Porto Folio

Teaching English as Foreign Language

Arranged for partial fulfilment of the requirement Mid Test

Lecturer: Didik Hartono, S.S, M.Pd

Compiled by:

Savira Sofiana
NIM 115110500111042

Study Program of English Education

Department of Language and Literature
Faculty of Culture Studies
UNIVERSITAS BRAWIJAYA
2013
 PART I. FOUNDATIONS FOR CLASSROOM PRACTICE

CHAPTER 1

GETTING STARTED

Before teaching the classroom, teacher should prepare it first. The preparation can
done through:

1. Classroom Observation to the students. The teacher should fit the lesson
with the students’ level.

2. Analyzing Lesson. The teacher should analyze the lesson plan (the pre-
activity, main activity and the post-activity). The teacher should find the
way to teach the lesson.

CHAPTER 2

A “METHODICAL” HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Approach, Method, and Technique

In teaching, we know three elements of principle; approach, method, and

technique. Here are some descriptions based on Edward Anthony (1963):

 Approach was a set of assumptions that is related with the nature of

language, learning, and teaching.
 Method was an overall plan based upon a selected approach for systematic
presentation of language. Based on Richard and Rodgers it is called as
designs.
 Technique was the specific activities that made clear in the classroom that
were consistent with a method and therefore were in harmony with an
approach as well. Richard and Rodgers call this as Procedures.
1. Grammar Translation Method

It is known as classical method. This method is focused on

grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions
and conjugations, translations of texts, written exercises.
 The strengths of this method:

- Easy to sonstruct and can be objectively scored,

- It can be successful method in leading the students toward reading

knowledge of a second language.

2. Gouin and The Series of Method

It is a method that directly taught to the learners (without translation) and

conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations) a series of connected
sentences in order the students can perceive easily. This method is easily
understood, stored, recalled, and related to reality.

3. The Direct Method

This method is similar to the Gouin’s Series Method. In this method,

second language learning should be taught as the first language. In this
method, learners should interact orally, use language spontaneously
without translation between first language to second language. The
principle of this method is natural way (without analysis of grammtical
rules). This method can applied in private school where students were
highly motivated and where native-speaking teachers could be employed.
But, it doesn’t fit when it is applied in public education.

4. The Audiolingual Method

Formerly, it is known as the Army Specialized Training Program

(ASTP) or Army Method, because it used in army. The method require the
students to do the oral activity – pronounciation and pattern drills and
conversation practice- with practically no grammar translation that found
in traditional classes.

5. Cognitive Code Learning

This method using more deductive rule in learning. This method unify
the Audiolingual Method (ALM) and Grammar Translation Method
 (GTM), the learning activity contained the drilling typical of the ALM but
added with the rule explanations and reliance on grammatical sequencing
of material.

Designer Methods of The Spirited 1970s

1. Community Language Learning

It is a kind of counseling-learning. Teacher has a role as true counselor

to center his or her attention on the clients (the students) and their needs.

- Strengths: The students acts move from dependence and helplessnes

to independenceand self assurance. It is also give the positive affect
the affective factors of the students.
- Weaknesses: The counselor-teacher could become too nondirective.
The students often needed direction, especially in the first stage.

2. Suggestopedia

It was not quite as strictly affective as CLL. It is capitalized on relaxed

states of mind for maximum of material.

- Strengths:
The materials carried in soft , comfortable seats in relaxed states of
consciousness.
Relax state has benefit in classroom.
The students sit back and relax.
- Weaknesses: It just a kind of technique of memorization. It doesn’t
devoted to the far more comprehensive enterprise of language acquistion.

3. The Silent Ways

It is rested on cognitive. This method used problem-solving approach

to learning.

- Strengths: Let the students work things out on their own.

 - Weaknesses: It is too harsh method to encourage a communicative
atmosphere. The teacher is too distant. It is oppsite to CLL.

4. Total Physical Response

Teacher mostly uses imperative mood in the teaching and learning

process. The forms of physical response are reaching, grabbing, moving,
looking, and so forth as the order asked.

- Strengths: It is effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency. It

overcomes the students’ fear to speaking out.
- Weaknesses: It lost its distinctiveness as learners advanced in their
competence. In reading and writing activities, students are limited to
spinning off from the oral work in the classroom.

5. The Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrel)

Teacher was the source of the learners’ input and the creator of an
interesting and stimulating variety of classroom activity- commands,
games, skits, adn small-group work, while the learners were silent in the
whole activity in a meeting.

