International Journal of Manpower

The Effects of Organizational and Individual Career Management on Career Success

Christopher Orpen,
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Christopher Orpen, (1994) "The Effects of Organizational and Individual Career Management on Career Success",
International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 15 Issue: 1, pp.27-37, https://doi.org/10.1108/01437729410053617
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 Effects of
The Effects of Organizational Career
and Individual Career Management

Management on Career
27
Success
Christopher Orpen
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Bournemouth University, UK

Among the more widely-accepted conceptualizations of career is that of Hall[1,2]

who defines a career as a sequence of related work experiences and activities,
directed at personal and organizational goals, through which a person passes
during his or her lifetime, that are partly under their control and partly under
that of others. According to Beckhard[3], there are four distinctive features of
this conceptualization, that provide the source of its wide acceptance. First, it has
a long-term perspective, extending beyond the current satisfaction and
performance of employees. Second, the definition focuses on both objective or
external aspects of career (activities), as well as on subjective or internal aspects
that accompany these activities (experiences). Third, it views career
effectiveness from a variety of perspectives, as something that does not consist
merely of attaining socially-sanctioned positions or ranks, but also of realizing
goals that are personally important to the individual him or herself. Finally, and
most importantly for the present study, this definition explicitly recognizes that
career outcomes are the joint result of individual efforts and of outside forces
over which the individual does not have complete control.
It follows from this conceptualization that the responsibility for career
management lies both with individuals and with the organization which
employs them. According to this notion of “joint responsibility”, both parties are
supposed to share various obligations in managing employee careers, rather
than them being the sole responsibility of one or the other. The assumption
underlying this notion, that is accepted in most texts, is that employee career
effectiveness will be greater when the individual and organization carry out their
respective career management roles[4,5]. It is this assumption that also lies
behind orthodox career management programmes, which typically assign
certain activities to individuals and others to the employing organization[6,7].
The study reported here, examines the validity of this assumption, that has
hitherto not been tested empirically. Specifically, it investigates the separate and
joint effects of organization career management and of individual career
management on the career success of individual employees. Hall’s
conceptualization[1,2] provides the framework for the study, not only through International Journal of Manpower,
the notion of joint responsibility, but also because the present study takes a long- Vol. 15 No. 1, 1994, pp. 27-37.
© MCB University Press,
term perspective of careers, measures career effectiveness both objectively and 0143-7720
 International in terms of the individual’s own goals, and takes separate account of people’s
Journal of career experiences and how they feel about what has happened to them in their
Manpower careers. Besides testing for the effects of individual and organizational influences
on employee careers, the study also explores empirically the structure of career
15,1 management programmes, as perceived by employees. It attempts to identify –
through factor analysis – what are the major dimensions of such programmes
28 and how they relate to each other, to develop useful guidelines for firms in their
efforts to improve the careers of their employees, for their benefit and that of the
firm itself.
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Organizational Career Management

The term “organizational career management” is usually employed to cover the
various policies and practices, deliberately established by organizations, to
improve the career effectiveness of their employees. Though the content of such
schemes can vary, they share certain general features which make them what
they are, such as establishing what employees want from their careers,
providing appropriate career opportunities for employees, identifying which
employees deserve these opportunities and then providing them and evaluating
the outcomes of career management programmes[8,9]. In the study under review,
rather than identifying content in advance, through the literature, the items that
comprise the Organizational Career Management Scale used in the study were
generated by personnel managers from organizations employing participants,
during a two-hour workshop with them.
This scale describes the possible career management policies and practices of
the subjects’ own organizations. Subjects’ perceptions of the extent to which
their organizations’ career management programmes possess these features
formed the independent variable in the study. The reason for employing
individual perceptions, rather than actual features of such programmes, besides
the difficulty in describing the latter accurately, is that such perceptions mediate
the effects of differences in career management programmes and are thus more
able to predict individual outcomes, of the sort which concern us in this
study[10,11].

