¬
papers sold in hundreds of thousands.
The present century is the age of the mass-circulation
press. In Britain the two biggest daily papers sell over
four million copies each. In all industrially advanced
countries it is normal for people of all classes to read a
newspaper. For every 1000 people, including children,
573 daily papers are sold in Britain, 462 in Sweden, 400
in Japan, 347 in the United States, 277 in West Germany,
244 in France, and 107 in the Soviet Union. This means
that papers compete fiercely for readers. Circulation¬
boosting techniques include sensational treatment of
news as well as a wider coverage of it. There is now a deep
gulf between the popular press, with its enormous sales,
and the “quality” papers such as The Times in London or
Le Monde in Paris, whose higher prices and advertising
rates compensate them for limited sales. However, the
gulf is still bridged by certain papers whose serious tone
has not prevented them from holding a fairly large
circulation; thus the New York Times sells 750,000 copies
and the London Daily Telegraph over a million.
sez-vous!
HEROES’ FAMILIES 3
FRENCH BREACH
eusnv Lite
7mMile Gain Scored
The changing approach of editors to layout. Dull staff and agency despatches on similar subjects. Specialists
text-crammed Dutch newspaper of 1808 (left)
was typical of early press. Center: American do the same in their own departments. The chief in¬
paper of 1944; its headline-filled front page dustrial correspondent, for example, may have to get
appealed to a wider public. Popular contemporary news of four labor disputes into one story.
layout is represented by French daily {right).
All material is prepared for the press by copyreaders
(called subeditors in Britain). They make the writing
conform to the paper’s usual style, check the accuracy of
details, and amplify or (far more often) shorten a story to
fit the allotted space. In some cases they make up head¬
lines, but specialists are often employed to do this.
A daily newspaper of any importance has several
editions at least two and perhaps as many as six. If a
great deal of important news comes in during the night,
many changes are made between editions. The features
may also be changed between editions.
Some papers print editions simultaneously in more
than one city, using the principle of the teleprinter (p.
217). This is called teletypesetting. An operator at head
Illustration from Loyal Protestant and True office types the text onto a machine that converts the
Domestic Intelligencer {an English newspaper of
1681) showing a huge hens egg containing the letters into a code of perforations. The code is transmitted
forms of comets and stars that Mas alleged to have by wire or radio to the other printing center, where the
been laid in Rome -cm early example of the use of
signals operate a “re-perforator” that produces an
sensational news items to attract readers.
identical code on tape. This tape is fed into a specially
adapted Linotype machine (p. 141 that sets up fresh
type automatically.
Another method is to take a papier-mache imprint of
each page of type. These imprints (or matrices) are sent by
air to the other printing center, where they serve as
molds for casting fresh type. It is by this technique that
each issue of the New York Times is printed in Los Angeles
and in Paris on the day on which it is published in New
York.
ma m*
man, Dutch, Italian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian,
'AHKKAH HOMOSNA AKO BliSH i*4H t>AH NAJIZ TSASK'EH M HOOCHAM
NtUGIIYA, DAH MANIDAAHI ®i < ’ Finnish, Arabic, and Japanese > and has a circulation of
NlhfcW* UM«|fc^MT NaAithkIImhVIk64A _
lwM'ifc>tall kwAkkxkimlfikgkl raHkk* >*•«»— AM ■— over 24 million copies.
•UAHUUn'. OwAln^MiaM ——- ■ W«S T
Son ANraoh k'odnoonlAtcch to In Britain such “general interest” magazines have
Att'4.'klhotbUMaln. SomAhkaoh
r«yi N NkfaHf noogM d66
k'ori'oAdlodUn btn6#r' •: Fart been ousted by mass-circulation weeklies aimed especi¬
<■ v 66' ■!«»’ |M. 'Oho'
Ltwh Colorado twoVdoS IHto’ d66
Nimte
yitt'Mydd d66 Colorado blghl* okot
bktWU 4o' yd raolntftgo to nd6-
ally at women, and concentrating on fashion and beauty,
romantic stories, and home interests. As well as women’s
t'doc bdW* y64* •WJi'fo papers, many countries have periodicals for children and
others for teenagers. Some of these are comics that aim at
m'k m 'chayAT
noaTdonK -dl. p hnklhodooiiy TM
ttf o f«yi f<56 ’I.' shMfoo'lgl ‘ the simplest kind of entertainment and consist solely oi
stories in strip-cartoon form; but, particularly in recent
NAAIMHO IA MYC8I TO UdW' la' haddddhadMxk'M Hga 'in-
dokp'lgil hadankm'jf jlni, bo* ttt years, periodicals of high educational value have
|W »•'-
- V* dozhdlllld d66 to' t*«y6 taka»'~
TO Stilt*
*'H* ...;.^,iruhooy»
’ddMtiTnMdljdAfM'ld Hnf. 'Aka'«
l OktethyfrdW Noobohd to" il'dit 'AdgyMIoago ytn hoddt
■oufcdnl Mobat Bumsidi Mym aM- doMaatbch MI At'M' ntyolgo bMtott flourished.
bM'M" b«nMc66> d66 k'ad ndindlohgo ghd* Idt diyogi ch it hn da'mtn&h^ri t'64 ttodoh ‘aWzhnatzdaa* |lnl, la"4-
bo* 'Alyoogoyra konorar* “J“‘ nHgo i‘4M eh'«m.dikf rt* ty'dink to-
dx»Tto> ‘Aya fM K'od I«y5 bra
‘•fc’Indo'a'niU (carara) bllh ndt'dahjo My«» yi Noat'Aanil doh 'ohtnldkahgo yilttad nl |lrtl ti *ii
Another type of weekly paper is the journal of opinion,
gi dtyogf *dT|lfli blhooooh |M DtyogJ b* Ndskdn yit noa'ouhgo dM t'46 Wk>
It’fdi 'ogb *"--- - ‘ ‘ hddzldgonitwai-
i*»rv mw ih»f"<*“
6ni|M T46
nihlrslijr bikTdaadti <H4 "ton- «*♦«&. which is aimed at a well-educated public and advances a
CHKI DODO DAATSAAM go nfteh'l gK hollgli nl M
Dink kg' '(to' 'knRgot'ktyd
NAAMSHOtA'TINH.VAAJIMI Chaa Dodge tddyilgocbottoohgo ' ttkag'd**' ta'OfcMnl nook* point of view in social, political, and cultural matters.
Such journals rarely sell more than 100,000 copies, but
Navaho warrior of North America, pictured weeklies such as UExpress in France, the New Statesman
beside a monthly newspaper published in the and The Economist in Britain, or the Nation and the New
Navaho language for the people of this Red Indian
tribe, The paper's name means "‘current events Republic in the U.S.A. have an influence out of all propor¬
tion to their circulations and are read widely in other
countries.
Other weeklies, fortnightlies, monthlies, and quarterlies
are devoted to literature and the arts. As well as long and
influential reviews, they print poems, stories, and some¬
times even complete short novels. Many distinguished
writers have gained their first hearing through such
journals. Intellectual life would be much poorer without,
for example, America’s Partisan Review, La Nouvelle NRF
in Paris, and Botteghe Oscure in Rome. The worlds of
music, drama, and the film each have their own journals.
Scientific magazines and journals are numbered by the
thousand. Some, like Scientific American and Britain’s New
Scientist, explain scientific developments to the ordinary
reader. Some notably the medical weeklies in each
country, which are read by the majority of doctors—
provide an exchange of information within a profession.
Others confine themselves to a single branch of science
and are intended for specialists, who can thus keep abreast
of discoveries that are made all over the world.
Other periodicals serve such specialist groups as
lawyers, industrialists, farmers; religious communities;
*§ Ocean Times teachers and educators; the followers of various sports;
and enthusiasts for stamp collecting, photography,
gardening, and many other hobbies.
Some idea of the scope of the periodical press can be
gained from the 1956 UNESCO Survey. Italy, to take
just one country, was listed as having 5107 periodicals,
including 146 literary journals, 1299 political journals,
and 1487 periodicals of a scientific or technical nature.
1’Unita
Daily Mirror
NEW -*~YORK
The web of paper is transferred from the wire mesh (2) into a long
drying section comprising heated rollers. The paper then passes
through a calender (J), where heavy rollers compress it and smooth
its surface. Next, it is wound into rolls, each about five miles long,
but taking only 20 minutes to form. Rolls are then cut to customers'
4 requirements and parceled (4) for despatch.
Ownership and control
Mass Media 2:
246
' 4 jp V**
MS#
.-
mia
p%
4 •i -
*
%| &
h
m
Development of film and radio
261
Entertainment
rx™ by the time the strike had come to an end 68 per cent
had decided that it was poor and only 16 per cent still
’1 m
thought it was excellent. People complained that they
could not absorb a mass of spoken material; and that
they could not go back to check on anything. In general,
we may say that while television has produced some
brilliant background documentaries it cannot compete
with the press in reporting in depth.
Television, like radio, is extensively used today as an
instrument of political and commercial persuasion. But
here again, research indicates that the power of these
media to manipulate minds is very limited, for people
tend to pay attention only to the material that reinforces
their own preconceived ideas (p. 304). And a survey
taken in one American town showed that women’s choice
of goods, fashions, and films was more heavily influenced
by personal contacts than by any of the mass media.
People who fear the abuse of the mass media as instru¬
ments of political and commercial persuasion base their
fears mainly on the fact that these media are one-way
channels of communication. But this description is only
partly true in most Western societies, where interviews
with ordinary people form an essential part of daily
radio and television broadcasting.
Of course, these interviews are selected by those who
control and operate the mass media. But in many
countries, these powers are widely distributed. On the
whole, our mass media probably give a fairly accurate
reflection of people’s daily activities all over the world.
And in doing so, they enlarge our knowledge, making it
possible for us to play a more intelligent role in our own
society.
268
How do we learn ?
Above: a 17th-century English woodcut depicting Although learning is a continuous process almost from
a Dame School, where poor children were taught
birth, there are some things that can be learned almost
the alphabet, sewing, and a little scripture. Right:
modern schoolboys enjoying a woodwork lesson at once, and other things that can only be learned later.
one of the many creative activities offered in One reason for this is that although a baby is born with
today's primary schools.
a network of nerves, these nerves are unable to carry
messages until they have acquired a coating of insulation
or myelin, a process that is not complete before the
child is a year or so old. A simple example, early in a
baby’s life, concerns its ability to discern moving objects.
This ability comes after about three months, and is
connected with developments in the optic nerve and in
the area of the brain that deals with visual images (p. 83).
Similarly, a child has to learn how to control its
muscles. This is very well seen in the time it takes for
a child to learn to talk. This is, of course, a complex
process. First the child has to relate the sounds its
parents make with certain meanings; then it tries to
reproduce the sounds, and this involves quite complex
movements of vocal cords and of the lips and tongue.
The time a child takes to learn to speak fluently varies
enormously; but during his first couple of years or so
the average child cannot do more than put into words
his simplest wants or feelings.
But it is not only in infancy (literally, “the time of
speechlessness”) that there is a time before which one or
other feat of learning is impossible. The human brain
goes through a series of developments. An abstract sense
of time, for instance, is generally wholly lacking until
the age of five. From then on, the child begins to under¬
stand time in relation to its own experience and to relate
events over greater and greater spans. But normally it
is not until a child is about 11 years old that it can under¬
stand the idea of duration of time and so think of a past
and a future independent of itself'. It is thus mistaken
ON-OFF switch
Selector buttons
for multiple
choice of answer
High-contrast
viewing screen
RETURN button
traditional way. But it has this advantage: A lesson that
has been prepared for the machine can be multiplied
hundreds of times and used by a much greater number
of pupils. Just as printed books multiplied the original
manuscripts, so the teaching machines (although they
are not suitable for every subject multiply the teachers,
and, as we shall see p. 280 , the need for teachers is
increasing all the time.
The essence of the teaching machine is that, like a
good teacher, it offers information in short stages. At
the end of each stage the learner has to answer a set of
questions. These questions are not an examination or a
test in the usual sense of the words; they are there simply
as a way of finding out if the leaner has understood what
he has read so far. The correct answer to the questions
is shown, and if the learner has given a wrong answer
he is told to go back so many pages and re-read certain
information. If, on the other hand, he answers all the
questions correctly, he can go on to receive further
instruction, followed by further check questions. In this
way the learner can absorb a new subject in a series of
short, logically related steps.
Thus each pupil can work at his own speed, without
either waiting impatiently for the teacher to explain
difficulties to more backward pupils or, on the other
hand, being hurried ahead too fast. Many pupils work
better with a machine than they do with a teacher;
instead of sitting back and being spoon-fed by someone
else, they now have to accept responsibility for their own
progress and this seems to act as a stimulus to better work.
At the heart of this method is the periodical question
Language students at the University of Dakar, Senegal,
and answer. Any good learning program makes use of
working in special booths equipped with tape recorders. this process, but its effect on the pupil goes much further
Both the lessons and the students' answers are recorded, than merely finding out whether he understands the
so that each student can have the benefit of individual
tuition throughout the course. argument so far. Just as an immediate reward to a
performing sea lion helps to make sure that he will
perform again and that he will remember what he has
to do, so in the teaching process the satisfaction of getting
the right answers acts as a reward, and the pleasure of
being right helps to fasten the subject matter into the
pupil’s memory and urges him on to further study. This
process (which is called reinforcement) is basic to all lasting
learning.
The teaching machine has the further advantage that,
j j { i $ if the pupil gets the wrong answer, and has to retrace
his steps, this is a matter for himself alone. He does
not run the risk of being told he is stupid in front of his
classmates, a situation that can very well deter a pupil
and impede his progress by acting in the opposite direc¬
tion from reinforcement.
281
Chapter 14
Advertising
282
. rm
*Wmmi
T4
Jgs; 8 m
' J
<*s*.
/a
Growth of advertising
JUUEA
VESTRISi SSTTHE
mei
ESBOT!
R**** thwy j. ^ ^
C'REF
mm -
Hg& si |
RIIWmamrm113^ 3
Advertising in a London street, 1835. Posters pasted The cries of the pedlar and the fairground barker of
up at random were no more eye-catching than handbills.
Advertisers depended on lengthy verbal messages medieval times were forerunners of the radio or television
delivered in small, difficult-to-read print. commercial. The striking difference‘between our own and
earlier ages is the scale of advertising in the more advanced
r* ~ ™ » y, economies. This scale depends on a number of inter¬
jp
related factors: the scale of production, the development
LEVI SWA«SS*
SAN FRANCtSCO.CAU
CO and scope of distribution services and of communication
media, and the size of the potential market. These factors,
in turn, depend on the extent to which a community’s
wealth is distributed among its members. The English
author Dr. Johnson remarked on the “very numerous”
advertisements in the papers of his day; but in fact, like
the papers themselves, they were almost exclusively
addressed to the wealthy minority who formed the market
for such luxuries as books, theatrical entertainments,
hi 4J.S A
houses, servants, wigs, perfumes, tea, coffee, spices, silks,
Lot :>.o i z X X W30 .L36 and medical “remedies.” The typical working man of the
•**> 18th century was lucky if he earned enough to provide
“jingle” (a short, catchy song designed to stick in the *ARTICULAR PEOPLEPRESENTS for PARTICULAR PEOPLEi|
esents for particular people presents for particular
hearer’s mind). One such jingle, a Pepsi-Cola advertise¬ ARTICULAR peOplePRESENTS FOR PARTICULAR peoplePRi
ment sung to the tune of the old English song “John Peel,” PEOPLE PRESENTS**”*™™ PEOPLE PRESEi
was broadcast 296,426 times over 469 American radio
stations in 1941. The massive protest mail provoked by
HEALS HE tt$. --HEALS
.E presents for Particular PEOPLE. presents
HEAL
FOR Partit
this campaign showed how successful radio could be in *ARTIcULAR WOMf PRESENTS for PA RTIcULA R PEOPLEi
catching attention, but that sales do not automatically
esents for particular people presents for particular
ARTICULAR peOplePRESENTS FOR PARTICULAR peoplePR
follow. But selling by jingle realizes its fullest possibilities
PEOPLE PRESENTS*™ «■"*«*■ PEOPLE PRESET
on the TV screen, where the salesman can appear as a
“friend” in the midst of the family circle.
MEALS
.E presents
HEALS
FOR Particular
for
PEOPLE presents
HEAL
FOR Parties
>ARTICULAR PEOPLEpresents for PARTICULAR PEOPLEp
esents for particular people presents for particular
Customers of a leading London store carry ARTICULAR peOplePRESENTS FOR PARTICULAR peoplePR*
away their purchases in bags that bear this
brief slogan. Because it is intended to be read
PEOPLE PRESENTS1* PEOPLE PRESEf
at a glance, the slogan does not advertise a HE^S HEALS for PRESENTS HEAL S HEAL
particular article, but simply associates the
store with good taste and modernity.
Who is "the customer" ?
ChEMSTRAISD
advertising is that it varies so much between one kind of
product and another. For example, in America in 1959
the average proportion of advertising costs to sales in¬
comes was 1.6 per cent; but it varied from 0.3 per cent in
the case of gasoline and oil and industrial metals to 1.2
for automobiles, 2.5 for foods and beverages, 5.3 for
alcoholic drinks, 6.9 for tobacco, and 8.7 for drugs and
cosmetics. These differences are partly accounted for by
different marketing methods. For instance, some kinds of
product depend more on shop-window display or door-to-
door salesmen to maintain and increase sales than on
advertising. In other cases, the differences reflect fierce
competition between rival firms or the higher costs of
opening up a new market. The detergent war of recent
years shows both these factors at work. It has also given us
an example of the creation of new products whose only
important differences from the old ones are different
brand names.
There is some evidence that too much competition in
advertising cancels itself out and only results in higher
prices. Nevertheless, it is certainly true that in general
advertising helps to increase sales. A striking example of
how effective advertising can be was provided recently
by a small American company—Alberto-Culver which
launched a television campaign for a new hairspray. In
under a year it captured 10 per cent of the hairspray
market.
The main justification for advertising is that the
possibility of producing more means the possibility of
producing more cheaply. In 1925 Life magazine carried a
full-page advertisement advertising the virtues of adver¬
tising. “Andy Consumer” has just been ticking-off his
wife for wanting to buy an electric washing machine
when the light suddenly dawns on him. “I begin to see
that it’s advertising that makes America hum,” he says.
“It gives ginks like me a goal. Makes us want something.
And the world is so much the better for our heaving a little
harder. Looking at the advertisements makes me think
I’ve GOT to succeed. Every advertisement is an advertise¬
ment for success. I guess one reason there is so much success
in America is because there is so much advertising —of
things to want—things to work for.”
We don’t have to accept this as an adequate philosophy
of life in order to be convinced that advertising works, and
that it has an important part to play in any capitalist
economy. Between March 1953 and September 1954,
when national income fell by 2.6 per cent in the U.S.A.,
advertising expenditure was increased by 7 per cent. If
advertising had fallen off instead of rising, the slump
might have been a good deal worse.
298
Forming opinions
■
to the Roman Catholic Church. But in America and 1 and business and lower professional
Britain the general pattern is clear: Most working-class
people vote for the radical parties (the Democratic Party 1 Middle professional
1 and business Manual workers
in the United States and the Labour Party in Britain
while most middle- and upper-class people vote for Small business and
the conservative parties (the Republican Party in higher white-collar
SOFTBSSETTC
CHRIST RBEL
PfcNKHURST
No government, whether it be autocratic or representa¬ In London in 1913 suffragettes parade with sandwich
boards bearing propaganda slogans in three languages
tive, can afford completely to ignore public opinion. during their campaign for the vote for women. Before
Even a dictator may be swept away by the unforseen public-opinion polling was developed, it was very difficult
to measure the support for such campaigns.
violence of public reaction to an unpopular policy, and
the way that modern dictators such as Adolf Hitler and
Benito Mussolini used propaganda to mold people’s
thoughts showed that they were well aware of this. But
the need to know accurately what people are thinking is
much greater where rulers are elected by the whole
country in open competition with candidates supporting
different policies. Votes themselves are an expression of
public opinion, but the politician wants to know its
strength and mood long before elections take place, so
that he can trim his policies to suit it or do his utmost to
counter opposition before it is too late.
