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vii
sourcing, and injecting “greener” corrosion inhibitors and other treatment chemicals into longer line
sections. Waste disposal of water and treatment of chemicals, as well as ecological requirements
and problems with heavy and waxy crude oils and high-water-cut wells, will require new solutions.
We are living in an age of almost instant communication of news about transportation failures.
Societies around the world will require that hazardous liquids and gases be transported safely and
reliably. The result will be more laws and regulations and the development of best practices to
reduce these failures. The growing experience in the pipeline industry as well as the current and
future infrastructure improvements can be used to continue to reduce spills and failures.
600 miles/yr of new laterals to and from natural-gas-fired power plants, processing facili-
oil pipelines
Fig. P-1 is a photograph of a pipeline under construction showing some of the welded segments.
Fig. P-1a shows sections in the construction ditch with welded and unwelded sections. Fig. P-1b
demonstrates the large equipment needed for laying pipeline segments.
ix
Fig. P-1—Pipelines under construction: (a) individual sections, (b) handling equipment.
An important driver for current construction of additional pipelines is the new light oil as well as
the loss of associated natural gas produced in several of the shale oil fields (Bakken in North Dakota,
USA, and the Eagle Ford in Texas, USA). Because of the lack of pipelines and gas-treating facilities,
as much as 30% of the gas is flared (Fig. P-2) or is used for directly powering hydraulically operated
equipment that then vents the gas into the atmosphere (Rahim 2013). A report by Aleklett (2013)
includes satellite photos claimed to have been taken by the National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration of multiple oilfield gas flares in the Bakken and Eagle Ford plays. The illumination from
the flares seems to compare in intensity with the illumination of major cities in the regions near the
flares. The state of North Dakota as well as a major producer (described in Rahim 2013) are claimed
to be committed to dramatically reducing the waste of these hydrocarbon streams by constructing
adequate transportation and other ways to use the products in the near future.
This new oil and gas also affects the location of any new pipelines. Speakers (Solomon et al. 2015;
Banerjee 2015) at the 2015 Pipeline + Energy Conference and Exposition in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA,
noted that oil quality (light vs. heavy) also plays a role in the geographic direction of new lines as
well as the mode of transportation. They noted that the refineries best suited for heavy oil are on the
US coast on the Gulf of Mexico and that those designed for light oil are mostly on the US East Coast.
Thus, in some cases, rail transportation is currently needed, even if it is costlier than in-place pipelines.
In addition, methane is a potent “greenhouse gas.” USEPA (2013a) noted that the lifetime of
methane (CH4) in the atmosphere is much shorter than that of carbon dioxide (CO2), but CH4 is more
efficient at trapping radiation than is CO2. The report claims that pound for pound, the comparative
impact of CH4 on climate change is over 20 times greater than that of CO2 over a 100-year period.
Johnson (2014) has published a short review of the role that oil/gas production plays in contributing
to the release of methane to the atmosphere and the actual role it has in global climate change. He
cites information that up to 29% of the annual methane loss to the atmosphere comes from oil/gas
Fig. P-2—Orvis State natural gas flare, Arnegard North Dakota (Wikimedia 2013).
production and transportation. He claims that because of the trapping-of-heat factor of methane vs.
CO2, reducing methane emissions in the short term (i.e., in the next 10 years) should be a global
priority.
The needed construction of new gas-handling facilities is in turn driven by the economic value of
these resources as well as US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations (EPA 2012), 40
CFR 98 Subpart W (USEPA 2012), and 40 CFR 60 Subpart OOOO (USEPA 2013b). Details regard-
ing the difficulties of maintaining these current types of oil/gas facilities and new lines are described
in Sections 2.2.3 and 2.3.1.
The overall result for some sectors is “Midstream Mania.” Walton (2013) claims that companies
that construct, own, or maintain pipelines, tankage, and midstream processing plants are working
overtime to meet demand. One section of the article is titled “The Golden Age of Pipelines.” How-
ever, the author and consultants for this book note that significant problems have already arisen that
must be addressed and thus are the major subject of this book. Note that economic conditions as well
as market forces also will affect demand for new pipelines.
