Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266

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Cement and Concrete Research

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Assessment and prediction of drying shrinkage cracking in bonded

mortar overlays
Hans Beushausen ⁎, Masuzyo Chilwesa
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Cape Town, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Restrained drying shrinkage cracking was investigated on composite beams consisting of substrate concrete and
Received 7 February 2013 bonded mortar overlays, and compared to the performance of the same mortars when subjected to the ring test.
Accepted 22 July 2013 Stress development and cracking in the composite specimens were analytically modeled and predicted based on
the measurement of relevant time-dependent material properties such as drying shrinkage, elastic modulus,
Keywords:
tensile relaxation and tensile strength. Overlay cracking in the composite beams could be very well predicted
Shrinkage C
Composite E
with the analytical model. The ring test provided a useful qualitative comparison of the cracking performance
Physical properties C of the mortars. The duration of curing was found to only have a minor influence on crack development.
Mortar E This was ascribed to the fact that prolonged curing has a beneficial effect on tensile strength at the onset of stress
Overlays development, but is in the same time not beneficial to the values of tensile relaxation and elastic modulus.
© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The amount of concrete infrastructure needing repair and rehabilita-
tion is increasing worldwide, resulting in major capital expenses for
private owners and governmental institutions. The bonded overlay
technique, which involves removal of damaged or deteriorated con-
crete in an existing structure and replacing it with a new concrete
or mortar layer, is a generally viable and common technique used for
both structural and non-structural repairs. However, the performance
of bonded overlays is often impaired by the effects of surface cracking
due to restrained thermal and hygral deformations. Shrinkage arises
as a result of moisture loss from the overlay both to the environment
and substrate concrete, and also through internal consumption. Loss
of moisture results in plastic shrinkage in newly cast concrete or drying
shrinkage in aging concrete, while a temperature gradient can cause
thermal shrinkage. The possible restraint of such deformations by
the substrate concrete results in the development of tensile stresses,
which can lead to overlay cracking if tensile strength is exceeded, thus
compromising durability and serviceability requirements [1,2].
Overlay resistance to crack initiation and propagation depends on
a number of time-dependent properties of the concrete. In addition to
free shrinkage and tensile strength, which are often considered the
main parameters for cracking potential, tensile relaxation and elastic
modulus are of significant importance. The advent of cracking will
depend upon the interaction of these material properties. In general,
the risk of cracking increases with increasing shrinkage and elastic
modulus, and decreasing tensile relaxation and tensile strength. Tensile
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 21 650 5181; fax: +27 21 689 7471.
E-mail address: hans.beushausen@uct.ac.za (H. Beushausen).
relaxation has been recognized as one of the main stress relief mecha-
nisms for bonded overlays subjected to restrained deformations [3–6]
and can decrease stress by up to 60%, depending on material properties
and loading conditions [7]. A lower elastic modulus implies a less stiff
concrete and therefore smaller stress resulting from restrained shrinkage.
In addition to material properties and restraint conditions, environmental
factors viz. temperature and relative humidity also affect tensile stress
development mainly through their effect on overlay shrinkage.
A number of test methods have been presented for the evaluation of
shrinkage cracking. These methods include ring tests with a restraining
core [8], longitudinal tests where the restraint is at the edge of the
specimen [9,10], panel tests in which the restraint is along the circum-
ference of the panel [11,12], and tests in which restraint is offered by
the substrate, simulating performance required in repair and retrofit
[13–15]. Bentur & Kovler [2] provide a good review of some of the
above methods and conclude that these methods often provide only
a qualitative indication of material cracking but generally fail to allow a
detailed and quantitative assessment of influencing factors and their
interaction. Of these test methods, the ring test is the most widely used
method [2]. This is even reflected by its adoption as a standard test for
characterizing the cracking tendency of concrete by both AASHTO [16]
and ASTM [17]. The use of the ring test goes back as far as the 1930s
[18] and its main merit is its simplicity and economy. Also the uniform
state of stress that exists as a result of elimination of the edges associated
with the longitudinal and panel tests makes it suitable. However, evalua-
tions using the ring test are of qualitative nature as pointed out above [2].
A quantitative prediction of overlay cracking in combination with
a detailed assessment of influencing factors needs to be based on con-
sideration of the various material properties discussed above and their
interaction. Such a prediction model for overlay stress development

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 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 257

based on material parameters has previously been proposed by the Table 1

authors [14,15] but needs knowledge on the various material proper- Mix design parameters and selected properties for mortars and substrate concrete.

