CH4 Transient Response

KJM 597: Transient Response Analysis
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
The time response of a control system consists of two parts: the transient and steady state
response. The transient response is the response that disappears with time. The steady
state response is that which exists a long time following any input signal initiation.
The ability to adjust the transient and steady state response performance is a distinct
advantage of feedback control systems. To analyse and design a control system, we must
measure it performance. Then based on the desired performance, the system parameters
may be adjusted to provide the desired response.
The most important characteristic of the dynamic behaviour of a control system is the
absolute stability i.e. whether the system is stable or unstable.
A control system is stable if the output eventually comes to its equilibrium state when the
system is subjected to an initial condition. If the system at steady state does not exactly
agree with the input, the system is said to have steady state error. This error is indicative
of the accuracy of the system.
First order system
Physically, this system may represent the RC circuit, thermal system, etc. The block
diagram is as shown below. The input-output relationship is given by
C ( s) 1
=
R( s ) Ts + 1
The system responses are analysed using inputs such as unit step, unit-ramp and impulse
and assuming the initial conditions are zero.
R(s) C(s)
1
+- Ts
1
Unit-step response of first order system
1 1
Laplace transform of unit step function is , and substituting R ( s ) = , then
s s
1 1
C (s) =
Ts + 1 s
expanding
1 T 1 1
C ( s) = − = −
s Ts + 1 s s + 1 T
inverse Laplace
c(t ) = 1 − e − t / T , for t ≥ 0
2
Unit-ramp input
1 1
Laplace transform of unit ramp function is 2
, and substituting R( s ) = 2 , then
s s
1 1
C (s) =
Ts + 1 s 2
expanding
1 T T2
C ( s) = 2 − +
s s Ts + 1
inverse Laplace
c(t ) = t − T − Te − t / T , for t ≥ 0
The error signal e(t ) is then
e(t ) = r (t ) − c(t )
= T (1 − e − T )
t
3
t
−
T
as t approaches infinity, e approaches zero, thus the error signal e(t ) approaches T or
e(∞) = T .
Unit impulse
Laplace transform of unit impulse function is 1 , and substituting R ( s ) = 1 , then

1
C (s) =
Ts + 1
inverse Laplace
1 −t / T
c(t ) = e , for t ≥ 0
T
The response curve is as shown
4
Second Order System
An example of a second order system is the servo system.
The system responses are analysed using inputs such as unit step, unit-ramp and impulse
and assuming the initial conditions are zero.
Servo system:
The simplified equation is:
Jc&& + Bc& + T
Laplace transform and assuming initial conditions are zeros
Js 2 C ( s ) + BsC ( s ) = T ( s )
or
C (s) 1
=
T ( s ) s ( Js + B)
or
C ( s) K K/J
= 2 = 2
R( s ) Js + Bs + K s + ( B / J ) s + ( K / J )
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(a) servo system

(b) block diagram
(c) simplified block diagram
The equation can be rewritten as:
K
C ( s) J
=
R( s) ⎡ 2
K ⎡⎤ 2
K⎤
⎢s +
B ⎛ B ⎞ ⎥ ⎢
B ⎛ B ⎞
+ ⎜ ⎟ − s+ − ⎜ ⎟ − ⎥
⎢ 2J ⎝ 2J ⎠ J ⎥⎢ 2J ⎝ 2J ⎠ J ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
In transient response it more convenient to write:
K B
= ω n2 , = 2ζω n = 2σ
J J
where σ is called the attenuation, ω n , the undamped natural frequency and ζ , the
damping ratio. The damping ratio is the ratio of the actual damping B to the critical
damping Bc = 2 JK or
B B
ζ = =
Bc 2 JK
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R(s) C(s)
ω2
+- n
s ( s + 2ζω n )
Let us consider a second order system and determine its response to a unit step input. A
closed loop feedback system is shown below and the out put is
G (s) ω 2n
C(s) = R (s) = 2 R (s)
1 + G (s) s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n
The dynamic behaviour of the second order system can be described in terms of two
parameters i.e. ς and ω n .
If 0 < ς < 1 , the closed loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in the left-half s plane.
The system is then called underdamped and the transient is oscillatory.
We will consider the response of the system to a unit-step input for three different cases:
underdamped ( 0 < ζ < 1 ), critically damped ( ζ = 1 ) and overdamped (ζ > 1) cases.
(a) Underdamped case 0 < ζ < 1
C (s) ωn 2
=
R ( s ) (s + ζω n + jω d )((s + ζω n − jω d ))
where ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2
for step input
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ω n2
C ( s) = 2
(s + 2ζω n s + ω n2 )s
1 s + 2ζω n
= − 2
s s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
1 s + ζω n ζω n
= − 2 − 2
s s + 2ζωs n + ω n s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
2
inverse Laplace transform
⎛ ζ ⎞
c(t ) = 1 − e −ζωnt ⎜ cos ωd t + sin ωd t ⎟
⎜ 1− ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
the error signal therefore
e(t ) = r (t ) − c(t )
⎛ ζ ⎞ for t ≥ 0
= e −ζω nt ⎜ cos ω d t + sin ω d t ⎟
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(b) Critically damped case ζ = 1
When the two poles are equal, then the system is said to be critically damped.
for step input

