SOME PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF WATERFLOODING

Abstract
The world’s largest potential supply of crude oil
exists in the form of residual oil in fields currently
being produced by primary methods. Waterflooding
can more than double the recoverable reserves of many
developed oilfields at low capital investment. Out-
standing success has been achieved recently in water-
flooding multiple-sand reservoirs in the coastal region
of California. These floods indicate that waterfiooding
is applicable over a wide range of reservoir conditions.
Preliminary evaluation of waterfiood prospects
depends upon the ability to predict future performance
and economics. Several analytical and empirical
methods are available to predict reservoir performance
and to design effective water injection programmes for
various types of oil reservoirs.
Design of water injection programmes involves
determination of water injection rates and location of
injectors. Water injection rates are based on estimated
peak gross production rates with allowance for fluid
losses. Location of injectors depends upon the type
of waterflood and the design injection rate.
Waterflooding introduces new operational problems
such as water treatment, corrosion control, water
handling, sand production, water-oil ratio control,
waste water disposal and hydrogen sulphide problems.
These problems add to the cost of waterflood opera-
tions but can be solved by early identification, analysis
and treatment.
Résumé
La plus grande ressource potentielle de production
de pétrole est constituée par l’huile résiduelle des
gisements après exploitation par drainage naturel.
L‘injection d’eau peut plus que doubler les réserves
récupérables de nombreux champs développés, ceci
par investissement d’un faible capital.
De très beaux résultats ont été obtenus récemment
par injection d’eau dans des réservoirs à multiple
bancs sableux de la région côtier californienne.
Ces résultats indiquent que l’injection d’eau est
applicable à un grand nombre de types de réservoirs.
L‘évaluation préliminaire des projets d’injection
d’eau dépend de la possibilité de prévoir les perfor-
mances futures et les prix de revient.
Différentes méthodes analytiques et empiriques
existent pour prédire le comportement d’un réservoir
et pour déterminer les programmes effectifs d’injec-
tion d’eau pour différents types de réservoirs d’huile.
L’élaboration de programmes d’injection d’eau
implique la détermination des debits d’injection et
l’emplacement des puits d’injection. Les débits
d’injection d’eau sont déterminés à partir des débits
maximum de production estimés en tenant compte des
pertes de fluides.
L‘emplacement des puits d’injection est fonction du
type d’injection d’eau et de l’importance du débit
d’injection.
L‘injection d’eau crée de nouveaux problèmes tels
que le traitement de l’eau, le contrôle de la corrosion,
l’approvisionnement en eau, le production de sable,
le contrôle du rapport eau-huile, l’évacuation des eaux
usées et les problèmes causés par la présence d’hydro-
gène sulfuré.

1. INTRODUCTION being conducted in the United States with total water

injection rates exceeding 20 million barrels per day.
Waterfiooding is by far the most extensive secon- These projects account for the majority of secondary
dary recovery method in use today. A recent survey’ oil produced in the United States which amounts to
indicates that more than 9000 waterflood projects are 28.2% of the total oil production. Additional reserves
due to waterfiooding are of national significance
by JAMES E. WADE, because they apply largely to oil-in-place already
Assistant Chief Petroleum Engineer, discovered and developed.
City of Long Beach, P O Box 570, The increase of waterflooding in the United States
Long Beach, California 90801, U.S.A. is due in part to improved technology and to the
263
264 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage

successful application of this technique in fields which

were once considered poor waterflood prospects. The
results of these floods have proved that waterflooding
can be effective over a wide range of conditions and
offers an efficient method of secondary recovery at
relatively low capital investment.
The purpose of this paper is to present statistical
information showing the increase of ultimate reserves
which can be achieved by waterñooding, to describe
the results of recent waterfloods conducted in multiple-
sand reservoirs and to discuss some practical aspects
of waterflooding which may be helpful in initiating
and operating a successful waterflood project.