ties, which may not always be available and impractical to obtain. Constituent CRM1 CRM2 CRM3 M45 M60 Sub.
With regard to the above-mentioned issues, the aims of this study are beams
twofold. Firstly, to evaluate the usefulness of the ring test for the pre- w/c ratio n.a.a n.a. n.a. 0.45 0.6 0.5
diction of overlay cracking by comparing ring specimen performance CEM I 42.5 (kg/m3) n.a. n.a. n.a. 556 417 350
with the performance of actual bonded overlays in composite specimens Water (kg/m3) 261 230 215 250 250 175
Sand 0–2 mm n.a. n.a. n.a. 1490 1605 875
and secondly, to relate the performance of ring specimens and composite
Greywacke (13 mm) 0 0 0 0 0 1025
members to the analytical prediction of stress development based on the Superplasticiser (ml/m3) n.a. n.a. n.a. 400 0 0
measurement of relevant material properties. Slump (mm) 0 0 0 85 ± 10 85 ± 10 80 ± 15
Densityb (kg/m3) 1810 1815 1515 2219 2154 2415
Comp. strengthb 45 48 11 49 36 50
(28 days) (MPa)
2. Experimental program
a
n.a. = data not available.
b
Measured on water-saturated cubes of 100 mm side length.
2.1. Strategy and approach

As discussed earlier, detailed assessment of the influence of various
material parameters on overlay cracking due to restrained drying shrink-
age needs to include the measurement of relevant material properties
such as drying shrinkage strain, elastic modulus, tensile relaxation and
tensile strength. In this study, these material parameters were measured
for 5 different mortars and used to analytically model stress develop-
ment and predict cracking in bonded mortar overlays, as explained
in more detail in later sections. Actual overlay performance was visually
assessed on composite specimens consisting of substrate concrete beams
and bonded mortar overlays, focusing on time of cracking and crack area.
The latter was determined 14 days after first occurrence of cracks.
The usefulness of the ring test for prediction of overlay cracking
was assessed by casting ring specimens with the 5 above-mentioned
mortars and comparing both the time and order of cracking to those
observed on the composite specimens and the analytical modeling of
stresses.
The duration of curing is commonly assumed to have a significant
influence on overlay cracking due to the beneficial effects of prolonged
curing on tensile strength. However, the authors could find no references
in the literature that would verify this assumption with experimental
research. The duration of curing was thus included as a test parameter,
with 2-day and 7-day wet curing being considered to represent poor
and good on-site curing, respectively.
2.2. Materials
Five overlay materials representing three commercial mortars
and two laboratory made mortars were selected for investigation. The
three commercial mortars, namely, CRM1, CRM2 and CRM3, represent
common patch repair materials used in South Africa and are all cement-
based. They comprised of a cement-based, non-sag, multipurpose
patching and repair mortar (CRM1), a cementitious polymer-modified
repair and reprofiling mortar (CRM2), and a cementitious polymer-
modified, synthetic fiber reinforced mortar (CRM3). The commercial
mortars were mixed with the amount of water specified by the material
supplier. Due to the proprietary nature of the mortars, details on their
actual composition were not made available.
Laboratory-made mortars comprised of two mixtures with water/
cement ratios of 0.45 and 0.60, in the following termed M45 and M60,
respectively. The mortars were made of CEM I 42.5 cement and siliceous
pit sand. The water content was kept constant for both mixtures and
a superplasticiser was used to achieve the required workability of
M45. The substrate concrete for the composite specimens had a design
strength of 40 MPa and the same mix design as used for substrate
beams in previous studies on composite specimens by Beushausen
and Alexander [14,15]. Mix parameters for the substrate concrete and
mortar overlays are presented in Table 1. The 28-day compressive
strength of the mortars was measured on cubes (100 mm side length)
that had been fully cured in water at 23 °C.
2.3. Experimental parameters and test methods
2.3.1. Environmental conditions and curing
In order to capture the influence of curing on overlay performance, 2
different curing periods of 2 days and 7 days were applied. The curing
procedure was such that after samples were remolded, they were covered
in wet hessian and plastic sheets for the prescribed curing period.
Subsequently, all specimens were kept under standard conditions of
temperature and relative humidity (23 ± 2 °C and 50 ± 5% RH).
2.3.2. Bonded overlays in composite beams
Bonded mortar overlays were cast on concrete substrate beams
so as to simulate the behavior of concrete patch repair mortars in ser-
vice. Substrate concrete beams with dimensions of 1000 mm length,
150 mm width and 200 mm height were cast and left to mature for
about 3 months prior to application of 30 mm thick overlays (Fig. 1).
To facilitate bonding between overlay and substrate, freshly cast sub-
strate surfaces were scrubbed with a wire brush until a consistent
rough finish was obtained. Compressed air was used to thoroughly
clean the substrate beam surfaces, which were then pre-wetted to a
saturated dry surface before application of 30 mm thick overlays.
These were finished to a smooth surface using steel trowels. Subsequent
to the curing periods discussed above, the specimens were monitored
daily for time of cracking. A hand-held magnifying glass was used to
aid with the identification of cracks. After first occurrence of cracking,
crack widths and lengths were monitored for an additional two weeks.
The crack area measured after 2 weeks was used for the evaluation of
the mortar performance.
2.3.3. Ring test
In this study, a ring test similar to the one described in ASTM C 1581-
04 [17] was adopted. Fig. 2 shows the ring setup used in the experi-
ments. The steel ring had a wall thickness of 13 ± 0.12 mm, an outer
diameter of 326 mm, and a height of 155 mm. The base was made of
plywood coated with a non-absorptive substance to prevent moisture
loss from the mortar into the base. The outer ring (for molding the
specimens) was made from a PVC pipe, with 380 mm inside diameter
and 155 mm height, resulting in a mortar ring thickness of 27 mm.
Overlay
30
200
Substrate
150
1000
Fig. 1. Composite beam specimens.
258 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266