• Stages:
The preproduction stage  The early production stage  The last stage
- Strengths : learners speak right away, and so we can take from the natural
approach of the students. Their silence is beneficial.
- Weaknesses: The teacher management is difficult to cope when there are
so many learners experience silent perod.

FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUSES / Notional-Funtional Syllabus

It has function as organizing elements of english of English Language

Curriculum, and its contrast with a structural syllabus in which grammatical
structure as the organizer. It focuses on grammatical form and pragmatic purpose.

- Notion in general, such as abstract concept (space, time)

- Notion in specific, such as contexts, situations (personal identification)
 - Functional: language functions, such as identifying, reporting

Strengths: quickly provided popular underpinnings for the development of

communication textbooks and materials in English language courses.

Weaknesses: It did not necessarily develop communicative competence in

learners. It is not method, but syllabus.

CHAPTER 3

THE POSTMETHOD ERA:TOWARD INFORMED APPROACHES

The Dysfunction of The Theory-Practice Dichotomy

Theory usually creator or theorist that propose new hypotheses. While,
practice is the act of the theory. The practitioner/teacher who accept the
theory will practice it. The relationship between the theorist and practioner was
similar to that of a produce of things and a consumer/customer.
The“dysfunction” of theory-practice relationship implies a separation of
researchers and teachers. Artificial dichotomy of theory and practice implies
that teachers are researchers.

An Enlightened, Eclectic Approach

The approach learning and teaching takes on great importance in

teaching and learning activity. The teachers also have to have approach to
language pedagogy, because it isn’t just a set of static principles. The
interaction between the approach and the classroom practice must be lead to
dynamic teaching. Developing an Enlightened/ familiar Approach; our
approach to language teaching must always be designed for specific context of
teaching.

1. Communicative Language Teaching

Communicative language teaching contained with issues of authenticity,

acceptability, and adaptability.

Characteristic of a CLT approach:

 1. Overall Goals. It focused on all of the components of communicative
competence.
2. Relationship of form and function. Language technique are designed to
engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for
meaningful process.
3. Fluency and accuracy. It focuses on students ‘flow’ of comprehension
and production and also the formal accuracy of production
4. Focus on real-world contexts. The teaching uses real-world contexts of
the language productively and receptively.
5. Autonomy and strategic involvement. Students are given opportunities
to focus on their own learning process.
6. Teacher roles. The teachers have a role as facilitator and guide.
7. Student roles. The students have a role as active participant.

2. Task-Based Language Teaching

Tasks is used as the core activity in teaching process. A task is an
activity which requires learners to use language.
Target tasks: The students must accomplish beyond the classroom.
Pedagogical tasks: Form the main of the classroom activity.
3. Learner-Centered Instruction

It is a kind of technique that focuses on account for learner’s need,

styles, and goals. This technique gives some control to the students. It
allows the students to show their creativity and innovation. It will enhance
the students’ senses of competence and self-worth.

4. Cooperative Learning
A classroom that is cooperative –and there for not competitive-
usually involves the learner-centered characteristics.
Some of the challenges of cooperative learning: accounting for varied
cultural expectation, individual learning styles, personality
differences.Sometimes thought to be synonymous with collaborative
learning.
5. Interactive Learning
Interactive learning is a product of negotiation, of give and take, as
interlocutors attempt to communicate. Usually, it is about nature
communication.
Interactive classes will most likely be found:
- Receiving authentic language input in real-world contexts.
- Producing authentic language for meaningful communication.
 - Performing classroom tasks that make them can use language in real
life.
- Practicing oral communication through actual communication.
6. Whole Language Education
Whole language is a name that has been used to describe: cooperative
learning, participatory learning. It focuses on the social nature of language,
integration of the “four skills”, etc.
Edelsky (1993) explained that this technique is not an activity, but
it is about an educational way of life.
7. Content-Based Instruction

Briton (1989) defined Content-based instruction is a combination of

learning that is related with teaching aims.

The advantage of CBI is increasing intrinsic motivation of the

students. While the challenge is demand for a whole new genre of
textbooks.