ω n2
C ( s) =
(s + ω n )2 s
Inversen Laplace transform
c(t ) = 1 − e −ωnt (1 + ω n t ) for t ≥ 0
(c) Overdamped case ζ > 1
C (s) ωn 2
=
( )(
R ( s ) s + ζω n + ω n ζ 2 − 1 s + ζω n − ω n ζ 2 − 1 )
ω2
C ( s) =
(s + ζω )( )
n
n + ω n ζ − 1 s + ζω n − ω n ζ 2 − 1 s
2
Inverse Laplace
8
1 − ⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ω n t
c(t ) = 1 +
( )
⎝ ⎠
e
2 ζ 2 −1 ζ + ζ 2 −1
1 −⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ω n t
−
( )e
⎝ ⎠
2 ζ 2 −1 ζ − ζ 2 −1
ω2 ⎛ e − s1t e − s2t ⎞
= 1+ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 ζ 2 − 1 ⎝ s1 s2 ⎠
( ) (
where s1 = ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ω n and s 2 = ζ − ζ 2 − 1 ω n )
Figure: Unit-step response curves of the system
Definitions of transient-response specifications.
The desired performance characteristics of control systems are specified in term of time
domain quantities. The quantities are as follows:
1. Delay time td. The delay time is the time required for the response to reach half the
final value the very first time.
2. Rise time, tr. The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to
90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value. For undamped second-order
systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is normally used
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3. Peak time, tp. The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the first
peak of the overshoot.
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp. The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity. If the final steady state value of the response
differs from unity, then it common to use the maximum percent overshoot. It is define
by
c(t p ) − c(∞)
Maximum percent overshoot x100 %
c (∞ )
The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly indicates the relative
stability of the system
5. Settling time, ts. The settling time is the time required for the response curve to reach
and stay within a range about the final value specified by the absolute percentage of
the final value (usually 2% or 5%).
Second order systems and transient-response specifications
The rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, and settling time can be obtained in terms
of ζ and ω n .
(a) rise time, tr is obtained by c(t ) = 1
10
⎛ ζ ⎞
c(t r ) = 1 = 1 − e −ζω ntr ⎜ cos ω d t r + sin ω d t r ⎟
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
−ζω n t r
since e ≠0
ζ
cos ω d t r + sin ω d t r = 0
1−ζ 2
or
1− ζ 2 ωd
tan ω d t r = − =−
ζ σ
thus
1 ⎛ω ⎞ π −β
tr = tan −1 ⎜ d ⎟ =
ωd ⎝ −σ ⎠ ωd
(b) peak time, t p
The peak time can be obtained by differentiating c(t ) with respect to time
⎛ ζ ⎞ ⎛ ζ ⎞
= ζω n e −ζω nt ⎜ cos ω d t + sin ω d t ⎟ + e −ζω nt ⎜ ω d sin ω d t − cos ω d t ⎟
dc
dt ⎜ 1− ζ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 1− ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Evaluated at t = t p
ωn
= (sin ω d t p )
dc −ζω n t p
e =0
dt t =t p 1−ζ 2
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sin ω d t p = 0 or ω d t p = 0, π ,2π ,.....
for the first peak ω d t p = π , hence
π
tp =
ωd
(c) Maximum overshoot, Mp
The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time t = t p = π

ωd
M p = c(t p ) − 1
⎛ ⎞
−ζω n ⎛⎜ π
⎜ cos π + ζ
⎞
sin π ⎟
⎟
⎝ ωd ⎠
= −e
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
−⎜ ζ ⎟π
⎜ 1−ζ 2 ⎟
=e ⎝ ⎠
(d) Settling time, ts
Figure: Pair of envelope curves for the unit step response curve of the system.
12
4 4
t s = 4T = = (2% criterion)
σ ζω n
3 3
t s = 3T = = (5% criterion)
σ ζω n
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Example
1. Consider the system shown in figure where ζ = 0.6 and ω n = 5 rad/s .Obtain the rise
time, t, peak time tp, maximum overshoot Mp and settling time ts when the system is
subjected to a unit step input.
2. For the system shown in Figure (a), determine the values of gain K and velocity
feedback constant Kh so that the maximum overshoot in the unit-step response is 0.2
and the peak time is 1 sec. With these values of K and Kh, obtain the rise time and
settling time. Assume that. J= 1 kg-m2 and B = 1 N-m/rad/sec.
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Impulse response of second-order systems
For unit impulse input r(t), the corresponding Laplace transform is unity, R( s) = 1 . The
unit response C (s ) is
ω n2
C ( s) = 2
s + 2ζω n s + ω n2
The inverse Laplace of the equation as follows
For 0 ≤ ζ < 1 ,
ωn
c(t ) = e −ζω nt sin ω n 1 − ζ 2 t , for t ≥ 0
1− ζ 2
For ζ = 1
c(t ) = ω n2 te −ωnt for t ≥ 0