Before the development of scientifically conducted
public opinion polling in the 1930s, various methods were
used to measure public opinion. Some of these methods
such as the size of the White House mailbag the
number of letters or telegrams sent to the American
president to express views on particular issues—or the
number of telephone calls to a broadcasting organization
commenting on programs) are still used as rough and
ready guides. But how misleading the results of such
methods can be was shown during the American presiden¬
tial election campaign of 1936. On the strength of two
million replies to a postcard ballot, the Literary Digest
predicted a win for Landon, the Republic candidate.
Its prediction proved to have an error of no less than 19
per cent, whereas the Gallup Poll, based on a sample of
jiTfli
mm tgL We have seen that a person’s opinions are largely for¬
mulated through discussion with other members of the
groups to which he belongs (p. 304 . The main purpose
of some groups is to propagate their own views and to
further their own interests. Those views and interests
may be relatively limited in scope (as, for example, with
a trade association or an association for the protection of
children or animals , or they may be more or less all-
embracing. The program of a political party, for instance,
usually touches on most aspects of community life.
The British Conservative prime minister Benjamin
Disraeli 1804-81 described the political party as
“organized opinion.” But a party must do much more
As this 1881 news picture of the mobbing of a procession than organize already existing opinions if it is to win
in a London street shows, in its early days the Salvation power and achieve its ends. It must persuade as many
Army met with much hostility in working-class areas; people as it can to accept its policy and to vote for it.
but it gradually won respect through its concern for
material as well as spiritual welfare. Many of the most successful politicians have intui¬
tively understood what the psychologists confirm that
facts and reason are seldom the most effective tools of
persuasion. In 1963 the chairman of the Republican
Party in Colorado advised Republicans: “Be emotional.
Reach for people’s guts; that’s where they live. If people
thought before they voted, Nixon would be President.”
His concluding words illustrate one important role of
party propaganda. Their purpose is not conversion but
reinforcement. They aim to rally the forces of those already
convinced that the party is right.
Richard Nixon himself gave one of the most masterly
performances of emotional propaganda in modern times
in 1952, when he was running for the U.S. vice-presi¬
dency alongside General Eisenhower, the Republican
candidate for the presidency. Nixon had been accused of
unfair practices in raising funds to support his campaign.
He replied to the charges in a nation-wide television
broadcast that has been described by the American com¬
mentator Edward R. Murrow as “probably the single
most effective use of television in politics.” One of the
most telling parts of his reply was his confession that he
had accepted the gift of a cocker spaniel from a supporter.
Saying that his six-year-old daughter, Tricia, had named
it Checkers, he told viewers: “And you know, the kids
love that dog.” Another key point was his reference to his
Irish-American wife. “I’m not a quitter,” he said, “and
incidentally Pat is not a quitter. After all, her name was
Patricia Ryan and she was born on St. Patrick’s Day, and
you know the Irish never quit.”
Ed Murrow reports: “The result was sensational
telegrams, telephone calls, came pouring in, Eisenhower
and Nixon staged a reunion, posed for pictures with arms
around each other . . . Without question, Nixon was
“The Russian bear—the most dangerous of all “The Workers' Paradise." In this cartoon, with
bears" so the great French satirical artist Stalin perched on top of a pyramid supported by
Honore Daumier (1808 79) saw the menace of the workers, the English artist John Olday
Russian imperialism one hundred years ago, at depicts Stalin's Russia as a mockery of the equali-
the time of the Crimean War. tarian ideals of its Communist rulers.
Conforming and dissenting
311
Indoctrination and authority
“Who buys from the Jews is a traitor" says the poster on the extreme
left. The Nazis whipped up fear and hatred of the Jews to unify Germany
under their leadership—symbolized by Goring's famous “we can't
have guns and butter" speech {left). Their indoctrination of youth
was so successful that children spied even on their own parents.
Brainwashing
breakdown to occur varied not only according to the Below: A remarkable feature of the great Communist
way the dog was treated, but also according to its tem¬ purge trials in Russia in 1936 38 was the success the
prosecutors had in inducing veteran revolutionaries, who
perament and physical condition. A dog weakened by showed no signs of ill-treatment, to confess to having
fever or exhausting work broke down more quickly than a betrayed their ideals. The fact that the brainwashed
dog in good condition. victims were swiftly executed, however, makes it im¬
possible for us to judge whether the effects of the brain¬
Pavlov’s discoveries help us to understand the behavior washing would have been permanent. {Photos of the trials
of human beings in situations that cause strong excite¬ are no longer available.)
ment or anxiety. The use of stimuli to assist in . the in¬
doctrination of beliefs is probably as old as man himself.
Examples are drumming and chanting, military bands
and torchlight processions, narcotic drugs, alcohol, and
incense. In many of these examples the stimuli are
strengthened by the contagiousness of crowd emotions,
so that each individual becomes not only an object but a
source of stimulus. The physical condition of the partici¬
pants is also important. Thus fasting is an aid to worship;
while tribal dancing is frequently performed to the
point of utter exhaustion.
In the above cases, the participants presumably are
more or less willing. But the same kinds of stimuli can
be used to force a prisoner to break down and “confess.”
Fierce lights and shrill noises, for instance, have been
314
used in this way and we all know from everyday life
how such things “get on one’s nerves.” During Com¬
munist campaigns in East Germany to force farmers to
accept collective farming, platoons of party workers
moved into the villages and bombarded the inhabitants
with a ceaseless stream of propaganda. Stubborn farmers
were kept awake at night by bright lights and loud¬
speakers; the propagandists hardly left their sides or
stopped talking at them until they gave in.
Harrying by unpleasant stimulation of the senses may
be alternated by the withdrawal of normal stimuli. Such
deprivation is a normal element of prison life, and in¬
deed of most institutional life, from that of convents and
monasteries to that of hospitals, reformatories, military
camps, and so on. For example, the individual loses his
own clothes and nobody asks him what he would like to
eat; and naturally there is less variety of social stimuli.
All this may eventually lead to neurosis, as it sometimes
does among people who spend long periods in hospital.
In the case of a prisoner a refusal to cooperate fully with
the authorities may be punished by more extreme forms
of deprivation, such as solitary confinement. Such con¬
ditions, especially if combined with lack of food and
physical weakness, may give rise to hallucinations and to
a mental state in which critical powers are reduced and Above: 23-year-old Frenchman Michel Siffre is brought to
the surface after spending 17 days alone in a cave in
the prisoner is open to almost any suggestion.
1962. Such experiments show that isolation from normal
Some of the findings and techniques described here sights and sounds can produce severe mental instability
have been applied in brainwashing. First the victim’s and a state of extreme credulity. One psychiatrist who
acted as a guinea pig in an experiment was so disturbed
resistance is worn down through the infliction of pain, after a few minutes alone in a sound-absorbing room that
fear, and humiliation; then he is made to feel guilty, he had to be let out.
unclean, unworthy; and then, when he feels utterly
Below: At the end of the Korean War, prisoners are
degraded, he is offered the chance to redeem himself. In exchanged at Panmunjon. The Chinese successfully
this way an agonising need to confess everything is in¬ (though temporarily) brainwashed many United Nations
prisoners- except for the Turks, whose powerful tradi¬
stilled in the victim. The full confession he finally makes tions of group loyalty made them difficult subjects for the
is not so much of crimes committed as of thoughts and brainwashing techniques described in the text.
feelings not formerly recognized as crimes at all.
As practiced by the Chinese Communists on civilian
prisoners (a very much more intensive process than the
treatment of the Korean prisoners-of-war , the process
has sometimes apparently succeeded in destroying the
old personality and replacing it by a new one. But the
changes are probably more apparent than real. Brain¬
washed Europeans who have returned to the West have
sloughed off the beliefs imposed on them, because they
no longer suited their social background. The only excep¬
tions have been where both new beliefs and old were
authoritarian. The evidence we have at present, then,
suggests that while the peripheral personality fp. 310 can
be changed by brainwashing and other forms of persua¬
sion, the nuclear personality cannot.
315
Psychological warfare
321
Scientists measure information
322
The measurement of channel capacity
To see how we can measure different channel send just three times as much as in one fifth of
capacities, let us compare two channels. One, a second. Nevertheless, a means of measuring
which we shall call channel A, is a simple information can be obtained from these large
teleprinter circuit. The other, channel B, is numbers of alternatives. To see how this is
simpler still: a single on-off key connected to done, let us compare channels A and B.
a light bulb. When the keys at the sending end Channel B can transmit only two signals,
of channel A are pushed down, the letters that the key can be up or down—turning the lamp
correspond to those keys are printed on the off or on in sympathy. Again, we assume that
typewriter at a remote station (see diagram at the key can be changed to a different position
bottom of page 322). For the convenience of five times a second. With the use of Morse
a later argument, let us suppose that there are code, such a channel can carry messages in
31 keys. This allows us to include punctuation ordinary language, just like channel A.
and spacer keys. Only one key can be punched For each fifth of a second, channel B has two
at a time, and each punching can be thought alternatives; for the first two fifths of a second,
of as a possible signal. 2 x 2, or 4; and for each subsequent fifth of a
There are, in fact, 32 different positions or second, the number of possible messages is
states for such a keyboard, because the state multiplied by 2. The table at the foot of this
when it has no key depressed at all must be page shows how this number mounts up for
also counted. It is a possible signal (meaning 15 steps, each one fifth of a second long—a
“do nothing”), like all the other signals that period of 3 seconds in all. The figures for
can be transmitted down the channel. channel A during the first three fifths of a
Let us fix the speed of channel A by saying second are included for comparison.
that a key can be depressed and a letter
printed five times a second. This is a reason¬
steps (bits) alternatives
able speed for an operator.
channel B channel A
Shannon’s basic idea, which though very
simple is very important, is that the informa¬ 1 2 32
tion actually sent down a channel can be 2 4 1,024
3 8 32,768
measured by counting how many different
4 16
alternative messages could be sent. The idea is
5 32
a little more complicated than it may seem.
6 64
Over channel A in the first one fifth of a second, 7 128
one of 32 messages can be sent: A, B, C, . . . 8 256
etc. (including the no-key message). For a 9 512
|-second message, then, there are 32 alterna¬ 10 1,024
tives. In the next fifth of a second there are, 11 2,048
again, 32 alternatives. But the message that 12 4,096
could be sent in the two fifths of a second 13 8,192
consists of all the possible pairs of keys AA, AB, 14 16,384
AC . . . ; BA, BB, BC . . . ; CA . . . etc. and 15 32,768
these (again including the no-key alternative)
number 32 x 32, or 1024, alternatives. In
this way, each further fifth of a second multi¬ This table shows how the nu mber of possible alternative
messages over channel A and channel B mounts
plies the numbers of alternatives for the whole up in the course of time. The left-hand column lists
message by 32. After three fifths of a second the the number of steps (examples in the text assume
that there are five such steps per second). The other
number is 1024 X. 32, or 32,768. The number
columns list cumulatively the total choices for the
of alternatives increases very rapidly indeed. two channels. The text explains why these cumu¬
This number would not, as it stands, be a lative totals are poor measures of channel capacity.
Our actual measuring system depends on the fact
good measure of information. Common sense that channel B is the simplest possible channel and
tells us that in three fifths of a second we can can therefore be used as a standard for all channels.
323
number of alternative channel B channel A 5*6 bits. To calculate this you have to use
messages time time
logarithms. (For the technically minded: Take
32 1 second 1/5 second the logarithm of the number of alternatives
1,024 2 „ 2/5 „ and divide by the logarithm of 2. Thus log 49
32,768 3 „ 3/5 „ -y log 2 = 5-6 approximately.) And if we can
punch five keys a second, our 48-key channel
One fact immediately stands out: The has a capacity of 5 ■ 6 x 5, or 28 bits a second.
number of alternatives for channel B after 3 The figures of 5 bits a second for channel B
seconds—32,768—is the same as for channel A and 25 bits a second for A are the channel
after three fifths of a second. Similarly, the capacities of B and A. Any message containing
number of alternatives for channel B after two 1000 bits of information would be expected to
seconds is 1024—the same as for channel A take 1000 -y 5, or 200 seconds to transmit
after two fifths of a second. Furthermore, for along channel B, and 1000 A 25, or 40
channel B after one second the figure is 32, the seconds along channel A. But this is only true
same as for channel A after one fifth of a if the message is suitably coded for the channel.
second. These findings are summarized in the To illustrate, let us take an extreme case:
table at the top of this page. Channel B Suppose that our earth were visited by
takes just five times as long as channel A to Martians who had evolved in such a way that
accumulate any given number of alternatives. they communicated only in a kind of Morse. As
The conclusion is obvious: Channel A’s intelligent beings, they would have discovered
capacity is five times that of channel B. that the simplest way of writing their language
Channel B is quite the simplest that could was in two symbols, say, 0 and 1. They would
be devised, because no system with less than also have devised their language so that these
two alternatives could carry information. This symbols occurred with equal probability.
simplest, so-called “binary,55 channel (from They would be very happy with channel B, in
Latin bini, two-by-two) is used as the standard which “off55 and “on55 translate easily into 0
on which we base our unit of measurement for and 1. But channel A would face them with a
information. The information sent by channel problem: How could they use its greater
B at each step is called a bit, which is short for capacity in the most effective way ?
“binary digit.55 Channel B, we say, carries one If they made use of only one key, they would
bit in each one fifth of a second, or five bits a merely reduce the rate of transmission to five
second. Channel A, therefore, has a capacity of bits a second, the rate of channel B. The
25 bits per second, five times as much. Martian information theorist would quickly
Now that we know that each step in channel arrive at a better solution. He would note that
B transmits one bit, we can use the table five Martian symbols together form a message
for channel B on page 323 to calculate how with 32 possibilities (see diagram directly
many bits correspond to a given number of below). With each of his five-symbol groups
alternatives for any channel. For example,
how many bits are carried by channel A in 00000 A 01000 1 10000 Q 11000 Y
two fifths of a second ? The number of alterna¬
00001 B 01001 J 10001 R 11001 Z
tives is 32 x 32 = 1024. Looking this up in
the table we get 10 bits. (To confirm this: 00010 C 01010 K 10010 S 11010 /
Channel A’s rate of 25 bits a second for two
fifths of a second is 25 -y f, or 10 bits.) 00011 D 01011 L 10011 T 11011
What if the number of alternatives does not 00100 01100 M 10100 !
E U moo
appear in the table? Suppose a channel has
48 keys, that is, 49 alternatives at each step. 00101 F 01101 N 10101 V 11101 ?
How many bits correspond to 49 alternatives ?
00110 G 01110 O 10110 W 11110
In the table, 49 lies between 32 and 64, i.e.,
between 5 and 6 bits. The answer is about 00111 H 01111 P 10111 X 11111 $
324
The amount of information in a message
the Martian would thus associate a letter Now that we can measure a channel’s capacity
or other symbol of our language, and each for carrying information, we turn to the more
group of five Martian symbols would be difficult task of measuring the amount of in¬
sent as one of ours. In practice, the com¬ formation in a message. Anything that
munication channel would include coding and reduces the range of choice in a message will
decoding machines to match it to the channel- reduce its information rate. An example will
A equipment. show how this happens.
Take again the binary channel, such as our
imaginary Martians used, in which all the
messages are series of Os and Is. Take sequences
of 12 of these symbols in combinations like
110110111100,000100011011, 111101010111,
000110100110. There are 4096 such combina¬
tions, corresponding to 12 bits of information
if all the alternatives are used. Now let us try
the effect of making various restrictions on our
choice. If we insist that there should always
be equal numbers of Is and 0s, six of each in
every 12-symbol group, the number of alterna¬
tives comes down to 924. If we restrict the
make-up of the groups of 12 symbols to three
Is and nine 0s, the number of alternatives is
as low as 220. Now 924 alternatives correspond
(see the table) to nearly 10 bits (actually
about 9*9), and 220 alternatives correspond
to 7*8 bits. In short, whereas 12 symbols with
a free choice of 0s or Is carry 12 bits of infor¬
mation, the restriction to fixed ratios of 0s and
Is makes them carry less.
The reduction in information for a 50/50
ratio of 0s and Is (from 12 to 9 *9) is not great,
and for longer and longer sequences it becomes
negligible. The loss is more serious if one of the
symbols is used less often than the other.
Can we apply such knowledge to find out
the information rate for a message in ordinary
language? Not with any precision, but some
estimates put the rate as low as one bit per
letter. An unrestricted choice of letters would
give about five times this amount of informa¬
tion. All the structural features of language
help to reduce the information content. Spel¬
ling rules, such things as the use of “u” always
after “q,” the need for pronounceable words,
The American inventor Samuel F. B. Morse and a grammatical rules, and even the effect of
drawing of his original telegraph. An operator
context over several sentences - all serve to
translated the message into Morse’s code and
“wrote” it down in the form of pegs on a bar limit the choice.
(bottom . The crank pulled the bar through the In information theory such limitations of
sender and made it tap out the code. Electrical
impulses jerked a pen in the receiver, and wrote
choice give rise to what is called redundancy;
out a wavy-line version of the code on moving paper. because the text carries less information than it
0 110 0 10 110 A
A signal on channel B shown as a graph of signal The above diagram explains some of die terms in the
strength (vertical scale) against time (horizontal). text. The curve is of a continuous signal. The vertical
In channel B all pulses are of equal strength and distance between A and B (heavy bar on vertical
duration. By using a code like that at the foot of page scale) measures the strength of the signal. The part
324, we could show messages on channel A in exactly of the curve that is shown solid represents one cycle.
the same way. In fact, using that code, the first five The frequency of a signal is the number of such cycles
digits above (11001) become Z in channel A. All such per second. The text tells how we measure the channel
signals are digital ones. capacity of such signals.
could carry, part of it must be, in theory, un¬ context would help us decide whether the
necessary. As an example of redundancy in a message referred to, say, a pigeon fancier or to
single word, consider “fanatic.” No other a political fanatic; but in a rigorous no¬
English word uses just these consonants in this redundancy code even such context inter¬
order: f, n, t, and c. Its nearest-sounding pretation would be impossible.)
neighbor, “phonetic,” uses p, h, n, t, and c. So To eliminate redundancy, then, is danger¬
that if we want simply to identify the two words ous in any practical communication system. A
(and in most messages that is all we seek to do), telegram in qrdinary language can usually
the consonants alone are enough. In short, of have an odd letter or two wrong and still,
fanatic’s seven letters, no fewer than three—43 because of redundancy, be perfectly intellig¬
per cent—are redundant. ible. In short, redundancy helps to protect us
In actual practice, a certain amount of re¬ aga,inst errors. The information theorist
dundancy is essential to accurate transmission. spends much of his time in finding out just how
We could theoretically devise a code that much redundancy is needed to guard against
would cut out redundancy and so compress errors. Ordinary language, with its great
ordinary language into one fifth of the space. redundancy, may not be ideal, but it will be a
But what would happen if we encoded words in long time before we can devise good methods
such a language to send by telegram? If a of compressing it and retaining some im¬
single error were made in transmission, the munity from error.
decoding machine at the receiver would pro¬ The channels we have described have two
duce a faulty message that would nevertheless features that make the counting of all the
read perfectly. Suppose we send the word alternatives particularly easy. They transmit
“fanatic” in no-redundancy code as “fntc” in terms of separate “discrete” states (on or
and that an error made this “fncr.” In the off, this key or that key). Furthermore, these
same code, this erroneous word would mean states follow one another at a regular rate.
“fancier”—the only English word that uses Such signals are often called digital. Trans¬
just those particular consonants. (True, the missions on channels A and B could be shown
326
a
as graphs of signal against time (see diagram Four-part diagram above (a to d) shows the same
continuous signal being sampled at different rates.
on facing page).
The horizontal, or time, scale represents one
Telephone channels, or television channels second. In a four samples (black) are made.. To the
carry quite a different sort of signal, one that right is shown, the kind of signal that could be
electronically reconstructed from those four samples—
changes in strength continually over a whole it is none too accurate. In b there are eight samples,
range of values (see diagram on facing page). and the reconstructed signal is slightly more
accurate. In c there are 16 samples, and the recon¬
Signals of this kind are usually called con¬
structed signal is completely accurate. You can
tinuous signals. Information theory can be check this by looking at d, where 32 samples give
extended to these important types of signals. no greater accuracy to the reconstructed signal.
The bandwidth of this signal (see text) is eight
The first problem with continuous signals is cycles per second. Diagram illustrates point made in
that there exists no convenient step-by-step the text that for any bandwith B, the maximum useful
sampling rate is 2B samples per second.
division of time. But we can introduce such
steps by “sampling” the signal (see illustration
at the top of this page). Sampling techniques
measure the strength of the signal only at fixed
regular intervals. (Such sampling techniques
are actually used in some communications
devices—e.g., modern telephone systems. But
we are not, here, concerned with such practical
applications. For us, sampling is an entirely
theoretical exercise that simply enables us to
measure the information in a continuous
signal.) Each measurement is like a single
digital signal in a telegraphic system.
