How to weld

duplex stainless steels

1
 How to weld
duplex stainless steels
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels, usually referred to as duplex
steels, combine many of the good properties of ferritic and
austenitic stainless steels.

The high chromium content in combination with Uses

nitrogen, and often also molybdenum, gives duplex • Heat exchangers
steels their superior resistance to both pitting and cre- • Water heaters
vice corrosion. The duplex structure gives very good • Pressure vessels
strength and, allied with the high corrosion resistance, • Storage tanks
very good resistance to stress corrosion. • Rotors, impellers and shafts
Thanks to this exceptional combination of strength • Digesters and other equipment in pulp and paper
and corrosion resistance, duplex steels are widely production
used in everything from tanks for corrosive media to • Cargo tanks in chemical tankers
structural components, chemical tankers and offshore • Desalination plants
applications. • Waste gas purifiers
Duplex steels are primarily intended for applications • Sea water systems
where the working temperature is from –40 to +250°C.
The weldability of duplex steels is good and all com-
mon welding methods can be used.
Chemical compositions
Table 1 shows the chemical compositions (parent and
Outokumpu EN ASTM filler metals) of some duplex steels.
LDX 2101® 1.4162 S32101 Matching fillers are used for welding. Fillers that are
2304 1.4362 S32304 more highly alloyed can normally also be used. For
2205 1.4462 S32205/31803 example, LDX 2101, 2304 and 2205 can be welded with
2507 1.4410 S32750 2507/P100.

Table 1: Chemical compositions – parent and filler metals

EN ASTM/AWS C N Cr Ni Mo Other
Plate1) LDX 2101® 1.4162 S32101 0.03 0.22 21 1.5 0.3 5 Mn
2304 1.4362 S32304 0.02 0.10 23 4.8 0.3
2205 1.4462 S32205 0.02 0.17 22 5.7 3.1
2507 1.4410 S32750 0.02 0.27 25 7.0 4.0
MMA EN 1600 A5.4
LDX 2101 23 7 N L – 0.04 0.14 23.5 7.5 0.3
2304 23 7 N L – 0.02 0.12 24.5 9.0 <0.3
2205 22 9 3 N L R E2209 0.02 0.15 23.0 9.5 3.0
2507/P100 25 9 4 N L R E2594 0.03 0.23 25.5 10.0 3.6
Wire2) EN 12072 A5.9
LDX 2101 23 7 N L – 0.02 0.14 23.0 7.5 <0.5
2304 23 7 N L – 0.02 0.14 23.5 7.5 <0.5
2205 22 9 3 N L ER2209 0.02 0.17 23.0 8.5 3.1
2507/P100 25 9 4 N L ER2594 0.02 0.25 25.0 9.5 4.0
FCW EN 12073 A5.22
LDX 2101 23 7 N L – 0.03 0.14 24.0 9.0 0.3
2304 23 7 N L – 0.03 0.14 24.0 9.0 0.3
2205 22 9 3 N L E2209 0.03 0.13 22.7 9.0 3.2
1)
Hot rolled plate, cold rolled plate, bars, pipes, pipe fittings and flanges
2)
MIG, TIG and SAW wire

2
 Figure 1: Microstructure of a weld in 2205 – transition between plate and weld
Microstructure
The chemical composition of duplex steels is balanced
to ensure that, in their solution-annealed states, they
have a structure with approximately equal amounts of
ferrite and austenite.
Duplex steels initially solidify with a completely
ferritic structure. They then undergo a phase trans-
formation in which primary and secondary austenite
grows at the ferrite’s grain boundaries. The amount of
austenite is strongly dependent on composition and
cooling rate. In the production of plates, coils, pipes,
etc., controlled heat treatment can be used to give a
50-50 balance of austenite and ferrite. However, cooling
conditions when welding are not as good. Cooling is
often very rapid here and, consequently, there is little
time for austenite to form. Thus, to give a balanced
structure, filler metals are always over-alloyed with
nickel. This is strongly austenite stabilising. Nitrogen
is another austenite stabilising element and is of great
importance in the re-forming of austenite. However,
variations of between 20 and 70% ferrite are normal.
Welds with this ferrite content have good corrosion and
mechanical properties. Figure 1 shows the fusion line
in a 2205 joint.
Welding with the “wrong” filler metal (e.g. “plate
analysis”), or with no or too little filler metal (e.g.
narrow groove/no root gap), can give a ferrite content
of over 70%. This entails a risk of lower ductility and
reduced corrosion resistance.
When duplex steels are subjected to temperatures
from 350°C up to around 950°C, secondary precipitates
4
are formed. Intermetallic phases, e.g. sigma phase, are
formed in the 600–950°C temperature range. Ferrite
is re-formed at 350–525°C (embrittlement at 475°C).
Ferrite re-formation can have an embrittling effect
and a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Hence,
unnecessary exposure to these temperatures must be
avoided. In normal welding, the hold time at these
temperatures is relatively short. However, there is an
evident risk if the metal has to undergo subsequent
heat treatment.
Table 3 sets out the recommended heat treatments.
At any other temperatures than those given in the table,
stress-relieving annealing results in lower ductility and
reduced corrosion resistance. Consequently, it is to be
avoided.
Mechanical properties
Duplex steels are characterised by high strength. Table
2 shows typical mechanical properties of parent and
weld metals (pure weld metal).
The high tensile strength also means that the fatigue
properties are very good. However, fatigue strength is
highly dependent on the component’s shape. The fatigue
properties of welded joints are also clearly inferior.
Welding method and joint type are of great significan-
ce. For example, a TIG welded joint has considerably
better properties than one made with covered electro-
des.
Because their ductility is lower than that of austenitic
steels, duplex steels are not suitable for use at low
temperatures (< –40°C).
Corrosion properties
Duplex steels offer a very wide range of corrosion pro- Detailed information on the corrosion properties of
perties. Thanks to the high chromium content, corrosion duplex steels is given in the corrosion handbook
resistance is generally very good in most environments. published by Outokumpu.
This applies to both pitting and crevice corrosion. The
high strength also means that the resistance to stress cor-
rosion is very good. Because of the low carbon content, CPT (°C)
intergranular corrosion is rarely a problem.
100 100
Generally speaking, corrosion resistance increases
with increased nickel, chromium and nitrogen content. 80 80
This is reflected in the “resistance ranking” of the duplex
steels: LDX 2101; 2304; 2205 ; 2507. The pitting corrosion 60 60
resistance is shown in diagram 1.
For the most part, the corrosion resistance of a welded 40 40
joint is slightly lower than that of the parent metal. This
is primarily due to: the temperature cycle undergone by 20 20
the weld and the heat-affected zone (HAZ); the shape
0 0
of the weld surface; and, the contaminants and defects 4404 LDX 2101 2304 2205 2507 254 SMO
generated in welding. To achieve the best possible cor-
rosion resistance, the surfaces of the weld and the plate Metal base Unión soldada
must be clean and even. After welding, the weld metal
and HAZ must be pickled. Refer also to the “Pre-weld Diagram 1: Typical critical pitting temperatures (CPT) as per ASTM
cleaning” and “Post-weld cleaning” sections. G150 – parent metal and weld, brushed and pickled TIG joint