Individual Career Management

The counterpart to organizational career management is individual career
management – the personal efforts made by individuals to advance their own
career goals which may or may not coincide with those their organizations have
for them[1]. The notion of joint responsibility –-which was examined in the study
– assumes that individual efforts of this kind are needed for career effectiveness,
as well as an appropriate career management programme on the part of the
employer. According to the psychological success model of Hall and Foster[12]
and Hall[2], employees are active, striving agents who utilize career management
programmes to satisfy their personal career goals, and it is the task of employers
to ensure that this process helps the organization achieve its goals. The two
primary aspects of individual career management, according to this model, are
 individual career planning and individual career tactics, both of which were Effects of
separately measured in the study. Career
Individual career planning refers to the process of identifying what one wants
from one’s career, assessing one’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to these
Management
goals, and deciding what steps need to be taken to realize these goals in the light
of one’s own strengths and weaknesses. It comprises a series of individual
decisions that ought to be made as rationally and systematically as possible if 29
planning is to contribute to career success[13,14]. However, career planning
needs to be supported by appropriate tactics for implementation, in the light of
changing circumstances that are often difficult to predict in advance. Unless
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individuals are capable of developing and executing strategies for carrying out
their plans, they are unlikely to be successful. A variety of career tactics have
been advocated, all of which involve manipulating the situation in which
individuals find themselves to their own advantage, so that they can successfully
realize their goals[13,15]. The measure of career plans and tactics employed in
the study derives heavily from the psychological success model of Hall and
Foster[12] and Hall[2] that suggest how individuals ought to plan their careers,
what steps need to be taken for such planning to be effective, and what
generalized career tactics stand a good chance of succeeding in normal
circumstances.

Hypotheses of the Study

In the light of this discussion, it is hypothesized that:
H1: Organizational career management – i.e. the extent to which employees
feel their organization operates a career management scheme with the
features identified by the personnel managers in the workshop – is
positively related to individual career effectiveness.
H2: Individual career management – i.e. the degree to which employees plan
their careers and employ appropriate career tactics – is also positively
associated with individual career effectiveness.
H3: Individual career effectiveness is greater when organizational career
management schemes exist along with career management by
individuals, i.e. when both organizations and the individuals concerned
manage employee careers, with neither side neglecting their part of the
“joint responsibility” bargain that is hypothesized to be a prerequisite
for successful employee careers in organizations[13,2].

Method
Subjects
The subjects of the study were 129 employees of a variety of organizations in
both the private and public sectors, most of whom were in supervisory or middle
manager positions. Of the sample, 70 per cent were male; 66 per cent had
university degrees or equivalent qualifications; their average age was 28.9 years;
and their average tenure with their present employer was 8.3 years. To obtain
meaningful measures of progress in their present firm, the sample was restricted
 International to employees who had been with their current employer for at least three years.
Journal of All subjects, initially contacted, whose tenure was less than three years, were
excluded from the study. All participants were enrolled at their local university
Manpower on part-time courses.
15,1
Workshop with Personnel Managers
30 The starting point for the research was a two-hour workshop with ten personnel
managers, drawn randomly from among the organizations employing the
subjects under study. The workshop was deliberately exploratory, with the
researcher acting as a facilitator. The goal of the workshop, which was made
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clear to the participants at the outset, was to identify and reach consensus on the
elements that should comprise an organizational career management scheme.
The basis for the discussion was the sharing, by the managers, of their
experiences with various schemes in the firms for which they had worked
during their careers. The process was, first, to produce a fairly large number of
such elements, and then to refine them through careful analysis, which tried to
avoid elements that overlap; to emphasize those that distinguish “poor” from
“good” schemes; and to keep the elements sufficiently general for them to be
useful in a study with a heterogeneous sample.

