Chem6 AcidicEnvironU PDF

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keep it simple science
HSC Chemistry Topic 2
THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT

What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. ACIDS, BASES & INDICATORS
2. ACIDS IN OUR ENVIRONMENT
3. ACIDS & THE pH SCALE
4. ACID-BASE THEORY & TITRATION
5. ESTERIFICATION
...all in the context of Chemistry in our environment and society.
but first, an introduction...

Way back in years 8, 9 or 10 you would have The details of Acid-Base Reactions will be
studied some basic Chemistry, and it probably studied proton transfer
involved studying acids and bases and
indicators... so these are familiar terms, even if
you’ve forgotten the details. + +
This topic begins by reminding you of this ACID BASE

simple way to classify all chemical substances:
...and you will learn the real meaning of the pH

Acid, scale, used for measuring acid and base
Base, strength.
or Neutral pH = -llog[H+]
and how
“Indicators” can Along the way, you will
be used to identify learn some important
them. techniques in
Chemical Analysis
Then, we look at the
Chemistry of Oxide Compounds,
and link that to Acidity.
You will study the sources and problems that

can result from
Acids in the
Environment
and, revise & practice
and a process you might never
Mole have heard of before,
Calculations but it is common in nature and
in the Chemical Industry:
Esterification
HSC Chemistry Topic 2 “Acidic Environment” 1 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (“Mind Map”) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and
remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic,
come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole.
At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this “Mind Map” to practise on.
Acids & Alkalis.

Acidic & Basic Dynamic Equilibrium
Oxides &
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Acids, Bases
&
Acidic Oxides
Indicators Acids in the
Environment
in our
Environment
Acids as Proton
Donors
Strong v. Weak
THE Acids
ACIDIC Acids &

ENVIRONMENT the pH Scale
pH Scale
&
pH Calculations
Self-ionisation
0f Water
Esters
Early Ideas
Acid-Base about
Theory Acids &
Bases
Alkanols &
& Titration
Alkanoic Acids
Bronsted-Lowry
Esterification Theory
Reaction
Esters
Structure & Naming Acid-Base
Acidic & Basic
Behaviour of
Occurrence Salts.
Water.
& Buffers
AMPHIPROTIC
Uses of Esters
Neutralisation
&
Titration
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1. ACIDS, BASES & INDICATORS

Acid, Base or Neutral? Modern Laboratory Indicators
The syllabus requires that you are familiar with
The chemical definitions of acid and base will the common laboratory indicators listed below.
come later. For now, you are reminded of what
you may have learnt in earlier Science classes. You will have done experimental work, adding 2
drops of indicator to test tubes of acid, base and
Acids and bases are chemical opposites; if you pure water (which is neutral) and recorded the
add one to the other they “destroy” (neutralise) colours produced.
each other, and the end product is neutral.
Acids and bases are the opposite ends of a Your results should have agreed with the
chemical property called “acidity”, which is following:
measured by a numerical scale called “pH”.
Colour in
ACID NEUTRAL BASE Indicator Acid Water Base
Litmus pink purple blue
Phenolphthalein clear clear red/pink

1 3 5 7 9 11 13
pH Methyl Orange red yellow yellow
The word “acid” comes from the Latin for Bromothymol blue yellow green/blue blue
“sour”, and refers to the fact that natural, acidic
chemicals (e.g. vinegar) are sour-tasting. Choosing an Indicator
Why are so many indicators needed?
Indicators
Indicators are chemicals which change colour Litmus is useful for general indentification of
according to the acidity of the solution they are acidic or basic substances. However, its colour
in. change is rather indistinct, and can occur over
quite a range of pH values... it is not a “sharp”
The original indicators were natural extracts change.
from plants or other living things. Some, such
as litmus, are still in use today, as well as newer, In contrast, Phenolphthalein cannot tell you the
synthetically made chemicals. difference between a glass of water and sulfuric
acid. However, the colour change is very
distinctive, and occurs suddenly at a very
Practical Work: A Natural Indicator specific pH value... it is very sharp. This is not
You may have done practical work to prepare much use in general identification of
and test a natural indicator. substances, but in certain methods of chemical
analysis it is very important.
A good example
is the common Everyday Uses of Indicators
garden plant Soil Testing. Some plants grow best in acidic
Hydrangea. soils; others need slightly alkaline (basic)
conditions. Farmers and keen gardeners use
If you collect a simple test kits containing an indicator
flower head and andcolour chart, to test the soil. They can then
put it through a adjust the soil pH to get the best results.
blender with a
little water and Water Testing. Swimming pools need regular
ethanol, the testing for acidity to better maintain their water
filtered liquid quality and hygiene. Aquariums must be
extract will maintained at very specific pH levels for the
work as a health of their inhabitants.
simple indicator.
Effluent Testing. Acidity is a useful way to
In acid, the Hydrangea flower extract assess the levels of certain types of pollution
is a bluish colour. from industries. Industry technicians and
Government authorities use indicators to
In a base, it turns pink-ish. monitor the pH of waste water and natural
waterways.
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Practical Work: Classifying Household Substances

You may have done laboratory work using
various liquid and paper indicators to classify a
range of household substances and foodstuffs
as either acid, base or neutral.
By using appropriate indicators (such as

“Universal”) you may have even been able to
differentiate between substances that are
“mildly acidic” and “strongly acidic”.
Some Typical Results

Household Substances Found to be...
ACIDIC NEUTRAL BASIC

Vinegar Salt Soap
Orange juice Sugar Floor cleaner
Tomato juice Shampoo Drain cleaner
Milk
Liquid detergent
Worksheet 1 Acids, Bases & Indicators Student Name..........................................

Fill in the blank spaces The colour changes for the following indicators
Acids and bases are chemical need to be learnt.
a)................................ If you add one to the other, Indicator Acid Neutral Base
they b)............................... each other.
Litmus j)............. purple k)..............
Acidity is measured by the c).............. scale. On
Phenolphthalein l)........... ................ ................
this scale, a neutral substance has a value of
d)....... Values above this indicate e)...................... Methyl orange m)............. ................ .............
substances, while values below indicate
f)........................ substances. Bromothymol n).............. green/blue o).............
blue
Indicators are chemicals which g)..................... In everyday situations, indicators are used for
........................ according to the h)......................... purposes such as p).......................................... for
of the solution they are in. The original farming and gardening, q).....................................
indicators where extracts from i).......................... for pools and aquariums, and for monitoring
r)............................... from industries.
Worksheet 2 Practice Questions & Test Questions section 1

1. Student Name..........................................
Each solution listed below has been tested with 2.
one or more indicators, and the colour is given. A household substance most likely to be very
For each, state if it is acidic, neutral or basic. basic is
A. vinegar.
Solution A: Phenolphthalein is clear. B. soap.
Methyl orange is red. C. sugar.
D. milk.
Solution B: Phenolphthalein is pink.
Methyl orange is yellow. 3. (4 marks)
a) What is meant by an “acid-base indicator”?
Solution C: Phenolphthalein is clear.
Methyl orange is yellow. b) Identify an everyday use of an indicator.
Solution D: Bromothymol blue is blue. c) Describe how you could prepare a simple
Methyl orange is yellow. indicator from a named natural substance.
Solution E: Phenolphthalein is clear.

Litmus is pink.
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2. ACIDS IN OUR ENVIRONMENT

Laboratory Acids and “Alkalis” Acid-Base Properties
You are reminded that the common laboratory of the Oxide Compounds
acids are: The common laboratory acids and alkali-bases
are not the whole story. Most of the oxide
Name Formula Solution of compounds of the elements show some acid-
Hydrochloric acid HCl H+(aq)+ Cl-(aq) base behaviour too, and the periodic table
reveals another pattern.
2H+(aq)+ SO4
2-
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq) Non-m metal oxides
+ - Oxide of hydrogen (incl. semi-mmetals)
Nitric acid HNO3 H (aq)+ NO3 (aq) is water; neutral are usually ACIDIC
Inert Gases have no

oxide compounds
The most familiar laboratory bases are soluble tals
e me
h
of t ses...
hydroxide compounds which are sometimes
des a
Oxi ct as b XIDES
called “alkalis”.
a IC O
Name Formula Solution of BAS
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+(aq)+ OH-(aq)
Potassium hydroxide KOH K+(aq)+ OH-(aq)

Basic Oxides of the Metals
The Acid-Alkali Reaction: Most of the oxides of the metallic elements are
Neutralisation considered basic because they can neutralise
You should be familiar with this reaction from acids, forming water and a “salt”.
earlier Science studies:
ACID + METAL WATER + A “SALT”
ACID + ALKALI WATER + A “SALT” OXIDE
Example:
Examples:
sulfuric + potassium water + potassium hydrochloric + magnesium water + magnesium
acid hydroxide sulfate acid oxide chloride
2HCl(aq) + MgO(s) H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq)
Ionic equation: sulfuric + copper(II) water + copper(II)

acid oxide sulfate
2H+(aq)+ SO4 (aq)+ 2K+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq)
2-
H2SO4(aq+ CuO(s) H2O(l) + CuSO4(aq)
+ 2-
2H2O(l)+ 2K (aq)+ SO4 (aq)
Acidic Oxides of the Non-Metals
If you study this equation you will see that the Many of the oxide compounds of the non-metal
potassium and sulfate ions are spectators. You elements are acidic because they will:
can leave them out to form the net ionic
equation: • react with water to form an acid
+ - and/or
2H (aq)+ 2OH (aq) 2H2O(l) • react with a base by neutralising it,
or more simply: to form water and a “salt”.
H+(aq)+ OH-(aq) H2O(l)
Examples:
All the familiar laboratory acids are solutions carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
containing hydrogen ions (H+). The laboratory CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
“alkali” bases are solutions containing
hydroxide ions (OH- ). These will always react to
form water, so acid and base have neutralised carbon + sodium water + sodium
each other. dioxide hydroxide carbonate
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2CO3(aq)
The other product is always a soluble, ionic
compound. These are known collectively as “salts”.
WORKSHEET at end of section WORKSHEET at end of section
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Chemical Equilibrium Practical Work:
The concept of “Dynamic Equilibrium” was Mass & Volume of CO2 in a Soft Drink
introduced in a previous Preliminary topic. The
example used then was the equilibrium between You will have done a simple laboratory exercise to
a solid ionic lattice and dissolved ions in a “de-carbonate” a fizzy soft drink and
saturated solution. measure/calculate the
mass and volume of CO2
e.g. NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) gas released.
At equilibrium, it seems (macroscopically) that If you weigh the soft drink

and container accurately,
nothing is happening. However, at the atomic then release the pressure
level, solid salt is dissolving into the solution, so that it goes flat (this
but at the same time, some ions are may take a day or more)
precipitation out of solution to form a solid you will have measured a
lattice These 2 processes are occurring at the small loss of mass, due to
same rate. THEY ARE IN EQUILIBRIUM. CO2 gas escaping.
Typical Results& Analysis

Equilibrium of For a 300mL bottle of
lemonade:
Carbon Dioxide and Water
When CO2 dissolves in water, it doesn’t merely Start mass = 536.9g
dissolve, but reacts to form the weak acid Final mass = 535.8g
“carbonic acid”. mass loss = 1.1g
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) moles of CO2:
n = m/MM
This is a dynamic equilibrium situation. Even = 1.1/44.01
n(CO2) = 0.025 mol.
when the process seems finished, there are
actually 2 reactions (one forwards , one Volume of CO2 (assuming
backwards ) occurring at the same rate, so standard conditions)
that nothing appears to be happening. V = n x VM
= 0.025 x 24.8 = 0.62 L
0.62 L (620mL) of CO2 gas was released
Shifting an Equilibrium
A chemical equilibrium is “dynamic”, meaning Factors That Can Cause
that things are moving back and forth. This also
means that it is possible to “upset” an Equilibrium Shift
equilibrium and cause it to shift to a new Pressure
balance between reactants and products. If a reaction involves a gas, any change in the
pressure of that gas will shift the equilibrium.
With soft drinks, increasing the pressure of CO2
For example, when you open drives the equilibrium to the right; decreasing
and pour a fizzy drink it forms CO2 pressure, shifts it to the left.
bubbles in the glass.
The sealed drink contains

Temperature
dissolved CO2, but as soon as
If you kept the gas pressure constant, but raised
it is opened, the gas begins the temperature, you would find this equilibrium
coming out of solution, would shift left. (i.e. less carbonic acid)
because the equilibrium has Lowering the temperature would shift it to the
shifted to the left. right (more carbonic acid).
Eventually a new equilibrium Which way an equilibrium shifts due to

is established with a lot less temperature, depends on whether the reaction is
gas dissolved... we say it has exo- or endo-thermic. This is explained later.
“gone flat”.
Concentration
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) The equilibrium could also be shifted by altering
the concentration of (say) the carbonic acid. If
Equilibrium shifting to the left results in less you added extra H2CO3(aq) somehow, the
carbonic acid and the formation of more CO2 equilibrium would shift left. If you reduced the
gas. The shift in the equilibrium was caused by concentration, (e.g. by adding an alkali which
the pressure change which occurred when the would react and destroy it) the equilibrium
drink was opened. would shift towards the right.
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Le Chatelier’s Principle Effect of Concentration