90

50

270 170 40/40

50

Fig. 2. Ring test specimen after removal of the outer PVC ring.

Prior to casting, the outer surface of the steel ring and inner surface
of the PVC ring were coated with a release agent. Compaction of the Fig. 3. Dog bone specimens used for testing tensile strength, drying shrinkage and tensile
mixture was ensured by placing the ring set-up on a vibrating table relaxation.
for a duration of about 30 s. Subsequently, the specimens were trans-
ferred to the conditioned room (23 ± 2 °C and RH 50 ± 5%) within by the authors [19]. The relaxation coefficient ψ (%) was obtained from
10 min after completion of casting. the following equation:
The outer PVC ring was removed after 12 h, and the specimens
subjected to moist curing for either 2 days or 7 days as discussed earlier. ψ ¼ 100  ð1−σ t =σ 0 Þ ð1Þ
On completion of curing, the top surface of the test specimen was coated
with paraffin wax to prevent moisture loss, thus ensuring that only where
circumferential drying took place. The specimens were then assessed
for cracking characteristics as described above for the composite σ0 original stress at time of loading
specimens. σt remaining stress after 72 h.

2.3.4. Tensile strength, drying shrinkage and tensile relaxation Subsequent to curing and prior to test commencement, specimens
Direct uniaxial tensile strength, drying shrinkage and tensile were coated with paraffin wax to ensure that no moisture loss occurred
relaxation were measured on “dog bone” specimens measuring
170 × 40 × 40 mm in the prismatic section as shown in Fig. 3.
Tensile strength was tested according to the procedures laid out
in SABS method 863:5-1994. A Zwick Roell Z020 Testing Machine
(UTM), with a maximum capacity of 20 kN, Fig. 4, was used for
the tests. Uniaxial stress application was achieved through the use of
aluminum alloy gripping jaws braced with a steel plate (Fig. 4). The
jaws were made of a truncated ‘V’ prism and were of dimensions
124 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm. Clamps were connected to the UTM cross-
head shaft using a swivel bearing to reduce eccentricity in loading. Bear-
ings allowed for the load to be as close to axial as possible since they
could pivot and rotate about the contact with the jaws. The average result
of three specimens was taken as the tensile strength of the mortars at the
specified age. Specimens cured for 2 days were tested at the ages of 2, 7
and 28 days, and specimens cured for 7 days were tested at 7, 14 and
28 days.
Tensile relaxation was measured as the time-dependent reduction in
stress under sustained imposed strain. The test specimens were loaded
to a stress equivalent to approximately 80% of the tensile strength at
the age of loading, using the same Zwick Roell machine and test set-up
described above for tensile strength. The relatively high stress level
was chosen to simulate stress conditions in bonded overlays close to
cracking. The resulting imposed strain was kept constant and the stress
decay in the specimen automatically recorded. The remaining stress
after a period of 72 h was considered for identification of the ultimate
relaxation value, as discussed and justified in a previous publication Fig. 4. Test set-up for tensile strength and tensile relaxation.
 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 259

during testing, as this would have resulted in increasing stress from re-
strained drying shrinkage. Two specimens were tested for each param-
eter (i.e. for each mortar material and curing duration) and the average
used in the analysis. Specimens were tested at ages of 7 and 28 days to
assess the influence of the age of loading on relaxation values. In addi-
tion, specimens cured for 2 days were also tested at an age of 2 days.
Free shrinkage strain specimens were attached with demec targets
along the prismatic section at 100 mm gauge length. The specimens
were unsealed on all surfaces. A strain extensometer with a gauge length
of 100 mm was used for the measurements. A total of 3 specimens were
used per material and curing age and the mean shrinkage value were
used in the analysis. Shrinkage strain was measured every 2–3 days
until specimens had reached an age of 56 days.
Fig. 5. Tensile relaxation results for mortar specimens cured for 2 days (error bars indicate
2.3.5. Elastic modulus the spread of the data).