The diagram that explains sampling also
shows that the information we can gain from
such samples increases as the sampling rate
327
Each of the top squares contains 15 dots arranged to-noise in ratio (see text is 15 to 5 the signal
as in A. Square B has five random dots “noise” is three times as strong as the noise. In E it is 15 to
to the communications engineer. Square C has 10 40 the noise is nearly three times as strong as the
such “noisy” dots; square D, 20; and E, 40. Each signal. The crowd pictures detail the same deterioration
square can be thought of as a communications in more everyday terms; here, the “signal” is the
channel. A is a perfect channel. In B, the signal- lone figure, the crowd the “noise.”
increases up to a certain point. There is an cycles per second and the maximum useful
upward limit to this increase in accuracy. To sampling rate is 1 o million times a second. This
put it another way: There is a point beyond relation between sampling rate and the band¬
which it is futile to increase the sampling rate width gives us a way of dividing time into
we gain no extra information thereby. That step-by-step intervals for continuous signals:
point is governed by the frequency of the For any bandwidth B, the maximum useful
signal that is to be sampled. (Terms like sampling rate is 2B samples a second.
“frequency,” “cycles per second,” and so on Now that we have a way of dividing up the
are explained in the caption to the illustration time scale of continuous signals (the horizontal
at the top right of page 326.) scale in the diagram at the top of page 327),
In practice, continuous signals cover a we need a way of dividing the strength or
certain band of frequencies called the “band¬ amplitude scale, too (the vertical scale in the
width.” For example, audio signals typically same diagram;. How finely do we need to
have a bandwidth of 10,000 cycles per second. express the strength of any given sample?
The maximum useful sampling rate for such a Suppose we say that the maximum strength of
signal is 20,000 times per second. For video a given signal is one unit; do we express a half¬
signals the bandwidth is typically 5 million strength signal as half a unit, five tenths of a
328
A
Both the above graphs plot the strength of signal as its unit. We can use such a scale to specify
(plain curve) and noise (filled-in curve) against units to help us measure any samples that we take
time (horizontal scale). The effect of the noise of a signal (see text). It would be useless to
is to distort the signal (broken curve). In A the specify units that' are finer than the average
noise is less than in B. Bars at the right show noise strength; such distinctions would be too
the average signal strength and the average noise fine and the noise would drown them. Note, though,
strength (black) for these graphs. Scale on that we can make the units finer and finer as the
extreme right takes the average noise strength noise level is reduced.
unit, eight sixteenths, or 500,000 millionths? apparatus outside the communications chan¬
Each of these expressions represents half a nel, but the most important part of it is an
unit, but each represents a finer and finer unavoidable part of the channel itself. In a
definition of signal strength. If our com¬ radio set designed to receive very weak signals,
munication channel were perfect, there is no all avoidable sources of noise are removed.
limit to the fineness of definition that we can The remaining noise is caused by heat—and
choose. In practice, however, there is always a “heat” here applies to anything that is
certain amount of noise in any channel, and the “warmer” than — 273°c. (Absolute Zero, the
strength of that noise will limit the fineness of coldest possible temperature). Thus wires,
definition that we can usefully choose. coils, resistors, transistors, tubes—all these are
Noise, to the communications engineer, has “hot.” They all contain electrons that move
a wider than normal meaning. (The illustra¬ back and forth in random patterns. (Heat is
tions on page 328 diagram noise visually.) In the random movement of the molecules that
electronic communication, noise is the “snow” make up materials. The electrons in metals, or
on a TV screen, the hiss in a radio tuned to a in vacuum tubes, share these movements.) A
distant station, the crackle in a telephone. radio signal is an organized movement of
Some of this noise is caused by electrical electrons. The amplifier in a radio set amplifies
329
DUOMO
UNEA CIBj
PfCZZO
MILANO
00
RIDUZ. N*'
r.lroilo non fosse in CD
iLfBMM / L 4« fcljlicHo, o preiw-
.BMiUfclfi # conun-
cbtlictto « nur.lril
■ crdirari« anctia Ci
I bltlieiTv ronna dl Icsqb?. w
10 10 0
monday
tuesday 1110 1
Wednesday
thursday 10 00 1
friday 0101 0
1001 0
1 0 1 0 0
9.10 14.10
1 8.70 13.50 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
both the organized signal and the random Above are two simple error-detecting and correcting
systems: for an expense account left and for an
(noise) movements of the electrons in the set.
array of binary digits right . In the expense
Obviously it is useless for us to choose a account the horizontal and vertical total columns
definition of signal strength that is finer than allow us to check on the accuracy of the items
which, in turn, are summaries of receipts like
the average strength of the noise; too-fine those at the top . Similar check columns appear
distinctions would be “drowned” in the in the binary array you add a i if the number of
is in the line or column is uneven, a o if the is
random pattern of the noise. The diagram at
are already even. If the two sets of information were
the top of page 329 shows how, by finding transmitted and one error crept into each, the
the average strength of the signal and of the check columns would allow us to find where that
error lay and to correct it. The lower diagrams
noise, we can work out useful units that will
highlight the errors and the check digits.
define the strength of the samples.
330
To sum up, then: We can draw a continuous
signal as a graph of signal strength (vertical
scale) against time (horizontal scale). We can
divide the time scale into units that depend on
the bandwidth of the signal. We can divide
the signal-strength scale into units that depend
on the ratio between signal strength and noise
strength (commonly called the signal-to-noise
ratio). These units allow us to measure the in¬
formation rate of any continuous signal.
The mathematics of such measurement are
very complex, but the result can be stated in
terms that are now familiar bandwidth and
signal-to-noise ratio. If the bandwidth is B and
the signal-to-noise ratio is S/JV, the information
rate is B log i -f- S/JSI) ; log 2 t given certain
assumptions about signal and noise . It needs
little mathematics to see that if either the
bandwidth or the signal strength increases,
the information rate increases, too just as
you would expect.
The importance of all this to practical tele¬
communications is immense. Shannon’s work
has given us a precise means of measuring what
was once a very vague term: information.
Actually, it has done even more than that. It
has proved that we can transmit messages that
are completely error-free even through a noisy
channel. This part of Shannon’s theory has
proved very difficult to apply to existing com¬
munications channels. Briefly, our ability to
eliminate error depends on our devising
error-detecting and error-correcting codes.
We use such codes often in daily life. An
example is the expense-account form shown
in the illustration on the opposite page.
Beside it is an example of a similar code that
can be used for checking sequences of binary
A child’s toy illustrates the principle behind
digits. Unfortunately, it has proved difficult to
time-sharing communications devices that use sampling devise efficient codes that combat the kind of
techniques. Two animals, a lion and a wolf noise that arises in practice. Also the most
i corresponding to two messages , are painted on
one board (A). When it is placed in a cage whose efficient codes mathematically speaking
bars are as thick as the spaces between them (B , often prove too complex to be useful. But the
the wolf disappears (C). Move the board out again
theory of coding is developing rapidly.
by the thickness of a cage bar, though, and now the
lion has gone D . The cage represents telecommunica¬ Thanks to Shannon’s work, we know pre¬
tions switching devices that sort out shared calls to cisely the maximum capacity that we can
the appropriate callers and give each- the feeling that
he is holding an unshared conversation. expect to achieve from any given channel.
And, in an age that depends more than most
of us realize on the accurate transmission of
data, such knowledge is invaluable.
331
Translation by computer
332
matical, (2) logical operations like com¬ of electrical pulses that set the various parts
paring, contrasting, tabulating, analyzing, of the computer to work. The program and
sorting, eliminating, and storing. For all such the information, now a series of such pulses,
operations we can specify rules and set out a are both stored on magnetic tape or disks
working order. These are tasks that a com¬ in the storage section, which, without going
puter is specifically designed to handle. into the complex electronics involved, can
Moreover, it is tireless, accurate, and fast. be thought of as several thousand million
Computers do not ‘"think”; they carry out “pigeonholes.” (If you are especially inter¬
programs that are written out to the minutest ested in computers, you can see how complex
detail by specialists called programmers. The the storage section is by looking at the
programmer’s job is to think for the machine. diagrams on page 334. However, the account
He breaks down long and complex operations that follows can be understood without any
into small sequences; he decides on the order such detailed knowledge.) The program is
in which the machine will work; and his fed from storage into the control section, which
program tells the computer when to stop and “orders” some of the information out of
“write out’5 an answer. To understand how storage into the arithmetic section. The
this happens, let us look at a computer. arithmetic section carries out the mathe¬
A computer has five basic units (see photo¬ matical or logical operations in the program.
diagram at the foot of this page). The program The results are passed back to storage; control
and other information (for example, a text orders more information into arithmetic; the
to be translated! are fed into the computer results, again, pass back into storage until,
through the input section. The diagram at stage by stage, the program is completed.
the foot of page 335 shows how the informa¬ Control then “orders” all the accumulated
tion is translated into a series of holes in results out of storage and into the output
punched cards (some computers use punched section, where they are “written out” either
tape instead). The input "‘reader,55 in turn, as punched cards or in words. How do we use
translates the pattern of holes into a pattern these processes to translate ?
0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 2 0 0 0 1 0
0 3 0 0 0 1 1
0 4 0 0 1 0 0
0 5 0 0 1 0 1
0 6 0 0 1 1 0
0 7 0 0 1 1 1
0 8 0 1 0 0 0
0 9 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
2 0 1 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1 1 1 0
Alosl computers do their calculations in a two-digit The above diagram shows how holes in paper tape,
or binary code like that described on page 324. The or recordings on magnetic tape, can be converted
above table shows how you can convert figures from into electrical pulses of the kind that course through
our familiar 10-digit or decimal system into binary. the circuits in a computer. Each hole or magnetic
In the decimal system, each column is 10 times greater mark becomes a pulse represented by a 1 in binary ;
than its right hand neighbor. In binary, each column the absence of a hole or mark becomes the absence
is only two times greater. of a pulse a o in binary terms .
334
01 A A 09 1 M 17 Q p 25 Y UI
02 B B 10 J Y\ 18 R c 26 Z Iff
03 C B 11 K K 19 S T 27 t T
04 D r 12 L n 20 T y 28 . bl that all the letters that follow it are in roman,
05 E A 13 M M 21 U cb 29 ! b the group 332001021205 is table; but
06 F E 14 N H 22 V X 30 ? 3 3418191512 is ctoji, Russian for “table.”
)K w Lf 31 ; K) In the computer, all numbers are usually
07 G 15 0 0 23
stored and transferred in units of fixed length
08 H 3 16 P n 24 X 4 32 space 51
that are known technically as “words.” To
avoid confusion here, however, we shall call
33 all the letters that follow are in roman these computer “words” packets and use word
34 all the letters that follow are in cyrillic only in its everyday sense. The length of such
packets is determined by the capacity of the
The key lies in coding. Computers work on computer’s arithmetic unit: If its capacity is
numbers, so we must find a code in which, all such that it can handle up to 15 digits in any
letters, punctuation, identification signs (such given operation, the packet length is 15 digits.
as “noun”), and information (such as: “All When any set of numerals is smaller than a
the letters that follow are in the roman packet, the extra space is filled with zeros.
alphabet”) are expressed in numbers. Such a A word longer than a packet is carried over
code for both roman and cyrillic (Russian into the next packet and any extra space is
letters is shown in the diagram at the top again filled with zeros. The storage section
of this page. In this code, the phrase: of a computer can be thought of schematically
“numbers as letters.” would appear: as a series of pigeonholes each one packet long
14211302051819320119321205202005181928. (see diagram at the foot of page 339). When
Because every figure in this code has two we use a computer for mathematical work,
numerals, there is no need to put a space the information and the results of its calcula¬
between any of the sets of figures. The “func¬ tions are all stored in these packet-sized
tion symbols” (33 and 34 in our code) perform pigeonholes. And when we use a computer
a valuable task: They enable us to use the for translation, all the information the
symbols from 01 to 32 for both roman and computer needs plus the text it is to trans¬
cyrillic alphabets. Thus, because 33 indicates late is stored in exactly the same way.
336
inhale, etc. And with "pipe” {-= musical space to list “rain cats and dogs” as a separate
instrument) : organ, piper, music, merry, tune, entry in the dictionary and to put the correct
dance, etc. translation next to it.
The programmer could compile lists of Meaning and idiom are only part of the
such correlations and then frame his program business of translation. No two languages
in such a way that the computer will use the always use the same word equivalents in the
translation that correlates best with the other same order. If we took the sentence “The
words in the text it is translating. The diagram pipe filled with water” in a foreign language
on the opposite page shows in principle part and translated it word for word, we might
of such a program for the correct translation end up with something as outlandish as
of the word ‘‘pipe’5 in any of these three “Pipe-the of water itself-filled.” You can’t
senses. It also shows why this sort of routine say that the result is completely unintelligible,
would be impractical—with present-day com¬ but you can’t say that it is an acceptable
puters, anyway : For the single word “pipe” translation, either. Clearly, the computer
we have no less than 20 correlating words. program must include routines to sort words
Multiplied throughout the computer’s dic¬ out into their correct order.
tionary (the part of the storage section where It is here that workers in the field of machine
words and their foreign-language equivalents translation disagree among themselves. Some
are stored) this would mean that a 400,000- maintain that where syntax (that is, the
word list would need over 8 million entries permissible and nonpermissible word orders
in the program for correlating words alone— in a language) is concerned, only a full
and many times that number to cover all the analysis of each sentence will deliver a
other necessary information. Nevertheless, successful translation. Others hold that, since
the diagram does show the complexity of the machines will mainly be used for translating
problems that will have to be solved if we are scientific papers to be read by scientists (for
to translate all kinds of text successfully. whom questions of literary style have a low
Actually, the programmer can often ignore priority), we need to program the computer
multiple meanings. If he is writing a program only for the commonest syntactical differ¬
for the translation of, say, papers on electrical ences between the two languages concerned.
engineering, he can safely forget any variant Thus, familiar question-and-answer routines
meanings that words may have in the fields will sort out the Russian TeMnepaTypa ra30B
of psychology, biology, organic chemistry, (literally “temperature” followed by the
and so on. He similarly pares the entries in genitive for “gas”) into “temperature of
the computer’s dictionary to those words that the/a gas.” (Similar routines that are used for
are likely to appear. Thus from a program for the English word endings -.y, -ed, and -ing are
electrical-engineering translations, words like diagramed on page 338.) According to this
“parasite,” “phenol,” “Oedipus complex,” second group, syntactical differences that are
and so on can safely be omitted. By limiting less common will, when translated literally,
the scope in this way, the programmer reduces give the reader little difficulty—simply be¬
the problem to manageable proportions. cause they are so rare.
Idiomatic phrases could also be sorted out Here, for interest’s sake, is an actual
by question-and-answer routines. Thus, to sample of machine translation into English
translate “rain cats and dogs,” the program from Russian: “However, only the first steps
could ask: “Is the next word [after cats] were made, which allowed not so much to
‘and’?”; “Is the next word ‘dogs’?”; “Is the solve the huge number of referring here
previous word ‘rain’?” If the answer to all scientific and technical problems as to
three questions were “yes” the program correctly formulate them and notice ways of
could direct the computer to a location in solving them.” The human translator might
which the correct idiomatic translation was have written: “However, only the first steps
stored. But, again, it takes far less storage were taken—so that, though we did not solve
337
**"* ■**•*,
MACTh 113JfyMEHHOn COJfHLl M Left: The Russian sentence is the one used in the
text. Affixes to each of the words are in grey,
3HEPEHH flAHA hi HA HAW flJIAHET
stems in black. The grid below it is a schematic
representation of a block in the computer’s
storage section. Each line in the block is one
“packet” long. The number to the right of the line
is that line’s address. As the text explains, all
lines with addresses ending in o, 1, and 2 contain
a Russian word (in this case naan ; those ending in
^ACT- 3, 4, and 5 hold its English equivalent (in this
case part . The remaining lines hold the idiomatic
and grammatical information that the computer
needs in order to translate the Russian word.
This arrangement is standard for all words in
PART the dictionary. The first five “pigeonholes” of
line 1006 (and of all lines with addresses ending in
6 hold the serial number for this block. The sixth
pigeonhole contains a code number for the part of
speech of the Russian word. The remaining pigeon¬
holes in this line hold grammatical information.
All lines ending in 7 and 8 contain idiomatic
information about the Russian word. Line 1009 holds
idiomatic information about verbs and prepositions.
A detailed example for the word uacm is worked
out on page 340.
339
takes the genitive case for its direct object,” together with the grammatical and idiomatic
“The correct translation for this idiom is information and the interpretations of any
located at . . . (followed by the address),” affixes that were split off. Next, if further
and so on. This is the standard pattern for idiomatic information is needed, it is taken
every entry in the dictionary. Thus in every from storage elsewhere in the dictionary and
entry the Russian word will have addresses added to the stored word.
ending in o, i, and 2; the English equivalent To return to our original Russian sentence,
will have addresses ending in 3, 4, and 5; and we now have the following English words
the remaining blocks will contain gram¬ stored in this order:
matical and idiomatic information in the same “Part generated sun energy fall on our
standard order. planet.”
When the computer looks up a word in With a thorough syntactical routine, the com¬
the dictionary, it simply compares the puter would reorder and amend this to make:
numerical code for that word with the “Part of the energy generated by the sun falls
numerical codes in the dictionaries. (Briefly: on our planet.”
It subtracts the one set of numbers from the But with the rather simpler routines that are
other; if the result is zero, the two sets of at present used in machine translation, we
numbers match and the word has been are more likely to get something like:
correctly located. This, incidentally, is an “Part of generated by sun energy falls on our
example of how a computer can perform one planet.”
of the stages of translation without under¬ As we said earlier, machine translations
standing what it is doing.) When the diction¬ read crudely as yet. But with greater ex¬
ary lookup is completed, the words are sorted perience and better programming, the refine¬
back into their original order and stored ments will come.
Diagram below shows how grammatical and idiomatic information about the word uacm might be stored in the computer.
1 4 7 3 2 1 0 5 2 2 1 0 1006
14732 is the dictionary serial number for this is feminine; 2 that it is inanimate; 1 that it has
block. 1 means that nacm is a noun; 05 that it both singular and plural forms. How we arive at
belongs to inflexion class 05 for nouns; 2 that it these codes is explained in the diagram on page 341.
3 3 0 8 3 6 5 0 0 9 8 9 1007
0 0 0 0 0 6 2 1 9 6 0 0 1008
Line 1007: 3 means that nacm figures in an idiom fourth word in this idiom. 6219 is the address of
three words 'long; 3 that it is the third word in the storage location where the word “mostly” the
that idiom; 08365 and 00989 are the serial numbers English translation of TIo oonbiueu nacmb is stored;
for the other two words in the idiom TJo and 6 means that “mostly” is an adverb. Remaining
60/ibmeu respectively. TJo 60/ibiueu nacmb literally zeros show that there is no further information
means “according to the greater part” i.e., to record. Line 1009 is used only when the word
mostly. Line 1008: 00000 means that there is no in addresses o, 1, and 2 is a verb or preposition.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1009
340
1 masculine and plural
1 animate
Noun 2
3
feminine
neuter
2 inanimate
2
3
has sing, only
has plural
only
1 1st person
1 perfective not used
2 imperfective 1 reflexive
Verb 3 momentary 2 otherwise
2 used in
impersonal
4 iterative constructions
1 personal
2 reflexive 1 functions
3 possessive nominally
Pron. 4
5
relative
interrogative
2 functions
adjectivally
6 demonstrative
7 negative
Above: four examples of the codes used to fill The next four detail other grammatical information.
the 6th and the gth through 12 th pigeonholes in With a noun, for instance, the code numerals 3 1 2
line 6 in the block on page 339. The 6th hole would show that the noun is neuter, is animate,
(extreme left in each case' holds a code numeral and has the singular form only. The same code
that indicates part of speech: 1 noun; 2 verb; numerals for a verb, would show that the verb is
3 adjective; 4 pronoun. Code numerals 5, 6, 7, momentary, reflexive, and is used in impersonal
8, and 9 would stand for preposition, adverb, constructions. In a way, these codes are rather like
conjunction, numeral, and particle respectively. commands to the computer to do one thing rather
The next two pigeonholes (shown blank, contain than another with the words it is translating.
similar codes for the word’s inflexion class.
