Load Characteristics: 5 Lecture's Outline

4/5/2018
Lecture 5th
Load Characteristics
Course Teacher:
Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman
Course Code:
EE-524
Course Title:
Electrical Power Distribution System Engineering -1
Venue:
Department of Electrical Engineering , NED University Karachi.
1
5th Lecture’s Outline
Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 1

4/5/2018
5th Lecture’s Outline

 Load Characteristics Terminologies
Factors related to Individual customer Load
Factors related to a group of system
✓ Demand, demand interval and Demand Factor
✓ Load curve and Load duration curve
✓ Load Factor
✓ Utilization Factor
✓ Plant capacity factor
✓ Plant use factor
3
Nature of Load

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Nature of Load
✓The modeling and analysis of a power system depend upon the load.
✓What is load?
✓The answer to that question depends upon what type of an analysis is

desired. For example,
▪ the steady-state analysis (power-flow study) of an interconnected
transmission system will require a different definition of load than
that used in the analysis of a secondary in a distribution feeder.
Nature of Load
✓The problem is that the load on a power system is constantly changing.
The closer you are to the customer, the more pronounced will be the ever-
changing load.
✓There is no such thing as a “steady-state” load.
✓The load that an individual customer or a group of customers presents
to the distribution system is constantly changing. Every time a light bulb
or an electrical appliance is switched on or off, the load seen by the
distribution feeder changes.

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Nature of Load
✓In order to describe the changing load, the following terms are defined:
1. Demand
2. Maximum Demand
3. Average Demand
4. Diversified Demand
5. Maximum Diversified Demand
6. Maximum Noncoincident Demand
7. Demand Factor
8. Utilization Factor
9. Load Factor
10. Diversity Factor
11. Load Diversity
Load Calculations and Load Prediction

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✓In load calculation, it is first necessary to find out the load requirements
of the area where electricity need to be supplied. This depends on several
factors including
▪ nature of the area,
▪ the population of the town or society under consideration,
▪ the density of the population,
▪ the living standard of the people in the locality,
▪ industrial development in the area and
▪ the cost of electricity.
▪ Understanding nature of load and variation in load (daily, monthly
and yearly basis).

✓In load prediction, detailed statistics methods are required for load
forecasting.
✓Accuracy of prediction depends on the load forecasting techniques as
well as previous (history) available load variation data (time vs. power
consumption.

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Definitions related to Individual customer Load
Definitions
✓Connected load is the rating (in kilowatts) of the apparatus installed on
a consumer’s premises.
✓Sanctioned Load: The load in kilowatts sanctioned by Utility or power

company (KE). Sanctioned load indicates the load sanctioned for
Industrial or domestic customers. This load depends upon connected load
in the system.

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Definition and terms

✓Maximum demand is the maximum load which a consumer uses at
any time.
✓Demand Factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected
load.
Maximum Demand
Demand factor 
Connected Load

✓A residential consumer has 10 electric lamps of 40 W each connected
at his premises. It is possible that maximum number of lamps he uses at a
time is 9. Find out the demand factor.
✓Answer:
40x9 360
Demand factor    0.9  90%
40x10 400

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Average Demand and Load Factor
Average demand
✓During the 24-hour period, energy (kWh) will be consumed. The
energy in kWh used during each 15-minute time interval is computed by:

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Average demand
✓The total energy consumed during the day is the summation of all of
the 15-minute interval consumptions.
✓From the spreadsheet, the total energy consumed during the period by
Customer #1 is 58.96 kWh. The 15-minute average kW demand is
computed by:
Load Factor
✓As the load is variable, it will be maximum only for a certain time in a
day. The average load during a period of 24 hours or some other period
(considered for a load curve), will be less than the maximum load.
✓The ratio of average load to the maximum load is known as load
factor.
Average Demand (kW)

Load factor 
Maximum Demand (kW)