Models of CBI: (a) Theme-based instruction, (b) Shelter content

instruction, and (c) Sustained-content language teaching

CHAPTER 4

TEACHING BY PRINCIPLES

1. Cognitive Principles

Cognitive related to brain skill. Principle is a basic of a way to do. So,

cognitive principles are some basic ways to do something related with
brain skill.

a. Principle 1: Automaticity
 The automaticity is related to subconscious process. The basic concept
of automaticity encompasses through subconscious absorption of language,
efficient and rapid movement on form focus of language, and the resistance
when facing the temptation of language.

b. Principle 2: Meaningful Learning

The process of making meaningfull associations between existing

knowledge or experience and new material in order can be stored in long-
term retention.

c. Principle 3: The Anticipation of Reward

Human beings are universally driven to act, or ‘behave’ because of the

expectation of reward.

d. Principle 4: Intrinsic Motivation

The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated
within the learner. The behave can be obvious when the learner has needs,
wants, or desire within themselves. The behavior itself is self-rewarding.
So, no need to give reward.

e. Principle 5: Strategic Investment

A large extent to a learner’s own personal “investment” of time,

effort, and attention to the second language will lead the learners to the
successful mastery of the second language. It is used as strategy for
comprehending and producing the language.

f. Principle 6: Autonomy

Learners’ autonomous ability is a great influence to get successful in

mastering foreign language. This can lead the learners to success both
beyond the classroom and the teacher.

2. Socio-affective Principles
 These principles consider to emotional involvement of the students that is
related to their social environment.

a. Principle 7: Language Ego

As human being learns to use a second language, ususally they feel

that they use language correctly and already master the language. In this
case, teacher should make their students realize that there are so many
things that they don’t know yet.

b. Principle 8: Willingness to Communicate

Successful language learners will be success if they have intention/

willingness to have communication. It is also related to the students’
motivation.

c. Principle 9: The Language-Culture Connection

Language and culture are interrelated. The learners’ successful in

language acquisition rely on their understanding to the culture of the
language.

3. Linguistic Principles

The principle of teaching and learning centers on language itself and

on how learners deal with complex linguistic systems.

a. Principle 10: The Native Language Effect

The native language has a strong influence in producing the target

language. The structure, pronounciation, dialect, and the like.

b. Principle 11: Interlanguage

Second language learners tend to have progress in acquiring

language (Their ability in language has development). Successful
 interlanguage development is partially a result of utilizing feedback
from others.

c. Principle 12: Communicative Competence

The diversity of meanings of the language, eventhough using the

full phrase make the communicative competence is important.
Therefore, communicative competence is one of the goal in language
classroom.

CHAPTER 5

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE CLASSROOM

Defining Motivation
Motivation is the range that you have to make choices about (1) goals to reach and
(2) the effort to pursue the goals.

1. A behavioral definition

Behavioral psychologist consist two idea of motivation i.e. rewards and

reinforce. This reward serves to reinforce behavior. Learners pursue goals in
order to receive externally administered rewards.

2. Cognitive definition

It is consider to human intelligence, emotional and desire.

3. A construction definition

William & Burden (1997) said that a constructivist view of motivation

places on social context as well as individual personal choices (even in further
emphasis).

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed to accomplish the internally

rewarding consequences, such as feelings of competence and self-determination.
 Extrinsically motivated behaviors are the expectation of a reward from outside
and beyond the self. The examples of extrinsic motivation rewards are money,
prices, grade, and even certain of positive feedback. Sometimes, punishment can
be an extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation in Education

There are three phases to get competence from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation
in educational institutions.

1) Extrinsic pressure. The learners are forced/pressed by the environment.

Example of the pressures are school curriculum, parental expectations,
society expectation, tests & exams, immediate gratification, make money,
competition, and never fail.

2) Intrinsic Innovations. This is the process where the learners are experience
the process and make the result by experiencing the pressure.

3) Motivational result. This is result after complete the process. The examples
of this result are comfortable/self-esteem, self-actualization, acceptance,
respect, etc.

Intrinsic Motivation In The Second Language Class

The purpose of intrinsic motivation in secon language class is learners’ self-

determination and autonomy. The use of teaching techniques in the language
classroom can be subjected to an intrinsic motivation.

PART II. CONTEXTS OF LEARNING AND TEACHING

CHAPTER 6

TEACHNG ACROSS AGE LEVELS

A. Teaching Children
 There are some qualifications about children :
  Children exercise both cognitive and affective effort to internalize
both native and second languages.
 Adults are not necessarily less successful in their efforts.
 The popular claim fails to differentiate very young children from
pubescent children and the whole range of ages in between

From now on, we have some approach to teach children. They are:

1. Intellectual development: children are focused on the here and now. They just
foccused on the functional purposes of the language, not the metalanguage and
linguistic concepts.

2. Attention span: Attention span is the interval to stay to pay attention. The
children usually bored easily when facing material. It can be say that they have
short attention spans. So, make it interesting when teaching children.

3. Sensory input: The teacher should give some activities that is stimulating the
five senses of the children (such as visual and auditory).

4. Affective factors: The children are often innovative in language forms but still
have a great many inhibitions, such as ego, sensitive, etc.