For ζ > 1
ωn −⎛⎜ ζ − 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t ωn −⎛⎜ ζ + 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t

c(t ) = e ⎝ ⎠
− e ⎝ ⎠
for t ≥ 0
2 1−ζ 2 2 1−ζ 2
Figure : Unit impulse response curves
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Tutorial
1. Determine the values, of K and k of the closed-loop system shown in Figure Q1 so that
the maximum overshoot in unit-step response is 25 % and the peak time is 2 sec.
Assume that J = 1 kg-m2.
Figure Q1
2. Consider the system shown in Figure . The damping ratio of this system is 0.158 and
the undamped natural frequency is 3.16 rad/sec. To improve the relative stability, we
employ tachometer feedback. Figure shows such a tachometer-feedback system.
Determine the value of Kh, so that the damping ratio of the system is 0.5. Then obtain
the rise time t r , peak time t p , maximum overshoot M p , . and settling time t s in the
unit-step response
Figure Q2
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3. Figure 3 is a block diagram of a space-vehicle attitude-control system. Assuming the

time constant T of the controller to be 3 sec and the ratio K / J to be 92 rad2/sec2,
Figure Q3
4. Consider the system shown in Figure Q4. Determine the value of k such that the
damping ratio ζ is O.5. Then obtain the rise time t r , peak time t p , maximum
overshoot M p , . and settling time t s in the unit-step response.
Figure Q4
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Higher Order Systems
The sum of response of higher order systems in general can be considered as the
summation of the responses first order and second order systems.
Consider the general system shown

C(s)
+
-
G(s)
H(s)
C ( s) G ( s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
in general, G(s) and H(s) are given as;
p( s) n( s )
G ( s) = and H ( s ) =
q( s) d ( s)
or
C (s) p ( s )d ( s )
=
R ( s ) q ( s ) d ( s ) + p ( s ) n( s )
b0 s m + b1 s m −1 + ...... + bm −1 s + bm s
=
a0 s n + a1 s n −1 + ...... + a n −1 s + a n
In general, for step input
r b (s + ζ ω ) + c ω
k k 1−ζ k
2
a q aj
C ( s) = + ∑ +∑ where (q + 2r = n)
k k k
s j =1 s + pj k =1 s 2 + 2ζ k ω k s + ω k2
Assuming all closed loop poles is distinct. The higher order terms is composed of a
number of terms involving simple functions found in the responses of the first and second
order terms.
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Inverse Laplace
q r r
c(t ) = a + ∑ a j e + ∑ bk e −ζ kωk t cos ω k 1 − ζ k2 t + ∑ c k e −ζ k ωk t sin ω k 1 − ζ k2 t
− p jt
for t>0.
j =1 k =1 k =1
Dominant closed-loop poles
The closed-loop poles that have dominant effects on the transient response behaviour are
called the dominant closed loop poles.
Figure 5-17 Region in the complex plane satisfying the conditions ζ > 0.4 and ts < 4/ σ .
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Stability Analysis in the complex plane
If any of the pole lie in the right half of the s-plane, with increasing time they give rise to
the dominant mode, the transient response increases with increasing amplitude. This
represents an unstable system.
Stability Analysis
The stability of a linear closed-loop system can be determined from the location of the
closed-loop poles in the s-plane. If any of these poles lie in the right-half s-plane, then
with the increasing time they give rise to the dominant mode, and the transient response
increases monotonically or oscillate with increasing amplitude.
Routh’s stability criterion
Routh’s stability criterion tells us whether or not there are unstable roots in the
polynomial equation without actually solving them.
C ( s ) b0 s m + b1 s m −1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + bm −1 s + bm B( s )
= =
R( s ) a 0 s n + a1 s n −1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a n −1 s + a n A( s )
Where the a’s and b’s are constants and m ≤ n . The locations of the roots of the
characteristic equation (the denominator) determine the stability of the close loop.
Procedure of the Routh’s stability criterion
1. Write the polynomial in in s in the following form:
a 0 s n + a1 s n −1 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a n −1 s + a n = 0
where coefficient are real quantities. a n ≠ 0 , any zero root has been removed.
2. If any of the coefficient are zero or negative in the presence of at least one positive
coefficient there is a root or roots that are imaginary or that have positive real parts.
3. Arrange the coefficients of the rows and columns in the following pattern
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s n a0 a 2 a 4 a6 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s n −1 a1 a3 a5 a7 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s n − 2 b1 b2 b3 b4 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s n −3 c1 c 2 c3 c 4 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
s 2
e1 e2 ⋅
1
s f1
0
s g1
4. The coefficients b1 , b2, b3 ,.... are evaluated as follows
a1 a 2 − a 0 a3
b1 =
a1
a a − a 0 a5
b2 = 1 4
a1
a a − a 0 a5
b3 = 1 6
a1
…..
coefficients c1 , c 2, c3 ,....
Special cases
a. If the first term in any row is zero, but remaining terms are not zero or there is no
remaining term, then the zero is replaced with a very small positive number ε
and the rest of the array is evaluated.
b. If the coefficients in any derived row are zero, it indicates that there are roots of
equal magnitude laying radially opposite in the s plane, that is , two real roots
with equal magnitude and opposite signs and/or two conjugate imaginary roots.
The evaluation of the rest of the array can be continued by forming an auxiliary
polynomial with the last row and by using the coefficients of the derivative of this
polynomial in the next row.
Application of Routh’s Stability Criterion.
The limitation of this criterion is that it does not suggest how to improve the relative
stability or how to improve the relative stability. However, it is possible to determine the
effects of changing one or two parameters of a system by examining the values that cause
that instability.
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Tutorial
1. Determine the range of K for stability of a unity feedback control system whose open-
loop transfer function is
K
G (s) =
s (s + 1)(s + 2)
2. Consider the unity-feedback control system with following open-loop transfer