Each major section and most subsections will include reviews of current literature as well as sum-
maries of the consensus understandings from the literature cited.
Chapter 1, “Introduction to the Technology of Flow and Integrity Management,” provides an over-
view of the reasons pipelines require intervention to enhance or maintain product delivery and intro-
duces the various types of chemical and mechanical interventions in use. This chapter also reviews
basic chemical and engineering processes that occur in pipeline operations. It also emphasizes the
commonality shared among many of the chemical and engineering processes across the pipeline
systems as well as the well production processes.
Chapter 2, “From the Well to the Consumer,” describes how the aqueous fluids, hydrocarbon
liquids, and gases change from the wellhead, through the gathering lines and surface or subsur-
face facilities, then through transmission (trunk) pipelines to a consumer. It outlines the chemical/
physical forces that ultimately affect the delivery of the products as well as the plans to anticipate
and alleviate problems.
Chapter 3, “Corrosion Processes in Pipelines and Facilities,” provides a review of internal corro-
sion and corrosion mechanisms that affect pipeline/facility operations. Here also are reviewed perti-
nent texts. In addition, the chapter provides a short introduction to integrity management processes.
Chapter 4, “Chemistry of Product Flow Impairment in Pipelines and Facilities,” describes pro-
cesses that impair the flow of oil, gas, and water in pipelines and facilities. These include inorganic
solids, organic solids, mixed deposits, and emulsions.
Chapter 5, “Mechanical Methods of Enhancement and Assessment of Pipeline Operations,”
reviews the many pigs (scrapers), moles, coiled tubing, and jetting equipment used to maintain the
lines and to place chemicals in them. The use of hydrostatic testing as well as in-line detection and
inspection devices is also reviewed.
Chapter 6, “Chemical and Mechanical Treatments To Enhance/Maintain Pipeline Operations,”
shows how chemicals and mechanical devices perform to prevent and inhibit the formation of
deposits, corrosion, and emulsions. This chapter also reviews gas dehydration methods, acid gas
removal, and flow enhancement chemicals.
Chapter 7, “Cleaning of Pipelines and Facilities,” describes the use of pigging and various chemi-
cal cleaning solvents to clear fouled pipelines and units in the facilities. Methods reviewed include
chemicals, testing, evaluation, and application of solvents.
Chapter 8, “Pipeline/Facility Maintenance Health, Safety, and Environmental Issues,” reviews
issues of health, safety, and the environment related to the maintenance of pipelines and facilities.
Chapters 1 through 8 each concludes with a “Summary and Lessons Learned” section that sum-
marizes the major findings revealed by the review of the technologies discussed and how this knowl-
edge can be applied to pipeline management projects. Chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 also have a section
titled “Best Practices and Case Studies for Chemical/Mechanical Management of Pipelines.” Here,
the science and engineering principles described in the earlier sections are illustrated through practi-
cal demonstrations of chemical/mechanical intervention and remediation.
Thus, Chapters 1 through 4 describe the root problems and Chapters 5 through 8 provide a large
range of mechanical and chemical solutions that can be accomplished in safe and environmentally
acceptable ways.
xv
xvii
This chapter introduces the broad scope of this book. Here, you will find the concepts you need to
know to deal with issues you may encounter. These concepts will help you determine the specific
actions needed to reduce negative impacts on the delivery of products to a consumer. Important sub-
jects introduced here include the need for interventions and the economics of interventions. In addi-
tion, this chaper provides a review of physical and chemical principles that underlie the processes
described in this book.
Appendix A of this book contains a glossary of terms that are especially relevant to pipeline-
related usages, given that various names are used for the same cleaning and assessment tools and
other devices in different parts of an overall supply system, as well in different locations within the
petroleum industry worldwide. In addition, various hydrocarbon products are commonly known by
a variety of names. Some of the definitions come from the Schlumberger Glossary (Schlumberger
2012), PAPA (2013), and the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA)
(PHMSA 2016). These references (websites) can be accessed for definitions of important additional
pipeline or oil/gas terms. A list of symbols used in this document is in Appendix B. Acronyms are
defined the first time they occur in each chapter.