The Organization Career Management Scale

From this workshop, 35 potential elements of career management schemes were
identified and defined, each comprising a discrete personnel activity that the
workshop participants agreed should ideally form part of an organization’s
career management scheme. These activities formed the items of the
Organization Career Management Scale (which, for example, provides ongoing
performance feedback, uses a central human resource inventory, appreciates and
supports individual developmental efforts, supplies full information about job
openings, develops career plans with individuals, adopts a policy of first filling
vacancies internally, rewards competence by promotion and sends employees on
job rotation schemes). For each of the 35 items, subjects indicated the extent to
which they felt their organization, considered as a whole, performs the activity
described in the item, on a scale from 1 (never does this) to 5 (always does this).

Measuring Individual Career Planning and Tactics

Individual career management was measured by an eight-item scale, designed to
assess each of the main aspects of career planning and tactics identified by
Hall[2] in his psychological success model. There were five items in the career
planning subscale (x = 0.70), to each of which subjects responded on a scale from
1 (very untrue of me) to 5 (very true of me). The items were:
(1) I have definite goals for my career over my lifetime.
(2) When I think of changing my job, I always consider whether the new job
leads to another one I want.
(3) I give a lot of thought to plans and schemes for achieving my career goals.
 (4) I know what my strengths and weaknesses are in relation to my career Effects of
goals. Career
(5) Achieving my career goals is very important to me. Management
The career tactics subscale (x = 0.68) comprised six items, designed to measure
those generalized tactics claimed in the psychological success model to have the
widest applicability. They were: 31
(1) I am always very careful to avoid dead-end career paths.
(2) I try to have as much visibility and exposure to my bosses as I can.
(3) I go out of my way to find a mentor or sponsor to help my career in the
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firm.
(4) I cultivate friendships with influential people for my career outside work.
(5) I actively seek opportunities, rather than wait to be chosen.
(6) I try to help my superiors achieve things important to them, even if it is
not what I want.

Measuring Career Effectiveness

Following Van Maanen and Schein[16] and Hall[2], career effectiveness was
assessed in terms of both activities and experiences. There were two external
measures, both of which have been widely used to assess career success – i.e.
salary growth and promotions received. Salary growth was given by the
percentage increase per annum in the subject’s salary since joining his or her
current firm[16]. Promotions received was determined by the number of “definite
promotions to a more senior position” that subjects indicated they had received
since entering their present firm, divided by tenure in years[17].
The experiential aspect of career effectiveness was assessed in two ways.
First, subjects indicated, on a scale from 1 (very poor) to 7 (very good), how well
they thought they had done in their career so far. They also provided the same
ratings for how well they felt they would do in their career in the future. Given
the high correlation between the two scales (r = 0.67, p < 0.001), subjects’
responses were added, to provide a single measure of self-rated career
performance. Second, subjects indicated how satisfied they were with their
career, taking everything into account, again on two seven-point scales – the first
referring to their career so far, and the second to their likely career in the future.
Because these two scales were also highly intercorrelated (r = 0.70, p < 0.001),
subjects’ responses were summed to yield a single score that measured career
satisfaction.

Analysis of Results
The results were analysed in four stages. First, to establish the structure of
career management by organizations, the subjects’ responses to the specially-
developed, 35-item Organization Career Management Scale were factor
analysed, and the relations between factors calculated. Second, the major
hypotheses underlying the psychological success model were examined by
 International computing correlations between the components of perceived organizational
Journal of career management and career effectiveness, and between the individual career
management components and career effectiveness. Third, to analyse the
Manpower separate contributions of individual and organization career management to
15,1 variations in individual career effectiveness, the four aspects of career
effectiveness were hierarchically regressed into:
32 ● A composite measure of organization career management.
● An individual career planning measure.
● A measure of individual career tactics.
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Finally, the notion of joint responsibility was examined by correlating

organization career management with individual career planning and tactics,
and by calculating the variance in career effectiveness, explained by career
planning and career tactics respectively, additional to that by organization
career management, using the moderated multiple regression procedure
recommended by Cohen and Cohen[18].