Table 2: Mechanical properties

Min.-value1) Typical values (pure weld metal)
Steel grades P H C MMA MIG TIG SAW2) FCAW3)
LDX 2101 3D
Rp0.2 (MPa) 450 480 530 640 520 550 570 575
Rm (MPa) 650 680 700 800 710 730 750 765
Elongation A5 (%) 30 30 30 25 30 30 25 30
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 60 – – 45 150 180 140 70
–40°C 27 – – 28 110 180 60 50
2304 3D
Rp0.2 (MPa) 400 400 450 640 520 550 480 580
Rm (MPa) 630 600 650 780 710 730 650 760
Elongation A5 (%) 25 20 20 23 30 30 25 25
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 60 – – 40 150 180 100 70
–40°C 40 – – 25 110 180 60 50
2205 Basic
Rp0.2 (MPa) 460 460 500 645 550 610 590 600
Rm (MPa) 640 700 700 840 770 805 800 800
Elongation A5 (%) 25 25 20 26 30 31 29 27
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 60 – – 90 150 200 100 80
–40°C 40 – – 75 110 170 70 55
2507 Rutile
Rp0.2 (MPa) 530 530 550 700 570 660 650 –
Rm (MPa) 730 750 750 900 830 860 870 –
Elongation A5 (%) 20 20 20 26 29 28 26 –
Impact strength (J)
+20°C 60 – – 80 140 190 80 –
–40°C 40 – – 55 – – – –

1)
P = hot rolled plate, H = hot rolled coil, C = cold rolled coil
2)
Welded with Avesta Flux 805
3)
Welded with Avesta PW type FCW

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 Table 3: Recommended heat treatments
LDX 2101® 2304 2205
Hot forming °C 900–1100 900–1100 950–1150
Solution heat treatment °C 1020–1080 950–1050 1020–1100
Stress-relieving annealing °C 1020–1080 950–1050 1020–1100
Shaping
Hot forming, if required, must be performed at the
temperatures given in table 3. Duplex steels are prone
to precipitation when they are subjected to tempera-
tures under approximately 900°C. Precipitation entails
a lowering of both ductility and corrosion resistance.
To reduce the quantity of precipitates, the workpiece
should undergo solution heat treatment after hot for-
ming. Duplex steels soften considerably at high tempe-
ratures. This must be borne in mind during handling
and when tooling up/positioning prior to heat treat-
ment.
Cold forming of duplex steels can be accomplished
using conventional methods. However, because of
the high strength, operations such as deep drawing,
stretch forming and spinning are more difficult than
they are with austenitic steels.
Machining of duplex steels (LDX 2101 excepted) is,
owing to their hardness, slightly more difficult than it
is for austenitic steels. Tools made of high-speed steel
are usually more effective than ceramic tools.
Welding methods
All conventional welding methods such as MMA
(covered electrodes), MIG/MAG, TIG, SAW, FCAW,
plasma and laser can be used to weld duplex steels.
Welding without filler metals is only permitted where
subsequent heat treatment (solution heat treatment) is
possible. If heat treatment is not carried out, there is a
great risk that the ferrite content in the weld metal will
be too high. As a result, ductility and corrosion resis-
tance will be lower.
Property requirements, positional weldability and
productivity usually determine the choice of welding
method.
MMA welding is particularly excellent for position
welding, single-sided welding and where access is limi-
ted. Avesta Welding has a very wide range of covered
electrodes for duplex steels:
LDX 2101-3D all positions
LDX 2101-4D position welding
2304-3D all positions
2205-2D high metal recovery
2205-3D all positions
2205-4D position welding
2205 Basic high impact strength requirments
2507/P100-3D all positions
2507/P100-4D position welding
2507/P100 Rutile all positions
6
2507
1025–1200
1040–1120
1040–1120
With all products, direct current (DC+) gives the best
welding results. Nonetheless, all rutile-acid electrodes
can also be used with alternating current. However,
weldability is clearly inferior than it is with direct
current.
A short arc is to be used for welding. This gives the
best stability and reduces the risk of nitrogen pick-
up. The latter can lead to pore formation and increase
surface oxidation.
MIG welding (really MAG – welding is often carried
out with an active component in the shielding gas) is a
particularly good method for welding sheet metal up
to around 6 mm thick. Welding is usually from two
sides, but sheet metal (< 4 mm) can be welded single-
sided with a root backing. A spray arc or pulsed
current is normally used for welding. The advantage
of spray-arc welding is the higher deposition rate.
However, because the weld pool is relatively large,
position welding possibilities are limited. Drop trans-
fer is considerably more sedate and more controlled
with a pulsed arc. The opportunity for position weld-
ing, especially vertical-down, is thus very great. As
the stability of a spray arc is relatively poor, a pulsed
arc is particularly important when welding the super
duplex steel, 2507.
The MIG method is especially suited to robot or
automatic welding in all positions.
TIG welding is normally used for thin (up to around
4 mm) workpieces. It is especially common in the weld-
ing of pipe joints. The method is also highly suitable
for welding single-sided root beads (both with and
without root backing). Subsequent beads can then be
welded using a method with a higher deposition rate.
SAW is widely used with duplex steels. Its high pro-
ductivity and beautiful weld finishes are a big plus.
Furthermore, the SAW work environment is consider-
ably better than that of other methods. Both fume gene-
ration and radiation are minimal. The disadvantages of
SAW are that it is restricted to the horizontal position
and that the heat input is relatively large. Consequently,
small objects present problems. A basic agglomerated
flux, e.g. Avesta 805, must be used for SAW.
Figure 2: Welding with Avesta FCW-2D 2205

FCAW is suitable for material thicknesses above
approximately 2.5 mm. Thanks to the slag that is
formed, positional weldability is very good. When
FCW is used, the arc and weld pool are protected by
both the slag and the shielding gas. Drop transfer is
even and finishes are extremely smooth and fine.
FCAW can advantageously be used for single-sided
welding against a ceramic backing. This is fast and
efficient. At the same time, the surface properties
on the root side are very good. For the best results,
the root bead should here be welded using a slightly
lower current intensity.
Flux cored wire is available as LDX 2101, 2304 and
2205 in the following variants:
FCW-2D LDX 2101 welding in the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions
FCW LDX 2101-PW position welding
FCW-2D 2304 welding in the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions
FCW 2304-PW position welding
FCW-2D 2205 welding in the flat and horizontal-
vertical positions
FCW 2205-PW position welding

Table 4: Examples of welding parameters for different types of joints

Method Filler Diam. (mm) Position EN/ASTM Bead Current (A) Voltage (V) Speed (cm/min)
MMA 2205 2.50 PF (3G) Root1) 50– 60 20–22 4– 6
3.25 Cap 80– 95 23–25 7– 9
MMA 2507/P100 4.00 PA (1G) 125–135 24–26 15–25
MIG 2205 1.20 PA (1G) 180–200 28–30 30–40
TIG 2205 1.60 H-L 045 (6G) Root 45– 50 9–10 3– 5
TIG 2205 2.40 PA (1G) Root 100–120 16–18 5– 8
FCAW 1.20 Cap 190–210 28–30 17–22
SAW 2205 3.20 PA (1G) 400–450 30–32 40–50
SAW 2507/P100 2.40 PA (1G) 350–400 28–30 40–50
FCAW 2205 1.20 PA (1G) Root1) 135–145 24–26 20–25
Cap 200–220 28–30 30–45
FCAW 2205-PW 1.20 PF (3G) Root 140–150 23–25 8–12
Cap 160–180 24–26 9–13
FCAW LDX 2101 1.20 PA (1G) Root 170–190 26–28 30–40
Cap 200–220 27–29 30–45