••• • • •••• ••
**•*••••• • •• •• • ••• • ••• ••• ••• •• • •
• ••
• • •• •••••••••• •• • •••••• •
Britain’s Doctor Michael Levison has used word¬ Greek of 1 Corinthians XIII, 12 “For now we see
handling techniques like those described in the through a glass darkly” . Using a system that was
text in order to study the texts of all the perfected on works whose authorship was beyond
epistles that tradition says were written by Saint doubt, Morton found that only five epistles were
Paul (seen, right, in an old mosaic; behind him, an certainly by Saint Paul. (Rom., I & II Cor.,
ancient papyrus copy of the epistle to the Gal., and Philo.) This is just one of many ways in
Hebrews and a punch-tape rendering of the original which computers can shed new light on old problems.
Literacy and education
1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950
ENGLAND AND WALES FRANCE
1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950
UNITED STATES BELGIUM
Right: schoolchildren in Senegal, West Africa. Only about
13 per cent of Senegalese children in the 5 to 14 age-group
are receiving formal education. Below: chart comparing
education in 23 countries in the year 1959. (7) School
enrolment as a percentage of the 5- to 19-year-old
population; (2) public expenditure on education as a
percentage of national income; (3) average number of
pupils per teacher in the 5 to 14 age-group. Not all these
statistics are available for all the countries shown.
FRANCE 76 ■ 30 Islsig
INDIA 28 ■ ■■ 1-7 hi
gross product
per head in
U.S. dollars
U.S.A. 2410
SWEDEN 1320
FRANCE 1110
COLOMBIA 317
JAPAN 290
PHILIPPINES 223
PORTUGAL 220
EGYPT 124
THAILAND 91
NIGERIA 85
INDIA 77
344
What the world reads
NIGERIA 20 8
mmmmmmmmmmmmmmttim
FINLAND 136 mcmnmmtnmmmcn 21
VVWOVVfVWSVV mcnmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
SWEDEN 370 w'swww-a-a-ww 360 mmmmm m m m m m rn m m m m m 137
virirvirv mmmrn
9qq mmaacDmmtnincnmaJcnmmtnm
FRANCE 110 VBW'&'&'&'&W&'Sr doxl mmmmmmrn 41
ncc mm rnmmmmmmmm ca cd cn mm
SWITZERLAND 312 wwww-b&'B'RW'b mmmmm m m menm 24
PORTUGAL 5 * 87 cnmmmmmmrn 5 h
WWW WIST WWW no-? mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm hpl If If Kfl hji Ijl ^ hjt lyl Kpl hp ^ ^ ^
BRITAIN mmmmmmmmrnmmm 211
1 /U W
w w w wia-W's-w-ar amaaiEiammDiiiaiiiiciimm
U.S.A. 425 wwwW'a"B“B>-B--Grw 948 Bnanaiiaiimiiixiiiiiiiioa] 297 tjH ¥¥ ¥¥ ¥W ¥ ¥ ¥¥
wwirww'iriff'ir'E mmmmmmmmcHmmmmmcncD
EiiiEiciiacicBaaiiiaEiEimEim hri ^^ ^¥¥W¥¥^^
cri m rn cn m m m m m m m m m m m m
ataaocaamixaiciciimn
NIGERIA 1 3 °
INDIA 1 4 a
ICELAND
FINLAND
SWEDEN
NORWAY
DENMARK
GERMANY
NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND
ITALY
SPAIN
PORTUGAL
U.S.S.R. 145 16 9
Adaptations to
Croatian Bulgarian
White ...
Russian Ukraman Lydian
Old Phrygian
Romanian
Adaptations to non- Pamphylian
siavomc languages
Bulgarian Cyr////c
Coptic Liturgical
Serbian
Greek
Locri Magna Modern Locaf Messapian
Thessaly Graecia ^es*®*0 Greek Albanian
Dialects
Chalcidian
Sub-Branch
Peloponnesian
Jewish
Boeotian Coin Script Early
Hebrew Moabite
Early Hebrew
Allied Scripts
^Phoenician
Allied
Scripts Sabaen
Himyaritic
Ge’ez South-,
(Ethiopic)
Qatabanic
Hadhramautic
Sou"’-Sen
Tree showing derivation of the world's major alphabets. Balua, Kahun & Miscellaneous Scripts
(See pages 114-17 for a full account.) The origins of the Creative Imagination
alphabet are uncertain; probable influences are suggested Ugarit Cuneiform Alphabet
at the root of the tree. The Proto-Semitic alphabet
Palaeo-Sinaitic Script
base of trunk—is the source of nearly all modern Early Canaanite Inscriptions
alphabets. The first important off-shoots were Canaanite
and Aramaic. The Greek alphabet was adapted from an
early form of Canaanite; it is the ancestor of all modern
European scripts.
English
Slovene
Adaptations to Lusatian
Polish
other languages
in Europe and Slovak
Australasia vC .Slovak
Czech
International
Scripts etc
Old Prussian
Arabic Urdu
Cursive
^Arabic
Hungarian Scripts Pashtu
Takri Dogri
Malayan
^t ESJranand
Allied p hh •
Languages Rabbinic PZT Nabataean
Sirmauri
Monumental 4 Mahajani
Modern Capitals Melkite Neo-Syriac
Palmyrene , lanri Multan i
Nestorian Jaunsar.
Other
Current Sindhi
Runes Oghams ^ ^ Syriac Scripts Hands Varieties
Mahdaean Estrangela
Gurumukhi
Mamchaean
North Etruscan
Scripts
\
_ , Armenian Siddhamatrka Eastern Type Manipuri
Khalkha Bunat Allied
Bhaishuki Scripts Assame:
Manchu Alvan
Early Hungarian
Mongolian Maurya Thai A
v HP.\ other Shan
Georgian Tibetan
Scripts
Andhra Limpong
Rendjang B«tak
Chains Khmers
$■ Dravidl
1 Javan6Se Early C®lebes
Philippine ^Bu^mes®)
Agnean Khotane Burmese Scripts
Modern
A " \ Tuiu-
-MhM% VatteluttLj
vmieiuuu
^'^hakmaY Allied
Scripts
Sinhalese Malaynn °cyy \ )v
r \ Kanarasa ' Mo" U -
_ Pyu
Grantha
351
Index
Page numbers in italics indicate cap¬ Alphabets (see also Writing, and names Antenna (radio), 220, 221, 223
tions. References combining two or of alphabets) : and Bible, 133; as basis Antoine, Andre, 166, 167
more pages (as, 286-7) imply both text of signaling, 212, 213; birth of, 114, Apes, 43, 46, 46, 47
and captions. 114; comparison of different, 53, Apian, Peter, 134
124; development of, 115; for Apollinaire, Guillaume, 133
literacy campaigns, 113, 121, 123; Appia, Adolphe, 167
new, 53, 123; origin of word, 117; Aqueduct, at Segovia, 36
Abacus, 181 present-day, 117, 124-5; spread of, Arabic (language), 50, 62, 62, 116,
Aberdeen University, Scotland, 21 116-17 116; new words from, 182
Aborigines, 77, 63, 108, 108, 300 Alsted, Johann, 135 Aramaic (alphabet), 115, 116
Absolute zero, 187, 329 Aluminum, 188 Arcadia (Sidney), 138
Abstract art, 20, g8, 311 “Amber,” 67 Archives, 196, 138, 199, 200, 208
Acrilan, advertising of, 232 Ambrosian Library (Milan), 202 Areopagitica (Milton), 144
Actias selene (moth), 37 America: advertising, 285, 287, 289, Argentina: advertising, 292;
Advertising (see also names of products, 292, 293, 296, 297; books, 137, 141, broadcasting, 260; newspapers, 236
companies, and political parties): 155, 156; broadcasting, 249, 260, Ariosto, Lodovico, 146
agencies, 288-9; aims of, 292-3; and 261, 262, 264; cheerleaders, 173; Aristotle, 32; works of, 130; theory
the human eye, gi; censorship of, church, 301; dancing, 173; of babies, 178
296-7; early, 284-5, 286, 288; ethics Democratic party convention, 26; Arp, Hans, 20
of, 296-7; expenditure on, 285, education, 279, 300; films, 261, 264; Art, 96-7; abstract, 20, 38, 311;
292-3; growth of, 284-5, 294"5; Hollywood’s influence, 266; Korean beginnings of, 96, 158; early, 97, 98;
impact of, 102, 103; in Communist prisoners, 314; languages, 63; libel functions of, 98-9 ; of advertising,
countries, 294-5; in newspapers, see laws, 237; Liberty Bond campaigns, 102; progress in, 28; recent, 20-1,
Newspapers; in underdeveloped 304; libraries, 202, 203, 204; 98; theatre, music, and dance,
countries, 294-5; influence of, 282, literacy, 119, 344; naval telescope, 158-75
292-35 3°5; language of, 31, 151, 223; newspaper from, 233; Pony “Art by radio f 263
286-7; organization of, 288-9; Express, 216; post services, 214; Art galleries, 196, 206-7
poster, see Posters; psychology and, presidential elections, 302-4; shaving Artists, 158, 162, 175
286-7, 25(9, 289; research on, 289; survey, 288; sky-writing, 237; Arts, the: periodicals devoted to,
scale of, 282, 284; techniques of, slavery, 146; slump, 293, 307; 235; the communal, 158-75
102, 312-13; television, 260; types snake-handling cults, 314; Ashanti, 76
of, 286, 290-1, 236, 297, 297 Strategic Air Command control Asia: advertising in, 294; broad¬
Aesop, 131, 148 center, 227; teenagers visiting casting in, 260, 264; dance in,
Afghanistan, bus in, go prison, 273; telegraph service, 216, 1 72-3 ; newspapers in, 243, 244
Africa: advertising in, 294; animals 217; television, 256, 257, 260, 263, Assembly, the, in ancient Greece, 27
in, 35; broadcasting in, 260; 266; the press, 140-1, 145, 230-1, Assimilation (sound-change), 70-1
children in, 234; drummers in, 170, 234-5, 237, 244; thumbs-up gesture, Assisi, window at, 278
213, 213; education in, 280, 280; 84; voting, 301 Association (in learning), 270-1
illiteracy in, 120; languages in, 120; American (language), 75, 124, 125 LAssommoir (Zola), 147
newspapers in, 243, 244 American Broadcasting Company, Assumption (Guisto), 34
African languages, 53, 63 263 Assyria, 110, 200
Afrikaans (language), 51, 65 Ampere, 183 LAstree (d’Urfe), 138
Afro-Asiatic languages, 38 Ampere, Andre Marie, 183 Athens, 27, 28; girl from, 118
Agencies: advertising, 288-9; Analytic scripts, 110-11 Atlantic, the, 220, 222
newspaper, 232 Anatomy: and new words, 182; Atlas, the first, 134
Agfa, advertising of, gi derivation of word, 182; drawings, Augmented Roman (alphabet), 123
Agonistic behavior (see also Threat 24, 104; models, 185, 183; students Australia: aborigines, 63, 108, 108,
signals), 34-5, 41 of, 21, 203 300; bowerbirds of, 40; broad¬
Agriculture, 280; and illiteracy, Ancient Egyptian (language), 62 casting in, 260, 264; fruit poster, 232
342; words used in, 72 Andalusian (dialect language), 74 Authority, 312-13, 319
Airport, traffic control, 85, 220 Anderson, Hans, 149 Avocet, 42
Air-raid warning system, 213; as Androcles and the Lion (Shaw), 123 Aztecs, the, 108, hi
analogy to animal calls, 42 Angkor, 172, 172
Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 162 Animal Fair (Provensens), 143 Babar the Elephant, 149
Alamkaraparisekara (manuscript), 116 Animal Farm (Orwell), 148 Babies: Aristotle’s theory of, 178;
Albert Hall, London, concert in, / 74 Animal signals, 32-47; adding development of senses, 19; language
Alberto-Culver, advertising of, 293 impact to, 40-1; evolution of, 38-9; of, 32 ; learning of, 270, 272
Alchemists, 178, 182, 188 need for, 32-5; types of, 34-7, 80; Babylonia, 1 10, 200
Alexander the Great, 68, 200 understanding of, 42-3; vocabularies Bacon, Francis, 126
Alexander VI (pope), 144, 144 of, 44-5, 48 Bacon, Roger, 132
Alexandria, library at, 200, 200 Animals (see also names of species): Baigyoku (actor), 165
Algebra, 181, 189 classification of, 183, 191; Baird, John Logie, 256, 257
Algeria, ng, 237, 257, 238 communication between, 32-47, 80; Ball, Hugo, 131
Alice in Wonderland (Carroll), 149 in zoos, 207; models of, 206; organs Ballet, 161, 172, 173, 174, 175
All Qiiiet on the Western Front of, 50; performing, 271; training of, Bantu languages, 63
(Remarque), 147 43; used in cartoons, 308-9; young, Bara, Theda, 252
Allies, the, war propaganda of, 316, 34.55.^70 Barograph, 183, 186
3i7 Antarctic: research base, 220; Scott’s Bearded lizard, 41
Almanacs, 139, 133 expedition, 233 Beaverhrook, Lord, 242
352
Beck, Anthony (English bishop), ig8 Boten-goku, 113 “Carnival,” 67
Beckett, Samuel, 175 Bowerbirds, 40, 40 Carroll, Lewis, 149
‘‘Beef,’5 66 “Bow-wow,” 33 Carson, Rachel, 147
Beer, advertising of, 150, 1 5 1 Boyle, Robert, 181 Cartoons, 100-2, 236, 279; political,
Bees, 32, 35 ; dances of, 45, 45, 46 Brahma, 160, 163 308-9, 316, 317
Belgium., 202, 203, 263 Brahmi (script), 115, 116 Cassavetes, John, 253
Bell, Alexander Graliam, 218 Braille, 184; libraries in, 203 Castilian (language), 74
Bell Telephone Comp any, 256, 322 Brain, of man, 46-7, 48, 51, 83, 97, “Castle,” 66
Bengali (language), 5$ 270, 272-3; model of, 82 Catalan (language), 56, 74
Beomilf 133 Brainwashing, 314-15 Catholics, 23, 24, 144
Berbers, 62, 62 Brazil, 64, 260, 236 Cats, 42, 43, 46
Berlin, 8g, 202 Brecht, Bertolt, 169 Cave paintings, 96-7, 102, 108
Berliner, Emile, 2 49 Breeding, among animals, 32-44 Caxton, William, 130, 131, 134
Bernhardt, Sarah, 248 Breton (language), 25, 60 Celts, 117
Best-sellers, 131, 138, 143, 146-7 Bricklayer, bill made out by, iog Censorship: of advertising, 296-7;
Betancourt, 245 Britain: advertising, 285, 288, 292, of films, 261; of Marx’s writing,
BharataPs Canons of Dance and Drama, 296, 297; Anglican bishops, 86-7; 143; of printed matter, 131, 144-5,
bookbinding, 141 ; broadcasting, 318; of radio, 260; “visual,” 97
5
Bible: and censorship, 144; and 256, 257, 260, 263; Common Centers, Richard, 301
theory of evolution, 142; Authorized Market entry, 239; demonstration, Centre 42, 175
Version, 133; derivation of word, ig2; film censorship, 261; German Cervantes, Miguel de, 138, 146, 148
11 3 ; editions of, 132-3; first English, prisoners, 203; Industrial Ceylon, devil mask from, 163
11 8, 132; 42-line, 129, 132, 133, Revolution, 140; judges, 87; Korean Chaffinches, 36
140 ; Hebrew, 1 15; influence of, prisoners, 314; Labour Party, 239; Chamberlain, Joseph, 100
133 ; story of Noah, 62 libel laws, 145, 237; libraries, 266; Chamberlain, Neville, 308
Bibliotheque Nationale, 202 poetry readers, 152; postal services, Chambers, Ephraim, 135
Bicycle 'Thieves (film), 232, 253 214, 303; press, the, 145, 228, 231, Chameleon, 40
Binary systems, 324, 325 237, 240-1, 242-3; Royal Chaney, Lon, 252
“Binnacle,” 67 Commission on the Press, 239; Channels (communication), 322-31
Biology, 180, 194, 195; classification scientists (1807), igg; sky-writing, Chaplin, Charlie, 251
in, 191 297; thumbs-up gesture, 84; Treaty Chappe, Claude, 213
Birds (see also names of species), 32-44, of Berlin, 307; voting, 301,50/ Character, 31 o
46, 270 British Board of Film Censors, The, 261 Charles Island, 214
Birds, The (Aristophanes), 28 British Broadcasting Corporation, Chaucer, Geoffrey, 22, 70
Birds of paradise, 40 236, 260, 261, 262 Check (bank), 86
Birth of a Nation, The (film), 230, 252 British Medical Association, 296 Cheerleaders, 173
Bishops, Anglican, dress 0^86-7 British Museum, 143, 202, 204 Chekhov, Anton, 167
Bismarck (statesman), 227 Broadcasting, see Mass media, Radio, Chemistry: as old science, 194;
Bits (binary digits), 324, 323 and Television naming of substances, 183; use of
Black, 92-3 ; associations of, 94 Brueghel, Pieter, 178 models, 185; use of symbols, 188-9
Black Muslims, 303 Brunei, Charles, 143 “Chercherf 71
Blind, the, hooks for, 203 Brunhoff, Jean de, 149, 745 Cheret, Jules, 283
Blood, circulation of, 178 Buckley, Samuel, 238 Chicago, 724, 231, 260
Blue J>udk, Zurich, gj “Buffalo,” 66 Children: books for, 146, 148-9; in
Blushing, 38 “Bungalow,” 67 18th and 19th centuries, 118-19; in
Body, the human, 50-1, 83, 172, 185 Bunyan, John, 146, 148 England (1830), 24; learning of, 19,
BoldyrefF, Dr. Alexander, 31 2 “Buoy,” 67 46, 268-81, 300, 312; speech of,
Bolsheviks, 142 Burmese (language), 63 160; television and, 266; upbringing
Book clubs, 147, 155 Bushmen, 38, 63, 96 of, 148, 198
Book illustrators, 148-9, 134 Byblos, 113, 113 Children of the Sun (film), 263
Books (see also Libraries) : Chimpanzees, 36, 47, 47
best-sellers, 131, 138, 143, 146-7; Cables, submarine, 2/7, 220, 222 China: children in street, 161;
censorship of, 131, 144-3, Cadbury’s, advertising of, 286 compositor, 140; drama, 165, 168,
cheap editions, 130; children’s, 146, Caesar, Gaius Julius, 22, 36 174; education, 280, 300; fly
148-9; early, 23, 118, 126-38, 152, Calculating machines, 181; campaign, 304; illiteracy, 111;
20/, 204; educational, 131, 134, computers, 277, 332-40 orchestra, 161; prisoners, 315;
148, 274-5; escapist, 13^-9 ; California, 87, g2 rally, 164
explosive, 142-3; in literacy Calligrammes (Apollinaire), 133 Chinese (language), 51, 58, 63, 79
campaigns, 120-1, 122; informative, Canaanite (alphabet), 115, 330 Chinese (script), 23, hi, 112, 128,
18, 134-5 ; marketing of, 154-7, 209; Canada, 65, 231, 260 140; simplification of, 106, 121
power of, 1 26 ; production of, I2g, Candid Camera (television program), 259 Choking (display of gulls), 44, 44
140-1, 154, 136, 157, 346; religious, Candide (Voltaire), 138, 146 Christian Democrats, 301
I3°'3 fee also Bible); scientific, 156, Canterbury Tales, The (Chaucer), 22 Christianity, 84, 88-9, 170
193; special types, 203, 204; spread Capra, Frank, 253 Chrysler, advertising of, 292
of, 24-5, 201 Car dashboard, 111 Church, the: censorship by, 144;
Bookshops, 154, 134 “Caravan,” 66 color symbolism of, 94; control of
Borden, Neil, 292 Caricature, 100, zoo, 101, 308 printing, 131; cross symbol and,
Boredom, 30, 31 Carlyle, Thomas, 151 88-9; drama and, 168; dress of
Botany, symbols used in, i8g Carmagnole, la (dance), 162 officials of, 86-7; education and,
353
278; film and, 261; literacy and, Cuba: British trade with, 318; crisis Didacticism (in theatre), 168-9
118; opinions and, 298; place in (of 1962), 227, 237; poster, 121 Diderot, Denis, 105, 135, 139
Middle Ages, 23 Cultural evolution, 20-1 Digestive system, diagram of, 104
Churchill, Sir Winston, 84, 147, 317 Cuneiform writing, 11 o-11 “Ding dong,” 55
Cid, El (film), 155 Cutting: films, 250, 251; radio, 2^4 Discovery (ship), 235
Cigarettes, advertising, 287, 288, 297 Cuttlefish, 38 Disney, Walt, 252
Cinema, see Films Cycle trainer, 83 Display, in museums &c, 206-7
Circuits, electrical, 184, 188, 188 Cyclopaedia . . . (Chambers), 135 Disraeli, Benjamin, 306, 307
Cities: growth of, 230; modern, 30-1, Cyprus, influence of, on Greek Dissimilation (sound-change), 71
