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‘.The Efiect of ~acteria on Sandstone

.,
Permeability ~
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I :, P, J, XALISH I GULF OIL CORP.
., J. A, STEWART
:
1
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., ., HOUStON, TEX.
, W, F, ROGERS . -.
,{ 2 U,”OF HOUSTON,
E. O. ttE,NNEiT ‘

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tfousroN, mx4 ~ ...
1. ,... .-

ABSTRACT ‘ . medium - !30 to 162 md~ and low — 17.7 to 48.3 rod.
The permeability data for the cores used “in the tests ate ~
J?’etailed. desqiptionk are given ““ofmaterials, ap;aratas .,
incIu@d in Table_ l..:7, i ~~ 1.
and the experitnentcd procedure used to study the efk%t of a
bacteria on sandstone. permeability.. The factors @fectiak AI1 cores were cut to a ,ilominal 1 in, diameter. Follow- “”
permeability dtqing injection of bacterial suspettfiom . ing air perrneitbility;)determinations, thqy were molded with
which ~havk been investigated are: (1} concentration of an epoxy resin in 1.5 in, ID aluminum sleeve$, The’ sleeves ~‘“”
bacteria; (2) ,core: peiwteability and tnedian Pore size:”(3) had drilled and tapped holes for intermediate pressure
species” of bacteria, mode of aggregation and re!aiive. size; connections aIong the” length’”of the corm. iAfter molding,
(4} injection -rdte or’ pressure differential (S) mean pres- the high- and medium-permeability cores were trimmed
sure: and (6) denth of penetration of bacteria. The investi- to 4 in. in length and the low-~ermeability cores to 2. ~
gation dernonst~ated. ~hat’bacteria ianwot ieduce core Per- in. These lengths rfkrlted in pore +’olurnes of aPPrOxi: “. ‘
meability to zero and Chat <theireflect on permeability is mately 10,9, 10,4 and 4A ml, respectively, for the high-,
subject to definite limitations. medium- and low-permeability cores. .“
,. Remedial or permeability restoration-‘studies also were Pressure transmuting channeIs were: drilled through the :
made. Acid{zation “i+teombination with reverse flo~y was plastic into the core propek, using the sleeve holes as drilI
found to be an -eflective Wethod for restoring permeability guides, Width hnd depth of channel penetration into the ,
“”k corks partially.’plugged’ ‘withbacteria. core. proper, were approxhpately 0,03 in, “and 0,05, in., J
The relationship ‘between the bacterial qua??tities ilt the “ res@ectivdy. Three ,presiure taps~..wereUS@,With-all ‘drew
labof&tory testsj’itnd those ~ound in fteld operatiotts is dis- for the, high- and mediurn-permeabilit y bores tfi? taps were
ctwsed. The Jidear laboratory flow data “have b<en trans- spaced’ 1 in. apart; for the lowI-permeabllity cores the taps
: l~ied into tern% of Feld radial sysiems; thf~e data indicate were spaced 0.4, 0,8 and 1.2 in. from the inlet end..
the most pracikal methods of mait’ztaitdnginjection rates Pore size distributions were calculated from resto~ed-
in the $k’sencehof br?cterh? are to. incr!ase in]ecti~n Pres- “‘ state capillary pressure curves for representative cores in ‘
J %tiresor hydraul[cqlly fracture the formation. each of the three permeability ranges. In each “case the
.> ~ ,. ..:< .2
,.. pore size’ range with the,. greateit,,percentage of the pore “’
INTLjODU@lON : , ‘space included the very small pores up to 0.5 micron in
+’,, lt hhs, long Ken ‘fiRown that various bacteria. flourish ‘, rad~us. The median pore radii were in the ,5.5 to 6 micron .
in the ftbove-ground cornpogents of. oil fkdd water-injec- range for the high-pg~eability cores; in the 4,5 to’ S .
@on systems. The presence of thesd bacteiia has led tJ the ,.%: micron range for the medtum’permeability core% ~and in >. ‘-
suspicion t~at ‘they might @tter into the cau$es for reduc- the=3.5 to 4 micron range’ for the-low-permeability cort!s. ,
tion of injection well permeability, but oply{ recently has >\
~~ n attemnt been made to describe the effects ;Quantitafive- , r,- 4,
. . . .
:.. . ~ly? ‘Bio&es are used in many cases without $ firm.Jrnoy-. ,
‘TASLE l-DATA” SUMMARY ON SSPORTEDTEST RUNS “
~+- ., ledge as lo ,whether the Mleria are tilled, of.. if they We) Bluto
----- !
~.-;- w,hether the dead: cells affect=forrnatioh permeability. Ti@” ; Pe% !ablllty sytqial -Sb -- “ -
cow--’ (m
tirnied.. was. undertaken as part of a study .-to determine Number .&
-,
~he-effect of bacteria, residual oil. and precipitated solids “— A 492
,492
-m- ““— P. VIII(
such w iron. sulfide or- tilcium =+rbonate On~,$he Per- ,46
5
477 .:., . . . .-.=-...
‘meability of sandstones’ and to learn whether any of these - g 520 294
---- ?s. aeruslnosa
- –. ‘i-..2
535
—.
matefials advixsely afiect brine injectivity in secondary S46
“‘recovery @~di@osal opwaticfns. This report deals with that -- ~‘ -- ~~~-- ~;” .34I- .,.
:M. rOSWS ........1%.
3s7 AL rosws<<

..~. portion relating to the effect, of b?cteria. . . ~ ~ ]: - .. . . j 309

30.6
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,., .“; MATERIALS”” ‘ ‘ “. “; “~” ~$. fl{. -. fs. aeysina
, -.-~: ,.’ ..(, ,. ) J! 2
5311 L-s
.;;:5 .“ %,-&&km ‘“
~ differetit peirni%bi~ty’ “Tringesof Berea wmdstorie ~ ~-~j $~~1 k; taseus
.w~o ~ .-.Pc,qtos(noso ... .. .-
‘~:,o,
~----.:.—. -“ . .cor-~.. were used @ tbe study.: The range of initiql? abso-
:2 . %8:’ -“.-. , ... *..,. ,

-- “+==--- =lut~tititi&--~eM~bxtit}w~*+~efGS-Mgh-=Z7S-toQ4OO.rnd:r+-~-"~"=-~$-fi-+~gZZ--- .L323---- _L:j.%fla~ns**-----.t, “%ii

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-..,
BASEOR REFERENCEINJECTION BRINE
The base or” reference injection fluid @ed in all tests
WaS a 25,000 mg/liter calcium chloridp brine having a
viscosity of 0.965 cp at 77F. A calcium rather than sodium
brhm was used because it minimized the sensitivity of the
Berea sandstone without having any marked physical ef- ‘
fects on the bac!teria tested. All brines were aged at least
24 hourd after mixing and then filtered through tightly
packed cotton and a 0,4S-micron, millipore-type tllter. After, ‘ suspension. Immediately qfter the aliqbot -was taken the
tiltr,atiqn the, containers of base solution were sealed to
pre@t pickup of carbon dioxide. Control tests demon-
strated that mdre than 50 liters or about 4,600 por& VOI- ‘
umes of. brine prepared in the above manner could be
flowed through a Mgh-permeability core without rediwing
permeability. - ~ - ,. ‘ . ~‘ ~
‘ The ca[ciurn chloridq brine’ was used in the deter,rnina-
titm of initjal or reference core perrneabilities and as the>
carrier for bacteria in the flow tests which followed; .The
brine was blerided with concentrated bacterial ,wssp&sions: -“ servative with the” action of ‘agents used to, attack the
to provide desired concentrations of bacteria for flow
tests. . /
->
‘BACT~RIA “ ‘ ‘
The bactefia usqd throughout, the study were species
which had been ,,foun~ in several oil field water injection
systems? The species used ‘also were selected because they
represented a diversity ,of sizes and aggregaiive {epdets-
ties.’ They are: Pseud,oinonas aer,uginosa—slightly curved,
,io.d shaped, single cells, 0.5 microns in diameter X 1,5
microns long; Pseudomonas /iuorescetw—slightly curved,
rod shaped, single cells, 0,5 microns id diameter X,. 1,8
microns long (used ‘toward’ end of study wheri Ps. ae~ugf-
nosa culture was not available); Baci~lus iereus-rod shap-
ed cells, single or in chains up to ,$0 or more cells long,
1” mi~ron in diam~ter X .6 “micti’ns Ions Micrococcus
roseus—spherical cells, single or in plate-like nlasses Jon- .
., “,
taining up to s~veral dozen- cells, ‘0.8 microns in diameter;. .
, .,Microcqccus jlavui ~spherical cells, single ,or in plate-like
masses containing up td several dozen ceils, “0.9 microns
-in. diameter (used. toward end of study when M. roseus’
cttlture was not available); Mjcrococcik citrius-spherict.il
cells, single or in plate-like masses containing up to sev-
eral dozen cejls, 0,8 to 1 microns in ~diamete~ (used” only”
,. in study of viscosity of bacteria] s~pgnsions); and Proteus . .
; .. .wdgaris--rod shaped, single dells, 0.5 to ,1 rnicton in di-
,:,
(’”
the growth, harvesting, counting,” killing and preservation .
of the bacteria. All bacteria were grown on agar medium.
Following the growth period they ,were flushed from the
agar and washed with the. calicum chloride brine to re-
move agar traces, and then suspended in the calcium brine,
Usi~g an tdiquot of the suspension, serial dilutions were ,‘
made and plates inoculated in standard counting proce-
dures to determine the concentration of bacteria in the
bacteria in the kernai,hng suspension Were killed and pre-
served with merthiolate unless live bacteria wer~ required. .
The suspen$on was refrigerated until needed for test; sus-
pensions not used within one week after kill were dk- .
>) carded’ . /’ ”<;,,
Vhdb]e, rather than killed, bacteria were used .to eval-
uate methods -of permeability restoration to more closely
sjmulate field conditions, Dead cefls c&dd not be used
because of possible interference tof the merthiolate. pre-
plugging bacteria. When live bacteria were used, their .
concentrations in the injection brines could onIy b? esti-
mated. Hence, reliable correlations between degree of plug-
ging and ,number of bacteria injected were ini’possible,
-.
APPARATUS
.,~he apparatus as illustrated in Fig. 2 was comprised of
the oil pumping system, the yarious reservoirs for liquids
injected into Ihe core, the core holder, the pressure re- -, ‘c
corder and the effluent receiver. ,
The oil pumping system was”used to move oil into the
injection liquid reservoirs in order to displace aqueous.
injection media into cores, The basic unit of -the system
.w.as‘a. Zenith Njodel.QE laboratory.. meteting p~mp. Flow”
rates ,yp to 130 ml/rnin were obtainable by. manipuhiti?n
.
of ,the valves in the manifold and changes of..drivisyj gears
and/or transmission speeds, In-’contrast to the fixed, rates “,.
afforded by the pumps, oil also could be d,$livered to the
injection reservoirs at a constant pressure, Compressed
nitrogen was used to displace the oil from its stqrage tank
directly to the reservoirs. - ,
Whh one “exception, injection media’ reservoi~s were
:constructed .,from. acrylic plastic tubing and machined . ...’
heads. The resejwoir’}vhich contained base water for high-f I .4

