♦ AAL-2—A New ATM Adaptation Layer for

Small Packet Encapsulation and Multiplexing

John H. Baldwin, Behram H. Bharucha, Bharat T. Doshi,
Subrahmanyam Dravida, and Sanjiv Nanda

Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks carry fixed-size cells within the net-
work irrespective of the applications being supported. At the network edge or at the
end equipment, an ATM adaptation layer (AAL) maps the services offered by the
ATM network to the services required by the application. Many trunking applications
that have voice compression and silence suppression require transmission of small
delay-sensitive packets. Existing AALs are very inefficient for this purpose. In this
paper, we discuss a new AAL called the AAL Type 2 (AAL-2), which allows very high
efficiency for carrying small packets. We describe the basic principles and compare
several alternatives with respect to transmission error performance, bandwidth effi-
ciency, and delay/jitter performance. The results show that the AAL-2 adds signifi-
cant value to packet telephony applications over ATM networks. We discuss the
desirability of additional rebundling in the network and the need for a signaling
protocol to communicate changes in native connections (voice calls) within the same
ATM connection. We also describe how the principles of the AAL-2 are being used to
define multiplexing protocols over the Internet and frame-relay networks.

Introduction
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks
carry fixed-size (53-octet) cells within the network
irrespective of the applications being carried over
ATM. To support applications in native protocol mode,
a terminal adapter (TA) at the network edge acts as an
ATM user and implements an ATM adaptation layer
(AAL) to map the services offered by the ATM net-
work to those required by the application. In cases in
which ATM is terminated at the end-user equipment,
the AAL entity is implemented there.
AAL-11 has been defined for constant bit rate
(CBR) traffic requiring tight delay and jitter control. In
addition, AAL-3/42 and AAL-53 have been defined for
bursty data. These AALs allow simple encapsulation of
application ‘packets’ if each packet fits into one ATM
cell. For larger application packets, the segmentation
and reassembly layer in AAL-3/4 and AAL-5 allows
segmentation of packets at the transmitter so each seg-
ment can fit into an ATM cell and the original packet
can be reassembled from the incoming ATM cells at
the receiver. Thus, the existing AALs allow either col-
lection of enough information to fit into one ATM cell
payload or segmentation of larger native-mode pack-
ets into smaller units such that each smaller unit fits
into an ATM cell payload. If native information units
are smaller than an ATM payload, these AALs require
partial filling of ATM cells.
Many applications require transmission of small
packets across an ATM network involving one or
more ATM switches in the connection. These applica-
tions include private branch exchange (PBX)-to-PBX
trunking for compressed voice with or without silence
suppression, ATM backbone for cellular systems and
personal communications services (PCS) wireless
access, ATM trunking on the public-switched tele-
phone network (PSTN), and ATM backbone connec-

Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 111

 Panel 1. Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Terms
AAL—asynchronous transfer mode adaptation
layer
ADSL—asymmetric digital subscriber line
ATM—asynchronous transfer mode
BER—bit error rate
CBR—constant bit rate
CDMA—code division multiple access
CES—circuit emulation service
CID—connection identification
CPS—common part sublayer
CRC—cyclical redundancy check
DCS—digital cross-connect system
DLCI—data link connection identifier
DTMF—dual-tone multifrequency signaling
HEC—header error check
IETF—Internet Engineering Task Force
IP—Internet protocol
ITU-T—International Telecommunication Union –
Telecommunication Standardization Sector
LI—length indicator
LLC—logical link connection
MAN—metropolitan area network
MSC—mobile switching center
OA&M—operations, administration, and main-
tenance
OSF—offset field
PBX—private branch exchange
PCS—personal communications services
PDC—personal digital cellular
tivity to packet telephony. These applications and oth-
ers are described in some detail later.
In applications like the ones mentioned above,
there are two primary reasons to transmit small pack-
ets across ATM networks:
• When small native packets are generated away
from the ATM network—that is, in a digital
cellular mobile terminal—and the packet
boundaries need to be recovered at the desti-
nation outside the ATM network.
• When the bit rate of the native application is
low and the requirement on the end-to-end
delay prohibits accumulation of bits to fill an
ATM cell before sending the cell out to its des-
tination. In the latter case, small packets are
generated even if the packetization is done at
112 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
PH—packet handler
PHY—physical (typically used with “layer”)
POTS—”plain old telephone service”
PPP—point-to-point protocol
PRI—primary rate interface
PSTN—public-switched telephone network
PTI—payload type indicator
RES—reserved
RPM—radio port multiplexer
RP—radio port
SMAAL—small packet multiplexed asynchro-
nous transfer mode adaptation layer
SN—sequence number
SS7—Signaling System 7
SSCF—service-specific convergence function
SSCS—service-specific convergence sublayer
STF—start field
STM—synchronous transfer mode
TA—terminal adapter
TDM—time division multiplexing
UU—user to user
VCC—virtual channel connection
VCI—virtual circuit identifier
vocoder—voice coder
VPC—virtual path connection
VPI—virtual path identifier
VP—virtual path
WAN—wide area network
the ATM network edge.
For these applications, partial filling of ATM cells
when using existing AALs may cause unacceptable
loss in bandwidth efficiency. This inefficiency is a con-
cern especially when the total traffic demand requires
relatively low-speed leased lines, which have high cost
relative to bit rate. In many cases, the cost penalty may
nullify many advantages offered by an ATM backbone.
This necessitates a new AAL for carrying small packets.
Our initial motivation for designing a new AAL
for small packets was the wireless infrastructure
application mentioned above. The solution was
motivated by the fact that many native mode con-
nections (for example, cellular voice calls) may
share two end points of the ATM network. In such
a case, the solution uses one ATM connection
 ATM connection (VPC/VCC)
LLN 1 Logical link numbers associated with
logical link connections (voice calls)
LLN N carried in one ATM connection

ATM network

SW SW

AAL-CU SW SW SW AAL-CU

SW

Multiple native packets from multiple logical

link connections in one ATM cell. Possibly partial
ATM packets at the beginning and/or end of ATM cell. ATM cell
header LLN field per packet to identify LLC. Length field
to delineate native packets.

AAL – ATM adaptation layer LLN – Logical link number

ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode SW – ATM switch
CU – Control unit VCC – Virtual channel connection
LLC – Logical link connection VPC – Virtual path connection

Figure 1.
The basic concepts in AAL-2.

between two points to carry packets from multiple
native connections. The ATM payloads from succes-
sive cells of this ATM connection are used as a byte
stream on which packets from different native con-
nections (called logical link connections [LLCs]) are
packed without regard to the cell boundaries. A
connection identification (CID) field is used in the
packet header to identify the LLC to which a packet
belongs. A length indicator (LI) field is used to iden-
tify the boundaries of variable-length LLC packets.
These concepts were incorporated in a protocol
called the small packet multiplexed AAL (SMAAL). It
became apparent that many other trunking applica-
tions would benefit from this protocol. Intensive stan-
dards activities in the North American standards body,
T1S1, International Telecommunication Union —
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T),
and in the ATM Forum followed. Many alternative
formats based on concepts in SMAAL were developed
and evaluated. The basic differences in these alterna-
tives are the coverage and amount of error protection
and the size of the CID field (equivalently, the number
of LLCs to be supported in a single ATM connection).
The evaluation resulted in recommendations that are
being standardized as the AAL Type 2 (AAL-2).
Figure 1 shows the concepts involved in SMAAL (and
AAL-2) at a high level.
In ensuing sections of this paper, we first present
details about the applications that motivated the need
for the AAL-2. This discussion is followed by a descrip-
tion of the basic principles of AAL-2. Because our
motivation was to provide a more efficient protocol for
carrying small packets over ATM networks, we present
a comparison of the efficiency and performance of
AAL-2 with AAL-1 and AAL-5, as well as with syn-
chronous transfer mode (STM) and frame relay. These
comparisons are followed by a brief explanation of
error and loss resilience of the AAL-2.
When both multiple sources and destinations are
involved, it is sometimes desirable to implement a LLC

Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 113

 PBX PBX
PCM voice PCM voice

Compression, Decompression,
silence suppression, silence insertion,
packetization packet extraction
ATM network
AAL Multiple voice AAL
ATM connections between ATM
PHY a pair of PBXs using PHY
ATM backbone

ATM backbone providing PBX-PBX

connectivity. Figure shows the transport
path from one PBX to another.
VBR voice with packet sizes
smaller than ATM payload.

