The Acidic Environment

THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT
SLT: Construct Word and Balanced Formulae Equations of Chemical

Reactions as they are Encountered
Basic Reactions
 Acid Reactions
o 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
o 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 → 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝐺𝑎𝑠
o 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑠 + 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑡 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Formation of Hydronium
o 𝐻 + + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑂+
Reactions of various Oxides with Water

 Non-Metal (Acidic) Oxides
o 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
o 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)(𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
o 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞)(𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
o 𝑃2 𝑂5 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 (𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
 Metal (Basic) Oxides
o 𝐾2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)(𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
o 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)(𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
o 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑎𝑞)(𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
Various Equilibrium Reactions
 Formation of Carbonic Acid

o 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇌ H2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
 Copper Complex Ions
o 𝐶𝑢(𝐻2 𝑂)2+ − 2+
4 (𝑎𝑞) + 4𝐶𝑙 (aq) ⇌ 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙4 (𝑎𝑞) + 4𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
 Decomposition of Dinitrogen Tetroxide
o 𝑁2 𝑂4 (𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)
 Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate
o 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (s) ⇌ 𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)
Ionisation of Strong and Weak Acids
 Hydrochloric Acid
o 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)
 Nitric Acid
o 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑙) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3−
 Sulfuric Acid
o 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑙) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42−
 Ethanoic Acid
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞)
Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

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Sources of Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere
Sulfur Oxides
 Organic Decomposition
o 2𝐻2 𝑆(𝑔) + 3𝑂2 → 2𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
 Burning High-Sulfur Coals
o 𝑆(𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔)
 Smelting Metal Sulfides
o 2𝑃𝑏𝑆(𝑠) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑃𝑏𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔)
Nitrogen Oxides
 Lightning
o 𝑁2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑁𝑂(𝑔)
 Oxidation of Nitrogen Monoxide
o 2𝑁𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)
Amphiprotic Substances
 Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
o 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
o 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Natural Buffers
 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
Esterification
 General Word Formula
o 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ⇌ 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Example
o 𝐵𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ⇌ 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑦𝑙 𝐵𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑒
o 𝐶3 𝐻7 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶5 𝐻11 𝑂𝐻(𝑙) ⇌ 𝐶3 𝐻7 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶𝐻2 𝐶4 𝐻9 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Indicators were Identified with the Observation that

Some of the Colour of Some Flowers Depends on Soil
Composition
SLT: Classify Common Substances as Acidic, Basic or Neutral
 An acid is a substance which in solution produces hydrogen ions (H+), or more

strictly hydronium ions (H3O+).
 A base is a substance which either contains the oxide (O2-) or hydroxide (OH-)
or which in solution produces the hydroxide ion.

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o A soluble base is called an alkali.
Properties of Acids Properties of Bases
Taste Sour Taste Bitter
Corrosive Corrosive
Conduct Electricity in Solution Conduct Electricity in Solution
Neutralised by Bases Neutralised by Acids
pH < 7 Feel Slippery
Turn Litmus Indicator Red Mainly Insoluble with Water
Usually Metal Hydroxides or Metal
Oxides
pH > 7
Turn Litmus Indicator Blue
Acidic Neutral Basic

Drain Cleaners (Sodium
Vinegar (Acetic Acid) Pure water
Hydroxide)
Household Cleaners
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Table Salt
(Ammonia)
Antacid Tablets (Calcium
Lemon Juice (Citric Acid) Milk
Carbonate)
Soft Drinks (Carbonic Baking Powder (Sodium
Oil and Other Fats
Acid) Bicarbonate)
Car Battery Fluid (Sulfuric Washing Powder (Sodium
Sugars
Acid) Carbonate)
SLT: Identify that Indicators such as Litmus, Phenolphthalein, Methyl Orange

and Bromothymol Blue can be Used to Determined the Acidic or Basic
Nature of a Material over a Range, and that Range is Identified by Change
in Indicator Colour
 An indicator is a substance that, in solution, changes colour depending on

whether the solution is acidic or basic.
 Most indicators produce 2 different colour – one when acidic and one when
basic.
 Litmus, Phenolphthalein, Methyl Orange and Bromothymol Blue are common
indicators that change colour over a given pH range.
 Each indicator has its own specific range of pH over which it changes colour.
 Indicators often need to be used in combination to determine the exact pH of
a substance, as indicators are usually very limited in their pH range.

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Students: Perform a First – Hand Investigation to Prepare and Test a Natural
Indicator
Aim – To prepare an indicator solution from red cabbage and test the resulting
indicator on a range of substances.
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
Cooks Knife – sharp blade can cause Keep knives sharp to avoid using excess
cuts pressure
Lemon – chemical contamination Do not ingest
Do not ingest, wear safety glasses, use
Ammonia – irritates eyes, lungs and skin
in well ventilated area
Sodium Chloride solution – low toxicity NA
Sodium Hydroxide – irritates eyes Wear safety glasses
Equipment
 2-3 large cabbage leaves (shredded)
 500mL Beaker
 250mL Beaker
 Distilled water
 10mL Measuring Cylinder
 Tripod, Gauze and Bunsen Burner
 Test Tubes
 Test Tube Rack
 Dropper
 2mL of 0.1M HCl, 0.1M NaOH, Acetic Acid, 0.1M NaCl, Ammonia
Method
1. Place shredded cabbage in 500mL beaker and just cover with distilled water.
Slowly boil the cabbage until the solution turns a dark reddish-purple and the
leaves lose most of their colour.
2. Allow to cool and pour the liquid off into a clean 250mL beaker.
3. Place 2mL of NaOH and HCl into separate test tubes. Add a few drops of red
cabbage indicator until a definite colour is observed. Record the colour of the
solution in the results table.
4. Repeat step 3 with the other substances and record results in the results table.
Classify substances as acidic, basic or neutral.

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Results
Substance Natural Indicator Colour Acidic / Basic / Neutral
HCl Red Acidic
NaCl Purple Neutral
NaOH Green Basic
Acetic Acid Purple/Pink Slightly Acidic
Ammonia Green Basic
Discussion
 Generally, neutral solutions will allow the red cabbage to remain a purple
colour. When exposed to a strong acid, the indicator will turn pink then red.
Finally, when exposed to a strong base, the indicator will go from a blue-green
colour before turning yellow.
 A disadvantage of this method is the fact that there is no way to determine the
specific pH of substances, only whether the substance is acidic, basic or
neutral.
Conclusion
 Our experiment was a success as we were able to prepare an indicator from
red cabbage and use this to test a range of substances.
 We concluded that acids turn pink, neutral substances remain purple and
bases turn a blue-green colour.
Students: Identify Data and Choose Resources to Gather Information about

the Colour Changes of a Range of Indicators
 The range of pH range of common indicators is shown.

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SLT: Identify and Describe Some Everyday Uses of Indicators Including the
Testing of Soil Acidity/Basicity
Testing the pH of Soil
 Some plants are only able to grow within a narrow pH range, so the pH of the
soil needs to be constantly tested.
 A neutral white powder is sprinkled over the damp soil and a few drops of an
indicator are placed on top.
 The white powder allows for the colour change to be seen clearly.
Testing the pH of Pools
 Pool water must be near to neutral in order to avoid health problems.

 A few drops of indicator is placed in a sample of pool water, or, pH paper,
already soaked in indicator can be used.
Monitoring pH of Chemical Wastes
 Wastes that are produced from laboratories or photographic film centres tend
to be highly acidic.
 The pH of wastes must be neutralised before they can be safely disposed of.
 Indicators are used to measure the pH, and substances added to neutralise it.
Students: Solve Problems by Applying Information about the Colour

Changes of Indicators to Classify some Household Substance as Acidic,
Basic or Neutral
 A drain cleaner of mainly sodium hydroxide (NaOH), was tested using litmus
and phenolphthalein indicator. Litmus turned blue and phenolphthalein turned
dark pink.
o Since litmus turned blue, it is definitely basic. As phenolphthalein turned
dark pink, it must be strongly basic.
 Vinegar, ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), was tested using methyl orange and
turned red.
o Since methyl orange turned red, it is an acid.

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While we Usually Think of the Air Around us as Neutral,
the Atmosphere Naturally Contains Acidic Oxides of
Carbon, Nitrogen and Sulfur. The Concentrations of these
Acidic Oxides have been Increasing since the Industrial
Revolution
SLT: Identify Oxides of Non-Metals which Act as Acids and Describe the
Conditions Under which they Act as Acids
 Oxides are compounds that contain oxygen.
Acidic Oxides
 Acidic oxides:
o React with water to form acids.
o React with bases to form salts.
 Non-metal oxides behave as acids.
o Some non-metal oxides that act as acids are carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
 When they are in solution, they become acids.
o 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)(𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
o 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)(𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
o 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞)(𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑)
Basic Oxides
 Basic Oxides:
o React with water to form bases.
o React with acids to form salts.
 Metal oxides behave as bases.
o Some metal oxides that act as bases potassium oxide (K2O), sodium
oxide (Na2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO)
 In solution, they tend to form basic hydroxide.
o 𝐾2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)(𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
o 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)(𝑆𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
o 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑎𝑞)(𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒)
Amphoteric Oxides
 Amphoteric oxides can be act as both acids and bases.

 Their behaviour depends on the reaction they are put in.
 The only elements which combine to form amphoteric oxides are beryllium,
aluminium, zinc, tin and lead.

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Neutral Oxides
 Neutral oxides do not react with either acids or bases.

 Common neutral acids are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and
nitric oxide (NO).
SLT: Analyse the Position of These Non-Metals in the Periodic Table and
Outline the Relationship between Positions of Elements in the Periodic Table
and Acidity/Basicity of Oxides
 The acidic oxides are on the right side of the periodic table (non-metals).
 The basic oxides are on the left side of the periodic table (metals).
 The amphoteric oxides in the centre of the periodic table.
 Noble gases have no oxides.
SLT: Define Le Chatelier’s Principle
 Many chemical reactions do not go to equilibrium.