,J,, ameter, 1 to 3 microns long~ presiufe .sxperuuent=-%asa steel-shell. hydraulic accumulat-

or. Oil injection into. a ‘s~i@@ic rubber ieparafot~bag dip,
,,-- Therelat@e siz&, “shapes and mode” of aggr~gition: of
placed brine from the accumuliiror through a high-p~essure
-the various bacteria are illustrated in Fig. !, .,.., t?lter. ‘. ’,-.,. ,
~, The bacteria were furnished by the Biology Dept. of C*.
,-
! the ~, of ‘Houston. UniWsn techniques-were gtnployed @
-. ,. ----7 ------

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‘ ‘WESSURE (SAW’S L. PRESSURE Ri? ORDER
&i% !ESSURE SWITCH -M. SINTERED ME ! AL FILTER

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“SW&OjR ~: ..ff, PACKEO (XTTON. FILTERS
H’-: -l’”f -’T’”” .“: “.””’ ‘“”-’.’”-, 0: GEAR F
~:~--- )RE HOLOERS ,
g. #pJg’~p$JEq~ “-“

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*. _.. .,& ~~ z i.:-;..sig”n .RESERVC&BASE Rrn&=+=::.+:->::~-x%-+
U-IS-DRAIN ~. R~ERvOR-’- ~fcTERIA- sU@@EN$rQN

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1, RESERVOIR - EASE SRINE (ACWMULATORI
-j. RESERVOIR - CONC. BACTERIA SUSPENSION
- n.,1 RESERVClft - TREATINQ SOLU~lON -
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.:. . .-, -. FIG..l—AppKo&cAr~=&hmvi SIz& .hIJ AQCRE&TIYE,-, ., .. .. .
TENLIE~CIESOF 13ACITRIAUSED IN .ms STUDY..
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~ FIC. 2-SCH@rATtcOFFLO~V
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-..—-——..-. —.+. . . . .. . -------- ___ _____ . .. . .. . .. . .._..= - .——.——.—..+_.-_.._—
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Two types of plastic injection reservoirs were used: iarge Both base brine and concentrate were metered indepen~
diameter, 100-Psi workifig pressure ~e$sel$ of eith@r,8- Or dently, hence the desired concentration in the comrdiqgled ‘.,
20-lite~ capacity, and small 500-psi units up to 600-ml stream could be attained by adjust@g the “metering rates
capacity, Each size unit was equipped with a magnetic and suspension concentration. ~ ,. .>
stirring device which rotated a teflon-coated stirring bar In the higher pressure operations, flow rat& and initial
within the reservoir; A Plastic discof suitable density Was iniet pressures were approximately 8.5 .nWmin and 23
used to restrict the pump Oil-injection mediym interface psig for ,high-permeabiiity cores, and 4,5 ml/min and 45
and thereby–prevent mixing.‘of the two ,,.phases duting stir-1 psig for low-permeability sampies. These “akeequivalent to
ring of the aqueous ph~se. ,-
29.7 and 15.7 BWPD/ft. ,Testing to a maximum perrnen-
‘ Thecore.,holder mnsisted essentialiy-'of machined ac~1ic, Mit y damage’ of about ,93’ per cent and 98, per cent for
,. end pieces and a yoke~type compression device. O-rings in ,Iow-” and high-permeability cores, Rspectiveiy, was POS- , ‘.
I the endpieces .effected sedsaga!nstthepnds of the plastic sible with the S00 psi working prgs?ure sY$ten~.
core mounting, The dual’ inlets in each of the end pieces The. final. pcmtion, of the work wds cogcerned ‘with. at-
simp~tied purging M co’re faces and reversai of flow direc- ~ tempts to increase the permeability of bacterial plugged
.$ tion. The core was positkmed vertically between the end’
‘cores by mecha”nicai or chemical treatment% In preparation .”’
pieces during all flow tests. for these reni$dial studies ~Ke.cores ‘were quickly’ and q
,> ,.. Tthe’preisure recorder WRS a’Z4-hotrr, circular-chart? . severely plugged with highly Concentrated suspensions Of
four-element u.nif, During -the. earlier runs, which. wer~ live bacteri%. chemical- trerjtment cori~isted ,~f ftowin~ a
limitedt~a 100-psi inlet pressure, theelements were iden- given volume of treathg solutioq through the ‘core or in- ;, “:~’
tical 100-pki units. Forthe later runs, when inlet pressures jetting untii the inlet pressure stabilized. Reverse or back “
uptc$ 500 psi were encountered, theelemept re’cording the flQw, the only. tuechafiical niethod used, was applied until f,
inlet pressure was replaced by a 500-psi unit. A, safety the return permeability stabilized. ,Following any ‘treatment
.,”” shut-down device, which was actuatefl by any pressure or sequence thereof, pertieabtlity nleasurements were made
element exceeding its nominal range,. was i~corporated in with the base calcitim chloride brine to determine the J
the s~stern. ‘. . degree of permeability restoration . .: +: * . .... 4
---
The receiver for, thee ftiuent from, the core was similar ... .
,.
to the large plastic -injection media reservoirs. An external-
ly mounted scale permitted- volume readingk to,-~ithin25 .“ DISCU!&ON ..OF BACTERIAL EFFECTS ,
ml. The -pressure iii the receiver was controlled to main- LENERAL ‘ ‘, ,,. ”’ “’ i
tain.1’O,psig on the”outlet end of the core sample to pre-
, Some 24 of the 87 test runs made in the course of this’ ~’
vent any ga$!evolutio n’withinthe core. Receiver pressures
study furnished data that are reported ‘or discussed hefein. ,.
up to 60 psig were possib!ewith fhe’”availab!e pressure The time requirements for each of the several runs rang-
.... . . ..--.-...’
regulating- equipment.
. . . ed from one to five days: The bulk of the ‘unreported runs ‘“ f:’
.. were either duplications or confirn]ations of others; the
,-, J,’., :\ EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ‘‘ . remaining unreported runs di& not provide data which .,.
. .>
‘ After a core was mounted, drilled and cut” to length, were meaningful or of practical signititance. Table 1 sy.m-
it was readied for test by vac’uum saturating with basal niarizes some ‘of the pertinent~data;on the 24 runs., Aside ,,
,. from the datq on the test -core% the table includes kfQE. :, .
water at least 16 hours befo~e. use. Initial “testing. con- ., 1
sisted of’ fldwing basq water through the core to establish n~ation on the type of bzcte?ia te~ed, bacterial concentra-
.’ the initial or reference (stebiljzed) permeability, The flow tions used and total number of pore volumes of ‘lmspen-
sion “injected into each test core. <~” ,;
,“ rat~ selected allowed -each of th6 pressuie reccyder ele-.
., merits to operate’ initiali~ at less than 50 per cept of its: The reduction in “core @rmeability as a gun progressed ~ . .> ,:,,
nomin~l rimge.. The “refekenoe permeability was defined by.’., has been recorded as the ratio of the permeability at any
,. ,! ‘ a! least a two- to four-hour t~st period during which 125 to time k to the initial absolute perrneabilit y of Jhe” core to ,.
.. . . . 3.09 pore .vohrrh?s.of brine.. werq- fl.o.wedlhrough. .th@-core. base brine k,. Fgw easier processing of the’ data”“the per- . “’
Staljiiization usually ,was attained after t~k ./ flofi of OdY 20 meaiiiliti+ were not Cakllated,- .M” rqher” tk. wtio ~/~1- ,“
to 30 pore volumes;, ‘ ,,. . was deterrpined by dividkg the pressure ditTerentiaI eor:
.7“ Early,. low-pressure, rim were made. by ,!ojectirig bac- responding to the{base brine permeabilityy Ap ~,by the pres-
terial dispersions of @owq. con&ntrations’ into dines at sure ‘differential AP at any tim& In the constant-tempera:
< ‘ constant rates. %ijection ‘was continuous’ tvfth the exce~$irm ture, linear-flow. system msed, the. viscosity) @X @ core
. . -.. of the’ time required to recharge the injection reservoir “ lengths w?re constants unless otherwise noted: hegce, the ~,, -
!, with, ‘a rfew, dispersion.’ The flow ‘rate# and initial, inlet ~ permer+bility ratio:~/k, is equal fO Api/4P ~. .. ’.-
,. ,.,
~ pressures were on the order of.14.25 “inl/mir>and 32 psig The data in “Table 2 show that the viscosity of a typical
-for high-permeability cores and 4.5 ml/min and 4S psig bacteritii su$pensioq’ is’a. constant and essenti#Y the Same “ ~~
1 * for ‘low-permeabiIit y, samples, In terms of well, capacity as ‘that of, the susi$ending liquid. pressure-flow rate ‘at?; ~.”
~. .,”... :, these rates are equivalent- to 49.7-.and. 1.%7 BWPD/ft ,af, ... are presented. for. three. sui+pensiotls, djs!i!ied water “’a!@.: ... .*
j., for@ation for.~’ 4-in. well radius. The pre%ure lirnit%tions.,, base crdcium chloride ~rinti the ~e!vtonian ?eh~vior of the
..’ of the system restricted lestin~ to a maximum- permeab~lty” .. stip”ensiofis is evident. The viscony@! used was a ‘cipfi-.~ ~ ,:, ~
-f
damage, of about ~f(f’per cent ,,knd:a?$,,per:,cefit for Ioy< ; lary~ube” 1.20 cin .Iopg and@5 .mm iq d!~rne!ef.’
and ldgh-perrneabdny cores, respectively,: ,. J - ... Ii the discussions which ,follow it’ mu? be-remembered - ‘ ‘.
.. ’-’ ; For” the “sec&d ‘skge 6f the i~dy the l~let pressure re- “‘~ that-the data were-obtained on ccwes 2 to-4 -in,:long..%cal---- -. .2(
,.. cording ~le~ent ,wqs.replaced with $!.S00. .Psi tmit.. Base:+
~.~:-_
. ._.=.&:“ ing fao@s in this. stud~,, are ‘of the .Ij I order;’ ‘the k/k( ---- .
!“ --==*a*+tii5.disp~me&fib-fi+h&~sfeeEB~&rk*&-gticuMu1~tor-.+.~&-ta_prksefi&d=oAouce@f&&Lh4>B*..iEdi~ti2j~3ion=-J-.=-~ — .%__._: -;+
. and “commingled with. a concentrated bacterial suspension pa~t~rn of ~welj, bu$ only to ltie Z-’to 4-in~ section around r ., ~
upstresim M ttle xmre, TIje .bact.eria were supplied fiorn a “ ‘‘the, wellbore, AS the,#ata will Wow;’’there ~re ,numerous , -:..
...’
. >. . . : small,. ,b@-p@surq pla.sti~. rr$ervu~r.,,hs,which trnifo~ity
of the ~oncentrate wm’ mamtained. by a magnetic sfirrerj
!.. .+. .—. ......<.. ,- ::--- -.-...... ..... . . . . . . . .. ...
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TASLE 2-SUWRY OF VISCOSITY 1SS? DATA .