5. Authentic, meaningful language: The children are focused on new language that
can be used for here and now. The language use should be practice by using the
real and concrete referents.

Teaching Adult

In teaching adults, we have five variables to consider about it.

 They are more able to handle abstract rules and concepts.

 They have more longer attention for material that may not interesting
to them.
 The secrets of lively adult classes in sensory input is their attraction to
multiple senses.
  Often bring a few of global self-esteem/respect into classroom.
 The developed abstract thinking ability are better able to understand a
context-reduced segment of language.
In teaching adults, you should consider these:

Do’s Don’ts

Remember that they are intelligent Treat adults in your class like children.
grown-ups with mature cognition & fully
developed emotion.
Give as many as opportunities to make Discipline adults in the same way you
choice whether in or out of the would children.
classroom.

Teaching Teens
Teens here mean high school-age children whose ages range between 12 and
18 or so.

These are reminders in teaching teens:

- Intellectual capacity adds abstract operational thought around the age of

12.

- Attention spans or the interval in stay to pay attention are lengthening as

result of intellectual maturation but could be easily shortened too.

- Varieties of sensory input are still important. Stumulating all five senses is
important.

- Factors such as ego, self-image, and self-esteem are their peak. They are in
the stage of labil.

- They will increasingly adult like but care must be taken in order not to
insult them with artificially formal of language or bore them with
overanalysis.

CHAPTER 7

TEACHING ACROSS PROFICIENCY LEVELS

Defining Proficiency Levels

In proficiency test, there are 11 levels that can judged the proficiency of the
learners. Level means the score of quality (from 0, 0+, 1, until 5).

Teaching Levels

There are three proficiency level of the learners. They are beginning,
intermediate, and advanced levels. Each of them should pass the 10 factors that
can lead to the effective teaching.

No Factors Beginning Intermediate Advanced

1 Students’ Ask the student to To get students to Student can realize all
cognitive use practiced continue to of the processing,
learning language on the automatize, assigning, gaining
processes purposes to which continue to allow confidence in
the language is put. the bits and pieces conveying of thoughts
of language that and feelings in
might clutter the interactive
mind to be communication.
relegated to
automatically.

2 The role of the teacher-centered, Student interaction learner-centered

teacher “keep the ball can now take place classroom.The teacher
rolling”. in pairs, small is just assisting in the
groups, and whole- ongoing process and
class activity. let the student’s
question and self-
generated curiosity
take over.

3 Teacher talk Teachers’ input in Teacher talk should natural language and
the class is crucial. not occupy the natural speed is a must
Teachers should major proportion of at this level. Make the
slow their speech in a class hour. students are
order to make the Teachers should be challenged by the
student understand using less of the teacher choice of
easily. native language of vocabulary, structures,
the learners. idiom, and other
language feature, but
remember that the
students have not yet
turned into native
speaker.
4 Authenticity of The language that students sometimes Everything from
language you use should be become overly academic prose to
authentic. concerned about literature to idiomatic
grammatical conversation becomes
correctness and a legitimate resource
may want to for the classroom.
wander into
esoteric discussions
of grammatical
details. This
tendency might get
them too far away
from authentic.
5 Fluency and Fluency - only Teacher should not The students are fluent
accuracy within limited always do and no longer thinking
utterance lengths. correction when the about every word or
Accuracy should students make a structure they are
center on the mistake when they producing or
particular talk. comprehending.
grammatical, correction from the
phonological, or teacher or peers may
discourse elements be quite helpful.
that are being
practiced.
6 Student At the beginning The fact that some student performance
creativity level, student can be of this new are able to apply
creative only in language is now classroom material to
repertoire of under control gives real context. The
language. rise to more students should reach
opportunities for that goal.
the student to be
creative. E.g : in
application of a
system within the
learner’s mind.

7 Techniques Group and pair Common technique is more

(activities, activities are interactive focus on
procedures, excellent techniques. techniques for sociolinguistic and
tasks) intermediates pragmatics, such as
includes chain group debate and
stories, surveys and argumentation,
polls, group complex role-plays,
problem solving, skimming and
storytelling, role scanning material,
play, and others. determining and
questioning author’s
intent etc.
8 Listening and The aims are for Students can The teacher guides the
speaking goals meaningful and participate in short student’s production
authentic conversations, ask and comprehension in
communication and answer term of register, style
tasks. questions, find and status of the
alternative ways to interlocutor, the
convey meaning, specific context of a
solicit information conventional
from others, and exchange, turn taking,
more. topic-changing,
culturally conditioned
language, etc.
9 Reading and Face their literacy The students can Reading and writing
writing goals level in their own read paragraphs skill closer and closer
native language. and short simple to native speaker
stories and begin to competence, they
use skimming and learn about critical
scanning skills. reading, the role of
Writing is similarly schemata in
more sophisticated. interpreting written
text, and how to write
a document related to
one profession.
10 Grammar Using very simple Grammar topics Concern at basic
verb forms, personal such as progressive grammatical pattern in
pronouns, definite verb tenses and level 4, for
and indefinite clauses. professional needs
articles,etc.