1)
Single-sided

7
 Laser, laser hybrid and plasma welding are high Shielding gases
productivity methods that are very suitable for duplex MIG welding of duplex steels is possible using the
steels. However, as previously stated, if a filler metal conventional shielding gases used with stainless steels.
is not used, the workpiece should be heat treated after Normally, argon is used with an addition of 2% O2 or
welding. 2–3% CO2. Both of these act as arc stabilisers. An addi-
Laser hybrid is a particularly interesting method. It tion of around 30% helium is advantageous. It increases
combines keyhole welding (laser) with arc welding arc energy which, in turn, increases weld pool fluidity
(MIG/MAG, TIG or plasma). The method ensures a and enables higher welding speeds.
high productivity process that, thanks to the filler metal Using a pulsed arc, a four-component gas (Ar + 30%
and the low heat input, preserves metallurgical proper- He + 2.5% CO2 + 0.03% NO) has given very good results.
ties. In superduplex welding, a mixed gas will give the
Nowadays, laser hybrid welding is most often per- best weldability, but at the risk of increased porosity.
formed using a CO2 laser or a Nd:YAG laser. With the For a pore-free weldmetal, pure argon should be used.
exception of the considerably better penetration, laser Arc stability varies greatly between different arc
hybrid welding of thin sheets has much in common types, different steel grades and even between different
with ordinary MIG/MAG welding. Penetration depth welding machines. Table 5 sets out general recommen-
is primarily determined by the laser beam’s ability to dations for the MIG welding of various duplex grades.
create a keyhole. The width is dependent on the heat
TIG welding is usually performed with pure argon as
transferred by the arc.
the shielding gas. Resistance to, in particular, pitting
There are two variants of laser hybrid welding, name-
corrosion can be considerably raised by the addition
ly, “leading” and “trailing” laser. Whichever is chosen,
of up to 2% nitrogen. However, because the risk of
it is important that the arc and the beam are sufficiently
pores increases with increased nitrogen content, the
close to each other for them to work in the same weld
latter should not exceed 2%.
pool. For better process stability in “leading” laser
The addition of around 30% helium markedly
hybrid welding, the angle of the MIG/MAG nozzle
increases arc energy and thus enables a considerable
should be as slight as possible (i.e. nozzle in the upright
increase (20–30%) in welding speed. In the welding
position). Having the arc in the leading position allows
of duplex steels, the addition of hydrogen is not to be
material from the filler wire to fill any gaps. This means
recommended. In combination with the high ferrite
that the laser beam creates a keyhole in a stable weld
content (over 70%), this can lead to hydrogen embritt-
pool. The result is an even weld with good penetration.
lement.
In the laser-MIG/MAG process, the following
Single-sided root beads must be welded with a
parameters have proved to be important: torch angle,
backing gas. This is normally the same as the shiel-
“offset”, stick-out, working distance and focal length.
ding gas. However, Formier gas (90% N2 + 10% H2)
The effect of torch angle is much the same as in con-
is a good alternative that also provides first-class root
ventional MIG/MAG welding.
protection while also being cheaper than pure argon.
Spray and pulsed arcs can advantageously be used.
Because only a negligible quantity of the hydrogen
However, because there is no stabilising of the arc, a
penetrates the weld metal, no negative effect has been
short arc must not be used in laser-MIG/MAG welding.
demonstrated. A backing gas should also be used for
tack welding all the way up until weld thickness is at
Table 5: Shielding gases for MIG, TIG, FCAW, least 8 mm.
plasma and laser welding
FCAW is most suitably performed using argon with
Method Grades Shielding gases an addition of 16–25% carbon dioxide as the shielding
MIG LDX 2101, 2304, 2205 1. Ar+30%He+1–3%CO2 gas. Welding with pure carbon dioxide is also pos-
2. Ar+1–2%O2 or Ar+2–3%CO2 sible, but arc stability and weld pool control are noti-
2507/P100 1. Ar1)
ceably poorer. However, compared with a mixed gas,
2. Ar+30%He+1–3%CO21) one advantage is that penetration is slightly better.
3. Ar+30%He+1–2%N2+1–2%CO21) Also compared with a mixed gas, the voltage should
TIG LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar+2%N2 + 0–30%He be increased by 2–3 volts when welding with pure
2507/P100 2. Ar carbon dioxide. This prevents the arc being too short.
FCAW LDX 2101, 2304, 2205 1. Ar+16–25%CO2 Plasma welding normally uses pure argon, or argon
2. 100% CO2
with an addition of 20–30% helium, as both the plasma
Plasma LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar2) and the shielding gas. As with TIG welding, the addition
2507/P100 2. Ar+20–30%He+1–2%N22) of 2–3% nitrogen has a positive effect on corrosion resis-
Laser LDX 2101, 2304, 2205, 1. Ar tance. The addition of hydrogen should be avoided.
2507/P100
Laser welding can be carried out with pure argon,
1)
Depending on requirements. See ”Shielding gases” for further information. nitrogen, helium or mixtures of these gases. To ensure
2)
Also as plasma gas. high-quality welds when using a CO2 laser or a

8
Nd:YAG-laser, a shielding gas is required. Because
interaction between the beam and the shielding gas
affects heat transfer to the workpiece, the choice of
shielding gas in CO2 laser welding is critical. The
normal shielding gases are pure argon or, where high
laser powers (1.5–2.0 kW) are used, helium. As there
is little or no interaction between shielding gases and
the wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser, argon, which is
relatively cheap, is normally used.
Fig 2-4.pdf 06-10-30
Because of the weld pool’s slightly poorer penetra-
tion and fluidity (compared with standard austenites),
the joint must be correctly designed to give full pene-
tration without the risk of burn-through. The groove
angle must be sufficiently wide to allow the welder
full control of the arc, weld pool and slag. A groove
angle of around 35° (i.e. somewhat larger than for
austenitic steels) is to be recommended for manual
welding.
14.24.40

Laser hybrid welding with a CO2 laser has demon- General recommendations:
strated that the shielding gas need not be pure helium. • An X-joint can advantageously be used for plate
It is sufficient that a minimum of 30% helium is added thicknesses above approximately 15 mm.
Fig 2-4.pdf 06-10-30 14.24.40
via the MIG/MAG Edge nozzle. For Nd:YAG laser hybrid
preparation • For plate thicknesses above approximately 30 mm,
welding, a mixture of Ar + 30–35% He + 2–5% CO2 can a double U-joint is advantageous.
advantageously be used. The mixture is added via the
MIG/MAG nozzle. The addition
Fig 4 ny.pdf
of helium
06-10-30 14.31.25
improves • In single-sided welding, a root gap of 2–3 mm and
Joint
Edge preparations
preparation Table
a straight edge of about 0–1 mm are7.1recommended.
process stability and gives even
Edge preparation welds.
No. and joint type For double-sided welding, the straight edge can be
Sides Method Thickness

