UNIT 12 MGTOR ECOSYSTEMS OR

S OF THE WORLD
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Types of Habitats and Biomes
12.2.1 The Tundra Biome
12.2.2 The Desert Biome
12.2.3 The Grassland Biome
12.2.4 The Savanna Biome
12.2.5 The Coniferous Forest Biome
12.2.6 The Deciduous Forest Biome
12.2.7 The Tropical Rain Forest Biome
12.3 Biogeographical Regions of India (General Comments)
12.4 Aquatic Ecosystems or Biomes
12.4.1 Physicc-chemical Characteristics
12.4.2 Biological Characteristics
12.4.3 Stratification and zonation
12.5 ,Summary
12.6 Key Words
12.7 Further Readings
12.8 Answers to SAQs

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, namely Units 10 and 11, we have outl4ed some basic concepts in
ecology, ecosystem, population ecology and community ecology, We have also noted that
all the ecosystems go through ecological succession and reach a climax stage. We have also
elaborated upon the idea of ecological niche and further discussed about the homeostasis
and stability in an ecosystem.
IIhe purpose of this unit is to acquaint you with different major ecosystems present on our
planet earth. We will survey some major ecosystems present on land and in water. For the
ecosystems on land we will see what kinds of plants or animals we generally present in
these different ecosystemq as well as what are the overall climatic featares of that
ecosystems. We will see the mineral composition of water, the wave action and its effects, ,
etc. along with the common plants and animals present in the various aquatic ecosystems.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
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desaibe major terrestrial and aquatic biomes,

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. define unique features of some of the biomes,
explain stratification and zonation in aquatic ecosystems, and
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identify some animal communities present in the various zones of aquatic
I ecosystems.

12.2 TYPES OF HABITATS AND BIOMES

Broadly speaking we can divide habitats into two types - terrestrial (land) and aquatic
habitats. Under these two categories is a range of different habitats, for example on land
there are.mountains and deserts while under aquatic conditions we can differentiatemarine,
estuarine and freshwater habitats. The above list'is far from complete, however, and further
subdivision of a given kind of habitat is possible.
In general therefore we can speak of terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems. The
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are grouped into several large units which are generally
differentiatedand named on the basis of climax type of vegetation or life-form of animals.
Ecology Sometimes when climax type vegetation is not available the prevailing type of habitat is
used to name the animal communities. These larger divisions of biosphere are called as
biomes. Biomes are larger than ecosystems, some even call them megaecosystems or major
ecosystems.
A biome, as defined by Kendeigh, is a biotic community characterized by distinctiveness in
life-forms of the important climax species. On land the most important climax species are
dominant plants.In the oceans the predominant animals present help defining the biomes.
The biorne system of classification emphasizes community dynamics and environmental
(climatic) relations. Although named after the climax species, a biome does contain all seral
communities (that we discussed under ecological succession).
A biome is anabstraction of many separate ecosystems with similar characteristics into a
single ecosystem type. For example, when we talk about grassland or prairie biome, we are
including all those ecosystems in which grass is the dominant vegetation. It also means that
principal animals are grazers. Thus a group of ecosystems in which primary producers have
similar life forms and consumers have similar feeding habits is called a biome.
Different ecologists classify biomes in different manner. There is also some dirference in
nomenclature of various biomes. Here we will consider some terrestrial biomes and aquaric
biomes. Before we do so it is worth remenwring that on land there is considerable
variation in soil, climate, temperature and rainfall. As we go away from equator there is
considerable reduction in rainfall and temperature. The polar regions are almost completely
covered with ice. We will see that different terrestrial biomes result primarily due to this
climatic variation (Figure12.1).

HO
WET + ORY
Figure 12.1 : Diagram Showing How Vegetation Changes as per Ute Climate. Hot nnd
Wet Conditiom arc Ideal for Tropicnl Rain Forest, cte.
Let us now have a look at the major biomes of the world (Figure 12.2) and discuss about
some terrestrial and aquatic biomes.
12.2.1 The Tundra Biome
The tundra is a tree-less biome occurring from the forest limit to the ice caps in the polar
regions. The biome is largely here the land masses are considerably closer to the pole
(see Figure 12.3).
 Major Ekosystems or
Biomcs of the World

TROPICAL WNFORESI TEMPERATE 6RASS LAND

PERMANENT ICECAP

r."=.I lEMPERATE COHIFERWS FOREST

I".".".".)MONSOON OECIOUOUS AND OlHER

SEMI DECIDUOUS FOREST
~1 MEDITERRANEAN FOREST
1 DESERT SHRUB AN0 W S T E BR0;BIILEAF ANO MIXED BROMLEAF
ISsa CONIFEROUS FOREST

Figare 12.2 : Major Biomes of the World

TAIGA BIOME AND ARCTIC TUNDRA BIOME

Figure 12.3 : Spatial Distribution of Coniferol~sForest (Tniga) and krctic Tundra Biome

In the soulhem Hemisphere here is so liltle land n e u the pole Ihan 45' south, apart from
Antarctica itsclf. Ttle tundra bionle also occurs on high mountain ranges and it is called as
Alpine lundra - to distinguisl~it from the Arctic tundra of the Narlhem Hemisphere.
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 hlw The climate of tundra is characterized by long, cold and harsh winters. The summer weather
is also cool and mild. Frost is almost always present and the soil volume available to plants
is very limited due to permafrost (a layer of permanently frozen soil).
The important plants present in the tundra biome are lichens, sedges, grasses and dwarf
willows. Lichens and willows are useful food items for the grazers like caribou in North
America and reindeer in Eurasia. There are also a few other herbivorous animals like
lemmings, musk - ox and hares. The important predators are arctic fox, wolves and snowy
owl. The Alpine tundras are visited by deer, wild sheep and elk when the climate is good.
Alpine tundras often show more sedges, grasses and willows but less lichens. Animals like
lemmings often show highly oscillating population which periodically reach explosive
proportions.
The animals of the tundra are very well adapted to live in harsh, cold environment. Small
mammals possess thick fur which insulates them against cold. Some animals even change
the colour of fur seasonally - usually showing dark winter colour. This helps camouflaging
the animal against predators. Some mammals take long winter sleep (hibernation) while
some remain active underground and feed on food stored in their burrows. Birds possess
thick feathers. Some animals migrate to avoid harsh winter.
Arctic tundra has very little rainfall and it is limited to summer months. Temperature rarely
exceeds 10°C and is often below freezing point most of the winter. During the winter, the
soil freezes down to permafrost. Lakes are frozen for 9 months of the year with at least a
meter thick ice on the top. Small ponds are completely frozen. Photoperiod (period of
available light) varies from zero hours in winter to 24 hours during the middle of the
summer. These climatic condition allow only short growth period for the vegetation. All
plants are small, stunted and compact to resist desiccation. Most species take several years
for first flowering but vegetative reproduction continues. The plants are capable of making
maximum possible use of the available solar energy in spite of low temperature. The root
system is well developed and many grasses possess extensive root system. Food can be
stored in such roots.
12.2.2 The Desert Biome
Deserts are arid areas with annual rainfall lower than 25 cm. This is a region with high
evaporation potential and hence available water also becomes quickly saline.
Deserts occur in belts at similar latitudes north and south of the equator around the world
and occupy one fifth of the land. Major desert areas are present in Africa, Central Asia,
, USA, Australia and west coast of South America (Figure 12.4).

m - ' lm DESERT
1

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Figure 12.4 : Major Deserts of Africa, Asia and Australia. Also Note Vast Regions of Savanna in Africa
42