CHAPTER 8

SOCIOCULTURAL, POLITICAL, AND INSTITUTIONA; CONTEXTS

Cultural Context
Culture is way of life. This is the context which we exist, think, feel, and relate to
others. It is a thing that connect a group of people together and guide our behavior
community. A language is part of culture and a culture is a part of language.
The Type of Students based on the Cultural Context
 - ESL ( in an inner circle), , the students are usually come to the country
where english is the dominant language. They are learning both a new language
and new culture simultaneously.
- EFL (in expanding and outer circle country), the students are in their
home culture attempting to learn a language affected with foreign cultural
connotation.
Guidelines For Cultural Issues in the Classroom
1. Student’s cultural identity is often a deeply bundle of emotions. Practice
empathy as you relate to your students in cultural matters.
2. Recognize the cultural connotation and varied English and the first
language of the students.
3. Use your classroom as an opportunity to educate the students to see that no
one culture is “better” than another.
Help the students to appreciate and celebrate diversity. The teacher should
make the classroom in the model of openness, tolerance, and respect.
Second and Foreign Language Contexts
 SECOND LANGUAGE
Second language learning contexts - the classroom language is readily
available out there. For example, teaching English in United States or
Australia.
 FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Foreign language context -students do not have ready-made context for
communication beyond their classroom. For example, teaching English in
Japan, Indonesia and the like.
English as an International Language
 Standard of grammaticalness and of pronunciation may well need to be
viewed in terms of practice of native who are educated, proficient English
Speaker.
 The goal that teacher set for the student should be clear.
Nonnative English-Speaking Teachers
The inportance of being native speaker of the language. Consider the
proficiency level of a user of a language.
Language Policy Issues
• United states has experienced a language policy debate:
1) English only movement – English uses for educational and political.
2) English plus – home language and cultures are valued by schools and
other institution.
• Two commonly used terms characterize the status of one's native language
in a society where a second language is learned:
1) Subtractive – if it is consider as harmful in learning the language.
 2) Additive bilingualism – where the native language is hels inprestige in
society or community.
The big user of English is nonnative, because they tend to try to enhance their
English for international.
Institutional Contexts

• Elementary and Secondary Schools

1) Submersion: Pupils will absorb/get English as they focus on the subject

matter.

2) Immersion: Pupils are in an additive bilingual context. Students have

the same native language.

3) Sheltered English: Students come from varying native language

backgrounds and the teacher is trained in both subject-matter content and
ESL methodology.

4) Mainstreaming: teachers and tests conclude that students are proficient

enough to be placed into ongoing content classes. The ESL instruction
should be content-centered.

5) Transitional bilingual programs: Teach subject-matter content in the

native language, combined with an ESL component. Permit the students to
build the cognitive concepts in their native language then across over later
to the dominant language.

6) Maintenance bilingual programs: Students continue in the whole of

their school years to learn at least a portion of their subject-matter in the
native language.

7) Enrichment bilingual programs: Students taking selected subject-

matter courses in a foreign language while all of their education is carried
on in their native language.

Post-Secondary and Adult Education

The variety of courses available in such institutions:

 Survival/social the curricula designed to teach adults a complete range of
language skills for survival in the context of the second culture. Such
programs would not progress beyond intermediate level. It offers in night-
school adult education programs and private language schools.

Literacy programs are designed to teach students whose native language

reading/writing skills are either nonexixtent or very poor. It may be offered in
technical schoolsor trade schools.

VESL (Vocational ESL) targets those who are learning trades, arts, and other
occupations not commonly included in university programs.

Workplace ESL programs may be housed in any one of the above-named

types of institutions, or in the workplace itself.

Institutions and Higher Education

There are three broad types of curricula that are designed to fit varying
student goals:

1. IEPs (Intensive English Programs) are pre-academic programs designed

for non-English-speaking students (usually) who anticipate entering a
regular course of study in an English-speaking college or university.

2. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) is applied to any course, module,

or workshop in which students are taught to deal with academically related
language and subject matter.

3. ESP (English for Specific Purposes) programs are specifically for

professional fields of study.