 Many reactions are also reversible and two directional. They can go from left
to right or right to left. It is indicated by a 2 directional arrow.
 The reaction from left to right is called the forward reaction and the reaction
from right to left is the reverse reaction.
 Reversible reactions do not go to completion, rather, they reach a position of
stability. This point is called chemical equilibrium.
 At this point of equilibrium, there is no longer any change in the concentrations
of the reactants or products and the reaction has come to a stop.

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 At equilibrium, there are both reactants and products.
 Example:
o 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) ⇌ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
o The ‘double arrow’ symbolises the 2-directional nature of the reaction.
 Water and carbon dioxide can react to form carbonic acid and
carbonic acid can decompose to form water and carbon
dioxide.
 At equilibrium, no reaction is occurring and there are species of
carbon dioxide, water and carbonic acid all present.
 The point of equilibrium is not fixed – it depends on the conditions of the
reaction.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
 Systems at equilibrium have constant concentrations of reactants and

products.
 If conditions change, the system will no longer be in equilibrium.
 Le Chatelier’s Principle states:
o If a chemical system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in
conditions, the system will readjust itself to counteract that change.
 A system will always seek the point of equilibrium.
SLT: Identify Factors which can Affect the Equilibrium in a Reversible

Reaction
Change in Concentration
 When the concentration of a particular substance is:

o Increased
 The equilibrium point will shift towards the opposite side of the
equation. This opposes the change, as it reduces the
concentration of the species by producing more products on the
opposite side.
o Decreased
 The equilibrium point will shift towards the same side of the
equation the species is on. This opposes the change, as it
increases the concentration of the species by the opposite
reaction.
 Example: 𝐶𝑢(𝐻2 𝑂)2+ − 2−
4 (𝑎𝑞)+4𝐶𝑙 (𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙4 (𝑎𝑞) + 4𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
(Blue) (Green)
o If more Cl- ions are increased, the equilibrium will shift to the right, as
more CuCl42- is formed hence the system will become greener.
o If more water is added, the equilibrium will shift to the left, as more
Cu(H2O)22+ is formed, and the system will become more blue.

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o If water is removed, the equilibrium will shift to the right, so that the water
lost will be replaced by the forward reaction.
Change in Gas Pressure (or Change in Volume)
 For a closed system composed completely of gases, if the total pressure on the
system is:
o Increased
 The equilibrium will favour the side that reduces pressure, that is,
has less moles, thus opposing the change. One way pressure is
increased is by reducing the volume.
o Decreased
 The equilibrium will favour the side that has increased pressure,
that is, produces more moles, thus opposing the change. One
way is decreased is by increasing the volume.
 Example: 𝑁2 𝑂4 (𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)
(1 mole) (2 mole)
o If the total pressure is increased, the equilibrium will shift to the left, to
decrease pressure, as there are less mole produced on the left.
o If total pressure is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to the right, to
increase the pressure as more moles are present on the right.
Change in Temperature
 If a system is exothermic, and the temperature is:

o Increased
 The equilibrium will shift to the left, as the reverse reaction is
endothermic, and will cool the system to oppose the heating.
o Decreased
 The equilibrium will shift to the right as the forward reaction is
exothermic, and will heat the system to oppose the cooling.
 Example: 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) ⇌ 𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠)+𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) ∆𝐻 = 178𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
o If the temperature is increased, the forward reaction will increase, with
equilibrium lying more on the right, as the endothermic forward cooling
opposes the imposed heating.
o If the temperature is decreased, the reverse reaction will increase, with
equilibrium lying more on the left, as the exothermic reverse heating
opposes the imposed cooling.
 The system will oppose any change, as stated by Le Chatelier’s Principle.

 Catalysts increase the rate of reaction, and equilibrium is reached faster, but
they do not affect the point of equilibrium.

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SLT: Describe the Solubility of Carbon Dioxide in Water Under Various
Conditions as an Equilibrium Process and Explain in Terms of Le Chatelier’s
Principle
 The reaction of carbon dioxide and water is a reversible reaction.

o 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) ⇌ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) ∆𝐻 < 0
 The equilibrium between carbon dioxide, water and carbonic acid can be
examined under different conditions.
o Effect of Species Concentration
 If the concentration of CO2 is increased, such as by pumping
more CO2 into the system, the system will dissolve more CO2 to
counteract change. Hence, equilibrium moves to the right.
 If the concentration of CO2 is decreased, such as by removing
CO2 from the system, the system will release more CO2 to oppose
this loss. Hence, equilibrium moves to the left.
o Effect of Pressure
 If pressure is increased, the equilibrium will favour the side that
reduces the pressure, and that is the forward reaction. It reduces
pressure by dissolving the CO2.
 If pressure is decreased, the equilibrium will favour the side that
increases the pressure and that is the reverse reaction. It reduces
pressure as the carbonic acid changes back to CO2 and water.
o Effect of Temperature
 If temperature is increased, the equilibrium will favour the reverse
reaction, as it is endothermic and will oppose the change by
cooling the system.
 If temperature is decreased, the equilibrium will favour the
forward reaction as it is exothermic and will oppose the change
by heating the system.
o Effects of Acids (H+) and Bases (OH-)
 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) ⇌ 2𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞)
 If an acid is added, the concentration of H+ will increase, and
hence the equilibrium will shift to the left, producing more gas.
 If a base is added, the OH- will react with the H+ (creating water)
and greatly shifting the equilibrium to the right, as more H+ is
produced to counteract the change.
 If enough base is added, the reaction could go to
completion, and no longer have an equilibrium point.
Students: Identify Data, Plan and Perform a First-Hand Investigation to

Decarbonate Soft Drink and Gather Data to Measure the Mass Changes
Involved and Calculate the Volume of Gas Released at 25° and 100kPa
Aim – To determine the amount of carbon dioxide gas in a bottle of soft drink.

11
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
Do not put hands near water bath,
Water Bath – Could burn skin place under running water if contact
occurs
Electrocution – Liquid near electronic Clean up any spilled soft drink
balance immediately
Clean up any spilled soft drink
Slip Over – Soft drink spilled on the floor
immediately
Equipment
 300 mL Bottle of Soft Drink

 Electronic Balance
 Water Bath
 Water
Method
1. Weigh unopened bottle on electronic balance and record mass.

2. Place in water bath at 50°C for 30 minutes with lid removed.
3. Re-weigh the opened water bottle, ensuring the lid is also on the balance.
4. Calculate the mass lost and therefore the volume of gas released.
Results
Initial Mass (g) Final Mass (g) Change in Mass (g)

342.57 340.17 2.40
Calculations
𝑚
𝑛𝐶𝑂2 =
𝑀
2.40
𝑛𝐶𝑂2 =
44
𝑛𝐶𝑂2 = 0.0545 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉 = 0.0545 ∗ 24.79 (molar volume at 25°C)

𝑉 = 1.35 𝐿
Discussion
 Although we tried to control all aspects of this experiment, sometimes it was

not possible. The lab conditions were not standard (25°C and 100kPa), and
therefore the molecular volume value will not be correct.
 Furthermore, due to the time constraints, it is likely that not all the carbon
dioxide in the bottle was removed and there may be some that remained
dissolved.

12
Conclusion
 Our experiment was a success as we were able to determine a value for the
volume of gas in a bottle of soft drink.
 However, due to the lab conditions, the results were not completely accurate.
SLT: Calculate Volumes of Gases Given Masses of Some Substances in

Reactions, and Calculate Masses of Substances Given Gaseous Volumes, in
Reactions involving Gases at 0°C and 100kPa or 25°C and 100kPa

13
SLT: Identify Natural and Industrial Sources of Sulfur Dioxide and Oxides of
Nitrogen
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
 Natural Sources – Volcanic gases, bushfires, decomposition of organic matter

and sulfur-rich geothermal hot springs releasing gases.
 Industrial Sources – Processing and burning of fossil fuels and extracting metals
from sulfur-rich ores, such as coal.
Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitric Oxide (Nitrogen Monoxide, NO)

 Natural Sources – The reaction of nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere due
to high temperatures of lightning.
 Industrial Source – Combustion of fossil fuels, both in cars and in power stations.
The nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen on the surface of engines.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

 Natural Sources – After nitric oxide is produced by lightning, it slowly reacts with
oxygen to produce nitrogen dioxide.
 Industrial Sources – Combustion of fossil fuels, both in cars and in power stations.
Power stations release large volumes of NO2 into the atmosphere.
Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Monoxide, N2O)

 Natural Sources – The action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria on nitrogenous
materials in the soil.
 Industrial Sources – Agricultural use of nitrogenous fertiliser increases the
materials that bacterial can act on, increasing levels of nitrous oxide.
SLT: Describe, using Equations, Examples of Chemical Reactions which

Release Sulfur Dioxide and Chemical Reactions which Release Oxides of
Nitrogen
Sulfur Dioxide
 When organic matter decomposes it produces hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which

then oxidises to produce sulfur dioxide.
o 2𝐻2 𝑆(𝑔) + 3𝑂2 → 2𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
 The burning of sulfur-rich coal and other fossil fuels directly combines sulfur with
oxygen.
o 𝑆(𝑠) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔)
 The extraction of metals from metal sulfide also release sulphur dioxide.
o 2𝑃𝑏𝑆(𝑠) + 3𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑃𝑏𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔)

14
Oxides of Nitrogen
 Nitric oxide is produced either when lightning, with its high temperatures
combines nitrogen and oxygen.
o 𝑁2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝑁𝑂(𝑔)
 The same reaction occurs in high temperatures of engines or power plants.
 Nitrogen dioxide is formed when the nitric oxide reacts with oxygen in the air:
o 2𝑁𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔)
SLT: Assess the Evidence which Indicates Increases in Atmospheric