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Load Factor
✓The area under the load curve represents the energy consumption in
kWh during the period.
✓The load factor can also be defined as the ratio of energy consumed
during a given period to the energy which would have been used to the
energy which would have been used if the maximum demand has been
maintained throughout that period.
Energy consumed during 24 hours

Load factor 
Maximum Demand x 24hrs
Load Factor
✓In many ways load factor gives an indication of how well the utility’s
facilities are being utilized.
✓From the utility’s standpoint, the optimal load factor would be 1.00
since the system has to be designed to handle the maximum demand.
Sometimes utility companies will encourage industrial customers to
improve their load factors.
✓One method of encouragement is to penalize the customer on the
electric bill for having a low load factor.
✓Load factor gives the extent to which the peak load is maintained
during the period under study. A high load factor means the load is at or
near peak a good portion of the time.

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Load Factor
✓For Customer #1 in Figure 2.2 the load factor is computed to be
Case Study: Distribution Transformer Loading

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Distribution Transformer Loading

✓A distribution transformer will provide service to one or more customers.
Each customer will have a demand curve similar to that in Figure 2.2.
However, the peaks and valleys and maximum demands will be different for
each customer.
✓Figures 2.3, 2.4, and 2.5 give the demand curves for the three additional
customers connected to the same distribution transformer.

✓aa

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✓aa

✓The load curves for the four customers show that each customer has his
unique loading characteristic. The customers’ individual maximum kW demand
occurs at different times of the day.
✓Customer #3 is the only one who will have a high load factor.
✓A summary of individual loads is given in Table 2.1. These four customers
demonstrate that there is great diversity among their loads.

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✓1. Diversified Demand: It is assumed that the same distribution transformer
serves the four customers discussed previously. The sum of the four 15 kW
demands for each time interval is the diversified demand for the group in that
time interval, and, in this case, the distribution transformer. The 15-minute
diversified kW demand of the transformer for the day is shown in Figure 2.6.
Note how the demand curve is beginning to smooth out. There are not as many
significant changes as in some of the individual customer curves.

✓2. Maximum Diversified Demand: The transformer demand curve of
Figure 2.6 demonstrates how the combined customer loads begin to smooth out
the extreme changes of the individual loads. For the transformer, the 15-minute
kW demand exceeds 16 kW twice. The greater of these is the 15-minute
maximum diversified kW demand of the transformer. It occurs at 17:30 and has
a value of 16.16 kW.
✓Note that this maximum demand does not occur at the same time as any one
of the individual demands, nor is this maximum demand the sum of the
individual maximum demands.

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✓3. Load Duration Curve: Sorting in descending order, the kW demand of
the transformer develops the load duration curve shown in Figure 2.7. The load
duration curve plots the 15-minute kW demand versus the percent of time the
transformer operates at or above the specific kW demand.
✓For example, the load duration curve shows the transformer operates with a
15-minute kW demand of 12 kW or greater 22% of the time. This curve can be
used to determine whether a transformer needs to be replaced due to an
overloading condition.

✓4. Maximum Non-coincident Demand: The 15-minute maximum
noncoincident kW demand for the day is the sum of the individual customer
15-minute maximum kW demands. For the transformer in question, the sum of
the individual maximums is

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✓5 Diversity Factor: By definition, diversity factor is the ratio of the
maximum noncoincident demand of a group of customers to the maximum
diversified demand of the group. With reference to the transformer serving four
customers, the diversity factor for the four customers would be

✓5 Diversity Factor (cont..):
✓The idea behind the diversity factor is that when the maximum demands of
the customers are known, then the maximum diversified demand of a group of
customers can be computed. There will be a different value of the diversity
factor for different numbers of customers. The value computed above would
apply for four customers.
✓If there are five customers, then a load survey would have to be set up to
determine the diversity factor for five customers. This process would have to be
repeated for all practical numbers of customers.

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✓Table 2.2 is an example of the diversity factors for the number of customers
ranging from one to 70. The table was developed from a different database than
the four customers discussed previously.

✓A graph of the diversity factors is shown in Figure 2.8.