Pr*ssura 26,030 m#lNat

DIItil led Wo!w + C0Ct2 Brln* lCO Pa, okslne;dml I W M, dfrlu#/ml 1O! 8, *mu#ml
D#&ri .
vl~c#Y ~kW Rata Vlw;lm f~lo~’~ ‘ Vimmy Flow Rate
* [cc/s*e) ‘g ‘ 7%:?
— ,* (*
‘s ‘w
-xK-- ‘:WW: j “lzJ-%z&-
S:oo ;:;~ .969 0:1096 ,984 : ~:; OJ .92’ ,$:;g$
7.s0 0:1721 .969 0.1591 ~ .962 ;:g 0. t 993 .93$
;J.g ,896 0.2257. .961 ‘., 0,2103 .964 0:2097 0,209S .969 0.20S7
.896 0.3366 .971 o.aloa .960 0.3129 ,96S 0,$105 2 .9/6 “’ 0.!3079
20’ .896 0.4435 .962 .962 0.412S .961 o,41aa ,971 0.4092
:: .s9fl 0.6645 ,944 , 8:4!% .964 o,617a ,966 0,6163 .969 0,6143
.964. 0, t 107 .964 0.81s7 .973 y$;7f
59. :$! %% .9S6 1.0179. “ ,954 ~ I .Q204 .974 , 0,F96 I ,964 .
‘“ .
~
..
sented in terms of the results within the 21 to 44ri. dls-, variations in the dqgqee of plugging are apparent iry,%je ! ‘ ,
tance, and :!ater the effect of the’ skins so de~eloped will “t~ee exatnpks. Large differences probably were p~e$~d-
be calculated for a lt)-acre injectivity ~attern. In this man- : ‘ ed by the small, two-fold, ratio Lfetveen the,, higke$ i%d ‘ ‘“
ner the true effeet of the k/k, data obtained will be shown. lowest concentrations. It should bi noted that “equweletit ‘ ;
numbers of the larger P, vtdgarls induced greater perfiea-
EF.F&T OF CO~&TRATION OFlBACTERiA
bility damage tlian suspensions of @. aewino~a. -~ o
Figs, ~3, 4,’5 and 6 illustrate the relative effects of :
.‘ bac~-ti c~~centration on sandstone permeal$$ty wheD ., . Fig. S. s~ows!the effects ‘tin tigk-permeability, cores of
injection rates are” constant and injektion pressure “in-~ ~” vallous; concentrations’ of IW.’roseus, a smail species of.
crez!ses, as plug@g -occurs, The figures relate the @ermea- varying ~ggregative tendencies. For the satie number
Tratio k/kt to the number Of bacteria injected Coresj of bacteria injected, reductions in permeabMty are mtich
of s~milar initial permeabiiities and badteria of Jhe armk greater for the lower. ,concentrations. Also, the cifects of ~’[’. ~
aggregation are’ apparhnt. ‘, ,.,
/
‘ species were used, in the’ derivation of the set if b~es
in each figure, A different series of concentrations was ~Fig..6’ @ illustrative of the effect on low-per~eability ‘
rkquired for the several acts of curves due to ditlerencdi cqcs of ~lfferent concentrations of Fs, deruginosa: As be?
in effectiveness “’ofthe various bacteria as pIugging agents, fore, the lower concentrations caused a greater ~gree of - ~--. ‘
plugging pe? ti,nit number of bacteria. \
..-.>
In each tlgure. the abscissa ~epresents cumulativemyrn-
bers of bacteqia pnly. The dsects of concentration on The data prksented in Figs. 3 through 6 lead to several
permeability ratio are not $hown as a function of liquid.., conclusions regarding the’ effect of bacteria: - J
volume throughput, j since-it ii obvious that if only con- 1. For a given injection rate’ and concentration the ‘re-.
,. centratiom were varied, the higher cone$ntrations would dhction in permeability of sandstone cores varies directly . ;
produce th~. greater permeabilityy reduc~io~s. with the number of bacteria injected, except that the k/k~
. Fig. .3. shows ~the effects qn high-permeability cores m~ation nev& reaches.. zero; t~at is, complete” Plu&ing . “”.
of the relatively small, nonaggregative Ps. aer~ginosa. Per- . never ocmr$, “ . ,’ ..” . ,. .3
meability reductioiis per unit number of bacteria injected ,2. At fixed ,injectiori’rates the reduction in permeability
ard substantially greater at the lower koncentratio~s, . df iiandstone cgres pt% unit number of bacteria injected ‘‘
Fig: 4 show’s the effects Ori high-permeability coreh of varies’ inversely tith concentration. ... “ ‘.
, ‘,the,somewhat larger, nonaggregative. P. vulgaris. No great 3. The change in permeability of sandstone ‘“’core; at ‘ . >.,
[. ., ,.
,..

-“J*K’ ‘“”“ ‘“
,n.d .

~~
w d 9, CONO 20 i 10S/ ML.
‘-.‘ ‘ ““l “’””->
...<-..,. . tw”w., ~,“-,
-b.

12 “,,’’,,:,
–.-
..7

KI .340 MD.
‘2 - x ORE ~.11, . 00N0. O x IOSJML. ‘
:1 .- K; *33? MD.
< 1,:’ . ~.-;
‘ -’OC 2.4 S-e [o 12* [~ I* ‘. 00 ,.6- ~ “@ ,s ~’ @ 18
.e”4 :=-.:,
-, -.. . NUM@ER OF RACTERIA. INJECTED XIO-lo “. .&- , -. NUMBER. CE BACTERIA, lltJECTED. .+IQ-*L . . . ; .. ;.

FiG.&EFFECT OF CONCENTI&ON ON pERM~BILSTY REDUC1.foN . -

FIG,..+12FFECT OF CONCENTRATION ON- PERMEAB;LPW REDUCTION -.
CAL$ED BY INJECTING F%. aerughosa SIJSPENSIONS
INTOHIGH. ---- Micromccas
CAUSkD, BY INJECTING- ros.eus,SVSPEN!UONS INTO: .- “.
,’
PEibSEABiLITY CORSS. ~ . . HXGFi”.PERMEABILITY Com&
,: .’: ,,
1’

“-’q;~;;:i;D+i:’:~::~l
W.IIF W .1% SOW:. ? u !?’%* $1* 31J? M% .. .. . . .. . .

RE I&. S, CONC. SO a 10*/ ML;; KI * 2S9 MD.