Concentration of Oxides of Sulfur and Nitrogen
 There is extensive evidence for an increase of over 25% in atmospheric carbon

dioxide levels over the last two hundred years.
o The evidence comes from quantitative analysis of trapped air bubbles
in Antarctic ice and measurement of carbon isotopes in old trees, grass
seeds in museum collections and calcium carbonate in coral.
 Finding evidence for increases in atmospheric sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides
is more difficult for the following reasons.
o Whereas atmospheric CO2 concentrations are about 360 parts per
million (ppm), the levels for SO2 and NOx are only about 0.001 ppm in
populated parts of the Earth.
o The chemical instruments able to measure very low concentrations, like
those for SO2, have only been commercially available since the 1970’s.
o CO2 changes to carbonate ions when it dissolves is water and most
carbonates are insoluble. Seashells and coral are made up of
carbonates that came from atmospheric CO2. Isotope ratio
measurements using mass spectrometers on shells and corals of
different ages gives clues as to past atmospheric CO2 concentrations.
 On the other hand, SO2 eventually forms sulfate ions and NO2
forms nitrate ions. Most sulfates and all nitrates are water soluble.
Soluble sulfates and nitrates circulate in the hydrosphere and
biosphere and are chemically changes while insoluble
carbonates tend to stay in inert forms such as shells or coral.
 Some evidence that has been observed that indicate the increasing
atmospheric concentrations of oxides of sulfur (SOx) and nitrogen (NOx) are:
o Higher atmospheric concentrations of SOx and NOx have been
detected in industrial areas, particularly in Europe. These correspond to
an increase in the acidity in lakes and rivers in these areas.
o Damage to forests, buildings and aquatic life has also been observed in
industrialised areas. This is brough to be due to acid rain formed by
elevated levels of atmospheric SOx and NOx.

15
Students: Analyse Information from Secondary Sources to Summarise the
Industrial Origins of Sulfur Dioxide and Oxides of Nitrogen and Evaluate
reasons for Concern about Their Release into the Environment
Reasons for Concern about these Oxides
Acid Rain
 Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are acidic oxides and react with water in
the atmosphere to form acids.
o 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) (Sulfurous Acid)
o 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) (Nitric and Nitrous Acid)
 These acids then combine with water droplets to form acid rain. Acid rain is
very destructive. It can destroy entire forests, corrode limestone structures and
disrupt natural ecosystems due to altering the pH.
Health Problems
 Sulfur dioxide is a severe respiratory irritant and can cause breathing difficulties
at concentrations as low as 1 ppm.
o It triggers asthma attacks and aggravates emphysema.
 Nitrogen dioxide is also a respiratory irritant. At concentrations above 3 ppm, it
can begin to destroy tissue, as it forms nitric acid.
Photochemical Smog
 Nitrogen dioxide causes the formation of smog. This is a form of air pollution in
which sunlight reacts with nitrogen dioxide, hydrocarbons and oxygen to form
ozone and haze.
 It greatly affects visibility while ozone has harmful effects at concentrations as
low as 0.1 ppm.
SLT: Explain the Formation and Effects of Acid Rain
 Pure water has a pH of 7.

 Rain water collected from unpolluted sources naturally has a pH of about 6 –
6.5.
o This is due to the slightly dissolved CO2 from the atmosphere.
 Acid rain is any rain which has a pH of less than 5.
Formation of Acid Rain
 Sulfur dioxide reacts with the rain in the atmosphere forming sulphurous acid.
o 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
 Sulfurous acid then reacts with oxygen, which is catalysed by air particles.
o 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞)
 Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with rain, making nitric and nitrous acid.
o 2𝑁𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞)
 Nitrous acid then reacts with oxygen, which is catalysed by air particles.
o 2𝐻𝑁𝑂2 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)

16
 In industrialised areas, rain can contain relatively high levels of very strong acids
(nitric acid and sulfuric acid).
 This reduces the pH to about 3 – 5, which is very unnatural and harmful.
Effects of Acid Rain
 Environmental damage includes the destruction of forests, the increasing

acidity of lakes, leading to the death of aquatic life and the ruining of soils,
making them unable to support vegetation.
 Urban and structural damage includes the corrosion of marble statues and
buildings.
o Marble contains carbonates which acids readily react with.
Acids Occur in Many Foods, Drinks and Even Within Our

Stomachs
SLT: Define Acids as Proton Donors and Describe the Ionisation of Acids in
Water
 An acid is a substance that releases H+ ions.

 Another name for the H+ ion is a proton. This is because a positive hydrogen ion
does not contain any neutrons, hence it is just a proton.
 When acids react with other substances, the H+ ion is transferred to another
species. That is why acids can be defined as proton donors.
 When in water, acids ionise (separate into its ions).
o Pure hydrogen chloride is added to water.
o 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) → 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙 − (𝑎𝑞)
 However, H+ ions are very reactive and do not exist in aqueous solutions,
because they immediately react with the water molecules close by.
 Therefore, acids ionise to form the hydronium ion.
SLT: Identify Acids Including Acetic (Ethanoic), Citric (2-Hydroxypropane-

1,2,3 Tricarboxylic) Hydrochloric and Sulfuric Acid
Acetic Acid
 Systematic Name – Ethanoic Acid

 Molecular Formula – CH3COOH
 It is the acid present in vinegar.
 It is classified as a weak acid.

17
Citric Acid
 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid
 Molecular Formula – C6H8O7
 It occurs in citrus fruits.
 Widely used as a preservative.
Hydrochloric Acid
 Molecular Formula – HCl

 It is a very strong acid.
 It is produced in the stomach to aid digestion.
 It is also industrially made in large quantities, with many uses.
Sulfuric Acid
 Molecular Formula – H2SO4

 It is a strong acid.
 Most industrially produced chemical.
 Used to make batteries, fertilisers, etc.
SLT: Describe the Use of the pH Scale in Comparing Acids and Bases
 The pH scale is used to determine the acidity or basicity of a substance.

 It is numbered from 0 to 14.
 A pH of 7 is attributed to neutral substances (pure water).
 A pH < 7 refers to acidic substances. A strong acid is close to 0.
 A pH > 7 refers to basic substances. A strong base is close to 14.
pH [H+] [OH-] [H+] x [OH-] Aqueous Solution Example

0 100 = 1 10-14 10-14 1 M Hydrochloric Acid
1 10-1 10-13 10-14 0.1 M Hydrochloric Acid
2 10-2 10-12 10-14 0.01 M Hydrochloric Acid
3 10-3 10-11 10-14 Soda Water, Wine
4 10-4 10-10 10-14 Tomato Juice, Beer
5 10-5 10-9 10-14 Acid Rain
6 10-6 10-8 10-14 Urine
7 10-7 10-7 10-14 Pure Water (no dissolved gases)
8 10-8 10-6 10-14 Sea Water
9 10-9 10-5 10-14 Detergent Solution
10 10-10 10-4 10-14 Concentrated Detergent
11 10-11 10-3 10-14 Household Ammonia
12 10-12 10-2 10-14 0.01 M Sodium Hydroxide
13 10-13 10-1 10-14 0.1 M Sodium Hydroxide
14 10-14 100 = 1 10-14 1 M Sodium Hydroxide

18
Students: Solve Problems and Perform a First-Hand Investigation to use pH
Meters/Probes and Indicators to Distinguish between Acidic, Basic and
Neutral Chemicals
Aim – to measure the pH of a range of various common substances using a pH meter

and pH probe.
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
pH Meter – Electrical Faults Tag and test regularly.
Acetic Acid – Irritant Vapour Use in well ventilated area
Hydrochloric Acid – Irritates eyes, lungs Use in well ventilated area, wear safety
and skin glasses
Sodium Hydroxide – Corrosive to eyes
Wear safety glasses
and skin
Universal Indicator – Flammable liquid
Keep away from naked flames
and vapour
Equipment
 pH Meter
 12 Small Beakers
 Distilled Water
 pH Probe
 10mL solutions of 0.1M NaOH, 0.1M HCl, NaCl, White Vinegar, Lemon Juice,
Apple Juice, Dishwashing Detergent, Ammonia, Acetic Acid, Antacid,
Bicarbonate Soda, Solid Detergent, Lemon Soft Drink
Method
1. Check the pH meter and pH probe are correctly calibrated and review
instructions for use. Ensure the pH meter is properly handled and rinsed before
testing each substance.
2. Place a small amount of solution to be tested in each of the beakers. Insert the
pH meter and record the pH.
3. Repeat Step 2, however, using the pH probe and Data Harvest to record the
pH.
4. Repeat with all samples, being sure to clean the pH meter/probe and beakers
between samples.
Results
Sample pH Meter pH Probe Acidity/Basicity

Lemon Juice 2.4 2.51 Acid
HCl 1.7 1.62 Acid
Apple Juice 2.8 2.84 Acid
Detergent 7.3 7.47 Neutral
NaCl 6.7 6.81 Neutral
NH3 11.2 11.29 Base

19
NaOH 12.7 12.01 Base
Acetic Acid 2.8 2.70 Acid
Antacid 8.2 8.29 Base
Bi-Carb Soda 8.2 7.99 Base
Solid Detergent 11.8 11.47 Base
Lemon Soft Drink 2.7 2.81 Acid
Discussion
 In our experiment, the pH probe attached to Data Harvest software was more
accurate as it went to an extra decimal place/significant figure.
 We determined that al cleaning products are basic, while a number of
drinkable substances (apple juice, soft drink) were acidic. However, due to the
acidic nature of the human stomach, this does not have any significant impact
on the individual.
SLT: Describe Acids and their Solutions with the Appropriate Use of the Terms
Strong, Weak, Concentrated and Dilute
 A strong acid is one which releases all of its H+ ions when in solution.
 Its molecules are completely dissociated in solution.
 Its ionisation reaction goes to completion.
 A weak acid is an acid that does not completely release all of its H+ ions.
Hence, it is weaker than a strong acid of the same concentration.
 Some of its molecules remain intact in solution.
 Its ionisation reaction with water is a reversible reaction which reaches
equilibrium when a certain number of H+ ions are released.
 The terms concentrated and dilute refer only to the amount of acid molecules
present in solution – they have nothing to do with ionisation.
 A concentrated acid has more than 5 mol/L of solute.
 A dilute acid has less than 2 mol/L of solute.
 Hence, strong acids can both be concentrated and dilute, and weak acids
can also be concentrated and dilute.
Students: Plan and Perform a First-Hand Investigation to Measure the pH of

Identical Concentrations of Strong and Weak Acids
Aim – To determine how identical concentrations of different acids affect their pH

levels.