Edge preparation
1. I-joint increasedOne
to side
1.5–2 mm.
TIG < 2.5 mm
No root gap 1)
When weldingJointstainless steels, meticulous edge
preparations
Edge preparation
• A wider root gap, 4–6 mm, should be used when
Table 7.1
Joint preparations Table 7.1
preparation and2. the correct
I-joint choice of joint type are Two sides a ceramic
welding against SAW 6 – 9 mm
No.No.
and
No joint
root
and gaptype
2) type
joint Sides
Sides Method backing.
Thickness
Method Thickness
important for good results. This applies even more
1. I-joint
particularly to duplex steels.
1. I-joint One side TIGTIG
One < 2.5 mm
3. I-joint Oneside
side PAW < 2.5
1 –mm
8 mm
No root gap1) 1)
Joint preparations
No root gap Table 7.1
4. and
No. I-joint joint type One side
Sides MMA
Method < 2.5 mm
2. I-joint
2. I-joint Two
Two SAW 6 –Thickness
sides SAW
sides 69 –mm
9 mm
Figure 3: a number D =of 1.0common
– 2.02)mm
2) joint types. MIG
No No rootroot
gapgap
12. V-joint One side TIG
MMA 4 – 16 mm
3. βI-joint
1 =I-joint
3. 45° 1. side
One
One
I-joint
side PAW
for:
FCW single-sided
PAW 1 – 18 –mm 8 mm
MMA, TIG and
Joint type 1 5. βI-joint D TwoPAW;
sides and,
MMA double-sided
< 4 mm
2 = 15° welding using
I-joint, t < 2.5 mm D4.==I-joint
4. CI-joint
2.0
1.0 –– 2.5
2.0 mm
mm β1 One
Oneside MIG
MMA
sidesame MMA < 2.5 mm mm
< 2.5
D = 1.0–2.0 mm DD = D = 1.0 – 2.0 mm the TIG
MIG methods plus MIG and FCAW.
= 2.0
1.0 –– 3.0
2.0 mm
mm MIG
Single-sided, with or without root backing
D SuitableTIG
FCWroot
TIG protection must be used
13. V-joint Two sides MMA 4 – 16 mm
I-joint, t < 4.0 mm 6. V-joint
5.=I-joint α D β2 Two with
sides
One side single-sided
MMA
MMA < 4 mm TIG
4 – 16 mmand plasma wel-
D = 2.0–2.5 mm 5. βI-joint
1 45°
D60°
= 2.0
3) – 2.5 mm D Two sides MIG FCW
MMA < 4 mm
C
βαD2 ==
= 15°
2.0 – 2.5but
mm C ding. TIGMIG
MIG
Double-sided without rootC backing
== 0.5
2.0 –– 1.5
2.5 mm
mm TIG
FCWTIG
withM root grinding D == 2.0 2.0 –– 4.0
2.5 mm
mm FCW
FCW
Y 6. V-joint
7. V-joint
α C One side
Two
MMA
sides MIG
4 – 16 mm
MMA 16
14.6. V-jointα = 60° 3)
α 2. V-joint
One
One side
side (t > 4 mm)
FCW
MMA 44––20 for:
16 mm
mm single and
Joint type 2 βαα1 == 60°
=C45°
3)
against MIG
CMC

V-joint, t = 4–16 mm βCC2 == 2.0

= 0.5
60°
15° –
3) – 1.5 mm
2.5 mm D
backing
TIG
double-sidedMIG
TIG MMA and TIG welding
=D0.5= 2.0
– 1.5– 4.0
mm mm FCWTIG
α = MY60°–70° CD == 2.5
D = 1.5
– 3.5 mm
2.0 –– 2.5
4.0 mm β1 as well as
FCW double-sided MIG and
mm D C FCW
M

C = 0.5–1.5 mm D7. =V-joint

4.0 – 6.0 mm Two sides MMA 4 – 16 mm
8. V-joint = 60° 3) α FCAW.
One side Single-sided
FCW
MIG 4 – 20 welding is also
mm
D = 2.0–4.0 mm (4–67. mm α
against backing) C
CYY
V-joint D Two sides MMA 4 – 16 mm
C
Single-sided,
α = C60°
α = 60°
with or without
3) – 2.5 mm
= 2.0
3) backing
β
possible
against TIG with FCAW, but a ceramic
CMYCM
C = D1.5 = root
2.5
– 2.5 – 3.5
mmmm D 2 backing FCWMIG
V-joint,
M
C = 2.0 – 2.5 mm
t = 4–16 mm DD == 4.0 – 6.0 mm backingTIGmust then be used.
2.5 – 3.5 mm
8. V-joint α C One side FCWFCW 4 – 20 mm
α = Y60°–70°
KMY

C = 2.0–2.5 mm
α = 60° 3)
α C against
CY 8. V-jointC = 1.5 – 2.5 mm One side
backing FCW 4 – 20 mm
D =CM2.5–3.5 mm α =D60° 3) – 6.0 mm
= 4.0 D against
Double-sided
CMY 15. root
without X-joint
C = 1.5 backing
– 2.5but mm α Two sides
backing MMA 14 – 30 mm8)
with root grinding 9. V-joint
MY α = 60° 3)
D = 4.0 – 6.0 mm C MIG
C = 2.0 – 3.0 mm α Two sides TIG+
TIG 6) 3 – 16 mm
D
K

CY Dα = 2.080 –– 90°2.5 mm C 3. V-jointFCW for SAW. So that full penetra-

SAW
C = 1.5 mm tion is possible, the root bead must be
Joint type 3
CMY No9. root
V-jointgap1) α D Two sides TIG+ 3 – 16 mm
V-joint, t = 8–16 mm α = 80 – 90° C ground SAWprecisely.
α = 80°–90°
K
10. V-joint C = 1.5 mm C Two sides SAW 8 – 16 mm
C = 3–6 mm 9. V-joint
α = No 80 root
– 90° gap1) α Two sides TIG+ 3 – 16 mm
α = 80 – 90° D 4. In SAW, SAWan X-joint is to be recommended
Double-sided welding without C = 3.0 –root gap,4)
6.0 mm
C =V-joint
1.5 mm C
but with root grinding10. No root
No αroot
gap 1)
gap
Two sides
where SAW
plate 8 – 16 mm exceeds 16 mm.
thickness
= 80 – 90°
16.
11. X-joint C = 3.0 – 6.0 mm4)
V-joint α To
Two
Two sidesachieve
sides PAW+best14
SAW 6penetration
––1630mmmm when weld-
Joint type 4 10. α V-joint
No
α == 80° root
80 – 90° gap C Two sides
ing 2205
SAW
SAW and
8 – 16 mm
2304, the straight edge can
C α =3.0 80 – 90° mm4)
X-joint, t = 14–30 mm 11. C= 3.0 –– 8.0
= V-joint 4.0 mm 4)
α = 80°–90° NoC =
No root
3.0
root
–
gap 6.0
gap– 90°
mm Two be
sides increased
PAW+ up
6 – to
16 8
mm mm. The torch
No αroot = 80gap SAW
C = 3–8 mm (2507/2101 3–4 C= mm)3.0 – 4.0 mm must then be slightly angled (around
Double-sided welding
1) There must be a root gap when welding special grades.
11. No root
without
V-joint gapgap,
root
2) A ground groove, 1 – 2 mm deep and wide.
C Two 15°)
sides in the
PAW+ direction
6 – 16 of
mm welding. In this
but with root grinding α = 80 – 90° SAW
3) The
Cjoint
1) There
= 3.0 angle
must
– 4.0 formm
be aspecial
root gapgrades
when iswelding
60 – 70°.
special grades. way, thicknesses up to 20 mm can be
4) A 2)
rootA ground
land ofgroove,
5 mm 1and
– 2above
mm deepmay and wide.the torch to be angled towards
require the direction of travel,
4) see3)No root gap
The jointand angle for special grades 4.
is 60 – 70°.
welded with only two beads. However,
”Width depth” in chapter
4) A root land of 5 mm and above may require the torch to be angled towards
1) There must be a root gap when welding special grades.
for LDX 2101
the direction of travel,and 2507, the straight
4) see ”Width and depth” in chapter 4.
2) A ground groove, 1 – 2 mm deep and wide. edge should not exceed 4 mm.
84
3) The joint angle for special grades is 60 – 70°.
4) A root land of 5 mm and above may require the torch to be angled towards the direction of travel,
84
4) see ”Width and depth” in chapter 4.
3) The joint angle for special grades is 60 – 70°.
4) A root land of 5 mm and above may require the torch to be angled towards the direction of travel, 9
4) see ”Width and depth” in chapter 4.
6)84
Normally only for the first 1 – 3 runs. Followed by MIG, FCW, MMA or SAW.
8) A thickness above 20 mm can be prepared as an asymmetrical X-joint.
 C