COR~ : NO. 19, C@C. I x IO%L. , KI *SO.S MD. :

... . . ,. ,.. . ..
,, O@ ti 8, %N& 15”$”10%ML;;KI *SW MD. -, .,.. , “f
 .’

tixed injection rates is related to, the bacterial cell or Ihe per~bil~ty damage may level off @ k/ki “values of
group ,Sizes. ~ 0,4 or higher. ,’
E&OF CORE PERMEABIM ‘. 1 : EFFYKXOF INJECTION tiTR
The relative plugging effects 9f Ps, aerugfrhsa suspen- OR PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL .
sions on r~presentative high’, medhifn~ and low-permea- ‘ The etEect of injeMirm rates ,of bacterial suspensions Of,,
bility eorce are shown k Fig. 7. me da~ for W @@ P, vidgaris is shown in Fig. 10, During the measurement -
rumi diblt a nqrmal trend with respect to permeability 6f any initial peweability with base brine, injeetion rates ‘
,, decline; that a plugging rates were higher with cores of showed a normal, dhect proportionality to Pre~~ d~- ..
lower initial perine~bilitie$. ferentials. However, as bac@d plugging commenced it
was found that such ‘“filationship no longer existed; i.% ‘
# t3n the basis of the data presented in Fig. 7 it can Darcy’s law was not applicable. “ ‘ ‘,
be concluded that peirneability dcoline %ates vary inversely
with ~tial perme;bllit y during the injection of a :given ‘Fig. jo also clearly illustrates the effect Of injectio~ rate
concentration of bacteria. Site the @itial perme?bllity or pressure, differential changes on’ the permeability of a
rel%ts the median pore size+ the decline rate is sirnil,arly bacteria-plugged core: From a base rate of 4.5 cc@in, “: “,
,,., relat@ to” pore. size. the rate was increased in three mud steps to 18 cc/lMn
.. ,,.
-.’ and t$en dec~eaied in a ~milar ,@;nner t; thd .4,5 ccjhin
EFFECT bF BA~ERIAL:~EUES base rate. Injeetion. was continued @6r ~ch rate change
.“.-FigsL8 and 9’relate pe~meability char$e to species of until the trend in permea~~ty ratio was @a61ishad,
1 bacteria for high- and low-permeability cores, respectively: At any given time the pxmeability of a partially plugged
Three speeies were used with each type corb — l%. aeri@- core is not a constant but rather’ a function of the pressure
hosa, M. roseugand B, cereus. ,., dtiejintial .imposetl. As the injection, rakes. were ‘@creased
Fig 8 sh~ws the results of injecting equal eoitcen~a- or deereasfd, disproportionate- piessure differeqtiahi re-
# tions of the three spec@s. The large variations in perrn6a- sulted. The changes in apparent permeability, howeve~,
bility dc+lin clearly reflect the effects of differer$ speeies are of a transient naturq when the dowiiward traverse
bavitig centslla fing physical characteristics.. of injection rates vfas yqade p~rmeabilities returned to~tfieir
Fig. 9, which presents data .on Iow-perincability core% ‘ original, projected IeveIs. Hence, for any sandstone core
shows the qualhati~e effeet of species variation to be the the relationship between between permeability ratio and
same as for hfrgh-p~rrrseabfity -cores, ‘ ntimbe~ of ,bacteria injected is no~ unique, but is iepre- .,. .
iented by a farnijy of curves, with’ pressure differential
The data’ on wh~ch Figs. 8 and 9 are based lead to the being the third variable, ‘, ,/: -”.
eonchtsion that figgiegative tendencies of-the various spe-
The flow-pres@e data of Fig. 10 do not’ foflow Darcy’s
cies ~control’ the extent of jermeabilit y change; i.e.; -the
law, as shown by the data of Table 3,, Which gives not
long-chain bacteria effect the ~greatest chwge, The eflect
only the effect of .presstie but also, the pressures used. , ..
‘of cell size is, only partially .evidep~ in these. fi~resf How-
“,,-l~se. + show$lhat increasing the.,pressurej differet@al only
ever.. a comparison of the data for Ps. aerueitsosd and P. . +J uer cent fncreases the fluid tbros.whrmt 100 mx cent,,
“ vulgari~ in Figs. 3 and 4,,,res~eetively, sup~orts the con- c.,

clusion that change varies directly with cell size @so. - , indl~atiri~ a “uerrnertbllitv incr~ke. of ‘3~~3-.per., c_ent. For
Case’ B, ‘incr~asing the ‘pr~sure, differentih~ 3~ per cent, ~,.’:”
F]gs. 8 and 9 also, suggest that in Eye o~ the six ‘tins increas~ th~ Permeability 12.7 per cent. For ease C,
,, /.
,.,>.. -’ . ., > ., s
. . .

1.0 .,
,-. i
RE W.?, C&. J lo=lW. .. “-’.
ORE.NO.17, 40N0. i81ii$/ML. i I

.
>,
.. ..
.s .“’ ,,.
j<::F:-’/-
‘o .i Q 3 ‘ 4“’ 6
,.. . . . .. NuMBER
. O;”(SA$ER@ lk&TEO. F 10-0. . . ,.
NUMBER W SAC7RRIA MIJECTED ...ilO”Q :

FKc~7—EFFECT OF INITIAL ‘PERMEABILITY OF”CORE.ON PERMEA- Fc. 9—hFEcT OF SPECIES’OF BAcTERtA ON PERMEABhJTY RE,
BILITY REPUCTION CAUSEDBY lNJECTIIW Ps. aerugiimsa:SUSPEN. DUCTIONCAUSED
BY INJECTXNGBACTERIAL. SUSPENSXOIW
INTO Low-.: .
SIONS ,INTO HIGH-, :i%kDllJM: AND, hW-pERMZABILtTY CORES- .PEk~EABILITY CONS?. ..’
,: -. .,
$.0

- “--’’’:~--’-”-----.’ “’- -

:::;W:”;W;;
‘..
.,.
-
,.-.

. .. .
Fib.”*EFFECT
. .. DWTKON CAUSED
,,’

..j
OF
aY
NIIMSE~ .O~BA~tERIA

13PEesBs OF, S3ACTERIA

‘lN!ECT~D

INJBWINGEAGTEiUA”SUSPENSIONS
PWWEABILIq ,$gRss.
hro
“ON
M 10-54’

pEI@AEILIST

-
,,

Rz-
HIGH.-. ~
- “..
,

FIG.
CAUSED@Y
lo&FZCT
.,. N~ER?~
.,
0$ ~NJECTXON
.BA&A

.fiTS
hmc’sitic, Proteus mdgaris !kwWW?$s
.. PERMEABILIfiF
CORES.
INJECTl?~
xIO ‘to.

ON PkRMEmlLITY
,

k~UCTIoN.
INTO
‘--’

HNXP “..;:;
~

. .
~~ I.
‘<

.
‘.. .. . . . . . ...,
. . . ... \..,T. .N.A..,7.,.-,:..
. . ... . .. . .. . . .::,-.. . “......4-. ., -. .+...,.:; ..’ ..” . .. . .. ~-. . ... ... ... . ----? &.?:-’’<~=’~.’-~- i --~”tr= :-7’ :s .-”-:-----:-:-3 :Q
 ..,.. - ,,. . .
,.,
t’’-+”” .,1..- ,, “ =“,” .,, .“, .
,..
.. :”,’ .“,
,,, , .. .
;:..
!. -.