2. EARLY WATERFLOODING IN
SINGLE-SAND RESERVOIRS
9
Waterflooding was first applied as a secondary % CUMULATIVE FREûUENCY
recovery method in relatively clean, uniform sands of
limited thickness containing light oils of good quality. Fig. 1-Comparison of primary and total recoveries
These sands are characteristic of the deep marine from Jfty-three mid-Continent waterjoods.
Sediments found in Pennsylvania and the Mid-
Continent areas of the United States. Most of the early
waterflood projects were initiated in fields which had mid-1940s, most authorities believed until recently
been developed for primary recovery operations and that the silty, interbedded sands and shales containing
were in an advanced stage of depletion. These projects low gravity crude oil found in the coastal regions of
required relatively low capital investment and resulted California and Venezuela were not commercially
in large increases of oil production and reserves. floodable. One such project commenced by the City of
Long Beach, primarily to alleviate a serious problem
of land subsidence, has since been expanded to include
Primary versus waterflood recovery approximately fifty reservoirs encompassing a wide
range of reservoir rock and fluid characteristics. This
A statistical analysis of the results of fifty-three project is currently the largest water injection-pressure
Mid-Continent waterfloods is shown in Fig. 1. maintenance project in the world with total water
Primary and total recovery for each waterflood was injection rates exceeding a million barrels of water
plotted as a function of cumulative frequency. The per day.
statistical average primary recovery amounted to 9.4 %
of the total pore volume, whereas total recovery Location of the project
after waterflooding amounted to 23.3% of the pore
volume. This indicates an average waterflood recovery
of 13.9% of total pore volume, which is 50 % greater The project is located in the harbour and offshore
than the average primary recovery. The significance of areas in the Wilmington Field adjacent to the City of
these statistics is that waterflooding was able to more Long Beach, California. A map of the area is presented
than double the reserves in a large number of water- in Fig. 2. The western (old) portion of the field is
flood projects. developed from land-based sites and has been produc-
ing since 1937. Development of the eastern (new)
portion of the field was not commenced until 1965.
The latter portion is developed by directional wells
3. RECENT WATERFLOODING IN drilled from four man-made islands. Major water-
MULTIPLE-SAND RESERVOIRS flooding in the western portion of the field commenced
in 1958. The eastern portion of the field was developed
Although some lenticular portions of the Bradford for waterñooding and water injection was commenced
Field in Pennsylvania were successfully flooded in the at the time the first wells were put on production.
 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage 265

Fig. 2-Map of the Wilmington oil$eld.

ZONE I ZONE 2 ZONE 3 ZONE 4

LEGEND

n OIL S A N O

SILTY OIL SAND

Fig. 3-Typical electric log of geologic section.

266 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage

WILMINGTON FIELD

OIL P RODU CTI O N AND IN JECTI ON RATE

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I I I _ O
- 1,200
-
2

1937 1941 1945 1949 1953 1957 1961 1965 1969 1972

Fig. &Field production curve showing primary and waterflood recovery.

Reservoir characteristics period 1953-58 and expansion of major waterfiooding

in the old part of the field started in 1958. Development
The reservoirs in question consist of unconsolidated and waterflooding in the new portion of the field
sands of the Pliocene and Miocene Age. The reservoirs started in 1965 and peak production rates of
are isolated by a complex fault system. Productive 250000 bd were reached in 1969. Water injection rates
intervals range from 250 ft to 650 ft in thickness and reached a peak of 1200000 bd in 1970.
consist of silty, interbedded sands and shales saturated
with low gravity, asphaltic crude oils. A typical electric
log of the geologic section is shown in Fig. 3. This Waterflood response in multiple-sand reservoirs
electric log demonstrates the complexity of the
reservoirs and emphasises the difficulties which might Performance curves showing typical waterfiood
be anticipated in flooding them. response in a multiple-sand reservoir are presented in
Fig. 5. These curves represent waterfiood response in
a pattern flood which has an average oil-water
Overall performance mobility ratio of 8-0.Injection was commenced in
October 1960 and waterflood response occurred
Overall response of the Wilmington Field to water- approximately one year later. Production rates
flooding is demonstrated in Fig. 4. These curves show increased from 2150 bd to an initial peak rate of
the performance of the total field under primary and approximately 7000 bd. Gas-oil ratios declined rapidly
waterflood recovery operations. Primary development from 600cuft/brl to an average of 120cuft/brl.
started in 1937. Production rates reached a peak of Water-oil ratios increased gradually from 0.05 to 9-0
138000 bd in 1947. Approximately 350 wells were lost in the 10-year period from 1960 to 1970. During this
by local earthquakes in the period 1947-49. The field same period average reservoir pressures increased
was redeveloped in 1950 and primary production from 280 psi to 780 psi. It should be noted that total
rates reached a peak of 142000 bd in December 1950. fluid production and net oil production rates are
Several pilot waterflood projects were initiated in the sensitive to the water injection rate after fill-up.
 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage 167