M C Edge preparation
Edge preparation
Y

D
CM

MY Joint preparations Table 7.1

Joint preparations
31. Half V-joint 7) Two sides MMA 4 – Table
16 mm7.1
Joint CYtype 5 No. and
α = 50°joint type Sides
5. 
E dge Method
preparation
MIG Thickness
for pipe joints. Welding
V-joint, t = 4–16 mmNo. and
C =
joint type
1.0 – 2.0 mm
Sides Method
TIG 6) Thickness
21. Fillet weld α OneisormostMMA
suitably >performed
2 mm using TIG or
α = 50° D =root
2.0 gap
– 3.0 mm FCW
17. X-joint β2t2 Two
two sides MMA 14 – 30 mm8)
CMY
No MIG
C = 1.0–2.0 mm βA1 ≈= 0.7
45° x t MMA MIGfor
TIG
the root bead. For increased
D = 2.0–3.0 mm A productivity, FCAW may then be used.
K
β2 = 15° TIG
FCW6)
Single-sided without root
C backing
= 1.5 – 2.5 mm β1 FCW
D = 2.5 – 3.0 mm C
D C t1

32. Half pipe 6. Half

One side V-joint
MMA with4full – 16 penetration.
mm
α = 45° D Where MIGgrinding the root presents dif-
22. Half V-joint D One side MMA 4 – 16 mm
Joint type 6 C = 1.5 – 2.0 mm t2 TIG
ficulties, the root should be welded as
Half V-joint, t = 14–30mmα 50° – 2.0 mm
D = 1.0
18. X-joint C β2 C Two sides
MIG
FCW
SAW 9) 14 – 30 mm
α = 50° C = 1.0 – 2.0 mm
β1 = 45° a single-sided
TIG6) TIG or MMA weld or,
D = 2.0 – 4.0 mm α FCW
C = 1.5–2.5 mm β2 = 15°
D alternatively, as FCAW against a cera-
D = 2.0–3.0 mm (4–6 mmCagainst
23. No
= 3.0 –a 8.0
Half V-joint
mm4)
backing) αβ1 mic
Two sidesbacking.
MMA In 4this – 16type
mm of joint, the
Single-sided, with or withoutroot gapbacking
root
α = 50° t1 distance MIG
between tacks should not
C
C = 1.5 – 2.5 mm C TIG 6)
C

M
D = 2.0 – 3.0 mm exceed FCW
150 mm. This is so that shrinkage
M does not prevent full penetration.
24. Half X-joint One side MMA 14 – 30 mm
t2
Y

123456789 Y α = 50°
19. U-joint α Two sides
MIG
MMA < 50 mm
Joint type 7
CM C = 1.0 – 1.5 mm
5) Welding
β = 10°performed against ceramic backing (round type). 7. SimpleMIG U-joint
TIG 6)
for the welding of thick
0+θωερτψ
U-joint, t > 20 mm 6) Normally
CM
mm for the first 1 – 3 runs. FollowedCby MIG, FCW, MMA or SAW.
D = 2.0 – 4.0
R = 8.0only
mm
sections FCW 5)
TIG(t6) > 30 mm). The joint can
α = 10°
υιοπ?????λ
MY
7) For
C openings
= 2.0 – 2.5such
mmas manways, viewports and nozzles. FCW
R = 8 mm
MY
25. Half X-joint
8) A D = 2.0 – above
thickness 2.5 mm α
20 mm can be prepared as an asymmetrical X-joint.
advantageously
Two sides MMA
SAW10)
14be– made
30 mm as a symmet-
α = 50°
κϕηγφδσ<ζ D MIG
CY

C = 2.0–2.5 mm
CY
C = 1.5 – 2.5 mm
rical or asymmetrical
TIG 6) double U-joint.
D = 2.0–2.5 mm (4–6 mmDagainst
ξχϖβνµ,.−
CMY
= 2.0 –a 3.0
backing)
mm tt1 R Root welding
FCW is most suitably carried
Double-sided without
CMY
88root backing but
C out as a TIG or MMA weld followed by,
ΘΩΕΡΤΨΥ
K
with root K
grinding
D for example, FCAW or SAW.
ΙΟΠ??∋??Λ 26. Fillet weld Two sides MMA < 2 mm
ΚϑΗΓΦ∆Σ No root gap
20. Double U-joint β Two sides
MIG 9)
SAW
TIG
> 20 mm
β = 15°
Α<ΖΞΧςΒ R = 8.0 mm
FCW

ΝΜ,.−Pre-weld cleaning C = 4.0 – 8.0 mm4)

To ensure good weldability and reduce the need for

post-weld cleaning, all joint surfaces, and the surfaces R
27. Fillet weld Two sides MMA 2 – 4 mm
adjoining these, must D =be
2.0thoroughly
– 2.5 mm cleaned before C MIG
welding. Dirt, oil and grease must be removed using, TIG
FCW
for example, a cleaning agent such as Avesta Cleaner.
All rough edges must be completely removed byDgentle
grinding. Oxides, paints and primers must be entirely
removed not only4) in the joint but also in the 50 mm
A root land of 5 mm and above may require the torch to be angled towards the direction of travel,
from the joint edges.
4) see ”Width and depth” in chapter 4.
6) Normally only for the first 1 – 3 runs. Followed by MIG, FCW, MMA or SAW.
5)8)Welding
A thickness above 20
performed mm can
against be prepared
ceramic backingas an asymmetrical
(round type). X-joint.
Tack welding 09)
6) TIG or MMA can be used for root runs. Grinding from the back. C = 3.0 mm.
Normally only for the first 1 – 3 runs. Followed by MIG, FCW, MMA or SAW.
10)
SAW can be used for fill and cap passes.
So that shrinkage during welding does not prevent full
penetration, precise tack welding is extremely im- 87
portant. For metal 86thicknesses up to 6 mm, tack length
should be 10–15 mm. This should be increased to 20–25
mm for thicker workpieces. A suitable distance bet-
ween tacks is 150–200 mm.
In single-sided welding, the entire tack must be
ground away before welding. In double-sided welding,
it is sufficient to grind away the beginning and the end
of the tack. A common alternative in single-sided weld-
ing is the use of bridges or distance pieces (see figure 4).
These must be made of, and tacked with, duplex steel.
Note that gap width must be constant throughout the
joint.