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✓Note in Table 2.2 and Figure 2.8 that the value of the diversity factor
basically leveled out when the number of customers reached 70. This is an
important observation because it means, at least for the system from which
these diversity factors were determined, that the diversity factor will remain
constant at 3.20 from 70 customers up. In other words, as viewed from the
substation, the maximum diversified demand of a feeder can be predicted by
computing the total non-coincident maximum demand of all of the customers
served by the feeder and dividing by 3.2.

✓6. Demand Factor: The demand factor can be defined for an individual
customer. For example, the 15-minute maximum kW demand of Customer #1
was found to be 6.18 kW. In order to determine the demand factor, the total
connected load of the customer needs to be known. The total connected load
will be the sum of the ratings of all of the electrical devices at the customer’s
location. Assume that this total comes to 35 kW; then, the demand factor is
computed to be

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✓The demand factor gives an indication of the percentage of electrical devices
that are on when the maximum demand occurs. The demand factor can be
computed for an individual customer but not for a distribution transformer or
the total feeder.

✓Utilization Factor
✓The utilization factor gives an indication of how well the capacity of an
electrical device is being utilized. For example, the transformer serving the four
loads is rated 15 kVA. Using the 16.16-kW maximum diversified demand and
assuming a power factor of 0.9, the 15-minute maximum kVA demand on the
transformer is computed by dividing the 16.16-kW maximum kW demand by
the power factor, and would be 17.96 kVA. The utilization factor is computed
to be

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✓Load Diversity
✓Load diversity is defined as the difference between the non-coincident
maximum demand and the maximum diversified demand. For the transformer
in question, the load diversity is computed to be

Load Curve and Load Duration Curve

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✓Load Curve: A curve showing the load demand of a consumer against time
in hours of the day is known as a load curve. The curve will show how the load
varies with time.
✓If it is plotted for the 24 hours of a single day, it is known as daily load
curve. If it is plotted for the whole year 2760 hours of a year, it is known as
annual load curve.
✓This type of curve is useful in predicting the annual requirements for energy,
the occurrence of the loads at different hours and days in the year and in power
supply economics.

✓Load Curve: A curve showing the load demand of a consumer against time
in hours of the day is known as a load curve. The curve will show how the load
varies with time.
✓If it is plotted for the 24 hours of a single day, it is known as daily load
curve. If it is plotted for the whole year 2760 hours of a year, it is known as
annual load curve.
✓This type of curve is useful in predicting the annual requirements for energy,
the occurrence of the loads at different hours and days in the year and in power
supply economics.

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Load curve and Load duration curve

✓The load curve can re-organized to obtain load duration curve. A
convenient way to study load behavior is to order the demand samples from
greatest to smallest, rather than as a function of time, as in Figure 2.9. The two
diagrams consist of the same 24 numbers in a different order. Peak load,
minimum load, and energy (area under the curve) are the same for both.
Load curve and Load duration curve

✓Annual load duration curve for a commercial site with a 90 kW peak
demand, from an reliability study of two distributed generation (DG) units of
40 and 60 kVA capacity respectively.
✓As shown here, the demand exceeds 40 kVA for 2,800 hours in a year.
During those 2,800 hours, adequate service can be obtained only if both units
are operating.

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Demand and Demand Interval
Demand and Demand Interval

✓"Demand," as normally used in electric load analysis and engineering,
is the average value of electric load over a period of time known as the
demand interval.
✓Very often, demand is measured on an hourly basis as shown in Figure
2.8, but it can be measured on any interval basis - seven seconds, one
minute, 30 minutes, daily, and monthly.