function:
10
G(s) =
s (s − 1)(2s + 3)
Is this, system stable?
3. Consider the following characteristic equation:
s 4 + 2 s 3 + (4 + K )s 2 + 9s + 25 = 0
Using Routh stability criterion, determine the range of K for stability.
4. Consider the closed-loop system shown in Figure Determine the range of K for
stability. Assume that K > 0.
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Effects of Integral and Derivative Control Actions on System Performance
In this section, we shall investigate the effects of integral and derivative control actions
on the system performance. Here we shall consider only simple systems so that the
effects of integral and derivative control actions on system performance can be clearly
seen.
Integral Control Action.
In the proportional control of a plant whose transfer function does not possess an
integrator 1/s, there is a steady-state error, or offset, in the response to a step input. Such
an offset can be eliminated if the integral control action is included in the controller.
In the integral control of a plant, the control signal, the output signal from the controller,
at any instant is the area under the actuating error signal curve up to that instant. The
control signal u(t) can have a nonzero value when the actuating error signal e(t) is zero,
as shown in Figure (a). This is impossible in the case of the proportional controller since
a nonzero control signal requires a nonzero actuating error signal. (A nonzero actuating
error signal at steady state means that there is an offset.) Figure (b) shows the curve e(t)
versus t and the corresponding curve u(t) versus t when the controller is of the
proportional type.
Note that integral control action, while removing offset or steady-state error. may lead to
oscillatory response of slowly decreasing amplitude or even increasing amplitude, both of
which are usually undesirable
Proportional Control of Systems.
We shall show that the proportional control of a system without an integrator will result
in a steady-state error with a step input. We shall then show that such an error can be
eliminated if integral control action is included in the controller.
23
Figure
Consider the system shown in Figure . Let us obtain the steady-state error in the unit-step
response of the system. Define
K
G(s) =
Ts + 1
Since
E ( s) R( s) − C ( s) C ( s) 1
= = 1− =
R( s) R( s) R( s) 1 + G ( s)
the eiror E(s) is given by
1 1
E (s) = R( s) = R( s)
1 + G(s) K
1+
Ts + 1
For the unit-step input R ( s) = 1 / s , we have
Ts + 1 1
E ( s) =
Ts + 1 + K s
The steady-state error is
Ts + 1 1
e ss = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim =
t →∞ s →∞ s →∞ Ts + 1 + K K +1
Such a system without an integrator in the feed forward path always has a steady-state
error in the step response. Such a steady-state error is called an offset. Figure shows the
unit-step response and the offset.
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Integral Control of Systems.
The controller is an integral controller. The closed-loop transfer function of the system is
C (s) K
=
R( s ) s (Ts + 1) + K
Hence
E ( s) R( s) − C ( s) s (Ts + 1)
= =
R( s) R( s) s (Ts + 1) + K
Since the system is stable, the steady-state error for the unit-step response can be
obtained by applying the final-value theorem, as follows:
s 2 (Ts + 1) 1
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = =0
s →0 Ts 2 + s + K s
Integral control of the system thus eliminates the steady-state error in the response to the
step input. This is an important improvement over the proportional control alone, which
gives offset.
Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional Control).
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The proportional controller delivers torque T to position the load element, which consists
of moment of inertia and viscous friction. Torque disturbance is denoted by D.
Assuming that the reference input is zero or R(s) = 0, the transfer function between C(s)
and D(s) is given by
C (s) 1
= 2
D( s) Js + bs + K p
E (s) C ( s) 1
=− =− 2
D( s) D( s) Js + bs + K p
The steady-state error due to a step disturbance torque of magnitude Td is given by
−s Td T
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = lim =− d
s →0 s →0 Js + bs + K p s
2
Kp
At steady state, the proportional controller provides the torque -Td, which is equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign to the disturbance torque Td. The steady-state output due
to the step disturbance torque is
Td
css = −ess =
Kp
The steady-state error can be reduced by increasing the value of the gain Kp. Increasing
this value; however, will cause the system response to be more oscillatory.
Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional-Plus-Integral Control).
To eliminate offset due to torque disturbance, the proportional controller may be replaced
by a proportional-plus-integral controller.
26
If integral control action is added to the controller, then, as long as there is an error
signal, a torque is developed by the controller to reduce this error, provided the control
system is a stable one.
Figure shows the proportional-plus-integral control of the load element, consisting of