All the subjects introduced in this chapter are discussed in more detail in later chapters, of course.
Maintaining flow [also known as flow assurance (FA)] and ensuring the physical integrity of the
pipelines and facilities themselves are core necessities for providing useful products to the ultimate
consumers, as well as encouraging a healthy worldwide economy. The fluids are extremely vari-
able. They frequently consist of multiple phases and are subject to unpredictable changes in pres-
sure, temperature, and composition. Therefore, the formation of solids and emulsions is a constant
threat. Solids that result from equilibrium changes can decrease the effective diameter of the pipe,
completely block the pipe, or change the viscosity of the fluid. “Wet”-gas lines are frequently
impeded because of the amount of condensed low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons present as the
temperatures are decreased. Additional equilibrium changes can also cause corrosion or degrada-
tion of the pipe wall, leading to a leak, loss of product, and possibly major environmental damage
and loss of life.
Many chemical and mechanical processes are available and in current use to maintain the constant
flow of vital products and to assure the integrity of this important infrastructure. This book has been
written to provide an improved understanding of the role of chemical reactions and mechanical
devices for enhancing and maintaining the conveyance of oil, gas, and related products. Among the
many books that describe the thousands of chemicals used in the pipeline industry are those by Fink
(2003, 2012) and Kelland (2009, 2013). In addition, there are the works of Frenier and Ziauddin
(2014), Frenier and Ziauddin (2008), and Frenier et al. (2010), which describe many of the chemical
reactions that occur in the pipeline environment. In this book, the focus is on the application of these
chemistries to the maintenance of a productive pipeline environment. This study will demonstrate
the synergism between these chemical and mechanical processes and will make the case for the
necessity of using mechanical devices in these applications.
Books that describe additional details of pipeline maintenance in general include Mohitpour
et al. (2010), which is part of the pipeline series from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(New York). A book by Mokhatab et al. (2006) covers many discussions of gas transmission tech-
nologies, including details of gas treatment chemistries and plants. The extensive “handbook” by
Revie (2015) contains 52 peer-reviewed chapters that cover various aspects of integrity and safety
of both production and transmission pipelines. Kennedy (1993) also describes aspects of pipelines,
including types of pipelines, pipe manufacture and coating, and fundamentals of pipeline design, as
well as types of pumps and compressors in use when his book was published.
Pipelines
Hazardous liquid
Gas transmission
Pipelines are highly regulated by US states, the US federal government, and international organi-
zations (see Section 3.5), with the safety and integrity of the lines a constant goal of all stakeholders.
General information on pipelines and approximately 30 references to pipeline systems are found in
Petrowiki (2014).
1.2 Need for Chemical and Mechanical Enhancements to Pipelines and Facilities
The drivers for needing chemical and mechanical interventions and enhancements are the overlap-
ping concepts of flow assurance (FA) and integrity management (IM).
Brown (2002) described FA as the “production operation that generates a reliable, manageable,
and profitable flow of fluids from the reservoir to the sales point.” FA is especially critical for deep-
water assets. Because of limited access to the seafloor infrastructure in deepwater areas, blockages
and corrosion in tubulars and lines from deposit formation or from other causes may lead to expen-
sive workovers (Brown 2002).
IM is specifically associated with the risks of a pipeline failure. Stephens and Playdon (1998)
noted that pipeline characteristics (or attributes) must first be evaluated to produce a line-specific
estimate of the failure probability for each segment within the system as a function of failure cause,
which might be
• Metal-loss corrosion
• Mechanical damage
• Ground movement
• Crack-like defects
Then, an estimate of the potential consequences of segment failure must be made in terms of three
distinct consequence components: lifetime line safety, environmental damage, and economic impact.