Figure 4: Tack welding of thick-walled pipe using distance pieces

10
“Starts and stops”–
striking and extinguishing the arc
It is very important to use the right technique when
striking and extinguishing the arc. As regards metal-
lurgical, mechanical and corrosion properties, each start
and stop is a “critical” area.
To avoid striking scars, the arc must always be struck
down in the joint. If, despite this, striking scars occur,
they must be carefully repaired by grinding and polish-
ing or, in the worst cases, repair welding.
In MMA welding, the arc must be extinguished care-
fully by first making several circular movements in
the centre of the weld pool. The electrode is then to be
moved slowly backwards 10 mm through the weld
pool before being gently lifted. If this is done too
quickly, crater cracks and slag inclusions may result.
Modern power sources for MIG and TIG welding
often have a so-called crater filling facility. This gives
smooth and controlled stops.
To remove any crater cracks and slag inclusions, each
start and stop must be carefully ground with a suitable
grinding disc.
Planning the welding sequence
Because it makes burn-through unnecessary, double-
sided welding is always to be preferred over single-
sided welding. To ensure full burn-through on the last
bead, the root side must be ground to clean metal. A
grinding disc not exceeding 2 mm in width is a suit-
able tool. If it is difficult to decide whether grinding has
reached the first bead, penetrant testing can be used.
In double-sided MMA welding, electrodes with a
diameter of 3.25 to 4.00 mm can be used from the very
start. Single-sided welding is most simply carried out
against a root backing. Single-sided root beads are
suitably welded with a 2.50 mm diameter electrode.
The joint is then filled using 3.25, 4.00 or 5.00 mm elec-
trodes. The choice of electrode diameter is determined
by welding position. In certain cases (e.g. pipe joints)
single-sided welding without root backing is required.
Figure 5: Single-sided TIG root bead
This is most simply done using MMA or TIG welding
with electrode diameters of 2.50 mm and 1.60–2.40 mm
respectively. As already stated, a backing gas must be
used in TIG welding. Single-sided welding without
root backing places the severest demands on even and
thorough edge preparation. Figure 5 shows a correc-
tly executed TIG root bead.
Root beads must satisfy three important
requirements:
• Correct metallurgy and structure (right root gap to
ensure sufficient quantity of filler metal).
• Correct geometry (no concavity, undercutting or
lack of fusion).
• Best possible productivity (always in relation to
weldability).
Filler beads must be deposited with the highest pos-
sible productivity. At the same time, structure and
mechanical properties have to be maintained. In many
cases, fill passes use the same filler metal as that used in
root passes. High productivity welding methods may
thus be economical for joint filling. Several common
choices are:
• TIG root pass + MMA, MIG or SAW fill passes
• MMA root pass + SAW or FCAW fill passes
Generally speaking, welding is carried out with the
highest possible heat input that is still consistent with
maintained properties and weldability. Visual inspec-
tion between the passes is important.
Slag residues and severe welding oxide are removed
before depositing the next layer. Otherwise, there is al-
ways the risk of slag inclusions being left behind. A suit-
able grinding disc must be used. To avoid damaging
adjacent surfaces, grinding should be carried out with
some care. Figure 6 shows deleterious grinding scars.
Figure 6: Grinding scars
11
 The cap bead is primarily intended to give the weld
good corrosion protection. Besides structure, surface
geometry can also play a critical role here. Undercut-
ting, unevenness, high crowns, gaps, etc. can all have
a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Aesthetic
considerations are often also important.
When using slag forming welding methods, weld
reinforcements must be cleaned of all slag residues.
Welding techniques
In the flat position, there should be no significant
weaving. However, in the vertical-up position, weaving
of up to 20 mm is advantageous. For the best control of
arc and weld pool, welding is normally carried out with
a torch or electrode angle of around 10° away from the
welding direction, i.e. “backhand”. In submerged arc
welding, the torch is not normally angled. A torch angle
of 10–15° in the welding direction (i.e. “forehand”) in-
creases penetration. This allows the unbevelled edge to
be increased to up to around 8 mm. However, because
LDX 2101 and 2507 are slightly more sensitive to the
necessary high heat input, this increase must only be
used for 2205 and 2304. Especially when using welding
wire, backings are very often ceramic. Backing shape
may vary with joint type. A root gap of 4–6 mm most
often gives a nicely shaped root bead. Too wide a gap
can result in a too thin root bead that, in the worst
cases, may crack because of the degree of restraint.
Ceramic backings are frequently used for welding
stainless steel cargo tanks in chemical tankers. Here,
welding is often in difficult positions with little access
from both sides.
Distortion
Broadly speaking, the coefficient of expansion of duplex
steels is lower than that of austenitic steels. It is only
slightly higher than that of carbon steels. Consequently,
distortion during the welding of duplex steels is some-
what less than it is with austenitic steels. However, this
does not mean that tack welding can be simplified.
Preheating
On the whole, stainless steels (duplex steels included
therein) must not be preheated before welding.
Normally, welding takes place at room temperature.
At lower temperatures, preheating to a maximum of
50°C is advisable. This drives off any moisture that
may otherwise lead to pore formation.
When welding castings, or where the workpiece
is thick or where restraint is high, preheating to a
maximum of 150°C may be advantageous. This is
particularly true where the welding method has a low
heat input (max. 0.5 kJ/mm). In these cases, a suitable
preheating method is the use of electric blankets or
similar. The use of soot-depositing flames can result in
local carbon pick-up. This reduces resistance to inter-
granular corrosion.
12
Interpass temperature
The recommended interpass temperature for LDX
2101 is 150°C. Both 2304 and 2205 are slightly more
tolerant, but should be welded below 200°C. Super
duplex steels such as 2507 have a far more sensitive
structure and, because the risk of deleterious precipi-
tation rises sharply with increased interpass tempera-
ture, should not be welded above 100°C.
Thermal conductivity is of the same order as that of
austenitic stainless steels, i.e. considerably lower than
it is for low-alloy and carbon steels. This means that,
compared to carbon steels, it takes longer to reach the
correct interpass temperature. The cooling rate can be
increased by using compressed air. This is most suit-
ably directed at the back of the plate or the inside of the
pipe. Compressed air directed straight into the welded
joint presents the risk of contamination. Cooling can
also be accelerated by intermittent welding or using a
correctly planned welding sequence.
The interpass temperature must be measured. Some
form of thermometer or thermoelement is appropriate
for this. Temperature crayons seldom give good results
and must be avoided.
Heat input
Without negatively affecting microstructure and,
consequently, properties, 2205 can be welded using a
relatively high heat input. Heat inputs above 3 kJ/mm
have been used with no negative effects. Welding
method, radiation, distortion and weld pool size are
most often the limiting factors (rather than heat input).
LDX 2101, 2304 and, in particular, 2507 must be wel-
ded with lower heat inputs.
General recommendations:
2304 max. 2.0 kJ/mm
2205 max. 2.5 kJ/mm
LDX 2101, 2507 max. 1.5 kJ/mm
Duplex steels should not be welded with a too low heat
input. The cooling rate could then be very high, which
might result in a high ferrite content (above 70%). This
is particularly true in the welding of thick workpieces.
Theoretical minimum heat inputs are 0.5 kJ/mm
for 2304 and 2205 and 0.3 kJ/mm for LDX 2101 and
2507. Especially in automatic welding, heat input is
easy to control.
Although it is always desirable to optimise produc-
tivity by increasing the welding parameters, heat
input should never exceed the recommended value.
{ }
UxI UxI U = voltage
Heat input = –––––––––– –––––––––– = kJ/mm I = current
V x 1,000 mm/s x 1,000 V = speed
Figure 7: Storage tanks are a major end use for duplex stainless steels.