,,’,.. ‘/, -” .’. ,. <“,

. .
.,
.!
. .
.?!
. ,,

,, ,-- L—. -- T—.--., ----— .-— — -.— -— T.. .— ---

I
+—-. .-. —-.--L .,—..——-— — --. -.-. —.——. .— .-L-—’._ .—,+-—. ——
,, ,,,..L ,.,, : ?.,. .,.: .!
,.
.,. . TABLE 3-EFFEC7 OF PRESSURE DIWERENTIA5 .ON CORi PENETRATION OF BAC~RL4.,
FERFAEASILITY”
A;g,~~t Pormo.
Inlet ouNet ‘ Figs. 11 and 12 detail~ie”dver.all and segmental ba~
oblllly
Prekwe ~blll!y lncrwsn
Rate
[ml/mini- _(Mis)
PrOwe
—[%1 [red) ‘
terial plugging of a high- and low-permeability core, re?’ ‘ ,
[POr cent)
~’ ~
A 4.5, 35. spectiYely. M. j?avus was used in both runs, The permea- ..
A 9.0 47.5 ;; %5 116 33.3
49.9 39.9 110 biiity ratio curves for each of the four segments and for
-.
:. 1::: . :;.! {~ 124
110
‘1:7 the entire core are shown in both figures,
c 13.5 ::;:’
c , 1s.0 79:5 !! 69.5 123 ITS Uhiform permeability declines were noted in each seg-
●C0r0J25j kr =F 2S0 and Ionnth = # In. .>
ment of the .Jdgh-perrneebility core, with plugging be~g
., progr~$ively less, going from inlet to ,’otitlet eqd. The
‘increasing the pressure’ differential 16.7 per cent increases overall core permeability essentially stabilized at k, k} k;
the permeabilityy 11.8 per cent. value of 0,053, tilthought the ratios for the three segments,
i.
,. ,;JJt is of interest that the pressure differentials used for furthest removed from tbe inlet end weye stall declining 1
, the 4 in. long cores are of the same order of magnitude at the end of the run, but at decreasing rates. The ex- ~”
,’ as used in the field. It has been shown that 4.5 to 8.5 m~/ tremely low,_jhverall permeability ratios in’ the-latter. part
min for the cores in question is equivrdeht to !5.7 and of the run apparently were relatively insensitive to further ‘
. 29.7 BWPD/ft of fl:in, hole. ~ating art ms~med injection f segmental declines, The continued declines in the’ down- “
rate .of 25 T3WPD/ft for a 100-md formation, the calcu- strea,~ segments -indicati+, $owever, that bacteria ~are
lated required pre~sure dfop for the 4-in. ring around a capable of $Q e plugging a PJw inches beyond the length
,’ well is .20.8 psi and the total pre~lpe drop across the ~” of the higti~f ermeabilitj c! {e tested. While it is ‘fiot pos- .
., fuli drainage distance of 330 ft is 2v ~ psi . This . . corresponds sible to calculate on thq, b~sif of the limited data the full
to field practice showing the fle[d>pressure gradients for depth of stabilized’ sigmtlcant change, it would appear to” ‘
the skin next to the well are of the same order of rnagni- be of the order,of inches rather than fee!. ~
tude as the experimental data of Fig. 10. Thus it would ‘”, The results of the” low-permeability run shown in Fig.
be ,exp~cted that if the formation permeability of ii’wkll 12 differ considerably from the high-permeability test. The
$. ,,has been adyersely affected by bacteria, “an injection, pres- decrease fb pe~meability of the entire core arid the first
sure increase will increase the water intake. by more than ‘ segment proceqd+ normally, fvith overall permeabi[it y ap~
.- the raiio of the injection pressure values. In fact, if g preaching stabilization” at a klk~ vahre of 0.135. However}
pressure increase. did not show” this effect it could be. the: second segment, 0.4 to 0.8 in. from the inlet end, ~I
concluded that, no bacterial ,, ,, permeability reduction had showed little permeability decline until the front of heavy
occurred. plug@g reached the first pres~re tap 0.4 in. from the :’
EFFEm~F$XiEA’N PRESSdRE ‘ ‘ inlet.
Cursory tests were conducted to determine if mean The pressure at the first tap, rose sharply tow~rd f~o ~
pressur~Das well asdiffer$ntial pressure affectedtheappa,r- psig, forcing isolation of th6 @essure element from the
ent permeability. of a core partially plugged with- bacteria.> “ system: Tht.ts, permeability ”ratios ‘could not be dEterrn~ed
Mean< pressure wtw-.~ari$d by 50 psi”during a low pres- for the @st twq segments after kbout 6.5 ~>,-d’” bacteria
sure run and no rn$surable effects-were obsetied. “’ had seen injected. No positive. explanation other tiiim POS-,,’ ,-
,,. ,, ., ,., ,, sible equipment short~ornings can ~=’’given for the per-
meability. declines of the second segment ~being less tlian J
those of the third and frw~th segments dLlring most of the
run..
The relative degre~Of -pillggingin the”last two se@ons
of the core also appeared somewhat anomilous duridg
the first-part 0$ the run, in thatthe last segrnen~” evi-.
dented-gr~atei’ p&meability.’decknes than the,, third. Th?
third sngrnent; h@ve+er, had the highest initi*Ipermea@l-
_.. - ty of $he”core’segnients, 21.:rnd}while-th# initial pe~mea-
.@lityof thi last section .was’16,9’md. It is possible that
40 ,~~theo utsetsomec ellswerea bletopasst hrought hethird “
.. N~MBER” OF BACTERIA lNJE$T~D’, xIO?o . , “.
.. .] .- , section, ordy’.to be trapped in the tighter fourth segment
FIG. 11—PEKM~AIIILITY REDuc-rIo~ I~THGSEGMSNTS.OF A HIcIi- . and promote the p~rmeability. decljne. therein, Lats%.?s.
p~R}I~A)31i.1TY COllgCAU9EDBYIN$~CTtON OF A/kfiCTciCf2CCtlS the-filtering effect of the bdcteria plug@@? first th?ee
segments re$qhed a high level, es>entjal!%,bacleria-free~ :
:,- ~htie passed through the last section,, removing bacteiia
,. previousl~trapp~ and decreasing the degree of plugging.
-.,- 1.0
It is also poss~ble that ttie data points’ for. the last Seg.:
S“-1.2P, KI=2L0 W -
rnentdeiin~ ~.Wqstagt.?Lk,,. vqlvefgra llnurnb$r?.O f.b~c-.
teria inje~std’aboYe about 2 X 10’0?qthe~tfian Ke curve
.-, sho~n” in Fig.: 12; Regqrdlessqf which mierprefgtib~.js.

~.
[ ‘:--.-, . .cb@t,Lthe permeabilit~ ratio for thelast,segment aPPar-
.,-
endy is restricted tq’kahtes. above 0.73, indic?tin~that t~e
.. /%NTlttG .CORlr;K@S.2 Mb.- ‘ - spe&ies&sted.will I@ imduceaPpr?Ei?@!e.PIVggigg:keYQPg .:.
‘T\- - thelength oflow-permeability core tested. .. . ‘“[
INLET [0).- .0;4n4,K)=18MD MD. - .

I: ‘---”---””L
“
;:<:x+._:_& ~.–”, .-. ;... .+ :.5. :~_;-& ~=.=r<.A;~a$t@ $t%iti~;witfi-c” fistai;viol$?~?~$‘Jts?d ifi~gYnP@~i:~
... .&4-= ’l&-=&F-S-.-4454 &6-a6-.a-~W--’S.
.. “’
NuMsER. OF, SACTErilA IWECTED XIO-lo , ., ~. ber .of runs to per~it dsual deterrrunatim of bacterial
... ,
:, ,) ,>. Terj%ratioti.into-cores. The cores were split longituditially --
, . l%, 12-Pki+MEABN.ITY REDUCIWN IN THE SIY-WIENTS.”UF A Iaw-
upon ~mpletion of the tests and. exa~”me$f for theblae.
..;.- .-:, . .PSNMSAHILITYCOkE CAUSED w INJECTION,OF A.. . ~ ..
.,. , ~ierococcu$jfavus SLywmwlo3. colbr whi~h woukl i,nticate””c!m~ehtrdtlons of ba~eria, A,
~$::%:. ,“-.+.:.:: : ;... .;. :...:,,:,..:.. .,.m:?. . .;.. .:.-.,.: -,.”.-.. i;. . ... .. .-‘“ :..:.-. -.,.-+ :....?,..;: :.+. ,_::. :...: ..’+.: ..-._
_4 .—___ .
._.. . . --:.- ?–.— >–T -L; ~+---.--~–----:-’: --:J OUR~A+ ug-PEl,swLyu.MT$ EIW *O L,o$? --
. . ;, . ..” . ..9 . . ..-. . . .
..:. ., ,..: _:_..:._. ..: ..:. :-. ___ .. _.._: .. .. . .. . :..’. —.- .- . . =. —-— ++..—. :. ..-. - ..-. ..— --iJ—- =.”.’../- . . .- .- _____ ~. :-,-
-. ...~, , .-;~..+- _,.”.
~.“,,.-r..< , .,
.:’., ,---
----...’---.<,--., -,. ,.,.- --- ----.’... . ..... ,, ,. -+ . . . . .. .:.., v -.. - ,*:@ .. ---,.. r.” & ,. -y., m, ,.-.,.=.--q. -., . , ‘ ... ..... >,. . ... .-a.+=+ =%r .: :-k-----. .. %:.= ,. j .-. A,- .’=.., . .*/... —----rfi._..-
- +, —-— .. . . . . .. >. .=--- ...-+. .. .. . . . ... -----

. . . .. ——— —.— .—.

 ,..., >..
., . ..... .71’’’:.. :. .,”..,.
,,. ., ...-,’”,,. “-,, - 1
E“ . .
j) .} ’..,.” .’: .:: ,, ..’
.:, . .
...,,
.. .’f. ” .’ “f !> ‘“i
,. ,