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 Climate of deserts is quite different than that of the other biomes. Difference between daily Major &mystems or
Bioma of the World
/
maximum and minimum temperature is great. Some are cold deserts while some are warm
deserts. On the whole the skies over the deserts are clear without clouds and all days are I
!
sunny. Winds are more or less continuous. Rainfall is irregular and whenever rainfall occurs
it is in the form of a violent storm or a cloud burst. Lack of sufficient vegetation and
presence of wind and stormy rains cause tremendous soil erosion.
According to E.P. Odum there are three life forms of plants that are adapted to deserts :
(1) The annual plants which avoid drought by growing only when there is
sufficient moisture,
(2) The succulents like cacti which can store water, and
(3) The desert shrubs that possess numerous branches and thick, short leaves that
can be shed during prolonged dry period.
In North America Creosote bush is the widespread plant of the hot desert while sagebrush is
the chief plant of the cool deserts of the northern side. An important characteristic plant of
the hot North American desert is the columnar, tall, saguaro cactus. In Africa the desert
plants are various species of acacias.
Several animals like kangaroo rat, grasshopper mice and black-tailed Jack rabbits serve as
the herbivores. There are also many insects. Birds, bats and lizards as well as snakes are
important carnivores. Large mammals are generally absent from the deserts. The animal
community of different deserts is as dissimilar as its vegetation. For example, in deserts
locusts and other grasshoppers are present in large numbers.
Al1,these animals tend to avoid extreme high temperatures. Most of them are active early
and late in the day, some are nocturnal. Burrowing habit is well developed in all animals as
sub-surface areas are cooler. Many animals can go without drinking and often conserve
water (especially metabolic water). Insects, birds and reptiles (snakes and lizards) excrete
uric acid to conserve water. uric acid can be voided with very little water. Summer
dormancy is common in animals when there is drought. Animals even show behavioural
adaptation to avoid being overheated. In general small mammals play an important part in
nutrient cycling. Sometimes the desert locusts (grasshoppers) show periodic population
eruptions producing huge locust swarms. Such swarms of locusts can damage crops and
vegetation over vast areas.
On the whole, like tundra, desert biome is also having extreme environmental condition.
However, the deserts are not as barren as often thought. They do have plants and animals
that are very well adapted.
12.2.3 The Grassland Biome
~rasslandsare present on all continents today. At one time this biome covered more than
40% of all the earth's surface. Unfortunately no other biome has been so completely
reshaped by our activity. These grasslands have been used for cultivation of our food crops
or are used as pastures for our domestic animals.
As the name indicates the dominant vegetation in the grassland biome is various species of
L.
grasses. A few tress are found in scattered groups depending upon the soil type, climate and
rainfall. The grasslands in different counlries are named differently, for example, it is called
prairie in North America, steppe in Russia, pampas in South America, etc. Temperature is
the criterion used to separate temperate and tropical grasslands (Figure 12.5 shows
distribution of grasslands).
Most grasslands receive regular rainfall, however there is considerable variation in the
amount of rainfall. For example, in North American prairie or the Temperate grassland, it
may be as low as 25 to 30 cm or as high as 50 to 60 cm. As Odum has pointed out,
grasslands occur where rainfall is too low to support the forest but is higher than that which
results in desert conditions. There may be comparatively high evaporation during other
periods. In addition the temperate grasslands also show periodic outbreaks of fire.
Major plants of the temperate grasslands are big blue-stem, switchgrass, bluegrass,
wheatgrass, grama grass and buffalo grass.
The most conspicuous large herbivore in North America is h e bison. once present in
millions, the bison was hunted to near extinction by white man. Now a few thousand
survive in protected areas. The other common herbivores are the elk and the pronghorn.
Jack rabbits and prairie dogs are other notable herbivores. The important predators are
badgers, coyote, 'ferrets, wolves and cougar.
 In general, the grassland plants possess well developed rmt system. In fact weight of the
root system is several times more than the plant above ground. The aniInals of the grassland
biome generally show hopping movement. All these aDiInals have short fore legs and long,
strong hind-legs. Animals in the temperate grassland go underground during winter.
On the whole the grasses provide food and allow the growth of large populations of
herbivorous animals. The grasses on which these animals graze are actually stimulated by
moderate grazing. Overgrazing can, of course, destroy the grassland.

Figure 12.5 : Spatial Distribution of Grasslands

12.2.4 The Savanna Biome

The Savanna biome is among the largesl of the earth's biotic systems spread over vast
regions of Africa, America and Australia. Since it occurs in warm tropical and subtropical
areas with about 80 to 140 cm of am~ualrainfall and prolonged dry season it is often called
as tropical savanna. The largest savanna is in Africa (See Figure 12.4).
In the words of E.P. Odum, savanna is a grassland with scattered trees or clumps of trees.
That is, there are patches of trees inter~persed~among the grass matrix. The climate, as
pointed out earlier is warm. The principal controlling factor is the seasonal rainfall. There is
also a periodic breakout of fire in savanna as the dry grass matter f i e very quickly.
The African savanna has typical acacia trees along with trees like baobab and palms. The
grasses we the bluestem grass, elephant grass, wire grass, etc. The Australian savanna, on
the other hand, has eucalyptus as common trees. In the North American savanna, principal
tree is mesquite as well as some species of acacia.
The African Savanna with its grasses and trees along with a diverse calegory of hoofed
mammals is the best site to watch. ?here are numerous species of antelope along with
wildebeest zebra; giraffe, eland and elephant. Apart from these 'big game' animals there are
numerous insects, especially during the rainy season. Many large mammals migrate over
large areas of savanna in search of food and water.
12.2.5 The Coniferous Forest Biorne
The coniferous forests (taiga) are largely confined to the northern hemisphere of h e earth.
This forest practically stretches as a belt across both North America and Eurasia (Figure
12.3). Some tropical high elevation mountain ranges also possess coniferous forests. We
can also recognize subtypes like North American montane forest, Eurasian boreal forests
moist temperate coniferous forest etc.
The climate of coniferousforests is definitely moist and cool. There is a summer rainfall of
between 40 to 100 cm. In winter the temperature can be very low, that is around- 20°C.
The summer period, on the whole, varies between 60 - 150 days. The moist temperate
 coniferous forest that extends from central California to Alaska is climatically warm with Major Ecosystelns or
Biomes of the World
good rainfall than northern coniferous forest.
The principal vegetation is, of course, in the form of evergreen, needle-leaf-bearing
coniferous trees. The most common trees are black spruce, white spruce, balsam and
subalpine fir.Trees like larch and birch are also common. In the south-eastern USA several
species of pine are major plants. The moist temperate coniferous forest includes hemlock,
Douglas fir, sitka spruce and the magnificent redwoods. Because the trees are evergreen, the
shade does not allow much growth of the vegetation underneath the large trees..The ground
may be covered with slowly decaying pine needles (leaves).
Depending upon the location the coniferous forests possess animals like Arctic shrew,
beaver, chipmunk, squirrel, wood rat, mice, hare, etc. Large herbivores like moose, deer and
elk are also present. The most important consumers in this forest are snowshoe hare, red
squirrels and birds like jay and raven (which are related to our crow), nuthatches and a
variety of warblers. The seeds of various conifers provide important food for squirrels, birds
and other small animals.
As far as carnivores are concerned, timber wolf was once very important predator. Another
important predator was cougar, especially in the mountain area. Both thes,e predators have
suffered extremely at the hands of man. Their populations have declined tremendously in
the last 70 years or so. Other predators of the coniferous forests are red fox, lynx, and
marten while black bear and much feared grizzly bear are the omnivores.
The conifers are also infested by many insects, particularly many species of bcetles and
moths. A number of bats, shrews and predatory insects like wasps I'eed on the insect
herbivores. On the whole lhis ecosyslern is quite complex and diverse.
Human being has considerably modified this biome as many of the trccs are cut and
transported elsewhere. Vast open areas havc been created in such forests which have now
grown shrubby vegetation. Fortunately, therc are no liuinan scttlernents in these forests.
12.2.6 The Deciduous Forest Biome
The temperate deciduous forest biome of the Northern Hemisphere occupies the
northeastern USA and as a broad band across Europe (Figure 12.6). It disappears into the
grasslands and deserts of central Asia to reappear again around the Yellow Sea and in north
eastern China. It is present under the conditions of good, evenly distributed rainfall. .

