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According to Heiskanen and Moritz [7], the The Bursa-Wolf transformation model [10, 11] is a
forward transformation from geodetic co-ordinates (λ, seven-parameter model for transforming three-
φ, h) to geocentric Cartesian co-ordinates (X, Y, Z) is dimensional Cartesian co-ordinates between two
given by the following: datums. This model is well suited for satellite datums
on a global scale [12]. There are altogether three
X = (N + h) cos φ cosλ (1)
geocentric datum shift parameters (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ), three
Y = (N + h) cos φ sinλ (2) rotation elements (Rx, Ry, Rz) and one scale factor
2 (1+ΔL).
b
Z =( N + h) sin φ (3)
a2 The matrix-vector form of the model is:
Given that: ⎡X ⎤ ⎡ΔX ⎤ ⎡1 + ΔL RZ − RY ⎤ ⎡ X ⎤
a is the semi-major axis of the reference ellipsoid ⎢Y ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
b is the semi-minor axis of the reference ellipsoid ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ΔY ⎥ ⎢ − RZ 1 + ΔL RX ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ Y ⎥⎥
e is the first eccentricity of the reference ellipsoid ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦WGS 84 ⎢⎣ ΔZ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ RY − RX 1 + ΔL ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ MRT
(7)
Generally it is not usually necessary to use the
where the subscripts WGS84 and MRT refer to the
ellipsoid height (h) in equations (1), (2) and (3)
WGS84 and Malaysian geodetic datums, respectively.
because the forward conversion is only weakly
In order to convert the geocentric coordinates of
dependent upon height h.
(X,Y,Z) to the geodetic coordinate (λ, φ, h), ellipsoid
properties for the respective datums must be known.
3.2. Reverse Transformation
3.4. Geocentric RSO Projection
Bowring’s method [8] is well known to be the most
efficient and fast method for the reverse transformation
The Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO)
from geocentric Cartesian co-ordinates (X, Y, Z) to
projection is an Oblique Mercator projection
geodetic co-ordinates (λ, φ, h). Although closed (non-
developed by Hotine in 1947[1, 13]. RSO is used in
iterative) solution to the reverse transformation exists
surveying of Malaysia since it is a country with large
by using quartic equations [9], we will use Bowring’s
extend of areas in one single direction. Geocentric
method due to its speed and convenience.
RSO uses GRS80 as its ellipsoid parameter. The
Z + ε 2b sin 3 u parameters and constants for RSO are excluded to
φ = arctan[ ] (4)
P − e2 a cos3 u conserve space.
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RSO Forward Conversion
The following will be computed to find (E, N) from E = FE + v(A-TA3/6) – (8-T + 8C)T * A5/120) (12)
a given (Ø, λ): N = FN + M – M0 +
⎛π φ ⎞ e
t = tan⎜ − c ⎟ /[(1 − e sin φ c ) / (1 + e sin φ c )]2
v tan( φ ) [A2/2 + (5 – T + 6C) A4/24] (13)
⎝4 2⎠ where
Q = H /tB A = (λ-λ0 ) cos ( φ ), T = tan2( φ )
S = (Q − 1 / Q ) / 2 C = e2 / (1-e2) cos 2( φ ) , V = a / (1-e2sin2( φ )) ½
T = (Q + 1 / Q) / 2 M = meridian arc distance
V = sin( B (λ − λ0 )) = a [ (1-e2/4 – 3e4/64 – 5e6/256 - …) φ -
U = −V cos(γ 0 ) + S sin(γ 0 )) / T (3e2/8+3e4/32+45e6/1024 +…) sin 2 φ +
v = A ln[(1 − U ) /(1 + U )] / 2 B
(15e4256+45e6/1024 +…) sin 4 φ -
A ⎡ S cos(γ 0 ) + V sin(γ 0 ) ⎤
u= arctan ⎢ ⎥ (35e6/3072+…) sin 6 φ …]
B ⎣ cos( B(λ − λ0 )) ⎦
with φ in radians.
Hence:
N, E = Computed Cassini coordinates
E = v cos(γ c ) + u sin(γ c ) + FE (8) FE, FN = Cassini State origin coordinates
λ0 = longitude of state origin
N = u cos(γ c ) + v sin(γ c ) + FN (9) λ = longitude of computation point
φ = latitude of computation point
RSO Reverse Conversion
To find (Ø, λ) from a given (E, N), the following Cassini Reverse Conversion
parameters must first be computed: The formula to derive longitude and latitude pair is
v' = ( E − FE ) cos(γ c ) − ( N − FN ) sin(γ c )
shown below:
u ' = ( N − FN ) cos(γ c ) + ( E − FE ) sin(γ c )
φ = φ 1- v1 tan φ 1 /ρ1 [D2/2 – (1 + 3T1) D4/24] (14)
Q' = exp(− Bv' / A)
S ' = (Q'−1 / Q' ) / 2
λ = λ0 + [D – T1D3/3 + (1+3T1).T1. D5/15] / cos φ 1
T ' = (Q'+1 / Q' ) / 2 (15)
U ' = V ' cos(γ 0 ) + S ' sin(γ 0 )) / T '
where,
v1 = a (1-e2) / (1-e2sin2 φ 1) 3/2 ρ1 = a / (1-e2sin2 φ 1) 1/2
[
t ' = H / (1 + U ' ) /(1 − U ' ) ]1/ B
The Cassini-Soldner is a non-conformal transverse This project leverages on public GSM cell-based
cylindrical projection method [13]. It has the ID database information at Telematica Instituut,
advantage of ease of implementation but is eventually Netherlands [14]. It leverages on public contribution to
being replaced by conformal transverse Mercator. estimate the location of GSM cells based on all
measurements of people that have traversed through
Cassini Forward Conversion that cell. The database contains Malaysia’s Celcom’s
The formula to derive Easting and Northing (E, N) GSM network. A total of 247 cell-positions are
are relatively simple, as shown below: observed with an average cell distance of 949m, all
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with up to 90% signal strength. To determine a cellular source geographical information system are GRASS
location1 we just need to access the getLocation (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System)
method in the CellStore2 database. [16], and MapServer [17], and PostGIS [18]. We have
The 9 parameters has the following form: finally chosen MySQL to experiment with the
{CountryID (Integer), NetworkID (Integer), Cell geometry and binary large object (blob) data type.