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Demand Interval
✓"The average value of power during the demand interval is given by
dividing the kilowatt-hours accumulated during the demand interval by the
length of the interval.
✓Demand intervals used for measuring and defining peak demand vary among
power companies, but those commonly used in collecting data and billing
consumers for "peak demand" are 15, 30, and 60minutes.
✓Generally, if no period is explicitly defined, demand is on an hourly basis.
Factors related to a group of system

Diversified Demand and Non- Diversified Demand

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Diversified Demand (or coincident demand)

✓It is the demand of the
composite group, as a whole of
somewhat unrelated loads over
a specified period of time.
Here the maximum diversified
demand has an importance.
✓It is the maximum sum of
the contributions of the
individual demands to the
diversified demand over a
specific time interval.
Non-coincident demand
✓It is defines as “the sum of the demands of a group of loads with no
restrictions on the interval to which each demand is applicable”.

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Diversity Factor
✓It is the ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands of various
consumers in a system to the maximum demand of the whole system. Therefore
FD is
sum of individual maximum demands
FD 
coincident maximum demand
n
D1  D 2  .......  D n

i 1
Di
FD  
Dg Dg
✓Where Di is the maximum demand of load disregarding time of occurrence
and Dg the coincident maximum demand of group of n loads. The diversity
factor can be equal to or greater than 1.
#1: Problem (Diversity Factor )

✓Fig. 1.2 shows the load curve for
4 different residential consumer.
Each consumer has a maximum
demand of 2000W. However the
maximum demand of consumers
occurs at different time. Find out
the diversity factor of the system.
D1  D 2  .......  D n

i 1
Di
FD  
Dg Dg

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Solution (Diversity Factor )

✓From Fig. 1.2, maximum demand of
consumers between 8pm to 9pm.
1.2000W
2.1200W
3.1800W
4.1900W
Therefore simultaneous maximum
demand of all 4 consumers are 6900W.
Sum of individual maximum demand
is equal to 4x2000W=8000W
Therefore Diversity Factor is equal to
6900/8000=1.16
Relationship between Demand Factor and Diversity Factor

✓Demand factor is given by:
Maximum Demand
Demand Factor (DF) 
Total Connected Load (TCD)
 Maximum Demand  TCD  DF
✓Diversity factor is defined as:

sum of individual maximum demands
FD 
coincident maximum demand
 TCD  DF
i 1
i i
FD 
Dg

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Load Diversity (LD)

✓It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more individual
loads and the peak of the combined load. Therefore the load diversity (LD) is
 n 
LD  
 
Di   Dg
 i 1 

Coincidence Factor
✓It is the ratio of the maximum coincident total demand of a group of
consumers to the sum of the maximum power demands of individual
consumers comprising the group both taken at the same point of supply for the
same time. There the coincidence factor Fc is given by
coincident maximum demands 1
Fc  
sum of individual maximum demands FD
Dg
FC  n
D
i 1
i

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Contribution Factor
✓It is defined as the contribution of the ith load to the group maximum
demand.
✓It is given in p.u. of the individual maximum demand of the ith load.
Therefore.
D g  c1  D1  c2  D2  .......  cn  Dn
✓The class contribution factor can be defined as follows:

class demand at time of system (i.e. group) peak
ci 
class non - incident maximum demand
Problems

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#2: Problem (Load Factor and Diversity Factor)

✓Consider a small town having lighting, industrial, and street lighting loads (in
kW) as shown in Table. Calculate the load factor and diversity factor of the system.
#2: Solution (Load Factor and Diversity Factor)

✓The load curve for lighting,
industrial, street lighting and total
loads are plotted in Fig. 1.3.
✓It can be seen that the maximum
demand of
▪ Lighting load is 1000kW at 8pm,
▪ Street lighting load is 40kW
▪ Industrial 1000kW
▪ Total load is 1240kW at 8pm and
9pm

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For the lightning load the energy consumed during 24 hours is:
(100 x 5) + (50 x 1) + (100 x 1) + (200 x 1) + (600 x 1) + (1000 x 1) + (900 x 1)
+ (700 x1) + (400 x1) + (200 x 1)= 4,650 kWh
Load factor of lighting load = 4650 / (1000x24) = 0.193 0r 19.3%
For street lighting load the energy consumed is 12 x 40 = 480 kWh