The elastic modulus of the mortars was measured under compressive

load on cylindrical specimens with Ø 100 mm and a height of 200 mm. compared to the mixture with higher w/c ratio. The results further
The measurements were carried out in compression due to practical show that for all mortars, specimens cured for 7 days had slightly higher
difficulties with accurately measuring tensile strain in the dog-bone shrinkage at 28 days of age than specimens cured for 2 days. This is un-
specimens used for tensile testing. For normal strength concrete, the usual as it is generally accepted that prolonged curing reduces the shrink-
modulus of elasticity is generally taken to be equal for tensile and com- age strain of concrete [23–25]. However, the observation could be linked
pressive loading [20–22], which was used to justify this experimental to additional water absorption and corresponding swelling in the longer
approach. The average of three specimens was taken as the elastic cured specimens.
modulus of the material. As with tensile strength, specimens cured Between the different mortars, tensile strength values varied
for 2 days were tested at the ages of 2, 7 and 28 days, and specimens between 1.9–3.2 MPa at 7 days and 2.5–5.3 MPa at 28 days. The curing
cured for 7 days were tested at 7, 14 and 28 days. period had generally no significant influence on 28-day strength values,
except for M45.
3. Experimental results and discussion The elastic modulus values of the 5 mortars showed a large range
with values of 3.9–16.7 GPa at 7 days and 11.1–29.6 GPa at 28 days.
3.1. Free shrinkage, tensile strength and elastic modulus Comparing laboratory made mixtures, a slight increase in elastic modulus
with increased curing period was observed, while the curing period had a
The time-dependent test results for free shrinkage strain (εshr), negligible effect on the elastic modulus of the commercial repair mortars.
elastic modulus (E) and tensile strength (ft) are summarized in Table 2.
For free shrinkage strain, the table summarizes results at selected ages. 3.2. Tensile relaxation
As expected from the absence of coarse aggregates, shrinkage strains
were generally measured to be high with 2 of the commercial repair Results for the tensile relaxation coefficient ψ of specimens cured for
mortars (CRM2 and CRM3) exceeding values of 1000 × 10−6 at 28 days 2 and 7 days are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. Tensile relaxation
of age. Comparing laboratory mixtures only, it is observed that specimens measured at 2 days shows a large range from 35% for CRM2 to 57% for
with a w/c ratio of 0.45 (M45) had higher shrinkage values than CRM3. In contrast, for specimens loaded at 28 days, the differences in re-
specimens with a w/c of 0.60 (M60). This is a result from higher cement laxation between the various mortars are insignificant. Tensile relaxation
contents at equal water contents, and hence higher paste contents, was found to be age-dependent with younger specimens showing higher
relaxation values, as expected. Comparing the 7- and 28-day results of
mortars cured for either 2 or 7 days it is observed that the curing period
Table 2
has no detectable influence on the relaxation value at a given age. Fur-
Summary of test results for free shrinkage (εFSS), tensile strength (ft) and elastic modulus
(E), for different curing durations (2 days and 7 days). ther, for laboratory made mortars, relaxation was less for the specimens
with lower w/c ratios, as expected and observed in previous studies [19].
Age (days) ft (MPa) E (GPa) εFSS (10−6)
It needs to be noted that the relaxation function used in the calcula-
2-days 7-days 2-days 7-days 2-days 7-days tions was based on data that were obtained in conditions somewhat
CRM1 2 1.2 n.m.a 4.1 n.m. 0 n.m. different from those to be simulated. In the relaxation experiments,
7 2.1 1.9 9.5 8.9 640 0 the specimens were sealed, whereas the resulting data were used to
14 2.1 2.2 11.3 14.1 910 955
28 2.6 2.6 21.5 22.1 1060 1145
CRM2 2 2.2 n.m. 14.1 n.m. 0 n.m.
7 2.7 2.6 16.7 16.3 292 0
14 3.4 3.3 21.9 23.7 510 415
28 4.2 3.7 29.6 29.2 700 745
CRM3 2 1.0 n.m. 1.7 n.m. 0 n.m.
7 1.7 1.9 3.9 3.24 970 0
14 1.9 2.1 4.4 5.07 1280 1230
28 2.7 2.5 11.1 11.9 1488 1630
M45 2 2.2 n.m. 6.7 n.m. 0 n.m.
7 2.6 3.2 12.5 17.0 470 0
14 3.7 4.4 19.2 20.8 690 505
28 4.3 5.3 26.5 28.4 891 909
M60 2 1.5 n.m. 6.4 n.m. 0 n.m.
7 2.2 2.9 11.2 11.1 300 0
14 2.6 3.5 14.3 15.3 575 440
28 3.5 3.7 20.1 22.1 715 843
Fig. 6. Tensile relaxation results for mortar specimens cured for 7 days (error bars indicate
a
n.m. = not measured. the spread of the data).
260 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266
Fig. 7. Typical cracks on bonded overlay specimens (cracks are highlighted with a marker).
simulate the behavior of concrete undergoing drying. The results gener-
ated in sealed and drying conditions can be significantly different. How-
ever, in the scope of this research, the data obtained with the simplifying
testing procedures were considered useful for the comparative analytical
evaluation of overlay cracking.
3.3. Restrained shrinkage specimens
3.3.1. Composite beams
The bonded overlays of the composite beams were monitored for
age at cracking and crack area. The latter was calculated two weeks
after the first appearance of cracks by multiplying the total crack length
over the overlay surface with the average crack width. An example of
typical appearance of cracked overlays is shown in Fig. 7.
The results for age at cracking and crack area are summarized in
Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. The age at cracking, measured from the day
of casting, of the various mortars ranged from 10 to 28 days. Comparing
the different mortars, the sequence at which they cracked was the same
for both curing periods. Significantly, the curing period had very minor
influence on the age of cracking. The maximum period by which crack-
ing was postponed by the longer curing was 4 days (for CRM3), which
was even shorter than the additional curing period of 5 days. The age
at cracking of overlays made from CRM1 and CRM2 was not affected
by the curing period at all, such that, for example, CRM1 cracked
8 days after completion of the 2-day curing period and 3 days after
completion of the 7-day curing period.
The crack area could be linked to the age of cracking with overlays
cracking earlier generally showing a larger crack area.
Fig. 8. Age at overlay cracking in composite beam specimens.
Fig. 9. Extent of overlay cracking (crack area) in composite beam specimens.
Interestingly, the mortar with the best cracking performance,
indicated by the latest age of cracking and second-smallest crack area,
was CRM3, which was also the mortar with the highest shrinkage strain
and lowest tensile strength. The reasons for this are found in the mortar's
low elastic modulus and high relaxation, as discussed in more detail in
Section 4 below.
3.3.2. Ring test
The ring specimens were monitored for age at cracking and extent
of cracking in the same way as described above for the composite spec-
imens and the results are presented in Figs. 10 and 11.
The age at cracking of the various mortars ranged from 5 to 16 days
and was therefore less than that observed on the composite specimens.
This can be attributed to the difference in degree of restraint provided
by the steel ring to that provided by substrate concrete beams.
Comparing the performance of the different mortars, the sequence
at which they cracked was similar for both curing regimes and, as
observed on the composite specimens, the curing duration had little
influence on the age at cracking. The ranking with respect to the extent
of cracking more or less matched the ranking with respect to age at
cracking, although this was not as clear as with the composite beams.
The ranking of the various mortars with respect to cracking behavior
was similar as that provided by the tests on composite specimens,
which will be discussed in more detail in the sections to follow.
4. Analytical prediction of overlay cracking
4.1. Analytical model and assumptions
The time of overlay cracking in the composite beam specimens was
predicted based on analytical modeling of overlay stresses using the
measured material properties as input parameters in Eq. (2):
 