The Structure of Organization Career Management

In the first phase of the analysis, the responses of the subjects to the 35-item
Organization Career Management Scale were subjected to a principal
components factor analysis (SPSS), with varimax rotation. Three clearly
interpretable factors emerged that, together, accounted for 76 per cent of the
total variance.
The first factor (Factor A), which was defined by eight items, was labelled
“career management policies” because the items that loaded most heavily on it
(greater than 0.52) reflected the degree to which the organization was perceived
to have formal, institutionalized plans and procedures for the recruitment,
selection, evaluation and rewarding of employees. Factor A accounted for 30 per
cent of the total variance in the subjects’ responses.
The second factor (Factor B) was named “employee career development”
since the seven items of which it was comprised (each with loadings of more
than 0.49 on the factor) concerned the degree to which employees felt that the
organization provided the sort of support, actions, and climate that facilitates
the realization of employee potential in the organization. Of the total variance,
28 per cent was explained by Factor B.
The third factor (Factor C), which was defined by six items, was labelled
“career information” because the items that loaded most heavily on it (greater
than 0.60) reflected the degree to which the organization was perceived to
provide accurate and comprehensive data about present and future job
opportunities in the organization freely to all relevant employees. Factor C
accounted for 24 per cent of the total variance in the subjects’ responses.
In view of the existence of these three distinct factors, subjects’ responses
were summed separately across the items comprising each factor, to produce
separate scores for each subject for policies, development and information
respectively.
 Although three distinct factors emerged from the factor analysis, they were Effects of
positively related to each other. The actual correlations obtained were 0.23 Career
between policies and development, 0.20 between policies and information, and Management
0.19 between development and information. The fact that these correlations were
all significant (p < 0.05) suggests that the three factors, although distinct and
separable, have sufficient in common to justify combining them in certain
circumstances. It was this feature of the factor structure that provided the 33
justification for using total organization career management scores for
individuals in the regression analysis, carried out in the third stage of the
analysis. Perhaps there is a generalized dimension underlying career
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management schemes which distinguishes them from other kinds of personnel

schemes, which is itself composed of three separable factors concerned with
career policies, career development, and career information.

Organization Career Management and Career Success

The first hypothesis, that organization career management should be positively
associated with career effectiveness, was confirmed by the findings. The policies
factor was significantly correlated (p < 0.05) correlated with each of the four
components of career effectiveness, although to varying degrees (0.21 with
salary growth, 0.23 with promotions, 0.30 with career performance, and 0.27
with career satisfaction). The factor of development was significantly correlated
(p < 0.05) with all the career effectiveness components, except promotions (0.24
with salary growth, 0.26 with career performance, 0.31 with career satisfaction,
but only 0.09 with promotions). Finally, the information factor was significantly
correlated (p < 0.05) with two of the four components of career effectiveness,
these being for career performance (0.33) and for career satisfaction (0.25).
Although the correlations between information and salary growth (0.15) and
between information and promotions (0.13) were both positive, neither were
significant (p > 0.05). The majority of correlations between organization career
management and career effectiveness were thus significantly positive, with
those for the experiential aspects (i.e. how well the subjects felt they had
performed, how satisfied they were with their careers) being greater than those
for the external activities of salary growth and promotions received.