Cause-specific failure probability estimates are then multiplied by a global measure of the loss
potential associated with the different consequence components to produce a single measure of
operating risk for all failure causes associated with each segment. Segments can then be ranked by
failure cause and according to the estimated level of risk. The author of this book contends that IM
is inherently a part of FA because, for example, a failed, leaking pipeline segment cannot effectively
and efficiently move products to the consumers.
In many countries, including the US and Canada, various inspections are required by governmental
regulations (PHMSA 2012). Idem (2015) claimed that this was a response to a number of serious pipe-
line ruptures that had devastating environmental effects on land and water. Thus, the US Department of
Transportation PHMSA announced proposed regulations to require that all hazardous liquid pipelines
have a system for detecting leaks and establish a timeline for inspections of affected pipelines following
an extreme weather event, natural disaster, or operator negligence. President Barak Obama’s transpor-
tation secretary, Anthony Foxx, said, “Hazardous liquid pipelines crisscross the country and pipeline
failures can have profound impacts on local communities and the environment.” He declared, “This
proposed rule is an important step forward to enhance safety, and protect people and the environment.”
The mechanical and chemical enhancements and interventions described in this book are an inte-
gral part of both FA and IM by locating, anticipating, and assessing possible damages and interrup-
tions of flow conditions and then providing proactive solutions to prevent or remedy the situations.
Details of IM systems are provided in Section 3.5.
1.3.1 General Economic Issues for Oilfield Treatments. Chemical and mechanical treatments
are performed for many different reasons, and the general market for all oilfield-related chemicals
may exceed USD 15 billion (Freedoniagroup 2008). FA methods such as the use of corrosion, scale,
and organic deposit inhibitors, as well as the application of demulsifieres, are used to prevent prob-
lems from occurring. Many chemicals are also used in stimulation, in enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR)
activities (Kelland 2009; Frenier and Ziauddin 2014), and in pipeline infrastructure maintenance.
In the case of tight formations, hydraulic-fracturing methods are used initially to cause enough
conductivity to allow the well to produce economical amounts of hydrocarbons. Fracturing activi-
ties, along with directional drilling in shale oil/gas formations may produce enough hydrocarbons
to change the entire energy calculus of countries and regions of the world. Jaffe (2010) said that
because of these methods, there may be enough gas potentially available to change some geopoliti-
cal balances of power. Also, discoveries of retrievable liquid hydrocarbons associated with various
shale plays (RRCT 2011) may likewise greatly affect hydrocarbon supplies and economics and
pipeline activities (see Fig. 1.2).
For all the processes used, there is an economic element that also includes environmental and
political questions (Hess 2010). These economic issues must be taken into account in business
calculations before a decision is made to pump chemicals or to perform pipeline maintenance
activities. Initially, a calculation must determine whether to consider any enhancements. Then one
must decide which method should be used. Deciding which type of treatment to use may involve
more than economic issues, of course. Examples of other issues include the formation type, location,
equipment availability, time constraints, local availability of chemicals, and urgency of treating a
problem. If enough information is available to add up all the potential costs as well as the loss/gain
of products, then the economics equations described next can be used.
Economides and Boney (2001) discussed calculation methods and decisions that should be made
to decide on a project. They examined several indicators, shown here.
Payout Time. Payout time includes the total costs associated with the project, but not the value of
the money or the profit. This is a measure of liquidity for the project.
Net Present Value. Net present value (NPV), shown in Eq. 1.1, is the definition for cumulative
discounted cash flow (CDCF). The NPV is the maximum of this CDCF. NPV gives a dollar value
added to the property at present time. If it is positive, the investment is attractive; if it is negative,
it means an undesirable investment. According to Economides and Boney (2001), NPV is the most
widely used indicator showing a dollar amount of net return. Here ∆USDn is the incremental revenue
(minus the incremental expenses and taxes that are a result of operations), n is the time period incre-
ments (e.g., years), and i is the interest rate.
n
∆USD n
NPV = ∑ − cost .���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.1)
n =1 (1 + i )
n
Rate of Return. The rate of return (ROR) is a comparison with other investments and is deter-
mined by setting i = 0.