In 1885, the French Chemist Henri Le Chatelier
discovered the underlying pattern in these Imagine a sealed container with an equilibrium
equilibrium shifts. The equilibrium always shifts mixture within.
in the direction which counteracts the change
that upset it in the first place. If you injected extra product so its concentration
increased, the equilibrium shifts left, attempting
Le Chatelier’s Principle: to reduce the concentration of product
If a system in equilibrium is disturbed,
the system will adjust itself in the direction
which counteracts the disturbance.
CO2(g)
Temperature Effect on Equilibrium

The dissolving of CO2 to form carbonic acid is
an exothermic reaction, so heat energy may be
considered as one of the products:
Equilibrium
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) + heat Shift Extra H2CO3
energy injected into
H2CO3(aq) solution
So, if the temperature is raised, the equilibrium
shifts left
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) + heat
energy
... because shifting left would use up heat and
lower the temperature again.
If the temperature is lowered, the equilibrium CO2(g)+ H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

shifts right in an attempt to release heat energy
and raise the temperature again. If you somehow removed product so its
concentration was reduced, the equilibrium
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) + heat would shift right in an attempt to make more.
energy
The Response of an Endothermic Reaction In every case, the equilibrium shift tries
is exactly the opposite. to counteract the change
Explaining the Pressure Effect

Initial Equilibrium Extra CO2 pumped in. CO2 pumped out.
Situation Pressure (and concentration) Pressure (and concentration)
of CO2 increased. of CO2 decreased.
Sealed CO2(g)
H2CO3(aq) concentration
H2CO3(aq) H2CO3(aq) concentration decreases as equilibrium
increases as equilibrium shifts left, attempting to
shifts right, attempting make more CO2
to use up the extra CO2
CO2(g)+ H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) CO2(g)+ H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
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Acidic Oxides in the Environment
Learning about Equilibrium was a necessary Carbon Dioxide is a part of the great
diversion... now back to acids. “Carbon-Oxygen” cycle in nature.
There are 3 main acidic oxides that are of CO2

concern in the environment:
carbon dioxide nitrogen dioxide All living things. Plants.
Respiration
CO2 sulfur dioxide NO2
Photosynthesis
O2
SO2
All 3 are gases produced by both natural CO2 is also released into the air by natural bush
processes and by human activities. All 3 react fires, and by volcanic eruptions, but generally
with water in the environment to form acids: there’s a balance.
carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid For millions of years, huge quantities of carbon
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) have been “locked-away” in fossil materials
such as coal and petroleum.
sulfur dioxide + water sulfurous acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) For the last 100 years or so, human activity has
been releasing this “fossil carbon” as CO2 by
nitrogen + water nitrous acid + nitric acid burning the fossil fuels. CO2 levels have risen
dioxide 30% or more, upsetting the balance, world-wide.
2NO2(g)+ H2O(l) HNO2(aq)+ HNO3(aq
This is believed to be causing environmental
problems
Sources of Acidic Oxides “Global warming”
in the Environment due to the “Greenhouse Effect”.
Sulfur Dioxide Geyser erupting, Nitrogen Dioxide occurs naturally in

Yellowstone NP extremely small quantities due to the reaction
is released into the air
from volcanic between O2 and N2 when lightning provides the
eruptions and hot- necessary energy:
springs, but the natural
levels are extremely nitrogen + oxygen nitric oxide
low. N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
Human activities can Nitric oxide is NOT acidic, but it reacts with O2:
pollute the air of a
region by releasing SO2 from:
nitric oxide + oxygen nitrogen dioxide
Smelting of Sulfide Ores 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
The ores of some metals (esp. lead, zinc,
copper) contain sulfide compounds. To extract The combination of NO(g) and NO2(g) is referred
the metal, the ore is roasted with air: to as the “NOx” gases.
lead(II) sulfide + oxygen lead + sulfur High temperature

dioxide combustions
PbS + O2 Pb + SO2 (especially coal-
burning power
Burning of Fossil Fuels stations and vehicle
Some fuels, especially coal, contain small engines) produce
amounts of sulfur-containing compounds. large amounts of
When the coal is burnt, the sulfur burns too: NOx gases.
sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide
NOx pollution can
S + O2 SO2
cause toxic “smog”
The main environmental concern with SO2 around large cities.
release is “Acid Rain”
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Environmental Impacts Evidence for
Each of these acidic oxides can cause a Acidic Oxide Pollution
different major environmental problem: We know that CO2 levels in the atmosphere have
CO2 is the weakest acid of increased because measurements have been
carbon dioxide these 3, and its acidity collected over many years. The measurements
of SO2 and NOx gases have not been collected
CO2
is not the problem.
for as long, and these gases are rapidly
You should already be aware of
“washed” out of the air by rain, so the evidence
the “Greenhouse Effect” and for their presence is not so certain.
“Global Warming”
Acidity is not the main concern What we can be certain about are the localised
effects of SO2 pollution in places where it is, or
with the NOx gases either. In the nitrogen dioxide was, prevalent. Some examples from the 1960’s
next topic you will study the
NO2
Chemistry of “smog” and ozone
were mentioned before. Closer to home and to
the present, is the evidence of devastation
pollution. (But NO2 does around Queenstown, Tasmania.
contribute to “Acid Rain”) The environmental damage around Queenstown
sulfur dioxide
was caused by the release of SO2 from the
and Mt.Lyell copper mine and smelter. Although
SO2 “Acid Rain”
pollution ceased over 20 years ago, the
environment has still not recovered.
Hills bare of vegetation
The main problem with SO2 pollution is its
acidity.
SO2 reacts with water in the environment:
sulfur dioxide + water sulfurous acid

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Sulfurous acid is a strong acid and where SO2

pollution is serious, the acidity of rainfall stings
the eyes, corrodes metals, erodes stone Gravel playing field
(grass won’t grow)
buildings and monuments, and can have
serious environmental impacts:
Lakes and wetlands can become acidic enough

to kill plants and animals and disrupt the food-
chains and the normal ecological balance. How Much Gas is Produced?
The Queenstown Copper Industry was smelting
Forests can be killed by acidity of the rain, and a copper ore containing mainly copper(I) sulfide.
the leaching of the soils by acids. After concentrating the ore by froth flotation, the
material was smelted by roasting in a furnace
Deforestation with a blast of air to provide oxygen:
Copper(I) sulfide + oxygen Copper + Sulfur dioxide

Cu2S + O2 2Cu + SO2
How much SO2(g) is produced from 1 tonne of Cu2S?

6
Solution: 1 Tonne = 1,000 kg = 1.00 x 10 gram
moles of Cu2S: n = m/MM (MM = 159.2g)

= 1.00x106/159.2
In the 1960’s (when Acid Rain became known) = 6.28 x 103 mol.
many forests were seriously damaged, including mole ratio in equation is 1:1
the famous “Black Forest” of Germany. In ∴ moles of SO2 produced = 6.28 x 103 mol.
Canada, 15,000 lakes were known to be “dead” in
an ecological sense. mass(SO2): m = n x MM (MM = 64.07g)
= 6.28x103 x 64.07
Since then, emissions of SO2 have been limited = 4.02 x 105 g (402 kg)
and damage reduced, but the threat of Acid Rain volume(SO2): V = n x VM
is still a serious one, especially in rapidly (at SLC) = 6.28x103 x 24.8
industrialising countries such as China. = 1.56 x 105 L (156,000 litres!!)
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Worksheet 3 Acids in the Environment

Fill in the blank spaces Student Name..........................................
Acids and bases react with each other to form There are 3 acidic oxides which are of concern
a)................... and a “b)............................” and environmentally:
c)................................... each other.
Carbon dioxide is a natural part of the
The oxides of most metals act as p).....................- ............................ cycle in nature.
d)........................., in that they will react with an Human activities have increased the CO2 levels
acid to form e).................. and a ....................... mainly from q)........................... .............................
The major problem arising is “r).........................
Oxides of non-metals mostly act as warming” due to the “s)........................................”
f).......................... because they will either
dissolve in/react with water to form an Sulfur dioxide occurs naturally in
g)..................... and/or they react with bases and t)............................ eruptions and u).......................
h).......................................... them. Human activities which release SO2 include
burning of v)................................ and the
Chemical i).................................... occurs when a w).............................. of some metal ores. The
reaction, and its opposite are occurring at the main environmental problem is “x).....................
same j)......................., so that the concentrations ..................” which can cause serious ecological
of reactant(s) and k)..................... do not change. damage to lakes and forests.
The equilibrium is said to be l)........................
Nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide (collectively
An equilibrium can be “upset” by a change in known as y)................ gases) are produced
m)............................, ............................... or naturally in very small amounts by
................................... When a change occurs, it z)............................. Human activities which
will “shift” to a new equilibrium position produce them are high temperature
according to n)...................................................... combustions in aa)............................... and
Principle. This states that when an equilibrium is ................................... Environmentally, NOx
disturbed, the system will shift in the direction gases are the main cause of toxic
which o)................................................................. “ab)..................” in large cities, but also can
................................................. contribute to Acid ac).......................
Worksheet 4 Practice Questions

Acid-Base Reactions Student Name..........................................
1. Acid-Alkali Reactions b) hydrochloric acid & magnesium oxide
a) Name the salt formed in a reaction between:
i) hydrochloric acid & calcium hydroxide
c) nitric acid & copper(II) oxide
ii) sulfuric acid & magnesium hydroxide
iii) nitric acid & barium hydroxide 3. Reactions of Acidic Oxides

a) carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide
to form water and calcium carbonate. (This is
b) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of: the “limewater” reaction) Write a balanced
i) hydrochloric acid and lithium hydroxide equation for the reaction.
ii) sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide b) P2O5 is an acidic oxide. It reacts with water to
form phosphoric acid, H3PO4. Write the
balanced equation.
iii) nitric acid and magnesium hydroxide
2. Reactions of Basic Oxides c) Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form a

Write a balanced equation for the reaction of: strong acid. Write a balanced equation, and
name the acid.
a) sulfuric acid & iron(II) oxide
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Le Chatelier’s Principle Student Name..........................................
1. NO2(g) reacts with itself as follows: 2. If hydrogen iodide (covalent molecular) is
dissolved in water, some of the molecules
2NO2(g) N2O4(g) ionise, and an equilibrium is reached:
The reaction to the right is exothermic, so heat HI(aq) H+(aq) + I-(aq)

can be considered as a “product”.
What is the effect on this equilibrium of:
2NO2(g) N2O4(g) + heat (Explain each)
i) adding NaI(aq) solution, which increases the
Note that as the reaction proceeds to the right, 2 concentration of iodide ions.
moles of gas form 1 mole of gas, so in a fixed
volume container the pressure would drop as
the reaction proceeds to the right.
ii) Adding NaOH, which reacts with H+ ions, and
Imagine a sealed container in which a mixture of reduces their concentration.
these gases has reached equilibrium.
State which way the equilibrium would shift if

each of the following disturbances were made to iii) Dissolving extra HI in the solution.
the mixture. Explain each answer.
i) Increase in temperature.
iv) It is found that raising the temperature of an
equilibrium mixture has the effect of increasing
the concentration of ions. Deduce whether the
ii) Compress the mixture, therby increasing pressure. reaction as written is exo- or endothermic.
3. Ammonia is manufactured from its elements

iii) Injecting extra N2O4, without changing by the reaction
pressure.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) NH3(g) + heat
i) To maximize the yield of ammonia, the

iv) Decrease the temperature. reaction is carried out under very high pressure.
Explain how this helps.
v) Spray in a little water.