ψ
σ¼ 1−  ðα  εFSS Þ  EO ð2Þ
100
Fig. 10. Age at overlay cracking observed in the ring test specimens.
 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266
Fig. 11. Extent of overlay cracking (crack area) observed in the ring test specimens.
where
σ tensile overlay stress
ψ overlay relaxation coefficient
α coefficient accounting for the magnitude of overlay shrinkage
restraint by the substrate (α = 0.60 as discussed below)
εFSS free overlay shrinkage strain
EO elastic modulus of the overlay.
For the calculation of stress development, certain simplifying assump-
tions were made with respect to degree of restraint, time-development
of tensile relaxation, and shrinkage strain, as discussed in the following.
Previous research by the first author [14,15] showed that on compos-
ite beams similar to the ones used in the current study, the substrate
concrete can be expected to restrain about 60% of the free overlay shrink-
age strain. Therefore, only 60% of the measured free shrinkage strain is
used for the calculation of tensile stresses, i.e. α = 0.60. In practice, the
degree of restraint depends on various factors such as geometrical char-
acteristics and material properties of substrate and overlay. In general
terms, overlays with a higher elastic modulus can be expected to exert
higher stress onto the substrate with a corresponding lower degree of re-
straint. A detailed discussion on the factors influencing overlay restraint
in relation to geometrical characteristics and material properties is pro-
vided in previous publications [14,15]. In this research, overlays with dif-
ferent elastic moduli were used, probably resulting in different degrees
of restraint. However, in the absence of supporting experimental data,
a consistent value of 60% was adopted in this research.
Previous studies on tensile relaxation [19,14,26,27] have shown
that a large amount of tensile stress relaxation takes place at early
ages of loading. In particular, a previous study conducted by Beushausen
et al. [19] found the majority of tensile relaxation of specimens subjected
to sustained imposed tensile strain to develop rapidly after loading
(which was verified in the current study but is not discussed in any
further detail in this publication). As such, stress relaxation develops at
a much faster rate than stresses resulting from ongoing overlay shrink-
age. In order to facilitate analytical modeling of overlay stresses, it
therefore appears appropriate to account for overlay stress relaxation
in a simple manner. For the analysis of stresses it is assumed that tensile
stress relaxation occurs instantaneously, which allows the use of the
relaxation coefficient in the simplified way shown in Eq. (2).
To facilitate calculation of stresses resulting from restraint, shrinkage
is assumed to occur only subsequent to completion of curing, measured
as drying shrinkage in this study. However, other shrinkage compo-
nents such as autogeneous shrinkage may already result in stress devel-
opment during the curing period, which may in practice be of relevance,
particularly in overlays with low w/c ratios. Such shrinkage components
were however not considered in the current study.
To estimate the time development of stress based on Eq. (2), a step-
by-step method was employed. This method involves dividing the total
test duration into a number of intervals, and calculating the stress
261
increment resulting from the change in shrinkage strain in each interval.
The principle of superposition which states that “the stress produced by
a strain increment applied at any time is not affected by any strain ap-
plied either earlier or later” makes this possible [28]. Thus the time-
dependent tensile stress due to restrained drying shrinkage in the over-
lay is given by:
   