AREAS SHOWING DECIDUOUS FORESTS

Figure 12.6 : Worldwide Distribution of Deciduous Forests

The climate of this biome is temperate and never too warm. Mean annual rainfall is botween
75 to 125 mm though in some area it may be high. Rain falls periodically throughout the
year even as winter snow fall in some parts. Minimum temperature may reach -12'C in
winter while in summer it can be warm around 25OC. In general the frost-free period is
about 150 days at the northern limit while it may be 300 days at its southern lirrit.
The dominant vegetation of the biome are the large broad leaf trees. These trees shed their
leaves and become leafless in winter. At the southen1margin of the biome are evergreen
 broadleaved trees. The commonest trees are oaks, chestnuts, beech, maple and magnolia.
These tree.usually help in subdividing this biome further - for example beech-maple forest,
oak-hickory forest, etc. On the whole the tree vegetation is.dense with closed canopy.
Because of this the shrub community is poorly developed (Figure 12.7).

Figure 12.7 : Deciduous Porest (Oak-wood) in Summer. Note Canopy of Dominnni Onk Trees

The animal community is also well developed. There are large herbivores like red deer and
roe deer as well as omnivores like wild boar. European bison was once widely distributed
all over Europe but was nearly forced to extinction and then saved very much like the
American bison.
There are also small animals like eastern mole, gray squirrel, southern flying squirrel. hl
North America white tail deer is the common large herbivore while many voles, mice
squirrels, etc. are other small herbivores. Important predators of this biome are European
wild cat, European lynx, wolves, red fox and owls. Gray fox and red fox are also present in
Norlh America. Birds and reptiles are quite numerous, former are especially so. This biome
has also been considerably modified by man. In Eurasia as well as North America it has
been destroyed to use the land for cultivation. In Europe the condition is still the same as
these farmlands continue to be productive. In North America, however, these farmlands
have been abandoned due to declining productivity.The abandoned farmlands are slowly
returning to forest condition.
On the whole the biome shows a good deal of biodiversity as compared to the desert or
tundra biomes. Total leaflessness of trees in winter shows presence of marked seasonality.
The herbivores must adapt themselves to this seasonality. Even the undergrowth plants must
complete their life cycle within short time when the light is available, For ecological studies
this is a very interesting biome.
 12.2.7 The Tropical Rain Forest Biorne Mqjor Ecosysiems or
Rionleq of the World ,
The tropical rain forest mainly occurs as three distinct bands situated 20' on other side of
the equator. The 3 main regions are, (1) South and Central America, (2) Africa, and
(3) South east Asia and the Malay Archipelago. The largest and the most diverse rainforest 1
is presenl in the Amazon river basin. Our western ghat forests are part of another vast sector I
namely the Indo-Malayan region. See Figure 12.8 for distribution of these forests.

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I(
TROPICAL EVERGREEN RAINFOREST BlOME 11 8

jl
Figure 12.8 : S l ~ o w i ~Distribuiiom
~g of Tropicral Rain Forests

As far as the climate is concerned, thc tropical rain forests are unifonnly warm, wet and
humid. Tempcratures between 18°C to 32°C are usual. There is not much variation in
photoperiod as the lengths of day and night are close to 12 hours throughout the year.
Rainfall, though regular feature, is variablc In amount. Thcre may be some dry period,
especially in the marginal areas. Rclativc humidity of most tropical forests is betwecn
60-90%. At the border of the rain forest are tropical deciduous forests which furlher merge
into tropical thorn lorests or even savanna; the determining factor being the amount of
rainfall.
Becausc of great diversity of vegetation, it is impossible to state even the commonest
species of trees and shrubs. As described by Odurn, the rain [orest is stratified into three
distinct layers,
(1) scattered tall trees projecting abovc all oll~ervegetation,
(2) canopy which is almost like a green carpet at 80 - 100 feel height, and
(3) an understory layer which may be quite dense in partially opened up areas
(Figure 12.9).
There may be typically 50 to 70 diffcrent plant species per hectare of forest. It is only at rare
place Ulat a particular tree species is dominant.
When we look at the animal community we will note that very large herbivores (which arc
common in savanna and deciduous forests) are not present in tropical rainforest. A few
largc species that are presenl include tapir (in South America and Asia) and okapi (in
Africa). These forests however, possess a galaxy of tree-dwelling (arboreal) animals,
especiidly monkeys, birds, lizards ,uldeven frogs. The monkeys found in India and South
America belong to two distinct groups. The large apes, namcly gorilla and chimpanzee are
Africyi forest species while orang-urang is Asian. Various fruit-eating bats are also
common in tropical environments. Invertebrates, especially insects are too numerous.
Because large herbivores are absent, tliere are not many lGge predators in tropical
rainforest. It is only at the forest edge that we notice some predators like leopards, jaguars,
magay cats, etc. 11lsect herbivores are numerous hence, insect eating bats are also abundant
in tropical forests.
Thus, lhis forest biolne is the most diverse of all ecosystems. Both plant and animal
diversity has reached its zenith here. Unfortunately, this biome is also under severe pressure
from human activity. Large sectors of this ecosystem are lost almost daily -either for urban
Ecology

l
W LAYER

STRATIFICATION OF TROPICAL EVERGREEN BlOME

Figure 12.9 : Note t l ~ eLayered Structure of the Evcrgreen Forest. Top Lnyer is of Tall Trees,
Middle Lnyer is Closed Canopy (Diagrammatic, Simplified Version)

growth or industrial growth or pasture land. Unfortunately converting tropical forest to a

pasture land is a poor choice. The soils of this forest are extremely poor in nutrients and
never fertile enough for any agriculture. Not only Ulat in these plants and animals we have
immense wealth of information. After all our domesticated plants and animals also come
From the wild animals residing in such 'wild' areas.

12.3 BIOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

(GENERAL COMMENTS)' I

i
Although Jndian subcontinent comes under tropical category, there are several distinct I
regions that possess sub-tropical and even temperate conditions, As you travel form north to
south you will see great difference in soil condition, amount of rainfall, maximum and ,
minimum temperature and such other climatic factors. The western ghats receive I

considerable rainfall while towards the east of this region is an area of rain shadow.
Moreover the southern portion of India receives monsoon rains twice a year and good many
hilly areas are cool throughout the summer. In the northeastern part of our country,
especially parts of Assam, receive tremendous amount of rains. Most coastal areas also
receive good rainfall. In Rajasthan, however, rains are scanty.
Himalayas are the coldest, inhospitable mountains over most of its range in the north. The
1
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southern tip of the mainland, on the other hand, is warm throughout the year. 'I
Depending upon the amount of rainfall, temperature, soil, we have in Jndia Alpine Forests,
grasslands, tropical thorn forests, tropical moist deciduous forests (or so called monsoon
forests) tropicxl moist evergreen forests and a desert (Figure 12.10). We have a rich and
diverse plant and animal life in our country and it is our duty to save that life. Preventing
development projects in regions of exceptional ecological value, like what our government
did in silent valley, will definitely help our conservation programme.
Our country is home to some very large mammals. For example, Asiatic elephant and rhino
which are fast vanishing from other areas and are still present in good numbers in our
country, A strange crocodile 'gharial' is found only in Jndia and one or two neighboring
countries. Indian lion and Bengal tigers are, of course, the most magnificent and majestic
predators of our country.
 Major Ecosysierc~so r
Biol11e.sof tile World

e(l(r ALPINE (COU) ESLM)