20
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
pH Electrode – Glass may break, spilling
Sweep up broken glass with dustpan
chemicals
Acetic Acid – Irritant vapour Use in well ventilated area
Avoid inhalation of vapour, wear safety
Citric Acid – Irritates eyes and lungs
glasses
Hydrochloric Acid – Irritates eyes and Avoid inhalation of vapour, wear safety
lungs glasses
Equipment
 50mL 1 M samples of Acetic Acid, Citric Acid and Hydrochloric Acid

 6 x Volumetric Flasks with Pipettes and Bulb
 pH Electrode
 9 x Small Beakers
Method
1. Using a volumetric flask and pipette, dilute the 1 M acids by a factor of 100,
creating 0.01 M and 0.0001 M solutions.
2. Measure the pH, using the electrode of each acid and all dilution.
3. Record the results in a tale.
4. Repeat Steps 1 – 3 with the remaining acids.
Results
pH
Acid 1M 0.01 M 0.0001 M
Hydrochloric Acid 0.0 2.0 4.0
Citric Acid 2.0 2.9 5.4
Acetic Acid 2.6 3.7 6.1
Discussion
 Hydrochloric acid is the only strong acid that was tested, as it underwent full
ionisation and the pH increased by 2 with each dilution, which is what is
expected by s strong acid.
 Citric acid was the second strongest acid that was tested and acetic acid was
the weakest.
 To improve our results, we could have used more accurate equipment for the
dilutions. A small error during the dilutions could have had a significant impact
on the final pH.
Conclusion
 In our investigation, we were able to successfully determine the effect of
concentration on the pH of the substances.
 The lower the concentration of the acids, the higher the pH was, or the less
acidic the substance was.
 This is due to the lower concentrations of ions which are able to ionise.

21
Students: Gather and Process Information from Secondary Sources to Write
Ionic Equations to Represent the Ionisation of Acids
 Hydrochloric Acid
 Nitric Acid
o 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑙) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3−
 Sulfuric Acid
o 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑙) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂42−
 Ethanoic Acid
Students: Use Available Evidence to Model the Molecular Nature of Acids

and Simulate the Ionisation of Strong and Weak Acids
 These two beakers can be a model of the molecular nature of acids, and the
level of ionisation of different acids.
 In the left beaker, there is a solution of sulfuric acid. All of the moles have been
completely ionised, as it is a strong acid. Each H2SO4 molecule releases 2
protons, as it is a diprotic acid.
 However, in the right beaker, there is a solution of ethanoic acid, of equal
concentration. Only half of the acid molecules have ionised (in reality, only
1.26% ionise). The unionised molecules remain as intact molecules, holding on
to their hydrogen.
SLT: Identify pH as –log10 [H+] and Explain that a Change in pH of 1 Means a

Ten-Fold Change in [H+]
 The way pH is calculated is through an equation related to H+ concentration.

22
o 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝐻 + ] or 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝐻3 𝑂+ ]
 A change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+].
 There is another scale of acidity and basicity – it is the pOH scale.
 It is the same as the pH scale, except it uses OH- as a measure, instead of H+
concentration.
o 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [𝑂𝐻 − ]
 The relationships between pH and pOH are:
o pH + pOH = 14
o [H+][OH-] = 10-14
 Water undergoes self-ionisation in all solutions.
o 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻 + + 𝑂𝐻 −
 In pure water, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7. Therefore, pH = pOH = 7. Thus it is neutral.
 For acids, [H+] > [OH-]. For bases [OH-] > [H+]
Students: Process Information from Secondary Sources to calculate pH of

Strong Acids Given Appropriate Hydrogen Ion Concentration
 The pH of a strong acid is easily calculated, given the molar concentration, as

we know all its protons are released into solution.
 However, an acid may be able to release more than 1 proton. These acids are
called polyprotic.
Calculating the pH of a Strong, Monoprotic Acid

 Monoprotic acids release only one proton, such as HCl.
o 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑙 −
 Calculate the pH of 0.01 M hydrochloric acid.
o Solution is 0.01 mol/L, or 10-2 mol/L.
o 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (10−2 ) = 2
Calculating the pH of a Strong, Diprotic Acid

 Diprotic acids release 2 protons.
o 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 2𝐻 + + 𝑆𝑂42−
 Hence, for every mole of acid, it releases 2 protons.
 Calculate the pH of 0.1 M sulfuric acid.
o It has 0.1 mol/L, therefore its [H+] = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2 mol/L
o 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.2) = 0.7
Calculating the pH of a Strong, Triprotic Acid

 Triprotic acids release 3 protons.
o 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 → 3𝐻 + + 𝑃𝑂43−
 Hence, for every mole of acid, it releases 3 protons.
 Calculate the pH of 0.05 M phosphoric acid.
o It has 0.05 mol/L, therefore its [H+] = 3 x 0.05 = 0.15 mol/L
o 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.15) = 0.82
Calculating the pH of a Weak Acid

 Weak acids do not fully ionise. If the degree of ionisation is given, usually as a
percentage, the pH can be determined.

23
 Calculate the pH of 0.1 mol/L ethanoic acid if 1.3% ionises.
o [H+] = 1.3% x 0.1 = 0.0013
o 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.0013) = 2.9
Calculating the pH of a Strong Base

 Bases can also release more than one OH- ion.
 This must be taken into account when calculating the pH.
 Calculate the pH of 0.1M Ca(OH)2 if it fully ionises.
o 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → 2𝑂𝐻 − +𝐶𝑎2+
o [OH-] = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2
o 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.2) = 0.69
o 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 13.31
Calculating the pH of a Solution, After Dilution

 In this case, the dilution formula is used; c1v1 = c2v2
 Find the pH of the solution formed when 10mL of 0.1M sulfuric acid is diluted to
250mL. It is diprotic.
o c1 = [H+] = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2; v1 = 0.01L and v2 = 0.25L
𝑐 𝑣 0.2∗0.01
o 𝑐2 = 1 1 = = 0.008 𝑀
𝑣2 0.25
o 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2 ∗ 0.1) = 0.69
o 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.008) = 2.1
Calculating the pH of a Solution after Neutralisation

 The partial neutralisation of an acid and a base can leave a solution that is
slightly acidic or basic. The volumes and concentrations of solutions used
determines the pH of the final product.
 The solution will only be neutral when there are exactly the same number of
moles of H+ and OH- reacted.
 10mL of 0.5 M hydrochloric acid is mixed with 25mL of 0.35 M sodium hydroxide.
Find the pH of the final product, assuming the salt is neutral.
o 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
o The molar ratio for the acid and base is 1:1.
o Calculating the number of moles of each, using n = cv.
 Acid: 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 = 0.5 ∗ 0.01 = 0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 Base: 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 = 0.35 ∗ 0.025 = 0.00875 𝑚𝑜𝑙
o There will be an excess of base following the reaction.
 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 0.00875 − 0.005 = 0.00375
o As NaOH only releases one OH- ion, [OH-] = 0.00375
 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.00275) = 2.426
 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 11.6
SLT: Compare the Relative Strengths of Equal Concentrations of Citric,

Acetic and Hydrochloric Acids and Explain in Terms of the Degree of
Ionisation in their Molecules
 Strong acids completely ionise in solution, while weak acids only partially ionise
in solution.

24
 Equal concentrations (0.1M) of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acid were made
and their pH was measured using a pH probe.
 The resultant pH’s were: HCl = 1, CH3COOH = 2.9 and C6H8O7 = 2.1
 Using the formula, [H+] = 10-pH (derived from the pH formula), we can find the
concentrations of hydrogen ions released by each acid.
o HCl: [H+] = 10-1 = 0.1 mol/L
o CH3COOH: [H+] = 10-2.9 = 0.00126 mol/L
o C6H8O7: [H+] = 10-2.1 = 0.0079 mol/L
 The degree of ionisation of an acid refers to the percentage of H+ ions that have
been released. It is calculated by expressing the actual [H+] over the number
of molecules in the acid.
o HCl: 0.1/0.1 x 100 = 100% ionisation (as expected from a strong acid)
o CH3COOH: 0.00126 / 0.1 x 100 = 1.26% ionisation (a very weak acid)
o C6H8O7: 0.0079 / 0.1 x 100 = 7.9% ionisation (a moderately weak acid)
 By looking at the degrees of ionisation, the strongest acid is hydrochloric acid,
followed by citric acid and finally ethanoic acid.
SLT: Describe the Difference between a Strong Acid and a Weak Acid in
Terms of an Equilibrium Between the Intact Molecules and its Ions
 A strong acid is an acid that releases all of its H+ ions when in solution.
 Its molecules are completely ionised in solution.
 Its ionisation reaction goes to completion.
 Conversely, a weak acid does not completely release all its H+ ions. Hence, it
is weaker than a strong acid of the same concentration.
 Some of its molecules remain intact in solution.
 Its ionisation reaction with water is a reversible reaction that reaches equilibrium
when a certain number of H+ ions are released.
o 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞)
 Hence, the pH can be affected by factors that shift the equilibrium.
Students: Gather and Process Information from Secondary Sources to

Explain the Use of Acids as Food Additives
 Acids are added to foods for 2 reasons – as preservatives and to add flavour.
Preservatives
 Ethanoic acid (in the form of vinegar) is used as a preservative in ‘pickling’.

 Propanoic acid is often used as a preservative in bread.
 Sulfur dioxide is added to food as a preservative, as it forms sulfurous acid,
which kills bacteria in food.