228; modern newspaper in, 232, 232 language, 113 Dissolve (film and TV), 251, 258
Citizen Kane (film), 253 Cyrillic alphabet, 117, 335 DNA, 184
Civilizations, early, 198, 209 “Dock,” 67
Class, social, 74, 300-1, 304 Dadaists, the, 151, 166 Documentaries (films), 252, 253
Classification: of animals, i8g; Daguerre, Louis, 248 “Dog,” 73
scientific, 190-1 Daguerreotype, 248 Dogs, 36, 43, 4.6, 314
Cleopatra (film), 266 Daily Corn ant, 230, 238 Dolci, Danilo, 310
“Clerk,” 106 Daily Express, 242, 296 Don Qiuxote (Cervantes), 138, 146, 148
Coca-Cola, advertising of, 297 Daily Herald, 242 Dostoevski, Fedor, 137
“Cock-a-doodle-doo,” 55 Daily Mail, 231, 242, 242; group of “Dough,35 71
Cocteau, Jean, 101 newspapers, 242 Drama (see also Theatre), 160-9, r74i
Code of the Motion Picture Daily Mirror, 237, 241, 2425 group of gestures in, 85, 165; modern, 163,
Industry, 252, 261 newspapers, 242, 242; 24.3 166-7, J75i origins of, 160, 162-3;
Codes, see under specific headings, such Daily Sketch, 242 place of comedy, 163, 168; poetic,
as Animal signals, Morse, Speech Daily Telegraph, 231 165; pulpit, 168-9; religious, 168
Collodi, Carlo, 149 Dakar, 281; university at, 277 Dreams, 143
Color: and the eye, 92-3; associations Daladier,Edouard, 100 Dress, and status, 86-7
of, 94-5; in advertising, 102; in Dali, Salvador, 143 Dress pattern, 233
newspapers, 245; in television, 256, Dalmatian (language), 56 Dreyfus, Alfred, 151
257; nature of, 94-5 Dalton, John, 188 Drifters (film), 253
Color planner, 138 Dame School, 272 Drums, African, 170, 213, 213
Comenius, Amos, 148, 148 Dance, 158, 160, 163, 172-3; gestures Ducks, 39, 41
Communal arts, the, 158-75 in, 85, 165, 165; language of, 172 Dumas, Alexandre, 137, 146, 148
Communism, 143, 169 Darwin, Charles, 46, 142, 142 Diirer, Albrecht, 130
Communist countries: Daumier, Honore, 138, 303 Durham, bishop’s seal, 138
advertising in, 294-51 brainwashing Dayton (Tennessee), 142 Diirrenmatt, Friedrich, 163
by, 314-15; broadcasting in, 260; De Forest, Lee, 248 Dutch (language), 133
film making in, 261; the arts in, De Lisle, Rouget, 162 Dwarf honeybee, 45
169, 174-5; the press in, 145, 236 De Mille, Cecil B., 252
Communities: and newspapers, 228, De Sica, Vittorio, 252, 253 Ear, 51
234, 242; and poetry, 152-3; and Dead Sea Scrolls, 62 Early Canaanite (script), 1 14, 114
the arts, 158; before locomotives, 23 Deaf children, 51 Early Hebrew, 114, 1 15
Community, sense of, 28, 30-1, 163 Deaf-and-dumb people, 85 Early man, 46-7
Compositors, 140, 141, 154 Deaths and entrances (Graham), 173 Easter Island, statues on, 63
Computers, 277, 332-40; cards, 288, Debussy, Claude, 161 “tcole70
335; Russian-English dictionary, Declaration of Independence, 86, Economics, 194, 195
2og Economist, Tke, 235
150
Cones (of retina), go, 91 Defoe, Daniel, 108, 138, 146, 148 Ecuador: stamp, 121; throne, 86
Confessions of Felix Krull, The (Mann), Delhi, 123, 265 Edison, Thomas, 219, 248, 249
Delphi (Greece), 28 Editing: in radio, 254-5 i m television,
138
Conservative Party (Britain), 301, Democracy, 318; derivation and use 258-9; of films, 250-1
301; advertising of, 150, 151 of word, 27; development of, 126; Editors: art, 154; newspaper, 230,
Consonants, 50,51, 114, 115, 124 newspapers in a, 242 232-3, 236, 238, 243, 245
Context, 44, 73, 326,^336-7 Democratic party (United States), Education, 268-81 (see also Learning
Cooper, James Fenimore, 146, 148 301, 304; convention, 26 and Schools) ; children’s books and,
Copernicus, Nicolaus, ig5 Demonstrations, 27, 236 148; communication and, ig;
Copyright, 136-7 Denmark: broadcasting, 260; gold comparative chart, 343; compulsory,
Cosmographia. (Ptolemy), 134 horn, 57; launch library, 203 119 ; formal, 268, 274, 2 78-9 ;
“Cow,” 66 Dentition, i8g importance of libraries, 198, 202 ;
Cowrie shells, 109 Depression, the, 252, 307 in Europe, 24, 25, 278-9; in
Craig, Edward Gordon, 164, 164 Depth interviews, 289 underdeveloped countries, 280;
Cranach, Lucas, 132 Descartes, Rene, 78 informal, 18, 274, 2 78; intelligence
“Cranium,” 182 Dewey, Melvil, 205 and, 29; mass media and, 264-5;
Creoles, 75 Dialect, 74-5 modern methods, 26, 272, 273,
Crete, 108, 112 Dichter, Ernest, 289 274-7 (see a^so Teaching materials) ;
Cricket (insect), 36 Dickens, Charles, 137, 146, 148, 148 of scientists, 1 92; role of play in,
Crimson, associations of the color, 94 Dictionaries, 67, 72, 75, 76, 125, 268, 27/2, 273; spread of, 278-g;
Crippen, Dr., 220 134-5; computers’, 2og, 337, 339-40 today, 280-1
Cross (the symbol), 60, 88-9, 94 Dictionary of the English Language Egg (illustration from r 68 1 paper),
Cruikshank, George, 146 (Johnson), 134 233
354
Egypt: bro adca sting, 2 60; i 11 it era try, Evening Standard, 242 Fleas, 36, 134
344; Suez Canal crisis, 236 “Evil eye,” go Flemish (language), 74
Egypt, ancient: language of, 62; Evolution, 142, 142, 191 ; cultural, Florence, libraries in, 201, 201
libraries in, 1200; painting from, roo ; 20-1; of languages, 129; of man, Flying phalanger, 55
writing instruments of, it 8 20, 46-7, 142 Focardi, Giovanni, 283
Egyptian, (writing), 111,114, 1 15 Exchanges, telephone, 218, 2ig Folk art, 29
Eiffel Tower, 2^g Exhibitions, 206-7 Folk entertainment, 23
Eisenhower, General, 306 Exit the King (Ionesco), 167 Folk songs, 28, 170
Eisenstein, Sergei, 251, 25/ Expression of the Emotions in Man and Food: production problems, 280, 280;
Elamites, 111 Animals, The, (Darwin), 46 taboos in Ghana, 208
Elections, 1 ig Expressionism (theatre), 166, 168-9 Football fans, 30
Electrical engineering, symbols Expressionist art, 98, g8 Ford, John, 147, 253
used in, r88 Extrapolation (mathematical), 187 Ford, advertising of, 290, 292
Electricity: and electric telegraph, Eye, the human, 83, 90-3, 97 Formosa, telegram form from, 217
216; and telephone, 218; measuring Formulae, scientific, 188-9
of, 180; units of, 183 Factory workers, ig; in 18th and Fortune, 240
Electroencephalograph, 182 19th centuries, 118, 119, 140, 279 Forward (display of gulls), 44, 44
Electromagnetic waves, 94-5 Fade-in, 251, 255, 258 Fossils, 46
Electromagnetism, 216 Fade-out, 251, 255, 258 Fountain, at Geneva, 186, 187
Electron microscope, iyg Faerie Queene, The (Spenser), 137 400 Blows, The (film), 253
Elements (in science), 188-9; Fairbanks, Douglas, 252 Fox Talbot, William, 248
classification of, igi, igi; Dalton’s Fairy Tales (Anderson), 149 France: broadcasting, 243, 257, 260,
symbols for, 188 Fallen Idol (film), 250 262; cave paintings, 108; censor¬
Elements of Geometry (Euclid), 134 “Fallout,” 179 ship, 144, 145; copyright, 137;
Ellis, Alexander, 124 Family, the, function of, 300, 304, 310 films, 248; illiteracy, 119, 344;
Emil and the Detectives (Kastner), 1 49 “Fanatic,” 326 libraries, 202, 203, 204; press, the,
Ems telegram, 227 “Fancier,” 326 139s 23b 233> 234-5. 237, 237, 241,
Encyclopaedia (Alsted), 135 Farad, 183 244; sky-writing, 237; telegram
Encyclopedias, 135, 148, 156 Faraday, Michael, 183 form, 217
Encyclopedic (Diderot), /05, 135 Farming, 280; and illiteracy, 342; Francis I (king of France), 136, 202
England: break with Church of words used in, 72 Frankfurt, 202; and censorship, 144;
Rome, 118; copyright, 137; early “Fascism,” 8g Book Fair, 136
printed books, 134; education test Fascist symbols, 89 Franklin Benjamin, 139, 133, 203
(1837), 1 1 g; 13th-century psalter, Federal Communications Freedom: of choice, 297; of opinion,
170; first dictionary, 1 34; freedom Commission, 261 318-19; power of the word, 26
of press, 143; libraries, 355; literacy, Fellini, Federico, 253 “Freedom of the Press, The”
24; newspaper taxes, 230; schools, Fencing, manual of, 133 (cartoon), 242
Feuillet, Raoul, 172 French (language), 51, 56, 57, 58,
English (language), 51, 53, 55, 57, Fevers, Torti’s classification of, igo 62, 65, 63, 73, 76; as universal
58, 65, 70, 72, 73, r 23, r?3, 124; Fiddler crab, 37 language, 79
as universal language, 7#, 79; Fielding, Henry, 138, 133 French Academy, dictionary of, 134
dialects of, 75, 74; discrepancies in, Fighting Qiieen (film), 262 French Revolution, 135, 144, 145,
1 24-5 ; first books in, 130, 135; Figurehead (of war canoe), 97 150, 236; effect on libraries, 203
frequency of letters in, 21 6 ; in early “Filled,” 336 French Revolution, The (Carlyle), 151
printing, 1 3 1; in science, 136; Film stars, 249, 252 French Riviera, advertising of, 283
influence of Bible and Shakespeare Films {see also Mass Media), 246-53, Frend, Charles, 253
on, 133 ; translated from Russian, 259, 261, 262, 264, 349; attendances, Frequencies: of sound, 36, 41; of
337-40 249; control of, 200, 261; early, speech, 224; radio, 224
Engravings, 128, 134, 749, 150 248, 260; history of, 249, 261; Freud, Sigmund, 31, 143, 143
Epic theatre, 168, 169 society and, 252-3, 266, 266; Frigate birds, 33
Epics (poetry), 153, 172-3 techniques and language of, 225, Frisch, Max, 163
Escapism, 29, 138-9 246, 249, 250-1; used in TV, 259 Frogs, 34, 36
Eskimo (language), 63 Filmstrip, 274 Funen Fyn (Denmark), 203
Esperanto, 78, 79 Financial Times, 241 Fury, Billy, 262
Estienne, Robert, 134 Fingerprints, 86, 86
Estonian (language), 62, 63 Finland: telegram form from, 217; Gaelic (language), 25, 60
Etruscan (alphabet), 114, 113, 117 television in, 263; timber exports, Gagarin, Yuri, 237
Europe: advertising, 285; alphabets, Gallup, George, 289
117; Bibles, 1 32-3 ; censorship,
,141
Finney, Albert, 133 Gallup Polls, 302, 303
144-5; education, 278-9; expression Finnish (language), 53, 62, 63 Garden of Eden, 71
of ideas, 311; invention of printing, Fireflies, 37, 40, 41 “Gas,” 183
24, 126, 128; languages, 62, 156; Fish, 36, 37, 38, 40; early Christian Gas I (Kaiser), 169
Latin, 131 ; literacy,. 118-19, 279; symbol, 88, 89 Gases: Boyle’s law concerning, 181;
pre- 15th-century, 23 ; press, the, Five K’s, the, 8g graphs concerning, 187; inert, 131
182, 230-1, 234-5, 240-4; religious Five Year Plan (India), 123 Gassman, Vittorio, 175
wars, 24; writing, 106 Five Year Plans (Soviet Union), 295 Gates of Tongues (dictionary), 134
European Common Market, 239 Flags: of ships, 40; signaling, 213 Gebrauchsmusik, 162
Eurovision, 257, 257 Flaherty, Robert, 251, 252 General Motors, advertising of, 292
Evening News, 242 Flaubert, Gustave, 145 Genetics, 183
355
Geneva: data about fountain at, 187 ; Green, associations ot the color, 94 “Hurricane,55 67
old library in, 202; WHO library Greene, Graham, 148 Hypnerotomachia (Colonna), 131
in, 199 Grierson, John, 253
Genghis Khan, 65 Griffith, David Wark, 250, 251, 252 I Have a Secret (TV program), 263
Gent (Belgium), 74, 203, 226 Grosz, George, 168, 308 I Live in Fear (film), 232
Georgian (language), 62 Guazzoni, Enrico, 262 Ibsen, Henrik, 168
German (language), 51, 55, 57, 58; Gulliver s Travels (Swift), 148 Identity, 86 , 86
Bibles in, 132-3 Gulls, language of, 44 Ideography, 78, 110-11
Germanic languages, 57, 57, 60 Gutenberg, Johann, 128, 128, 129, Ideological conflicts, 156, 193
Germanium, 191 T33, J34 Idioms (language), 337
Germany: books, 131 ; collective Riad (Homer), 146, 153
farming (East), 315; Der Spiegel, Ha9ek, Jaroslav, 168 Illiteracy (see also Literacy):
237, 237; epic theatre, 169; Hamburger Abendblatt, 24.3 agriculture and, 342 ; before
libraries, 203, 204; press, the, 231, Hamito-Semitic languages, 62, 62 printing, 23; full meaning of, 120;
237, 241; prisoners, 203; schools, Hammer and sickle, 89 in China, 111 ; mass media and, 264,
131; war propaganda, 317,5/7 “Hammock,55 67 265; of factory workers, 279;
Gesamtkunstwerk, 161 Hancock, John, 86, 130 throughout world, 106, 120, 344
Gestures, 82, 83, 84-5, 165, 163 Handel, George Frederick, 161, 162 Image (in advertising), 102, 102
Ghana: elections, 113; former Lord Handshake, 84 Imitation of Christ, The (Thomas a
Chief Justice, 87; learning to read, Harmsworth, Alfred, 231 Kempis), 131
/15; Nkrumah, 306; nutrition Harvey, William, 173 Impressionist Painter, The (Cocteau), 101
lecture, 208 Hearst, W. R., 231, 243 Incas, the, quipu of, 109
Gillette, advertising of, 287 Heart, the, 173 Independent Television Authority,
“Ginger,55 68 Heat, 329 260, 261
Girdle book, 23 Hebrew (language), 62, 62, 114, 115 Index librorum prohibitomm, 144, 144
Gladstone, William Ewart, 307 Heidi (Spyri), 149 India: alphabets, 115, 1 16, 117;
Glossaries, 76 Heraldry, 23, 86 broadcasting, 260, 265; children,
Goethe, Johann von, 139, 146, 167 Hernani (Hugo), 166 164; crossroads sign, 111; dance,
Golden Bed, The (film), 252 Heston, Charlton, 133 158, 163, 172-3; education, 122-3;
Goldoni, Carlo, 139 Heyerdahl, Thor, 63, 147 films, 262; Five Year Plan, 123 ;
Gone with the Wind (Mitchell), 147 Hidden Fortress, The (film), 348 illiteracy, 113, 120, 121, 122-3, 3445
Good Soldier Schweik, The (Hagek), 168 Hieroglyphic writing, no, 111 languages, 60, 60, 79, 122, 123;
Goon Show (radio programme), 255 High culture, 28-9, 161, 171, 174-5 man, 38; music, 158; newspapers,
Goring, Hermann, 313 Hill, Rowland, 214 244; prejudice, 305; telegram
Gothic alphabet, 117 Hindi, 60, 123 envelopes, 217; thumbs-up gesture,
“Goulash,55 67 Hindu culture, 305; dance in, 172-3
Gouldian finch, 39 Hindustani (language), 58, 60
8t
India Literacy Board, 123, 123
Governments: advertising and, 294; Hiroshima Mon Amour (film), 253 Indiana State prison, 273
censorship by, 144-5; control of History, 21, 31, 151, 196 Indians (American), 63, 96, 97, 332
broadcasting, 260, 262; control of History of England (Macaulay), 147 Indoctrination, 297, 312-15
films, 261; control of newspapers, History of the Jewish Wars (Josephus), Indo-European languages, 57.58,
230, 236-7, 243, 244; control of 136 38, 60, 62, 63, 64
printing, 131; films and, 264; Hitchcock, Alfred, 251 Indo-Iranian languages, 60
libraries of, 199; mass media and, Hitler, Adolf, 134, 302 Indonesia, illiteracy in, 1 20
27; of underdeveloped countries, Hittites, 60, hi; idol of, 60 Indus Valley, seals from, no
295; propaganda and, 302, 303, Hoffhung, Gerard, 171 Industrialization, 2 14, 280; and
305; scientific research of, ig2, 193 Hogarth, William, 230, 236 education, 278-9; and literacy, 118,
Graham, Martha, 173 Hoggart, Richard, 300 119, 278-9, 342; and printing, 140-1
Grammar, 52, 32, 33; of films, 250-1 “Holiday,55 70, 73 Industrialized societies (see also
Grammar School, the,'at Stratford- Holland: libraries in, 204; map Societies): advertising in, 282 ;
upon-Avon, 33 production in, 134, 133; newspaper literacy and education in, 119,
Grand Central Station, New York, from, 233; translation of Bible in, 278-9; newspapers, 231, 244;
267 !33 personal communication in, 30-1
Grapes of Wrath, The (Steinbeck), 147, Hollywood, 253, 266, 301 Industry: literacy and, 119; need for
151; quotation from, 150; film, 253 Honey guide, 35 advertising, 282; research by, 193;
Graphs, 186-7 Hooke, Robert, 218 specialized libraries, igg; use of
Grasshoppers, 41 Horn-book, 113 closed-circuit television, 221 ; use of
Great Train Robbery, The (film), 248 Horns, 57, 213 color, 94; use of films, 264
Greece: fiber advertisement, 232; Hospitals, 202, 204 Information (see also specific entries,
telegram form from, 217 Hot line, the, 227 suck as Animal Signals, Writing):
Greece, ancient: democracy in, 27; “Hound,55 73 early methods of recording, 'io8-g,
development of geometry, 184; Housing Problems (film), 253 200 ; measuring and sending of,
drama in, 28, 28, 165, 168; libraries How Green Was My Valley (Llewellyn), 322-37; storing of, 196-209
in, 200, 200; literacy in, 118, /18; J47> H7 Information level: of animal
papyrus from, 200; vase from, 136 Huckleberry Finn (Twain), 138 signals, 42-3; of visual and audible
Greek language: ancient, 52, 112, Hugo, Victor, 146, 166 signals, 212, 213,322-31
/12, 113, 115, 117, 117; “Christos,” Hungarian (language), 52, 62, 63, 77 Information theory, 224-5, 322_3I
89; in early printing, 130-1; Hungary, 311 Inn signs, 23, 95
providing new words, 182-3 Hunting, 43, 47, 108 Insects (see also names ojspecies), 34, 36
356
Instincts, 270 Journalists, 232, 243, 245; freedom Laubach, Frank, 121, 121
Institutional promotion, 291 of, 236, 237; freelance, 232; Laurentian Library, 201, 201
Intention, movements, 38 influence of, 238; the first, 230 Lawrence, D. H., 143
Interference (radio), 222, 224, 225 Jungfraujoch Observatory Lay figure, 275
International Advertising (Switzerland), 180 Lazarfeld, Paul, 301
Convention, 296 Le Monde, 231
International Council on Archives, Kabuki theatre (Japan), 163 Le Roy, Mervyn, 253
208 Kaiser, the, 316 Leaders (newspaper), 232, 238
International Federation of Kandinski, Wassily, 98 Learning (see also Education), 19; by
Documentation, 208 Kangaroos, 270 imitation, 273, 274; man’s capacity
International Federation of Kapital, Das (Marx), 142, 143 for, 268; of a child, 268, 270-1,
Library Associations, 208, 208 Keller, Friedrich, 141 272-3; of a language, 46, 124, 125;
International flag code, 212 Kennedy, John F., 302 processes of, 268, 270-1, 281; stages
International Publishing “Ketchup,” 67 of, 268, 272-3; using a machine,
Corporation, 242 “Kind,” 72 276-7
Interpolation (mathematics), 187 King, Cecil, 242 Leatherfish, 43