AAL – ATM adaptation layer PCM – Pulse-code modulation

ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode PHY – Physical layer
PBX – Private branch exchange VBR – Variable bit rate

Figure 2.
PBX-to-PBX connectivity with the ATM backbone.

rebundling function in which AAL-2 is terminated and
packets for different LLCs are extracted and rebundled
into new ATM connections for transmission to their
destinations. We discuss a brief motivation for and
architectural positioning of LLC rebundling servers.
The mix of LLCs in ATM connections will change
as calls are set up and torn down. Moreover, it may be
desirable to change the coding rate or signal the start
or end of silence to the receiver. Doing so would
require a signaling protocol that is transparent to the
ATM connection. The paper concludes with a brief dis-
cussion of the requirement on signaling protocols and
ongoing standardization activities.
Some Application Scenarios
Details of some of the application scenarios moti-
vating the AAL-2 are now described. The list is not
exhaustive, but it represents a few classes of applica-
tions with similar characteristics.
PBX-to-PBX Connectivity over an ATM Backbone Network
ATM has become a promising infrastructure tech-
nology for wide area networks (WANs) interconnect-
ing PBXs and other private local networks. Figure 2
shows a scenario in which two PBXs are connected
over an ATM backbone network.
With the current circuit-switched backbone using
STM technology, PBXs are connected using leased
lines (typically, one or more T1 or E1 lines). The ATM
backbone can be used to provide a circuit emulation
service (CES) at either the T1 or E1 rate or at any
other transmission speed depending on the number of
64-kb/s trunks engineered between the two PBXs. In
this situation, the main advantage ATM provides is
arbitrary sizing of the trunk group. PBXs are not aware
of the existence of an ATM backbone and treat it like
an STM backbone. Leased bandwidth that is not used
by the PBX pair is wasted, as it is with the leased lines
available today.
An ATM backbone allows further opportunities
for efficiency improvement. ATM bandwidth can be
allocated as required for active calls. Voice compres-
sion and speech activity detection can be used to
reduce the required bandwidth further. However,
transport of compressed voice poses challenges for
existing AALs, especially when silence suppression is
also exercised.

114 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997

 PSPDN PSPDN
interface Packet interface
Application
processing processing
(PH) servers

Mobility Call
management control

Network Connection
ATM network
management control

RPM RPM RPM

RP RP RP RP RP

Air
interface

ATM connection PSTN – Public-switched telephone network

ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode RP – Radio port (base station)
PH – Protocol handler RPM – Radio port multiplexer
PSPDN – Packet-switched public data network

Figure 3.
ATM infrastructure for wireless cellular systems and PCS access.

With voice compression to 32 kb/s, a packetization
delay of 12 ms is incurred to fill an ATM cell. At 8
kb/s, the corresponding packetization delay is 48 ms.
The latter is prohibitive even with echo cancellation
and the former is unacceptable without echo cancella-
tion. On the other hand, smaller packetization inter-
vals will result in smaller packets. A new AAL is
required to carry these small packets efficiently.
A similar situation arises in PSTN trunking. ATM is
an attractive technology, especially for international
circuits in which expensive bandwidth makes voice
compression and silence suppression desirable. Delay
consideration results in small packets.
ATM Infrastructure for Wireless Cellular Systems and
PCS Access
ATM is a promising technology for the wired
infrastructure in cellular systems and PCS. Figure 3
illustrates an ATM-based infrastructure having trans-
port, switching, signaling, and operations, administra-
tion, and maintenance (OA&M) functions.4 The air
interface is left untouched while the connectivity
between the termination point for the air interface
(radio port [RP]) and the PSTN is provided over an
ATM backbone. The ATM backbone itself may consist
of ATM multiplexers (RP multiplexers [RPMs]) and
ATM switches. For each call, the associated RP
becomes one of the two end points of an ATM con-
nection and the home of the AAL. The other end of
this ATM connection is at a packet handler (PH),
which supports multiple RPs.
The packets on the air interface typically are very
small, and they may vary in size (2 to 36 octets for

Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 115

 Packet telephony over ATM using AAL-5 Packet telephony, data, video

AAL-5 AAL-5

Copper loop (PSTN) Copper loop

HFC, FTTC, wireless AAL-2 ATM AAL-2 HFC, FTTC, wireless
network

Vocoder/ Vocoder/
transcoder transcoder

AAL – ATM adaptation layer

PSTN ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode PSTN
FTTC – Fiber to the curb
HFC – Hybrid fiber coax
ISDN – Integrated services digital network
Analog or ISDN PSTN – Public-switched telephone network Analog or ISDN
Vocoder – Voice coder

Figure 4.
Voice telephony with ATM backbone—ATM and analog end equipment.

code division multiple access [CDMA]). The packet
boundaries need to be preserved across the ATM net-
work. Once again, existing AALs will fill each ATM cell
partially and waste a significant fraction of the band-
width on the ATM connection.
Packet Telephony in Other Places
The existence of fast packet switching technologies
like frame relay and ATM coupled with advances in
voice compression technology have motivated the use
of packet telephony in other situations.
Consider desktop telephony using a PC or a work-
station as the end equipment and the Internet being
used to bypass the toll part of the PSTN. The connec-
tion between the end equipment and the Internet
access provider may consist of “plain old telephone
service” (POTS) modems, hybrid fiber coax (HFC)
cable modems, integrated services digital network
(ISDN) access, asymmetric digital subscriber lines
(ADSLs), or wireless links. In the case of a POTS
modem and ISDN access, the typical mode of opera-
tion consists of voice packets from the end equipment
in Internet protocol (IP) datagrams being encapsulated
in point-to-point protocol (PPP) frames.
Assuming that IP datagrams are used to carry
voice packets from the end equipment to the Internet
access providers, many options exist for transporting
these packets to their destinations. The Internet access
provider implements the IP-to-ATM conversion and
uses an ATM backbone network. For high-quality
Internet telephony, the voice packet size will decrease,
making existing AALs on the ATM backbone unac-
ceptably inefficient.
If ATM is extended all the way to the desktop,
voice packets from the end equipment can be car-
ried directly over ATM using AAL-5. However, at
the gateway to the backbone, existence of multiple
connections creates an opportunity to terminate
AAL-5 and carry voice packets from multiple con-
nections using a more efficient protocol. Figure 4
shows such a scenario.
Even for traditional telephony using analog or
ISDN access, a PSTN-to-ATM gateway creates an
opportunity to compress voice, suppress silence, and
carry the resulting lower and variable bit-rate voice
over the ATM backbone (see Figure 4).
Design Considerations
Examples in the previous section indicate the need
for a new AAL to carry small native packets efficiently
over an ATM backbone. The basic concepts and