25
 Citric acid is a natural preservative, often added to jams.
Flavourings
 Carbonic acid is added to soft drinks to add ‘fizz’.

 Phosphoric acid is also added to soft drinks to add ‘tartness’ of flavour.
 Ethanoic acid, as vinegar, is used as a flavouring.
Students: Identify Data, Gather and Process Information from Secondary

Sources to Identify Examples of Naturally Occurring Acids and Bases and
their Chemical Composition
Natural Acids
 Hydrochloric Acid – Aqueous HCl; is produced naturally by the lining of our

stomachs. It aids in the digestion of food.
 Citric Acid – C6H8O7; occurs naturally in large quantities in citrus fruits.
 Ethanoic Acid – CH3COOH; found naturally in vinegar, which is produced by
the natural oxidation of ethanol.
 Lactic Acid – C3H6O3; formed in the body during strenuous exercise.
Natural Bases
 Ammonia – NH3; present in the stale urine of animals. It is also formed through
the anaerobic decay of organic matter.
 Metal Oxides – Iron (III) oxide, copper (II) oxide and titanium (IV) oxide. These
insoluble oxides are solid bases found in minerals.
 Calcium Carbonate – CaCO3; found naturally as limestone.

26
Because of the Prevalence and Importance of Acids,
they have been Studied for Hundreds of Years. Over
time, the Definition of Acid and Base have Been
Redefined
SLT: Outline the Historical Development of Ideas about Acids Including

those of:
 Lavoisier
 Davy
 Arrhenius
Lavoisier
 Antoine Lavoisier proposed acids were substances that contained oxygen.
 This theory was soon disproved as many oxygen-containing substances were
basic and some acidic substances were distinctly acidic but did not contain
oxygen.
Davy
 Humphry Davy suggested that acids were substances that contained
replaceable hydrogen – hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by
metals.
 When acids reacted with metals that formed salts.
 Bases were substances that reacted with acids to form salts and water.
 These definitions worked well for most of the century.
Arrhenius
 Svante Arrhenius proposed acids were substances that ionised in solution to
produce hydrogen ions.
o Acids were strong if they ionised completely and weak if they ionised
slightly.
 He defined a base as a substance that in solution produces hydroxide ions.
However, this does not include metallic oxides, which are distinctly basic.
 Inadequacies with Arrhenius’ model include:
o Does not give due recognition to the solvent. Ionisation is a reaction
between the acid molecule and the solvent.
o Acid-base reactions often occur in solvents in which the acid is not
ionised at all.

27
SLT: Outline the Brönsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases
 An acid is a substance that, in solution, tends to give up protons (hydrogen

ions), and a base is a substance that tends to accept protons.
 If a substance, HA, has a greater tendency to give up protons than the solvent,
then the substance in that solvent will be an acid.
 If the solvent is water:
o 𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐴−
 Similarly, if substance B has a greater tendency to accept protons than the
solvent has, then B will be a base in that solvent.
 If the solvent is water:
o 𝐵 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝐵+ + 𝑂𝐻 −
 In this way, the Brönsted-Lowry concept necessarily relateds acidity and
basicity to the structure of both the substance and the solvent.
 Production of hydrogen ions is seen to be due not solely to the properties of the
acid, but rather the properties of the acid, relative to the solvent.
 The Brönsted-Lowry definitions bring with them the idea of conjugates.
SLT: Describe the Relationship Between an Acid and its Conjugate Base and
a Base and its Conjugate Acid
 Because an acid is a proton donor, and a base is a proton accepter, the

concept of conjugate acids and bases can be introduced.
 A conjugate base is the original acid with a proton removed.
 A conjugate acid is the original base with a proton added.
 In the reaction between hydrochloric acid and water:
 The original acid is HCl; its conjugate base is Cl- (acid minus
proton).
 The original base is H2O; its conjugate acid is H3O+ (base plus
proton).
 The general formulas are:
o 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
o 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑂𝐻 −
SLT: Identify Conjugate Acid/Base Pairs
 Conjugate acid/base pairs are easily identifiable in a chemical reaction by

applying the above conjugate rules.
 The conjugate base is the acid without a proton and the conjugate acid is the
base with a proton.
 The conjugate base of a strong acid is an extremely weak base.
 The conjugate base of a weak acid is a weak base.

28
 The conjugate acid of a strong base is an extremely weak acid.
Acid Conjugate Base Base Conjugate Acid

HCl Cl- OH- H2O
(Strong) (Extremely Weak) (Strong) (Extremely Weak)
CH3COOH CH3COO- NO2- HNO2
(Weak) (Weak) (Weak) (Weak)
H2O OH- H2O H3O+
(Extremely Weak) (Strong) (Extremely Weak) (Strong)
Students: Gather and Process Information from Secondary Sources to Trace

Developments in Understanding and Describing Acid/Base Reactions
 The chemical theory behind the reactions of acids and bases is a topic that
has been studied for many centuries.
 Many hypotheses have been made about these substances. In modern times,
the theories of Lavoisier and Davy have been deemed redundant or
insufficient, while Arrhenius’ acid/base theory is still used as a simple model.
 The two most recent theories are Brönsted-Lowry and the Lewis acid/base
model.
Scientist (s) Acid Definition Base Definition History

Worked with metal oxides
Corrosive substance
Lavoisier No Definition that form the common
that contains oxygen
oxyacids with water.
Worked with hydrohalic
Corrosive substance
Davy No Definition acids such as HCl and HBr,
with hydrogen
disproving Lavoisier.
Substances Substances that Made theories of acid/base
Arrhenius dissociate into H+ dissociate into OH- ionisation. Only aqueous
ions in solution ions in solution solutions were considered.
Extended acid/base
reactions to those without
Brönsted-
Proton (H+) donor Proton (H+) acceptor water. Acids must contain
Lowry hydrogen; no solution
required.
Electron pair No hydrogen required
Lewis Electron pair donor
acceptor Not required for HSC course
SLT: Identify a Range of Salts which Form Acidic, Basic or Neutral Solutions
and Explain their Acidic, Neutral or Basic Nature
 A salt is defined as a compound that forms when an acid is neutralised by a

base.
 Salts are not all neutral – there are many acidic and basic salts.
 The reason why many salt solutions are not neutral is that many ions can act as
Brönsted-Lowry acids/bass.

29
 The acidity or alkalinity of a salt solution depends on the reactants of the
neutralisation reaction.
o A strong acid and a strong base will produce a neutral salt.
o A weak acid and a weak base will produce a neutral salt.
o A strong acid and a weak base will produce an acidic salt.
o A weak acid and a strong base will produce a basic salt.
 Reaction between a strong acid and a weak base.
o Theoretically, the salt will be slightly acidic.
 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)
o Nitric acid is a strong acid, and ammonia is a weak base. Hence,
ammonium nitrate will be slight acidic.
o However, you must prove it. React the salt’s ions with water.
 𝑁𝐻4+ + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻3 𝑂+
 𝐶𝑙 − + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
o The presence of hydronium ions proves it is an acidic solution.
 Reaction between a weak acid and strong base.
o The salt will be slightly basic.
 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
o Sodium hydroxide is a strong base and ethanoic acid is a weak acid.
Hence, sodium ethanoate will be a slightly basic salt.
o To prove it:
 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 − + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻 −
o The presence of hydroxide ions proves it is a basic solution.
 Reaction of a strong acid and a strong base.
o The salt will be neutral.
 𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
o Neither of the ions in the product react with water, hence it is neutral.
Students: Choose Equipment and Perform a First-Hand Investigation to

Identify the pH of a Range of Salt Solutions
Aim – To determine the pH of a range of salt solutions.
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
Potassium Nitrate – irritates eyes, skin Wear safety glasses, use in well
and lungs ventilated area
Sodium Phosphate – irritates eyes, skin Wear safety glasses, use in well
and lungs ventilated area
Sodium Hydrogen Sulfate – eye irritant Wear safety glasses
Ammonium Acetate – low toxicity NA
Ammonium Chloride – low toxicity NA
Sodium Carbonate – low toxicity NA

30
Equipment
 pH Meter
 6 x Small Beakers
 Distilled Water
 5 x 0.1M ammonium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen sulfate,
potassium nitrate, sodium phosphate, ammonium acetate
Method
1. Place a small amount of each salt solution in a separate beaker.
2. Use a pH meter to determine the pH and record results in the table.
3. Rinse the electrode thoroughly between measurements and measure the pH
of the water between each measurement.
Results
Name of Salt Formula Experimental pH Acidic, Basic, Neutral
Sodium Phosphate 7.9 Neutral
Hydrogen Sulfate H2SO4 1.8 Acidic
Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 10.6 Basic
Potassium Nitrate KNO3 7.4 Neutral
Ammonium Acetate C2H7NO2 6.4 Neutral
Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl 7.4 Neutral
Discussion
 The pH of the salts were estimated, using the parent acids and parent bases.
 The actual pH was determined by using a pH probe, which was connected to
a data logger, for accurate results.
SLT: Identify Amphiprotic Substances and Construct Equations to Describe

their Behaviour in Acidic and Basic Substances
 An amphiprotic substance is one that can act as both an acid and base.
 Their behaviour depends on the environment they are placed in.
o The hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate) HCO3- is amphiprotic.
o 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻3 𝑂+ (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
o 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑂32− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Students: Analyse Information from Secondary Sources to Assess the Use of

Neutralisation Reactions as a Safety Measure or to Minimise Damage in
Accidents or Chemical Spills
 It is important to immediately neutralise any chemical spills involving strong

acids and bases, as they are corrosive and can be extremely dangerous.
 Neutralisation reactions are widely used as safety measures in cleaning up such
incidents.
 When neutralising an acid or base, the following procedure is followed.

