CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Concrete is the most widely used man-made construction material in the world,
and is second only to water as the most utilized substance on the planet. It is obtained
by mixing cementitious materials, water and aggregates (and sometimes admixtures)
in required proportions. The mixture when placed in forms and allowed to cure
hardens into rock-like mass known as concrete [Beall, 2003].

The hardening is caused by chemical reaction between water and cement and it
continues for a long time, and consequently the concrete grows stronger with age.
The hardened concrete may also be considered as an artificial stone in which the
voids of larger particles (coarse aggregate) are filled by the smaller particles (fine
aggregate) and the voids of fine aggregate s are filled with cement. In a concrete mix
the cementitious material and water form a paste called cement-water paste which in
addition to filling the voids of fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse
aggregates and bind them together as it cures, thereby cementing the particles of the
aggregates together in a compact mass [Gambhir, 2004].

The major factors responsible for wide usage of cement-concrete are

mouldability, early hardening, and high early compressive strength, development of
desired properties with admixture to be used in adverse situations, pumpability and
durability. These are simple reasons for its extensive use in the construction within a
wide range by using appropriate ingredients and by special mechanical, physical and
chemical processing techniques [Duggal , 1998].

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2.2 Characteristics of Aggregates

As mentioned earlier, concrete consists of cementitious materials, water and

aggregates. Concrete aggregate is a more or less inert, granular, usually inorganic
material consisting normally of stone(s) or stonelike solid(s). Typical examples are
sand, gravel, crushed stone, and crushed slag. The use of aggregate in concrete
greatly reduces the needed amount of cement, which is important both from technical
and economical standpoints [Popovic, 1992].

2.2.1 Gravel/Crushed Stone Aggregate

Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are identified as coarse. They are

obtained by natural disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks. The maximum
size of aggregate can be 80mm. The size is governed by the thickness of session,
spacing of reinforcement, clear cover, mixing, handling and placing method. For
economy the maximum size should be as large as possible but not more than one-
forth of the minimum thickness of the member. Aggregates more than 20mm size are
seldom used in normal applications. Table 2.1 shows the MS 29:1995 grading limit
in percentages by weight for coarse aggregate.

From MS 29:1995, coarse aggregates may be described into:

a) Uncrushed Gravel or Uncrushed stone
- Coarse aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of rock
b) Crushed stone or crushed gravel
- Coarse aggregate are produced by crushing hard stone and gravel
respectively.
c) Partially crushed gravel or stone
- It is obtained as a product of blending of uncrushed and crushed gravel or
blending stone.

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Table 2.1: Grading limits for coarse aggregate

(Derived from Materials in Construction: An Introduction)

BS sieve size Percentage by weight passing BS sieve

Nominal size of graded aggregate
mm 40 - 5 20 - 5 14 - 5 63 40 20 14 10
1/2 -
in 1 1/5 - 3 /16 3/4 - 3/16 2 1/2 1 1/2 3/4 1/2 3/8
3/16

75 3 100 - - 100 - - - -
85 -
63 2 1/2 - - - 100 - - -
100
37.5 1 1/2 95 - 100 100 - 0 - 30 85 - 100 100 - -
85 -
20 3/4 35 - 70 95 - 100 100 0-5 0 - 25 100 -
100
14 1/2 - - 90 - 100 - - - 85 - 100 -
85 -
10 3/8 10 -4 30 - 60 50 - 85 - 0- 5 0 - 25 0 - 50
100
5 3/16 0-5 0 -10 0 - 10 - - 0-5 0 - 10 0 - 25
2.36 No.7 0-5

2.2.2 Polystyrene Waste Aggregate

Lightweight aggregate (LWA) can be divided in two categories: 1. Those

occurring naturally and are ready to use only with mechanical treatment, i.e.,
crushing and sieving. 2. Those produced by thermal treatment from either naturally
occurring materials or from industrial by-products, waste materials, etc. [Satish,
2002].

EPS beads can be easily incorporated with different contents in concrete to

produce lightweight concrete with a wide range of densities. However, EPS light
weight concrete was not used for structural light concrete because of poor strength.
EPS beads are extremely light with densities of only 12–20 kg/m3 which can cause
segregation in mixing. In addition, they are hydrophobic, which results in poor
bonding to cement paste. Hence, some researches have been done on: (1) adding
some bonding additives such as aqueous epoxy emulsions and aqueous dispersions of
polyvinyl propionate;(2) chemically treated EPS beads which are capable of
preventing the segregation in the concrete mixes; (3) adding ultra fine silica fume to
improve the bonding between EPS and the cement paste.