S U B 14OflCM (ALL I Y P Z S )

TROPICAL DAY DECIDUOUS

I R O P I ~ L WI wcrouws
TROPICAL DRY EVER6REEU
TROPICAL MOIST EVERCREEU
a IROPICAL M O R N FOREST

Figure 12.10 : Biogeographical Regior~sof India

Insects, molluscs, fishes, amphibims (frogs and toads, mainly), reptiles( snakes, lizards ant1
turtles) are also numerous in our counlry.
~ l h t sboth
, native and exotic but naturalized, are equally-diverse. Many species of bamboo
rhododendrons, acacias, agaves, orchids and pines are present. Important commercial pl'ants
like deodar and teak also grow in Indian forests. More b a n 13,000 different species ol'
plants are known from India and the Himalayan region and the western ghals have many
plants that do not occur anywhere else in the world.
?bus in the Indian region we have many types of biomes represented on our territory. Since
we also have a long coastline, we also have different marine ecosystems as well. We have
huge rivers like Ganges and Brahrnaputra in the north-Krishla 'and Cauvery in b e south.
Some large lakes are present.in the foothills of Himalayas, particularly Kashmir area. Thus
there are many different types of aquatic biomes as well.

SAQ 1
(a) Explain l l c ter'i~'B ionle' .
(b) Givc salient f~iittu*es of each of the terrestrial bionaes.
Ecology
12.4 AQUATIC ECOSYSmMS OR BIOMlES
Nearly three quarters of the earth's surface is covered by liquid water. Major portion of this
water is in oceans; rivers, lakes and such other freshwater bodies form only a tiny part. In
all aquatic ecosystems, water is the medium in which biotic and abiotic components coexist.
Water is the medium though which organic, inorganic and setiiment material is distributed.
The heat properties of water control circulation patterns within the ecosystem and thus, have
very important influence on the community. The amount of dissolved salts and the amount
of light absorbed by a water-body also determine the kind of community that can develop.
In general, aquatic ecosystems are simpler than the terrestrial ecosystems. This is so
because water is the unifying force in all aquatic ecosystems and water has the same general
relationship with the other environmental factors whether it is ocean, lake or a river. The
properties of water control the productivity, life-style and complexity of the aquatic
ecosystems.
L i e is believed to have originated in aquatic environments and so the aquatic ecosystems
are, perhaps, the oldest. Since time immemorial, the aquatic ecosystems have provided
valuable food for mankind. We will now try to get a broad idea about these ecosystems.
Classification
Let us first classify different types of aquatic ecosystems into 3 broad categories.
(a) Freshwater,
(b) Estuarine, and
(c) Marine ecosystems.
The above classification is based on the salinity or the amount of dissolved material present
in water.
Marine water contains about 35 (35 gm dry salt in 1000 gm water or 35 parts per thousand)
dissolved salts. Freshwater possess comparatively very less amount of dissolved salts,
usually less than 0.2. In between these two extremes is the estuary which is the transition
zone between river and sea. Here, the salinity is variable depending upon the tide and
season.
In some areas there are water bodies that are more saline than oceans. The dissolved salts
are much more in quantity than that found in the oceans. Such water bodies are called
hypersaline waterbodies and these are generally found in arid areas where rivers flow into a
lake that has no outlet. Water evaporates due to heat but salts remain, making the waterbody
more and more saline.
12.4.1 Physico-chemical Characteristics
There are several 'types of freshwater bodies, for example, ponds, lakes, marshes, streams
and tivers. Each, in its own way, is different ecosystem. Location of these waterbodies is
also an important factor since tropical lakes are different than temperate area lakes.
Ecology of freshwater is often called limnology. This term usually implies complete
knowledge of a given freshwater body including its physical, chemical, meteorological and
biological aspects.
Generally, we recognize two types of freshwater ecosystems (i) Moving Water Ecosystems,
that include rivers and streams (also called Lotic Water habits), and (ii) Standing Water
Ecosystems, that include ponds, lakes, swamps and such other areas (also called Lentic
Water habitats).
Moving Water Bodies : 'Ihese are obviously rivers and streams. Since these originate at
one place and traverse some distance, the abiotic factors often change. These changes also
bring about changes in the biotic community. The great rivers like Nile, Amazon and
Ganges are very different at different places.
The physical environment changes along the distance or a stream or a river. It may be rocky
bed at one place while gravely, silty or muddy at other place.
The most distinctive features of moving-water ecosystems are those related to the motion of
water. 7he rate of flow of water and velocity are quite variable over the distance, so also the
turbulence. Flow is said to be laminar when water particles move parallel to one another,
when mixing is minimal. Flow is called turbulent when movement of water particles is
highly irregular (see Figure 12.11). The turbulent water has a great shear force and hence
erosive power. Such waters are also well oxygenated,
 Major Ecosystc~nsor
I1
Bio~nesof ihc World

A B
Figure 12.11 : Diagram Showing the DiIferences Between Turbulent (A) and Laminar
(B) Flow of Water System

Turbulent Flow, Laminar Flow : The type of flow also determines what kind of sediment
particles remain at the bottom and what particles are carried by the stream. If a lot of
material is carried by the stream then the turbidity of water is very high (have you looked at
the monsoon-flooded river?) andqight will not penetrate much below the surface. If there is
not much of a sediment load, water will be clear and transparent. Light will penetrate to a
much greater depth in such clear streams.
Chemical characteristicsof moving water depend to a large extent on the type of tetrain
through which water is moving. Minerals present in the bed are the ones found in water
moving through it. As mentioned above, turbulent waters erode the beds faster.
In general, nitrogen and phosphorus are present in relatively small concentrations in fresh
waters. Phosphorus is around 0.05 pprn (mg/L), nitrites are around 0.1 pprn and nitrates
around 0.5 ppm. There is considerable variation, however. There is even seasonal variation,
especially in large lakes. Both nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are often limiting
factors because growth of many planktonic organisms depends on these minerals.
The calcium contents of fresh waters vary between 9 pprn (as in soft water) to about 26 pprn
or more (as ui hard waters). Soft waters generally possess low bound carbonates as
compared to hard waters. Animals, especially rnollusca, are ilumerous in waters possessing
12 pprn or more calcium. Calcium is essential for plant and animal metabolism. It regulates
the permeability of cell membrane. Calcium also controls hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
of a water body by formation of carbonates.
Other minerals, like silica, iron, manganese and copper are present in traces but are very
important constituents.
Standing Water Ecosystems : Ponds, marshes and lakes come under this category.
The sediments carried into a lake or a pond eventually fill up the water body and turn it into
a marsh and then a forest, as we have seen in ecological succession. In contrast to streams
or rivers, the standing water bodies do not have constant flow or current. Though, wind may
produce wave-action in large lakes.
In deeper lakes, there is considerable pressure imposed on the animals living at thc bottom.
The pressure is due to the weight of the water column and the atmospheric pressure.
Penetration of light depends upon the sediments brought in regularly. Like streams, when
turbidity is high, light penetration is poor. Dissolved gases, like oxygen and carbon dioxide
are not uniformly distributed and many factors like temperature, rate of pholosynthesis,etc.,
control distribution of these gases.
Dissolved nutrient concentrations are highly variable. Incoming waters and the nutrient
cycling within the lake (sea water) determine the nutrient concentration present in the water
body. I€the incoming nutrient load is quite high, the lakes become highly productive.
:I
ill
Vegetation may practically choke such ecosystem leading to eutrophication. >I
:J