31
o The most preferred agents of neutralisation has the properties of being
stable, easily transported, solid (powder), cheap and amphiprotic (so it
can act as a weak acid or weak base).
o This is the safest material, as it can neutralise both acids and bases and
even if used in excess, it is very weak and does not pose any serious risk.
o The neutralised product is then absorbed using paper towels and
disposed.
 The most common substance used to neutralise spills is sodium hydrogen
carbonate. This is because the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3-) is an
amphiprotic species, cheap and readily available.
 Strong acids and bases must never be used to neutralise spills. If an excess is
used, the spill will become dangerous again.
SLT: Identify Neutralisation Reactions as a Proton Transfer Reaction which is

Exothermic
 Neutralisation reactions are reactions between acids and bases.

 The basic definition of “Acid + Base  Salt + Water” is extended and
neutralisation is described as any proton-transfer reaction.
 As acids are proton donors and bases proton acceptors, neutralisation
reactions between acids and bases are proton-transfer reactions.
 Protons are transferred from the acid to the base.
o 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
 If all spectator ions are removed, the basic underlying proton-
transfer reaction is easily seen.
 𝐻 + + 𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
 Hence, the proton is transferred to the hydroxide ion, forming
water.
o 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝐻3 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝐻4+
 The proton is transferred to ammonia, forming ammonium.
 No water is produced, however it is still a neutralisation reaction.
 All neutralisation reactions are exothermic. They all liberate heat energy.
 The ∆H ≈ -56kJ/mol, depending on the strength of the reactants.
SLT: Describe the Correct Technique for Conducting Titrations and

Preparation of Standard Solutions
 Titration is a chemical technique used to experimentally determine the

unknown concentration of a solution through a chemical reaction.
The Chemical Theory of Acid/Base Titrations
 Titration is also known as volumetric analysis.

32
 The point of acid/base titration is to determine the concentration of unknown
solution by slowly reacting a certain volume of this solution with another solution
of known concertation, until the endpoint is reached.
 The endpoint of a chemical reaction occurs when all available molecules
have reacted, and the reaction comes to an end.
 The volumes of the reactants at the endpoints are accurately measured. Using
the knowledge of these volumes, and the original concentration of the
standard solution, the concentration of the unknown solution can be
calculated.
Primary Standards
 Primary standards must have the following properties:

o Very High Purity – to produce accurate results, unaffected by chemical
impurities.
o Chemical Stability – so they do not react violently with the water solvent
or gases in the atmosphere.
o Non-Hygroscopic and Non-Efflorescent – hygroscopic substances
absorb water from surroundings while efflorescent substances release
water into surroundings.
 Both these processes change the concentration of solutions.
o High Solubility – Primary standards must be able to dissolve completely
into their solvents.
o High Molecular Weight – Sets off any errors in measurement that may
have occurred.
 Sodium carbonate is a suitable primary standard, whereas sodium hydroxide
(reacts with gases in the air), hydrochloric acid (efflorescent) and sulfuric acid
(hygroscopic) are unsuitable primary standards.
Preparing Standard Solutions
 Standard solutions are typically made in 250mL volumetric flasks.
Method
1. The primary standard must be placed in an oven and cooled in a desiccator
to remove all moisture.
2. Thoroughly rinse a 250 mL volumetric flask, a small beaker and a glass funnel
with distilled water. Place the funnel in the neck of the volumetric flask, and
place the beaker on an electronic scale.
3. Tare the scale and using a clean spatula, transfer the desired weight of the
powder into the beaker.
4. Using a wash-bottle of distilled water, transfer the powder into the flask by
‘washing’ it into the funnel. Ensure the entire beaker is washed and all the water
is transferred to the volumetric flask. Wash the funnel with water, allowing it to
flow into flask.
5. Fill the flask half-way up to the 250 mL graduation mark, and gently swirl the
flask until all the solute has dissolved. Set the flask on the bench.

33
6. Using the wash-bottle, fill the flask with water until it is just under the graduation
mark. Using a Pasteur pipette, add distilled water until the meniscus sits exactly
on the 250 mL mark.
7. Cover the flask with its glass stopper and invert the entire flask three times. If the
meniscus has lowered, add a few more drops. If not, the standard solution is
complete.
Determining the Location of the Endpoint
 The endpoint of a chemical reaction is the point where the reaction stops,
because all the species (of at least one reactant) have reacted.
 In an acid/base titration, the reaction is a neutralisation reaction and hence
we use our knowledge of pH to determine when the endpoint has been
reached.
 At the endpoint, all the species have reacted and there is only the aqueous
salt left.
 The pH at the endpoint depends on the acid and base being used.
Indicators
 To determine the pH and to determine the endpoint, indicators must be used.

 You must use an appropriate indicator.
 For strong acid/weak base titrations, methyl orange is the most suitable as it
changes from yellow to orange in the slightly acidic range.
 For strong base/weak acid titrations, phenolphthalein is the most suitable as it
changes from colourless to pink in a slightly basic range.
Correct Technique for Conducting Titrations
 In the titration process, a number of pieces of calibrated glassware:

o Volumetric Flask – Used to prepare and hold standard solutions.
o Conical Flask – Used to hold the reactants during titration. The shape
prevents the reactants from spilling as it is swirled.

34
o Burette – A piece of cylindrical glassware, held vertically, with volumetric
on its full length and a precision tap. It is used to dispense precise
amounts of liquid reagents.
o Pipette – A glass tube used to transfer precise volumes of liquid reagents.
They are usually designed to transfer one measurement of volume. The
reagent is drawn up the pipette using a rubber bulb.
 Before titration can begin, all glassware must be must be rinsed properly.
o Volumetric flasks (including glass stoppers) are rinsed with distilled water
multiple times and is left wet.
o Conical flasks are rinsed thoroughly with distilled water and left wet.
o Burettes are rinsed with a specific technique. First the distilled water is
filled into the burette and the tap opened. Water is allowed to flow out
and thoroughly rinse the tip. More water is then added, and the entire
glass tube is swirled in your hands to wash the sides of the burette. The
water is then poured out from the top. Burettes must be rinsed three
times with distilled water and then once more with the solution it is going
to contain.
o Pipettes are also rinsed three times with the distilled water and then the
solution it will contain.
 After everything is rinsed properly, the glassware is filled.
The Titration
 The conical flask is placed on a white tile under the burette, which is held in a
retort stand.
 The tap is slowly opened, and the conical flask is continually swirled.
 When the first colour change is noticed, the tap is immediately closed.
 If the conical flask returns to its original colour, very slowly open the tap so that
the solution flows out in drops and stop when the endpoint is reached.
 The first titration performed in a rough draft and often overshoots the endpoint.
The first titration is rejected.
 The titration is performed multiple times to achieve accurate results.
Calculations
𝑛
 All titration concentrations can be calculated using 𝐶 = 𝑣
Students: Perform a First-Hand Investigation and Solve Problems Using

Titrations and Including the Preparation of Standard Solutions, and Use
Available Evidence to Quantitatively and Qualitatively Describe the
Reaction between Selected Acids and Bases
Aim – To prepare a primary standard solutions of sodium carbonate and use it to

determine the concentration of a hydrochloric acid solution.

35
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
Sweep and discard any chipped or
Glassware – breakage of glass
cracked glassware.
Hydrochloric Acid – higher
Wear safety glasses, avoid inhalation of
concentrations irritates eyes, skin and
vapour.
lungs
Sodium Carbonate – causes serious eye
Wear safety glasses.
irritation
Equipment
 Electronic Balance
 Small Beaker
 Small Funnel
 20mL Pipette
 Pipette Filler
 250mL Volumetric Flask
 Wash Bottle with Distilled Water
 0.1M Hydrochloric Acid
 2g Dried Sodium Carbonate
 Burette
 Burette Clamp and Retort Stand
 3 x 250mL Conical Flasks
 Methyl Orange Indicator
Method
Preparing the Standard Solution
1. Accurately weigh out approximately 2g of sodium carbonate in a beaker. The
mass does not need to be exact, but the accurate mass must be known.
2. Add about 20mL of distilled water to the beaker and stir. Place the funnel into
a clean volumetric flask and transfer the sodium carbonate solution to the flask.
Use a distilled water wash bottle to carefully wash all the sodium carbonate
into the funnel.
3. Rinse the beaker and stirring rod with small amounts of distilled water and
transfer the wash water in the flask.
4. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask until it is about two-thirds full. Fit the
stopper and shake to dissolve all the sodium carbonate. When it has all
dissolved, top up the flask to the 250mL mark.
Standardising the Hydrochloric Acid Solution

5. Rinse the burette with distilled water and then with the hydrochloric acid
solution to be used and discard the rinsing.
6. Set up the burette using a retort stand and burette clamp.
7. Ensure the stopcock is closed and filled the burette with the unknown
concentration of hydrochloric acid. Record the initial volume.
8. Rinse the pipette with the sodium carbonate solution and discard the rinsing.
9. Fill the pipette with the sodium carbonate solution and place in a clean 250mL
conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of the indicator.