Polystyrene aggregate can be used to produce low density concretes required

for building applications and it can be used for other specialised applications like the
sub-base material for pavement and railway track bed, as construction material for

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floating marine structures, sea beds and sea fences, as an energy absorbing material
for the protection of buried military structures and as fenders in offshore oil
platforms. Moreover, for equal concrete densities, EPS aggregate concrete have
exhibited 70–270% higher compressive strength than vermiculite or pearlite
aggregate concrete and these were found to be fire-resistant and hence used as a good
thermal insulation material in building construction.

2.2.3 Sand

Sand is used to achieve economy by its use as adulterant in concrete, prevent

shrinkage and development of cracks in concrete and furnish strength to concrete
against crushing [Duggal, 1998]. Fine aggregate can be loosely defined as a material
which passed through a 5 mm (3/16 inch) BS 410 test sieve.

Table 2.2: Grading limits for fine aggregates

(Derived from Materials in Construction: An Introduction)
BS sieve size Percentage by weight passing BS sieve

Grading Grading Grading Grading

zone 1 zone 2 zone 3 zone 4

10 mm 3/8 in. 100 100 100 100

3/16
5 mm in. 90 -100 90 - 100 90 - 100 95 - 100
2.36 mm No.7 60 - 95 75 - 100 85 - 100 95 - 100
1.18 mm No.1 30 -70 55 - 90 75 - 100 90 - 100
600 µm No.25 15 - 34 35 - 59 60 - 79 80 - 100
300 µm No.52 5 - 20 8 - 30 12 - 40 15 - 50
150 µm No.100 0 - 10* 0 - 10* 0 - 10* 0 - 15*

The types of sand may be further described into:

a) Natural sand
- Fine aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of rocks.
b) Crushed stone sand and crushing gravel sand

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- Fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone or natural gravel

respectively.

The MS 29:1995 grading limits in percentages by weight for fine aggregate is

given in Table 2.2. The coarseness or fineness is indicated by the zone in which the
grading falls, a higher zone number indicates a finer material.

2.3 Properties of Aggregate

Aggregate occupies roughly three-fourths of the volume of concrete. Therefore

its properties have considerable importance to quality of the concrete. To achieve a
good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of
absorbed chemicals and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of
concrete. The properties to be considered while selecting aggregate for concrete are
strength, particle shape, specific gravity, bulk density, voids, porosity, moisture
content and bulking [Duggal, 1998].

2.3.1 Strength

The strength should be at least equal to that of the concrete. The test conducted
for strength evaluation are crushing test, which is the most reliable significant value
can be obtained. Generally the specifications prescribe 45 percent limit for the
crushing value. The toughness of aggregate is measured by impact test. The impact
value should not exceed for wearing surface and 45 percent for remaining concrete.
Hardness of aggregate is tested by abrasion test. The abrasion value is restricted to 30
percent wearing surfaces and 50 percent for concrete for other purposes. [Duggal,
1998].

2.3.2 Water Absorption

Water absorption which leads to moisture content of aggregate has a significant

effect on the green concrete. The surface moisture is expressed as a percentage of the
weight of the saturated surface dry aggregate is known as moisture content. High

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moisture content increases the effective water/cement ratio to an appreciable extent

and may render the concrete weak. The amount of free-water in aggregates should be
deducted from the water to be added, and batch quantities of aggregates must be
slightly increased if free water present since some of the ‘aggregate’ is actually water
[Beal, 2003].

2.3.3 Particle Shape of Aggregate

Besides water content (based on water-cement ratio), maximum aggregate size

and the surface of aggregate, the particle shape of aggregate also play an important
roll in determining the workability of fresh concrete. These are common shapes of
aggregate:

• Rounded aggregate
- Generally obtained from river and produce minimum voids (±32%) in the
concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area to the volume, and the cement
paste required is minimum. Poor interlocking bond makes it unsuitable for high
strength concrete.
• Irregular aggregate
- Contain voids (±36%) and require more cement paste compared to
rounded aggregate. They develop good bond due to irregularity in shape and suitable
for making ordinary concrete.
• Angular aggregate
- Have sharp, angular and rough particles having maximum voids (±40%).
Better bond is achievable compared to rounded and irregular aggregate.
• Flaky aggregate
- Also known as elongated aggregate. The least lateral dimension of flaky
aggregate should be less than 0.6 times the mean. Generally orient in one plane with
water and air voids underneath. They adversely affect durability and restricted to
maximum of 15%.

2.3.4 Surface of Aggregate

The degrees of smoothness or roughness have a significant impact on both

fresh and harden concrete. It affects the workability of fresh concrete and the

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compressive strength of harden concrete. An aggregate with a rough and porous

texture is preferred to one with a smooth surface. The rough and porous texture can
increase the aggregate-cement bond 1.75 times, in which may increase the
compressive and flexural strength of concrete up to 20%. Pores at the surface
enhance the development of good bonding, as the cement paste is sucked into these
pores.