Return on Investment. The payback is the total amount of money earned from the investment in
the project. This is the return on investment (ROI). Investment relates to the amount of resources put
into generating the given payback.
( Payback − Investment )
ROI = • 100 .�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.2)
Investment
Corporate Goals and Risk. Corporate goals and risks are less tangible, but are important con-
siderations for judging projects. These also include matching or exceeding the capabilities of the
competition in some markets. Risks may include environmental or ecotox issues.
1.3.2 Pipeline-Specific Economic Considerations. Pipeline maintenance includes the use of chem-
icals and mechanical equipment for FA as well as for IM. Many projects will require consideration
of the general guidelines described in Section 1.3.1. However, calculations of conditions that lead to
a failure, especially calculations of corrosion susceptibilities, are mandated by governmental regula-
tions (Section 3.5) as well as by good business practices. Several specific examples are noted here.
NACE (1994; 2011) described two additional economic calculations. These include the dis-
counted payback period (DPBP) and benefit/cost ratios, explained next.
Discounted Payback Period. The DPBP method requires a calculation of discounted cash
inflow (DCI).
where I is the discount rate and n is the time period in which the cash inflow happens. Then,
B
DPBP = A + . ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.4)
C
A is the last period with negative discounted cumulative cash flow, B the absolute value of dis-
counted cumulative cash flow at the end of period A, and C the discounted cash flow during the
period after A.
Benefit/Cost Ratios. The benefit/cost ratio is the ratio of the benefits of a project or proposal,
expressed in monetary terms, relative to its costs, also expressed in monetary terms. All benefits and
costs should be expressed in discounted present values (see Eq. 1.3 and 1.4; NACE 2011). Also note
that Appendix A and Appendix B in NACE (2011) show examples of these calculations made on the
basis of pipeline examples. This book (NACE 2011) has more than 100 references that may be of
value for these discussions.
Wei et al. (2009) described an integrated approach, made on the basis of corrosion modeling and
laboratory testing, to optimize the use of carbon steel in corrosive service for applications such as
downhole tubulars, pipelines, and facilities. This approach presents economic advantages, such as
reducing the use of expensive corrosion-resistant alloys while ensuring the operational integrity of
equipment and facilities. A key part of this integrated approach is to apply reliable corrosion models
underpinned with laboratory data (see Section 3.4). These authors claimed that to be most effective,
the models should account for the relevant chemistry and physics of the corrosion process, including
the effects of detailed water chemistry, liquid hydrocarbons, and the degree of protection from iron
carbonate or iron sulfide scales (these pipeline conditions and chemistries are described in Section 3.1
of this book). Thus, in their report Wei et al. (2009) claimed that ideally, models should account for
variations in conditions and flow characteristics along the length of a wellbore or pipeline. Addi-
tional information on modeling is in Section 3.6.
Dawotola et al. (2011) proposed a data-driven approach to find the optimal inspection interval (see
Section 3.5) for a petroleum pipeline that is subject to long-term corrosion failure. This approach is
claimed to account for the determination of both the failure frequency and consequences of failure.
Three forms of corrosion are studied for use in the model: uniform corrosion (Section 3.1), pitting
corrosion (Section 3.2.2), and stress corrosion and other forms of cracking (Section 3.2.2).
Failure frequency is estimated by fitting historical pipeline failure data into either a homogeneous
Poisson process (Wikipedia 2014b)—a stochastic program that counts the number of events and the
time points at which these events occur in a given time—or a power-law process. The consequences
of corrosion attack are calculated in terms of economic loss, environmental damage, and human
safety and are determined for small leaks, large leaks, and rupture of pipeline. Failure frequency and
consequences are both used to estimate total loss resulting from pipeline operation. A risk-based IM
optimization of the pipeline is obtained by minimizing the economic loss of pipeline, taking human
risk and maintenance budget as constraints.