(NO2 dissolves, N2O4 does not.) ii) The temperature of the reaction is kept fairly
high to speed up the rate of the reaction. What
effect does higher temperature have on the
equilibrium?
vi) Decreasing the total gas pressure.
iii) During the reaction, ammonia is constantly

removed from the reaction vessel, and more
reactant gases constantly pumped in. Explain
the effect this has.
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Worksheet 6 Tutorial & Practice Questions

Molar Gas Volumes Student Name..........................................
iii) 100L of Ne at 0oC & 100kPa?
Volume of Gases
under Different Conditions
iv) 25.0mL of O2 at 0oC & 100kPa?
You know that the volume of a gas changes at
different temperatures and pressures, so the
molar volume changes as well. b) What is the volume (at 25oC & 100kPa) of:
i) 100g of CO2 ?
At 25oC & 100kPa, 1 mole of any gas
occupies 24.79 Litres
ii) 100g of He ?
What about at other temperatures and pressures?
Another set of standard conditions commonly iii) 1.50g of N2 ?

used in Chemistry is 0oC and 100kPa.
Under these conditions, 1 mole of any gas iv) 1.00kg of Ar ?

occupies 22.71 Litres
Notes: 3. Problems Involving Reactions

1. You do NOT need to remember these values. a) Carbon dioxide gas reacts with aqueous
They are always given in the Data Sheet in calcium hydroxide (limewater) to form water and
tests/exams. insoluble calcium carbonate.
2. There is a formula for calculating the volume at i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
any temperature and pressure, but its use is not
required in this course.
ii) What mass of calcium carbonate would be
formed by the reaction, if 1.00L of CO2 is
1. Molar Gas Volumes produced, measured at 25oC & 100kPa?
a) What is the volume of:

i) 2.59 mol of O2 at 25oC & 100kPa? iii) What volume of CO2 (at 0oC & 100kPa) must
be absorbed by limewater in order to precipitate
ii) 0.0453 mol of H2 at 0oC & 100kPa? 1.75g of CaCO3 ?
iii) 120 mol of CO2 at 0oC & 100kPa?

b) In the smelting of zinc, the crushed,
-2 o
iv) 4.67 x 10 mol of N2 at 25 C & 100kPa? concentrated ore is zinc sulfide. This is roasted
in a blast of air, forming zinc oxide and sulfur
b) How many moles of gas is: dioxide gas.
i) 12.4L of He at 25oC & 100kPa?
i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
ii) 250mL (=0.250L) of O2 at 0oC & 100kPa?
ii) Calculate the volume of pure oxygen gas (at

iii) 10,000L of N2 at 25oC & 100kPa? 25oC & 100kPa) required for complete reaction
with 1.00 Tonne of zinc sulfide.
o
iv) 1.00mL of Ar at 0 C & 100kPa?
iii) Assuming the air used is 21% oxygen, what

2. Mass - Volume of Gases volume of air must be supplied to the smelter for
each tonne of ore?
a) What is the mass of:
i) 5.00L of CO2 at 25oC & 100kPa?
iv) From your answer to (ii), use Gay-Lussac’s
o
ii) 5.00L of H2 at 25oC & 100kPa? Law to find the volume of SO2 (at 25 C &
100kPa) released from one tonne of ZnS.
HSC Chemistry Topic 2 “Acidic Environment” Usage & copying is permitted according to the
Copyright © 2005-2
12
®
Worksheet 7 Test Questions section 2 Student Name.....................................
Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

1. Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to
The salt formed when nitric acid reacts with give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
calcium hydroxide would be: appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
A. calcium nitrate
7. (7 marks)
B. nitric hydroxide
a) Write a balanced, symbol equation for the reaction
C. water between hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxide.
D. calcium nitric
2.
An oxide compound, MO2 (M is not the correct b) Explain how this equation supports the
symbol) is found to react as follows: classification of magnesium oxide as a “basic oxide”.
MO2 + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2MO3(aq)
It would be true to say that MO2 is

c) Write a balanced, symbol equation which shows
A. an acidic oxide
that carbon dioxide may be considered as an “acidic
B. a conjugate base oxide”.
C. amphiprotic
D. a basic oxide
3. 8. (8 marks)
According to Le Chatelier’s Principle, a a) Explain why a sealed bottle of fizzy lemonade
chemical system in equilibrium, which is then shows no signs of bubbles within the liquid, yet
disturbed, will adjust itself bubbles form immediately the lid is removed.
A. so that the disturbance is amplified. Include a relevant chemical equation in your answer.
B. in the direction that releases energy.
C. so that the disturbance is counteracted.
D. in the direction that releases the pressure.
4. b) The reaction of carbon dioxide with water is

In the reaction exothermic. Given that information, predict the effect
of higher temperature on the rate of bubble formation
in a just-opened bottle of soft drink. Explain your
NH3(g) + heat N2(g) + 3H2(g) prediction, naming the scientific principle involved.
the change that would shift the equilibrium to

the right would be to: 9. (8 marks)
A. increase the pressure. a) Name a significant natural source of sulfur dioxide
B. increase the concentration of hydrogen. gas.
C. increase the temperature.
D. remove NH3 from the equilibrium mixture.
b) Use a balanced, symbol equation to explain how
5. the smelting of some metal ores can produce sulfur
A significant natural source of sulfur dioxide in dioxide.
the environment is:
A. lightning storms.
B. volcanic eruptions. c) Name a serious environmental effect that can be
C. burning of fossil fuels. caused by sulfur dioxide, and describe a possible
D. forest fires. environmental impact it causes.
6.
The major environmental impact of NOx gases
is:
A. Global Warming. d) Calculate the volume of sulfur dioxide gas
o
B. Acid Rain. (measured at 25 C & 100kPa) that can be formed
from 1.00 tonne of sulfur.
C. Ozone depletion.
D. Smog.
HSC Chemistry Topic 2 “Acidic Environment”

Copyright © 2005-2
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3. ACIDS & THE pH SCALE

Acids as Proton Donors Formation of Hydronium Ions
So far, you have learnt a number of things about More examples:
acids, but not the most basic thing... the
chemical definition of just what an acid is! Nitric acid:
H3O+(aq) + NO3 (aq)
-
HNO3(l)+ H2O(l)
What defines all acids is their ability to donate a
hydrogen ion (H+) to another species. Since a Sulfuric acid:
2H3O+(aq) + SO4
2-
hydrogen ion is really just a “naked” proton H2SO4(l)+ 2H2O(l) (aq)
from the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, the
formal definition of an acid is: Phosphoric acid:
3H3O+(aq) + PO4
3-
H3PO4(l)+ 3H2O(l) (aq)
An acid is a chemical species which
DONATES PROTONS
Some useful words:
MONOPROTIC = donating 1 proton (e.g. HCl)
Acids in Aqeous Solution DIPROTIC = donating 2 protons (e.g. H2SO4)
When acids dissolve in water, we often just
imagine an ionisation such as this example: TRIPROTIC = donating 3 protons (e.g. H3PO4)
Hydrochloric acid: HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) The “Organic”

(Carbon-Based) Acids
However, this is NOT the full story! Many naturally-occurring, biological molecules
are acids too. These are carbon-compounds,
In a previous topic (Preliminary topic “Water”) you made by living things and most contain a
learnt about how ions are “hydrated” by polar special chemical group you should become
water molecules when in solution. The dissolving familiar with: the “-COOH” group.
of HCl in water could be represented as:
Perhaps the most important is ethanoic acid,
δ+ δ− HCl(g) CH3COOH:
molecule
This bond is polar,
and ionises in water O-H
H
C
O
This group is
δ+ δ+ δ− usually
-
Cl δ− + δ− abbreviated
δ+ as “-COOH”
δ+ δ−
and is always
Separate, hydrated ions acidic.
Cl-(aq) and H+(aq) These C-H
H bonds are non-p
polar, and never ionise.
Although there may be many water molecules When this molecule is dissolved in water the
clinging to a H+ ion, for simplicity we imagine O-H bond ionises, and donates a proton to a
there is just one, and it forms a special ion, water molecule:
called the “hydronium ion”, H3O+.
CH3COOH(aq)+ H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
ethanoic + water hydronium + ethanoate
HCl is an acid because it has “donated” a acid ion ion
proton to a water molecule. The hydronium ion
in the solution is an acid because it can, in turn, The syllabus requires you to know about
donate a proton to other species. ethanoic acid, and “citric acid” (next page)
In water solution,
all acids produce hydronium ions. WORKSHEET at end of section
Copyright © 2005-2
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Citric Acid is familiar as the acid in citrus The pH Scale
fruits... oranges & lemons. has already been introduced, and you should be
familiar with it in a descriptive way.
Its correct systematic name is
2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid ACID NEUTRAL BASE
Molecular formula is C6H8O7, but the structural

formula is more meaningful:
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
H pH
Remember that Where do these numbers come from?
H C COOH only the -COOH
pH = -log10[H3O+]
groups
H-O
O C COOH are acidic, and
you will see that
pH is the negative logarithm
H C COOH citric acid is
of the molar concentration of
triprotic
hydronium ions
H Notes:
1. You must know that [square brackets] around any
Strong & Weak Acids chemical species means “molar concentration”.
In everyday usage, a “strong” solution might
mean the same as “concentrated” (i.e. having a 2. “log10” means the “logarithm to base 10”. This
lot of solute) and “weak” can mean the same as is a mathematical function, best understood by
“dilute”. example:
If 100 = 102, then log10(100) = 2
FROM HERE ON, YOU MUST NOT USE THESE 1,000 = 103, then log10(1,000) = 3
TERMS THAT WAY. “Strong” & “weak” have 500 = 102.699, then log10(500) = 2.699
particular meanings with regard to acids. pH values are therefore, powers of 10.
STRONG Acid = Total Ionisation in Solution 3. Different calculators may handle log functions
differently. You must find out or figure out how to
WEAK Acid = Partial Ionisation in Solution do log functions on your calculator.
For example, HCl is a STRONG acid; when

added to water the reaction...
Example Calculations: pH and [H3O+]
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 1. If the concentration of hydronium ions is

[H3O+] = 0.500molL-1, what is the pH?
...goes fully to completion. Solution: pH = -log10[H3O+]
100% of the HCl molecules are ionised.
If the concentration of HCl was (say) 1 molL-1, = -log10[0.500]
then the concentration of hydronium ions will = -(-0.301)
also be 1 molL-1. ∴ pH = 0.301
In contrast, ethanoic acid is a WEAK acid; when 2. If the concentration of hydronium ions is
added to water, the reaction... + -1
[H3O ] = 0.00252molL , what is the pH?
Solution: pH = -log10[H3O+]
= -log10[0.00252]
...reaches an equilibrium with only about 1% of = -(-0.2.60)
the molecules ionised. (i.e. the equilibrium lies ∴ pH = 2.60
well to the left, favouring the reactant
molecules.) If the concentration of the solution 3. If the pH = 3.75, what is [H3O+]?
was 1 molL-1, then the hydronium ion Solution pH = -log10[H3O ]
+
concentration would be only about 0.01 molL-1. +

so [H3O ] = Inverse(log(-3.75))
∴ [H3O+] = 0.000178 molL-1.
It is quite possible to have a “concentrated
solution of a weak acid” or a “dilute solution of
a strong acid”... just be careful with these
precise meanings! WORKSHEET at end of section
Copyright © 2005-2
®
More about pH Measuring pH
Since the numbers on the pH scale are powers You may have carried out some simple
of 10, it follows that if an acid solution has a pH laboratory
one unit lower than another, it is actually 10 experiments, using
times more acidic. Two units on the pH scale a pH meter (or data-
represents 100 times (102) difference in logger probe) to
[H3O+]. measure the pH of
various solutions.
Example:
Acid “P”: [H3O+] = 10-5molL-1. pH = 5 You may have
recorded the pH
Acid “Q”: [H3O+] = 10-3molL-1. pH = 3 value, then used
your knowledge of
Acid “R”: [H3O+] = 10-2molL-1. pH = 2 the pH scale to
decide if each
In the examples above, acid “Q” has a [H3O+] solution tested was
value 100 times larger than “P”, and its pH is 2
units lower. Acidic (pH < 7)
or
Acid “R” has a [H3O+] value 10 times higher than
“Q”, and its pH is 1 unit lower. Neutral (pH = 7)
or
The ph scale is said to be “logarithmic”, because the
values are logarithms... powers of 10. Basic (pH > 7)
pH of Strong & Weak Acids

Remember the special meanings of “strong” and “weak” with regard to acids.
You may have used a pH meter to measure the pH of several different acids of
exactly the same concentration.
1.00 molL-1 Sulfuric Acid

When H2SO4(l) dissolves in water:
1.00 molL-1 Hydrochloric Acid
2H3O+(aq)+ SO4
2-
H2SO4(l)+ 2H2O(l) (aq)
When HCl(g) dissolves in water:

Since H2SO4 is a STRONG ACID,
HCl(g)+ H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ Cl-(aq)
the ionisation is 100%. It is
DIPROTIC, so each mole of H2SO4
Since HCl is a STRONG ACID, the produces 2 moles of H3O+.
ionisation is 100%. 1.00 molL-1 Ethanoic Acid If [H2SO4] = 1.00 molL-1,
If [HCl] = 1.00 molL-1, then [H3O+] = 2.00 molL-1
When CH3COOH dissolves in water:
then [H3O+] = 1.00 molL-1
and pH = -log10[H3O+]
+ CH3COOH(aq)+H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq)
and pH = -log10[H3O ] = -log10[2.00]
= -log10[1.00] = -(0.301)
Since this is a WEAK ACID, the
∴ pH = 0 ∴ pH = -0.30
ionisation is incomplete.
Sure enough, by experiment you If [CH3COOH] = 1.00 molL-1, Sure enough, by experiment you
will have found that a 1 molL-1 HCl then [H3O+] << 1.00 molL-1 will have found that a 1 molL-1
solution has a pH = 0. H2SO4 solution has a pH = -0.30.
and the pH can be expected to be (below zero)
well above the values found for HCl
or H2SO4.
Sure enough, by experiment you

will have found that a 1 molL-1
CH3COOH solution has a pH ≅ 2.
Copyright © 2005-2
®
The Self-Ionisation of Water
Water itself can be considered as an extremely
weak acid, since in pure water a few water
molecules ionise and donate a proton to
another molecule. Acids as Food Additives
Acids are common food additives. If you read the
2 Water Proton transfer
“Ingredients” listing on many processed foods,
Molecules from tomato sauce to ice-cream topping to dried
δ- δ+ δ- δ+
fruits or tinned sausages, you may find “food
acid (260)” (or something similar).
“Food acid (260)” is in fact ethanoic acid, the

main chemical in vinegar, and a common
- + ingredient in many recipes.
The reasons that acids are added to many foods

are:
Hydroxide Hydronium
Ion Ion • Preservatives. Adding acids to a food lowers the
pH and makes it more difficult for some bacteria
2 H2O(l) OH-(aq) + H3O+(aq) or fungi to grow within the food. This is the main
reason why some foods, such as tomato sauce,
do not go bad even when not refrigerated.
In pure water, at 25oC, it turns out that the Acids most commonly used are SO2 & ethanoic.
concentration of hydronium ions,
[H3O+] = 1.00 x 10-7 molL-1.
• Flavour. Many foods, such as jams, sauces and
So the pH of pure water: fruit-flavoured drinks will taste better if they have
pH = -log10[H3O+] that “sharp” or sour effect that acids give.
= -log10[1.00 x 10-7] Acids commonly used are citric and ethanoic.
= -(-7.00)
∴ pH = 7.00 • Nutrition. Some foods have vitamins added to
increase their nutritional value. Most commonly
• That’s why pH = 7 is neutral on the pH scale! used is ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
+ -7 -1
• In an acid solution, [H3O ] > 1.00 x 10 molL ,
so pH < 7
• In a basic solution, [H3O+] < 1.00 x 10-7 molL-1,

so pH > 7
Some Naturally Occurring Acids & Bases

Bases
Acids Lime is a major ingredient of cement, and has
Ever been bitten by a bull- been known and used for thousands of years.
ant or stung by a bee? Chemically it is calcium oxide, CaO.
You were injected with It is prepared by roasting limestone (or even

“formic acid” (methanoic oyster shells) which results in the
acid), HCOOH. decomposition
CaCO3 CO2 + CaO
Ethanoic acid is the main chemical in vinegar
(literally “wine-sour”) known and used for “Lye” is the name given to the alkali liquid
thousands of years. obtained by soaking wood ashes in water. The
SUGAR (grapes) basic ingredient is a mixture of hydroxide
compounds, mainly potasium and sodium
fermentation hydroxides.
ETHANOL (wine)
oxidation Lye has been used for centuries in soap-
ETHANOIC ACID (vinegar) making.
Copyright © 2005-2
®
Worksheet 8 Acids & pH

Acids can be defined as species which pH values are l)............................. of 10, so each
a)...................... ........................... In water solution 1 unit of pH actually means a change in acidity
an acid molecule donates a proton (which is a of m)............... times.
b)........................ ion) to a water molecule,
forming a c).................................... ion. Acids Acids are commonly added to foods, in order to:
which donate one proton are called
d)..................................; those that donate 2 • help n)............................... the food by making it
protons are e)............................., and those which more difficult for o)................................. and
donate 3 are called f).................................... ............................... to grow in the food and cause
it to spoil. The acids most commonly used this
Two important “organic”, naturally occurring way are p)........................ and ................................
acids are: ethanoic (formula g)............................),
and citric acid; systematic chemical name is • q).............................. the food, by giving it the
h)............................................................................. r)......................... taste that all acids have. Most
commonly used are s).............................. and
With acids, “strong” & “weak” do NOT refer to ....................................... acids.
the concentration. A strong acid is one which
i)........................................................., and weak • Improve the t)...................................... value. For
refers to an acid which j)......................... example, u)................................... acid (vitamin C)
................................................ is added to some foods.
Acidity is measured by the pH scale. The pH A naturally occurring acid is v)..............................

value is calculated from the equation: acid in an ant bite. A natural base is lime, which
pH = k)............................... is chemically w).....................................................

Acid Ionisation & pH Student Name..........................................
1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of each +
2. Calculating pH from [H3O ]
acid with water. (Assume complete ionisation in each Each of the following values is the hydronium ion
case, even though some may be weak acids) concentration of a solution, in molL-1. For each,
calculate the pH, and state if the solution is acidic or
Monoprotic acids basic.
a) HCl
a) 0.0675 b) 0.000840
c) 2.50 d) 2.50x10-12
b) HBr (hydrobromic) e) 3.5 x 10-3 f) 1.50 x 10-8
c) HCOOH (methanoic) 3. Calculating pH from Acid Concentration

Calculate the pH of each solution, taking into account
that some acids may be diprotic or triprotic. (assume
d) HCN (hydrocyanic) total ionisation)
a) 0.250 molL-1 HCl

Diprotic acids b) 0.0750 molL-1 H2SO4.
e) H2SO4 c) 7.50x10-4 molL-1 H2SO4.
d) 4.50x10-3 molL-1 H3PO4.
e) 6.00 molL-1 H2SO4.
f) H2CO3 (carbonic)
4. Calculating [H3O+] from pH.

Triprotic acids Find the [H3O+] in each solution.
g) H3PO4 (phosphoric)
a) pH = 5.30 b) pH = 11.5
b) pH = -0.40 c) pH = 4.85
h) C6H8O7 (citric) d) pH = 8.50 e) pH = 0
Copyright © 2005-2
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Worksheet 10 Test Questions section 3 Student Name..........................................
Multiple Choice O-H

H Longer Response Questions
Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to
1.
give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
H
The diagram shows a molecule
of the weak acid, methanoic C appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
acid.
O 5. (7 marks)
A certain diprotic acid can be represented by the
When dissolved in water, one of the bonds
in the molecule may ionise. formula “H2A”. (“A” is not the correct symbol)
The bond most likely to ionise is the a) Write a balanced equation for the complete
A. H-C bond B. C=O bond ionisation of H2A when added to water.
C. O-H bond D. C-O bond Label each species in the equation as acid or
base.
2.
If an undissociated molecule of an acid is
represented by “H-A”, and the ionised acid by
separate “H+” and “A-” symbols, which diagram
could show a dilute solution of a strong acid? b) If H2A is a strong acid, calculate the pH of a
A. B. C. D. solution with concentration [H2A] = 0.0250 molL-1.
H-A
A H+ A- H-A
A H+
A- H-A
A
A- H+
H+ A-
+
H H+
A- H-A
A
H-A
A A- H+
+ c) In fact, when this exact concentration
H
H-A
A A- solution was tested, it was found to have a
A- H
+ H-A
A
pH = 2.50.
What do you conclude from this?
3.
In a solution of pH=10, the concentration of
hydronium ions is:
A. 10 molL-1. B. 1010 molL-1.

C. 10-10 molL-1. D. 1 molL-1. 6. (4 marks)
Explain 2 different reasons for adding acids to
4. processed foods. For each reason given, name
If you had 4 solutions of different acids a (different) acid used for that purpose.
Hydrochloric Nitric
Ethanoic Sulfuric
all with exactly the same molar concentration of
acid, which two only would you expect to have
the same pH?
A. sulfuric and ethanoic

B. hydrochloric and nitric
C. nitric and sulfuric
D. ethanoic and hydrochloric
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FORMULAS & WORKING,
APPROPRIATE PRECISION & UNITS
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4. ACID-BASE THEORY & TITRATION

Early Ideas About Acids & Bases The Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Naturally occurring acids, like ethanoic acid in was developed independently by Johannes
vinegar, have been known for thousands of Bronsted (Danish) and Thomas Lowry (English)
years, and described by their simple, in 1923. The basic concepts of this theory have
observable properties such as their sour taste. already been used earlier in this topic:
Chemistry became a modern Science just over Acid-Base Reactions involve

200 years ago, and one of the earliest scientific transfer of Protons.
theories about acids was made by An Acid is a Proton Donor.
A Base is a Proton Acceptor.
Antoine Lavoisier (French, 1780’s)
Lavoisier used simple plant-extract indicators (e.g.
litmus) to identify acids and bases. He found by Central to the Bronsted-Lowry (B-L) Theory is
experiment that all the non-metal oxide compounds the concept of “conjugate” species. For
he tested produced acid solutions. He concluded that
example, when ethanoic acid dissolves in water:
acids must contain oxygen.
Humphry Davy (English, 1820’s)
Forty years later and armed with more chemical
knowledge, Davy realised that Lavoisier was wrong ethanoic + water hydronium + ethanoate
about acids. While some acids do NOT contain acid ion ion
oxygen (e.g. HCl), he found that all known acids
contain hydrogen. Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate
Acid Base
Davy also discovered that metal oxides are basic and
described the patterns in the way acids react with
metals to form hydrogen gas.
The CH3COO- ion is the conjugate base of
These early ideas were all empirical descriptions of Ethanoic acid, because if this reaction was to run
properties; they described the properties of acids in reverse, the ion could act as a base and accept
discovered by experiment, but did not include a a proton to form ethanoic acid again.
general theory to explain or predict chemical
behaviour.
The water molecule is acting as a base, because
it accepts a proton to become the H3O+ ion. The
That had to wait for
H3O+ ion is the conjugate acid because, if the
Svante Arrhenius (Swedish, 1880’s)
equilibrium shifts left, it can donate a proton and
The Arrhenius Theory of acids-base behaviour
become a water molecule again.
is still generally used in years 7-10 Science.
Acids produce H+ ions in water solution. Another Example: Dissolving of HCl in water:
-
Bases produce OH ions (or oxide ions).
HCl(g) H2O(l) Cl-(aq) H3O+(aq)
The Arrhenius Theory was very successful in
molecule
+ molecule
+
accounting for simple acid-base behaviour in water ion ion
solution. It explained the neutralisation reaction, and
could explain strong and weak acids as being due to
complete or partial ionisation.
+ Cl- +
Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate
However, the Arrhenius Theory had some Base Acid
deficiences:
• It could not account for acid-base behaviour

In this case, the reaction is very unlikely to ever
that was not in water solution. -
run in reverse, but Cl is still considered the
conjugate base.
• It could not explain why some ions (which do
NOT contain any hydrogen, hydroxide or oxide)
As before, water has acted as a base, and its
showed acid- base behaviour in water solution.
conjugate acid is the hydronium ion.
You will soon learn that the main reason for all
these deficiencies was that Arrhenius failed to
consider the role of the solvent itself, and in
water solutions this is critical. WORKSHEET at end of section
Copyright © 2005-2
®
Water Can be an Acid, Too Acidic Salts
In both the previous examples, the water As some ions dissolve in water they react as
molecule acted as a base by accepting a proton acids, forcing the water molecule to be a base. An
to form a H3O+ ion. Water can also act as an acid example is the “hydrogen sulfate ion”, HSO4 .
-
and donate a proton.
hydrogen + water sulfate + hydronium
For example, when ammonia, NH3 dissolves: sulfate ion ion
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) -

HSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) SO4
2-
(aq) + H3O+(aq)
ion ion
If the salt used was sodium hydrogen sulfate
+ + there would also be some sodium ions in the
solution. In terms of acid-base behaviour, they
would be merely spectators.
Base Acid Conjugate Conjugate
Acid Base Basic Salts dissolve in water and react as
bases, forcing the water molecule to be the acid.
An example is the carbonate ion:
In this reaction the water molecule acts as an
acid by donating a proton. Its conjugate base is
the hydroxide ion, OH-. carbonate + water hydrogen + hydroxide
ion carbonate ion ion
This equation explains why ammonia is a base, 2-
HCO3 (aq) + OH-(aq)
-
and why a solution of ammonia (NH3(aq)) can be CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
considered as a solution of ammonium
hydroxide, NH4OH(aq). Once again, if sodium carbonate was used,
there would be sodium ion “spectators” in the
solution as well.
Chemical Species (like water) which can
both donate and accept protons A few worth knowing...
are called “AMPHIPROTIC” Acidic Salts Neutral Salts Basic Salts
NaHSO4 NaCl Na2CO3
You will meet more Amphiprotic species soon NH4Cl KNO3 CH3COONa
NH4NO3 Na2SO4 (sodium ethanoate)
Acidic and Basic Salts (There is a pattern to help you remember these... later)
One of the weaknesses of the Arrhenius Theory
was that it could not explain the results of
simple experiments you may have done: WORKSHEET at end of section
Practical Work: Testing the pH of Various Salt Solutions

You may have done simple Typical Results
experiments using a pH meter,
or Universal Indicator, to test Salt pH Conclusion
the pH of solutions of various
ionic “salts”, none of which NaCl 7 Neutral
seem to be obviously acids or
bases, from their formulas. Na2CO3 11 Basic
You may have tested many, but NaHSO4 2 Acidic
they probably included...
sodium chloride, NaCl The reasons WHY some salts

show acid-base behaviour is
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 explained above right.
sodium hydrogen sulfate, Note: Due to CO2 from the air
NaHSO4 dissolving in the solution, the
pH of the NaCl solution may be
...all at the same concentration, slightly acidic.
in pure water.
Copyright © 2005-2
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Neutralisation Salts from
Now that you know about B-L Theory, we can go Acid-Base Neutralisations
back to look again at the simple acid-alkali Although we might view all neutralisations as
neutralisation. essentially the same reaction and ignore the
ACID + ALKALI WATER + A “SALT” “spectator ions” which form the “salt”, this
prevents us noticing a useful pattern which was
mentioned on the previous page.
Example
hydrochloric + sodium water + sodium The nature of the “salt” formed depends on
acid hydroxide chloride whether the acid and base were “strong” or
“weak”, as follows:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Strong Weak Base
However, now we know that what makes HCl an Base
acid is really the formation of H3O+ ions in water, e.g. KOH, NaOH e.g. NH3
and the Cl- ions are spectators, as are the Na+
ions from the NaOH. forms forms
Strong
Acid NEUTRAL salts ACIDIC salts
Leaving out the spectators, the net ionic
e.g. HCl, e.g. NH4Cl,
equation is...
HNO3, e.g. KCl, NaNO3 NH4NO3
hydronium + hydroxide water H2SO4 K2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
ion ion
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) Weak forms forms