ψ
σ i ¼ σ i−1 þ 1− i  0:60  ΔεFSS;i  EO;i ð3Þ
100
where
σi tensile overlay stress at time ti
ψi overlay relaxation coefficient at time ti
ΔεFSS,i change in free overlay shrinkage strain during ti − 1–ti
EO,i elastic modulus of the overlay at time ti.
For the calculation of stresses, the strain increment occurring during
the time interval ti − 1–ti is assumed to be applied at the end of the
interval. Similarly, the mean values for elastic modulus and tensile
relaxation are also taken at the end of each interval. The modeling of
the time development of elastic modulus and tensile relaxation based
on experimental results is discussed further in the sections to follow.
The theoretical ‘elastic stress’, i.e. the stress that the overlay would
experience without consideration of tensile relaxation can be calculated
from Eq. (3) by omitting the term accounting for relaxation.
4.2. Modeling of time-dependent material parameters
Experimentally obtained material parameters used in the analytical
modeling include tensile strength, elastic modulus, and tensile relaxation.
Since these properties were tested at specific ages only, regression func-
tions were needed to interpolate values for days when the properties
were not tested. A literature survey [6,19,27–31] indicates that different
functions have been used in the past to model observed trends in the
above-mentioned concrete material properties. These functions have
ranged from logarithmic functions, algebraic functions, power functions,
exponential functions, hyperbolic functions to a combination of these. In
the current study, logarithmic-based regression functions (Eqs. (4)–(6)
were used, as they showed good fit with the experimental data. Curves
obtained from these functions were used in the analytical modeling.
For shrinkage strains, no regression was carried out as no function
type was found to be suitable for all the different shrinkage curves. For
the analysis, the measured shrinkage curves were therefore used. This
can also be justified by considering that shrinkage was measured con-
tinuously throughout the test period.
Ei ¼ A lnðti Þ þ B ð4Þ
f t;i ¼ C ln ðti Þ þ D ð5Þ
ψi ¼ E ln ðti Þ þ F ð6Þ
where
Ei elastic modulus at time ti
ft,i tensile strength at time ti
ψi overlay relaxation coefficient at time ti
A, B, C, D, E, F constants depending on regression analysis (see Table 3).
4.3. Model outcome
Time-dependent stresses were plotted against tensile strength for all
mortars and curing periods as shown in Figs. 12–21. Since it was
assumed that tensile stresses only develop subsequently to completion
262 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266

Table 3 of curing, no stress is shown in the figures prior to that point in time. The
Summary of constants used in the regression analysis of material parameters. chosen time-interval (ti − 1–ti) for the regression analysis of material
CRM1 CRM2 CRM3 M45 M60 properties and calculation of tensile stresses was 2 days as this provided
reasonable accuracy for the prediction of the age of cracking. The curves
2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 7
are not smooth as they follow the actual measured shrinkage strain, as
A 6.30 6.76 5.2 5.5 3.03 3.38 7.41 8.23 5.3 5.9
discussed earlier.
B −1.70 −2.02 8.88 8.03 −1.38 −2.26 0.23 0.45 1.88 1.13
C 0.47 0.51 0.76 0.63 0.61 0.69 0.82 1.2 0.69 0.8 “Elastic” stress, i.e. the theoretical tensile stress calculated
D 0.96 0.85 1.4 1.61 0.49 0.34 1.4 1.18 0.91 1.05 without considering relaxation, was included in the figures to highlight
E −10.1 −9.81 −5.3 −6.5 −13.1 −14.4 −7.2 −8.7 −8.3 −7.9 the effect of relaxation on stress development and retardation of
F 51.9 55.1 36.6 43.6 68.9 76.1 45.4 51.8 51.9 53.4 cracking.