moment of inertia and viscous friction.
The closed-loop transfer function between C(s) and D(s) is
C ( s) s
=
R( s) Kp
Js 3 + bs 2 + K p s +
Ti
In the absence of the reference input, or r(t) = 0, the error signal is obtained from
s
E ( s) = − D( s)
Kp
Js + bs + K p s +
3 2
Ti
If this control system is stable, that is, if the roots of the characteristic equation
27
Kp
Js 3 + bs 2 + K p s + =0
Ti
Ti has negative real parts, and then the steady-state error in the response to a unit-step
disturbance torque can be obtained by applying the final-value theorem as follows:
−s 1
e ss = lim = sE ( s ) = lim =0
s →0 s →0 Kp s
Js + bs + K p s +
3 2
Ti
Thus steady-state error to the step disturbance torque can be eliminated if the controller is
of the proportional-plus-integral type.
Note that the integral control action added to the proportional controller has converted the
originally second-order system to a third-order one. Hence the control system may
become unstable for a large value of Kp since the roots of the characteristic equation may
have positive real parts. (The second-order system is always stable if the coefficients in
the system differential equation are all positive.)
It is important to point out that if the controller were an integral controller, as in Figure,
then the system always becomes unstable because the characteristic equation
Js 3 + bs 2 + K = 0
will have roots with positive real parts. Such an unstable system cannot be used in
practice.
Note that in the system of Figure the proportional control action tends to stabilize the
system, while the integral control action tends to eliminate or reduce steady state error in
response to various inputs.
Derivative Control Action.
Derivative control action, when added to a proportional controller, provides a means of

obtaining a controller with high sensitivity. An advantage of using derivative control
action is that it responds to the rate of change of the actuating error and can produce a
significant correction before the magnitude of the actuating error becomes too large.
Derivative control thus anticipates the actuating error, initiates an early corrective action,
and tends to increase the stability of the system.
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Although derivative control does not affect the steady-state error directly, it adds
damping to the system and thus permits the use of a larger value of the gain K, which will
result in an improvement in the steady-state accuracy.
Because derivative control operates on the rate of change of the actuating error and not
the actuating error itself, this mode is never used alone. It is always used in combination
with proportional or proportional-plus-integral control action.
Proportional Control of Systems with Inertia Load.
Before we discuss the effect of derivative control action on system performance, we shall
consider the proportional control of an inertia load.
Consider the system shown in Figure. The closed-loop transfer function is obtained as
C ( s) Kp
= 2
R( s ) Js + K p
Since the roots of the characteristic equation
Js 2 + K p = 0
are imaginary, the response to a unit-step input continues to oscillate indefinitely, as

shown in Figure (b).
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Control systems exhibiting such response characteristics are not desirable. We shall see
that the addition of derivative control will stabilize the system.
Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control of a System with Inertia Load.
Let us modify the proportional controller to a proportional-plus-derivative controller