116 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997

requirements for this new AAL were described in the
“Introduction.” In this section, we provide more details
on alternative formats, individual fields, and the status
of current standards. Most of the discussion and quan-
titative results are provided for the cellular/PCS infra-
structure application because it provided the original
motivation to develop the new AAL. These results
apply readily to all the other scenarios described in the
preceding section.
Basic Concepts and Required Features
The primary requirement on the new AAL is to
provide efficient transport of small native packets over
ATM networks in such a way that allows a very small
transfer delay across the ATM network while still
allowing the receiver to recover the original packets. It
is assumed that multiple LLCs are required between
any pair of gateways or TAs, where conversions
between the native mode and ATM occur.
One approach is to use an AAL in which a small
but fixed number of octets from each LLC are packed
in one ATM connection. For example, three octets
each from 16 LLCs may be used to pack the 48-byte
payloads of ATM cells from a single ATM connection.
If at least 16 LLCs are active between two TAs, then
packing small 3-byte samples each from 16 different
LLCs keeps the packetization delay small and still
achieves high bandwidth efficiency. The position of a
triplet within the payload of an ATM cell identifies the
LLC associated with that triplet. This identification
method is referred to as position-based multiplexing and
delineation. In the extreme case, 48 LLCs (with one
byte from each LLC in each ATM cell) may be multi-
plexed in a single ATM connection. The mapping
between the position and LLC is established by provi-
sioning or by using an appropriate signaling protocol at
call set-up time.
While being very efficient, this approach suffers
from a complete lack of flexibility. In particular, it is
effective for constant bit-rate applications in which all
LLCs have a common rate and a fixed number of LLCs
is available. However, this is perhaps the only scenario
in which the method is effective. If different coders are
used by different LLCs, this approach will create signif-
icant packing inefficiencies as calls are set up and torn
down. If variable bit-rate coders or silence suppression
are used, then either variable-length packets are gen-
erated by LLCs or variable packetization delay is
incurred to generate fixed-length packets. In either
case, the inflexible position-based multiplexing
approach cannot be applied with ease.
The new AAL should support the transfer of
variable-size small packets across ATM networks.
The selected approach is to treat the payloads from
successive ATM cells from the same ATM connec-
tion as a byte stream in which variable-length LLC
packets are multiplexed. The following functions
must also be implemented:
• Addition of a CID field to each LLC packet, to iden-
tify the LLC to which the packet belongs.
• Addition of an LI field to each LLC packet, so that
the end of the packet can be demarcated. This
LI-based approach to the delineation of packets
was considered better than flag-based delin-
eation because flags are vulnerable to errors
and because the bit stuffing required by flag-
based protocols conflicts with the byte-oriented
nature of ATM transport.
• Inclusion of a pointer to identify the remaining
length of the packet that started in the prior cell and
overlaps into the current cell when a native packet
occupies part of two (or more) cell payloads. This is
similar to an LI but refers to the length of the
residual packet in the current cell.
• Incorporation of some mechanism to detect cell loss,
because loss of an ATM cell possibly may lead
to misconcatenation of native packets.
• Use of some mechanism to detect errors in the cell pay-
load, because critical address (CID) and delin-
eation (LI, starting pointer field) information is
now part of the unprotected cell payload.
Many alternatives are consistent with the proto-
col concepts described above. The main decision
variables are:
• The maximum number of CIDs to be sup-
ported in one ATM connection. This, in turn,
determines the length of the CID field.
• The maximum length of the native packet.
This determines the length of the LI field.
• Self-delineation of packets via the LI field ver-
sus the need for a separate mechanism for
Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 117
 faster delineation recovery.
• The need to error-protect the packet payload in
addition to the protection of the packet header.
• The best mechanism for providing resiliency to
cell losses on a given ATM connection.
Most of the debate in the North American and interna-
tional standards bodies revolved around these decisions.
Design Choices and Key Decisions
Because the primary driver for this new AAL is
packet telephony and because error detection is not
essential for voice-coding algorithms, it is not neces-
sary for AAL-2 to provide error detection for native
packet payloads. The purpose of error detection is to
guarantee that CID, LI, and other critical protocol
header fields are not misinterpreted. Avoidance of
such misinterpretation could be accomplished either
by having a common cyclical redundancy check (CRC)
on the ATM payload or a header error check (HEC) for
each packet header. The latter has the advantage of
being able to discard only those packets whose headers
are corrupted. The former has the advantage of having
one CRC for multiple packets and potentially higher
bandwidth efficiency while also permitting in-band
signaling messages to be carried without additional
error detection. The advantages of packet header error
detection were determined to outweigh a potential
bandwidth penalty, and a per-packet HEC approach
was selected for AAL-2.
The maximum number of LLCs to be supported
on a single ATM virtual path connection (VPC) or vir-
tual channel connection (VCC) affects the size of the
CID field. A larger CID field would allow multiplexing
more native connections (LLCs) and would provide
bandwidth sharing over more variable bit-rate connec-
tions. Of course, the number of LLCs to be supported
also depends on the ratio of the ATM-connection
bandwidth to the bandwidth required by a single
native connection. For a single ATM connection occu-
pying an entire DS1 (1.544-Mb/s) link with a 4-kb/s
voice coder (vocoder), the number is in the neighbor-
hood of 400 native connections that can be supported
(see the results presented in the “Analysis of
Bandwidth Efficiency” section later in the paper).
Using a DS3 link, the number of connections that
can be supported increases to the neighborhood of
118 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
16,000. Of course, the ATM header allows two levels
of addressing (virtual path identifier [VPI] and virtual
circuit identifier [VCI]). Thus, it is possible to set up
ATM VPCs between AAL-2 end points and to allow
them to use VCI and CID to create multiple native
connections (LLCs). This situation permits multiplex-
ing with a smaller CID field. As a compromise, a CID
field of 8 bits supporting a maximum of 255 native
connections over a single ATM VCC was chosen. With
a 16-bit VCI field, an ATM VPC will be able to support
up to 255 3 216 connections, certainly adequate for all
applications. In this case, ATM traffic policing will need
to be done at the VPC level.
The LI field refers to the length of the native
packet and is used to delineate the packets. Because
AAL-2 was designed for short packets, the length of an
ATM cell was thought to be the upper bound on
length. In that case, a 6-bit LI field allowing specifica-
tion of up to 64 octets would suffice. For applications
involving occasional packets longer than 64 octets, a
MORE function is proposed to indicate an extension
beyond 64 octets.
While the LI field allows self-delineation once a
packet boundary is identified, a cell loss or an error in
a packet header will result in the loss of packet delin-
eation. Many approaches to regaining the packet
boundaries are possible, including:
• Using the packet header HEC to hunt for and
identify a packet header. The LI field is used to
delineate further the end of the packet and
verify that the delineation is achieved. This
process is similar to cell delineation at the ATM
layer but with variable-length packets.
• Using a pointer field at the beginning of each
ATM cell to specify the beginning of the first
new packet in the current cell payload.
• Using the pointer at the beginning of every
m(>1) cells.
The first approach has no additional overhead, but
it may take longer to regain packet delineation. In
addition, loss of delineation is more frequent. The sec-
ond approach incurs additional overhead but guaran-
tees packet delineation in one cell time. The third
approach adds the overhead only once every m cells,
but it may require up to m cells to regain delineation.
 Native (LLC) packets from different LLCs
associated with one ATM connection.

LLC = 1 LLC = 3 LLC = 2 LLC = 3

• LLC packets prefixed by

Packet Packet Packet packet headers
header header header • CID corresponding to LLC
(CID = 1) (CID = 3) (CID = 2) • LI representing packet length
and pointing to end of packet

ATM ATM Cells from one

STF STF ATM connection
header header
Pointer in STF Pointer in STF
points to points to

ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode LLC – Logical link connection

CID – Connection identification STF – Start field
LI – Length indicator

Figure 5.
Small packet multiplexing using the STF and packet header fields.

Because packets received during the time it takes to
regain delineation are discarded, the second approach
is preferred.
Given that a loss of cell—if not detected at the
receiver—can misconcatenate packets, a cell-sequence
number field is desirable. Finally, like the packet
header (containing CID, LI, and other fields), the cell
sequence number and pointer also require error detec-
tion. A single parity bit provides this error detection.
The combination start field (STF), consisting of the
pointer, cell sequence number, and parity is placed at
the beginning of every ATM cell payload. The pointer
indicates the first new packet header in the current
cell. The HEC in the header of that packet is used to
verify synchronization. The robustness afforded by this
HEC and those in subsequent packets allows the use of
a simple parity check in the STF.
ATM Cells and AAL-2 Fields
Figure 5 shows the placement of the STF and the
packet header. The STF is present at the beginning of
each ATM cell. The packet header precedes each
native packet.
AAL-2 Common Part Details
The ITU-T is close to standardizing this new AAL
discussed above. The standard is documented in draft
Recommendation I.363.2.5 The AAL-2 is partitioned
into two sublayers: the common part sublayer (CPS)
and the service-specific convergence sublayer (SSCS).
The CPS provides the functions of multiplexing
variable-length packets from multiple sources into a
single ATM virtual circuit and relaying these packets to
form end-to-end AAL-2 connections. This paper and
the draft standard recommendations as well are essen-
tially concerned only with the common part.
The SSCS provides an application-specific func-
tion—a different instance of it being provided to
each AAL-2 user. Some example functions are seg-
mentation and reassembly of user flows into packets
suitable for the CPS, forward error control, identify-
ing the voice-coding algorithm, and identifying the
end of a speech burst. The SSCS can also be null.
The ITU-T intends to specify SSCS protocols in
future recommendations.
The packet header and the STF are further
described below.

Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 119

 CID LI RES HEC
8 bits 6 bits 5 bits 5 bits
Packet header (3 octets)
CID – Connection identification
HEC – Header error check
LI – Length indicator
RES – Reserved
Figure 6.
Components of the packet header.
Components of the Packet Header
The packet header, which Figure 6 illustrates,
is 3 octets long. The CID field is 8 bits long and
identifies the LLC for the packet. The LI field com-
prises 6 bits and indicates the length of the LLC
packet. When the LI points beyond the end of the
current ATM cell, the packet is split between cells.
The HEC field comprises 5 bits and provides error
detection over the packet header.
Five bits are either reserved (RES) or assigned to
the SSCS riding over the AAL-2 common part. These
bits are not interpreted by the AAL-2 common part
and are passed transparently from the transmitter’s
SSCS to the receiver’s SSCS. The SSCS can use these
bits for specific SSCS functions or for passing higher
layer user-to-user communication transparently.
Some reserved bits are subject to further standard-
ization at the AAL-2 common part. Example functions
include a MORE bit to indicate that the current packet
is segmented, as well as bits identifying OA&M, signal-
ing, or user information.
Components of the Start Field (STF)
The STF is one octet in length and occurs at the
beginning of every ATM cell payload (see Figure 7).
As the figure shows, the offset field (OSF) is 6 bits in
length. It indicates the remaining length of the packet
that (possibly) started in the preceding cell from this
ATM connection and is continuing in the current cell.
Thus, the OSF points to the start of the first new packet
and provides immediate recovery of the packet bound-
ary after an event causing loss of packet delineation.
The 1-bit sequence number (SN) field provides a
120 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
STF (octet)
Offset Sequence
Parity
Field Number
(P)
(OSF) (SN)
1 bit
6 bits 1 bit
STF – Start field
Figure 7.
Components of the STF.
modulo-2 sequence numbering of cells. The one parity
(P) bit provides odd parity and covers the STF.
Padding
It may be necessary to transmit a partially filled
ATM cell to limit packet emission delay. In such a case,
the remainder of the cell is padded with all zero octets.
A cell whose payload contains only the STF and
47 padding octets can also be transmitted to meet
other needs, such as serving a keep-alive function and
satisfying a traffic contract.
Analysis of Bandwidth Efficiency
This section analyzes the bandwidth efficiency,
delay, and jitter associated with AAL-2 multiplexing.
While the analysis has been carried out for many of
the applications discussed earlier, we are presenting
here the results for two specific wireless applications:
the IS-95 CDMA rate set 2 vocoder6 and the Japanese
personal digital cellular (PDC) half-rate vocoder7.
Performance of AAL-2-based transport for these two
applications is compared with performance when
using frame-relay and STM transport. The analysis in
this section also provides insight into the desired CID
field size and into dimensioning ATM virtual connec-
tions to take advantage of statistical multiplexing gains
made possible by the AAL-2.
Traffic and Models
To determine the bandwidth efficiency and
delay/jitter tradeoffs, specific traffic patterns and
speech models are used. It is assumed that only voice
traffic is carried on the ATM connections of interest. In
practice, some in-band signaling and OA&M traffic
may exist but their overall impact will be slight.
CDMA rate set 2 vocoder. Various levels of cod-
ing have been defined for the CDMA rate set 2 with a
vocoder full rate of 13 kb/s. A simplified speech model
is used here for the studies. Specifically, 50% of the
packets are at the full encoding rate of 14.4 kb/s
(active speech, including overhead), while the remain-
ing 50% are at the one-eighth rate of 1.8 kb/s
(silence). The overall average rate is 8.1 kb/s. This
coder produces a measured mean opinion score better
than 3.95. Speech is accumulated for 20 ms, encoded,
and transmitted over the air interface as a packet.
PDC half-rate vocoder. The same simplified
speech activity model for the PDC half-rate vocoder
produces an average rate of 2 kb/s with a packet pro-
duced every 40 ms at either the full rate (4 kb/s) or
complete silence (0 kb/s) with equal probability. This
vocoder provides an extreme point with a very low bit
rate resulting in maximum bandwidth efficiency.
Requirements on Delay Variation
In IS-95 based CDMA technology, voice packets are
produced every 20 ms. Because of soft handoff, the
reception of packets at the mobile must be synchronized
perfectly. In addition, because of tight timing require-
ments, all base stations must be synchronized using the
Global Positioning System.
It is possible for all the mobiles to transmit packets at
every 20-ms tick. In this case, the delay variation can be
up to 20 ms depending on the number of active calls.
For interactive voice applications, experiments have
determined that the one-way end-to-end delay must be
in the range of 100 to 150 ms. Because coding, interleav-
ing, decoding, and deinterleaving can consume a sub-
stantial portion of this delay budget, an additional delay
of 20 ms is on the boundary of acceptable performance.
The transmission of packets from mobiles can be
staggered such that one set of mobiles transmits at a
given time tick, a second set transmits exactly 5 ms later,
a third set 10 ms later, and the last set 15 ms later. These
are referred to as offset groups. Two cases will be consid-
ered—one in which the requirement on the maximum
delay variation is 5 ms (that is, four different offset
groups) and the second in which the maximum permis-
sible delay variation is 20 ms (that is, one offset group).
Computation of Bandwidth Efficiency
Let the voice packet sizes produced by the sources
(CDMA rate set 2 or PDC half rate) during the packeti-
zation interval, T, be S1 and S2 octets. Let p1 be the
probability of producing a packet of size S1 and p2 be
the probability of producing a packet size S2. A bino-
mial speech model has been assumed but the analysis
is easily generalized to a multinomial model. Let N be
the number of voice sources transmitting in an offset
group from the mobile to the base station. At the base
station, the probability distribution of the number of
octets received in an interval of T ms is
{
P K = iS1 + (N − i)S2 = } N
Ci p1i p2N −i .
The mean number of octets, m, received in an offset
group is given by m = Np1S1 + Np2S2. The variance of
the number of octets, denoted by V, is given by
V = N p1 p2 ( S1 − S 2) . The standard deviation is given
2
by s = V .
The transport network is assumed to be engi-
neered to meet a packet loss objective of 0.1%
while meeting the delay variation objective of either
5 ms or 20 ms. Given that the packet loss rate objec-
tive on the air interface is 1%, a transport network
objective one order of magnitude better than the air
interface results in an excellent balance between
performance and efficiency.
Let b denote the capacity in octets allocated to the
ATM virtual connection that transports the N voice
calls. The capacity, b, is selected so that the maximum
delay variation for transmission through the ATM con-
nection is less than y (5 or 20) ms—that is, b = cy,
where c is the capacity of the link (T1 or T3) in octets
per ms after subtracting the per-cell overhead due to
the ATM cell header and the AAL-2 STF. To achieve a
packet loss less than 0.1%, the engineering rule
(assuming a normal distribution for number of octets
produced) is m + 3s = b, which translates to
x2 + xα – β = 0, where
x = N,
α = 3 p1p2 (S1 − S2 ) / ( p1S1 + p2S2)
and
β = b / (p1S1 + p2S2).
Solving the above equations determines the number of
Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 121
 Table I. Number of voice calls supported for CDMA rate set 2.
Transmission Maximum delay
facility (Mb/s) variation (ms) AAL-2
T1 (1.536) 20 123
T1 (1.536) 5 104
T3 (44.7) 20 4,090
T3 (44.7) 5 3,964
voice calls that can be carried in a single ATM virtual
connection to meet the loss objective of 0.1% and the
delay variation objective of y ms.
Results and Discussion
First, consider the CDMA rate set 2, which pro-
duces packets containing 36 octets and 5 octets with
equal probability. The AAL-2 adds an overhead of
3 octets to each packet, so S1 = 39 and S2 = 8. The effec-
tive ATM cell payload is 47 octets because the first octet
is used as the STF in every cell. In the case of frame
relay, there is an overhead of 6 octets for each packet.
(The Frame Relay Forum is currently standardizing an
approach similar to the AAL-2 to carry multiple small
packets within one data link connection identifier
(DLCI). The efficiency gains from this are not considered
here). Frame-relay overhead consists of one octet for
flag, two octets for the DLCI field, one octet for control,
and two octets for the frame check sequence.
Frame relay, with its variable-size frame, is ideally
suited for carrying variable-size packets generated by
low bit rate voice. The AAL-2 provides a similar capa-
bility over ATM connections. It also allows the use of
much higher speed ATM switches and link interfaces,
thus allowing further multiplexing gain. Finally, with
higher speed interfaces, ATM transport and switching
are much less expensive than the frame-relay counter-
parts. If ATM can achieve bandwidth efficiency com-
parable to that of frame relay, lower switching cost
and the ability to support higher rate interfaces will
favor ATM.
Table I shows the number of voice calls that can
be transported by the AAL-5, the AAL-2, frame relay,
and STM transport as a function of transmission speed
and the maximum allowable delay variation. In the
case of frame relay, interfaces are available only at the
T1 (or E1) rate. Thus, a T3 facility will use 28 T1 inter-
122 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
Number of voice calls supported
Frame relay TDM AAL-1/AAL-5
125 24 72
108 24 72
3,500 672 2,108
3,024 672 2,108
faces. For STM, each voice call uses a 64-kb/s channel
out of a T1 or T3 interface. For AAL-1/AAL-5, it is
assumed that one voice packet is carried per cell.
At T1 rates, both frame relay and the AAL-2 are
equally efficient. At T3 rates, it is possible to achieve
greater gains via statistical multiplexing using the
AAL-2, which frame relay is unable to exploit. The dif-
ference in call carrying capacity is as much as 30%
between frame relay and the AAL-2 when the overall
demand exceeds the frame-relay interface speed (T1).
Another interesting point is that the difference in
call carrying capacity between delay variation objec-
tives of 20 ms and 5 ms is 18% at T1 speeds, while this
difference is less than 4% at T3 speeds. Even if the T3
rate is divided into four virtual circuits, each having
bandwidth equal to one-fourth that of T3 capacity, the
resulting bandwidth is sufficient to attain statistical
multiplexing gain. Thereafter, the improvement in this
gain is marginal.
From the call carrying capacity values at T1 and T3