Load factor on 24 hours basis = (12 x 40) / (40 x 24) = 0.5 or 50%
For industrial load the energy consumed during 24hr = 11,900 kWh
Load factor of industrial load = 11,900/(1,000 x 24) = 0.495 or 49.5%

Simultaneous maximum demand = 1,240 kW
Sum of individual maximum demands = 1000 +40 + 1000 =2040 kW
Diversity factor = 2040 / 1240 =1.64
Total load factor = Total energy consumed during 24hrs / (Total maximum
demand x 24)
=(4650 +480 +11900) / (1240 x 24)
= 17030 /(1240 x 24)
= 0.573 or 57.3%
It will be seen from the above example that load factor is improved as a result of
diversity of load.

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#3: Problem (FD, FU and FC)

✓Assume that there are two primary feeders supplied by one of the three
transformers located at distribution substation, as shown in Fig. 2.6. One of the
feeders supplies an industrial load which occurs primarily between 8AM and 11PM
with a peak load of 2000kW at 5PM. The other one feeds residential loads which
occur mainly between 6AM and 12PM with a peak load of 2000kW at 9PM. The
load curve is shown in Fig. 2.7.
#3: Problem (FD, FU and FC)

Determine the following:
a. The diversity factor of the load connected to transformer T3.
b. The load diversity of the load connected to transformer T3.
c. The coincidence factor of the load connected to transformer T3.

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Solution (FD, FU and FC)

a. The diversity factor is given by n
D  D 2  .......  D n
D i
FD  1  i 1
Dg Dg
2000  2000
  1.33
3000
b. The load diversity of the load connected to transformer T3.

 n 
LD  
  Di   Dg
 i 1 

 4000  3000  1000kW
c. The coincidence factor of the load connected to transformer T3.
1 1
FC    0.752
FD 1.33
#4: Problem (ci, FD, FU and FC)

✓For a generalized system having residential consumer and street lighting
load, shown in Fig. find out the following parameters:
a. The class contribution factors for each of the three loads.
b. The diversity factor for the primary feeder
c. The diversified maximum demand of the load group.
d. The coincidence factor of the load group
Note that the system peak occurs at 5pm.

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#4: Problem (ci, FD, FU and FC)

✓"
#4: Solution (ci, FD, FU and FC)

Solution
(a) The class contribution factor is
class demand at time of system (i.e. group) peak
ci 
class non - incident maximum demand

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(b) The diversity factor for the primary feeder
n
D1  D2  .......  Dn 
Di
FD   i 1
Dg Dg
100  1000  1200

FD   1.278
1800

(c) The diversified maximum demand is the coincident maximum demand i.e.
Dg
D g  c1  D1  c2  D2  .......  cn  Dn
D g  0 100  0.6 1000  1.0 1200  1800

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d. The coincidence factor of the load group
1 1
FC    0.7825
FD 1.278

Load Characteristics: 5 Lecture's Outline

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4/5/2018

5th Lecture’s Outline

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 1

5th Lecture’s Outline

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 2

✓The answer to that question depends upon what type of an analysis is

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 3

Load Calculations and Load Prediction

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 4

Load Calculations and Load Prediction

Load Calculations and Load Prediction

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 5

Definitions related to Individual customer Load

✓Sanctioned Load: The load in kilowatts sanctioned by Utility or power

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 6

Definition and terms

Definition and terms

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 7

Definitions related to Individual customer Load

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 8

Average Demand (kW)

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 9

Energy consumed during 24 hours

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 10

Case Study: Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 11

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 12

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 13

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 14

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 15

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 16

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 17

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 18

Distribution Transformer Loading

Distribution Transformer Loading

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 19

Distribution Transformer Loading

Definitions related to Individual customer Load

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 20

Definition and terms

Definition and terms

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 21

Load curve and Load duration curve

Load curve and Load duration curve

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 22

Demand and Demand Interval

Demand and Demand Interval

Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Aman 23

Factors related to a group of system