36
10. Place the flask under the burette and run the hydrochloric acid into the flask,
swirling continuously until the colour changes. This is the endpoint.
11. Calculate the volume of hydrochloric acid and record.
12. Refill the burette if necessary and repeat steps 8 – 11 four more times until four
precise results are obtained.
Results
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
Volume of Na2CO3 Used 20 20 20 20 20
Initial Burette Reading 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Final Burette Reading 33.0 32.2 25.6 28.0 28.4
Volume of HCl Used 33.0 32.2 25.6 28.0 28.4
Mass of Na2CO3 Used: 2.00g
Calculations
Standard Solution
Na2CO3: m = 2.00g; MM = 105.99g
𝑚 2.00
𝑛= = = 0.0188 … 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑀 105.99
𝑛 0.0188 …
𝑐= = = 0.0754 … 𝑀
𝑣 0.250
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙+𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
Na2CO3 – c = 0.0754 M; v = 0.2 L 𝐻𝐶𝑙 2

𝑛= = ∗ 0.00151 … = 0.00302 …
𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 = 0.0754 … ∗ 0.02 = 0.00151 … 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 1
HCl – n = 0.00302 M; v = 0.0322 L
𝑛 0.00302
𝑐= = = 0.0937 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
𝑣 0.0322
Discussion
 As a whole, our experiment was quite successful, however, some of the
individual results which we obtained were not what we expected.
o For our first ‘rough’, titration, we obtained a result of 33.0mL. Following
this, we received 3 of the 4 results significantly less than the original.
 Therefore, for the purposes of the calculations, we used the second results
which we obtained.
 The main problem that we encountered during the experiment was
determining exactly when a colour change was taking place. We attempted
to use the solution from the first titration, however, we were unable to keep the
extent of the colour change constant.
 Nevertheless, the experimental value that we received for the 0.1M HCl was
0.0937. As a result, our experimental value is accurate with only 6.3% difference
from the theoretical value.
 We aimed to make the experiment as reliable as possible through doing 5
repetitions, however, three of these results could not be used.
Conclusion
 Our experiment was successful, as we were able to receive an accurate result
for the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

37
Students: Perform a First-hand Investigation to Determine the Concentration
of a Domestic Acidic Substance Using Computer-Based Technologies
Aim – To determine the amount of acetic acid in vinegar.
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
cracked glassware.
Acetic Acid – irritant vapour Use in well ventilated area.
Do not ingest, handle with care. Ig
Phenolphthalein – May cause cancer
ingested, seek medical attention
and genetic defects
immediately.
Sodium Hydroxide – eye irritant Wear safety glasses
Equipment
 Burette
 Small Funnel
 10mL and 2 x 25mL Pipettes
 Pipette Filler
 100mL and 250mL Volumetric Flasks
 Phenolphthalein Indicator
 Distilled Water Wash Bottle
 500mL x 0.1M Sodium Hydroxide
 5g x Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate
 Burette Clamp and Stand
 Small Beaker
 3 x 250mL Conical Flasks
 20mL x Vinegar
Method
Preparing the Standard Solution
1. Accurately weigh out approximately 5g of potassium hydrogen phthalate in a
beaker. The mass does not need to be exact, but the accurate mass must be
known.
2. Add about 20mL of distilled water to the beaker and stir. Place the funnel into
a clean volumetric flask and transfer the potassium hydrogen phthalate
solution to the flask. Use a distilled water wash bottle to carefully wash all the
sodium carbonate into the funnel.
3. Rinse the beaker and stirring rod with small amounts of distilled water and
transfer the wash water in the flask.
4. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask until it is about two-thirds full. Fit the
stopper and shake to dissolve all the potassium hydrogen phthalate. When it
has all dissolved, top up the flask to the 250mL mark.
Standardising the Hydrochloric Acid Solution

5. Rinse the burette with distilled water and then with the sodium hydroxide
solution to be used and discard the rinsing.

38
6. Set up the burette using a retort stand and burette clamp.
7. Ensure the stopcock is closed and fill the burette with the sodium hydroxide.
Record the initial volume.
8. Rinse the 25mL pipette with the potassium hydrogen phthalate solution and
discard the rinsing.
9. Fill the pipette with the potassium hydrogen phthalate solution and place in a
clean 250mL conical flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of the indicator.
10. Place the flask on a sheet of white paper under the burette and run the sodium
hydroxide into the flask, swirling continuously until the colour changes. This is the
endpoint.
11. Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide and record.
12. Refill the burette if necessary and repeat steps 8 – 11 four more times until four
precise results are obtained.
Determining the Amount of Acetic Acid in Vinegar

13. Using a clean, dry pipette, transfer 10mL of vinegar into a clean, dry 100mL
volumetric flask.
14. Fill the flask to the mark with distilled water, stopper the flask and mix the solution
by inverting the flask a number of times. This is the 10% vinegar solution.
15. Use a clean pipette to transfer 25mL of the vinegar to a clean 250mL conical
flask. Add 2 – 3 drops of indicator.
16. Titrate the vinegar with the sodium hydroxide solution standardised in the
previous part.
17. Repeat the titration until at least four titrations are within a reasonable range.
Results
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Volume of KH(C8H4O4) Used 25 25 25 25
Initial Burette Reading 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Final Burette Reading 27.2 27.1 27.5 27.8
Volume of NaOH Used 27.2 27.1 27.5 27.8
Mass of KH(C8H4O4) Used: 5.00g
Average Volume of NaOH: 27.4mL
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4

Volume of Vinegar Solution Used 25 25 25 25
Initial Burette Reading 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Final Burette Reading 18.6 17.6 17.6 17.1
Volume of NaOH Used 18.6 17.6 17.6 17.1
Average Volume of NaOH: 71.725mL
Calculations
Standard Solution
KH(C8H4O4): m = 5.00g; MM = 204.22g
𝑚 5.00
𝑛= = = 0.0244 … 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑀 204.22
𝑛 0.0244 …
𝑐= = = 0.0979 … 𝑀
𝑣 0.250

39
𝐾𝐻(𝐶8 𝐻4 𝑂4 ) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝐾(𝐶8 𝐻4 𝑂4 ) + 𝐻2 𝑂
KH(C8H4O4): c = 0.0979 M; v = 0.25 L NaOH: n = 0.00245 M; v = 0.0274 L

𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 = 0.0979 … ∗ 0.025 = 0.00245 … 𝑛 0.00245
𝑐= = = 0.08935 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
𝑣 0.0274
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂
10mL of Original Solution was Diluted to 100mL: 10% Dilution
NaOH: c = 0.08935 M; v = 0.017725 L CH3COOH: n = 0.00158 M; v = 0.025 L

𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 = 0.08935 … ∗ 0.017725 = 0.00158 … 𝑀 𝑛 0.00158
𝑐= = = 0.0633 𝑀
𝑣 0.025
𝑐 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.633 … ∗ 10 = 0.6335𝑀
Discussion
 As a whole, our experiment was relatively successful and most of the results
which we received throughout the course of the experiment were quite
consistent.
 For the calculations, we used the average volume from all the titrations that
we received.
 A problem which we encountered in both titrations that we performed was the
ability to know when there was a definite colour change. As a result, the
degree of the colour change was different in each of the tests that we
performed.
 The experimental value for the NaOH was 0.8935 M, compared to the
theoretical value of 0.1M. Using this, is was determined that the concentration
of the vinegar was 0.6335 M.
 We aimed to make the experiment as accurate as possible by repeating it four
times each.
Conclusion
 Our experiment was successful, as we were able to determine the
concentration of a domestic household substance (vinegar) through the
process of titration.
 That value that we received for this vinegar was 0.6335 M.
SLT: Qualitatively Describe the Effects of Buffers with Reference to a Specific

Example in a Natural System
 A buffer is a solution that is able to maintain a constant pH. Even with the
addition of a strong acid or base, it does not change its pH.
 The buffer solution contains approximately equal amounts of a weak acid and
its conjugate base. The equation can be represented as:
o 𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐴−
o ‘HA’ is the weak acid, which protonates water, forming its conjugate
base, ‘A-‘.
 Using Le Chatelier’s Principle, we can deduce why the pH remains constant.

40
o The addition of any acid (regardless of its strength), increases [H3O+].
However, this does not decrease pH as the additional acid reacts with
the conjugate base and forces the equilibrium to the left, forming more
of the weak acid, and the pH returns to its original value.
o The addition of any base does not increase the pH as expected, as the
base reacts with the hydronium, [H3O+] decreases. This shifts the
equilibrium to the right, and more H3O+ is produced through the forward
reaction. The pH returns to its original value.
 An example of a natural buffer system is the carbonic acid system.
 Enzymes only operate at their optimum over a very narrow range of pH, so this
buffer helps to reduce the effect of changes in the pH in the blood as acids and
bases are introduced into the blood from food and drink and other metabolic
processes.
o 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻3 𝑂+ + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
 When acids are added to the blood the concentration of H3O+ increases.
o According to Le Chatelier’s Principle the system tries to minimise this
change and hence the equilibrium shifts to the left to counteract this
change, reducing the concentration of H3O+ and restoring the pH.
 When bases are added to the blood, the OH– reacts with the H3O+ reducing its
concentration.
o According to Le Chatelier’s Principle, the system tries to minimise this
change and hence the equilibrium responds by shifting to the right to
counteract this change, increasing the concentration of H3O+ and
restoring its pH.
Esterification is a Naturally Occurring Process which Can

be Performed in a Laboratory
SLT: Describe the Differences Between Alkanol and Alkanoic Functional

Groups in Carbon Compounds
 The functional group of alkanols is the hydroxyl group (-OH).

o An oxygen and hydrogen covalently bonded.
o It is highly polar due to the C-O and O-H bonds.
 The functional group of alkanoic acids is the carboxyl group (-COOH).
o An oxygen is doubled bonded to a central carbon, and an –OH group
is single-bonded to the same carbon. The –OH is not called a hydroxyl
group when within a carboxyl group.
o This group is acidic because some of the hydrogen can dissociate, to
form H+ ions in solution.
 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝑂𝑂− + 𝐻 +
o It is more polar than the hydroxyl group due to its polar C-
O, O-H and C=O bonds.

41
SLT: Explain the Difference in Melting Point and Boiling Point Caused by
Straight-Chained Alkanoic Acid and Straight-Chained Primary Alkanol
Structures
 For the same number of carbons in a straight carbon-chain, the highest boiling
and melting points belong to the alkanoic acid, then the alkanols and then the
parent alkanes.
 The intermolecular forces determine what physical state they will exist in for a
given pressure and temperature.
 The stronger the intermolecular forces, the more ‘tightly bound’ the molecules
are to each other, and hence the more energy needed to be forced into the
system to overcome these forces.
Alkanes
 The only intermolecular forces between molecules are the weak dispersion
forces.
 These are caused by the movement of electrons around the molecule, which
creates an instantaneous moment of charge (a dipole).
 These dipoles attract each other, creating dipole-dipole forces.
 They are very weak and hence the melting and boiling points are low.
Alkanols
 Also experience dispersion forces, as well as electromagnetic interactions

between polar bonds. Alkanols contain polar C-O and O-H bonds.
 As they have a partial charge, they attract each other. Hydrogen bonding can
also occur between molecules.
 The intermolecular forces are stronger than alkanes, hence they have higher
melting and boiling points.
Alkanoic Acid
 Have the strongest intermolecular interactions, as they have three polar bonds
in each molecule.
o C-O, C=O and O-H
 Hydrogen bonding also occurs. This greatly increases the melting and boiling
points.