speeds, we can see that it is better to carry voice calls
in ATM connections of larger bandwidth rather than
partitioning the available bandwidth into multiple
CBR virtual connections. Because a CID field of 8 bits
limits the number of LLCs for a given ATM VCC to
fewer than 256, further statistical gain can be achieved
by implementing higher rate VPCs (for instance, T3 or
fractional T3 VPCs). Such gain can be realized by using
multiple VBR VCCs within the VPC and then using
the 8-bit CID field to specify individual LLCs. Policing
at the VPC level makes both the VCI and CID fields
available to the end points for addressing while achiev-
ing multiplexing gain corresponding to the VPC speed.
The call carrying capacity of STM transport,
wherein each voice call is mapped into 64 kb/s PCM
voice at the base station, shows the advantages of
 Table II. Number of voice calls supported for PDC half rate.
Transmission Maximum delay
facility (Mb/s) variation (ms) AAL-2
T1 (1.536) 20 500
T1 (1.536) 5 420
T3 (44.7) 20 16,680
T3 (44.7) 5 16,160
asynchronous transport (frame relay and ATM) over
synchronous transport. It is quite apparent that the call
carrying capacity is increased 500% if such statistical
multiplexing techniques as ATM or frame relay are
used for voice transport.
The bandwidth efficiency achievable using AAL-1
or AAL-5 is also shown in Table I. The call carrying
capacity achieved by the AAL-2 is 1.8 to 2 times that
of AAL-5 or AAL-1.
Table II shows the call carrying capacity for PDC
half rate. In general, the observations for CDMA calls
also hold for PDC half-rate calls. However, on facilities
in which the maximum allowable delay variation is
5 ms, the additional gain in statistical multiplexing
achievable by the AAL-2 is 28% compared to frame
relay. When the maximum delay variation is 20 ms,
the additional gain in statistical multiplexing is 17%.
Note that clever use of VPC, VCC, and CIDs will again
be needed to achieve the full statistical multiplexing
offered by high-speed ATM interfaces.
As Figure 3 shows, there may be multiplexing at
the RPMs to take advantage of higher speed ATM
interfaces in the case that the individual base stations
(RPs) do not handle very high traffic. By mapping
multiple ATM VCCs from individual RPs into one VPC
between the RPM and PH, high bandwidth efficiency
can be achieved even with low CID size.
Robustness Considerations in the Design of
the AAL-2
This section analyzes the transmission error perfor-
mance seen by AAL-2 users as functions of raw channel
transmission performance and various AAL-2 parame-
ters. The analysis also motivates the use of the OSF, SN,
and other packet header fields so that the protocols
facilitate adequate performance for AAL-2 users.8 The
basic impairment at the physical (PHY) and ATM layers
Number of voice calls supported
Frame relay TDM AAL-1/AAL-5
500 24 224
420 24 176
14,000 672 8,050
11,760 672 7,688
arises from transmission errors and cell losses.
In this section, packet delineation and the impact
of AAL-2 parameters on the delay in achieving delin-
eation are discussed first. As mentioned earlier, two
methods of delineation recovery are possible: self-
delineation through HEC hunting, and delineation
through the OSF field in the start pointer (STF) of
every cell. Because we need both the HEC and LI for
normal receiver operation after initial delineation is
achieved, an obvious question is whether the over-
head of the STF is necessary to accelerate the recovery.
Thus, delineation delay without using the STF is stud-
ied next. This discussion is followed by an analysis of
the improvement using the STF.
Self-Delineation
On the surface, it appears that AAL-2 could use
only the self-delineation provided by the LI and HEC
fields. HEC allows hunting to decide potential packet
boundaries. The LI field of the presumed packet
header is used to delineate the position of the next
packet header and HEC. This is similar to the self-
delineation function provided by the ATM HEC.
However, variable-length packets and the use of the LI
both affect the frequency of delineation loss and
recovery delay.
When packet delineation is lost, an octet-by-octet
search is used to find the first three-octet packet
header (that is, the location of the first three octets at
which the HEC passes). The LI values indicated by the
detected packet header are used to find the next
packet header. AAL-2 is declared to be in packet delin-
eation after n such correct packet headers, with n cho-
sen for a desired level of confidence.
Delineation recovery. At the ATM layer, cell
delineation is declared when the ATM HEC passes on
seven consecutive cells, which corresponds to a confi-
Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 123
Table III. Self-delineation performance.
Number Probability of
of packets incorrect delineation
6 10–9
7 10–11
8 10–13
9 10–15
10 10–17
dence level of 10–13 to 10–16. Similar confidence in
AAL-2 delineation recovery is desirable. Table III
shows the number of packet header HECs (CRC-5)
before packet delineation can be declared with a given
confidence level.
To achieve a confidence level comparable to
ATM header delineation, the number of packet
headers that must pass should be set to 9 or higher.
Thus, for every event in which packet delineation is
lost, nine additional packets must be either dis-
carded or buffered. In case of buffering, an addi-
tional delay must be budgeted for speech and other
delay-sensitive applications. For voice applications,
buffering of nine packets may be unacceptable. The
implications of discarding nine packets depend on
the frequency of occurrence of delineation recov-
ery, and we discuss this situation below.
Loss of delineation. Loss of packet delineation
occurs under the following two conditions:
• Any detected bit errors in the three-octet packet
header. The packet header must be discarded so
further packet delineation is not possible.
• Any cell losses. A single cell loss or burst of cell
losses implies that packet delineation is lost.
Let p be the probability of a bit error in a packet
header and let pc be the probability of a cell loss. Let kp
denote the average number of packets per ATM cell.
Then, assuming nine packet headers must match for
recovery of delineation, the packet discard ratio can be
approximated by 9 3 (24p + pc / kp). In the calcula-
tions below, kp is assumed to be 3.
On a noisy T1 link (p = 10–6), the packet discard
rate due to bit errors is as high as 2 3 10–4. If a VBR or
CBR virtual circuit is used to multiplex voice sources,
the bandwidth must be determined to obtain a target
packet loss rate of 10–4, aggregating the packet losses in
124 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
lost cells, discarded packets due to bit errors, and dis-
carded packets during delineation recovery.
Misconcatenation. In the absence of a mecha-
nism to detect cell losses, the self-delineating scheme
always misconcatenates following a cell loss. That is, in
the event of a cell loss, the leading octets of the next
cell are always misconcatenated with the trailing
packet of the previous received cell. Only after this—
when the position of the next expected packet header
is examined and the header CRC fails—is the loss of
packet delineation detected. Thus, the probability of
misconcatenation of a packet split between two ATM
cells is 1 3 pc.
Delineation Using the Start Field (STF)
For most telephony applications, the number of
packets discarded per delineation loss event is exces-
sive only if self-delineation is used. This is mainly due
to the recovery period and misconcatenation. The STF,
with the OSF, was designed to enhance recovery per-
formance and, hence, reduce the packet discard ratio.
The STF does consume an extra byte of overhead per
cell. This overhead buys packet delineation recovery at
the next cell.
Packet discard ratio for delineation recovery
using the STF. Assuming that an error could occur in
the STF or in any of the kp packet headers, the packet
discard ratio due to bit errors is
p (kp + 1) (24kp / 2 + 8) = 176p for kp = 3 packets per
cell. When a delineation loss occurs due to a cell loss,
resynchronization is immediate at the receipt of the
next cell. Thus, no additional packets are discarded.
The packet discard rate due to bit errors is comparable
to the self-delineating scheme (that is, 1.8 3 10–4 at
p = 10–6). However, no additional packets are dis-
carded following ATM cell loss(es). Use of the STF pro-
vides improved quality of service by quicker
resynchronization and the avoidance of the loss of a
burst of packets.
Cell sequence number and parity. Use of the LI
from the packet header of the previous cell and the
OSF from the current cell allows identification of a
possible cell loss if the two LIs do not match. However,
there is a significant probability that these two indica-
tors will match. A better way of detecting cell loss is
needed to reduce both the misconcatenation probabil-
ity and the complexity of detection. Two fields are
added to the OSF to create the STF. The 1-bit SN pro-
vides a modulo-2 SN and allows immediate detection
of a single cell loss. In addition, a 1-bit P field allows
detection of an odd number of errors in the STF itself.
Transmission Performance of the AAL-2
As mentioned earlier, the overall resilience of
AAL-2 needs to be evaluated against two primary
lower-layer impairments: errors introduced by the
transmission facilities, and ATM cell losses.
Performance and resiliency of the AAL-2 to
physical (PHY)-layer transmission errors. The bit
error rate (BER) performance of transmission sys-
tems is expected to be better than 10–8 over fiber
facilities and better than 10–6 for four-wire T1 cop-
per facilities. The performance measures of interest
are packet loss ratio, undetected error rate, and
probability of misconcatenation.
The packet discard ratio is investigated first. As
mentioned earlier, the numerical results are for the case
in which each cell contains an average of three packets
(kp = 3), and the average packet size is 13 octets.
When the STF is hit by an odd number of errors
(detected through parity violation), the sequence
number and the pointer fields cannot be trusted. The
contents of the current cell and any residual packet left
over from the previous cell need to be discarded.
Additionally, any residual packet spilling over to the
next cell will be discarded. Thus, any detected
error in the STF would result in an average of four
packet losses. Furthermore, if any packet headers
in the current cell contain errors, then one, two,
or three packets need to be discarded depending
on the packet header affected by errors.
Accordingly, the packet loss ratio is given by
(4 3 8 3 p + 24 3 p 3 (1 + 2 + 3)) / 3 = 59p. This
translates into a loss ratio of 0.6 3 10–4 in the access
network (composed of copper) and 0.6 3 10–6 in the
fiber backbone network, and both of these loss rates
appear to be acceptable for voice applications.
A single error control field over the entire ATM
cell capable of providing single-bit error correction was
analyzed in detail. This would have improved the dis-