Individual Career Management and Career Effectiveness

There was also substantial support for the second hypothesis – that individual
career management should be positively associated with career effectiveness.
The correlational analysis indicated that individual career planning was
significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with all of the career effectiveness components
(0.19 with salary growth, 0.21 with promotions, 0.30 with career performance,
and 0.42 with career satisfaction). Individual tactics correlated significantly (p <
0.05) with all but one of the components of career effectiveness, that being for
promotions (0.19 for salary growth, 0.10 for promotions, 0.27 for career
performance, and 0.31 for career satisfaction).
 International To analyse the separate contributions of the organization and individual
Journal of career management variables with regard to variations in career effectiveness,
four separate hierarchical regression analyses were performed, with a different
Manpower effectiveness component being the dependent variable each time. As indicated
15,1 earlier, to simplify the analysis, total perceived career management scores were
employed in these analyses. The net contribution of organization career
34 management to variance in career effectiveness, using these total scores, was
significant for career performance (β = 0.26, p < 0.01) and for career satisfaction
( β = 0.23, p < 0.05), but not for salary growth ( β = 0.15, p > 0.05) or for
promotions (β = 0.17, p > 0.05). The regression analysis revealed that individual
career planning also contributed significantly to variance in salary growth (β =
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0.22, p < 0.05), in promotions (β = 0.19, p < 0.05), in career performance (β =

0.27, p < 0.01) and in career satisfaction (β = 0.33, p < 0.001). Finally, the net
contribution of individual career tactics was significant for salary growth (β =
0.20, p < 0.05), career performance (β = 0.24, p < 0.05) and career satisfaction (β
= 0.27, p < 0.01), but not promotions (β = 0.16, p > 0.05).

Joint Responsibility and Career Effectiveness

According to the third hypothesis, organization and individual career
management should be positively related and should have an additive effect on
career effectiveness. Both these predictions, implied by the notion of joint
responsibility, were confirmed. The correlations of policies with individual
planning (0.30), and with individual tactics (0.25) were both significant (p <
0.01), as were those of development and individual planning (0.21, p < 0.05),
information and individual planning (0.27, p < 0.01) and information and
individual tactics (0.20, p < 0.05). The only non-significant correlation was
between development and individual tactics (0.16, p > 0.05).
Finally, as hypothesized, the increase in explained career effectiveness from
adding individual career planning to organization career management was
significant (p < 0.05) for salary growth (2.80-7.89 per cent), for career
performance (6.84-11.34 per cent) and for career satisfaction (5.56-14.56 per
cent), but not for promotions (3.91-4.12 per cent). The net contribution to
explained variance in career effectiveness from individual career tactics, over
and above that of organization career management, was also found to be
significant (p < 0.05) for three of the four components of effectiveness. The
significant additions were for promotions (3.91-8.00 per cent), career
performance (6.84-12.45 per cent) and career satisfaction (5.56-10.04 per cent),
while the non-significant addition was for salary growth (2.80-2.90 per cent).

Implications of the Results

According to these results, there are three major dimensions in terms of which
the career management schemes of organizations are distinguishable from each
other:
(1) The degree to which the schemes have formal, institutionalized plans
and procedures for managing the careers of employees.
 (2) How much encouragement the schemes provide to individual employees Effects of
in their efforts to develop themselves. Career
(3) The extent to which the schemes provide full information to all employees Management
about relevant job opportunities and career paths in the organization.
Moreover, these three aspects of organization career management schemes are
positively associated with most of the indicators of employee career success. 35
Assuming that employee perceptions are fairly accurate, the results suggest
that employees are more successful in organizations with formal policies for
managing careers than in those without any such policies, or whose policies with
regard to this are merely informal or casual. Organizations which support the
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development efforts of their employees, not surprisingly, also have more