Name (String), Date (Long), GPS-track positions
regarding specified cell, Latitude(Double), Longitude 4.5. Transformation and Conversion Engine
(Double), Range(Integer), LocalAreaCode (Integer),
signalStrength(Integer)} The transformation engine architecture is illustrated
in Figure 1. There are several important
4.2. Coordinate Positioning considerations, namely:
1. Speed of conversion –Some formula has large
There are 13 different datum transformation asymptotic (or more commonly known as
parameters values and 7 different coordinate operation computational complexity) or is iterative and
parameters to be maintained for map projections, as hence require a lot of computation time. Formula
shown in Table 1 and Table 2. such as φreverse RSO has an order of (e8).
2. If decent speed cannot be achieved, it may be best
Table 1. Datum Transformation Parameters to precompute the parameters and values and put
them in a lookup table.
Coordinate operation
3D
Coordinate Operation Method
Bursa- Geocentric
3. Data storage requirements arising from storage of
parameter name Geographic Wolf Coord. System precomputed values.
Coord. 3D model
System 4. The delay time may increase for long lookup
Type Ellipsoidal Cartesian Cartesian tables so care must be taken to minimize such
Coordinates Coord. Coord.2
Latitude of system(Øs) 1 effect.
Longitude of system(λs)
Ellipsoidal height of system(hs)
2
3
Cell-ID and GPS data can be consumed directly as
Datum shift parameter (Δx) 1 it is normally embedded with positioning information.
Datum shift parameter (Δy) 2 The positioning information can be conveniently
Datum shift parameter (Δz) 3
Rotation element (Rx) 4 converted into WGS84 format and later transform to
Rotation element (Ry)
Rotation element (Rz)
5
6
geocentric datum or the non-geocentric RSO or
Scale factor (1+ΔL) 7 Cassini. This will allow potential use of GPS enabled
Geocentric coordinate X
Geocentric coordinate Y
1
2
mobile device to become an auxiliary device for
Geocentric coordinate Z 3 surveying and mapping.
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between WGS84 and GDM2000 is negligible, due to LBS normally will require the support of data
the fact that their parameter and values are very similar aggregator and value added supplier, which in turn will
(a, f). For simple application that does not require high favor the use of rule-based processing for data
precision, the GPS readings can be directly used with conflation in cartography and centralized rules-
the geocentric GDM2000. Proper conversion is still repository for quality control [21].
required for scientific applications such as tide gauge This will necessitate the use of rules database to
or gravity computation. support rule-based processing. Rule based processing
Another concern is the induced error due to the is centered on the Fact-Pattern-Action dynamics. Rule-
inaccuracy of the parameters. This can be amplified based processing is not new in GIS systems [22].
during transformation from one coordinate system to Detailed description of the role of rules-based
another. Errors can also be increased with the increase processing in spatial data management and update is
of transformation steps. It is important to keep the given by Woodsford [23].
transformation straightforward and minimal.
The use of Geocentric Cassini and Geocentric RSO
has simplified many of the surveying tasks as the point
RSO new Cassininew
surveyed using GPS can now be directly projected to (N, E) (N, E)
town sheet of scale 1:10000, the shift can be amplified MRT1948 BT1968
to as big as 1.982cm! (λ, φ, h) (λ, φ, h)
Location based System allows a user to search, 4.8. Open XML support
identify and check for location information. Two
components that can support location determination for A web front-end written in Java is created to offer
LBS are present in our system – GPS and GSM search and lookup services to the external clients. A set
localization, making it a suitable candidate for location of lookup web service is also created for client
finding services. Two components that can support application to directly connect to the GIS database and
location determination for LBS are present in our manipulate the data. To reduce compatibility problem
system – GPS and GSM localization, making it a and facilitate ease of transfer, an open XML standard
suitable candidate for location finding services. The needs to be defined. A few candidates have been
user actions may include orientation and localization, implemented for our system, Keyhole Markup
search for point of interest (POI), people or subjects, Language (KML) and Geography Markup Language
navigation, identification, and event check [20]. (GML) and Scalable Vector Graphic (SVG). By
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following the above open standard our system is able Summary Report submitted to Dept. of Surveying and
to provide support for both textual and graphical GIS Mapping Malaysia, 2002.
data. Both versions are now undergoing active testing [6] DSMM, A Technical Manual on the Geocentric Datum of
to assess its features and usability. Malaysia (GDM2000), Dept. of Surveying and Mapping
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, August 2003, chapter.1 – 2.
[7] Heiskanen W.H and Moritz H., “Physical Geodesy”.
Pre-processor
Freeman, San Francisco, 1967 pp 182.
Cadastral RSO
[8] Bowring, B.R., “The accuracy of geodetic latitude and
height equations”, Survey Review, vol. 28, no. 218, 1985
pp. 202-206.
Precomputed
[9] Borkowski, K.M., “Accurate algorithms to transform
geocentric to geodetic co-ordinates”, Bulletin
Cache
Database parameters
MySQL*
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