Fig. 12. CRM1: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.

Fig. 13. CRM1: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.

Fig. 14. CRM2: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266 263

Fig. 15. CRM2: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.

Fig. 16. CRM3: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.

The figures allow a few observations to be made regarding the
development of stress, the effect of relaxation and curing duration:
• The figures show that tensile stress generally develops much faster
than tensile strength such that, it exceeds tensile strength within
7 days (utmost) after curing. This implies that cracking would occur
within 7 days after curing if there was no tensile relaxation.
• From the figures, the effect of relaxation on the time development of
stress is apparent. It is observed that stress relaxation delays the onset
of cracking by reducing the tensile stress by as much as 57% in the spec-
imens tested. This is more apparent in the 2 days cured specimens
where stress relaxation delays age at cracking by as much as 7 days
(CRM3 specimens) compared to a maximum of 4 days (M45 and
M60) in the 7 days cured specimens. This is attributed to the fact that
earlier ages of loading result in higher relaxation, as pointed out above.
• The influence of the curing duration on the age at cracking of the spec-
imens tested is at best minimal. While curing was observed to defer the
age at cracking in some specimens (M45 specimens and M60 speci-
mens by 2–3 days), it did not positively affect the age at cracking in
CRM1, CRM2 and CRM3 specimens. In fact, it appears to have nega-
tively affected the age at cracking in CRM3 specimens where the spec-
imens that had had a longer curing duration cracked earlier.
• The above observation on curing duration suggests that it has minimal
effect on the age at cracking. This is attributed to the fact that even

Fig. 17. CRM3: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
264 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266

Fig. 18. M45: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.

Fig. 19. M45: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.

though longer curing leads to increased strength at the onset of drying
shrinkage, it has a counteractive effect on tensile relaxation and elastic
modulus. At the onset of drying, the increase in elastic modulus and
reduction in the degree of tensile relaxation with increased curing du-
ration means that the elastic stress will be considerably higher in
7 days cured specimens compared to their 2 days cured counterparts.
5. Comparison of model with experimental results
Figs. 22 and 23 present a comparison of age at cracking for both
2 days cured and 7 days cured specimens, respectively. Excluding
the results for CRM3, the figures show a favorable agreement between
the results of the analytical modeling and observations made on the
composite beam specimens. For specimens cured for 2 days, there is
an exact match between results from the analytical model and test
specimens made with M60 and CRM2, i.e. the analytical model exactly
predicted the age of cracking on the bonded overlays. For 2-days cured
specimens with overlays made from M45 and CRM1, the difference
between model prediction and actual specimen behavior was one day
only. Similarly, for specimens cured for 7 days, there is a good agreement
between analysis and specimen behavior, the model predicting overlay
cracking within an error margin of 3 days. However, it needs to be kept