Interpreters (see also Translation), Kingsley, Charles, 148 Legends, 196
76, 227 Kipling, Rudyard, 148 Leibniz, Baron Gottfried Wilhelm
Interpreting (polls), 303 “Kismet,” 67 von, 156, 181
Interviewing (polls), 303 Kitchen, The (Wesker), 163 Leiden, University of, 204 l
Interviews, television, 267 Knossos, 112, 112 Leitmotivs, 171
Inter vision, 257, 257 Kodak, advertising of, 287 Letter, from Cameroun boy, 63
Intolerance (film.), 251 Kon-Tiki (Heyerdahl), 63, 147 Letters (alphabet), 114-15; develop¬
Intonation (in spe ech), 51 Koran, the, 33, 118 ment of new, 117, 125
Intrusion (sound-change), 70 Korean war, 314, 315, 315, 317 Letters (post), 214-15; and tele¬
Ionesco, Engene, / 67, 175 “Kraft,” 70 graphic messages, 217; delivery of,
Ionosphere, 220, 222 Krokodil, 317 214-15; direct-mail advertising, 290 ;
Iran, poster from, 120 Kufic (script), 116, 116 handling of, 214, 213; sorting of, 213
Iraq >312 Kurosawa, Akira, 232, 253, 348 Lever, advertising of, 292
Ireland, films in, 261 Levison, Dr. Michael, 341
Irish, (language), 60 Labour Party (Britain), 239, 301; Levy-Bruhl, Lucien, 97
Iron lung, 204 advertising by, 84, 150, 151 Leyhausen, P., 42
Islam (see also Moslems), 116, 116 Lady Chatter ley's Lover (Lawrence), 143 Libel, law of, and the press, 236-7
Isolation: feeling of, 226; of Indian Landon, Alfred Mossman, 302 Liberia, 121
communities, 122 Language, 48-79 (see also Gestures, Liberty Bonds, 304
Isolative sound-change, 70 Writing); animals’, see Animal Libraries, 20, 130, 155, 196-209,
Israel, 62, 63, 265 signals; art’s, 160; “freezing” of, 266; ancient, 200-1; and best sellers,
Italian (language), 56, 57, 58, 124 129, 153; in international com¬ 147; catalogues for, 204-5; co¬
Italo-Celtic languages, 60, So munication, 125, 227; in literacy operation between, 205, 208-9;
Italy: broadcasting, 260, 265; films, campaigns, 120-1, 122; man’s, 32, making best use of, 208-9; modern,
261; first dictionary, 134; libraries, 43, 46-7 (and see also Languages); !55> 205, 203; organizing of, 204-5;
201; newspapers, 241, 244; mathematical, 151, 181; nature of, public, 155, 207, 202-3, 346; space
periodicals, 235; shy-writing, 297 31; of signs, 104; science’s, 19, 150, problem of, 204, 205; subscription,
Ivan the Terrible (film), 291 151, 176-95; standard, 75; universal, 147, 155, 202, 203, 204; types of,
Izvestia, 245 a, 48, 78-9 134, 198-9, 202, 203, 203, 204, 208
Languages (see also names of languages Library of Congress, 202, 204, 205
Jackson, Andrew, 318 and groups of languages): dialects, Life, 234, 240, 293
Jadavpur University, Calcutta, 129 74-5; evolution, 54-6, 66-7, 70-1, Life and Death of an American (Sklar),
Jamming, 260 129, 132; groups (families), 48, 52, i6g
Janeway, James, 148 56-63; national, 156-7; new, 78; Light: emitted by fireflies, 40; nature
Japan: advertising, 2g2; broadcasting, number of, 48, 48, 52; origin, 54-5; of, 94-5; speed of, 212
246, 237, 263, 265; Bngaku dances, relationship between, 55-63; sounds, Lindisfarne Gospels, 118
172; films, 348; illiteracy, 344; 51, 70-1; spread, 60-5; standardiza¬ Linear B (script), 112, 112
Kabuki theatre, 169; manuscript, tion, 134; structure, 52-3, 55; Linotype machines, 141, 233
113; No theatre, 158, 160-1, 165; translation, see Translation Lips (as used when speaking), 51, 57
papers, 231; poster, 29; teenagers, Lannion (France), 223 Literacy, 18, 24-5, 244, 279, 342;
303; television factory, 257; War Lapp (language), 62, 63 Bible as spur to, 133; campaigns,
Office poster, 316; war propaganda, Larvae, 34 120-3; in Europe, 24-5, 118-19;
317;.woman, 38 Last of the Mohicans, The (Cooper), 148 printing and, 126, 131; spread of,
Japanese (language), 53, 57, 58, 58, Last Tear at Marienbad (film), 251 106, 134, 140
62, 63, I 12, I 14 Latin, 56-7, 76, 78; alphabet, Literacy Village, 123
Jaques JDamour (Zola), 166 117, 7/7, 124; and the Bible, 132; Literary Digest, 302, 303
Jazz, 752, 174 chemical symbols from, 188; in Literature, periodicals about, 235
Jeans, Sir James, 147 Church services, 118, 56-7, 62; in Lithuanian (language), 124
Jefferson, Thomas, 130, 202, 319 early printing, 130-1, 135, 156 ; in Little Caesar (film), 253
“Jet,” 72 Middle Ages, 131; international Living Newspaper, 169
Jews, 62, 199, 313 language, 23, 156; new words from, Llewellyn, Richard, 147, 147
Johnson, Samuel, 134, 284, 286 182-3 Loan words, 66-8
Jones, Robert Edmond, 166, 167 Latin Grammar (Donatus), 134 London: bag from store, 287; first
357
newspapers, 230; news of Napoleon’s Marx, Karl, 133, 142-3 Moore, Henry, 21, gg, 311
defeat, 22; queue, 143; shopfront, Maser, 225, 223 “Moose,” 67
180; street advertising, 284; Suez Mashonaland, rock paintings, 34, g6 Morality, and censorship, 145
demonstration, 236; suffragettes, Maslov, Professor P., 295 Morocco, 33, 58
302; Underground, 283 Mass marketing, 285 Morse, Samuel, 216, 323
Long Christmas Dinner, The (Wilder), Mass media (see also Films, Radio Morse code, 212, 213, 213, 216-17,
167 and Television), 26, 29, 31, ig3, 220, 225
Look Back in Anger (film), 253 246-67, 305; advertising and, 294; Moscow: hot line, 227; May Day
Lord’s Prayer, the, 77 as bridge between scientist and parade, 237; Napoleon’s retreat, 22;
“Lost in France” (poem), 153 laymen, 192; control of, 26-7; poetry talk, 2g; Red Square
Louis XVI (French king), 207 education and, 275; limitations of, celebration, 27; University of Lenin,
Louis Philippe (French king), 100 304; opinions and, 318; quality of, 902
Low, David, 308, 309 28-9 Moslems, 84, 116, 116, 200-1
Low Countries, the, 131, 230 Mass production, 129, 282, 282 Moths, 32, 37
Lower Depths, The (Gorki), 167 Massachusetts Indian (language), Motivational research, 288, 289
Loyola, Ignatius, 298 133 Motor-cyclist’s helmet, g6
Lucknow, 123, 123 Mathematics, language of, 30, 150, Mourning, colors of, 94
Lumiere, Auguste and Louis, 248 151, 180-1 Madras (Indian dance gestures), 165,
Luna moth, 32 Medici (Florentine family), 201, 201 165
Luther, Martin, 131, 132, 136, 143, Medicine, 194; libraries specializing Murrow, Edward R., 306
144, 144, 298; dialect of, 133; in, 199; periodicals devoted to, 235 Muscles, 83, 272, 273
translation of Bible, 132, 133 Melies, George, 248 Museums, 20, 200, 206-7
Lydgate, John, 132 Memory, 47, 83, 196 Music, 158, 160-3; classical, 29, 170,
Mendel, Gregor, 183 174; commercial, 163; language of,
Macaulay, Thomas, 147 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 191, igi 170-1; modern, 174; properties of,
Mach i (speed of sound), 183 Mercator, Gerhardus, 134, 133 160; used in education, 273; used
Macula lutea, 91 Mercure Galant, 139 in radio, 254; used in television, 259
Madame Bov ary (Flaubert), 145 Mesopotamia, 108, 110, 200 Music hall, 1 74
Magazines, see Periodicals Message systems, 108-9 Music While You Work, 163
Magellan, Ferdinand, 133 Messages (see also Animal signals, Musicals: film, 253, 233, 262;
Maggiorani, Lamberto, 232 Speech, &c): in daily life, 18-19; theatre, 165
Magic, 163 sending of, 210-27; 322-31 Musique d’ameublement, 162
Mahabharata, the, 173 Metamorphosis of Narcissus, The Mussolini, Benito, 100, 302, 303
Mail, see Post Offices, &c (painting), 143 “Mutton,” 66
Mail coaches, 230 Mexico, 64; manuscript from, 84 “Muzak,” 163
Mailbox, world’s most isolated, 214 Mexico City, 2g, 64 Myelin, 272
Mainz, 128, 129; Archbishop of, 144 Microfilms, 204, 205, 214, 276 Mysterious Universe, The (Jeans), 147
Malay (language), 58 Microprinting, 204, 205 Mysticism, 178
Malayo-Polynesian languages, 58 Microwaves, 222-3 Myths, 20
63, 63 Middle Ages, the, 106, 117, 129, 135;
Malta, 85 identity and status in, 86; Latin in, Nabateans, the, 116
Maltese cross, 89 131; life in, 23; literacy in, 23, 118 Nanook of the North (film), 252
Man Who Married a Dumb Wife, The Milk, advertising of, 292, 296 Napoleon, 22, 22, 145, 286
(France), 166 Milligan, Spike, 233 Nashki (script), 116, 116
Man Who Was Thursday, The Milton, John, 137, 144-5 Nation, sense of belonging to, 316-17
(Chesterton), 168 Mime, 164, 165, 273 National Broadcasting Company,
Manipulation, of means of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (film), 253 263
communication, 26-7 Mitchell, Margaret, 147 Nationalism, growth of, 131, 133
Mann, Thomas, 138 Moana (film), 252 Nationalization (in Britain), 239
Manuscript (of a book), 154 Models: scientific, 184, 185, 183, Natterjack toads, 33
Manuscript (hand-written) books, 275; working, 82, 206, 207 Naturalism (theatre), 166-7
126, 129, 130 Modern Times (film), 251 Nature: and science, 176; orderliness
Manutius, Aldus, 130, 131 Molcho, Sarny, 164 of, 190-1
Maoris, maturity design of, 87 Molecules, 189; models of, 184, 185 Navaho newspaper, 233
Maps., 134, 133, 184-5; specifically: Moll Flanders (Defoe), 138 Nazis: censorship by, 260, 318;
members of International Federa¬ Mollusk, 176 “Hitler Youths,” 134; material in
tion of Library Associations, 208; Monaco, 73, 283 Wiener Library, igg; propaganda
Mercator’s, 133; painted on Monasteries: as centers of literacy, 3X3> 3J3> Ml,3*7; picketing
playground, 268 118; book copying in, 118, 118; Jewish shops, 27; rally, 8g, 260
Marble, 188-9 dissolution of, 131; preservation of Nebraska, 227
Marceau, Marcel, 165 records in, 201; schools established Nebula, 176
Marconi, Guglielmo, 220, 248 by, 278 Negroes, status of, 305
Marconi-E.M.I. Company, 257 Mondriaan, Pieter, g8 Neizvestny, Ernst, 311
Marie Antoinette, 207 Money, 128, igg Nelson, Lord, 67
Marie Therese, 207 Monkeys, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40, 43, Nerina, Nadia, 263
Market research, 267, 288, 289, 295 43, 46, 46, 47 Nerve cells (of eye), 90-1
Marseillaise, the, 162 Monotype machines, 141, 141 Nervous system, 38, 51, 83, 272;
Marshall Islanders, iog Montenegro (Yugoslavia), 28 affected by colors, 94; as analogy to
Marvell, Andrew, 152 Montgomery, Field Marshal, 97 social communication, 210
358
Netherlands, the: ‘6 a.rt by radio” Nuclear personality, 300, 310 Pather Panchali (him), 253
cliib, 283; growth of newspapers, Numbers: computers’ use of, 335; Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 314
231 ; newspaper reporters, 237 ; in language of science, 180-1; in Peacock, .34
religions wars, 24 maps, 185 Pears’, advertising of, 285, 283
Networks, broadcasting, 261, 263 Numerals: Arabic, 180, 180; Roman, Pedlars, 2 c, 134, 282
New College, Oxford, 200 180 “Pelerin,” 71
New Guinea.: bowerbirds of, 4.0; Nuremberg, rally at, 260 People, 242
languages of, 63; man from, 38 ; Pepsi-Cola, advertising of, 287
mask from, 20; natives of, yg Oblique (display of gulls), 44, 44 Periodicals, 234-5; beginnings of,
New Mexico, 63 Ocean Times, 233 139; children’s, 148; international,
New Orleans, Battle of, 226 Odyssey (Homer), 153 156; ownership of, 243; scientific,
New Repub lie) 235 Oedipus Rex (Sophocles), 28 208; women’s, 140, 239, 233
New Scientist, 235 Oghams (writing), 117 Persians, the, 111, 113, 115
New Statesman, 235 Olday, John, 309 Personality, 300, 310, 314, 315
New York: Grand Central Station, Olivetti, advertising of, 2g2 Phaistos Disk, 108
267; Living Newspaper, rSg; news On The Town (film), 253, 233 Philippines, the, 116, 260, 344
of Napoleon’s defeat, 22; newspaper O’Neill, Eugene, 175 Phoenicians, 114, 115
strike (1963), 228, 267; newspapers, Onomatopoeic words, 54, 33 Phonemes, 52-3
231 ; Stock Exchange, 226; TV Ootacumund Hunt, 310 Phoneticism, 110-13, 114, 121
studio, 258 Open City (film), 253 Phonograph, 248, 249, 275
New York Herald, 296 Opera, 158, 161 Photography, 20, 100, 102, 248, 248
New York Herald Tribune, 245 Operators (mathematical signs), Pi (7t), 181
New York Tines, 240 180-1 Picaresque writing, 138
New Yorker, 2g7 Opinion leaders, 304, 305 Picasso, Pablo, 20
News: advertising and, 290; early Opinions, 298-319; dissenting, Pickford, Mary, 252
sources of, 230; former methods of 31 o-11; expression of, 318-19; Pictography, 108, 109, 110, no
carrying-, 109, 23c; gathering of, forming of, 300-1, 310; measuring Picture Post; 243
230, 240, 245; in modern life, 227; of, 302-3 Pictures: communication through,
presentation of, 233, 238; sources of, Optic nerve, 83 23, 96-7; scientific, 184-5
228,230 Opticks (Newton), 156 Pidgin English, 73
News Chronicle, 242 Orangutan, 46 Pig Industry Development
News of the World, group of newspapers, Orbis Rictus (Comenius), 148, 148 Authority, poster of, 103
242 Order of St. John, 89 Pigeons, carrier, 214
Newspapers [see also Mass media, Origin of Species by Means of Natural Pilgrimages, 22
News, Periodicals, Press) : Selection, On the (Darwin), 142, 142 Pilgrim's Progress, The (Bunyan), 146,
advertising in, 230, 240-1, 284, 285, Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 146 148
287, 288, 290-1, 296; chains of, 243, Orwell, George, 148 Pink Panther, The (film), 233
243; choice of, 239; circulation of, Osborne, John, 175 Pinocchio (Collodi), 149
234-5> 238-g, 24.1,288, 346; Overland Telegraph, 216 Pinturicchio, 144
competition between, 242, 242; Overlay (television), 238 “Pioneers” (China), 304
competitions in, 231; controls of, Overtones, of words, 178-9 “Pipe,” 336-7
230, 236-7, 242-3 ; economics of, “Ox,” 66 Pipe color code, 34
240-1 ; features in, 245; first, 25, Oxford, 200, 201 Pirandello, Luigi, 164
230; functions of, 18, ig, 228, 245; Oxford Committee for Famine Pirating (of literary works), 136, 137
mass-circulation, 25, 231, 240, Relief, 507 Piscator, Erwin, 168, 169
242-3; non-daily, see Periodicals; Oxford English Dictionary, 72 Pitch (music), 160, 170
number of, 22S, 231 ; ownership of, Pitman, Sir James, 123
236, 242-3; policy of, 241; power of, Pabst, G. W., 231 Planchon, Roger, 175
238-9; production of, 232-3, 240 Paint mixing, 33, ig8 Planetarium, 206
Newsstands, ig Painters, use of colors, 95, 33 Plants, i8g, 191
Newton, Sir Isaac, 150, 156 Painting, communication through, Play, in learning, 268, 271, 272, 273
Nicholas Nickleby (Dickens), 148 96-7,98-9 Playing cards, 128, 128
Niebehmgen lied, 153 Palette, painter’s, 33 Poetry, 19, 129, 150-3; and drama,
Niederreiten, Ernst, 230 Palmolive, advertising of, 287 165; modern, 21; Russian, 2g; set
Nigeria: farmers in, 280; illiteracy Pamela (Richardson), 139, 146 to music, 161
in, 344 ; Jebu of, 109 ; television sets Panmunjon, 313 Poetry Day, in Russia, 2g
in, 265; women in, 120 Paper, 141, 230 Poets, 21, 136; use of words, 130,
Nixon, Rickard, 306-7 Paradise Lost (Milton), 137 178. 179
Nkrumah, Kwame, 306 Parents, role of, 268, 270, 274 Pointillism, 33
No theatre, of Japan, 158, 160-1, 165 Paris: apartment house, ng; Court Poland, radio advertisements in, 295
Noise (communication interference), of Appeal library, 199; described in Policemen, position of, 301
225,328, 329, 330 The French Revolution, 150, 151; Political conflict, 31
Nordvision, 257, 231 former cultural capital, 156; Political parties, 301, 306, 307; and
North Semitic alphabet, 114, 114, policeman, 18; poster pillar, 286 caricature, 100; newspapers as
115 Past, the (see also Museums): organs of, 236
Norway, 237, 260 in literature, 147; preserved in Politicians, 302-3, 306; caricatures
Norwegian (language), 53 houses, 207; preserved in languages, of, 100
Novel, the, 138-9 48; preserved in museums, 20, ig6, Politics: bribery and, 230; cartoons
Novelists, use of words, 179 198; preserved in writing, 196 and, 308-9; mass media and, 26-7
359
304; modern communications and, Printing, 24-5, 80, 126-57; book¬ Rashomon (film), 253
226-7; war and, 316 binding, 141; censorship of, 131; Ratdolt, Erhard, 134
Polyethylene, 182 color, 95; development of, 106, Ratel, 35
Polynesians, 63 140-1, 230; early book, 126, 128, Ray, Satyajit, 253
Pony Express, the, 216 129, 129, 136, 152; education and, Reader's Digest, 234
Poor Richard's Almanack (ed. Franklin), 274; invention of, 118, 125, 126, Real life, and theatre, 164, 166-7
139, I39 126, 128, 201; of books, 141; poetry Recall tests (advertising), 289
Popcorn, advertising of, 297 and, 153; spread of, 131 Recognition tests (advertising), 289
Popular culture, 28-9, 161, 171, Prisoners of war, 199, 203, 314-15 Recordings: in telephone service,
174“5 # Proctor & Gamble, advertising, 292 219; phonograph, 248, 262;
Population: and literacy in India, Producers: radio, 254-5; television, television, 258, 259
122; increases, 278, 280; of world, 258-9 _ Recuyell of the History es of Troye (book),
78, 86 Productivity (of language), 46, 47 130
Porter, Edwin S., 248 Programming (computers), 333-40 Red, associations of the color, 94
Portraits (painting), 89, 100 Pronghorn, 40 Red Cross, 94, 202, 203
Portugal: conquest of Americas, 64; Pronunciation (of languages), 124-5 Red Indians, wampum of, 109
explorations, 66-7; illiteracy, 344; Propaganda, 27, 298-319; Red star, as Communist symbol, 89
newspapers, 236 brainwashing, 314-15; group, Redirection (of behavior), 38
Portuguese (language), 56, 58, 64 306-7; in Soviet Union, 244, 295; Redundancy (information theory),
Post offices, 215, 303 indoctrination, 312-13; meaning 325-6
Postage stamps, 214 today, 298; Nazis’, 27; political, Reed, Carol, 230, 290