Acid BASIC salts NEUTRAL salts
e.g. e.g.
The reaction involves a proton transfer CH3COOH e.g. CH3COONa, CH3COONH4,
... and this is the net reaction for ALL the simple H2CO3 Na2CO3 (NH4)2CO3
acid-alkali reactions, regardless of which acid
or which alkali are used.
Why is Ammonia (NH3) a “Weak Base”?
Heat of Neutralisation
If you carried out the reaction Simple!
above in a calorimeter, you Because when it reacts with water, the
will quickly find that the reaction does NOT ionise fully, but
temperature rises... the reaches an equilibrium with a significant
reaction is exothermic. concentration of un-ionised molecules
present.
+
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4 + OH-(aq)
Ea (aq)
Energy Content
ΔH Acid-Base Reactions
negative without H3O+, OH- or H2O
Although most of the simple examples of
neutraliation involve the reaction at left, and
usually we study reactions taking place in water,
be aware that this is not always the case. For
If measured and calculated, it example, if you add together the dry gases
is found that the value for ΔH HCl(g) and NH3(g) they will react
is the same regardless of which acid and alkali
is used. hydrogen + ammonia ammonium
chloride chloride
HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(s)
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) ΔH= -56kJmol-1
Proton transfer
The information in the Right-Hand column Although there is no water present, and no H3O+
is not specified by the Syllabus. or OH- ions are formed at any time, this is
It is presented here in the interests clearly an acid-base reaction, according to the
of better understanding. B-L definition.
Copyright © 2005-2
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Titration
Titration has been one of the most important techniques in Chemical Analysis for over a
century. Its use has diminished as electronic “probes” have become more widespread,
but it remains a “must-know” part of Chemistry.
The purpose of titration is Chemical Analysis. It Titration can be used for any reaction for which you
allows the concentration of an “unknown” can determine the “end-point”. Acid-base
solution to be determined by calculation, after neutralisations are ideal because indicators (or pH
measuring the volume of a known-concentration probes) can identify the end-point.
“standard solution” which reacts with a sample to
reach the “equivalence-point” (end-point). This is
the point where the reactants have been
consumed in exactly the molar ratio specified by
Burette
the balanced equation.
measures the volume of
“standard solution” needed
Titration Technique to reach the end-p
point.
• You must have a “standard solution” (next page)
• The burette should be rinsed with small

quantities of the standard solution, then filled with Burette tap
it. The level is then adjusted to the zero mark, controls the addition of
ensuring that there are no air bubbles in the tap “standard solution” to the
and delivery spout. “unknown solution”.
• An exact, measured volume of “unknown”
solution is placed in the reaction flask by pipette.
(“Aliquot”)
• 1-2 drops of suitable indicator are added to the

flask. (See “Choosing the Indicator”, next page)
• The reaction proceeds by careful addition, with Conical flask

mixing, of solution from the burette. Add drop-by- holds a measured volume of
drop approaching the end-point, until the “unknown solution”, plus indicator.
indicator just changes colour.
• Record the volume of solution delivered by

burette. Repeat 3 times, and average the “titres” Filter Paper
(= burette volumes). It is common to discard any under flask allows better
values which are not in close agreement. seeing of indicator colour
The rest is calculation.
Example Titration Calculation Step 1: Balanced equation (ALWAYS!!)

Titration of an “unknown” solution of KOH.
“Aliquot” (volume of samples) = 25.00 mL (by pipette) H2SO4 + 2KOH 2H2O + K2SO4
-1
Standard solution; H2SO4 solution, C= 0.04252 molL . Step 2: Titration Formula
Indicator used: Bromothymol Blue (see next page) Ca x Va = Cb x Vb
a b
“Titres” (volumes from burette) Step 3 : Re-arrange and substitute.
measured (in mL): 34.25, 33.90, 33.85, 33.95. We are trying to find the concentration of the
The first titre is discarded (not in close agreement “unknown” base, so make “Cb” the subject:
with the others). Average titre = 33.90 mL
Cb = b x Ca x Va
Titration Formula: Ca x Va = Cb x Vb a x Vb
a b
= 2 x 0.04252 x 33.90
Ca, Cb = concentrations (molL-1) of acid & base solns 1 x 25.00
Va, Vb = volumes (mL) of each solution used. = 0.1153
a, b = molar co-efficients (balancing numbers) from
balanced equation for reaction. ∴ Concentration of KOH solution = 0.1153 molL-1.
Copyright © 2005-2
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Preparing a Standard Solution Selecting the Indicator
The key to titration is to have available a Choosing the best indicator to use is not just a
suitable “standard solution”. The technique for matter of which colour change you’d prefer
making a solution to an exact known looking at.
concentration was covered in the Preliminary
topic “Water” and is revised below. Each indicator changes colour over a range of
pH values, and the trick is to choose an
The problem is to get a substance which is of indicator which will change colour as close to
very high purity and stability to use as a the “end-point” as possible.
“Primary Standard” to make the solution from.
Colour in Changes
The common acids like H2SO4, and bases like Indicator Acid Base at pH
NaOH, cannot be obtained in the pure state due
to the way they rapidly absorb water and/or CO2 Litmus red blue 6-8
from the atmosphere. Bromothymol
blue yellow blue 6.2 - 7.6
Suitable primary standard substances are: Methyl orange red yellow 3.1 - 4.4
Phenolphthalein clear pink 8.3 - 10.0
• Base: anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
• Acid: oxalic acid, COOHCOOH (diprotic) Isn’t the end-point always at neutral, pH = 7 ??
(I hear you ask)
Calculate the mass of pure,
dry Primary Standard solute No, its not! Remember (see p.22) that the “salts”
required for solution, and formed by different combinations of strong or
weigh out accurately weak acids and bases may have acidic or basic
properties. This means that, at the exact end
point, the pH might not be neutrality.
Strong Acid - Strong Base

If titrating (say) H2SO4 against KOH,
Dissolve Solute in a small
amount of (pure) water in a you can expect the salt K2SO4 to be neutral.
clean beaker
Volumetric Flask
Therefore, choose Bromothymol blue,
which changes colour near pH = 7.
(Actually, it doesn’t really matter, because the last

drop of chemical at the end point causes a huge
Carefully transfer solution pH change.) See graph next page.
into a Volumetric Flask.
Rinse beaker with small
amounts of water & add Strong Acid - Weak Base
washings to flask If titrating (say) H2SO4 against NH3,
you can expect the salt
(NH4)2SO4 to be acidic.
Therefore, choose Methyl orange,

Add water to flask to fill it to which changes colour around
the mark. pH = 3-4.
(Use a dropper to avoid over-
shooting)
Insert stopper & mix well. Weak Acid - Strong Base
If titrating (say) CH3COOH against KOH,
In the example (previous page) the standard you can expect the salt (potassium
solution was H2SO4. This would not have been a ethanoate,CH3COOK) to be basic.
primary standard solution.
Therefore, choose Phenolphthalein,
It may have been “standardised” by titration which changes colour around pH = 8-10.
against a primary standard Na2CO3 solution, so
that its exact concentration is known. Then it
can be used, in turn, as the titration standard Weak Acid - Weak Base
solution. Titrations with this combination are to be avoided,
because the end-point is not very “sharp”.
Copyright © 2005-2
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Measuring pH During Titration Strong Acid
12
If a titration is carried out as shown below, with a pH & Near the end-ppoint,
meter or data-logger probe attached to a computer, Strong Base pH changes rapidly
with each drop of
10
the pH changes occurring in the solution can be
base added, so the
recorded and graphed. end-ppoint can be
determined precisely.
The “vertical” part of this
7
graph extends so far each
pH
side of neutral, that the
choice of indicator is really
not critical... all indicators will
To start with,
change colour on the same
4
adding base has
little effect drop of added base.
Burette adds standard on pH
base solution
2
Titration
end-ppoint
0
Volume of Base Added
12
Weak Acid
10
&
Strong Base
The end-p
point is at pH>7
because the salt is
7
basic...
pH
Connection to
computer or must choose indicator
such as phenolphthalein
pH meter
4
2
Titration
end-ppoint
0

pH probe electrode
12
10
Strong Acid
Flask contains &
“unknown” acid Weak Base
solution
7
pH
The end-p point is

at pH<7 because
Magnetic the salt is acidic...
Stirrer must choose
4
methyl orange, or
similar.
2
10
Weak Acid Titration

& end-ppoint
Weak Base
0

The end-p point is
7
theoretically at pH=7
but is hard to find by In every case, the end-point is the
pH
indicator because each

drop of base is causing
centre of the vertical (or near-
less pH change vertical) part of the graph.
4
???
The graph at left shows why
2
weak acid-weak base titrations

Volume of Base Added are best avoided.
Copyright © 2005-2
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Buffers A Natural Buffer System
A “Buffer”, or “buffered solution”, is a solution which The classic example of a natural buffer system is the
can absorb significant amounts of acid or base with way our blood is maintained at a pH = 7.4, despite
minimal change in pH. the fact that we keep exchanging CO2 (acidic),
excreting wastes, absorbing foods, etc.
Biology students will be aware that in all living things
it is vital that the conditions within the body/cells are The main chemical buffer in our blood is a solution
kept very constant. Living things cannot function containing both the bicarbonate ion (HCO3- ) and its
properly if their “internal environment” undergoes 2-
conjugate base, the carbonate ion ( CO3 ).
large changes in
• temperature, • water content, -
• salt concentration, (and many other chemicals)
HCO3 is Amphiprotic
The bicarbonate ion is amphiprotic, which adds
AND
• pH level. a further dimension to its buffering ability.
-
The fluids inside all living things are buffered, so that If the environment is acidic, HCO3 acts as a
pH remains remarkably constant, despite changes in base:
the external environment, eating acidic food, proton transfer
breathing, excreting, etc, all of which could alter the
body’s pH. + -
H 3O (aq) + HCO3 (aq) H2CO3(aq)+ H2O(aq)
How do Buffers Work? If the environment is basic, HCO3 acts as an

-
All buffers are solutions containing a weak acid and acid:
its conjugate base.
OH-(aq) + HCO3 (aq)
- 2-
CO3 (aq)+ H2O(aq)
weak acid conjugate base
So, the total buffering system can be
This equilibrium constitutes a buffer solution, so summarised as:
long as there are significant amounts of the
ethanoate ion (CH3COO-) present. (e.g. by adding - H+
+
- -H 2-
CH3COONa) H2CO3 +
HCO3 +
CO3
+H +H
If acid is added (i.e. [H3O+] increases) (pH lower)
then (by Le Chatelier’s Principle) the equilibrium
shifts left, absorbing H3O+ and lowering [H3O+]
This system is highly effective at maintaing the
again.
pH of our blood. Be aware that it is not the only
If base is added (ie [H3O+] decreases) (pH higher) buffer operating.
then (by Le Chatelier’s Principle) the equilibrium
shifts right, making H3O+ and raising [H3O+] again. As you’ll learn below,
Amphiprotic substances
This way, the pH remains quite constant, despite
are useful in emergencies, too.
acid or base being added.
Using Neutralisation So, if someone gets splashed with a strong

base, neutralise it by throwing a bucket of acid
on Chemical Spills over them, right?
Whether its a small vinegar spill at home, or a
sulfuric acid tanker leaking after a road accident, Wrong! Unless you can guarantee to apply the
a knowledge of neutralisation can help damage exact molar quantity for titration-like precision,
control and safety. then using an acid on an alkali spill (or vice-
versa) can do more harm than good, and would
be extremely dangerous as a first-aid method.
The best thing to do is use an Amphiprotic

substance such as bicarbonate ion (e.g. sodium
bicarbonate, NaHCO3).
Photo by “connman21”
As shown by the reactions above, it can react

and neutralise either an acid or a base, and once
the neutralisation is achieved, it stops working
and poses no further threat in its own right.
It does its job, and then stops automatically...