1.4.1 Pipeline Materials for Construction and Pressure Requirements. Most oilfield pipe goods
are constructed using various carbon steels and must comply with ANSI/API SPEC 5L (2011) and/
or ANSI/NACE MR0175-2009 (2009) standards, depending on the expected product, temperatures,
and flow rates. High-strength carbon steel pipes (up to 80 ksi) are in use onshore and subsea. For
some subsea pipelines or facilities in sour or high carbon dioxide (CO2) service, 13% Cr martensitic
steel may be specified (see Section 3.1 for more details on metallurgy’s role in corrosion). NACE
SPO106-2006 (2006) provides design considerations that apply to pipelines made of steel used to
transport natural and manufactured gas, crude oil, and refined products for the control of internal
corrosion. A corrosion specialist should be consulted during pipeline design and construction. Two
major recommendations are to completely determine the compositions of the gases, liquids, and
other fluids and to design for flow velocities that mitigate corrosion and pipeline cracks. Chapter 4
of Heidersbach (2011) reviews the materials and metallurgy of oilfield equipment. He noted that
pipeline metals (mostly various steels) are specified in API SPEC 5L (2011). As with most oilfield
materials, specifications are made on the basis of performance standards, not chemical specifica-
tions such as SAE (2015) standards (e.g., for 1010 carbon steel) that have maximum or minimum
elemental limits. He also noted that most line piping is composed of “low-carbon steel” (less than
0.3% C). Other chemical elements may be added (Mn and small amounts of Cr, Ni, for example)
2St
MAOP = ( E • F • T ) . �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.5)
D
Weld Bead
Heat-affected zone
Pipe wall
Defects
Cracks
There are various factors that can affect the thickness of the pipe (such as corrosion damage;
see Chapter 3) and may cause the pipe to be derated (also see DNV-RP-F101 2010; Leewis 2003).
Ashby (2013) noted that the classification of the HCA location classes may change in the future,
so more miles of piping will fall into the most restrictive class. Note that the complexities of the
regulations are beyond the scope of this book; furthermore, current regulations should always be
reviewed carefully when making these calculations. These restrictions and classification are covered
in Chapters 3 and 5.
Polymers (plastic-fiberglass) as well as polymer-coated steel pipe segments are being placed in
many sections of operating and transmission environments. The different general types of polymers
and coatings include thermoplastic resins that soften when heated and thermosetting resins that
undergo a chemical reaction during the formation process. Thermoplastic plastics include high-density
polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and fluoro polymers. Thermosetting plastics include epoxies,
polysilicones, and polyurethanes.
Elastomers are rubbery thermosetting plastics that may have less crosslinker and possibly other
additives that allow deformation for use in seals, packers, or other such materials. Also, mixtures of
resins with fiberglass or carbon fibers are present in some uses.
The benefits of plastic piping may include lower weight and better corrosion resistance, as well as
easier connections than otherwise possible. However, many FA issues such as scaling and emulsions
may affect flow in polymer/resin-coated lines. In addition, pressure limitations and cost consider-
ations may dictate the choice between steel and resins. Plastic piping, including fiberglass, is used in
some downhole applications and for transportation of oilfiled water and flowback fluids.
Pipeline systems also involve a number of ancillary devices that include pumping/compression
equipment, valves, taps, pig-launching and -retrieval equipment, and devices for introduction of
different treating chemicals. Fig. 1.5 is a diagram of a generic system of wells, gathering lines, and
flowlines that terminate in a separation/treating facility or a refinery (Idachaba 2016). This diagram,
while based on a design for a land-based oil/gas system, also applies to subsea systems. These sys-
tems are all designed for gas, crude oil, and mixed well fluids. Pigging problems associated with
valves and the like are described in Section 5.2.2.
If the pipeline is a subsea system (Albert et al. 2011), “risers” (or pipes) may convey the various
fluids to the surface. Some fluids may also go through subsea piping to injection wells. When all
the on-site processing is complete, the crude oil and gas enter pipeline systems (or other methods
of transport) that send the products to a “consumer.” The long-distance transition systems will also
have periodic pumping/compression stations, innumerable valves, and laterals and other devices for
measurement and maintenance. Some of these devices are described in subsequent chapters.