10,000 100.0

1
1,000 - 10.0
0
c
œ
4

œ 2
O O
a I

œ
W
I-

100 - 1.0
s

IO 10.I

Fig. 5- Waterfloodresponse in a multiple-sand reservoir.

I00,000 100.0

œ
O

.
ds
o
m

.
O
m
ri
œ
O
-%e*.!-
I "IL -START CYCLIC STEAM
\ J 7 . ~ ~ - ' & , L,GOR
~-
I L^. A /

-. .
1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970

Fig. 6- Waterflood response with cyclic steam.

268 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage

TABLE I
STATISTICAL DATA ON TWENTY-NINE WILMINGTON WATERFLOODS
Zone 1 2 3 4
Datum depth, ft 2300 2750 3300 3800
Number of waterfloods 5 6 11 7
Sand volume, acre ft 261276 646226 681656 439409
Porosity (%) 36.4 37.0 344 32.1
Air permeability (MD) 2900 1900 800 430
Connate water (%) 17.0 22.5 25.3 300
Oil gravity ("API) 13.9 18.0 20.5 27.9
Mobility ratio 34.6 8.3 3.O 1.7
Oil recovery to date (1000 brl) 78520 230443 363876 190062
Estimated ultimate recovery
(1O00 barrels) 112587 330292 479621 232784
(% Initial-oil-in-place) 19.4 25.1 39.5 35.6
(% Pore volume) 15.2 17.8 26.4 21.3

Waterflood response with cyclic steam of approximately 22.4% of the total pore volume.
This is only slightly less than the average recovery from
Waterñood response in conjunction with cyclic Mid-Continent waterñoods and indicates that water-
steam in a reservoir characterised by viscous, low flood response in multiple-sand reservoirs is consider-
gravity crude oil and adverse mobility ratios is give ably better than formerly anticipated and compares
in Fig. 6. The reservoir in question is a peripheral favourably with recovery from clean, single sand
waterflood with an average oil-water mobility ratio reservoirs.
of 32.0. Water injection was commenced in June 1960.
The response to waterflooding is reflected by a levelling
of the decline rate rather than a large increase of oil 4. FORECASTING WATERFLOOD
production. This continued until 1965 when a cyclic PERFORMANCE
steam project was commenced. The oil rate increased
sharply from 1800 bd to 5400 bd. Pressures in the Three general methods are used in forecasting
crest of the structure fell off, resulting in an increase in future performance and recovery of a waterflood.
GOR in the crestal wells. One crestal well had a These methods are analytical, mathematical and
blowout during repair. Four in-zone producers were empirical. A brief description of the various methods
converted to water injection to increase pressures in of forecasting and some comments as to their effective-
the crestal portion of the reservoir. This resulted in an ness are given below.
increase of water injection rates. The benefits of the
cyclic steam injection resulted primarily from well
bore cleanup. This is reflected in sustained oil pro- Analytical methods
duction rates although cyclic steam was discontinued
after each well had been steamed twice. Increased Several analytical methods are commonly used and
injection rates and the establishment of in-zone have been described in petroleum engineering litera-
injectors resulted in higher reservoir pressures. ture. Among the most common analytical methods are
Stiles,2 ArpsY3Dykstra and ParsonsY4Johnson5 and
Pratt et a l 6 All analytical methods are based on four
Waterflood recovery in multiple-sand reservoirs common assumptions :
1. homogeneous layers of different permeabilities ;
Twenty-nine waterñoods are being conducted in the 2. no communication between layers;
old portion of the Wilmington Field. These water-
floods are currently nearing depletion. Data on each 3. piston displacement of oil;
of the twenty-nine waterfloods are given in Table I. 4. Negligible gravity effects.
These statistics show that the multiple-sand reservoirs The analytical methods require extensive and accurate
under flood in the Wilmington Oil Field encompass a fluid and rock data. Variation in rock properties
range of oil-water mobility ratios from 1.7 to 34.6 with (permeability) is accounted for by layers but is assumed
average oil gravities ranging from 13.9" to 27.9" API. to be uniform in each layer throughout the productive
A statistical analysis of the estimated ultimate recovery area. Calculations are based upon steady state flow
indicates that these waterfloods will recover an average and capillarity is not taken into account.
 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage 269