Postal services, growth of, 214; in 304; printed, 131, 146; Referendums, 298, 303
Switzerland, 238; in America, 214 psychological warfare, 316-17; radio Reformation, the, 24, 144, 150, 311
Posters, 18, 99, 284, 283, 286, 287, and, 260, 263; social, 305 Reinforcement (inlearning), 277
295, 297; specifically: American film Protozoa, 36, 191 Relation, signs of (mathematics), 181
in Japan, 29; American New Deal, Provensen, Alice and Martin, 149 Religion: and writing in ancient
507; Australian pears, 292; Cuban, Psychoanalysis, 143, 143 societies, 106; art and, 98; dance
121; Esperanto, 79; French Psychological warfare, 316-17 and, 172; gestures in, 85; symbols in,
referendum, 298; French Riviera, Psychology, 31, 194, 195; advertising 88-9; used in teaching languages, 33
289; German anti-Jew, 313; and, 286-7, 288, 289 Religious books, 130-3, 144
German occupation of Austria, Ptolemy (Greek astronomer), 134 Religious differences, 19, 31
199; Iranian, /20; Japanese War Ptolemy I (king of Egypt), 200 Religious wars: in Europe, 24, 131,
Office, 316; London Underground, Public opinion polls, 302-3 132; in Netherlands, 24
287; Monaco exhibition, 283; Public relations, 290-1 Remarque, Erich, 147
mouth shapes, 31; Oxford Publicity: books, 147, 154; news¬ Rembrandt van Rijn, 29, 263
Committee for Famine Relief, 307 ; papers, 290 Renaissance, the, 24, 162, 170, 201,
Pig Industry Development Author¬ Publishers, 136-7, 148, 154-7 230, 31 1 ; spread of, 130
ity, 103; Russian, 121, 294; Strand Pulpit drama, 168-9 Reporters (newspaper), 232-3, 243;
cigarettes, 288; Sunday Citizen, 296; Pumping station, diagrams of, 103 influence of, 238; laws governing,
The Running Man, 290; United Punch, 242, 316 237
States Government, 304 Punched cards, 333, 338, 339 Reporters (radio), 249
Powell, George, 286 Purple, associations of the color, 94 Republican Party (United States),
Prairie dogs, 35, 42 3°E 3°4? 396
Preening (of birds), 39 Quebec, 65 Research, scientific, 176, 179, 181,
Prejudice, 209, 305, 319 Quechua (language), 64, 64 *92> r93> h93, h9<S, 208
“Presently,” 73 Quipu (of Incas), 109 Resistors (radio), 94
Presidential elections (America), Quo Vadis (film), 262 Resnais, Alain, 251, 253
3°2, 303, 304 Retina (of eye), 83, 90-1, 92
Press, the (see also News, Newspapers, Racial differences, 19, 194 Return of the Prodigal Son, The, 263
Periodicals, Mass Media): Radio (see also Mass Media): Rhaeto-Romance (language), 56
advertising and, 285, 295; advertising on, 287, 291, 295; Rhythm: in dance, 161 ; in music,
economics of, 240-1; freedom of, beginnings of, 248-9, 262; Braille 160, 170 ; in poetry, 152-3
05. 236-7; future of, 244-5; circuit, 184; control of, 260-1, 26^ Richard the Second (Shakespeare), 151;
growth of, 230-1 ; influence of, 150, education and, 264, 264, 263; quotation from, 150
238-9; output of, 228; ownership entertainment and, 262, 262; Richardson, Tony, 253
of, 242-3; “popular,” 231, 241, 245; language of, 246, 254-5; newspapers Richardson, Samuel, 139, 146
“quality,” 231, 241, 245; Royal and, 244; noise, 187; number of Riefenstahl, Leni, 260
Commission on, 239; reporting on receivers, 348; propaganda and, Ritual, 163, 168, 300
Soviet Union, 239; television and, 260, 263; resistors, 94; sales of Ritualization, 39
244, 267 receivers, 292; society and, 18, 20, Road signs, 18, 91,92, 93, no, ///
Presses, printing, 128, 140 266-7; transistor set, 266; writing Robbers, The (Schiller), 308
Pressure, measurement of, 180, 186 for, 137 Robert, Nicolas, 141
Priests, 23, 84, 106 Radio telescope, 225 Robida, Albert, 249
Primitive Germanic, 55, 57, 37 Radiotelegraphy, 220-1, 222, 248, Robinson, Claude, 138, 146, 148,
Primitive Indo-European, 5 7 249; Antarctic station, 220 289
Primitive man, 96-7 Railways, 25, 154, 230 Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 108
Primrose, 189 Ramayana, the, 173 Rocco and his Brothers (film), 253
Principia Mathematics (Newton), 156 Rambong (dance), 173 Rock paintings, 34, 96-7, 108
Printers, 128-31, 136, 141, 240 Ramnagar (India), 123 Rocky Mountain Mews, The, 234
360
Rods (of retina), 90-1 Scent signals, in animal codes, 82-3; visual, 80-105, 212-13,
Romans, the: alphabet of, 117, 7/7, communication, 36, 39, 45 216,328
124; Empire of, 56; libraries of, Schiller, Friedrich von, yo8 Signal-to-noise ratio, 225, 225, 331
200; spelling reform of, 125 Schoolbooks, 131, 134, 148 Signatures (written), 86, 86
Romanticism, 162, 166 Schools, 19, 214, 272, 2jy, 274, 275, Signs (see also Gestures): clear, 92-3;
Rome, ancient: actor, 160 ; empire 280, yoo; broadcasting and, 264, effectiveness of, 104; in visual
expansion, 56; libraries in, 200; 265; church, 118, 278; early communication, 80-105;
literacy in, 118, 118; thumbs-up primary, 25, 279; growth of, 131, mathematical, 180-1
gesture in, 84 278-9; Indian, 123 Sikh, 84, 8g
Rome, Church of: Bible of, 132; Science: classification of facts, 190-1; Sky-writing, 297
censorship and, 144; language of, compared to jigsaw, 176; fallacies Slang, 48
57; politics and, 301; Protestants exploded by, ig4; influence of, Slavery, and Uncle Tom's Cabin, 146
and, 131 194-5; languages for, 156; libraries Sloane, Sir Hans, 202
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 239, 253, and museums specializing in, 199, Slogans: in advertising, 286-7;
3°3> 3°7 206; periodicals about, 208, 235; political, 150, 151, 2g8, yo2
Ross, Harold, 297 purposes of, 176; understanding of, “Slow,” 52
Rossellini, Roberto, 253 Slow loris, 4y
J94-5
Rosson, Keith, 263 Science, language of, 30, 150, 151, Snake-handling cults, yi4
Rothermere, Lord, 242 176-95; chemical symbols, 188-9; “Snow,” 70
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 135, 139, classification, 190-1; codes, 188-9; Social changes, 150
144 compared to everyday language, Social evolution, 20
Royal Ballet, 263 178-9, 192; new words, 67, 178, Social structure, 163
Royal Danish Ballet, 172 182-3; use of graphs, 186-7; use of Socialist realism (theatre), 169
Royal Firework Music (Handel), 162 models, 185; use of numbers, 180-1 Socialization, 300
Royal Khmer dancers, 1 72 Scientists (see also Science, language Societe de Linguistique, 55
Royalty (publishing), 137 of): clarity of, 178; early-19th- Societies: ancient, 106, 108; animal,
Ruffed grouse, 37 century, igy; graphs and, 186; 34-5; basis of, 16; growing, 210;
Runes (script), iiy laymen and, 192-3; mathematics large-scale, 22, 86, 174, 210, 279;
Running Man, The (film), 2go and, 181; “remoteness” of, 178 simple, 86, 158, 174, 282, 304;
Rushton, William, 261 Scotland: Aberdeen University, 21; studies of, 142-3, 195
Russia: advertising, 295; arts, the, shipyard in, 21; students, 2og Sociology, 194, 195
174_5, 311 j Crimean War, yog; Scott, Sir Walter, 137, 146, 152 “Soft-sell” advertising, 286
democracy in, 27; languages, 62; Sculpture, 98-9; exhibition of, 270 Solomon Islands, war canoe, gy
magazine, 244; Marx’s work, 143; Sea Around Us, The (Carson), 147 Song, banned, 261
Olday cartoon, yog; opinion in, Sea lions, 271, 277 Song of Roland, 153
311; position today, 156; posters, Secombe, Harry, 255 Song sparrow, 36
121, 2g4; press, the, 145, 231, 236, Second World War, The (Churchill), 147 Songs: bird, 34, 36, 43, 46; popular,
244, 245, 344; Red Square celebra¬ Secrets of a Soul (film), 257 25, 163; writing of, 161
tion, 27; research, 77; shampoo, Segovia, Spain, aqueduct at, y6 Sophocles, 28, 29
295; theatricalism, 169; Treaty of Sellers, Peter, 2yy, 255 Sorbonne, university library, 201
Berlin, 307; trials, 3/4/ tsar, 313; Semaphore, 212, 213 Sorokin, Pitirim, 312
West’s attitude to, 239 Semitic languages, 62, 115, 117 Sorrows of Werther, The (Goethe), 146
Russian (language), 58, 77, 79, 112; Senegal, 277, 281, y4y “Sort,” 72
in science, 156; translation of, Senses, the, 19, 80 Sound: and films, 249; speed of, i8y,
3 3 7; 40 “Set,” 72 212; waves, 218, 219
Russian-English dictionary, 2og Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (film), 2jy Sound-change (of language), 70-1
Seven Samurai, The (film), 252 Sounds (see also Speech): in poetry,
Saibai (New Guinea), mask from, 20 Sexual morality, 145, 300 152-3; organs for producing, 47,
Salt, 186 Shadows (film), 253 48, 50-1, 272; units of, 52-3; used in
Salutes, 84 Shakespeare, William, yy, 136, radio, 254-5; used in television, 259
Salvation Army, yo6 151; influence of, 133 South Africa, 65, 236
Sampling: polls, 303; signals, 327-8, Shampoos, 295 South America, newspapers in, 244
331 Shannon, Claude E., 322, 323, 331 Soviet Union, all references indexed
San Demetrio, London (film), 253 Shaw, George Bernard, 125 under Russia
San Francisco, signs in store, g2 “Sheep,” 66 Space, signals from, 225
San Simeon (California), 245 Shorthand, 112, 224; electrical, 188; Space flights, 2 2
Sandals, 266 scientific, 188-9 Space program, 179
Sandhill cranes, 42 Sicily, 752 Spain: cave paintings, 108; conquests
Sangita, 160 Sidney, Sir Philip, 138 by, 64, 67; dialects, 74; films, 261 ;
Sanskrit, 116 Siege of Troy, The (Lydgate), 752 multi-language dictionary, 134;-
Sardinian (language), 56 Siffre, Michel, yiy newspapers, 236; picaresque novels,
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 163 Signals (see also Symbols, and specific 138
Satellites (relay stations), 210, 222-3, headings such as Morse code): Spanish (language), 56, 58, 62, 64,
257; weather, 222 audible, 80, 212-13, 216, 328; 64, 65; first book printed in, 134
Satie, Erik, 162 between animals, see Animal signals; Speakers’ Corner (London), yig
Satire, 261 continuous, 327, 328, 331; digital, Spear-throwing game, of aborigines,
“Saucepan Special,” 264
Scales (music), 170
326, 327; gestures, 84-5; getting
most out of, 224-5; informative,
47.
Specialized languages, 30; of
Scandinavia, libraries in, 155 86-7; recognition of, 83; use of scientists, 19, 176-95; of trades, 19
361
Spectators, role of, 29, 2g, 160, 174 104; in advertising, 286-7; in Temple, Shirley, 253
Spectrum (in radio), 225 cartoons, 308; in computers, 335; “Ten,” 55
Speech, 18, 20, 48, 50-1, 80, 82, 274; in drama, 161; in science, 181, Tennessee, teaching of evolution in,
changes in sound of, 70-1 ; children’s, 188-9; m visual communication, 142
160; earliest, 48, 54; frequencies of, 80-105, 111; in writing, 20, 110-14, Tennyson, Alfred, 146, 151
224; mechanics of, 50-1 ; music and, 121; perception of, 90-1; religious, Tenochtitlan, Mexico City, 64
170; used in radio, 254; used in 20, 88-9 Textile, g8
television, 259; variety of, 48; Synagogue, igg Tezcatlipoca (Aztec god), 108
written language and, 129 Syncom (relay-satellite system), 222 Thai (language), 63
Spelling (see also Words), 75, 124-5, Synonyms, 72-3 Thailand, 344
325; standardizing of, 75, 125, 129 Syntax (language), 337 That Was The Week That Was
Spelling Reform, 125 (television program), 261
Spenser, Edmund, iJ7 “T” (the sound), go Theatre (see also Drama), 158, 160,
Sphere, volume and radius of, 181 Tahiti, fishing in, 72 164-9, 266; conventions of, 165;
Spiegel, Del, 237, 2J7 Tahitian (language), 76 language of, 164-7; modern, 163,
Spotted flycatchers, 25 “Tame,” 55 164, 166-7, 175; poetry and, 153;
“Sputnik,” 67 Tamil (language), 60 role of, 168-9
Spyri, Johanna, 149 Tampiong (Ghana), 244 Theatre Libre, 166
Square Hebrew, 115 Tape recorders, in education, 275, Theatres, 164, 165, 166, 166, 168
Stained-glass windows, 94 277 Theatricalism, 166, 169
Staiola, Enzo, 252 Tate Gallery, London, 20 Thebes, no
Stalin, Joseph, 133, 236, jog, jii Tau cross, the, 88 Theodosius (Roman emperor), 200
Standard language, 75 Tea, advertising of, 292 “There is a Happy Land,” 170
Standard of living, 282 Teachers, 18, 198, 264, 274-5, 280 “Think,” 72
Stanislavski, Konstantin, 164, 167 Teaching machines, 276-7 Thirty-Nine Steps (film), 251
Starch, Daniel, 289
Stationers’ Hall, ijy
Status, 86-7, 304
,
Teaching materials, ng, 119, 123,
i3ij 274, 2?5> 275 277; books,
148-9,274-5
Thomas a Kempis, 131
Thomson, Roy, 243; group of
newspapers, 242-3
Status symbols, 87, 87, joi; in Teaser advertising, 290, 2go Threat signals (of animals), 34, 38,
advertising, 286, 286 Technology, 20, 281; and 38,39,42,43,44
Steam engine, invention of, 126 communication, 29, 227; and Three Musketeers, The (Dumas), 14.8
Steamships, 25, 214 literacy, 120; and printing, 140; Throne, from Ecuador, 86
Steel Review, 2J4 of communication, 28 Thumbs-up sign, 84, 84
Steinbeck, John, 147, 151, 253 Teeth, classification according to, i8g Thurber, James, 101
Story of Babar, The (Brunhoff), i4g Teheran, poster from, 120 Thymine, 184
Storytelling, 196; by music, 171;in Telegrams, 217, 326; economy of Tibet, monks in, 21 j
children’s books, 148; in dance, 172 words in, 224; special forms and Tibetan (language), 63
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 146, 146 envelopes, 217 Till Eulenspiegel, ij8
Strip cartoons, 2J4, 235, 286 Telegraph, electric, 213, 216-17, Timbre (music), 160, 170, 171
Struwelpeter, 148 230; codes used in, 78; disadvantage Time, 234, 240
Suez Canal: crisis (of 1956), 237, of, 220 Time, sense of, 272-3
260; London demonstration, 2j6; Telepathy, 82 Time and Life Building, 240
ship’s pilot, 78 Telephone, 218-9, 322; advantages, Time division multiplex, 224-5
Suffragettes, J02 219; cables, 94, 322; directories, Time Inc., 240
Sumerians, the, 108, 110, 111 190, 303; disadvantages, 220; Times (New York), 231, 233, 234
Sun, radio noise from, 187, 187, 225 exchanges, 218, 2ig; lines, 218; Times, The, 140, 141, 151, 230;
Sunday Express, 242 long-distance calls, 225, 226; advertising of, 286; quotation from,
Sunday Mirror, 242 number of instruments, 219, 348; .150
Sunday newspapers, 234, 242, 244 number on. London shopfront, 180; Times Square (New York), 282
Sunday Times, 243, 240, 245 radiotelephones, 220, 221; Titanic (ship), 220
Sun-Maid Raisin Growers, 292 reproduction of speech, 224 TNT, 183
“Supersonic,” 183 Teleprinter, 217 “To His Coy Mistress” (Marvell),
Surrealism (painting), 14J Teletypesetting, 233 T52
Swahili (language), 63 Television (see also Mass Media), 246, Toadfish, j6
Swastika, as Fascist symbol, 89, 8g 249, 256-9; advertising on, 260, Toads, 34, jg
Sweating, 38 286, 287, 291; closed-circuit, 221, Togetherness, 31
Sweden, 141, 231, 344 221, 264, 265; control of, 260-1, 262; Token for Children: ... A (Janeway),
Swedish (language), 51 development of, 246, 256-7, 262, 148
Swift, Jonathan, 148 266; education and, 20, 264-5; Tolstoi, Count Lev, 137, 146
Swiss Family Robinson, The (Wyss), 139 entertainment and, 262, 26J; in Tom Jones (Fielding), 138, ijg
Switches: electrical, 188; electronic schools, 26, 275; language of, 246, Tom Sawyer (Twain), 149
(telephony), 225; in telephone 258-9; mechanics of, 221, 225, 256; Tongue (as used when speaking), 50,
exchanges, 2ig newspapers and, 244, 267; opinions 50,51
Switzerland: broadcasting, 260; and, 306; receivers, 246, 257, 348; Tonight We Improvise (Pirandello), 164
elections, jog; hotel, 86; languages, society and, 25, 32, 266-7; via Tools, 46-7
133; observatory, 180; post, 2j8 satellite, 223; word itself, 256 Torti, Francesco, igo
Symbolism (theatre), 167 Telstar, 223, 22j Toulouse-Lautrec, 28g
Symbols: alchemists’, 188; design Telugu (language), 60 Towns (see also Factory workers), 23,
principles of, 91; effectiveness of, Temperature, measuring of, 180 214
362
Trade: and education, 278, 280; and Vesnin, Alexander, 168 Wilkes, John, 236
literacy in Middle Ages, 118; and Victoria (ship), 133 Williams, Eric, 147
loan words, 66 ; in tribal societies, Vienna, 104, 231 Williams, Tennessee, 175
282; modern, 226 Visconti, Luchino, 253 Wind tunnel, 183
Traffic lights, ijl, 39, 94 Visual aids (in teaching), 274, 275, Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 73
Transistor radio, 266 f75 Wolf, Hugo, 161
Transitional scripts* 11 0 Visual censorship, 97 Women: Indian, 122; magazines for,
Translating machines, 77,322-340 Vitelloni, I (film), 253 235, 239, 233; votes for, 302
Translation: of books etc., 77, 156-7 Vocabularies: of animals, 44-5; of Wood, Mrs. Henry, 147
346; of languages, 76-7, 156-7, 179, different classes of people, 74; of Wooden Horse, The (Williams), 147
227, 332-40 ; of scientific jargon, science, 194-5; of specialists, 30 Woodpecker, 37
1 92; of the Bible, 132-3 Vocal chords,* 50, 50 Woodwork lesson, 272
Triangles5 properties of, 184 Volt, 183 “Woolly mammoth,” 67
Trigonometry, 184-5 Volta, Alessandro, 183 Words: changes in meaning, 27, 70,
Trip to the Moon, A (firm), 248 Voltaire (Francois Arouet), 135, 73; composite, 182-3; in poetry,
Triple-A Plowed Under (pla. y)> i69 138, 144, 146, 207, 318 152-3; loaded, 26-7; loan, 66-8;
Tristan da Cunha, 75 Voting (elections), 301, 301, 302 nature of, 26; new, 178, 182-3; of
Triumph oj the Will (Him), 260 Vowels, 50, 115; in English, 124 the Bible, 132; overtones of, 151,
Trowbridge, Charlotte, 173 V-sign, 84 178-9; scientific, 67, 178, 182-3; use
Truffaut, fran^ois, 253 Vultures, 38 of, 16, 46, 150-1; various meanings
Truman, Harry S-, 303 of, 72-3; 151, 178 .