striking observation was that, even the ‘~elected samples of cereus in the test, suspension consisted of some 50 cells”;
>, Berea sandstone, exhibited gross permeability variations. therefore, the total number of cells Was approximately
> Few samples showed a relatively uniform advance of the ‘8 X 10;.
.,
bacteria plugging front through the core. In most cases. It is extremely important that ;he ‘findings showed the
the front reached two or three tipes as far in one part p~:niehbtity reductidtn are lirnhed to a few”inches around
. . th~ tiellbore. The effect of this, together wjth the limiting ~
of the core as in other sections. ‘
Another interesting observation. Wa:’ that all sPecieS of r /t/k, values of 0.0S for ~gh-permeability and 0,1 for low- - ;
bacteria tested partially “filtered out on’ the inlet face of the permeability cores will be shown for injectivity values later.
. . *-J
core, The iapidity of formation and @ckness of the 51ter
cakg were dependent on the concentration and sjecies-bt’ wLATION oF LABotiToRY ‘
bacteria used. Even though these bacterial filter cake? AND FIELD BACTERIA Q~AN~ITIES “,, ‘i
completely, covered the bilet “fe.ce,perm~ability never van-
It is interesting to relate tiie quantities of, bacteria u~e~ “
ished and bacteria were always found in the eflluent
+,$ ,-.. ~. in the laboratory tests which maintained sf~b]lized bat- -,
stream from the core.” ‘. ‘
terially-affect@ perm6ebilities’ ~o”the. time required” for ,;
Counts Qf ~acte~a in the eflluentstream Provedthat ‘JWd wells to receive the sa~e number of bacteria, and
., ‘-bacteria were’ ckpable of passing completely through’s core : thus to learn approximately whether the laboratory teats ~ :
of eith~r. l$gh or low permeability. The e@ent conceri- involve sufficient numbers of bacteria ‘to @proximate
,. tration,of ~acteria was largely dependent o.n the. a~ega-’ significantnumbers of days of ,fkdd -operation.; ~. , ‘~ “
.> tive nature of the species. Those ‘organisms which o~r
The laboratory data have shown’that increasing the size’ - ,
only as single cells showed the highest concentration in
and chain-forming abilit y’-of bacteria tends to give more ~:
the etlluent in relation to concentration injected. Probably
rapid permeabilityy changes With a frxed number. of bacteria, ,
those with strong aggregative tendencies were retained to a
and that the smaller concentrations show more” severe
greater extent by the inlet face,filter cake.
effects; that is, small concentratibrrs. will reach ~a selected
In many runs utitizing’ high injection concentratiorik, k/k, valu6 with a smaller number of bacteria t,than will ,
heayy -concentrations of bacteria were visible in the e~uent larger concentrations; , “ , , ‘-/ ,‘ ‘..- ~,,,
without the segments of the core closest to the outlet end
showing as severe damage as the segments nearest the .) .The. choice of total bacter[a which developed and <?ain- .’
tained stabilized, permeability would seem to lie anibrur:
inlet. It was suspected at tlrst that cells were disintegrating Fig. 11 with 4.5-x 10’1 fo~ k/k, *O, 1; Fig, 12 .~ith;~
-. when fofced throu~h the. core under very hjgh Pressure X 10Wfor k/k,. = 0.12; Core 38 with .8:4 X 10’1for lc/k, ,
differentials. Microscopic exriminittion, however, showed :.
4 + 0.05; and Core 39 with 8“ X .101”for k/k, = 0.12. The
~that only single whole crdls were present in the eflluent. ~ minimum and maximum values selected are 8 X . .10’0 pnd
‘Probably all species group,. to some extent, Particul~lY ..
8.4 XJ 10“ bagteria. ->
when suspension ~oncentrations are very high. Thus, small
‘,- clusters as. well “as. the largest cells of .supposedly .rfon~. ; ‘ To detefrnine the, days, of field operation:. that these’-, -
represent, the ty=picalfield-bacteria coimt must be knowri, .
aggregating type” organisms will be, trapped’” in the inlet”
segments while the bulk of the ~scrcte .,cells pass throirgh Table 4 shows, the counts of viable, bacteria ~made on’
. the entire core. ,, waters handled by eight wideiy scattered injection projects. .
The .fd~ show counts made on the’ recycled produced,
(3n the basis of the data presented .in Hgi. II ,aqd. 12
brir+, on, supplementary water as fro~, rivers, Iafies, or, .-
the foll@ving conclusions are possibIe. . wat~r reservoirs, and on the injected water, which isusuid- ,,
1. Signi@cant ‘deterioration is “limited to some 5. to 6. Iy a, mixture of the ttio, It will be noted that of the 23
in. ”and less than. 2 in., respectively, for the type of high- counts, all but four, are in the range of 0.1 to, 10” x 10’.
and. low-perrheability samples tested It follows that ,bac; An iwerage value of 1 X IL)’ bacteria/ml is taken as tlie “‘ ;
,,., terird “damage, should. be .trgated as ? skin’ efi*t “and, not ‘ .. . .
average ‘tleld’iqje~tidn well count.
as appreciable .zonal damage in”injectionlyveIls..
Asstiming 15.7’B~P13 inji$cted/ft. of sand (4.5 ml/rnin ‘ ‘“
Z. Bacteria can comple~ely penetrate sandstone cor$i-’ ipr lab corej, the total bacteria~inje.ated:per. ffqy. ~oi .tb~ ‘~i ::
- of>the ‘-length;and median- pore: iizes tested; :.; -r $0~6’h: 4.5--X “.1’ X Id X-” 1~440 = 6.48 X 10s bacteria
- 3. Permeability ,,d~terioration will occur “to a ‘greater ~per day.’ Thg total days represented at tie i5.7 bbl/ft/day “,
depth-in’ high-permeability cores thin in Jow-pernleability ‘
- ccirei. ,/. .-. . /?::e: “’.8X-.1; ;,” :. ~ ““ ~ ‘..., .
... ,,, “.:,’ .,,. .,, Q: .. . . .
. = 123”days friinitntltn time’ ‘>.;’ ‘;
–, :LWHNG PERMEABILITY R!ATIO VALUES “ .,7- 6.48-x lw” ,-
->
In th~:..course.
~. of all high-pressure tests’”’the tendency -and -- .’--- ,-
toward ermeability-ratio stabiliqtion was apparent. .The 8;4 x 10” “} .-.
j) entire-core nermeabilit~ ratio of 0.05 in’ Fig.. 11’‘rem’e- = l’,296kiays maxlmurn time.
6.48 x 1(Y
, serits. the .-lo~@ perme~bilit~ ratio obtainable ‘w”itha h~gh- ~- . .
., .,
.....—... . . . perrneatillity Fore. In .thg test with hjgh:perme?~!i!y. Cor% _ .—-...
.. ,. ation wrts attain~d at, 0.05. ratio aft
TABLE 4—SACTERIA
,,-— ‘ .jgcti~n. of 5.4 X 1~. P. .v.ulgaris ceIis; the itijectionof .an ,
Em
,. ~‘atfdlhorrgl 3‘>: 1 u“,-organ”isrns had no effect. “> .\

,. ‘,. ~ Permeability ratios less thfm. 0.1 With;iow-permeabilik

. ..if .-c+rm-. wfere.’~bt obtainable unless ‘ifrjgstion sl~gs of ix- ~..
-, trerne concentrations .’were toed. With riormal jnjection = .,

.. ., , . ,..”. me!
. .. . ~ngk’’aells. and chains of’ 1?. ceieus,’ the iti,tal -number in-”’ 8, NaltfiT(
. . ...,.‘
. ,-. ..- Nate] No bfaclhs added to aflY .ef.tf)efff Wa!(
I.. .
1 -- --~:
jec?e~, “Bei+y 1$ X’ 30SJ=The average group” %.iz~$ B..
J---: T .:<.-,,. ---- ~%. ‘. ..:-’:-,:- -- ---~+ ~-.-+‘,.?.-:- --+ .::3 ---.:
~,, ,f@ meaxrr~mentsmade -of notivlable
-:’ T ~“J- “’----= --:-i. ::. .: ..--.. ., &...
~s....
.- ..,.= ,,A -.. “ .=---- ~~
+- +?:2
. .
~-+
.
n-:-------
., .,.
”:,,,; .: . . ... .
!. ~.,,
,,
.,.,: ,,,:
‘>. 2. ‘“ ! –.> ‘ J ,, . ..
,,
. ..> ..

~“““‘“
. t; .. .. .. ,,.
,,. ,

{‘ “-
/“: ,,, ;

‘----------------
,,, ., , 4
, .,
... ..—.— --.—....———
———
.- —.—....—:.

‘
.L —._ . .. _-. . —— ---- -.. —.— -4 —. . . . . . _—

t“ ,, . .

Thus the laboratory tkts were equivalent to field opera-
tions at 15.7 BWPD/ft up to 1,296 days.
ktdividu~l laboratory tests could not be extended ap-
preciably beyond the ,twerage three to four day period be-
cause of the tendency of the dead bacterial cells to decom.
pose, Although the cells were killed with merthh$at~,
which functions a[so as a preservative, decomposition p@b-
ably would “have been exce~ive ,if the test periods were
lengthened appreciably. .Deconrpoiition products are much
smaUe.r than intact cells apd, therefore, will @SS more
readily thrbugh cores and hav~ a,”lcsse~ effect on permea-
bility.
In tIi9 field, bot~m-hole coryiitio~ ~of pressure .,and
tempera~re. generally are detrimental to bacterial activity
and sertie to “accelerate the death rate of bacte.tia carried ,:, ged COFS. During “ryer$e flow, large increases in ~p,e~-
by, injection waters. Th* dead; cells,” which. penetrate or
collect on the formptirmface, decompose far more rapidly
‘ to 42.7 per cent by reverse flow. ‘. “ “
:, Thre~ additional dhemical agents were tested for remqd- ,
ial properties: ‘hydrogen ‘peroxide, chlorine and acid~ @
chlorine water, Shoe these age.ats were no more than “.
half as tiffecti~e as. hydrochloric acid, their perfonhance I
is not, described in detail. Pero~de and acidhled chlorine ~‘ “
water restored peitneabilities to about 20 per cent of Jnitfal
values, whjle chlorine solution alone had no effect on the’ ‘ j
permeability ol! a bactrikia-plugged, core. ‘-
In the course of the various tests ~erformed in’ con-” :
junction with,~emediaj work, two. observations made are
worthy of coinrpenk Reverse flow, when .~ot preceded by
an dhctive chemical treatment, did not cause’eny appre- , , J ~
c]able permanent improvement iti the permeability of phIg-
,
meabilit y generally wete noted. However, when flow was
resunmd in the original diiection with b~se brine drily,

1’.
than in the laboratory since no preservative is present. It , permeability agai,n, declined, suggesting that the plugging” ;!:
‘is p6skibIe, therefore, _thatthe Iab;rdtiry tests wire “equiva- bacteria’ functioh somewhat as checks in ‘a caofllarv valve ~ 1- “’.
: “.) ~st~m. From tie standp~mt of field oueratio~s. ba~ktlow- ‘
$ ~ lent” to much .Ionger periods of field gperation tha~ the
aforementioned 423 to 1,296 day periods. ;i~g+a w@ to. im~rotie “injectivity witfiout prio~ chemical ‘ *
,. f ~treatment wo~d appear to M of Iittk value if the forma- ,
:}
tion is plu~cd with bacteria alone.
..,, MITIGATKIN OF PE~MEABILITY DAMAGE The exact mechanisms. of permeability improvement by
RESULTING FROM BACTERIAL ~LUGGING
. . f;~l are not known. When a concentrated suspension of, . ..
Figs. 13 and 14 diagra~at~cally show the”restdts of , ~acteria is “acidified, macroscopic characteristics change ~
two of a nqtnber of tests made to improve the permeability “noticeably: The cells either partially, dhintegrate. dnd/or
of cdres plugged by bacteha. b bar-graph form,. the ef- shrink due to ‘dehydration; complete solution dbes not ~
fect of each operation designated is shbwn> by the ratio OCCW.It is believed that acidization would restore perme-
of the per~eability after ea,ch ‘operation to %e initial’ per- ability almost completely if all the plugging cells could be
metibility of the core. Where h~droc~loric acid was used contaMe$t by the.,acid. Extremely high prt%sure differentials
as a tr~ating agent, the cores were, extracted with HC1 apparently are required to force acid into tightly plugged ~
capilla@ passages. ‘., ,,,
“and the permeabilityy after adidization -used as the, inhial ‘( 1
permeability. As previously dcscribpd,. the cores were pre: .. . . ... -, ... .,
paied,for remedial” studies by first inducing a p~rmeability
FIELD APPLICATION OF LABORATORY DATA ‘ : .,
damage on the order of 90 per’ cetit with Inghly con-
centratefl, viable smperisions of bacteria. -‘ c INJECTfVITY RA~OS
On a core pfuggekl t% a k/k, of 0.074 with Ps. fluore$- ‘ Th$ @rmeabtity ratio It/k, ,has been tqed ‘so far to de-. ~~ ~
tens,’ as shown in Fig. 13, permea~Uity was restored to ,scd.be core behaviof,du;ing laboratory testing. Thepe ,ratiost ,r
46.4 per cent of ttim initial ‘brine permeability by. HC1 however, are detlmtive’ only for the linear-typ~ flow SYS- ~.’ ~~
alon~ reverse. flow increased t’@ permea~ility further, to tern used in the-study. .To use the Iaborhtory data for the
5S.2 pet cent of the initial value; ~~ ~ “. ‘ prediction. of fieicfbehavior, calculations of ,injectivity ,, ,.
f3gi’14. illktrateA. a similar test. where A c~retis was ratios tire required,. ~he. injectivity ~atio reflects the etfect .. ..
used as the plugging” agent. The, core was pfugged to a “of‘s@n damage on the radial flow system which obtains”
in the @d, It is given by: :. . .
k/k,,. of 0.094, Permeability was restored to 36.8. ~er cent