In general, analytical methods do not forecast accuracy of the forecast. Because of the difficulty of
response before fill-up and tend to forecast higher accurately describing a reservoir mathematically, it is
peak oil production rates than actually obtained. usually necessary to make a series of trial and error
Analytical methods are normally used for preliminary solutions which can be matched against historical
evaluations of a waterñood project and to confirm performance. It is therefore not advisable to use a
estimates made on the basis of flood pot data or empiri- mathematical model unless sufficient historical infor-
cal data from similar waterñoods. Apart from con- mation is available to check the validity of the forecast.
firming the reserves and economics of prospective Mathematical models are useful tools in optimising
waterfloods, forecasts by analytical methods are ex- methods of operation of a waterñood after the flood
tremely useful in determining the size and capacity of has been in operation long enough to provide a
surface facilities required. history of performance.

Mathematical models Empirical methods

The advent of computers has made possible a much
more sophisticated method of forecasting reservoir
performance. It is possible by use of computers to
describe a reservoir mathematically in three dimensions
and assign variable rock and fluid properties both
horizontally and vertically. Detailed description of
mathematical models are given by Dougherty and
Mitchell' and Douglas et al.'
A mathematical model is normally divided into
cells. Each cell represents a segment of the reservoir
and is assigned rock and fluid properties as well as
initial pressures and saturations. Flow of fluids into
or out of each cell is described by appropriate flow
equations. Pressures and saturations within each cell
are calculated at various time intervals by simultaneous
solution of materials balance equations. Production
and injection wells can be located to scale. Faults and
other no-flow boundaries can be described in the
model. Performance is predicted by increments of time
using planned injection rates. Output of the program
is the predicted performance of each producing well
together with a plot of future saturations and pressures
at different time intervals throughout the life of the
flood.
Unfortunately, the ability to describe a reservoir in
three dimensions is limited by the size of the computer
memory. For example, to describe three layers using
400 cells per layer requires the memory of a large
computer. A model should have at least one or more
cells per well in each layer to provide accuracy.
Multiple-sand reservoirs are therefore difficult to
model accurately in this manner. However, the model
is frequently useful for describing a portion of a
reservoir, such as a pattern or segment of the reservoir
which is isolated by boundaries across which it can be
assumed that no flow of fluids will occur.
The machine tirne required to forecast waterflood
performance depends upon the size of time steps used.
Larger time steps require less machine time. The
time steps, however, can be a critical factor in the
Two empirical methods are commonly used to
forecast waterflood performance and reserves. Both
methods are based upon the historical performance of
a similar waterñood. One method involves derivation
of empirical equations which describe the normal oil
response to water injection. These equations usually
forecast the volume of water injection required before
response, the time required to reach peak oil rate, the
peak oil production rate, the length of time oil pro-
duction will remain at peak rate, the average production
decline after peak rate, the oil production rate per
well at economic limit and the cumulative water
injection at floodout. This method does not relate oil
production performance to water-oil ratios which are
extremely important in determining the economics of a
project. The method is, however, useful in estimating
probable oil production response to water injection
and can be of value in comparing oil rate forecasts
made by other methods. Earlougher and Guerrero9
presented a comparison of actual performance of two
waterfloods versus performance predicted by four
analytical methods and the empirical method described
above. They concluded that none of the methods
investigated were completely satisfactory for predicting
waterfiood reserves and performance; however, the
empirical method was more accurate than the analyti-
cal methods.
The empirical method most commonly used to
forecast waterñood performance is based upon the
cut-recovery relationship of a similar waterfiood or of
a portion of the same reservoir where natural water
encroachment may have taken place during the
primary recovery period. The method involves con-
structing a cut-recovery curve which is considered
representative for the reservoir in question. The cut-
recovery curve may be shifted to account for differences
in oil-water mobility ratio of permeability distribution
based on equations developed by Stiles' and Dykstra
and par son^.^ After the cut-recovery curve has been
established, time-rate calculations are made on the
270 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primdry Stage