perfect!
Copyright © 2005-2
®
Worksheet 11 Acid-Base Theory & Titration

Lavoisier concluded that acids must The “rules” governing this are:
contain a).......................... Later, Davy • Neutral salts form from the
described acids as all containing neutralisation of u)................. acids by
b)............................., and being able to v)......................... bases.
react with c)............................................. • Acidic salts form from the
neutralisation of w)..................... acids
The first attempt at a complete acid- by x).......................... bases.
base theory was made by • Basic salts form from the
d)........................................ in 1885. neutralisation of y)..................... acids by
According to this theory, all acids z).......................... bases.
produce e)..................................... in
solution. Bases were defined as All neutralisation reactions (in aqueous
compounds containing f)........................ solution) involve the reaction of
or .......................... ions. This theory was aa).......................... and .........................
successful at explaining some acid- ions to form ab)............................ The
base behaviour, but failed to take into reaction is always ac)..............-thermic.
account the important role of
g)........................................... ad).................................... is a technique
used for chemical analysis. A measured
The h).....................-....................... (B-L) ae)...................... of “unknown” solution
Theory is much more useful for is reacted with a “af).......................
explaining things. It defines an acid as a solution” until the “ag)...........................
i)................ ........................., and a base point” is reached. The main piece of
as a j).......................... ............................, equipment involved is a
and all acid-base reactions involve the ah).............................. It is important to
k)....................... of one or more choose the ai)........................ which will
l).............................. change aj).................. at the pH of the
end-point, depending on the nature of
When an acid loses a proton it forms the the salt formed.
“m)............................ base”, and when a
base gains a proton it forms the If the ak)...................... is measured
n)................................. during titration and graphed, the graphs
generally show an “S” shaped curve.
Water can acts as either o).................... The end-point is located in the middle of
or ..................., depending on the the al)......................... part of the curve.
chemical environment. The word for this
is “p)........................................” Buffers are solutions containing an
equilibrium mixture of a am).............
Many salts dissolve in water to form ............. and its .........................................
acidic or basic solutions, because of If either acid or base is added, the
their interaction with q)......................... equilibrium an)................. (according to
An example of an acidic salt is ao)...................................... Principle) so
r)........................................ An example of that the change in ap)....... is minimized.
a basic salt is s)........................................ Buffers are important in all
An example of a neutral salt is aq).......................... things, by helping to
t).............................. maintain ar)................ ...............................
A specific example is as).........................,
where the pH is maintained by a mixture
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS of at)...................... and .................... ions.
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Copyright © 2005-2
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Worksheet 12 Reaction of Acids & Bases With Water

Practice Problems Student Name..........................................
For each substance below, write an equation
describing its monoprotic reaction with water. e) sulfide ion, S2- (base)
(In brackets is a description of how the
substance behaves in each case)
f) cyanide ion, CN- (base)
For each equation, identify the conjugate
acid/base of the named species.
a) methanoic acid, HCOOH (acid) g) hydrogen sulfide, H2S (acid)
-
b) ammonia, NH3 (base) h) nitrite ion, NO2 (base)
+
c) hydrogen phosphate ion, HPO4 , (acid)
2- i) ammonium ion, NH4 (acid)
-
d) hydrogen phosphate ion, HPO4 , (base)
2- j) hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO3 (acid)
Worksheet 13 Amphiprotic Ions, Acidic & Basic Salts

1. Amphiprotic Substances 2. Acidic and Basic Salts
Each of the substances below is amphiprotic. Each of the following salts dissolves in water,
For each, write TWO equations to show its and reacts (as shown in brackets) to form an
reaction acidic or basic solution.
i) with H3O+ Write a net ionic equation (leave out spectators)
ii) with OH- to show the reaction with water.
-
a) dihydrogen phosphate ion, H2PO4 a) potassium ethanoate, CH3COOK (basic)
b) ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 (acidic)
-
b) hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3
c) sodium nitrite, NaNO2 (basic)
d) potassium hydrogen oxalate, KHC2O4 (acidic)
c) hydrogen sulfide ion HS-
e) lithium cyanide, LiCN (basic)
Copyright © 2005-2
®
Worksheet 14 Titration
1. 3.
25.00mL of an “unknown” NaOH solution was A student wishes to prepare 500mL of a
-1
titrated against standardised HCl, concentration 0.02500molL solution of oxalic acid
= 0.09255 molL-1. The titration was carried out 4 (COOHCOOH), from the solid chemical.
times, with the end-point titres being 22.50mL,
22.45mL, 23.10mL and 22.50mL. i) What are the characteristics that qualify this
chemical as a “primary standard”?
Average these results appropriately, then write
an equation, and calculate the concentration of
the NaOH solution. ii) What mass needs to be accurately weighed out?
iii) Summarise the main steps involved in

preparing the solution.
4.
The solution, when prepared, was used to
determine the concentration of a KOH solution.
25.00mL aliquots of KOH required an average
titre of 31.45mL. Find the concentration of the
KOH. (care: oxalic acid is diprotic)
2.
-1
Using a 0.05025molL standardised solution of
NH4OH (ammonia solution), 25.00mL samples of
an unknown H2SO4 solution were titrated. The
average titre was 28.32mL
5.
i) Write a balanced equation for the To find the concentration of an ammonia
neutralisation. solution (NH4OH), a student has 2 choices of
standardised solutions she could use:
• 0.7438 molL-1 HNO3 solution
or • 0.8863 molL-1 CH3COOH solution
ii) Find the concentration of the acid.
i) Which solution should she use in the titration?
Explain.
ii) Using 10.00mL samples of the ammonia

unknown, and titrating with the appropriate acid,
the average titre was found to be 12.76mL.
iii) For this titration there were 3 indicators Calculate the concentration of the ammonia
available: solution.
Indicator pH of Colour Change
J ≅ 8.7
K ≅ 6.8
L ≅ 4.2
Which indicator is most appropriate for this
titration? Explain your answer.
Copyright © 2005-2
®
Multiple Choice 2-
Longer Response Questions
1. The hydrogen phosphate ion, HPO4 is an Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to
amphiprotic species. If it were to act as a base, give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
then its conjugate acid would be: appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
- 3- 3-
A. H2PO4 B. H3PO4 C. PO4 D. HPO3
7. (7 marks)
2. An ionic “salt” is found to be acidic in water a) Give the definition of an acid according to the
solution. It is likely that this salt is the product of Arrhenius Theory.
the reaction between: b) Write an equation which Arrhenius might
A. a strong acid and a strong base. have used to explain why hydrogen chloride gas
B. a weak acid and a weak base. is an acid when dissolved in water.
C. a weak acid and a strong base. c) Give the definitions for acid and base
D. a strong acid and a weak base. according to the Bronsted-Lowry Theory.
d) Write an equation to show why hydrogen
3. The salt mentioned in Q2 was formed during a chloride gas in water is an acid according to the
titration. The most appropriate indicator for the B-L Theory.
titration would be:
A. bromothymol blue. 8. (7 marks)
2-
B. methyl orange. a) A solution containing carbonate ions (CO3 )
C. phenolphthalein. is found to be quite strongly basic.
D. universal indicator.
Write an equation to explain why, and state the
4. Which of the following graphs might be the role of the water molecule in this reaction.
“titration curve” for the titration described
in Q2? b) Write TWO different equations to show the
amphiprotic nature of the hydrogen carbonate
-
A. B. C. D.18. ion, HCO3 .
9. (8 marks)
12
12
12
12
A diluted vinegar sample (CH3COOH solution)

was analysed by titration with a standardised
solution of KOH with concentration of
0.008263 molL-1.
7
9.00mL samples of the vinegar solution were

pH
pH
pH
pH
used. The titration was done 4 times, giving

burette titres of 27.35, 26.70, 26.75 and 26.65mL
2
of KOH.
2
Vol Base Vol Base Vol Base Vol Base

a) What is an appropriate indicator for this
5. titration? Justify your choice.
An appropriate material to use in case of an acid
spill is: b) Write a balanced symbol equation for the
A. an amphiprotic substance, reaction.
e.g. sodium bicarbonate.
B. a strong base, like sodium hydroxide. c) Explain how the titration measurements
C. a buffer solution, like methanoic/methanoate should be used.
mixture.
D. a weak base, like ammonia. d) Calculate the concentration of the diluted
vinegar solution.
6.
In the reaction HBr + NH3 NH4
+
+ Br- 9. (4 marks)
it is true to say that: a) What are the characteristics of a “buffer
solution”?
A. NH3 is the base, because it has accepted
a proton. b) In general terms, what are the usual
B. HBr is the acid, because it has accepted ingredients of a buffer solution? Give a specific
a proton. example.
+
C. NH4 is the conjugate acid of HBr.
-
D. Br is the conjugate acid of HBr. c) Give an example of a natural buffer system.
Copyright © 2005-2
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5. ESTERIFICATION
Alkanols and Alkanoic Acids Differences Between these
You were introduced to the alkanols (alcohols) Functional Groups
in the previous topic, and to some of the You learnt in the previous topic how the alkanol
alkanoic acids earlier in this topic. “functional group” (the -OH group) contains a
polar bond, and how this causes the properties
Alkanols Alkanoic Acids of the alkanols to be quite different to those of
General Formula General Formula the corresponding alkanes. This bond is polar
CnH2n+1OH CnH2n+1COOH
δ-
O H
(starting at n=1) (starting at n=0)
Polarity of the δ+
Alkanol
Methanol Methanoic acid Functional Group
CH2
CH3OH HCOOH
O-H
H O-H
H
Common name
H C H H C “Formic acid”
O Now, compare the -COOH Functional Group of
H
O H δ+
the Alkanoic Acids:
δ-
Ethanol Ethanoic acid Because of the presence of
CH3CH2OH CH3COOH another electronegative
Both these
C
H O-H
H The most H O-H
H oxygen atom, there are
important two sets of dipoles on bonds are
H
member of both
H C C polar
H C C Homologous the molecule. δ+
O
O δ-
Series is the 2-
H H carbon “Eth-”” H Common name
compound “Acetic acid”
Ethanol Model Ethanoic Acid In an alkanol, the dipoles result in hydrogen

Model bonding between molecules. For example, in
ethanol:
δ-
CH
O
δ+
-H Hyd
3
rog
en
CH
Molecules attracted bon

d
2
by their dipole charges

and form hydrogen bonds. δ- O-H
H δ+
CH3 CH2
In an alkanoic acid, such as ethanoic acid:
Propanol Propanoic acid
δ+ δ-
CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CH2COOH Each pair of δ- O-H
H O
H H O-H
H H H O-H
H molecules has Dipole-D
Dipole CH3
2 sets of CH3 C attractions C
H C C C H H C C C dipoles. O O-H
H
δ-
O δ- δ+
H H H H H
You already know that the alkanols have much
higher m.p’s & b.p’s than the corresponding
Butanol Butanoic acid alkanes, because of the hydrogen bonding
CH3(CH2)2CH2OH CH3(CH2)2COOH between molecules.
The m.p’s & b.p’s of the alkanoic acids are

Pentanol Pentanoic acid higher still, due to the presence of extra dipole-
CH3(CH2)3CH2OH CH3(CH2)3COOH dipole attractions.
...and so on. For comparison:
The syllabus requires you to know Ethane Ethanol Ethanoic acid

these as far as 8-carbon molecules; Boiling Pt -89 +78 +118
octanol and octanoic acid. (oC)
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The Esters
“Esters” are a group of carbon compounds formed by the reaction between
an alkanol and an alkanoic acid.
The reaction could be described as a Naming Esters
“condensation” because it produces a water Since the esters are made by joining together 2
molecule, but it is so widespread in nature, and other molecules, it should be no surprise that
so important, that it rates its own name; they have a 2-part name.
“Esterification”.
Alkanol name first.
The reaction can be visualised as follows: Drop-off “-ANOL”, and add “-YL”.
These atoms form Alkanol In the example at lower left, “butanol” becomes
water, and the 2 (R2 represents the
“butyl”.
molecules join rest of the molecule) H
H O H Alkanoic acid name second.
H-O
O Drop-off “-IC ACID”, and add “-ATE”
O-H
H C R2 Water
+ In the example lower left, “ethanoic acid”
R1 C H H Ester becomes “ethanoate” (the same as the ion from
O this acid).
O C R2 The name of the ester in the photo is
Alkanoic acid
(R1 represents the R1 C H “butyl ethanoate”
rest of the molecule)
O
ethanoic + butanol butyl ethanoate + water
Example: If ethanoic acid reacted with butanol... acid
CH3COOH + C4H9OH CH3COOC4H9 + H2O

H OH H H H H
You need to be able to name any ester
H C C HO C C C C H
with up to 8 carbons on either end
H O H H H H (nothing bigger than “octyl octanoate”)
...the ester formed would look like this:

WORKSHEET at end of section
Remnant of CH3COOH Remnant of C4H9OH
O The delicious smell and

C
All esters contain
taste of ripe fruit is
C
this chemical
“functional group” largely due to
inside the molecule, natural esters
with hydrocarbon chains
O
on either side.
This group of atoms is polar, but both ends of

the molecule are non-polar. Esters generally
have low solublity in water (some exceptions),
and are volatile with a strong odour... often
sweet and fruity.
As you’ll learn, this is their “job”; to give the