Once again, type and concentration of dissolved solids depend upon the bed through which
the streams are draining into lake. In general, lakes have between 15 to 350 pprn of total
dissolved solids. Rarely hyper-saline waters are formed with a salt concentration of about
100,000 pprn (oceans contain about 33,000 to 37,370 pprn total dissolved salts), for
example lakes of the Great Basin in USA. All lakes therefore, contain variable proportion of
ammonium salts, nitrites, nitrates, phosphates, silicates and salts of calcium, magnesium,
manganese, iton, copper, sodium and potassium. Lakes on grasslands generally have more
salts than the lakes in hardwood forests. The lakes in coniferous forests are poorest in salts.
Ecology Temperature, which is yet another physical factor, is rarely uniform in deep lakes. Surface
waters are often warmer than the layer below and'the deeper layers may be very cold.
Thus, in short, physico-chemical properties of freshwater are quite different in case of
different water-bodies. In fact, each water-body is unique and hence the generalization
should be done carefully.
Estuarine Ecosystems: An estuary is defined as a passage or inlet where the tidal water
(from the ocean) comes in contact with a river current. It is a place of transition between
river and sea, The estuaries &re semi-enclosed coastal water ways with free connection to
the open sea, and within which sea water is diluted with freshwater from the river.
Because the estuaries are semi-enclosed, the marine currents do not control the estuarine
environment. Bul due to opening to the sea, the water in estuaries is subjecled to tides.
Because of these two characteristics, an estuary is like a hybrid (ecosystem) between the
river and the ocean. River contributes water, as all the riverine water passes through the
estuary. Sea contributes sea water and tidal currents.
Riverine water is of low density as compared to seawater. So if there is not much tidal
action river water simply "floats" over the heavier seawater (see Figure 12.12).

Figure 12.12 : Diagram Showing thc Effects of Tides on Mixing Fresh River Water with Sea Water

The movement of water masses over each other creates turbulence and eddy formation.
These eddies often contain nutrients carried by the river. These are the so callednutrient
traps. The eddies promote rapid diffusionof oxygen and food (see Figure 12.13).

--
RIVER WATER SURFACE ESTUARY
I
/ -
-

- -
\
\ / -
I
FRESHWATER I FRESHWATER
I
I
I
I
( NUTRrENl TRAP)

SUBSTRATE

Figure 12.13 : Movement of Water Masses

When there is tidaI action, however, theseawater is forced in and mixes with freshwater
creating a zone of water with intermediate salinity. The salinity values of this water will be
highly variable - even there is diurnal change in salinity (due to high UdeAow tide). There
 will be even seasonal change. For example, in rainy season, tropical estuaries have very low Mqjor fiosystcn~sor
salinity as all the rivers are flooded. During this period the waters are also very turbid. Bioma of tllc World
The overall condition of the estuary therefore, depends on several things such as : the
amount of freshwater, the nature of tidal action, the season of the year, the salinity of the
seawater (because it is also not constant at all the places), etc. On the whole we can say that
the physico-chemical conditions in the eshlary are much variable as compared with that of
the other water-bodies.
Marine Ecosystems : Marine waters $re all saline with an average salinity of about 35%.
Of all the surface waters, perhaps, only the oceans approach uniformity of dissolved solids.
Such uniformity is never seen in freshwater. A generalized compositi~nof seawater
(Table 12.1) can be stated, but this is not possible for either a lake water or river water.
Table 12.1 : Composition of Seawater

Chloride (C13 19.345

Sulphate (SO, ) 2.701

Bicarbonate (HC03 ) 0.145

Total Bromide (Br-) 0.066
Salinity
30 Sodium (Na+) 10.752
Magnesium (Mgt+) 1.295
Calcium (Ca++) 0.416
Potassium (K+) 0.390
From Dietrich G, General Oceanography, John Wiley, 1963 (Values are in 9%).

