Anatomy of the Respiratory System

Respiration is the act of breathing:

• inhaling (inspiration) - taking in oxygen

• exhaling (expiration) - giving off carbon
dioxide

The respiratory system is made up of the organs

involved in breathing and consists of the:

• nose
• pharynx
• larynx
• trachea
• bronchi
• lungs

The upper respiratory tract includes the:

• nose
• nasal cavity
• ethmoidal air cells
• frontal sinuses
• maxillary sinus
• larynx
• trachea

The lower respiratory tract includes the:

• lungs
• bronchi
• alveoli

The lungs take in oxygen, which all cells throughout the body need to live and carry out their
normal functions. The lungs also get rid of carbon dioxide, a waste product of the body's cells.

The lungs are a pair of cone-shaped organs made up of spongy, pinkish-gray tissue. They take up
most of the space in the chest, or the thorax (the part of the body between the base of the neck
and diaphragm).
The lungs are inside in a membrane called the pleura.

The lungs are separated from each other by the mediastinum, an area that contains the following:

• heart and its large vessels

• trachea (windpipe)
• esophagus
• thymus
• lymph nodes

The right lung has three sections, called lobes. The left lung has two lobes. When you breathe,
the air:

• enters the body through the nose or the mouth

• travels down the throat through the larynx (voice box) and trachea (windpipe)

• goes into the lungs through tubes called main-stem bronchi

o one main-stem bronchus leads to the right lung and one to the left lung

o in the lungs, the main-stem bronchi divide into smaller bronchi

o and then into even smaller tubes called bronchioles

o bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli

Anatomy of the skin

The skin is an ever-changing organ that contains many specialized cells and structures. The skin
functions as a protective barrier that interfaces with a sometimes-hostile environment. It is also
very involved in maintaining the proper temperature for the body to function well. It gathers
sensory information from the environment, and plays an active role in the immune system
protecting us from disease. Understanding how the skin can function in these many ways starts
with understanding the structure of the 3 layers of skin - the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous
tissue.

Epidermis
The epidermis is the outer layer of skin. The thickness of the epidermis varies in different types
of skin. It is the thinnest on the eyelids at .05 mm and the thickest on the palms and soles at 1.5
mm.
The epidermis contains 5 layers. From bottom to top the layers are named:

• stratum basale
• stratum spinosum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum licidum
• stratum corneum

The bottom layer, the stratum basale, has cells that are shaped like columns. In this layer the cells
divide and push already formed cells into higher layers. As the cells move into the higher layers,
they flatten and eventually die.

The top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum, is made of dead, flat skin cells that shed
about every 2 weeks.

• Illustration of maturation of epidermis cells

Specialized Epidermal Cells

There are three types of specialized cells in the epidermis.

• The melanocyte produces pigment (melanin)

• The Langerhans' cell is the frontline defense of the immune system in the skin
• The Merkel's cell's function is not clearly known

Dermis
The dermis also varies in thickness depending on the location of the skin. It is .3 mm on the
eyelid and 3.0 mm on the back. The dermis is composed of three types of tissue that are present
throughout - not in layers. The types of tissue are:

• collagen
• elastic tissue
• reticular fibers

Layers of the Dermis

The two layers of the dermis are the papillary and reticular layers.

• The upper, papillary layer, contains a thin arrangement of collagen fibers.

• The lower, reticular layer, is thicker and made of thick collagen fibers that are arranged
parallel to the surface of the skin.

Specialized Dermal Cells

The dermis contains many specialized cells and structures.
 • The hair follicles are situated here with the erector pili muscle that attaches to each
follicle.
• Sebaceous (oil) glands and apocrine (scent) glands are associated with the follicle.
• This layer also contains eccrine (sweat) glands, but they are not associated with hair
follicles.
• Blood vessels and nerves course through this layer. The nerves transmit sensations of
pain, itch, and temperature.
• There are also specialized nerve cells called Meissner's and Vater-Pacini corpuscles that
transmit the sensations of touch and pressure.

Subcutaneous Tissue
The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat and connective tissue that houses larger blood vessels
and nerves. This layer is important is the regulation of temperature of the skin itself and the
body. The size of this layer varies throughout the body and from person to person.

The skin is a complicated structure with many functions. If any of the structures in the skin are
not working properly, a rash or abnormal sensation is the result. The whole specialty of
dermatology is devoted to understanding the skin, what can go wrong, and what to do if
something does go wrong.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

Respiration is defined in two ways. In common usage, respiration refers to the act of
breathing, or inhaling and exhaling. Biologically speaking, respiration strictly means the
uptake of oxygen by an organism, its use in the tissues, and the release of carbon
dioxide. By either definition, respiration has two main functions: to supply the cells of the
body with the oxygen needed formetabolism and to remove carbon dioxide formed as a
waste product from metabolism. This lesson describes the components of the upper
respiratory tract.
The upper respiratory tract conducts air from outside the body to the lower respiratory
tract and helps protect the body from irritating substances. The upper respiratory tract
consists of the following structures:
The nasal cavity, the mouth, the pharynx, the epiglottis, the larynx, and the upper
trachea. The oesophagus leads to the digestive tract.
One of the features of both the upper and lower respiratory tracts is the mucociliary
apparatus that protects the airways from irritating substances, and is composed of the
ciliated cells and mucus-producing glands in the nasal epithelium. The glands produce a
layer of mucus that traps unwanted particles as they are inhaled. These are swept
toward the posterior pharynx, from where they are either swallowed, spat out, sneezed,
or blown out.
Air passes through each of the structures of the upper respiratory tract on its way to the
lower respiratory tract. When a person at rest inhales, air enters via the nose and
mouth. The nasal cavity filters, warms, and humidifies air. The pharynx or throat is a
tube like structure that connects the back of the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx, a
passageway for air, and the esophagus, a passageway for food. The pharynx serves as
a common hallway for the respiratory and digestive tracts, allowing both air and food to
pass through before entering the appropriate passageways.
The pharynx contains a specialised flap-like structure called the epiglottis that lowers
over the larynx to prevent the inhalation of food and liquid into the lower respiratory
tract.
The larynx, or voice box, is a unique structure that contains the vocal cords, which are
essentialfor human speech. Small and triangular in shape, the larynx extends from the
epiglottis to the trachea. The larynx helps control movement of the epiglottis. In addition,
the larynx has specialised muscular folds that close it off and also prevent food, foreign
objects, and secretions such as saliva from entering the lower respiratory tract.