card ratio by three orders of magnitude. However, the
effectiveness of such a correction mechanism is ham-
pered by the presence of scramblers in underlying
transmission systems. Many of these scramblers are
proprietary and, thus, not generally known. This
method is not being pursued further.
Next, we examine the misconcatenation probabil-
ity. The most likely event for misconcatenation occurs
when one of the packet headers contains an error and
the CRC does not catch it. Given that the CRC pro-
vides a minimum Hamming distance of 3, the proba-
bility of misconcatenation is less than 24C3p3, which is
equal to 2 3 10–15 and is, therefore, no cause for con-
cern. Error in the STF is more likely to remain unde-
tected, and it would be a major cause for concern if
the STF is the only mechanism to identify the end of
the packet segment. However, the packet header in
the preceding cell coupled with the OSF in the current
STF provides an even smaller probability (less than
2 3 10–15) of undetected error resulting in misconcate-
nation of the last packet of the preceding ATM cell.
Finally, consider the residual errors in information
delivered to AAL-2 users. Because there is no protec-
tion over the payload, any errors in any of the packets
remain undetected. For packet telephony, such errors
are essentially the result of mapping PHY-layer errors
to the application layer. Given that retransmissions are
not possible due to delay requirements, these applica-
tions must rely on the PHY layer to provide adequate
error performance. Even a BER equal to 10–6 is quite
acceptable for voice applications. Some data applica-
tions, as well as signaling (which is really a data appli-
cation) for telephony, will need to provide error
protection of the AAL-2 payloads at the SSCS.
Resiliency of the AAL-2 to cell losses. First, con-
sider the case of random cell losses. Let pc represent the
probability of a cell loss. If a single cell is lost, the
sequence number in the next STF discovers the loss,
and misconcatenation is prevented. Furthermore,
packet loss is limited to the lost cell. Therefore, the
packet loss ratio due to random single-cell losses is
given by kp 3 pc = 3 3 pc.
If two consecutive cells are lost and the pointer
value in the next incoming cell matches the residual
length of the packet from an earlier received cell, then
misconcatenation occurs. Therefore, the probability of
misconcatenation from a loss of two consecutive ATM
Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 125
cells is no more than
p2c / L max ,
where Lmax is the maximum allowable length of a
packet. If pc is assumed to be in the range of 10–5 to
10–6 and Lmax is 64, then the probability of misconcate-
nation is in the neighborhood of 10–11 and is again no
cause for concern.
Next, consider bursty (more than two) cell losses.
The bursty cell loss events could be caused by either
ATM-layer congestion or error bursts in transmission
systems. In either case, many consecutive cells are lost.
Given a bursty cell loss event, the sequence number in
the STF does not offer much protection. In particular,
a loss of an even number of consecutive ATM cells will
make the SN ineffective. The probability of miscon-
catenation given a bursty loss event is given by
1 / (2 3 Lmax). Thus, given a bursty loss event, a 1-in-
100 chance of misconcatenation exists. The overall
misconcatenation rate depends on the number of
bursty losses per unit of time. If an average of 100
bursty loss events occurs per day, an average of one
misconcatenation per day takes place. This miscon-
catenation rate could have been reduced further by
including the CID field in the STF, thus identifying the
LLC to which the residual segment belongs. However,
that would add another byte of overhead. The decision
was to use only the SP, SN, and P fields in the STF.
Signaling Issues
AAL-2 creates multiple levels of connections
between two points: ATM virtual connections and the
AAL-2 LLCs. Signaling protocols are needed to indi-
cate changes in connections at any one of these layers.
Many different types of signaling are needed
between end points of AAL-2 connections. These
include:
• Signaling and negotiations to set up and tear
down LLCs within a VCC;
• Signaling to indicate changes in LLC parame-
ters—for example, coding rate, flow controls,
silence start, and end;
• Signaling to set up and tear down ATM vir-
tual connections on demand as required by
the SSCS;
• Signaling to change the traffic and quality-of-
126 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
service (QoS) parameters on ATM virtual con-
nections on demand;
• Transport of signaling messages arriving in
band on a native link. These messages may be
located within a native connection (for exam-
ple, dual-tone multifrequency signaling
[DTMF] tones) or the ATM virtual connection
(for instance, robbed-bit signaling between
PBXs); and
• Out-of-band signaling in the native domain
(for example, primary rate interface [PRI]-
type signaling).
Some of these signaling messages are generated in
the native connections or in a group of native connec-
tions. Others are needed only between AAL-2 end
points. Among the messages generated in the native
mode, some must be transported across the ATM net-
work transparently while others must be interpreted at
the originating and terminating AAL-2 end points.
Message type, message origin and purpose, and the
nature of the ATM connections affect the transport of
signaling messages across the ATM network.
For concreteness, consider a scenario in which
ATM virtual paths (VPs) are established between the
two end points of interest. These VPs can be set up
through the intervening ATM network either by pro-
visioning or signaling. At the two end points, VCIs are
used to increase the address space. The resulting VCCs
may be pre-established or they may be set up using a
signaling VCC in the VPC. The standard Q.2931 proto-
col may be used between the end points for this pur-
pose. In this case, intermediate ATM switches serve
only as VP switches, and they are not involved in VCI
negotiations. Because traffic and QoS parameters are
negotiated at the VPC level, these switches need no
information on the VCCs. CIDs within a VCC will
identify individual LLCs. The ATM network needs no
information on the CIDs.
In a different situation, each end-to-end ATM
connection may be a VCC with (VPI or VCI) switching
at the intermediate ATM switches. In such a case, traf-
fic and QoS negotiations with the ATM network typi-
cally occur at the VCC level. VCCs may be provisioned
or set up using standard Q.2931 signaling. Once again,
LLCs are established and taken down at the two end
points of a VCC in response to the call set-up request
and call termination.
Signaling for LLC Set-Up and Tear-Down
The AAL-2 LLC is defined to be a point-to-point
connection—for example, between a base station and
the mobile switching center (MSC) for cellular trunk-
ing, or between two PBX’s or two international
switches for land-line trunking. The connection is
defined to be bidirectional, and the same CID is used
in both directions for a particular LLC. However, the
traffic and QoS parameters in the two directions may
be different. The set of CIDs available on an ATM VCC
are known to both end points.
The negotiation procedures are symmetrical—that
is, either end of the AAL-2 connection can initiate a
new LLC or request tear-down of an LLC. A simple
negotiation procedure is defined by which the origi-
nating end point proposes establishment of a new LLC
with the employment of a particular CID that is not in
use. The other end can either accept or deny the
request. Bandwidth management and monitoring for
the ATM virtual circuit is assumed to be handled at the
ATM connection management level. No such monitor-
ing is proposed per LLC. However, it is the responsibil-
ity of the two end points to guarantee resource
availability within the ATM connection to support a
new LLC. Such resource management is assumed to
be handled in a service-specific manner.
Signaling needed for LLC set-up and tear-down
between the AAL-2 uses a predefined LLC
(with CID = 0).
Relationship between native mode signaling
and signaling over the ATM network. In many appli-
cations, existing STM systems use innovative link-
based in-band signaling to set up and tear down
calls, as well as to exchange other control informa-
tion. For example, many PBX-to-PBX trunks carry
signaling by robbing bits from a stream and creating
a signaling channel from it. When ATM Circuit
Emulation Service is used to replace STM trunking,
these in-band messages are transported transpar-
ently so that two end points can interpret them to
set up a time slot for a call. New requirements are
created, however, when voice processing, packeti-
zation, and silence suppression are used before
transmission over an ATM connection.
Specifically, a connection set-up request arriving
in band must be extracted at the originating AAL-2
end point and then mapped into an LLC set-up
request. A connection set-up request also must be
communicated to the terminating end point separately
from voice packets. Of course, extraction, processing,
and insertion of this native signaling information is the
responsibility of the AAL-2 management plan. This
function is similar to that used by PSTN in which PBXs
using robbed bit signaling are connected via PSTN. In
this case, robbed bit signaling messages are extracted
and translated into Signaling System 7 (SS7) messages.
Signaling messages for connection set-up and
tear-down in the native mode may also arrive out of
band (for instance, when using SS7 or PRI signaling).
Once again, the messages must be processed at the
originating AAL-2 end point and mapped into AAL-2
signaling messages. A separate ATM VCC or a desig-
nated LLC may be used for transporting these mes-
sages across the ATM network.
Application Signaling
While the connection set-up and tear-down mes-
sages originate in the native mode and are mapped
into signaling messages between AAL-2 end points,
many other messages are meant for communication
between two ends of a specific LLC application. The
messages may be created in response to equivalent
messages in native networks or they may be generated
by the AAL-2 LLC end point for controlling the specific
LLC. Examples of such signaling are vocoder rate
changes, clock adjust mechanisms, silence start/end
indicators, and user-to-user in-band signaling (for
example, DTMF). When packetization occurs at the
interface between the native network and ATM net-
work, these messages are generated at this interface.
When packetization occurs away from the ATM inter-
face (for example, at an IP end point or at a mobile
terminal), these messages are translations of equiva-
lent messages in the native networks.
Approaches for carrying application signaling
messages. The first approach to such LLC application-
specific signaling is to carry the messages in the
SSCS overhead. Several bits in the AAL-2 header
have been denoted as user-to-user (UU) bits. The
Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 127