The sea water does not have maximum density at 4OC; the density increases as the seawater
gets colder.
Oceans have ocean currents -both at or near surface and at the bottom These currents and
seasonal upwellings help mixing of water between various levels. Warm water from equator
moves to polar regions while cold water moves from poles to equator. Another important
feature is that all the major marine waters throughout the world are interco~ected.
0cean.ography deals with all the aspects of marine environment - physico-chemical as
well as biological.
The most conspicuous physical nature of marine ecosystem, one that everyone sees, is the
tides. The level of seawater in the oceans rises and falls, usually twice a day. Flood tide is
Ihe one when seawater level rises, covers more shore line; ebb-ti& is the period when water
is receding. As we know, tides are caused by the attraction of the moon (gravitational
force),and lo a lesser extent by the sun. The shores are thus periodically flooded and
cxposed. This is a major physical change.
Thc shore-lines possess different substrata at different places. In general, it may be a bare,
rocky beach or a sandy beach. Each type of shore has its own community of plants and
anlmals.
The sca floor is covered with a variety of sediments. Usually the sediments include mineral
and organic matter. It is either contributed by the animals or it comes from the land (far and
adjoining). Dead animals falling down towards bottom undergo decomposition, releasing
essential minerals.
Depth of sea is the variable and there is considerable amount of pressure at greater depths.
Light does not reach to more than few metres from the surface. Of course, this depends on
several faclors.
Temperature of sea water at surface varies from freezing point (- 1.g°C) at the polar regiow
to about 25-30°C in the tropics. These two areas do not show much seasonal variation but in
temperate seas there is considerable variation. Temperature also varies with dkpth. For
example in equatorial water one study showed that surface temperature is 26% at 200 rn is
13°C at 400 m it is 7.5'C and at 2 0 0 m it is 3.3OC. Once again therecan be seasonal
variation (seasonal thermocline).
Ecology We must also note that salinity is also a very important physico-chemical parameter
whenever marine ecosystems are considered. The salinity depends on the amount of dilution
occurring due to inflow of freshwater (coming in from the rivers or glaciers). The salinity of
sea water varies from place to place and even at different depths.
Average salinity is considered as 35 but Red Sea shows 40 while some polar sea waters are
less than 30 saline. As mentioned earlier 35 salinity means 35 gm of dry salt in 1000gm of
seawater, often called as parts per thousand or ppt. Due to salinity the pH of seawater is
slightly higher, usually around eight. Different minerals are present in seawater and
generalized proportion of the common ones is given in the table earlier. Nitrates, nitrites,
phosphates are particularly important for phytoplankton, silicates are present as well and are
required by sponges, protozoans and other animals and plants (diatoms). There is
substantial amount of organic carbon present in sea water. List of other minerals, which
may be present in trace quantities, will be too lengthy to quote here.
Lastly, gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide are also dissolved in sea water. Dissolved
oxygen is essential for marine animals except those that breathe air. The concentration of
oxygen is good in shallow areas where there is considerable amount of photosynthesis and
also wave action, splashing and turbulence.
The decomposition of organic matter and the respiratory activity of plants and animals
produce carbon dioxide (CO,). This gas is one of the essential material for photosynthesis.
It is also h o w n to play a role of a buffer in aquatic environments. The concentration of this
gas is also variable. Since CO, readily combhes with water, it'can exist as free or bound
C02 (i.e. H,O + CO, = H2C03).
12.4.2 Biological Characteristics
As we have studied earlier, there are various types of aquatic ecosyslems. Besides, each
river is different fro'm the other and each lake from the other lake. We will therefore only
broadly get some idea about the general biological characteristics of the 3 different aquatic
ecosystems.
In general, the animals living in marine environments are constantly receiving salt from
surrounding water. These animals must be therefore those that can actively fight against the
entry of this salt or those that can excrete excess salt quickly. Estuarine animals are the ones
that are facing the problem of varying salinity. Estuaries, therefore, contain those animals
that can adjust themselves to changing salinity. In frcshwaler the animals are often getting
excess water into their body and must lose it quickly if they are to avoid dilution of their
blood andlor tissue fluid. The movement of water is simply due to diffusion as the tissue
fluid has more salt and less water while outside the body there is less salt and more water.
Water then moves from its higher concentration to lower concentration - "flooding" the
water animals continuously. In marine environment the situation is exactly opposite.
In freshwater environments, streams and rivers possess recognizably different fauna and
flora, although these are common members.
Rapidly moving streams and rivers often possess organisms that can firmly adhere to some
substratum (rock for example). Sponge like animals may simply grow as flat encrustations.
There are planarians, snails and even leeches that can firmly attach to the substratum. Insect
larvae cling to weeds or substratum. Their bodies are streamlined to reduce the resistance to
Rowing waters. Common examples are mayfly larvae, caddisfly larvae, stone flies, etc.
There are also beetles that are adopted to swift current. Algae that can attach to rocky
surfaces are present so also are the other aquatic plants. Floating vegetation and plankton
are generally very sparse or absent from rapidly flowing stream. Stream fishes are also well
adapted for fast current.
Bottom environment (benthos) is also quite rich in all aquatic environments, especially
when there is a continuous input of nutrient laden sediment and less current. Various
molluscs, insect nymphs, crustaceans like prawnslshrimps ,aswell as some fishes are present
on the bottom sediments.
A slowly flowing river or stream is very different than the one that is rapidly flowing. These
two types can, of course, be seen in one and the same river during its course of journey.
In general, plant life in abundant in slow rivers. Roote&vascularplants, floating plants as
well as filamentous algae are abundant. If nutritive conditions are good there may be
overabundance of plants l i e duckweed (Lemna),Hydrilla, Potameogeton and Eichhornia
or water hyacinth and these weeds have become a problem in many lakes and rivers that
receive sewage and other nutrients.
 Rimary productivity (i.e, photosynthesis) of a slow-water ecosystem is higher Lhan Chat of Major IZcusysterns or
rapid water ecosystems so the community is less dependent on food material from outside. Biolncs of the World
The detritus generated is also quite enormous in slow-water ecosystems and hence evcn
&composers are diverse here.
Slow moving waters possess abundant swimming organisms like fishes, crustacea (prawns
and crabs) and insects. Insects like water-striders, water boatman and back swi~nnlerare
common. Zooplankton that includes protozoans, rotifers and various small crustaceans
(Daphnia, Moina. Cyclops, larvae of prawns and crabs), is abundant.
Snails like Lymnaea, Melania and Belltr~yaare common in vegetation of slow rivers whilc
the detritus rich and muddy bottom contains many bivalves.
Aquatic plants and animals, except those that can breath air, require dissolved oxygen. All
these organisms havc organs or special surfaces for obtaining dissolved oxygen (DO) from
water. The amount of DO is often a limiting factor. The areas defficient in DO are often
poor in biological diversity. Look at lhe stream receiving sewage, you will find only a few
organisms like tubificid worms, chironolnid larvae and a few olher insects and thcir larvc.
Fishes, prawns and snails will be few, if at all present (See Unit 13 later).
In general, slow moving water may have low DO because there is less turbulence and
considerable detritus undcrgoing dccon~positionand 'eating' DO.
Lakes are standing water bodies and the biological characteristics of a lakc depend on
several factors. Lakes possess rich plankton in the li~nneliczone. It includes phytoplankton
(dialoms and olher green algae) and zooplankton (Daphnin,protozoans, rolifcrlr and various
larvae) (Figure 12.14).

Figure 12.14 : Various,Specics of Diatott~s,Kotifcrs ant1 Protozoa of l l ~ cLin~aeticZ ~ I I'lankton

I ~

Fish life is quite diverse. Mollusca arc abund'ml and include various snails and bivalves,
especially if calcium contents are high. Aquatic insects also are abundant (Figure 12.15).
Different plants occupy different areas within the lake. Therc are all kinds of plants,
floating, submcrged and rooted.
Marine communities are highly diverse. Some areas likc coral-rccf are parlicularly so.
The most abundant pelagic phytoplankton are diatoms and dinoglagellates (Noctiluca,
Ceratium, etc.) which together produce most of the organic carbon in the sea. There are also
many golden-brown algae and flagellated unicellular algae. Some large sea weeds, such as
large brown algae Surgassum, have a floating stage. Vascular plants arc missing completely
from true marine environments, although h e y arc present in estuaries.
Zooplankton is much diverse than in freshwater envirolunents. I1 includes representatives
from practically every major/rninor animal group. Cormnonest ones are beautiful
protozoans (a group called Foraminifera and Radiolaria), arrow wornls (Sagitta), m e l i d
wornls, snails, jelly fishes, prawns and other crustaceans. Larvae of many crustacea and fish
are also present (Figures 12.16 and 12.17).
Marine communities are not only diverse but contain groups of anim~lsnot found in flesh
and estuarine waters. Starfishes, sea-stars, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers (all belonging to a
 Figure 12.15 : Littornl Zunc Invcrtebrntcs of Lake

Figure 12.16 : Organisms Pound in the Pelagic Zone of the Ocean 'a to k' Small Microscopic Algae
m d Protozoa, '1 to s' Snails, C o e l e n t c ~ s t c sand Crustaceans, 't' and 'u' Whales
 Major Ecosy~temsor. 1
I

Uiornes o f UIC World

-u
(a) (b). (c) (dl (f) ,

Figure 12.17 : Organisms of the Net-ilic Zone of Ocean : 'a' to 'P Different Algae, 'p to I' .Various
Crustncem Larvae, 'III' Brittle Stnr Lnrvn, 'n & s' Molluscan Lnrvn, '0' Polycl~ncteWon1 Lnrvn, '1)
group called Echinodermata or spiny-skinned animals) are totally marine. Similarly corals,
jelly-fishes, sea anemones (all belong to a group called Coclenterata) are absent in
freshwaters. Largest of all animals in the world are also found in oceans (bluc whale, for
example). The deep water forms of marine environments often contain strange animals
(Figure 12.18).

Figure 12.18 r Benthic (bottom-dwelling) Anin~alsof tho Deep Oceau r

-
' n to c' Crustaceans, 'd to f' Echiuoderms, 'g' Snnil
 &OIO~Y Again there is zonation of this ecosystem. Different animals are restricted to different zones.
Estuaries are also quite diverse in plant and animal life. As you have seen elsewhere in this
block, this is what we call an ecotone. Here, the two ecosystem 'meet each other'. There is a
rich inflow of nutrients from the rivers as well as from the sea and solar energy is also
abundant. The salinity of this region is, however, highly variable and hence only those
organisms that can tolerate varying salinity perist.
Estuaries are highly productive areas and prawns and fishes of economic value are obtained
from such environments.

I 12.4.3 Stratification and Zonation

In ecological literature, the term stratification is associated with vertical layering of
organism or enviromnentalconditions.
Let us consider thermal stratification in lake.