13
 Figure 8: Avesta BlueOneTM being used to spray pickle a stainless steel tank.
Post-weld heat treatment
Duplex stainless steels do not normally need post-weld
heat treatment. However, in certain situations, it may
be necessary to subject the workpiece to solution heat
treatment or stress-relieving annealing. The spinning
of dished ends is just such an example. Shaping is here
carried out in stages with intermediate heat treatment.
Table 3 gives the recommended temperatures.
The heat treatment of duplex steels requires very pre-
cise control of both time and temperature. It must only
be carried out by qualified personnel using suitable
equipment.
Welding duplex steels to other metals
Duplex or austenitic filler metals such as Avesta P5
(309MoL) or Avesta 309L are used to weld duplex steels
to carbon or low-alloy steels. As austenitic metals
demonstrate a somewhat greater toughness, Avesta
P5 or 309L may be particularly suitable for welding
workpieces where there is a high degree of restraint
(t > 20 mm). A further alternative is to use Avesta P7,
14
which also gives a weld metal that is highly resistant
to cracking.
Welding to other stainless steels such as EN 1.4301
or EN 1.4401 is also fully possible. It can be done with
a duplex filler metal or with Avesta P5 or Avesta 309L
(only stainless steels that are not alloyed with molyb-
denum).
Welding to fully austenitic steels or nickel base
alloys is suitably carried out using a filler metal that
matches the other metal, for example, Avesta P12
when welding 2205 to 254 SMO.
Post-weld cleaning
Post-weld cleaning is critical in achieving fully satis-
factory corrosion resistance. Clearly enough, it is thus
an integral part of the entire stainless steel welding
procedure. Despite this, post-weld cleaning is not
always standard.
The method and extent of cleaning is determined by
the requirements imposed in respect of corrosion resist-
ance, hygiene and appearance.
Generally speaking, one basic requirement is that de-
fects, welding oxide, organic contaminants and carbon
steel contamination must be removed from weld and
parent metal surfaces. This can be done mechanically
(grinding, brushing, polishing, blasting) or chemically
(pickling). An important rule of thumb for grinding
is to always finish with polishing. The risk of harmful
grinding scars is otherwise very great.
The demonstrably most reliable method is a combina-
tion of mechanical and chemical cleaning, i.e. brushing
with a stainless steel brush followed by pickling.
Avesta Finishing Chemicals has a complete product
programme for the pickling of stainless steel welds. It
comprises cleaning products, pickling pastes, pickling
sprays, pickling fluids and various items of equipment.
Duplex steels are generally more difficult to pickle
than austenitic steels such as 1.4301 (304) and 1.4404
(316). Thus, Avesta BlueOneTM and Avesta RedOneTM,
which are comparatively strong pickling products,
should be used for pickling duplex grades. Further de-
Figure 10: Slag inclusions, SAW 2205
tails are available at www.avestafinishing.com or can be
obtained directly from Avesta Finishing Chemicals.
Defects
Broadly speaking, duplex steels are no more prone to de-
fects than other stainless steels. However, several factors
require special attention.
• The high nitrogen content of duplex steels means
poorer penetration.
• Compared to austenitic steels, there is a slightly greater
tendency to pore formation.
•Arc stability, fluidity and arc control are also somewhat
poorer than they are for austenitic stainless steels.
Consequently, to avoid incomplete penetration
(fig. 9), slag inclusions (fig. 10) and pores (fig. 11),
the margins for welding parameters and root gaps are
more restricted.
Figure 9: Incomplete penetration, MIG 2205
Figure 11: Pores, FCW LDX 2101
15
 Repair welding
All defects must be suitably repaired. Minor surface results, but is both time-consuming and costly. Hence,
defects such as spatter, slag and oxide islands can easily ferrite content is normally determined using a so-
be remedied by grinding followed by polishing using called “ferritescope” such as the Fischer Feritscope®
an at least 320 mesh disc. Note that a grinding disc in- MP30 or by calculations based on the chemical compo-
tended for stainless steel must be used. After polishing, sition. There are a number of calculation methods, e.g.
conventional pickling is to be carried out. Pickling paste DeLong and WRC-92. For duplex steels, calculation as
is most often the simplest alternative. per WRC-92 gives results that are closer to reality than
Defects must never be repaired by TIG dressing those obtained using DeLong. Figure 12 shows a WRC-
(remelting using a TIG electrode). This is because TIG 92 diagram.
dressing has the same effect as welding without filler When it is obtained by measurement, ferrite content
metal, i.e. high ferrite content. is normally expressed as a percentage. Where it is ob-
Large defects and subsurface defects require heavier tained by calculation it is usually expressed as a ferrite
grinding with a coarser grinding disc. Once the entire number (FN). A normal range is 20–70 (%/FN).
defect has been removed (which can be checked by, for
example, penetrant testing), the ground area is to be fil- Overlay welding
led using a suitable method, most often MMA welding. Duplex filler metals can be advantageously used for the
A plasma arc can be used to remove deep subsurface overlay welding of carbon steels. The duplex overlay
defects in thick workpieces. Because of the resultant is resistant to corrosion and has good wear resistance.
carbonisation, carbon arcs should not be used. The Although all welding methods can be used, those with
problem with both plasma and carbon arcs is the a high deposition rate (i.e. SAW, FCAW and MIG) are
powerful spatter. If care is not taken, this can damage normally preferred. Welding with 2205 can be direct
adjacent surfaces. The latter should be protected using, onto carbon steel. However, filler metals such as 309L
for example, Masonite or chalk paint. After gouging, or P5 can also be used for the first layer. This is some-
the area must be ground before welding can start. what more cost-efficient, especially when welding with
Correct repair welding can be carried out at least five 2507/P100.
times with no negative impact on the parent metal. In overlay welding, there should be as little dilution
of the parent metal as possible. This can be a particular
Measuring ferrite content problem with SAW, FCAW and MIG welding. Welding
Ferrite content can be assessed in several ways. Point parameters and technique are of great importance. Each
counting, which is a standardised method (ASTM run is built up on the preceding. The arc should never
E562), is one of these. This method gives very precise be directed towards the parent metal.