When the label says “Flavour”,
smells and flavours to many foods and
it means “Esters”
perfumes.
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Practical Work: Making an Ester Occurrence of Esters
You may have made an ester in the Esters occur widely in nature, especially
laboratory using the process of Reflux. in fruits and flowers. Esters are largely
responsible for the smell and taste of
A simple laboratory many foods.
reflux set-up is
shown. There may be a complex mixture of
esters and other compounds which give
The reflux the complete smell of (say) a ripe
condenser strawberry, but there’s always an ester
is open to the giving the main smell and taste
atmosphere at the sensation.
top.
Some examples:
This is vital to avoid Strawberry ethyl butanoate, C3H7COOC2H5
any dangerous
build-up of pressure Orange octyl ethanoate, CH3COOC8H17
which would occur
in a sealed flask. Fats & Oils are Esters, Too
Volatile chemical Esters made from very long chain “fatty
Electrical
vapours rise, but are Heating Element acids”, and the triple-alcohol molecule
condensed and drip “glycerol” are used by all living things
back into the flask... “reflux”. as high-energy foods and energy
storage chemicals. We call them fats or
oils, depending on their melting point.
The reaction flask is heated to speed
up the otherwise very slow reaction. Production and Uses of Esters
As well as their wide occurrence in
As well as an alkanoic acid and an living things, artificially-manufactured
alkanol, it is usual to add a catalyst, esters are important industrial
concentrated sulfuric acid, H2SO4. chemicals.
conc. H2SO4
They are produced by exactly the same
alkanoic acid + alkanol ester + water process shown at the left... reflux of the
appropriate alcohol, acid and catalyst...
As well as speeding the reaction up, the but on an industrial scale, of course.
H2SO4 catalyst also absorbs the water
product. This has the effect of shifting Uses include:
the equilibrium to the right (according
to Le Chatelier’s Principle) and Artificial flavours for drinks and various
increasing the yield of the ester. processed foods.
Solvents. Ethyl ethanoate is widely used as an

industrial solvent (e.g. plastics industry) and is
well known as the solvent for nail varnish.
Ingredients in many products, including

shampoo and cosmetic products, and as
“plasticizers” (softening agents) in some
plastics, such as “vinyl”.
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Worksheet 16 Esters
The Alkanols, also called a)..............................., Esters are made using the technique of
all contain the functional group b).................. and p)............................... The reaction flask is open
have the general formula c).................................... to the atmosphere to avoid any dangerous build-
The -OH group contains a chemical bond which up of q)................................... Volatile chemicals
is d)..............................., and allows vapourise, but are r)..................................... by the
e)............................. bonding between molecules. s)................................................ and drip back
This is why the alkanols have m.p’s & b.p’s into the flask. t).................................... is used as
much higher than the corresponding a catalyst, and also improves the yield by
f)......................................... shifting the u)............................. because it
absorbs water.
The Alkanoic Acids contain the functional group
g)...................... This group contains 2 polar Esters occur widely in nature, being responsible
bonds, so 2 h)............................... bonds can for many of the v)......................... and
form between molecules. This is why .................................. of foods, especially
i)................................................. than the alkanols. w).......................... Long-chain esters of glycerol
are the x)............................ and ............................
Esters are formed by the reaction of
j)........................... with ........................................... Artificially manufactured esters are used as
The other product is k)................................. y)........................ .................................. in
Esters are named by the l)........................... first processed foods, as z).......................... in
(with its ending changed to m)..........), followed industry and as ingredients in many products
by the n)...................................... name (with its such as aa)............................. and .........................
ending changed to o)..........................)
Worksheet 17 Esters
1. Names of Esters c) i)
Name the ester formed from ii)
iii)
a) ethanol & propanoic acid
d) i)
b) propanol & ethanoic acid ii)
iii)
c) pentanol & methanoic acid
e) i)
d) methanol and pentanoic acid ii)
iii)
e) hexanoic acid and butanol
f) i)
f) ethanoic acid and octanol ii)
iii)
2. Condensed Structural Formulas
For each of the compounds above, give the 3. Names from Structures
condensed structural formula for the For each of the following esters:
i) alkanol i) give the name of the ester
ii) alkanoic acid ii) name the alkanol and acid use to make it
and iii) ester
a) HCOO(CH2)3CH3
The first has been done for you as an example.
Answer
a) i) ethanol = CH3CH2OH b) CH3CH2COO(CH2)3CH3
ii) propanoic acid = CH3CH2COOH
iii) ester = CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
c) CH3(CH2)3COO(CH2)4CH3
Note: although the alkanol comes first in naming, it
may be more convenient to place the acid remnant
first in the structural formula. d) C4H9COOCH3
This system is used here.
e) C5H11COOC7H15
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Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

Mark values shown are suggestions only, and are to
1. give you an idea of how detailed an answer is
appropriate. Answer on reverse if insufficient space.
3. (6 marks)
a) Draw structural formulas for
i) methanol
The ester shown is:
A. butyl propanoate ii) propanoic acid

B. ethyl butanoate
C. butyl ethanoate
D. propyl butanoate iii) the ester formed by reaction of the above,
and give the name of this ester.
2.
Of these compounds, which would you expect
to have the highest m.p. & b.p.?
A. ethane
B. ethene b) Explain the need for using a reflux system to
C. ethanol carry out this ester preparation.
D. ethanoic acid
c) Name the chemical you would add to the

reaction flask as a catalyst.
d) Predict, in general terms, the odour of the

ester.
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HSC Chemistry Topic 2 “Acidic Environment”
35 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (“Mind Map”) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
THE
ACIDIC
ENVIRONMENT
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Answer Section 3.
a) CO2 + Ca(OH)2 H2O + CaCO3
Worksheet 1 b) P2O5 + 3H2O 2H3PO4
a) opposites b) neutralise
c) pH d) 7
c) SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)
e) basic f) acidic
g) change colour h) pH (acidity) Worksheet 5
i) plants / lichens 1.
j) pink k) blue i) Left, to try to use heat & reduce temp.
l) clear, clear, pink/red m) red, yellow, yellow ii) Right, to reduce the pressure again.
n) yellow o) blue iii) Left, to decrease concentration of product.
p) soil testing q) water testing iv) Right, to release heat & increase temp.
r) effluents v) Left, to make more reactant & increase pressure.
vi) Left, to increase pressure again.
Worksheet 2 2.
i) Equilib. shifts left, to decrease conc. of iodide ion.
1. A = acid. B = base. C = neutral. D = base. E = acid.
ii) Equilib. shifts right, to increase conc. of hydrogen
2. B ion.
3. iii) Equilib. shifts right, to decrease conc. of HI.
a) A chemical which changes colour depending on iv) Endothermic (heat is a reactant), since higher temp
the pH of the solution it is in. causes shift to right to consume heat.
b) Soil testing, to help gardening or agriculture. 3.
c) Put Hydrangea flowers through a blender with a i) High pressure causes equilibrium to shift right to
small amount of water and ethanol. Filter the mixture. reduce the total moles of gas and pressure.
The liquid will act as an acid-base indicator. ii) Shifts equilibrium to left.
iii) Removing product & adding reactant keeps
Worksheet 3 shifting equilib. to right, so yield is maximised.
a) water b) salt
c) neutralise d) bases Worksheet 6
e) water and a salt f) acids 1. Molar Gas volumes
g) acid solution h) neutralise a) In each case, multiply moles by 24.79 (at 25oC &
i) equilibrium j) rate 100kPa) or 22.71 (at 0oC & 100kPa)
k) products l) dynamic i) 64.2L ii) 1.03L iii) 2.72x103L iv) 1.16L
m) temperature, concentration or gas pressure
b) In each case, divide volume by 24.79 or 22.71.
n) Le Chatelier’s i) 0.500 mol ii) 1.10x10-2mol
o) counteracts the disturbance iii) 403 mol iv) 4.41x10-5mol
p) carbon-oxygen q) burning fossil fuels
r) Global s) Greenhouse Effect 2. Mass-Vol of Gases
t) volcanic u) hot springs/geysers a) i) n(CO2) = 5.00/24.79 = 0.2017 mol
v) fossil fuels w) smelting m(CO2) = n x MM = 0.2017 x 44.01 = 8.88g.
x) Acid Rain y) NOx ii) n(H2) = 5.00/24.79 = 0.2017 mol
z) lightning m(H2) = n x MM = 0.2017 x 2.016 = 0.407g.
aa) power stations & engines iii) n(Ne) = 100/22.71 = 4.403 mol
m(Ne) = n x MM = 4.403 x 20.18 = 88.9g.
ab) smog ac) Rain
iv) n(O2) = 0.0250/22.71 = 0.001101 mol
m(O2) = n x MM = 0.001101 x 32 = 3.52x10-2g.
b) i) n = m/MM = 100/44.01 = 2.272 mol
Worksheet 4 v = 2.272 x 24.79 = 56.3L
1. ii) n = m/MM = 100/4.003 = 24.98 mol
a) i) calcium chloride v = 24.98 x 24.79 = 619L
ii) magnesium sulfate iii) n = m/MM = 1.50/28.02 = 0.05353 mol
iii) barium nitrate v = 0.05353 x 24.79 = 1.33L
b) i) HCl + LiOH H2O + LiCl
3. Problems
ii) H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4 a) i) CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) H2O(l) + CaCO3(s)
iii) 2HNO3 + Mg(OH)2 2H2O + Mg(NO3)2 ii) n(CO2) = 1.00/24.79 = 0.04034 mol
∴ n(CaCO3) = 0.04034 mol (ratio 1:1)
2. ∴ m(CaCO3) = n x MM = 0.04034x100.09 = 4.04g.
a) H2SO4 + FeO H2O + FeSO4
iii) n(CaCO3) = m/MM = 1.75/100.09 = 0.01748 mol
b) 2HCl + MgO H2O + MgCl2 ∴ n(CO2) = 0.01748 mol (ratio 1:1)
∴ vol(CO2) = 0.01748 x 22.71 = 0.397 L (397mL)
c) 2HNO3 + CuO 2H2O + Cu(NO3)2
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Worksheet 6 (cont.) Worksheet 8
a) donate protons b) hydrogen
3. c) hydronium d) monoprotic
b) i) 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g) e) diprotic f) triprotic
g) CH3COOH
ii) n(ZnS) = m/MM = 1.00x106/97.46 = 10,260 mol. h) 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid
∴ n(O2) = 10,260 x 3/2 = 15,391 mol (ratio = 2:3) i) ionises completely in water solution
∴ vol(O2) = 15,391 x 24.79 = 3.82 x 105 L j) only partially ionises k) -log10[H3O+]
l) powers (index numbers) m) 10
iii) vol(air) = 3.82 x 105 x 100/21= 1.82 x106 L. n) preserve o) bacteria & fungi
p) SO2 and ethanoic q) flavour
iv) Gay-Lussac’s Law is that gases react in simple r) sour s) ethanoic & citric
whole number ratios. Therefore the volume of SO2 t) nutritional u) ascorbic
will be in the same ratio as the mole ratio of O2 : SO2 v) formic (methanoic) w) calcium oxide
which is 3:2.
Worksheet 9
∴ vol(SO2) = 3.82 x105 x 2/3 = 2.55 x 105 L 1. Acid Ionisation in Water
a) HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
b) HBr(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Br-(aq)

Worksheet 7
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. C 5. B 6. D c) HCOOH(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HCOO-(aq)
7. d) HCN(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CN-(aq)

a) 2HCl(aq) + MgO(s) H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
2H3O+(aq)+ SO4
2-
e) H2SO4(l)+ 2H2O(l) (aq)
b) It has neutralised an acid, forming water and a salt.
2H3O+(aq)+ CO3
Therefore it is a base. 2-
f) H2CO3(l)+ 2H2O(l) (aq)
3H3O+(aq)+ PO4
c) CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2CO3(aq) 3-
g) H3PO4(l)+ 3H2O(l) (aq)
Carbon dioxide has neutralised a base, therefore it is
acidic. h) C6H8O7(s)+ 3H2O(l) 3H3O+(aq) + C6H5O7(aq)
8. 2. pH from [H3O+]
a) Carbon dioxide reacts with water as follows: use pH = -log[H3O+] in each case
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) a) 1.17 (acidic) b) 3.08 (acidic)
c) -0.398 (acidic) d) 11.6 (basic)
In the sealed bottle, this system is in equilibrium. e) 2.46 (acidic) f) 7.82 (just barely basic)
When the lid is removed, the pressure of CO2 above
the liquid drops. The equilibrium shifts left 3. pH from Acid Concentration
(attempting to increase the pressure by making more a) [H3O+] = 0.250, so pH = 0.602
gas) so bubbles form as CO2 comes out of solution. b) [H3O+] = 0.0750 x 2, so pH = 0.824
c) [H3O+] = 7.50x10-4 x 2, so pH = 2.82
b) If exothermic, then heat is a “product” of the d) [H3O+] = 4.5x10-3 x 3, so pH = 1.87
reaction as written above. By Le Chatelier’s Principle, e) [H3O+] = 6.00 x 2, so pH = -1.08
higher temperature should shift equilibrium left.
Therefore, a warm bottle of drink will form bubbles 4. [H3O+] from pH
faster when opened. use inverse (or 2nd function) log (-pH) on calculator
a) 5.01 x 10-6 molL-1. b) 3.16 x 10-12 molL-1.
-1
9. c) 2.51 molL . d) 3.00 x 10-9 molL-1.
a) volcanic eruptions, hot springs, geysers. e) 1.00 molL-1.
b) example: smelting of lead sulfide ore: Worksheet 10