basis of estimated gross rate behaviour of the wells. the water is injected into the aquifer. Aquifer injection
The results of these calculations provide a forecast of promotes a more uniform water encroachment,
future oil and water production rates which are ensures that the water at the flood front is more nearly
usually within the limits of engineering accuracy. the same chemical composition as the formation
Reserves are estimated from the cut-recovery relation- water, and has the added advantage of providing
ship by determining the limiting economic water-oil considerably higher injection rates per well than those
ratio. obtainable from in-zone injectors. Normally one
aquifer well can inject three or four times as much
5. DESIGNING A WATERFLOOD water as an in-zone injector.
PROJECT If design injection rate cannot be obtained by
aquifer injection, it is necessary to resort to pattern
Waterflooding is an artificial form of water drive flooding or line flooding. In general, better areal
which may be applied to an oil reservoir in any stage conformance is obtained with a pattern or line flood
of depletion. Pressured water is injected into the when the distance between producers and injectors is
reservoir to provide energy to drive oil into the pro- greater than the distance between producing wells.
ducing wells. The design of a waterñood involves two Various pattern and line floods can be designed
problems: based upon the required ratio of injectors to producers.
A common pattern flood is the five-spot pattern which
1. determining the rate of water injection;
is based upon a one-to-one ratio between producers
2. establishing the location of water injection wells and injectors.
with respect to the producers. If a waterflood is initiated in a reservoir previously
developed for primary production, the location and
spacing of the existing wells is fixed. In this case a
Water injection rates line or pattern flood is generally established by
converting some of the producing wells to water
Most waterfloods are designed for a uniform water injection. Under these conditions uniform spacing
injection rate throughout the major portion of the geometry should be considered of secondary impor-
flood's life. In the later life of the flood, the water tance and conversion of the poorest wells to injection
injection rates will decline as wells become uneconomic should be avoided. The poorest producers frequently
and the total productive capacity of the remaining make the poorest injectors.
wells diminishes. The design injection rate for a water- The number of injection wells required depends
flood is based upon estimated gross production rates of upon the total design injection rate and the average
the wells at 70 to 75% water-cut. The gross pro- injectivity of the wells. A method of empirically deter-
duction of the wells at high water-cuts can be estimated mining injectivity during and after fill-up has been
by analysing the relationship of gross productivity presented by Earlougher." This method is based
index with increasing water-cut. Data can be taken upon an analysis of several hundred injection wells. The
from wells with a history of water production or the injectivity in bd/mD ft is expressed as a function of
behaviour of high cut wells in a similar waterñood. average permeability. The injectivity for a given well
The design injection rate should be higher than the can be estimated by this method if the average air
maximum gross production rate to allow for water permeability of the reservoir is known. Injectivity can
lost to the adjacent formations and not effective in also be estimated by comparison with the rates of
producing oil. This loss is often 25% or greater. It is water injection wells in a similar reservoir. These can
normal practice to design a waterñood with an allow- be confirmed by actual injection in wells placed on
ance of 25% or more for anticipated losses. A rule of injection early in the life of a waterflood project.
thumb which is frequently used provides for injection
rates of 0.5 to 0.75 bd/acre ft. Total injection volume
to floodout should be in the range of 1.5 to 1.75 pore 6. OPERATION OF A WATERFLOOD
volumes.
Operators going from primaryrecovery to waterflood
Spacing operations tend to overemphasise the importance of the
producer. While it is true that the producer provides the
The location of water injection bells with respect to actual source of oil production and income, the water
producers depends upon the design injection rate and injection system provides the energy to drive the oil
the average injectivity of the wells. The best areal into the producing wells. After fill-up, production
conformance is obtained by peripheral flooding where rates are sensitive to changes of injection rate. A
 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage 271