2.4 Testing of Aggregate

2.4.1 Compressive Strength

The ability of the aggregate to withstand wear or applied pressure can be

measured by conducting the compression test. The compressibility of aggregate
would reduce distress in concrete during its volume changes while a strong and rigid
aggregate might lead to the cracking of the surrounding cement paste. Higher
compressive strength is required to produce structural concrete member, compared to
one used for the insulation purpose.

2.4.2 Sieve Analysis

A sample of dry aggregate of known mass is separated through a series of

sieves of progressively smaller openings for determination of particle size
distribution. The sieves are arranged in such an order that follow the grading limits
derived from BS 882. The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way
the produced concrete performs in use. The curve plotted from the values of passing
aggregates (coarse or fine) through the sieves is termed as the grading curve. The
grading curve indicates whether the grading of a given sample conforms to the
specified or it too coarse or too fine, or deficient in a particular size.

2.5 Introduction to Concrete

Concrete is a composite man-made material consists of a mixture of binding

material such as cement, well graded fine and coarse aggregates, water and

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admixtures (if needed to produce concrete with special properties). In a concrete mix,
cement and water form a paste or matrix which fills the voids of the fine aggregate
and binds both coarse and fine aggregates. Freshly mixed concrete before set is
known as wet or green concrete whereas after setting and hardening it is known as
set or hardened concrete. The moulded concrete mix after sufficient curing becomes
hard like stone due to chemical action between the water and the binding material
[Duggal, 1998]. The final quality of the concrete depends upon the effectiveness of
the hardened paste in binding the aggregate particles together and in filling the voids
between the particles [Gambhir, 2004].

2.5.1 Polymer Concrete

Polymer concrete (PC) became well known in the 1970s and is used for repair,
thin overlays for floors and bridges, and for precast components. [Fowler, 2000]
Compared to cement-based concrete, polymer concrete (PC) is stronger and more
durable. For this reason, polymer concrete is used in many structures such as box
culverts, hazardous waste containers, trench lines, floor drains, and in the repair and
overlay of damaged cement concrete surfaces such as pavement and bridges. [Byung,
2007]. Common polymeric materials used for polymer concrete materials such as
Polystyrene (PS) waste, High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) waste, Polyethylene
Terephalate (PET) waste.

They are purposely adopted as a replacement of coarse aggregate or fine

aggregate in concrete. Prior to concrete production, the raw polymer waste
undergone through a modification process to alter the initial properties to enable it to
serve as concrete aggregates. It has to first acquire the satisfactory strength, secondly
the proper shape, surface and size of concrete aggregates. As a final result, the
addition of wastes, as well as environmental benefits, also produces good effects on
the properties of final products.

2.5.2 Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight Aggregate Concrete, LWAC or simply known as Lightweight

Concrete, LWC is not a new invention in concrete technology. It has been known

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since ancient times as it was made using natural aggregates of volcanic origin such as
pumice, scoria, etc[Satish, 2002].

Lightweight concrete (LWC) has been used since the ancient periods. The fact
that some of the structures are still in good condition speaks about concrete’s
durability. Apart from building construction, lightweight concrete has also been used
in ship building, and for thermal insulation. Lightweight aggregates are also used in
horticulture. The low density of lightweight aggregate concrete made with pumice
aggregates results in a reduction in the weight of the structures and the foundations,
and in considerable savings in thermal insulation [Alaettin et al., 2003].

In the manufacture of lightweight aggregates, a vesicular structure is produced

that gives concrete useful thermal insulating properties. The thermal resistance of
LWC is up to six times that of normal weight concrete. The effectiveness of foam
plastic overshadows all other materials, however, it has an easily damaged surface
that requires surface protection. Frequently, the plastic foam, because of its low
temperature flammability and easily damaged surface, is sandwiched between two
layers of concrete masonry, both of which can be made of LWC to further increase
the thermal resistance.

Use of LWC instead of normal weight concrete (NWC), for example, as a floor
slab in a multi-story building, depends on the relative costs and the potential savings
that can occur by the use of a lighter material. LWC is about 28% lighter than normal
concrete and, in a design where the dead load is equal to the live load, a saving of
14% in energy intensive steel reinforcement can result [Satish, 2002].

2.6 Properties of Concrete

Concrete can be distinguished onto two distinct phases; the fresh concrete and
the hardened concrete. Three main properties should be controlled in fresh concrete;
workability, consistency and cohesiveness. On the other hand, for hardened concrete,
the strength, durability and volume stability are the properties that should be
controlled.