whose transfer function is K p (1 + Td s ) .The torque developed by the controller is
proportional to T p (e + Td e& ) . Derivative control is essentially anticipatory, measures the
instantaneous error velocity, and predicts the large overshoot ahead of time and produces
an appropriate counteraction before too large an overshoot occurs.
Consider the system shown in Figure (a). The closed-loop transfer function is given by
C ( s) K p (1 + Td s )
= 2
R ( s ) Js + K p Td s + K p
The characteristic equation is
Js 2 + K p Td s + K p = 0
now has two roots with negative real parts for positive values of .J, Kp, and Td. Thus
derivative control introduces a damping effect. A typical response curve c(t) to a unit step
input is shown in Figure (b). Clearly, the response curve shows a marked improvement
over the original response curve shown in Figure 5(b).
Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control of Second-Order Systems.
A compromise between acceptable transient-response behavior and acceptable steady-

state behavior may be achieved by use of proportional-plus-derivative control action.
Consider the system shown in Figure. The closed-loop transfer function is
C (s) K p + Kd s
= 2
R( s ) Js + ( B + K d ) s + K p
30
The steady-state error for a unit-ramp input is
B
e ss =
Kp
The characteristic equation is is,
Js 2 + ( B + K d ) s + K p = 0
The effective damping coefficient of this system is thus B + Kd rather than B. Since the
damping ratio ζ of this system is
B + Kd
ζ =
2 KpJ
it is possible to make both the steady state error ess for a ramp input and the maximum
overshoot for a step input small by making B small Kp large and Kd large enough so that
ζ is between 0.4 and 0.7.
31
STEADY STATE ERRORS IN UNITY FEEDBACK CONTROL

SYSTEMS
Classification of control systems
Control systems may be classified by the ability to follow step inputs, ramp inputs,
parabolic input and so on.
xt
te
+
-
Consider the unity feedback with the following open loop transfer function
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (Tm s + 1)

G ( s ) = lim
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (T p s + 1)
A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ……, if N = 0, N = 1, N = 2,…., respectively.

This classification is different from that of the order of the system. As the type number is
increased, accuracy is improved by aggravates the stability problem.
Steady state errors
C (s) G ( s)
=
R( s) 1 + G ( s)
Error signal transfer function
E ( s) R( s) − C ( s) C ( s) 1
= = 1− =
R( s) R( s) R( s) 1 + G ( s)
Using final value theorem
32
1
E ( s) = R( s)
1 + G ( s)
the steady state error is
sR( s )
e ss = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim
t →∞ s →0 s → 0 Ts + G ( s )
Static Position Error Constant Kp.
Steady state error of the system for unit step input
s 1
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = lim
s →0 s →0 1 + G ( s ) s
1
e ss =
1 + G (0)
The static position error constant Kp is defined
K p = lim G ( s) = G (0)
s →0
Thus, steady state error is given as
1
e ss =
K p +1
For a type 0 system,

K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K p = lim =K
s →0 (T s + 1)(T s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
1 2
For a type 1 or higher system,
K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K p = lim = ∞ , for N ≥ 1
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For unit step input, the steady state error e ss are as follows
1
e ss = for type 0 systems
1+ K
33
e ss = 0 for type 1 or higher systems
Static Velocity Error Constant Kv
The steady state error of the system with a ramp input is given as
s 1
e ss = lim sE ( s ) = lim
s →0 s →0 1 + G ( s ) s 2
1
e ss = lim
s →0 sG ( s )
The velocity error constant K v is defined
K v = lim sG ( s )
s →0
Thus, the velocity error constant K v in terms of the static velocity error is given
1
e ss =
Kv
The term velocity error is used to express the steady state error for ramp input.
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K v = lim =0
s →0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For type 1,
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K v = lim =K
s →0 s (T s + 1)(T s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
1 2
For type 2 or higher,
sK (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K v = lim =∞ for N ≥ 2
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
The steady state error for unit ramp input are as follows
34
1
e ss = =∞ for type 0 systems
Kv
1 1
e ss = = for type 1 systems
Kv K
1
e ss = =0 for type 2 or higher
Kv
Static Acceleration Error Constant Ka.
The steady state error of the system with a unit parabolic input (acceleration input),
which is defined by
t2
r (t ) = , for t ≥ 0
2
=0 for t < 0
is given by
s 1 1
e ss = lim =
s →0 1 + G ( s ) s 3
lim s 2 G ( s )
s →0
The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined by the equation
K a = lim s 2 G ( s )
s →0
The steady state error is then
1
e ss =
Kv
The values of Ka are obtained as follows
For a type 0 system
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =0
s →0 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
35
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =0
s →0 s(T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For type 2 system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =K
s →0 s 2 (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
For type 3 or higher system,
s 2 K (Ta s + 1)(Tb s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
K a = lim =∞ for N ≥ 3
s →0 s N (T1 s + 1)(T2 s + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
Thus, the steady state error for the unit parabolic input is
e ss = ∞ for type 0 and type 1 systems
1
e ss = , for type 2 systems
K
e ss = 0 for type 3 or higher systems
Summary
Type of input Steady state error