42
SLT: Identify the IUPAC Nomenclature for Describing the Esters Produced by
Reactions of Straight-Chained Alkanoic Acids from C1 to C8 and Straight-
Chained Primary Alkanols from C1 to C8
Carbon Alkanol Alkanoic Acid Ester

1 Methanol (CH3OH) Methanoic Acid (CH2O2) Methyl Methanoate
2 Ethanol (C2H5OH) Ethanoic Acid (C2H4O2) Ethyl Ethanoate
3 Propanol (C3H7OH) Propanoic Acid (C3H6O2) Propyl Propanoate
4 Butanol (C4H9OH) Butanoic Acid (C4H8O2) Butyl Butanoate
5 Pentanol (C5H11OH) Pentanoic Acid (C5H10O2) Pentyl Pentanoate
6 Hexanol (C6H13OH) Henxanoic Acid (C6H12O2) Hexyl Henanoate
7 Heptanol (C7H15OH) Heptanoic Acid (C7H14O2) Heptyl Heptanoate
8 Octanol (C5H17OH) Octanoic Acic (C2H16O2) Octyl Octanoate
SLT: Identify Esterification as the Reaction Between an Acid and an Alkanol

and Describe, Using Equations, Examples of Esterification
 Ester are sweet smelling, volatile organic compounds that contain the ester
functional group: “-COOC-“
 In the diagram, R and R’ represent a hydrogen, or carbon chains.

 Esterification is the process which form esters.
 Carboxylate esters are formed when a carboxyl functional group of an
alkanoic acid reacts with the hydroxyl functional group of an alkanol.
 It is a condensation reaction, where a water molecule is released.
 Esterification is a reversible reaction in which equilibrium lies much to the left at

room temperature. It is a moderately slow endothermic reaction.
o 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 ⇌ Ester + Water ∆𝐻 > 0

43
SLT: Describe the Purpose of Using Acid in Esterification for Catalysis
 Concentrated sulfuric acid is often added during the process of esterification.

It serves two purposes.
o Sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst. It speeds up the rate of reaction, allowing
the point of equilibrium to be reached faster.
o Sulfuric acid increases the yield of the reaction. It does this by acting as
a dehydrating agent.
 It absorbs water encouraging the forward reaction and shifting
equilibrium towards the right.
SLT: Explain the Need for Refluxing during Esterification
 Heating the reaction flask has two main benefits:

o The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of reaction and the faster
equilibrium can be reached.
o Esterification is an endothermic reaction. Increasing the heat of the flask
encourages the forward reaction, creating more ester.
 However, the ester, alkanol and alkanoic acid are all volatile and any open
heating will cause the reactants as well as products to evaporate away.
 A refluxing apparatus is basically a condenser placed vertically onto a boiling
flask.
o It cools the vapour that boils off so they drip back into the flask.
 Refluxing allows the mixture to react at high temperatures without the fear of
reactants or products evaporating away.
SLT: Outline some Examples of the Occurrence, Production and Uses of

Esters
Natural Occurrence
 Esters occur commonly in nature.

 Usually, it is a mix of esters that create the characteristic smells or tastes found
in nature, such as those of flowers and plants.
 Sometimes, a single ester can be identified as the main smell of a plant.
o A typically ripe pineapple contains 120 mg / kg of ethyl ethanoate.
Production and Uses
 Many esters are industrially produced for many reasons.

 Domestic use of esters include artificial flavourings for food, scents for perfumes
and as nail polish remover.

44
 Short esters such as ethyl acetate are used as industrial solvents, where larger
esters are used as plasticisers to soften hard plastic (such as PVC).
Students: Process Information from Secondary Sources to Identify and

Describe the Uses of esters as Flavours and Perfumes in Processed Foods
and Cosmetics
 Esters are industrially produced to mimic flavours and scents found in nature.
 These are for use in processed foods, or mixed to produce unique perfumes.
 Domestic food flavourings are often esters dissolved in a solvent such as
ethanol.
 Many processed foods are flavoured artificially, such as banana-flavoured
milk.
 Cosmetics contain esters as scents, such as perfumes, with are comprised
almost exclusively of a mixture of esters in a solvent, or to give soaps, hand-
lotions or other cosmetics a pleasant smell.
 Other cosmetic uses of esters include as solvents for other products, such as
nail polish removers.
Students: Identify Data, Select Equipment and Perform a First-Hand

Investigation to Prepare an Ester Using Reflux
Aim – To prepare an ester using reflux
Risk Assessment
Risk Precaution
Boiling Chips – possibility of bumping Do not add to already heated solution
cracked glassware
Heating Mantle – cause burns if Do not touch, do not use near
touched flammable liquids
Acetic Acid – highly corrosive to skin Wear safety glasses and lab coat,
and eyes handle in fume cupboard
Do not use near naked flames, wear
1-Pentanol – flammable, irritates eyes,
safety glasses and lab coat, handle in
skin and lungs
fume cupboard
Keep bottle in sealed container, handle
Sulfuric Acid – extremely corrosive to
in fume cupboard, teacher handling
skin and eyes
only
Sodium Carbonate – irritates eyes Wear safety glasses
Equipment
 50mL Round Bottle Flask
 Condenser
 Heating Mantle
 1-Pentanol

45
 Glacial Acetic Acid
 1mL Concentrated Sulfuric Acid
 Retort Stand and Boss Head and Clamp
 Separating Funnel
 Boiling Chips
 1 mol/L Sodium Carbonate
Method
1. Place 10mL of 1-penatnol, 12mL of glacial acetic acid and 1mL of
concentrated sulfuric acid in a 50mL flask.
2. Add a few boiling chips and assemble the refluxing apparatus as shown in the
diagram.
3. Connect the tubing to the tap and condenser, and turn on the water so a
uniform flow is achieved.
4. Heat the mixture over the heating mantle for approximately 30 minutes and
allow to cool for 5 minutes. Turn off the water.
5. Carefully remove the flask and pour the contents into a separating funnel
containing 15mL of water. Stopper the funnel and shake. Allow the layers to
separate, drain off and discard the lower aqueous layer.
6. Add approximately 10mL of 1 mol/L sodium carbonate solution. Shake, drain
and discard the lower layer. The ester should be in the separating funnel.
7. Carefully smell and describe the smell.
Diagram
Results
 Initially, the ester smelt like nail polish.
 As the reaction continued, it began to smell much more like pear, which was
the theoretical scent.
Discussion
 A number of alterations were made to the experiment to make it safer, more
practical and more accurate.
o Due to it being volatile, a condenser was used to this gas did not
escape.

46
o Due to the slow rate of reaction, a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid
was used. This increased the rate of reaction and also shifted equilibrium
further to the right as it is a strong dehydrator.
o As it is flammable, a heating mantle was used to avoid any naked
flames.
o Due to the hazardous vapour, the sulfuric acid, 1-pentanol and acetic
acid were all poured in a fume cupboard.
Conclusion
 Our experiment was successful as we were able to make the ester, which smelt
like the desired ester.

47

The Acidic Environment

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THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT

SLT: Construct Word and Balanced Formulae Equations of Chemical

Reactions of various Oxides with Water

Various Equilibrium Reactions

 Formation of Carbonic Acid

Ionisation of Strong and Weak Acids

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Indicators were Identified with the Observation that

SLT: Classify Common Substances as Acidic, Basic or Neutral

 An acid is a substance which in solution produces hydrogen ions (H+), or more

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Acidic Neutral Basic

SLT: Identify that Indicators such as Litmus, Phenolphthalein, Methyl Orange

 An indicator is a substance that, in solution, changes colour depending on

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Students: Identify Data and Choose Resources to Gather Information about

 The range of pH range of common indicators is shown.

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Testing the pH of Soil

Testing the pH of Pools

 Pool water must be near to neutral in order to avoid health problems.

Monitoring pH of Chemical Wastes

Students: Solve Problems by Applying Information about the Colour

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

 Oxides are compounds that contain oxygen.

 Amphoteric oxides can be act as both acids and bases.

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

 Neutral oxides do not react with either acids or bases.

SLT: Define Le Chatelier’s Principle

 Many chemical reactions do not go to equilibrium.

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

 Systems at equilibrium have constant concentrations of reactants and

SLT: Identify Factors which can Affect the Equilibrium in a Reversible

 When the concentration of a particular substance is:

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Change in Gas Pressure (or Change in Volume)

 If a system is exothermic, and the temperature is:

 The system will oppose any change, as stated by Le Chatelier’s Principle.

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

 The reaction of carbon dioxide and water is a reversible reaction.

Students: Identify Data, Plan and Perform a First-Hand Investigation to

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

 300 mL Bottle of Soft Drink

1. Weigh unopened bottle on electronic balance and record mass.

Initial Mass (g) Final Mass (g) Change in Mass (g)

𝑉 = 0.0545 ∗ 24.79 (molar volume at 25°C)

 Although we tried to control all aspects of this experiment, sometimes it was

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

SLT: Calculate Volumes of Gases Given Masses of Some Substances in

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

 Natural Sources – Volcanic gases, bushfires, decomposition of organic matter

Nitric Oxide (Nitrogen Monoxide, NO)

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Monoxide, N2O)

SLT: Describe, using Equations, Examples of Chemical Reactions which

 When organic matter decomposes it produces hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment

SLT: Assess the Evidence which Indicates Increases in Atmospheric

 There is extensive evidence for an increase of over 25% in atmospheric carbon

Lachlan O'Neill – HSC Chemistry – The Acidic Environment