successful employees, in terms of three of the four criteria. Finally, the results
suggest that employees feel they have better careers in organizations which
provide comprehensive and accurate career information, even though they do
not perceive such organizations to be any better than do employees in those that
fail to provide such information.
The results also indicate that the careers of employees are improved through
career planning on their part. Employees who systematically plan their careers
tend to be more successful and feel more positively towards their careers than
those who do not. In addition, employees who use the career tactics measured in
this study typically have more effective careers than those who fail to employ
such tactics for one reason or another. These results provide support for those
who argue that individuals not only should take responsibility for their own
careers, but that they stand to benefit from so doing, even if their plans
sometimes fail to be realized and their tactics do not always work[2,9].
The results confirm the notion of joint responsibility for career management
on the part of individuals and organizations to be expected from the fact that
both organization and individual career management were positively related to
each other, and to employee career success, as indicated above. More direct
evidence for the benefits of responsibility for career management being shared
between organizations and individuals comes from the fact that individual
differences in career success among the subjects of this study could be explained
much better by individual career management in conjunction with organization
career management than by either alone.
It appears from the findings of the study that, as hypothesized, individuals are
likely to be more successful in their careers when their employers provide the
necessary “infrastructure” which is typically beyond their control. Conversely,
since organization career management schemes are directed at individuals, they
stand a better chance of succeeding when the individuals concerned assist by
planning their own careers and employing tactics they feel will help them realize
their career plans. The present findings are thus consistent with the argument
that career management schemes “work best” when definite and different roles
are assigned to the organization and the individuals concerned, so that each can
play their part in the overall process, instead of everything being left to just
one[2,4,5].
 International There are at least six implications for practice that flow from these relatively
Journal of clear-cut findings.
Manpower First, they suggest that career management on the part of organizations is not
the waste of time some have thought, but that it can lead to more successful
15,1 careers for employers, from which the organization itself can benefit, in the form
of harder working and more committed employees[2,16].
36 Second, employees should be formally encouraged to identify what they want
from their careers in the organization, and decide how to realize these goals in
the light of their own strengths and weaknesses – i.e. to manage that part of their
careers over which they have control. As Gould[14] makes clear, this may require
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employees to be given special training in career planning, for career tactics to be

openly discussed with employees, and for employees to be rewarded for trying to
manage their own careers, instead of leaving their futures entirely in the hands
of the organization.
In the third place, the results suggest that the crucial ingredients of successful
career management are formalized policies that are perceived as such, which
support and encourage individual employees’ self-development efforts and
which provide details about job openings and career paths to all employees. If
these features are seen to be lacking, it is unlikely that employees will feel that
their organization is fulfilling its part of the “joint responsibility bargain” that
increasing numbers of employees believe should characterize career
management[4,14].
Fourth, the fact that the four components of career effectiveness were all
positively correlated with a mean intercorrelation of r = 0.28, ( p < 0.01), suggests
that giving salary increments and promotions is associated with recipients
feeling they have performed better and, possibly as a result, causing them to be
more satisfied with their careers. Since such feelings are only related to more
effective contributions among employees with the ability and motivation to do
well[2], this finding underlines the importance of accurately identifying such
employees and rewarding them, not those whose more positive feelings are
unlikely to lead to better contributions.
In the fifth place, the findings possible provide the strongest evidence to date
that, when organizations and individuals share responsibility for the careers of
employees, the employees are likely to have more successful careers, both
objectively and in terms of their career experiences; i.e. not only do both parties
have a responsibility for career management, as maintained by Beckhard[3] and
Burack[4], but, if they exercise it jointly, both are likely to benefit – a case of
where doing the right thing is also doing the effective thing.
Finally, the results suggest that organizations and individuals can expect their
efforts at career management to have stronger and more positive effects on the
subjective aspects of career effectiveness than on salary growth and promotions.
There is a much greater chance that organization career management schemes,
if perceived as appropriate, will cause employees to feel better about their careers
rather than actually lead to salary increments and extra promotions for the
employees concerned. Equally, individual efforts to plan a career, and employ the
 correct tactics, are likely to have a more positive effect on career experiences than Effects of
on actual career outcomes. Though employees’ career feelings seem to be Career
directly and principally affected by what the individual and their employing Management
organizations do about their careers, how their careers actually turn out is
affected by a wider range of indirect factors, such as the profitability of the firm
and the availability of applicants considered by the organization as suitable for
promotion. Future research could profitably explore reasons why individual 37
career planning and tactics, and organization career management schemes, have
the positive effects found in the study reported here.
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