Type-0 system Type-1 system Type 2 system ∞
Unit-step 1 0 0
1+ K p
Unit-ramp ∞ 1 0
Kv
Unit-parabolic ∞ ∞ 1
Ka
K p = lim G ( s ) K v = lim sG ( s ) K a = lim s 2 G ( s )
s →0 s →0 s →0
36
Example : Derivative Error Compensation
K
s (τs + 1)
The figure shown above, the type of compensation has been introduced by using a PD
controller. The plant transfer function is
K
G ( s) =
s(τs + 1)
The controller transfer function is
D( s ) = K c (1 + TD s ) = K c + K c K D s = K c + K D s
The control signal is
de(t )
u (t ) = K c e(t ) + K D
dt
The open-loop transfer function of the overall system
K (K c + K D s )
D( s )G ( s) =
s(τs + 1)
For the system under consideration, velocity error constant
K v = lim sG ( s) = KK c
s →0
Therefore, the steady error to velocity input
1 1
ess = =
K v KK c
37
The characteristic equation of the system is
τs 2 + (1 + KK D s ) + KK c = 0 or
⎛ 1 + KK D ⎞ KK c
s2 + ⎜ ⎟s + =0
⎝ τ ⎠ τ
where
KK c 1 ⎡1 + KK D ⎤
ωn = and ζ = ⎢ ⎥
τ 2 ⎢⎣ KK cτ ⎥⎦
example 2.
Reconsider the design problem. The position control system of has open-loop transfer
4500 K A
D( s )G ( s) =
s(s + 361.2 )
Let us consider an application wherein static accuracy requirement is very high: steady
state error to unit-ramp is required to be less than 0.025 deg (0.000436 rad)
Solution
1
Required K V = = 2293.6
0.000436
The design is satisfied if
2293.6 × 361.2
KA = = 184.1
4500
For this value of K A , the characteristic equation of the system becomes
s 2 + 361.2 s + 828450 = 0
therefore
ω n = 828450 = 910.2
38
361.2
ζ = = 0.198
2 × 910.2
M p = e −πζ / 1−ζ 2
× 100 = 53%
Relative stability is obviously very poor. To improve damping and peak overshoot while
maintaining K v at 2293.6, we propose the replacement of amplifier with gain K A by a
PD controller
D( s ) = K c + K D s
With the PD controller, the open loop transfer function becomes
4500( K c + K D s )
D( s )G ( s ) =
s( s + 361.2)
The closed-loop transfer function
θ L ( s) 4500( K c + K D s )
= 2
θ R ( s ) s + (361.2 + 4500 K D )s + 4500 K c
Velocity error constant
4500 K c
Kv = = 2293.6 when K c = 184.1
361.2
For this value of K c , the characteristic equation of the system becomes
s 2 + (361.2 + 4500 K D )s + 828450 = 0
therefore
ω n = 828450 = 910.2
361.2 + 4500 K D
ζ = = 0.198 + 2.472 K D
2 × 910.2
this clearly shows the positive effect of K D on damping. For critical damping
1 − 0.198
K D= = 0.324
2.472
39
This system no longer represents a standard second order system, the transient response is
also effected by the zeros of the transfer functions at s = − K c / K D .
In general, if K D is large, zero will be close to the origin in the s-plane, the overshoot
will be increased substantially and damping ratio ζ no longer gives an accurate estimate
on the peak overshoot of the out put.
a=tf(828450,[1 361 828450])