"---J' Figure 12.19 : Interesting Set of Fishes from Deep Oceans

In a large lake, situated in temperate zone, the temperature of water can be uniform from top
to bottom in early spring. It may be around 4°C. As the day lengthens, solar radiation is
absorbed by water. This absorption takes place only at the surface layers, thus, warming
surface layers. Wind and other forces will mix this warm water to a depth of 8-20 m but
below that there will be cool water. The upper warm layer is called epilimnion and the
lower cool layer is hypolimnion. The transition between the two is metalimnion or
thermocline.
4
. TEMPERATURE
0
I

Figure 12.20 :Typical Pattern of Temperature Dlatributioa in a Deep Lake

in the Temperate Zone during the Summer
 stratification is maintained on a strictly thermal base, since warm water is lighter than the Major Ecosystems or
colder water. Once a themocline has been formed, the warm and cold layers virtually Biomcs of World
separate from one another. No water passes from epilimnion to hypolimnion. Eve11the
currents may be different (Figure 12.21).

WIND

mgure 12.21: Diagrurmnatic Illustration of the Patterns of Wind- induced Circ~~lation

in the
Hypolimnion m d Epilinlnion of n Tbermdly Stratified Li~kc
Circulation in the hypolimnion is much less pronounced that in t l ~ cepilimnion. In winter,
again the surface waters are cooled and the epilirnnion vanishes because the temperature of
the surface water reaches to that of deeper layers. Thermocline is not presenl and tllc entire
lake water can mix. In the coldest part of the winter the surface water will be coldest (Cold
epilirnnion) Lhm the water below (Warm hypolimnion).
This exmlple gives you an idea how au abiotic factor car1 bring about certain chiinges in an
ecosystem. Such stratification has important bearing on ecosystem function.
Several other abiotic faclors arc also stratified within aquatic ecosystem, wllethcr lakes,
rivers or oceans. The m o u n t of light penetrating waler is always diffcrent at diffcrcnt
depths. Dissolved oxygen concentration is also different at different depths. On Uie basis of
the penetration of light we c m recognize two strata in deep writers - an aphotic stratum uld
a photic stratum. Marine ecologists recognize 3 layers - epipelagic straturn, mcsopelagic
stratum and bathy-pelagic stratuni.

SUPRALITIORAL ZONE

LITTORAL ZONE

SUBLITTORAL ZONE

rigurc 12.22 : Zonation of Freshwater Pond as Seen from Above. Solid Line Represents the
Permanent Shoreline, other Lines Denote Limits of cacli Zone. Note that
Prevailing Winds Produce a Splash Zone (Supralittoral Zone) Along the Shore
Opposite the Incoming Dircction o f Prcvaili~~g
Winds
Ecology
The epipelagic stratum supports good photosynthesis and may exmid upto 200 m of depth.
Mesopelagic extends between 200 to about 5000 m of dept. Here, light is very poor. The
bathy-pelagic layer is permanently in dark. Biotic communities also show stratification. In a
lake or pond we will see a floating layer of organisms very close to surface film of water.
This is neuston. There may be supraneuston (water strider on surface of water) and an
infraneuston (mosquito larvae beneath the surface). Plankton is an aggregate of minute
plants and animals floating near surface at various depths. It is of two types, phytoplankton
(algae) and zooplankton (various animals like Daphnia, rotifers etc).
Nekton is another group of active swimmers bat is found at various depths. The bottom is
occupied by benthic animals or pedon. Nekton includes fishes, amphibians, beetles and
other animals while pedon has bivalves, fishes, insect larvae, worms etc.
Zonation in Fresh Water : Lakes and ponds are zoned primarily on the basis of water
depth and type of vegetation that will appear over the course of time in fresh water areas.
The supralittoral zone is a zone just above the edge of standing water. This zone is not
stibmerged bul is subject to wave action.
From the water's edge to a depth of about 6 mt. is the littoral zone. This includes the
margins of the lakes where rooted vegetation is present. It may be emergent or submerged.
Beyond this is sublittoral zone. This usually extends from the 6 mt. level to the upper limit
of hypolimnion.This zone has zooplankton, nekton and debris. The deepest part of the lake
is called as profundal zone. This zone has no photosynthetic organisms. There is no light
and less dissolved oxygen in this area and hence different organisms inhabit this zone.
Sonie people call the open water zone as the pelagic zone and divide it into an uppcr
limnctic zone and lower profundal zone.
What we have discussed above applies well only to standing water bodies (Lenlic
ecosyslen~s).Streams or such other moving water ecosystems (Lotic ecosystenis) do not
show such well defined zonation. At the most we can recognize a flowing water zone, a
riffle zone 'and a pool zone. These dilSerent zones do have different biota of their own.
Marine Zonation : The distribution ol the life zones in marine ecosystems is similar to h a t
in lakes, cxcept the'oceanic zones are complex and deeper.

------------- - COMPENSATION LEVEL -

NO PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PROF UNDAL ZONE
OR6ANISMS

Figure 12.23 : A Transect of a Deep Freshwater Pond or Lake, Indicating the Location
of Various Zones
'
Broadly speaking, there are two basic zones, neritic zone and oceanic zone. The former is
only a small part (less than 1%) while the latter is of considerable magnitude.
A diagrammatic cross-section of a portion of ocean adjacent to a continent shows several
-gegions. The underwater extension of the continent is the continental shelf which generally
ex tends to a depth of 125-200 m. From the edge of the continental shelf there is a slope, the
continental slope, going down tailat abyssal pldn at 4000 to 5000 m. Further deep or hadal
zones are also present.
 Major Ecosystems or
Using this physical subdivision we can define life zones in occans. The littoral or intertidal Biomes of the World
zones is the zone between low tide and high tide. The sublittoral extends from low tide
mark to the edge of the continental shelf. The continental slope compriscs the hathyal zonc
and the abyssal plain supports abyssal zone.
m e open water from shore to the edge of the continental shelf is the neritic zone whilc Ule
rest of the open ocean is pelagic zone.
Once again each zoile has distinctive faunal elements.

P HOT~C f-
-
----
- 7 -- -
NERlTlC
-
SURLIlTORAL ZONE
ZONE
LITTORAL
PELAGIC ZONE ZONE
OCEANIC CONIINENUL SHELF
RISE

p"3KCONlINENlAL SLOPE
APHOTIC
HAOAL m S S A L ZONE 9

OCEANIC
1RENCH
Figure 12.24 : Diagrmn of the [,ire Zones of the 0ces11(no1 to scialc)

Sf4Q 2
(ii) ~lli~.ior
I<I~UIIICP.;I(~~ suhtlivisiorls 01 : ~ a j k . s : ~ l Ci ~C O S Y S ~ C I ~ ~ .

(b) Dcljllc two bro;~(ts~n87divisio1msof Inexhwilicr oc.osysl6'1u, YIP^! c ! ( ; I H I ~ ~ ~ L , .