I1
-- of ~the initial-- b%ine pe~~ability by -H(C$1ahd i~creased ---.-).- --- :-. -- -- ht,r./r@- -,--. -,n -
.. , InJectw]ty ripw=
., . -., ,, ln r./r.+kW/k~~ rn rd/rw “ ,
f,
‘ ..
,;’, / !.’
,, r.’
..
~OPERATION (FLUID FLOWED THiOLIQH CORE) ‘

,-
1(/Ki ““‘
,. ,.. _’ . ..
0( 0.6”0.6 10 ‘‘ :74’
.I-. e.’,=,= ., . .. . .. . ,,F ,>, ,‘=,’ . .. :. , ;, ..._ _.:.i
‘?INE
CEIWRATE (PLUGI g S00 ,, ,“...
.. . ..
W 1,
>
!!!
,,, m ~~ ~~ /1 ““’
!s “-
AcItIWAT& !s :: . .- . . . . .. .’. ., :. .. / .: ‘. .;. :.,.,
chTroN”for ,F%+MEAEILITY D~Ac&- m ,.
FLOW m COW 28 pLuccEn W’ITHPs. @m?sce@.$. “ ; ~ “.3
. . . . .’ . . . . . .. .>. .~.~ -.. ..’ ,3, . ,, ‘- ., ;:
.-“ ._ ,, .’”.: . ..
., .-K,KI * ‘k .7”, g.m f, ..> --# \ ..-. ,:
~,. nii&tATIdN1, [f tJID
1.-””-” FLOWEO.vimki C-ORE) .. ,’ -.
,.. . . .-
1
B.”’.. “,---- -/..: ‘ :::. ~ :...”:””. !..02’04 m ‘“6 ‘“” : g ““ ‘
 ,. ‘. ,’ .$
..’
. .
,.
. .
L - ‘- . %.-..........-——. ~%k: —,. ..- . . ..— — - — —.—-—— . ..— .. —.. —.,..+ J_
.,
.

,,
.

“’:-
,.

The term kti/k., appearing in the denominator-is the

reciprocid of tie permeability ratio k/kt heretofore wed.
, Fig. H relat~ the Iaboratbry-deterndiied permeabllhY
ratio k/ki to ‘injectivity ratio for a typical water ihjection .
system. That is, lo-acre spacing, 4-hi. well rad$fs, and 2-in.
skin damage have been assumed. Earlier d~cussion dn con-.
pection with the bbhtivior of a low.permea~llity core indl-
ctttes that the assumption pf a 2Jn. skin thickness Iitiitation
is warranted. The laboratory te$ts also demonstrated ‘that.
permeability ratios for ~tie high- (300 red). and low- (30
md) permeability cor~. teated were limited to minimum? I
of 0.0S and 0.1, ,~espkctively. OrI the basis of Fig. 15, mex-
,. imqm, injection raks would decliie S3 ,md 35 per cent, /-T”- / I
,“1
r
. . .
,.
m’
,,
respectively. If a 4- to. 64n. skiri is taken for the high-per-’ ; I , I
“meatillity formation, a somiwhat larger, injectivity decline- II 1’/ .
1. {
1 I
would b’e pr~lcted. . ‘ ‘-p: “. /“’1
. ‘INJECTION RATES “ ‘ ‘“ “ ‘- T
The limka~ions of bacte~al plggging on ~jecti?\tY we . K- I Xl. -_-l.
illustrated by Fig. 16, TM varhitioqs of iiijectlon rates with
“presstwes are shown fo~ t,brweformation perm~~}iti@ lQ
30, and 300 rnd. The, pressure term, Pi .-P,,. r~Pr~@s
the difference between the bottom-hol~ pressure pW and
the reservoir boundary pressure p,. .>
For each uermeaM1ity rarige’ two curves are shown, one’
which preiili~ti behavio; in tie absence of any skin et%ct
..
,J.
,.J
:; (k/lt~= 1) and a second shbwilig the etlects of bacterial ~
plugging to the limits defined by the Qboratow tests. A
4-in, skin and limiting ‘k/k, value of O.0$ Were”used for
the 300-md formation and a Mo. skin and klk, limit of
.‘ 0,1 forl t~e lower permea~jities. These calculations are
made,. from the relatidn: . . .- ,
?,
> .7.08 (pw–p,) “. ,, ‘ ( I I I“ ,,
~ iw’= , . 10 0 30 40 50
.- ..- Y 1’ ? r.
;“ ~’in L+-—in.k. ~. ~ :--””
ltiECTION’ RATE, BARRELS/ DAY/F@T ~ ‘1 :
“(‘~ ..k, , r~ ) ..
Fig. 16”indicates that the injectivk~ ~f?hi@-perptdtb@ , FIG. l&RELATrON BETWEBW ELWECTWS INJYXXON PRESSURWJ AND ‘- I
,. ‘(300 fid) formations is easily maintained m the presence THE RESUDTfiT INJECTION RATES Fors SANDSTONERESERVOMS
: wtTH AND WITiiOU~ SKIN, EFFECTS. -. I
of bacteria. An. increase iw bottom-hole pressure ,of only
265 psi WY bffset the effects of. a 44P, skiri having a k/k,

1’.. .
higher ‘field rates should induce seater presitm~ -gra~ents . I
,.. of tl.05 and sqsttdn injectivity at SO BWl13/ft. For a 30-
md .Iormation bavirig, for’ example, an_injection rate of 30 on the formrttion face and ‘in the damaged zone and pos-
-“,.< : sibly minimize the skin effect; lower rates would ait’ in the
1“ ‘ i’ BWPD/ft initial[y, rnaxirnurn skin. damage woulif only
. .
l’: reduce the r~tq to 1!3 B~~/ft. Howgv>y, the.30”6b~ fate ‘
, could be maintained by a 430-psi” hcreafe ;imbottom-hole
qsposite direction, It should be noted’ that since bacterial
ph.iggin~ is”effectively limited to a few, inches, the labora-.
“~‘
f -‘.
tory. linear system pressure gradients are the same M ~h$s~ ‘

I preasyre. In a 10-md ior~ation, mhyimum ba~$wid plug-”

-. .. - ~‘.’...ghig coild raluce hdtkd injection rates;’fcf’’example, ffom:. ?- which would. obtain in. the damaged zone undqi ,~1~ ,cpn- ..
IJ ; 20 to 13 13WPD/ft. Such reduction would ~ preventw”
by a bottom-hole pressure incfease of some 8$0 psi.
“~‘ditions for: equivalent rates. - ‘: j.-
,,
..
, . ,. ,.
.:’.
,.’

l“,-
REMEDIAi TREATliENTS
,‘; With ex~ernel~tight fornhitions’having only a few milli- The results of remedial tr~tments pr~viously discu;sed$ . ..
,.’
darcys effsctive water, permeability, prohibitive increases in ,“ can be more reali~tically appraised by injectivity calcula- ““- ;
‘“’ btittoin-fiole ‘presshre would .be raWired to sustain inje~ ti~ns.iThe $rntdlest injectivity r@tioresulting from bacferi?l “~
tivity if substantial skin damkge is encountered. Howeve~, . ‘concentrate plugging the 2-in. cores was JO.564iw~ch reP- ~ ~ -
SUG3> forinatio~ “should’ b.e “fractured initially, ~bsequent” resents K reduction of 43.6’ per cent in. a well’s-.injectiun ,
< !.. ~ press~g i’equirements for adequate injection t’ates will be . ‘capacity,%The’inj@ivity ratid’”was increased to mofe than ,
gre@y reduced thereby. ~” .: .”,: 0.8 whenever”HCl Was’used without reverse flow. The rtitio ‘“,
._ ,- t r~e to ().89 and better with reverse flow.
__&
,11~ ‘ .: .
. ... .- The -eticiency -tif-HCl ‘agack on~.bacteria was demon- - -‘- SZ=;
,, ‘ As discussed earlh%” pressfie,~ifferehtial or rate ‘mark-”
edky m~ct.~ “~e:apiarent pern@bi!ti of?a qo~e ptially strqted ..furtlier by the permeability behavior” of the O.S-in. “‘.-
.. inl~v segnient tif - Core .28,. Fig, l%, The se@en$ W8S ~”-
‘, plugged with bacteria. R is reasonable to assume, the~efore,
that the Ihniting k/ki values” deterr@ed ~perimentally plugged to it 0.022 perrneabH{ty ratio, which $ equivalent. ” ;
7, alss?are. ‘*nsitlve. to. a- giyen, rftte or” prefwreydlffereritial. ,,.. t$ an injectivity damage. of 72.4 per cent for a 2-inj skin.’ .‘ .:.
.