LLC
server
SW
SW SW
ATM network
RPM1
RP1 RP2
ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode
LLC – Logical link connection
PSTN - Public-switched telephone network
RP – Radio port
Figure 8.
The role of the LLC server in improving bandwidth efficiency.
SSCS is the direct user of the AAL-2 common part
described here. Innovative use of these UU bits to
simplify or eliminate the need for additional SSCS
overhead is up to the SSCS.
The second approach is to use specifically defined
LLC packets with a packet header field indicating that
the packet is a signaling packet for that LLC (similar to
the payload type indicator [PTI] field in the ATM
header denoting OA&M cells). Additional octets from
the packet payload can be used for defining the signal-
ing type in these signaling packets.
The third approach is to set up a separate VCC or a
separate LLC for carrying application-specific signaling
for all LLCs within that VPC.
Signaling for Changing ATM VPC/VCC Parameters
Under the assumption that the ATM network uses
only VP switching , adding/deleting VCCs or modify-
ing VCC parameters does not involve the ATM net-
work. The AAL-2 end points may use a designated
signaling VCC for setting up or tearing down VCCs.
However, there may be a need to change parameters
128 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
PSTN
Vocoder PSTN
set 1
Vocoder PSTN
set 2
Vocoder
set 3
SW SW
RPM2
RP3 RP4
RPM – Radio port multiplexer
SW – ATM switch
Vocoder – Voice coder
associated with the ATM VPC. This will involve signal-
ing from the AAL-2 end point to the ATM network.
A simple scenario involves the need to increase or
decrease the overall VPC bandwidth in response to
changing demand. Such dynamic bandwidth manage-
ment allows the ATM network to use noncoincident
busy periods to increase overall efficiency.
For VPCs, the best way to renegotiate the band-
width parameters with the ATM network is to use the
parameter renegotiation procedures defined in stan-
dards. Two possibilities are signaling protocols and
resource management cells in the permanent virtual
circuit arena.
In a scenario in which the ATM network employs
VC switching using both the VPI and VCI, both the
VPC and VCC bandwidth parameters may have to be
changed. If VCCs are established using a signaling pro-
cedure (for example, Q.2931), then either the signal-
ing VCC or the in-call procedure using resource
management cells may be employed to modify the
bandwidth parameters.
In the simplest case, all LLCs are assumed to be
 Vocoder
ATM network set 3
Vocoder (MAN/WAN)
set 1 Vocoder
SW LLC
set 2
server 2