b=tf([1458 828450],[1 1819.2 828450])
40
Derivative Output Compensation
The reason behind using derivative of the actuating error signal is to improve the
damping of the system can be extended to the output signal.
Eliminating minor feedback loop,
KK 1
G(s) =
s (τs + 1 + KK 2 )
The velocity error constant
KK 1
K v = lim sG ( s ) =
s →0 1 + KK 1
The closed loop transfer function is given by
C (s) KK 1
= 2
R( s ) τs + (1 + KK 2 )s + KK 1
and the characteristic equation is
(1 + KK 21 ) KK1
s2 + s+ =0
τ τ
The natural frequency and damping ratio of the compensated system are given as
KK 1 1 ⎡1 + KK 2 ⎤
ωn = and ζ =
τ 2 ⎢⎣ τ ⎥
⎦
41
For specified K v and ζ , we can write
1 ⎡ KK t ⎤
ζK v = ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ τ ⎥⎦
Example 3
θR θL
45000 1
n=
s (s + 361.2 ) 10
When ‘S’ is open
4500 K A
G ( s) =
s (s + 361.2)
Assume that the steady state error to unit ramp input is required to be less that 0.025 deg
(0.000436 rad).
Solution
1
Required K v = = 2293.6
0.000436
This requirement is satisfied if
2293.6 × 361.2
KV = = 184.1
4500
For this value of K A , the characteristic equation of the system becomes
s 2 + 361.2 s + 828450 = 0
This gives
42
ω n = 910.2, ζ = 0.198
Relative stability is obviously very poor.
Now, closing the switch ‘S’.
4500 K A
G(s) =
s(s + 361.2 + 45000 K A )
The closed-loop transfer function
θ L ( s) 4500 K A
= 2
θ R ( s ) s + (361.2 + 4500 K t )s + 4500 K A
Velocity error constant
4500 K A
KV =
361.2 + 45000 K t
The characteristic equation of the system is
s 2 + (361.2 + 45000 K t )s + 4500 K A = 0
where
361.2 + 45000 K t
ω n = 4500 K A and ζ =
2 4500 K A
The tachogenerator feedback increases the damping of the system; it however reduces the
system K v .
With K A = 184.1 , we get critical damping when K t = 0.0324 . We get
K v = 455.4
Therefore
e ss unit ramp
= 0.0022 rad = 0.126 deg and
43
Integral Error Compensation
⎛ 1 ⎞
K c ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎝ Ti ⎠
s
The plant transfer function is
K
G ( s) =
s (τs + 1)
The controller transfer function is
⎛ 1 ⎞ K
D ( s ) = K p ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ = K p + i
⎝ Ti s ⎠ s
The open-loop transfer function of the overall system is
K (K p s + K i )
D ( s)G ( s ) =
s 2 (τs + 1)
The characteristic equation of the closed loop is
τs 3 + s 2 + KK p s + KK i = 0
Applying Routh criteria this equation yields the result that the system is stable for
0 < Ki < K p /τ
Example
K
G ( s) =
s (τs + 1)
44
a=tf(828450,[1 361 828450])

c=tf([66276 662760],[1 361.2 66276 662760])
45

CH4 Transient Response

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CH4 Transient Response

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KJM 597: Transient Response Analysis

First order system

Unit-step response of first order system

The error signal e(t ) is then

Laplace transform of unit impulse function is 1 , and substituting R ( s ) = 1 , then

The response curve is as shown

Second Order System

An example of a second order system is the servo system.

The simplified equation is:

(a) servo system

The equation can be rewritten as:

(a) Underdamped case 0 < ζ < 1

inverse Laplace transform

the error signal therefore

(b) Critically damped case ζ = 1

for step input

c(t ) = 1 − e −ωnt (1 + ω n t ) for t ≥ 0

(c) Overdamped case ζ > 1

Figure: Unit-step response curves of the system

Definitions of transient-response specifications.

Second order systems and transient-response specifications

(a) rise time, tr is obtained by c(t ) = 1

(b) peak time, t p

sin ω d t p = 0 or ω d t p = 0, π ,2π ,.....

for the first peak ω d t p = π , hence

(c) Maximum overshoot, Mp

The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time t = t p = π

(d) Settling time, ts

Impulse response of second-order systems

The inverse Laplace of the equation as follows

c(t ) = ω n2 te −ωnt for t ≥ 0

ωn −⎛⎜ ζ − 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t ωn −⎛⎜ ζ + 1−ζ 2 ⎞⎟ω n t

Figure : Unit impulse response curves

3. Figure 3 is a block diagram of a space-vehicle attitude-control system. Assuming the

Higher Order Systems

Consider the general system shown

in general, G(s) and H(s) are given as;

In general, for step input

Dominant closed-loop poles

Stability Analysis in the complex plane

Routh’s stability criterion

Procedure of the Routh’s stability criterion

1. Write the polynomial in in s in the following form:

Application of Routh’s Stability Criterion.

2. Consider the unity-feedback control system with following open-loop transfer

Is this, system stable?

3. Consider the following characteristic equation:

Using Routh stability criterion, determine the range of K for stability.

Effects of Integral and Derivative Control Actions on System Performance

Integral Control Action.

Proportional Control of Systems.

the eiror E(s) is given by

For the unit-step input R ( s) = 1 / s , we have

The steady-state error is

Integral Control of Systems.

Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional Control).

The steady-state error due to a step disturbance torque of magnitude Td is given by

Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional-Plus-Integral Control).

Figure shows the proportional-plus-integral control of the load element, consisting of

The closed-loop transfer function between C(s) and D(s) is

Derivative Control Action.

Derivative control action, when added to a proportional controller, provides a means of

Proportional Control of Systems with Inertia Load.