decrease of injection rate is reflected within a short
period of time by a decline in production. It is there-
fore necessary to emphasise the importance of main-
taining water injection rates.
Early water breakthrough in producing wells and
resultant high water-oil ratio production seriously
affects the performance and economics of a waterflood.
Efforts to control uniform distribution of waterñood
advance should originate at injection wells. Normally
the problem can be recognised and corrected earlier
in the injection wells than it can in the producers.
Furthermore, there are usually fewer injection wells
than there are producers. Recent statistics show that
the national average ratio of producers to injectors in
the United States is 2+:1.
Waterflooding introduces many new operational
problems frequently not encountered in primary
recovery operations. Among these problems are :
water treatment, corrosion control, water handling,
sand production, water-oil ratio control, waste water
disposal and hydrogen sulphide problems. These
problems add to the cost of waterflood operations but
can be solved by early identification, analysis and
treatment.
Water treatment
Injection water is obtained from oceans, lakes,
rivers, shallow wells or produced water from oil wells.
The quality of the injection water depends upon its
chemical composition, dissolved gases and solids
content. Solids are generally removed by settling or
filtration. Dissolved oxygen is treated by scavenging
with natural gas or catalysed sodium sulphite. Iron
compounds are treated with chelating agents such as
potassium dichromate. Calcium and barium can be
sequestered with inorganic or organic phosphates
which prevent precipitation of insoluble sulphates.
Bacteria are treated with a variety of biocides.
Inorganic biocides are seldom used because they may
be corrosive in the concentration required or may
react with catalysts used in the refining process.
Organic biocides are commonly used, especially the
acrolein-based biocides.
Corrosion control
Injection waters can cause serious corrosion prob- well bore. However, injection wells generally flow
lems in the injection system, as well as in the producing back whenever the injection plant service is inter-
wells. Normally a programme of chemical treatment is rupted. Eventually some form of sand control com-
designed on the basis of the composition of the injec- pletion must be used in water injection wells which are
tion water. The water is handled in a closed system injecting into unconsolidated sands.
whenever possible and chemical treatment is introduced
at or near the injection water source. Some scale chemi-
cals and corrosion inhibitors are often introduced into
the annulus of producing wells. Various types of coat-
ings and wrappings are applied to pipelines to prevent
internal and external corrosion. Corrosion resistant
materials are commonly used in water injection pumps
and in down-well equipment. The use of plastic
coated tubing in injection wells is common. Normally,
water treated with corrosion inhibitors and biocide is
placed in the annulus of injection wells above the
packer to prevent corrosion of the casing.
Water handling
Water handling is a problem both from an injection
and a production standpoint. Waterflooding requires
handling large volumes of injection water throughout
the life of the flood. Water must be transported from
the source to the injection plants, elevated to high
pressures and distributed to the injection wells. This
requires design and installation of a water injection
system. In large-scale waterñoods, multi-stage centri-
fugal pumps provide superior service. Pilot floods and
relatively small-scale water injection products are
better served by positive displacement pumps.
Gross production increases rapidly in a waterflood
project. For this reason it is necessary to make frequent
changes of pumping equipment to handle increasing
volumes of gross fluid. Eventually some of the wells
will require high volume pumping equipment. Electrical
submersible pumps provide the best service in this type
of production operation. Normally the distribution of
maximum gross production rates during waterflood is
such that 25% of the wells produce approximately
one-half of the maximum pool production rate (oil and
water) whereas 50% of the wells produce less than
20% of the maximum pool production rate. This
indicates that probably not more than 25% of the
wells will require high volume pumping equipment.
Sand problems
Waterflooding of unconsolidated sand reservoirs
frequently results in serious sand problems, both in
injectors and in producers. Most operators do not
initially anticipate sand problems in the injectors
because the normal direction of flow is away from the
Producing wells generally develop sand problems
212 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage

as water production increases. These problems can be
solved by using sand control liners. The most widely
used method of sand control in thick section, multiple-
sand reservoirs is the flow-packed gravel liner com-
pletions. Sand problems in relatively thin sections can
be overcome by using sand consolidation techniques.
control has resulted in increasingly restrictive legisla-
tion regarding the disposal of produced water. Waste
water can be disposed of by dumping or by reinjecting.
In either case it is usually necessary to clean up the
water before disposal. Operators contemplating the
initiation of a waterflood should give consideration to

Water-oil ratio control

While it is true that a relatively large percentage of

the ultimate recovery in a waterflood is produced at
high water-oil ratios, the economics of a waterñood
are seriously affected by unnecessary production of
free water. High water production in wells located
relatively close to the water injectors can result in
cycling water which could otherwise be effective in
producing oil in up-structure wells. Expert opinion is
divided on whether or not producing wells should be
shut-in before reaching economic limit water-cuts.
As an example of the potential savings which can be
made with effective water-oil ratio control the results
of a flank well shut-in programme conducted in the
Wilmington Field are presented herein. The flank well
shut-in programme was initiated in a peripheral
waterflood where large volumes of injection water were
being produced in the down structure wells. This
situation resulted in a loss of effective injection in the
cresta1 portion of the reservoir where the wells were
producing at relatively low water-oil ratios. A total of
forty-eight flank wells were shut-in. At the time of
shut-in these wells were producing 1250 barrels of oil
per day, economically. The results of the flank well
shut-in programme are shown in Fig. 7. Prior to OIL RECOVERY - B/AF
embarking upon this programme two predictions of
water-oil ratio performance were made, one with the Fig. 7-Results of water-oil ratio control by flank well
flank wells producing and the other with the wells shut-in, Wilmington Field.
shut-in. The predictions are shown by the dashed lines
in Fig. 7. Both predictions indicated the same ultimate reinjecting produced water into the oil zones. This
recovery. The one based upon flank well shut-in minimises the volume of makeup water required and
indicated that a large amount of this recovery would solves the problem of waste water disposal.
be at lower water-oil ratios. The programme has been
in effect for 8 years and the performance of the reser-
voir has followed the predictions very closely. Since the Hydrogen sulphide
inception of the shut-in programme it is estimated that
water production has been reduced by a total of Most waterfloods experience increasing problems
approximately 45 million barrels. This has resulted in with hydrogen sulphide. Production of hydrogen
a saving of operating costs amounting to more than sulphide gas results in corrosion problems, atmo-
three million dollars to date. spheric pollution and is a safety hazard. Hydrogen
sulphide gas can be removed by several methods
including the iron sponge process and the Stretford
Waste water disposal process. Dehydration reduces the corrosion problems.
Most operators institute a safety programme and
Waste water disposal presents a problem in water- provide respirators for employees working in areas of
flooding. World-wide interest in water pollution dangerous concentrations of hydrogen sulphide.
 Recovery of Hydrocarbons Beyond the Primary Stage 273