1.4.2 Fluid Mechanics and the Effects of Fluids and Phases on Pipeline Operations. The
mechanics of fluid flow in the multiple pipeline segments affects and is affected by the changing
nature of the fluid phases (details of the chemistries of the various phases, which include aqueous
liquid and hydrocarbon liquids, gases, and solids, are in Section 2.1). The pipelines themselves
are also affected by the production of scale, which is inorganic deposits (as noted in Chapter 4).
The fluid mechanics at any point in the pipeline system and the presence of deposits will affect
the causes of corrosion damage (see Chapter 3), and pressure and flow changes affect deposition
of scale. Thus, there is a feedback loop in which mechanical and chemical conditions influence
each other. All these conditions must consequently be understood and anticipated for successful
FA and IM.
The following subsections provide an introduction to single-phase and multiphase flow in pipes.
More details are in Brill (1987), Asante (2002), Shoham (2006), and Falcimaigne and Decarre
(2008).
Single-Phase Flow. Single-phase flow equations and concepts provide a starting point for the
much-more-complex multiphase flow conditions that actually exist in many pipeline segments.
1 2 3 4 5
Flowlines Delivery lines Pipelines Trunk lines
Well locations 2 5
1
2
Row
Row
3 Small manifold
Row
Flow station
Row 2 Row
4
Main manifold Row
Access
1 roads
The pressure drop over a distance, L, of a single-phase incompressible fluid can be obtained from
the mechanical-energy-balance equation (Economides et al. (1994) as
g 2 f f ρν 2 l ρ
∆pL = ρl sin θ + + ∆ν 2.�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.7)
gC gC d 2 gC
Note that ∆pL is the difference between the upstream and the downstream pressure and ∆pPE is
the pressure drop because of potential-energy change. It is the hydrostatic head of the fluid and
accounts for the pressure change caused by the fluid column weight. Also note that r is the fluid
density and q is the pipe deviation from horizontal. Thus, the hydrostatic head for a horizontal pipe
(q = 0°) is zero. For a vertical tubing, q = 90° for upward flow and q = –90° for downward flow. For
fresh water, the potential-energy pressure drop per foot of vertical distance is 0.433 psi/ft. ∆pF is the
pressure drop resulting from pipe friction and is obtained from the Fanning equation (John Thomas
Fanning, 1837–1911):
2 f f ρν 2
∆pF = ,�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.8)
gc d
where v is the fluid velocity and d is the pipe diameter. For a pipe with a constant cross section, the
fluid velocity can be expressed in terms of flow rate, q, as
4q
ν= .������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.9)
π d2
16 4 π dµ
ff = = ,������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.10)
N Re qρ
4 qρ qd
N Re = = . ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.11)
π dµ ν A
Substituting v and ff in the expression for ∆pF yields the Hagen-Poiseuille law for pressure drop in a
pipe (Hagen 1839; Poiseuille 1840):
128µ ql
∆p f = .������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.12)
π gc d 4
From the foregoing definitions and equations, we can see that for a given flow rate, the pressure
drop is proportional to 1/d4 for laminar flow, and for turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, the pressure
drop is proportional to 1/d4.75. Hence, any reduction in effective pipe diameter from deposit buildup
can lead to a dramatic increase in pressure drop and hence to a similar decrease in the production
from the reservoir. For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, ff = 0.079/NRe0.25.
In Eq. 1.6, ∆pKE is the pressure drop caused by change in kinetic energy between various positions
in the pipe. Generally, it is much smaller compared to ∆pPE and ∆pF. It is equal to zero if there is no
change in fluid velocity between the two points of measurement. For example, given an incompress-
ible fluid f flowing through a pipe of uniform cross-sectional area, the velocity does not change and
∆pKE is equal to zero. In cases of high gas volumes or high gas/oil ratios, a rapid change in velocity
may occur, but even then ∆pKE generally accounts for less than 10% of the pressure loss.