, .,
. . ..

Ha$e~ for;the” data prkae~ted in Fig. 16 “to predict field - Injectivity ratios rose to”-0.91- ~d 0.931- ~tet treatment’ C;-’~-’
-- --—-LA- =A,.....-.Ai.i ..I.- .a-ts -.-.--, ...--s =.. -. —-- .. ..with
. . .. HCI
. . .and . flow reversal, res~ectively. ~ “ . ..$””’ ‘“’~
TUe-<.
.: t. <.-.—-.. : ..$+-+—+ a-e . ._.---.-.:;. .. .._.—. ......~~
.. ...... ... ..._<
.~+.+&==+&Q?-[
.. ..-...L..,.... = -: ... ... . .. L-:< J.-----...
.?.-J-_..
fulls Wwys &l I$UIGULS us WV*C Uuyuuqu .,,UI. Lnf= liio9rql0ry”---
–.,.
. .---+s+ =..-+-
. ....
-, , .,.
.,:> ,.,.~”. “: tioticLuSIONS ‘ :,, ; ~ “, ..:. ~~~ ; ;:. ;
:<i’. - -
.. 7 Tlie’.Iabo,mtofi’ raiek seiectbd fo~ the 30- @nd 3(jd-md ..
-3. coreq ~re” equivalent ‘to: field injection~.~t.gs @ approxi-, B~cteriaJcan, “to a’liinited depth, have an idvirse.,efle~t ‘”..:’..’;
‘. -’.. ,rnately’ 35, .aml 50” BWPD/ft, reapectweIy. - The’ pi% ,of,
,’ ,. , an.formation perriikabiiity. - , .,,”- ‘--” - “~:-:” ;.::
. ---- ..-, .,-J,-.. . .-..=..- ,’. -;.>.. ~.
v. ---.— - --- ..=-. ...— ....J .-.+s”-.,”.:.’- ,. .: ,. ..... .. ..=+. - .’.”. ..-.=
---- .-. .7 :--’--7. ~.-::.~ --7:---,-F- “--’~ y%t~fitik:
_:.. . +. .... .,, .,.
. .. . . .
-9 .6.:,.-V . .-—... : ---z>...
,-..,---
r--~ .-. L:.J’:-,..—: . .->,-:a .-.. + :---“---y)-----::-:
.- -=“— f::i’::i
 . .. ,....,’”,> = .. j..,. :..: . .
.
,-,

3 , >,.,
,.-,

I
,. >
.> --
“ . 1:,””
;“” “.”’
-f.--—.––——_
,,,
–—: – ______
., .’f
— - ..-.‘ —- —... ——— ..-_ ..-+ —_____
,.
._. ..__ L ‘ -------
.
–..–.:. - .—.– . . ..- .. ..-7[. .–.-:-’..3--:..~
, .’
-–
s“? ““.’
,$

,):.
~~~ ~he advers; ‘effect is ptisent as a skin: in that. the depth ing on an bttermittertt basis,. , ‘“\
,of signitlcant lodging of bacteria ‘is measured in inches. If bacteria ire contributing to well injecti’fity declines, ‘
Low permeability formations develop a higher stab~d increasing pressure is one way to minimize the effect. The
k/k, value than high permeability formations and the :. limits of pressure differeritial effects have not been *tab- ,,. ~
depth of skin effect is less. Clmiting values of k/k~ of 0,1. lished,
and 2-in. depth,. and 0.05 and 4-in, depth were found for ‘Any injectivity problems arising from. the presence of
low- and high-permeability formatiop~, respectively; ,bacteria or other’ plugging material in. injection wateri can
Stim+ orming ari~ large aggregated b?cteria have greater b~~iimin~ted if the’ formafion is f~ctured and subsequent
adverse i ffects per bacteria than do pmallert~noniggregated . , jrtjec~on pressures keep the fractures open. The’ fractWe -
~ types. i will extend automatically ‘to accommodate a re@ired in-
Lower concentrations of bacterii we$e found to have jedion rate while injection pressurs% remain “rekti@Y
:: ‘ greate~ plugging tendencies than tigher concentrations per
co@tant.
unit number of bacterja fnjected into a core. .“ These conclusions apply to waters contz!nirtg bacteria ‘“
Increase cif press~e gra~iefit .in a bacteria-laden core but free of entrained oil ,~r solid pr$tiipitants. These latter
, results in’ an incre~e in the apparent core ~ermeabilit y, conditions have not be$b mvesli$ated. , , , ‘”
supposedly as a result of movin ~he ba@erla “lodged”in ,, ., ., .,
., fine capiiiaries, possibly shearing tt em into ~ses wldch will , 0 ‘ ?joMEN~LATURJ?
.’ <“ , .,
move, ‘etc. Th? eff~ct is reversible. r~ = external boundary radius, ft . .: “”
Bacteria.” of formation pore sjze. or less ‘can penetrate 5 ;
r,. = weli radius, ‘ft ‘,
formations to considerable depths. . .
rd = radius of sk’inof damaged zone; ft’ ‘
Hydrochloric ‘acid is very effectiv~’in restoring the per-
meability of sandstone cores previously,. Piugggd with k,o =, eff~ati~i~ermeability of formation to water,
) I
bacteria. .,~
Riyerse flow following chemical treatment further” ht- ; k.. = effetitive’ permeitbi~t y of da”magti zone to water,
creases the, d~gree of .permeabiiity restoration in sand~ton@ darcies
cores previously plugged with bacteria. ,- i,. ,~” water injection rafe, BWPD/ft ,,
Either qf the. treatments noted ‘in the’ two previous ,.6. = reservoir pressure, p~
paragraphs’ wiii jndrease” the, permedfiiity of ~ bacteria- Pm = bottom-hole pressure, psi
.piugged. core to about 20 to 65 per. cent of, its ink~al water viscosity,, cp, ‘.’ i .> /Lie =
value, wtilch corresponds to increasing well injectivity to ,J ; . .
75 to 95 per Ceiit of its ori@,nal value. .: ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Calculations indicate to, the authors that, ,k/k, vaiuq$’and,,
penetration depths. found in -tht%e, studies from bacteria The authors wish ,to SXpress their. appr?cialio!t to’ tbk
effects can result in some injectivity impairment, but injec- management of ~Gulf 011 Corp. for permission to “publish
“ tivity impairment.. i$ not aIways se~ere and cpmplete plug- this. paper. ‘
gingdoe$notoccttr. “ ,, , . ‘ . ‘ . ,,RE~wNtiS: .: ‘
,’
‘Except’for the permeability restoration te~s, ”this study. ~
>- ‘was inade using dead bacteria; however,. there is no reason .1. F~k;te, T.: “The Plug&g of Bacteria in Sqnd*tone%pms’”,
,, to it1ppos6 the resuits with. iive cells wouid be different, , DiesertatiiwiU. of AIWta -(1959).
The use of biocides simply to kill the cells would, there- . 2.-Cm4mn,.V., Benn~tt,‘E. 0. trod. ~ok 1. & Jr. :“ “MiCrohial

‘ fore? perform, no”_Weful function. Biocides, con$eqitently, ., Flora in a. Numheri of Oilfield Water-Injection Systems”, SOc. .
, Pet, En% four. ( June, 1961) 71’, , ,.
. . are ‘noi recod-unended ,exeept in cases where Severe pock- ‘‘?. Salle A: j.< ‘Fundurnentdetinciples OjBacteriology.4tl] Edi. ,
f: ets of bacteriit[ contamination are present, ‘and ,theae usual- tion,~cGraw-HLil Book Co.,Inc., N, Y. (1954,}.
Iy will .requi~e mechanical -a~d, conc~ntrated biocide clean- 4. fjnpqf?}iqhedEk@ Gnlf oil ~m’t~.. - A . . ~ _ .“
~.~
.. . .. . . . . . : .. ... . . . .. . -.. ..., :,..-,. -, —.>.- ‘- .- . . .
,’ ,.,
.,, , ,, ~ ,., .’
,- ,,, . ,. ,,., ,. ...- .-.
.. !.
,. .,
,, .,, ... , ;’ ,-,
. .. . . ~,. .- . . . . .,. . .;4f ,! .’... . . ... ,
.-..
,, ,
---- . ., ?, . . .
..- ./” . ~~ .’
,. .$ .’.
,, 5. :“,
d ,. ,. .,.
-. .,,. . .. .. , ~,
,, .>’
- .--,-”--- .--- .:-—- .—,.
.:
,--- . . . .. ... 2.4. . .,, ..=
... .::,, .. . ~_..:. ., ..i’. “ .
,.,
f’ .. . . . . . .> . ..’>.
. . . ..’
...,.. . ... . . . . . .
.-,,“ -., .,
.,. ..’,. ,.
,. ., ‘ -,, ‘“ “$;
“.
..,, ... . ,. ,1 .’
., .
... ) ‘, ; ... . . .. . . . . .,, . ‘. ,<
.- f-, -
., “~: ~= .,, < .,: j-” ~ ‘“ ‘--”-
. . ,“~
-.. .’: .. . . .. . . ,
. .. _ .:–. ”:.; ’-: :1- ;..”. . . .. .
L-s+?.#&---_&&. ..-&-w_.:.
.= 7=2- ~ ::&-Q@ _—.=;~.~ ~.>*~ _&a__
. : ,. . . . ::.— ,- ! -; ,& _.,..*.
.1
,..:,,___-=-
.=-~> ,J-. :
~+-=+,.... .: -.-.,;:-:”’
.: .. -.’.-
+”&.&-*:IA .–= -.=-II--=:4
6
. ... -;.
.-... ,, . .. . .!,
-, . . . ,- -, ..,- .
.> .;’ !. ..,-, .“’ ,-
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