(c) Distilig~~~sh
~ C ~ W C Cl;~llaii~;br
II 1101~;1nd 1111 ~ ~ I I C I 110~1.
I(

12.5 SUMMARY
In this unit, we devoted ourselves to the study of major ecosyslems of the world. Wc havc
noted that we can group ecosystems with similar structure and [unction and name thosc
after a dominant vegetation type or animal life form. Thus grass1:ulds or dcciduous foresls
are such major ecosystems which we have called as 'Biomes'. In aqualic environment Ihc
biomes arc named after the prevailing habitat type.
With respect to each terrestrial biome, wc considered what is the gcneral distribution ovcr
the earth's surface. We noted that climate in particular, rainfall and soil type cicterrnine what
is the general nature of the ecosystein of a givcn area. TIUS dcserts arc the areas with scanty
rainfall while grasslands develop where rainfall is more than that of lhc dcserts but is not
sufficienl for forests to develop. Tropical'rainforests develop where climate is hot, humid
and rainfall is abundant.
We also observed that each biome bas its own set of vegetation (produccrs) primary
consumers (herbivores) and secondary or tertiary consumers (pretlators, carnivores). In
general the biomes with extreme environmental conditions, for example tundra or deserts,
are low in biodiversity while tropical forests with abundant vegetation are the most diverse
ecosystems of the world.
While discussing about the various aquatic biomes, we have noted that water is the unifying
force giving a good degree of homogeneity to aquatic biomes as compared with the
terrestrial biomes. Important variables in aquatic ecosystems are soluble salts or salinity,
depth, wave action, dissolved oxygen and temperature. Even moving and stationary
freshwater bodies are quite different ecologically. We have also seen some figures depicting
common plants and animals of some of the aquatic biomes. These plants and animals, as we
have noted, occupy different zones in an ecosystem
This is after all.an overview of the various ecosystems around us. To study them in detail
can be a life-time occupation.

12.6 K E Y WORDS
Alpine : ,Theconditions found on mountains at mid and high latitudes or
at high altitudes even in the tropical area -here the growirfg
season for vegetation is very short.
Abyssal Zone : The environment at the bottom of deep oceans -usually greater
than 2000 mt. Here the salinity and temperature is almost
constant or stable.
Biodiversity : Diversity of biological organisms. In general sense, kinds of
organisms present in an area or ecosystem.
Canopy : Leaves of trees which act as a sort of umbrella over the ground
beneath.
Continental shelf : Area of shallow sea surrounding a continent.
Conifers : Evergreen trees with needle - thin leaves. The fruit is called as
cone.
Deciduous : Trees which lose their leaves in winter (or onset of autumn).
Hypersaline : Waters with salinity much greater than that of the sea water,
usually exceeding 35%.
Evergreen : Trees which beat' leaves throughout the year.
Hadal Zone : Very deep trenches at the bottom of sea, usually more than 6000
meters deep.
Littoral Zone : Area at the edge of a freshwater lake where rooted plants exist or
area of the sea and shore between the high and low tide mark.
Lotic Waters : Moving waters such as those of the rivers and streams.
Lentic Waters : S tandiig water bodies like ponds and lakes.
Limnology : Study of all aspects of freshwater ecosystem.
Limnetic Zone : Area of deep water away from the shore of a lake. Rooted plants
are absent in this zone.
Nekton : Swirnrning marine animals.
Oceanography : Study of oceanic ecosystems. It includes study of physical,
chemical, geological, biological features of oceans and ocean
basins.
Plankton : Microscopic organisms that float and drift in water.
Profundal Zone : Area of water (in lake) below the lirnnetic zone.
Permafrost : Permanently frozen ground in the arctic. In summer also only
superficial soil thaws but the lower layer remains frozen.
Succulent Plants : Plant with fleshy leaves to store water.
-- - -

12.7 FURTHER READINGS ..

1) Odum, E.P. (1971), Fundamentals of Ecology (Third Edition or Subsequent), W.B. .

Saunders companylSaundersi Internationalstudent Edition, London.
 2) McNaughton, S.J. and Wolf L.L. (1973),General Ecology, Holt, Reinhart and Winston Major Dcosystems or
hc., USA. Biomeq of tllc World

3) Kendeigh, S.C. (1974) as cited in Unit 11.

Note : A good many video films are available to give you overall idea of say Amazonian
Rainforest or African Savanna. You may look up the list of National Geographic
Videotapes. Several National Geographic issues also contain pictorial essays of the various
ecological regions.

12.8 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1
(a) Biome is a large unit than ecosystem. It is an aggregation of ecosystems in
which primary producers have similar growth forms and consumers have
similar feeding habits. Grasslands, for example, function in similar manner all
over the world. The structure of this ecosystem is also basically similar -
though, of course, the actual species of grasses and animals will be different at
different places. Thus biomes are ecosystems (macro or megaecosystem)
with similar structural organization and functional properties.
(b) Salient features of the major terrestrial biomes :
(i) Deserts : These are the arid places with annual rainfall averages less than
25 cm. The humidity is very low. Vegetation is often in the form of shrubs or
succulent cacti, small mammals, buds and insects are common herbivores.
Bats, reptiles (particularly lizards) are common predators. Both plants and
animals are adapted to shortage of water, some plants store large quantity of
water. Some animals like desert locust show periodic population explosion.
(ii) Tundra : It is a treeless biome found mainly in the northern hemisphere 01
the earth. The climate is cold, harsh with frost conditions. Permafrost is
always there. Important plants are grasses, sedges and lichens. Animals like
reindeer, caribou are herbivores while arctic fox, wolves, owls are the
predators. The growing seasons for plants is only of about 60 days. Rainfall is
low. Some animals like lemming show periodic population explosion. The
plants and animals are adapted to harsh weather and cold. Hibernation may be
observed in mammals. Some animals change colour of the hair seasonally.
(iii) Grasslands : As the name indicates it is a land of grasses. Different
grasses like bluestems, needlegrass, wire grass, etc, are found. There were
once very vast grasslands but many of these areas are now destroyed by
human activity. In America, bison was the most prominent herbivore. There
are also rabbits, squirrels and other smdl mammals. Important predators are
badgers, coyotes, wolves and cougar. Climate, inmost grasslands, is moderate
with highly irariable rainfall and a period of drought. Some trees also grow in
grasslands, especially when soil and rainfall of the area is good.
(iv) Savanna : It is among the largest of earlh's biotic systems. African
Savanna is not only picturesque but possesses unbelievable number of
herbivores. A savanna is typically having a grassland matrix with trees
interspersed at places Grasses like elephant grass, bluestems, wire grass are
present white the trees are Acacia (in African Savanna), Eucalyptus (in
Australia) or mesquite (in North America). Herbivores are giraffe, rhinoceros,
elephant, zebra, etc., While the carnivores are lion, cheetah, leopard, hyena
and wild dogs. Insects and other invertebrates are also abundant and so are
small predators like lizards and snakes.
(In h i s lashion you can make a summary of important features of coniferous
forests, deciduous forests and rain forests.)
SAQ 2
(a) Freshwater ecosystem and Marine ecosystem.
(b) (i) Moving-water bodies or lotic water system that include all rivers and
streams.
(ii) Standing-water systems qr lentic water systems that include lakes,
swamps, marshes and ponds.
i

63
Ecology (c) WAter flow is said to be laminar when water particles move parallel to each
other and when mixing is minimal. On the other hand when movement of
, water particles is highly irregular it is called turbulent water.

(d) Estuary is a transition zone between freshwater and marine ecosystem.

Because of tides there is continuous influence of saline water on this
ecosystem. Nutrients are brought along with river water and the turbulence
created by tides mixes the nutrients alI over. Although, Only those plants and
animals that can stand continuous variation in salinity live in the estuaries, the
estuaries are the most productive ecosystem. These are also very diverse
ecosystems, as far as plant and animal life is concerned. Many economically
important sea-food organisms are obtained from estuaries.
(e) Following zones are recorded in the oceanic ecosystems :
i) The littoral or tidal zone - which is the zone between low tide and high
tide.
ii) The sublittoral zone extends from low tide mark to the continental shelf.
iii) The bathyal zone which is on the continental shelf.
iv) The abyssal zone that is present on the abyssal plain.
v) The neritic zone that includes open water from shore to the edge of the
continental shelf, and
vi) The pelagic zone which is the rest of the open ocean (refer to
Figure 12.24).