Fig. 20. M60: Overlay strength and stress development, 2-day curing.
 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266
Fig. 21. M60: Overlay strength and stress development, 7-day curing.
in mind that only drying shrinkage was considered in the analysis,
whereas stresses resulting from restrained autogeneous shrinkage and
thermal deformations were neglected. The estimated stress develop-
ment might therefore represent a slight underestimation of actual stress-
es in the overlay. In future research, the analytical model would need to
be refined to also account for other effects apart from restrained drying
shrinkage.
The only overlay that at first sight showed a different behavior than
expected from the analysis was that made with CRM3. However, the
overlay cured for 2 days cracked comparatively late, i.e. at 24 days. For
the same specimen, the model predicted no cracking within the first
28 days, but as seen in Fig. 16, cracking could be expected some time
between 30 and 35 days. The general model trend, i.e. comparatively
late cracking, could therefore be verified with the model even though
numerical values did not match very well. For overlays made from
CRM3 cured for 7 days, the apparent mismatch between model and
specimen behavior can be explained by considering Fig. 17. As can be
Fig. 22. Comparison of age at cracking for 2 days cured specimens.
Fig. 23. Comparison of age at cracking for 7 days cured specimens.
265
seen in the figure, the stress curve intersects the strength curve at
12 days but does not really deviate from it subsequently. The model
therefore did not really show a clear indication that stress exceeded ten-
sile strength at the recorded 12 days. Compared to the other mortars,
CRM3 had generally the widest spread in material properties with re-
spect to cracking, i.e. the lowest tensile strength and highest shrinkage
(indicating high susceptibility to cracking) but also the highest relaxa-
tion and lowest elastic modulus (indicating low susceptibility to crack-
ing), which makes the prediction of actual specimen behavior difficult.
Considering the number of simplifying assumptions made in the
analytical modeling and the uncertainties associated with the testing
of a relatively large number of material properties, the agreement be-
tween the analytical model and bonded overlay behavior can be consid-
ered very good. This confirms the general validity of the model used and
assumptions made.
A comparison between ring test results and composite specimens
indicates some differences, the ring test specimens always cracking earlier
than the bonded overlays. These differences are however to be expected
because of the different degree of restraint offered by ring and substrate
beam.
Tables 4 and 5 give ranking of the repair mortars according to age
at cracking. Mortars that cracked first are given a lower ranking in
the tables while mortars that took longer to crack are placed higher up.
It is observed that there is a generally good agreement between ring
test, bonded overlays and analytical modeling with respect to the se-
quence in which the mortars are expected to crack. However, note that
in the ring test, the rating for 2-day cured mortars is reversed for CRM1
and CRM2, compared to observations made with the analytical model
and the composite specimens. Also, for 7-day cured specimens, the
modeled behavior of CRM3 does not correspond to the observed trend
in the restrained shrinkage tests. Neglecting these exceptions, the general
agreement on the order of cracking suggests that the ring test gives the
correct qualitative order of overlay cracking when used to compare vari-
ous mortar types.
Table 4
Mortar ranking according to age at cracking (specimens cured for 2 days) (figures in
brackets indicate age at cracking).
Ranking Ring test Bonded overlay Analytical modeling
1 CRM3 (13) CRM3 (24) CRM3 (no crack)
2 M60 (10) M60 (17) M60 (17)
3 M45 (7) M45 (15) M45 (14)
CRM1 (7) CRM2 (14)
4 CRM2 (5) CRM2 (14) CRM1 (9)
5 CRM1 (10)
266 H. Beushausen, M. Chilwesa / Cement and Concrete Research 53 (2013) 256–266
Table 5
Mortar ranking according to age at cracking (specimens cured for 7 days) (figures in
brackets indicate age at cracking).
Ranking Ring test Bonded overlay Analytical modeling
1 CRM3 (28) CRM3 (28) M60 (20)
2 M60 (13) M60 (19) M45 (15)
3 M45 (10) M45 (18) CRM2 (13)
4 CRM2 (9) CRM2 (14) CRM3 (12)
CRM1 (9)
5 CRM1 (10) CRM1 (9)
6. Discussion and conclusions
The study discussed in this publication allows a range of general
observations to be made with respect to testing, prediction and modeling
of cracking in bonded mortar overlays subjected to drying shrinkage.
The main results and conclusions of this study are summarized in the
following.
• The age of overlay cracking could very well be predicted with the
proposed analytical model, which confirms the general validity of
the model and the simplified assumptions made. The model, together
with the model assumptions, can thus be used to predict cracking in
bonded mortar overlays such as patch repairs and screeds. Model
input parameters include overlay material parameters such as elastic
modulus, tensile strength, relaxation coefficient, and shrinkage strain.
Future refinements of the approach need to also include other
restrained strain components resulting from autogeneous shrinkage
and thermal deformations.
• The quality assessment of mortars to be used for bonded overlays is
often based on shrinkage and tensile strength alone. The results
discussed in this publication show that the potential performance
of bonded overlays with respect to cracking needs to consider all
relevant material parameters including tensile relaxation and elastic
modulus. Judging overlay mortar quality based on shrinkage and
strength alone can be misleading. This was clearly highlighted with
bonded overlays made with CRM3, which showed the best cracking
performance but in the same time the lowest tensile strength and
highest free shrinkage strains.
• The experimental results confirmed that tensile relaxation has a
significant influence on stress development and therefore on the
age at cracking. Depending on the age of loading, tensile relaxation
was found to reduce overlay tensile stresses by approximately 20–
58%, earlier loading resulting in higher relaxation values.
• The duration of curing, i.e. 2 days or 7 days, was found to have no
significant influence on cracking behavior of bonded mortar overlays.
This contradicts the general belief that longer curing results in im-
proved cracking performance. This can be ascribed to the conflicting
results that prolonged curing has on material properties. On the one
hand, longer curing results in higher tensile strength at the onset of
stress development. On the other hand, longer curing causes poten-
tially higher stresses as it results in less relaxation and a higher elastic
modulus. Curing durations other than the two durations investigated
in this study would contribute to refining the analysis and might
reveal somewhat different trends.
• The ring tests cannot be used directly to predict the age of cracking in
real members, since the geometry and degree of restraint are differ-
ent. However, material parameters could be deduced analytically
from such experiments to evaluate quantitatively the stress develop-
ment in a structure or composite specimen.
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