Tse-tung, Mao, 300 Waggle Dance, of bees, 45, 43 Wordsworth? William, 153
Tuaregs (tribes of Sahara), 31 Wagner, Richard, 161, 171 Working Model for Internal and External
“Tulip,” 66 Walnut Growers Association, Forms (Moore), gg
Turcic-Mongol-Tungiis languages, advertising of, 292 World Bank Economic Develop¬
363
Illustration credits
Key to picture positions: 40 (t From Darwin's Biological Work 78 (t) The Royal Society
(t) top (c) center (b) bottom (l) edited by P. R. Bell, Cambridge 78 (b) Associated Press
left (r) right, and combinations; University Press, 1959 79 (t) British Esperanto Association
for example, (tc) top center. 40 (c) Paul Popper Ltd. Inc.
40 (b ! John Warham 81 Hans Erni
41 (t) From Darwin's Biological Work 82 (b) The Upjohn Company, Kala¬
edited by P. R. Bell, Cambridge mazoo, Mich, and Upjohn Lim¬
Page University Press, 1959 ited, Crawley, Sussex
17 Hans Erni 41 (b) Australian News and Informa¬ 83 (t and b) Courtesy The Royal
18 (t) John Hopkins, London tion Bureau Society for the Prevention of
18 (c) Pierre Berger—Barnaby’s 42 (t) Eric Hosking Accidents
18 (b) Roger Mayne 42 (b i From Darwin's Biological Work 84 (t) Marc Riboud—Magnum;
19 (t) Keystone. edited by P. R. Bell, Cambridge British Museum/Photo Freeman;
19 |b) Photo Ken Coton University Press, 1959 Paul Popper Ltd.
20 (t) Trevor Coleman 43 (B) John Markham 84 (c) British Museum; Planet
20 (b) John Hopkins, London 44 Photos N. Tinbergen from his News
21 (t and b) British Crown Copy¬ book Curious Naturalists, Country 84 (b) John Allen
right Life, 1958 85 (t and b) Photos Ken Coton
22 (t) British Museum 45 © 1962 by Scientific American, 86 (t) Courtesy Bank of Denver
22 (b) Victoria and Albert Museum, Inc. All rights reserved 86 (c) John Latimer Smith
London—British Crown Copy¬ 46 (t ) John Markham 86 (b) British Museum
right 46 (b) Courtesy London Library 87 (c) Adprint Library
23 (t) From Walter Hart Blumen- 47 (tr) Yerkes Laboratories of 87 (b) Photo by Cal Bernstein
thal, Bookman's Bedlam, Rutgers Primate Biology of Emory Uni¬ 89 (t) Angelo Santalucia
University Press, New Brunswick, versity 90 (t) Stella Snead
!958 < 47 (b) Axel Poignant 91 (T3) Peter Laurie
23 (b) Victoria and Albert Museum, 49 Hans Erni 91 (b) British Travel and Holidays
London—British .Crown Copy¬ 51 Photos Axel Poignant Association
right ^ 52 Mansell/Alinari 92 From Constantine & Jacobson,
24 (b) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 53 (t) Photo J. Belin Sign Language for Buildings and
25 (t) British Museum 53 (b) Edwin Smith photo. From Landscape, Reinhold Publishing
25 (b) Radio Times Hulton Picture F. E. Halliday, Shakespeare, a Corporation, New York, 1961
Library Pictorial Biography, Thames & 93 Courtesy Graphis
26 (t) Associated Press Hudson Ltd., London 94 (t) Samuel H. Kress Collection,
26 (b) Henry Grant, A.I.B.P. 56 (l) Mansell/Alinari Philbrook Art Center, Tulsa
27 |t) Society for Cultural Relations 56 (r) A. F. Kersting 95 (b) Courtauld Institute of Art,
with the U.S.S.R. 57 By permission of the Danish London
28 (t) David Seymour—Magnum National Museum 96 (b) Photo Ken Coton
28 (c) News Blitz—Atlaute 58 (l) Adprint Library 97 British Museum/Photo Freeman
28 (b) Mansell Collection 60 (bl) Camera Press 98 (t and bl) Stedelijk Museum,
29 (t) Compania Mexicana Aero- 60 (br) Victor Shreeve Amsterdam/© A.D.A.G.P., Paris
foto, S.A. 62 (t) The Palestine Archaeological 98 (c) Courtesy Heal’s
29 (c) Paramount Pictures Ltd. Museum 99 (l) G. & S. Allgood Ltd.
29 (b) Bureau Sovietique d’lnforma- 62 (c) Yvan Dalain 99 (r) Reproduced from Henry
tion, Paris 62 (b) Zoltan Glass Moore, Volume II, Sculpture and
30 (t and b) Henry Grant, A.I.B.P. 63 (B) J- Allan Cash Drawings since 1948, published by
31 (t) Ernst & L. Haberlin 64 (t) Rare Book Division, New Percy Lund, Humphries & Co.
31 (b) Roger Mayne York Public Library Ltd./A. Zwemmer
33 Hans Erni 64 (b) Paul Almasy 100 (t) British Museum
35 (t) The Zoological Society of 65 (t) Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris 101 (t) Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris
London 65 (b) Unesco Courier 101 (c) From Werner Hofman, Cari¬
35 (c) Photo N. Tinbergen from his 66 (tc) John Hopkins, London cature, Briider Rosenbaum,
book Social Behaviour in Animals, 66 (b) British Museum Vienna
Methuen & Co. Ltd., London, 67 (b) Science Museum, London 101 (b) © 1934, 1961 James Thurber.
T953 68 (t) Radio Times Hulton Picture Originally published in The New
35 (b) John Markham Library Yorker
36 (t and c) From E. W. Lanyon & 68 (b) British Museum 103 Reproduced by permission of the
W. N. Tavolga, Animal Sounds and 71 (l) Courtauld Institute of Art Pig Industry Development
Communication, American Institute (Lee Collection) Authority/Photo Ken Coton
of Biological Sciences, Washing¬ 71 (r) Photo Ken Coton 104 (bc) Photo Ken Coton
ton, i960 72/73 (t) Hawker Siddeley Aviation 104 (br) Hans Erni
36 (bi The Zoological Society of 74 (t) Belgian National Tourist 105 (t) Marie Neurath
London Office 105 (b) Diderot
37 (c) Else & Henry Potter, from 74 (b) Archivo Mas 107 Hans Erni
National Audubon Society 75 (t) Daily Mail, London 108 (t) Jacques Villeminot
38 (t) The Zoological Society of 75 (b) J. Allan Cash 108 (c) Biblioteca Apostolica Vati-
London 76 (t) British Museum/Photo John cana
38 (c) Philippa Scott Freeman 108 (b) Alphabet Museum, Cam¬
39 Christian Zuber 76 (b) United Nations bridge
364
iog (t) Lent to Science Museum 129 British Museum 152/153 (b Axel Poignant
London by the Royal Common¬ 130 (t) From S. Jennet, Pioneers in 153 ('i" Guillaume Apollinaire, C(di¬
wealth Society, London Printing, Routledge & Kegan Paul gram me s. (C) Editions Gallimard,
109 (c.) Ivar Lissner, Man, God and Ltd., London, 1958 Paris 1925, Ugo Guanda, Parma,
Magic, Jonathan Cape Ltd., 130 (b) Musee Bonnat, Bayonne and Editorial Joaquin Mortiz,
London, 1961 132 (t) Courtesy Professor O. Thulin, Mexico
no (t) Alphabet Museum, Cam¬ Wittenburg 154 (t: British Museum/Photo Free¬
bridge 132 ( b i Mansell Collection man
110 (c) Musee du Louvre, Paris 133 (t and B) British Museum 154 (b) Mary Renault, The Bull, from
110 (b) From Garis Davies Tomb of 134 (t) British Museum/Photo Free¬ the Sea, Longmans, Green & Co.
Two Sculptors at Thebes, Metro¬ man Ltd., London
politan Museum of Art, New York, 135 (tl) Radio Times Hulton Picture 155 (t) From El Cid, Samuel Bron-
1925 (Ralph de Paister Bequest) Library ston, released by the Rank
111 (t) Marc Riboud—Magnum 135 (tr) National Maritime Museum, Organisation
112 By courtesy of the Ashmolean London 155 (b) Courtesy Fawcett Publica¬
Museum, Oxford, and the Man¬ 135 (b) University Library, Amster¬ tions Incorporated, New York
sell Collection dam 157 (b) Courtesy Borsenverein des
113 (t) British Museum/Photo Free¬ 136/137 (b) Courtesy The Worshipful Deutschen Buchhandels E.V.
man Company of Stationers and 159 Hans Erni
113 (b) Alphabet Museum, Cam¬ Newspaper Makers/Photo Free¬ 160 British Museum
bridge man 161 (bl) Roger Mayne
114 (t) British Museum/Photo Free¬ 137 (ts, 138 (t) British Museum/Photo 161 (r ) Adprint Library
man Freeman 162 (t) British Museum
114 (b) Alphabet Museum, Cam¬ 138 (b) The Courtauld Institute of 162 (ci Mansell Collection
bridge Art, London 162 .(bi Bibliotheque Nationalc, Paris
115 (t) Ghana Information Services 139 (t) From Tom Jones, Director 163 (t) British Museum/Photo Free¬
115 (b) The Museum of Leathercraft, Tony Richardson, Woodfall man
London Films, London, 1963 163 (b ) English Stage Company/Photo
116 (tl) British Museum 139 (b) British Museum/Photo Free¬ Mark Gudgeon
116 (tr) By permission of the Secre¬ man 165 (Ti Adprint Library
tary of State for Commonwealth 140 (t) Mansell Collection 165 ( b Gerald Howson
Relations, India Office Library 140 (bl) Adprint Library 166 (t Adprint Library
116 (c) H. Armstrong Roberts 140 (br) Calvert Bailey 166 (Bi From Mordecai Gorelik, New
116 (b2) British Museum 141 Courtesy Monotype Corporation Theatres for Old, Dobson Books
117 From Dr. Diringer; Alphabet Ltd. Ltd., London, 1947
Museum, Cambridge; British 142 (t) Punch Almanac, 1882 167 (t) Society for Cultural Relations
Museum; Mansell Collection; 142 t b From Histoire des Revolutions, with the U.S.S.R.
Bodleian Library, Oxford Editions du Pont Royal, Paris 167 (b) Sandra Lousada, Whitecross
118 (tl) Musee du Louvre, Paris 143 (t) From Werner Woolf, The Studios
118 (tr) British Museum/Photo Free¬ Dream Mirror of Conscience, Grune 168 (t) Cecilia Gray
man & Stratton Inc., New York 169 (t) Howard Bay
118 (b) British Museum 143 (b) The Tate Gallery, London 169 (b) From Mordecai Gorelik, New
119 (t) From 100,000 Tears of Daily 144 ( t Sale Borgia, Palazzo Vaticano/ Theatres for Old, Dobson Books
Life, Editions du Pont Royal, Photo Scala Ltd., London, 1947
Paris 145 (U Photo Hachette 170 (t) British Museum
119 (b) Marc Riboud—Magnum 145 (bl; United Press International 171 (t) Francesco Guardi, Concert,
120 (b) Camera Press (U.K. Ltd. 1782/Photo Heinz Gleixner
121 (t) United Nations 145 (br: Penguin Books Ltd. 171 (bi Putnam and Company Lim¬
121 (b) Les Paul 146 (b British Museum/Photo Free¬ ited and Dobson Books Limited
122 (b), 123 (c) Information Service of man for permission to reproduce the
India, London 147 (T) Courtesy Dr. F. Emile-Zola drawing by Gerard Hoffnung
123 (b) Brian Brake—Magnum 147 ( b i 20th Century-Fox from Hoffnung s Acoustics
124 (tl and tr) British Museum/ 148 (t British Museum/Photo Free¬ 172 (t) Paul Almasy
124 (c) From Griffin and Mayer, The 148 ! b Mansell Collection 1 73 (b) Jack Fields
Movies, Spring Books, London, in 149 (ti From Jean de Brunhoff, The 174 Horst H. Baumann
association with Simon & Shuster, Story of Babar, Methuen & Co. 175 (bl) Sport & General Press Agency
128 (t) Gutenberg-Museum, Mainz 150 ( b 1 The Library of Congress, 180 (b) Swiss National Tourist Office
128 (br) American Numismatic Soci¬ Washington 181 (c) Science Museum, London
ety 151 (ti Courtesy Dr. F. Emile-Zola 181 (b) The National Cash Register
128 (bl) Museum fur Volkerkunde, 151 ( b Sound Poem by Hugo Ball Company Limited/Photo Free¬
Berlin 152 (tr! John Hopkins, London man
365
182 (t) Peabody Museum of Natural 209 (t) IBM United Kingdom Ltd. 238 (t) Exhibited in the Swiss
History 209 (b) British Crown Copyright Museum of Transport and Com¬
182 (c) Courtesy I.C.I. 211 Hans Erni munications, Lucerne
182 (lc) From Muir, Bacteriological 213 (t) Ghana Information Service 238 (cl) Pictorial Press
Atlas, E. & S. Livingstone, 213 (c) Heinrich Harrer 238 (cr) Society for Cultural Rela¬
Edinburgh 213 (b), 214 (t) Imperial War Museum, tions with the U.S.S.R.
183 (t) Mansell Collection London 238 (bl) Keystone
183 (b) National Physical Laboratory 214 (b) Christian Zuber 238 (br) Planet News
184 (bl) Dr. J. Bronowski 215 (t and c) By courtesy of H.M. 239 Courtesy Woman s Own
184/185 (t) Courtesy Her Royal Postmaster General 240 (b) Fairchild Aerial Surveys
Britannic Majesty’s Stationery 216 (t) From Lucius Beebe & 241 Bowater Organisation
Office and Hydrographer of the Charles Clegg The American West, 242 (t) By permission of Punch
Navy © *955 by E. P. Dutton & Co., 242 (b) Photo John Hedgecoe; cour¬
184/185 (b) The Royal National In¬ Inc., New York, by permission tesy The Observer
stitute for the Blind 216/217 (b), 217 (t), 218 By courtesy of 243 (t) King Features Syndicate
185 (br) Adam, Rouilly & Co. Ltd. H.M. Postmaster General 244 (t) Eric Schwab/UNESCO
186 (t) Courtesy Meteorological Of¬ 219 (r) J. Allan Cash 244 (b) Society for Cultural Relations
fice 220 (t) Emil Schulthess with the U.S.S.R.
186 (c) J. Allan Cash 220 (b) Kurt Blum 245 (t) Reproduced by the Unesco
188 (t) British Museum 221 (t and b) Smith Kline & French Courier
189 (t) J. E. Downward Laboratories Ltd. 245 (bl) Sunday Times Colour Supple¬
190 (t) Bibliotheque de la Faculte de 222 (b) Astro-Electronics Division, ment, Peter Blake and Robert
Medicine^ Paris Radio Corporation of America Fraser Gallery, London
192 (t) Bodleiain Library, Oxford 223 (t and b) C.N.E.T., Paris 247 Hans Erni
192 (b) John Hopkins, London 225 (c) U.S. Naval Research Labora¬ 248/249 (t) Courtesy Professor Lancelot
193 (bl) Courtesy I.C.I. tory, Washington Hogben from Cave Painting to
194 (t) British Museum/Photo David 225 (b) British Crown Copyright, Comic Strip, Max Parrish & Co.
. Swann Science Museum, London Ltd.
194 (cl) Wellcome Historical Medical 226 (t) New York Stock Exchange 248 (c) Science Museum, London
Museum 226 (b) Smith Kline & French 248 (b) Gernsheim Collection
194 (cr) Wellcome Foundation Laboratories Ltd. 249 (c) Robida cartoon from Unesco
194 (b) Associated Press 227 (t) Mansell Collection Courier
195 (t) National Portrait Gallery, 229 Hans Erni 249 (b) Roger Viollet
London 230 (c) The Trustees of Sir John 250 (r) Stills Isom Fallen Idol, Director
197 Hans Erni Soane’s Museum Carol Reed, England, 1948
198 (t) Public Records Office/Photo 230 (b) Science Museum, London 250 (b) Two stills from Variationen iiber
Freeman 231 (t) Museen der Stadt, Wien eiu Filmthema, FWU/Niederreither
198 (b) Courtesy I.C.I. Paints Divi¬ 231 (b ) Courtesy The Sunday Citizen 251 (t) From Secrets of a Soul by Pabst
sion 232. Courtesy The Daily Mirror 251 (b) From Ivan the Terrible
199 The Wiener Library 233 (tl) British Museum Newspaper 252 (t) From Bicycle Thieves, Director
200 (t) Musee du Louvre, Paris/Photo Library/Photo Freeman Vittorio de Sica, Italy, 1948
Searl 233 ‘(tg) Boston American 252 (b) From Seven Samurai
200 (b) Radio Times Hulton Picture 233 (tr) Ici Paris 253 (t) From The Pink Panther
Library 233 (c) Mansell Collection 253 (b) From Seven Brides for Seven
201 (t) British Museum; Mansell 233 (b) From A Pictorial History of Brothers
Collection Boxing, Paul Hamlyn Ltd., Lon¬ 254/255 B.B.C. Photos
201 (b) The Dean and Chapter of don 256 Photos Roger Wood, London
Hereford Cathedral 234 (t) From Lucius Beebe & Charles 257 and 258 (tr) B.B.C. Photos
202 (t and c) Mansell Collection Clegg, The American West, © 1955 258 (b) Frank Horvat
202 (b) St. John & British Red Cross by E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New 259 (t and b) Courtesy ABC Tele¬
Society York, by permission vision
203 (t) Svendborg County Library 234 (c) From Steel Review by per¬ 260 (b) Still from Triumph of the Will,
203 (b) John Freeman mission of the British Iron & Leni Riefenstahl, Germany, 1935
204 (t) Mansell Collection Steel Federation 261 (t) Courtesy Harrison Music Co.
204 (c) St. John & British Red Cross 234 (b) From Carriere della Piccolo Ltd.
Society 235 (t) From La Farge, A Pictorial 261 (b) Lewis Morley Studios
204 (b) The Readex Microprint History of the American Indian, Paul 262 (t) The Decca Record Company,
Corporation Hamlyn Ltd., London Limited, London
205 Photos Ken Coton 235 (e) Scott Polar Research Insti¬ 262 (b) G. Terrier, Paris
206 (t) British Museum/Photo Free¬ tute, Cambridge 263 (t) Frank Horvat
man 235 (b) Ocean Times, courtesy E. P. 263 (b) Photo Bob Willoughby/ The
206 (b) Exhibited in the Swiss Dutton & Co., Inc., New York Sunday Times
Museum of Transport and Com¬ 236 (t) Mansell Collection 264 (t) Courtesy the Pye Group,
munications, Lucerne 236 (c) Photo Giraudon Cambridge
207 (t) Society for the Prevention of 236 (b) P.A.-Reuter Photos Ltd. 264 (b) Northern Rhodesia Informa¬
Road Accidents/Photo Freeman 237 (t) Courtesy UExpress, Paris tion Department
207 (b) Madame Tussaud’s Ltd. 237 (c) Der Spiegel 265 (t) UNICEF
208 (c) Paul Almasy 237 (b) Cartoon by Zee, courtesy 265 (c) Teyler Museum, Haarlem,
208 (b) Unesco/Petersen Daily Mirror Newspapers Ltd. Holland
366