SW SW SW

LLC
server 3 SW

LLC
server 1

SW SW SW

SW
SW

RPM1 RPM2

RP1 RP2 RP3 RP4

ATM – Asynchronous transfer mode ATM connections carrying LLCs. Possibly

LLC – Logical link connection multiple LLC hops per voice connection.
MAN – Metropolitan area network A voice connection from RP1 to vocoder
set 2 uses three LLC hops.
RP - Radio port
RPM – Radio port multiplexer
SW – ATM switch RP1 to LLC server 1
Vocoder – Voice coder LLC server 1 to LLC server 2
WAN – Wide area network LLC server 2 to vocoder set 2

Figure 9.
A MAN and a WAN ATM network with multiple LLC servers for rebundling.

(statistically) identical, and the capacity of a VCC (or
VPC) in terms of the number of CIDs that can be allo-
cated is determined at the time of VP/VC connection
establishment. AAL-2 end points then allocate and
deallocate CIDs using signaling. During light traffic
periods, it is desirable to reduce the overall bandwidth.
Similarly, during heavy traffic periods, it is desirable to
increase the bandwidth of the VPC. These changes in
overall bandwidth involve negotiations with the ATM
network as discussed above. CID space is then an
upper bound on the number of CIDs that can be used
per VCC. The VPC or VCC bandwidth changes may be
infrequent (for example, every 15 minutes based on
time-of-day traffic statistics) or very dynamic (on-
demand bandwidth management).
Rebundling (Cross Connections) of LLCs
The AAL-2 efficiently transports short variable-

Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 129

length packets over an ATM connection spanning
many ATM switches. As mentioned earlier, termina-
tion points of AAL-2 connections may be base stations
and MSCs in wireless cellular/PCS applications, as well
as PBXs and voice gateway severs in other packet tele-
phony applications.
Current standards define point-to-point AAL-2
connections (LLCs) over an ATM VPC or VCC.
Many applications may have connections originat-
ing at one point and ending at many different desti-
nations. In these cases, creating multiple ATM VPCs
or VCCs such that each can serve as a vehicle for a
subset of point-to-point AAL-2 connections may
lead to a small number of LLCs per ATM connection
and, hence, to a significant loss of efficiency. A few
examples are given below.
Figure 8 shows one such example. While an
ATM switch may handle a large number of base sta-
tions (RPs), connections at RPs may use different PSTN
interfaces. Typically, the association between an RP
and the PSTN interface is dynamic due to mobile
hand-off. At hand-off, the RP changes but the PSTN
interface remains anchored. Thus, an ATM connection
between an RP and a vocoder set may not have
enough LLCs to achieve high multiplexing gain.
One solution to this problem is to have two ATM
connections in the path of an AAL-2 connection—one
between the RP and LLC server and another between
the LLC server and the vocoder set. All LLCs from and
to a given RP use a common ATM VPC or VCC irre-
spective of the vocoder set at the other end. Similarly,
all LLCs from and to a given vocoder set use a com-
mon ATM VPC or VCC irrespective of the RP at the
other end. At the LLC server, LLC packets from an RP
are extracted and multiplexed into the ATM connec-
tion between the LLC server and the particular
vocoder set. A similar procedure applies to the packets
originating at vocoder sets and destined for RPs.
The second scenario is similar except that a
wide area ATM network replaces the STM-based
PSTN. Vocoders are used at the exit from the ATM
network to interface with the landline network
near the destination. As Figure 9 shows, multiple
intermediate LLC servers may be required in this
case. This situation clearly applies to a network of
130 Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997
PBXs having wide area ATM connectivity, as well as
to packet telephony in general. In fact, the situation
is similar to that of the traditional core transport
network consisting of different types of digital cross-
connect systems (DCSs), line termination units, and
fiber routes. DCSs and LTEs act as rebundling
devices for lower rate circuits over very high capac-
ity fiber routes. Thus, for broader applications of the
AAL-2 with multiple end points, LLC servers may
be desirable at many places in the network.
Summary
The new AAL-2, designed initially by the authors
and enhanced during the standardization process, has
several applications. In particular, it achieves high
bandwidth efficiency and low packetization delay
simultaneously, thus making it ideal for voice and
other low bit-rate interactive applications. While the
basic common part of AAL-2 is standardized, signaling
requirements and alternative transport mechanisms
for signaling messages are the focus of current studies.
Further work on LLC servers is in progress.
Specifically, the locations of LLC servers and routing of
LLCs using one or more LLC servers as vias are being
worked as a network design problem.
Another area being investigated is related to engi-
neering ATM VPC and/or VCC bandwidth given the
call arrival patterns, blocking criteria, coding rates,
degree of real-time adjustability in coding rates, and
routing strategies now being used.
The basic principles of the AAL-2 are also applica-
ble in non-ATM environments. Both the Frame Relay
Forum and the IETF are investigating multiplexing
protocols similar to the AAL-2 for carrying low-bit-rate
voice over frame-relay and IP networks, respectively.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribu-
tions of the following Bell Labs colleagues: Hong Jiang,
Wassim Matragi, Milo Orsic, Jonathan Rosenberg, and
Anil Sawkar.
References
1. B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer, AAL-1
Specification, ITU-T Recommendation I.36.1,
Aug. 1996.
2. B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer, AAL 3/4
Specification, ITU-T Recommendation
 I.363.3/4, Aug. 1996.
3. B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer, AAL-5
Specification, ITU-T Recommendation I.363.5,
Aug. 1996.
4. B. T. Doshi and A. S. Sawkar, “An ATM-Based
PCS/Cellular Architecture,” in Wireless
Information Network: Architecture Resource
Management and Mobile Data, edited by
J. M. Holtzman, Proceedings of the Fifth Winlab
Workshop, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston,
Massachusetts, 1996.
5. B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer Type-2
Specification, ITU-T Draft Recommendation
I.363.2, Nov. 1996.
6. “Mobile Station - Base Station Compatibility
Standard for Wideband Spread Spectrum
Cellular System,” IS-95 Standard, Revision B
(forthcoming).
7. Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) Telecommunications
Standard, Japanese Research and Development
Center for Radio Systems (RCR), RCR Standard
STD-27, Apr. 1991.
8. J. H. Baldwin, B. H. Bharucha, B. T. Doshi,
S. Dravida, and S. Nanda, “AAL-CU: An ATM
Adaptation Layer for Small Packet
Encapsulation,” Proceedings of the 15th
International Teletraffic Congress, Washington,
D.C., June 22-27, 1997.
(Manuscript approved June 1997)
JOHN H. BALDWIN is a member of technical staff in the
Wireless Systems Core Technology Depart-
ment at Bell Labs in Whippany, New Jersey.
He is responsible for next-generation base
station transport using ATM technology.
Mr. Baldwin has an associate degree in elec-
trical engineering from Pennsylvania State University in
Beaver, a B.S.E.E. from Fairleigh Dickinson University in
Teaneck, New Jersey, and an M.E. in electrical engineer-
ing from Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.
BEHRAM H. BHARUCHA was a distinguished member of
technical staff at Bell Labs in Holmdel, New
Jersey, when this paper was developed. He
worked in the areas of communication
theory, underwater noise modeling and tar-
get detection, digital network planning,
speech quality, frame relay, ISDN, and ATM/B-ISDN. In
the latter three transport technologies, he created fun-
damental concepts, architectures, protocols, and stan-
dards. His contributions in ATM are in the basic concepts
and standards for circuit emulation, including PCM voice,
provision of voice features, and the carriage of multiple
compressed voice conversations via a new adaptation
protocol. He is a co-holder of a patent on delay-less can-
cellation of echoes in the ATM domain. Mr. Bharucha
received B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engi-
neering from the University of California at Berkeley.
BHARAT T. DOSHI is head of the Performance Analysis
Department at Bell Labs in Holmdel,
New Jersey. He is responsible for developing
state-of-the-art analysis and simulation tools,
network design and routing algorithms, com-
munication protocols and systems architec-
ture, and systems/network sizing methods. He also
manages research in frame-relay, ATM, SONET, and wire-
less technologies, protocols, networks, and products.
Mr. Doshi, who has authored more than 90 technical
papers and who has 25 patent applications, holds a
Ph.D. in operations research from Cornell University in
Ithaca, New York.
SUBRAHMANYAM DRAVIDA is a technical manager in
the Performance Analysis Department at Bell
Labs in Holmdel, New Jersey. He is currently
working on protocols and architectures for
wireless networks, as well as protocols for
cable networks. His responsibilities include
development of algorithms for the design of ATM, SDH,
and wireless networks. Mr. Dravida has a B.Tech. degree
in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of
Technology in Madras, as well as an M.S.E.E. and a
Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York.
SANJIV NANDA is acting technical manager in the
Performance Analysis Department at Bell
Labs in Holmdel, New Jersey. In this assign-
ment, he is responsible for the design,
modeling, and performance of Lucent
Technologies’ cellular systems. Mr. Nanda
has a Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. ◆
Bell Labs Technical Journal ◆ Spring 1997 131