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Electromagnetic Energy
Conversion
1
Electromagnetic fields
Maxwell’s equations
Principles of Electromagnetism
Physical fields
h magnetic field (A/m) e electric field (V/m)
b magnetic flux density (T) d electric displacement (C/m2)
j current density (A/m2) ρv charge density (C/m3)
Principles of Electromagnetism 2
Lorentz force
Interaction of electromagnetic
fields with a point charge moving
at speed v
f = q (e + v × b)
f =j ×b Laplace force
Principles of Electromagnetism 3
Electromagnetic power
Poynting vector
s=e h
Power density
p= div e ⇥ h = h · curl e + e · curl h
⇥p=h· tb +e·j+e· td
Principles of Electromagnetism 4
Material constitutive laws
Constitutive laws
Material characteristics
µ magnetic permeability (H/m) Constant (linear materials)
ε dielectric permittivity (F/m) Function of the fields (nonlinear
σ electrical conductivity (Ω–1 m–1) materials)
Tensorial (anisotropic materials)
Function of temperature, mechanical
stress, ...
Principles of Electromagnetism 5
Magnetic constitutive law
b=µh µ = µr µ0 µr relative magnetic permeability
µ0 magnetic permeability of vacuum (H/m)
Steinmetz formula
p H = ω k h bνmax ( W / m3 )
pulsation ω, max. flux density bmax
coeficients kh and ν (1.5 < ν < 1.8)
Principles of Electromagnetism 6
Quasi-stationnary approximation
curl h = j + ∂t d
Small dimensions
compared to wavelength
curl h = j
Ampère’s law
Applications
Electrotechnical devices (motors, generators, power transformers, ...)
Usually, frequencies up to several 100’s of kHz
Principles of Electromagnetism 7
Electromagnetic models
All governed by Maxwell’s equations
❖ Electrostatics
– Distribution of electric field due to static charges and levels of electric potential
❖ Electrokinetics
– Distribution of stationary electric current in conductors
❖ Electrodynamics
– Distribution of electric field and currents in materials (both conductprs and
insulators)
❖ Magnetostatics
– Distribution of stationary magnetic field due to magnets and stationary
currents
❖ Magnetodynamics
– Distribution of magnetic field and eddy currents due to moving magnets and
time-dependent currents
❖ Wave propagation
– Electromagnetic wave propagation
Principles of Electromagnetism 8
Ampère’s law
div j = 0
Conservation of the current
∫ j ⋅ n ds = 0
The sum of the currents arriving at
a given point is zero
Principles of Electromagnetism 9
Faraday’s law
∫ b ⋅ n ds = 0
Magnetic flux lines are closed
Principles of Electromagnetism 10
Faraday’s law – Eddy currents
curl e = – ∂t b In a massive conductor subject to time-varying
magnetic field, e.m.f.s appear that give rise to
Faraday’s law
currents
∫ e ⋅ dl = −∂ t Φ
Eddy (or induced) currents
2
δ= ( m)
The skin depth δ characterizes the depth in the ωσµ
material at which the current (and the magnetic
field) tend to concentrate.
Increasing the frequency leads to smaller δ, ω pulsation (rad/m)
which leads to currents concentrated closer to σ electrical conductivity (Ω–1 m–1 )
the surface of the conductor. µ magnetic permeability (H/m)
Principles of Electromagnetism 12
Magnetic circuits
n1I1 + n 2I2
Φ= Useful flux
R
Leakage flux
n1I1 n I
Φf 1 = et Φf 2 = 2 2
Rf1 Rf 2
⎛ n2 n2 ⎞ n n
Φ t1 = n1 (Φ + Φ f 1 ) = ⎜ 1 + 1 ⎟ I1 + 1 2 I 2 = λ1 I1 + M12 I 2 Leakage reluctances
⎜ R Rf1 ⎟ R
⎝ ⎠
n1 n 2 ⎛ n12 n12 ⎞
Φ t 2 = n 2 (Φ + Φ f 2 ) = I1 + ⎜ + ⎟ I = M 21 I1 + λ 2 I 2
R ⎜ R Rf 2 ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠
Inductances
n12 n12 n2 n2 n n
λ1 = + , λ 2 = 2 + 2 , M = M12 = M 21 = 1 2
R Rf1 R Rf 2 R