PbS + O2 Pb + SO2 1. C 2. D 3. C 4. B
c) “Acid Rain” can acidify lakes and streams, killing 5.

the living things. Forests can die-back due to soil a) H2A + 2H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq) + A2-(aq)
acidity. acid base conj.acid conj.base
d) S + O2 SO2 b) if [H2A] = 0.0250, then [H3O+]= 0.0500 moL-1

pH = -log10[H3O+]
n(S) = m/MM = 1.00x106/32.07 = 1.30
= 31,182 mol
V(SO2) = 31,182 x 24.79 = 7.73 x 105 L c) H2A must be a weak acid and has only partially
(773,000 Litres!) ionised. The [H3O+] is lower and pH higher than
predicted.
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Worksheet 10 (cont.) Worksheet 13

6. 1. Amphiprotic Substances
a) H2PO4 (aq) + H3O+(aq)
-
Acids may be added to preserve the food. By lowering H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
the pH, it becomes more difficult for microbes to
H2PO4 (aq) + OH-(aq)
- 2-
grow in the food and cause it to spoil. Ethanoic acid HPO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
(vinegar) is commonly used for this.
b) HCO3 (aq) + H3O+(aq)
-
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Acids are also added to flavour the food by adding the
HCO3 (aq) + OH-(aq)
- 2-
sourness that improves some flavours such as fruit CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
drinks or jams. Citric acid is often used this way.
c) HS-(aq) + H3O+(aq) H2S(aq) + H2O(l)
HS-(aq) + OH-(aq) S2-(aq) + H2O(l)
Worksheet 11 2. Acidic & Basic Salts

a) oxygen b) hydrogen a) CH3COO-(aq)+ H2O(l) OH-(aq)+ CH3COOH(aq)
c) metals d) Arrhenius +
e) hydrogen ions f) hydroxide or oxide b) NH4 (aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
g) the solvent (water) h) Bronsted-Lowry -
i) proton donor j) proton acceptor c) NO2 (aq) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + OH-(aq)
k) transfer l) protons - 2-
m) conjugate n) conjugate acid d) HC2O4 (aq) + H2O(l) C2O4 (aq) + H3O+(aq)
o) acid or base p) amphiprotic
q) water r) any ammonium salt e) CN-(aq) + H2O(l) HCN(aq) + OH-(aq)
s) sodium carbonate t) sodium chloride/sulfate
u) strong v) strong Worksheet 14
w) strong x) weak 1.
y) weak z) strong 23.10 omitted
aa) hydronium & hydroxide ab) water Average titre = (22.50+22.45+22.50)/3 = 22.48mL
ac) exo- ad) Titration
ae) volume af) standard HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
ag) equivalence (end) ah) burette
ai) indicator aj) colour Ca x Va = Cb x Vb
ak) pH al) near-vertical a b
am) weak acid and its conjugate base Cb = b x Ca x Va/(Vb x a)
an) shifts ao) Le Chatelier’s = 1 x 0.09255 x 22.48/25.00 x1
ap) pH aq) living = 0.08322
ar) constant chemical conditions ∴ c(NaOH) = 0.08322 molL-1.
as) in the blood at) bicarbonate & carbonate
2.
i) H2SO4 + 2NH4OH 2H2O + (NH4)2SO4
ii) Ca x Va = Cb x Vb
a b
Worksheet 12 Ca = a x Cb x Vb/(Va x b)
In each case the conjugate is underlined. = 1 x 0.05025 x 28.32/(25.00 x 2)
= 0.02846
a) CH3COOH(aq)+ H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq) ∴ c(H2SO4) = 0.08322 molL-1.
iii) L is best choice because stong acid-weak base
+
b) NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4 (aq) + OH-(aq) titration has end-point at acidic pH. L changes colour
at 4.2.
2- 3-
c) HPO4 (aq) + H2O(l) PO4 (aq) + H3O+(aq) 3.
i) Can be obtained in a pure, dry state. Is stable and
2-
H2PO4 (aq) + OH-(aq)
- does not react with gases in air or absorb moisture.
d) HPO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
ii) moles required:
e) S2-(aq) + H2O(l) HS-(aq) + OH-(aq) n = C x V = 0.02500 x 0.5 = 0.01250 mol.
mass required: m = n x MM (MM= 90.04g)
f) CN-(aq) + H2O(l) HCN(aq) + OH-(aq) = 0.01250 x 90.04
mass = 1.126g.
g) H2S(aq) + H2O(l) HS-(aq) + H3O+(aq) iii) Weigh out chemical into clean, dry beaker.
Add enough pure water, and stir, to dissolve it
-
h) NO2 (aq) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + OH-(aq) completely.
Transfer solution into 500mL volumetric flask.
+
i) NH4 (aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq) Rinse beaker with small amounts of extra water and
add washings to flask.
- 2-
j) HSO3 (aq) + H2O(l) SO3 (aq) + H3O+(aq) Fill flask to mark with pure water. Use a dropper at the
end to fill exactly to the mark.
Insert stopper and invert repeatedly to mix solution
thoroughly.
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Worksheet 14 (cont.) 9.
4. a) A buffer can maintain a constant pH despite
C2H2O4 + 2KOH 2H2O + C2O4K2 addition of acid or base.
(or) b) A (roughly equal) mixture of a weak acid and its
COOHCOOH + 2KOH 2H2O + COOKCOOK conjugate base, such as ethanoic acid plus sodium
ethanoate (which provides ethanoate ions).
Ca x Va = Cb x Vb c) Our blood is buffered by a mixture of bicarbonate
a b ions and carbonate ions. The blood pH remains quite
Cb = b x Ca x Va/(Vb x a) constant, despite constant changes occurring as
= 2 x 0.02500 x 31.45/25.00 x1 gases dissolve, food is absorbed, etc.
= 0.06290
∴ c(KOH) = 0.06290 molL-1. Worksheet 16
a) alcohols b) -OH
5. c) CnH2n+1OH d) polar
i) use nitric acid because it is strong acid. Weak acid- e) hydrogen f) alkanes
weak base titrations have indistinct end-point... best g) COOH h) hydrogen
avoided. i) m.p. & b.p. is even higher than
ii) HNO3 + NH4OH H2O + NH4NO3 j) alkanols with alkanoic acids
k) water l) alkanol
Cb = b x Ca x Va/(Vb x a) m) -yl n) alkanoic acid
= 1 x 0.7438 x 12.76/10.00 x1 o) -oate p) reflux
= 0.9491 q) pressure r) condensed
∴ c(NH4OH) = 0.9491 molL-1. s) reflux condenser t) Sulfuric acid
u) equilibrium v) odours and tastes
Worksheet 15 w) fruits x) fats and oils
1. A 2. D 3. B 4. C 5. A y) artificial flavourings z) solvents
6. aa) shampoo/cosmetics/plastics
a) An acid produces hydrogen ions in solution.
b) HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Worksheet 17
1. Names of Esters
c) Acids are proton donors. Bases are proton a) ethyl propanoate b) propyl ethanoate
acceptors. c) pentyl methanoate d) methyl pentanoate
d) HCl(g) + H2O(l) Cl-(aq) + H3O+(aq) e) butyl hexanoate f) octyl ethanoate
The HCl molecule has transferred a proton to the 2. Condensed Structural Formulas
water molecule, therefore it is an acid. a) i) CH3CH2OH ii) CH3CH2COOH
iii) CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
7. b) i) CH3CH2CH2OH ii) CH3COOH
a) CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) -
HCO3 (aq) + OH-(aq) iii) CH3COO(CH2)2CH3
Water acts as an acid and donates a proton to the c) i) CH3(CH2)3CH2OH ii) HCOOH
carbonate ion. This forms a hydroxide ion, which iii) HCOO(CH2)4CH3
explains why the solution is basic. d) i) CH3OH ii) CH3(CH2)3COOH
iii) CH3(CH2)3COOCH3
b) If the environment is acidic, HCO3- acts as a base: e) i) CH3(CH2)2CH2OH ii) CH3(CH2)4COOH
H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) H2CO3(aq)+ H2O(aq) iii) CH3(CH2)4COO(CH2)3CH3
f)i) CH3(CH2)6CH2OH ii) CH3COOH
-
If the environment is basic, HCO3 acts as an acid: iii) CH3COO(CH2)7CH3
OH-(aq) + HCO3-(aq) 2-
CO3 (aq)+ H2O(aq) 3. Names from Structures
a) butyl methanoate. butanol + methanoic acid
8. b) butyl propanoate. butanol + propanoic acid
a) A weak acid-strong base titration has an end point c) pentyl penanoate. pentanol + pentanoic acid
about pH = 8-10, so phenolphthalein is best. d) methyl pentanoate. methanol + pentanoic acid
e) heptyl hexanoate. heptanol + hexanoic acid.
b) CH3COOH + KOH H2O + CH3COOK
c) The first titre should be discarded because it does

not agree closely with the others. The remaining 3
should be averaged.
Average = (26.70+26.75+26.65)/3 = 26.70mL
d) Ca x Va = Cb x Vb
a b FOR MAXIMUM MARKS SHOW
Ca = a x Cb x Vb/(Va x b) FORMULAS & WORKING,
= 1 x 0.008263 x 26.70/(25.00 x 1)
APPROPRIATE PRECISION & UNITS
= 0.008825
∴ c(CH3COOH) = 0.08322 molL-1. IN ALL CHEMICAL PROBLEMS
Copyright © 2005-2
®
Worksheet 18 b) The mixture needs heating, but a closed flask

could explode due to pressure build up. An open flask
1. C 2. D is needed, but volatile chemicals will then evaporate
away. The reflux system is open, but condenses
3. vapours and returns them to the reaction flask.
a) i) O-H
H ii)
H O-H
H
H c) concentrated sulfuric acid.
H C H H C C C d) Esters generally have sweet, fruity odours.
H O
H H
H
ii) methyl propanoate
H H O C H
CH3CH2COOCH3 H C C C H
O
H H
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keep it simple science

HSC Chemistry Topic 2

THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT

but first, an introduction...

This topic begins by reminding you of this ACID BASE

...and you will learn the real meaning of the pH

You will study the sources and problems that

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (“Mind Map”) OF TOPIC

Acids & Alkalis.

ACIDIC Acids &

1. ACIDS, BASES & INDICATORS

Phenolphthalein clear clear red/pink

Practical Work: Classifying Household Substances

By using appropriate indicators (such as

Some Typical Results

ACIDIC NEUTRAL BASIC

Worksheet 1 Acids, Bases & Indicators Student Name..........................................

Worksheet 2 Practice Questions & Test Questions section 1

Solution E: Phenolphthalein is clear.

2. ACIDS IN OUR ENVIRONMENT

Inert Gases have no

Potassium hydroxide KOH K+(aq)+ OH-(aq)

Ionic equation: sulfuric + copper(II) water + copper(II)

WORKSHEET at end of section WORKSHEET at end of section

At equilibrium, it seems (macroscopically) that If you weigh the soft drink

Typical Results& Analysis

The sealed drink contains

Eventually a new equilibrium Which way an equilibrium shifts due to

Le Chatelier’s Principle Effect of Concentration

Temperature Effect on Equilibrium

If the temperature is lowered, the equilibrium CO2(g)+ H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

Explaining the Pressure Effect

CO2(g)+ H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) CO2(g)+ H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

There are 3 main acidic oxides that are of CO2

Sulfur Dioxide Geyser erupting, Nitrogen Dioxide occurs naturally in

lead(II) sulfide + oxygen lead + sulfur High temperature

SO2 reacts with water in the environment:

sulfur dioxide + water sulfurous acid

Sulfurous acid is a strong acid and where SO2

Lakes and wetlands can become acidic enough

Copper(I) sulfide + oxygen Copper + Sulfur dioxide

How much SO2(g) is produced from 1 tonne of Cu2S?

moles of Cu2S: n = m/MM (MM = 159.2g)

Worksheet 3 Acids in the Environment

Worksheet 4 Practice Questions

iii) nitric acid & barium hydroxide 3. Reactions of Acidic Oxides

iii) nitric acid and magnesium hydroxide

2. Reactions of Basic Oxides c) Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form a

Worksheet 5 Practice Questions

The reaction to the right is exothermic, so heat HI(aq) H+(aq) + I-(aq)

State which way the equilibrium would shift if

3. Ammonia is manufactured from its elements

i) To maximize the yield of ammonia, the

v) Spray in a little water.

vi) Decreasing the total gas pressure.

iii) During the reaction, ammonia is constantly

Worksheet 6 Tutorial & Practice Questions

Another set of standard conditions commonly iii) 1.50g of N2 ?

Under these conditions, 1 mole of any gas iv) 1.00kg of Ar ?

Notes: 3. Problems Involving Reactions

a) What is the volume of:

iii) 120 mol of CO2 at 0oC & 100kPa?