Nickel equivalent =
Ni + 35C + 20N + 0.25Cu WRC-1992
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
18 18
4

12
0

16 A 16
FN

16
20
2

10

24

28
14

2507/P100
18

35
22
26

30 45
14 40 14
AF
50

2205 60
70

12 FA 2304 ,LDX 2101 80 12

90
FN
100

F
10 10

18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Chromium equivalent =
Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb

Figure 12: WRC-92 diagram for welding consumables

16
Table 6. Examples of chemical compositions of overlay weld metals
Chemical composition, % by weight Ferrite
Method Final layer1) Filler Layer Flux C Si Mn Cr Ni Other FN2) %3)
SAW 2205 P54) 1 805 0.03 0.7 1.2 21.0 13.0 Mo 2.3 5 6
2205 2 805 0.03 0.7 1.2 22.5 9.0 Mo 2.8 35 45
MMA 2205 P54) 1 – 0.03 0.8 1.1 21.5 13.0 Mo 2.4 8 8
2205 2 – 0.03 0.8 0.7 22.5 9.5 Mo 2.8 25 35
MMA 2507 P54) 1 – 0.03 0.8 1.1 21.5 13.0 Mo 2.4 8 8
2507/P100 2 – 0.03 0.6 1.3 24.5 10.5 Mo 3.5 25 35
FCAW 2205 FCW-2D P54) 1 – 0.03 0.6 1.4 22.0 12.0 Mo 2.1 15 15
FCW-2D 2205 2 - 0.03 0.7 1.1 22.5 9.5 Mo 3.1 30 40
1)
Target analysis of the final layer 3)
Ferrite in % using a Fischer Feritscope® MP30
2)
Ferrite as per Schaeffler-DeLong 4)
Welding is also possible with 2205 or 2507/P100

How to weld duplex steels of similar
compositions
There are a number of steel grades that have composi-
tions similar to those of the Outokumpu duplex steels
described above. Some general recommendations are
set out below.
Table 7. Welding duplex steels of similar
compositions
Steel grades
ASTM 329
AL 2003 (UNS S32003)
3RE60 (S31500)
URANUS 35N, SAF 2304, S32001 (1.4482),
S32202 (1.4062)
SAF 2205, Uranus 45N, remanit 4462,
1903SC, AF22, VS22, Falc 223, SM 22Cr, NKCr22
SAF 2507, Zeron 100, DP-3W, S32760 (1.4501),
Uranus 52N+, S32520, S32550 (1.4507)
Inspection and quality assurance
The rules that apply to structural steels apply also to
stainless steels (duplex included therein). The follow-
ing are some of the relevant international standards:
• ISO 5817, which gives guidelines on acceptance walls.
levels for various defects in welded joints.
• EN 288 and ASME IX, which describe the approval The relative air humidity should not exceed 50%.
of welding procedures.
However, duplex steels are used in applications
where the strength and corrosion requirements are
very severe. There is thus every reason to be extra
careful from beginning to end. Welding oxide, spatter,
striking scars and grinding scars must be removed to
achieve the correct corrosion resistance. For the best
fatigue resistance, the weld surface must be even with
no sharp edges.
Nondestructive testing is an integral part of the
examination of welded joints. Suitable methods are
visual inspection, penetrant testing (PT), radiographic
testing (RT), ultrasonic testing (UT) and ferrite
content measurement using a “ferritescope”. In
ultrasonic testing, it is important that surfaces are
ground flat so that defects such as pores and cracks
can be reliably detected.
Handling of filler metals
Stainless steel covered electrodes, flux cored
wires and fluxes can be prone to moisture pick-
up. Avesta Welding’s consumables are supplied
Filler metal in packages that have been designed to resist
Avesta 2205
moisture. However, for the best possible results,
Avesta 2205 the following storage and handling precautions are
Avesta 3RE60 or 2205 still recommended.
Avesta 2304 or 2205
Storage of unbroken packages: Covered eletrodes,
Avesta 2205 FCWs and fluxes must be stored in their unbroken,
original packaging. Storage in opened packaging
Avesta 2507/P100
can considerably shorten the product’s service life.
Following the “first in, first out” principle, storage
time must be kept as short as possible. Covered
electrodes and fluxes should not be stored longer
than 5 years and FCW should not be stored for
more than 2 years. Products older than that should
be redried before use.
Covered electrodes, FCWs and fluxes should
not be stored in direct contact with floors or outer
Storeroom temperature must be kept as even as
possible (± 5°C) and should not fall below 15°C.
Handling of opened packages: Electrodes that
remain unused at the end of a shift should be
replaced in their packaging and resealed. Alterna-
tively, they can be put in a warm heating cabinet
at 60–70°C. The relative air humidity should not
exceed 50%.
Flux that has not been used should be stored in a
heating cabinet at 60–70°C.
Handling during welding: It is an advantage if
welding can be carried out at room temperature
and low relative air humidity. Covered electrodes,

17
 FCWs and fluxes should be used at the same rate
as they are unpacked – preferably within 24 hours.
During shifts, electrodes must be kept as dry as pos-
sible. If the climate so demands, they should be kept
warm in a portable heat-retaining container or similar.
One alternative is to use smaller packs, e.g. half or
quarter capsules.
Rebaking: Electrodes and flux cored wires that have
sustained slight moisture damage can be rebaked for,
respectively, around 3 hours at 250–280°C and 24 hours
at 150°C. Heating and cooling must both be gradual.
Items should not be rebaked any more than three
times. Fluxes can be rebaked for 2 hours at 250–300°C.
Procedures that have been approved for carbon steel
electrodes are also completely satisfactory for stainless
steel electrodes. This is because the latter are not as
prone to moisture pick-up.
Recycling: Because they can be reused, leftover products
and scrap are valuable. Wherever possible, products
and packaging must be recycled in accordance with
local regulations.
Figure 13: Order and tidiness are essential for a good work environment.
Photo: The Karl Kremsmüller Welding Academy, Austria
18
Health and safety
The fumes and radiation given off during welding can be
hazardous to health. Spatter, molten metal and arcs can
cause burns and fires. Furthermore, electrical equipment
is used. If it is not handled correctly, there is the risk of elect-
rical shock. Thus, it is of the greatest importance that wel-
ders and supervisors are aware of all the potential dangers.
• Ensure that ventilation is adequate and that the
welding site has an extractor system that removes
fumes and gases from the welder’s “breathing zone”.
• When welding in confined spaces, use respiratory
protective equipment or a compressed air line
breathing apparatus. Use safety equipment for
hands, eyes and body, e.g.: gloves; helmet or face
mask with filter glass; safety boots; apron; and arm
and shoulder guards.
• Keep the workplace and equipment clean and dry.
• Regularly check that safety clothing and equipment
are in good condition.
• As far as possible, insulate all conducting elements.
Further information on each product group is contained
in Avesta Welding’s material safety data sheets. These
can be downloaded from Avesta Welding’s website,
www.avestawelding.com, or ordered from Avesta
Welding’s distributors and retailers.
Figure 14: Storage tanks in chemical tankers are often made of duplex stainless steels.

All rights reserved. Contents subject to change without warning or notification. Great care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication
are correct. However, Avesta Welding and its subsidiaries cannot accept responsibility for errors or for information that is found to be misleading.
Suggestions for, or descriptions of, working methods or of the use, treatment or machining of products are for information only and Avesta Welding
and its subsidiaries can accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products supplied or manufactured by the company, customers should satisfy
themselves of product suitability.

19
 10601EN-GB:3, Centrumtryck, Avesta 2010

Avesta Welding
P.O. Box 501, Modellvägen 2
SE- 774 27 Avesta, sweden
Tel: +46 (0) 226 857 00
Fax: +46 (0) 226 857 16
info@avestawelding.com
www.avestawelding.com