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2.6.1 Fresh Concrete

Freshly mixed concrete is known as wet or green concrete, or just fresh

concrete. Workability is the relative ease with which a fresh concrete mix can be
handled, placed, compacted, and finished without segregation or separation of the
ingredients. Fresh concrete has good workability if it can be formed, compacted, and
finished to its final shape and texture with minimal effort and without segregation of
the ingredients. Concrete with poor workability does not flow smoothly into forms
and properly envelop reinforcing steel and embedded items, and it is difficult to
compact and finish [Beall, 2003].

Consistency is the aspect of workability related to the flow characteristics of

fresh concrete. It is an indication of the fluidity or wetness of a mix and is measured
by the slump test. When the cone is removed, the concrete slumps a certain amount
depending on how fluid it is. A wet, soft mix slumps more than a drier, stiffer one. A
high-slump concrete is one that is very fluid, and a low-slump concrete is drier and
more stiff. A high-slump mix may cause excessive bleeding, shrinkage, cracking, and
dusting of the hardened concrete surface. There is a certain range of consistency that
is appropriate for each type of work. Workability is at a maximum in concrete of
medium consistency with a slump between 3 and 6 inches [Gambhir, 2004].

Cohesiveness is the element of workability which indicates whether a mix is

harsh, sticky, or plastic. Plasticity is a desirable property in concrete, indicating that a
mix can be molded and hold a shape when formed. A harsh mix lacks plasticity and
the ingredients may tend to separate. Harshness can be caused by either an excess or
deficiency of mixing water (high- or low-slump mixes), a deficiency of cement (lean
mixes), or a deficiency of fine aggregate particles. A sticky mix may have a high
cement content (fat mixes) or large amounts of rock dust, fine sand, or similar fine
materials (oversanded mixes).

2.6.2 Hardened Concrete

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Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak in tension and bending.

It takes a great deal of force to crush concrete, but very little force to pull it apart or
cause bending cracks. Compressive strength is determined primarily by the amount
of cement used, but is also affected by the ratio of water to cement, as well as proper
mixing and placing, and the adequacy and extent of hydration and curing. Tensile
strength usually ranges from 7 or 8 % of compressive strength in high-strength mixes
to 11 or 12% in low-strength mixes..Durability might be defined as the ability to
maintain satisfactory performance over an extended service life. Satisfactory
performance is related to intended use.All materials expand and contract with
changes in temperature, and porous materials like concrete also expand and contract
with changes in moisture content [Beall, 2003].

Cement-based products such as concrete, concrete masonry, and stucco

experience initial shrinkage as the cement hydrates and excess mixing water
evaporates. This initial shrinkage is permanent, and is in addition to reversible
expansion and contraction caused by later temperature or moisture changes.
Excessive shrinkage can cause concrete to crack. The cracks allow moisture to
penetrate, and a vicious cycle of deterioration may begin.

2.7 Mechanical Testing

2.7.1 Compression Strength

The compressive strength of concrete is measured by breaking cylindrical

concrete or concrete cube specimens in a compression-testing machine. The
compressive strength is calculated from the failure load divided by the cross-
sectional area resisting the load and reported in unit psi or MPa in SI units. The
compressive strength is taken as the maximum compressive load it can carry per unit
area. BS 1881 and MS 7.1 specify the use of concrete cubes for determining
compressive strength using (150 x 150 x 150) mm cubes for quantity control
purposes. However, (100 x 100 x 100) mm cubes are allowed as long as the
maximum size of the coarse aggregate is lower than 25mm [Kartini, 2000].

For compressive strength values using the equation below;

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Compressive strength = Maximum load applied ( N) (2.1)

Cross sectional area (mm2)

2.7.2 Flexural Strength

Flexural test is a measure of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab to resist

failure in bending. The flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
in Megapascal (MPa) and is determined by Standard test methods according to BS
1881: Part 4:1970 or MS 7.1: Part 4: 1971 [Kartini, 2000]. Flexural MOR is about 10
to 20 percent of compressive strength depending on the type, size, and volume of
coarse aggregate. Flexural test is intended to find the flexural strength of concrete in
tension. In this test a simply supported plain concrete is loaded at it third point. The
resulting bending moments induce compressive stresses in the top and tensile stresses
in the bottom of the beam.

The beam fails in tension and flexural strength with formula below [Mustafa,
2007]:

F = 3 PL (2.2)
2 bd2

Where is:
P = maximum load applied to the beam, in Newton’s
L = distance in mm between the axes of the cuter pair roller
b = width in mm of the beam at the line of fracture
d = depth in mm of the beam at the line of fracture

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