7. ECONOMICS of waterflood oil would be in the order of 0.98 of a

dollar. Although these numbers are not strictly com-
As an example of the economics involved in water- parable, they show that average operating costs under
flooding, an analysis has been made of capital invest- waterflood operations may be as much as 40 cents per
ment and estimated income from the Wilmington Field. barrel higher than operating costs under primary.
Capital investment in water injection wells and facili-
ties in the old portion of the field during the period
1958 to 1970 amounted to a total of 28.9 million dollars. 8. CONCLUSIONS
Of this amount 17.6 million dollars were invested in
drillingandequippingwater injection wells and 11a3 mil- Waterflooding offers an effective means of recover-
lion dollars were invested in water injection plants and ing large quantities of oil which would otherwise
distribution systems, including water source wells and remain in the ground after primary depletion.
chemical treating facilities. It is estimated that this Additional reserves due to waterflooding are sig-
capital investment will result in recovery of approxi- nificant because they apply to oil-in-place already
mately 530 million barrels of additional oil at a total discovered and developed. The method is not limited
net profit of approximately 517 million dollars. to clean, single-sand reservoirs, but can be applied
Capital investment in water injection wells and successfully to complex, multiple-sand reservoirs
facilities in the new portion of the field during the encompassing a wide range of rock and fluid proper-
period 1965 to the present amounts to a total of ties. Waterflooding requires low initial capital invest-
31 million dollars. Of this amount 24.8 million dollars ment compared to secondary recovery methods based
was invested in water injection wells and 6.2 million upon the use of special fluids or expensive additives.
dollars in water injection plants and distribution Waterflood performance and recovery can be predicted
systems. Return on these investments is estimated to within acceptable limits of engineering accuracy. This
be as good or better than that of the old portion of the offers a means of preliminary evaluation and provides
field. It is interesting to note that capital investment in data useful in designing a waterflood project. Water-
water injection wells in the old portion of the field is flooding introduces many new operational problems.
considerably lower because many of the water injection These problems can be solved by early identification,
wells in the old portion of the field are converted analysis and treatment.
producers.
Investment in water injection plants and distri-
bution systems in the old portion of the field averaged REFERENCES
10 dollar/bd of injection plant capacity. Average
injection pressures are 1800 psi. Investment in water 1. G. E. CROSBY, Petrol. Engr., 1970,42 (7), 50-54.
injection plants and distribution systems in the new 2. W. E. STILES, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1949,
186, 9.
portion of the field average 12 dollars/bd of injection 3. J. J. ARPS, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs., 1956,
plant capacity. The difference in the cost of water 207, 182-191.
injection plants and facilities in the old portion of the 4. “Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States”, 2nd ed.,
p. 160, H. DYKSTRA and R. L. PARSONS, 1950,
field and the new portion of the field is attributable American Petroleum Institute.
partly to inflation and partly to the fact that the new 5 . C. E. JOHNSON, Jr., Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs.,
portion of the field is developed from offshore islands 1956, 207, 345.
and therefore construction costs are somewhat higher 6. M.BAKER, PRATS, C. S. MATTHEWS, R. L.JEWETT and J. D.
J. Petrol. Techno]., 1959, 11(5), 98.
because of the necessity to transport men and mate- 7. “Computers in the Mineral Industries” Part 2, p. 787,
rials to the islands. E. L. DOUGHERTY and H. C. MITEHELL, 1964.
Average operating costs under waterflood operations 8. J. DOUGLAS, D. W. PEACEMAN and H. H.
RACHFORD, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs.,
are somewhat higher than equivalent costs under 1959, 216,297-308.
primary operations. Evaluation .of the City of Long 9. “API Drilling and Production Practice”, pp. 78-95, E. T.
Beach properties in the old part of the field indicated GUERRERO and R. C. EARLOUGHER, 1961.
that the net return per barrel of primary oil was 10. R.Petroleum C. EARLOUGHER, Paper No. 1025-G presented at the
Conference on Production and Reservoir
1-37 dollars, whereas the overall net return per barrel Engineering, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1958.