Elements in Eqs. 1.6 through 1.12 have the following values:
Note that in the various segments of the pipeline industry, expressions used in pipeline models
differ; however, NRe is universally important because the transitions from laminar to turbulent flow
is generally described by this number with laminar flow conditions <2,000, turbulent flow >4,000,
1 ε 2.51
= −2 log10 + .�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.13)
f 3.7d N Re f
In Eq. 1.13, e is the height of the roughness (mm). Although this can be measured for laboratory
measurements, it is usually calculated from the observed pressure drop in a line (see Eq. 1.14).
Multiphase Flow. Understanding the multiphase flow conditions in the lines is an important
aspect in predicting corrosion and solids accumulations, as well as distribution of inhibitors in pipe-
lines. Shoham (2006) stated that the hydrodynamics of single-phase flow is well-understood and
that pressure drop vs. flow rate and heat transfer can be calculated straightforwardly (see flow rate
equations in the previous subsection, Eqs. 1.6 through 1.13). However, adding a second (or third
phase) greatly complicates the analyses. This short section provides an introduction to the different
flow regimes found in piping and modeling methods to predict hydrodynamic problems. Shoham
(2006) and Asante (2002) are recommended for many more details of the methods for calculating
important variables such as the friction factor and the pressure drop during multiphase flow condi-
tions. Different multiphase flow combinations in piping include
• Hydrocarbon liquid/water
• Hydrocarbon gases/hydrocarbon liquids
• Hydrocarbon liquid/water/gases
• Combinations of phases
The gas phases may also include acid gases such as acetic acid (HAc), hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
and CO2, and temporally dispersed phases of water and liquid hydrocarbons will form. Because of
the density and viscosity differences between the different phases, they will have different mass and
volume velocities, and these differences cause the complex regimes to form.
Fig. 1.7, adapted from Shoham (2006) and Kee et al. (2015), depicts several conditions that may
occur given the rate of flow in pipelines experiencing horizontal multiphase conditions. This figure
shows water and oil/gas phases. As the flow rates increase, various different regimes form.
Some possible regimes from the papers by Shoham (2006) and Kee et al. (2015) are described
below with letters referencing Fig. 1.7. Note that the Fig. 1.7 diagram shows the continuous phases
as well as bubbles and droplets of liquids temporally dispersed. These conditions can affect corrosion
as well as the application of inhibitors. Two-phase flow follows a similar sequence, but without the
second liquid phase.
Flow direction
Key
Gas a) Stratified (ST)
Water
Oil
b) Elongated
Gas bubble bubble (EB)
Water droplet
Oil droplet
c) Slug (SL)
Increasing
flow velocities d) Wavy
annular (WA)
e) Annular mist
(AM)
Stratified Flow (Fig. 1.7a). Stratified flow is characterized by the concurrent flow of liquid streams
at the bottom and a gas stream at the top of the pipe. The two liquid phases are often separated or
slightly dispersed at the oil/water interface. The gas/liquid interface may be smooth or show some
waviness caused by the drag of the gas passing over the liquid.
Elongated Bubble Flow (Fig. 1.7b). Elongated bubble flow is also called plug flow and is a form
of intermittent flow that occurs at low gas velocity.
Slug Flow (Fig. 1.7c). Slug flow occurs when the liquid bridges the entire pipe cross section, form-
ing a liquid slug, while the gas flows as a large bubble between the trains of liquid slugs. The large
gas bubble moves on top of a slower-moving stratified liquid layer characterized as the gas-bubble/
liquid-film zone. Smaller bubbles of gas as well as droplets of oil and water are dispersed in the vari-
ous phases.
Wavy Annular Flow (Fig. 1.7d). Wavy annular flow occurs at the transition between slug and
annular flow. The flow lacks the characteristic pressure fluctuation found in slug flow. The upper
wall is occasionally wetted by an unstable liquid film that keeps falling diagonally downward.
Annular Mist Flow (Fig. 1.7e). Annular mist flow occurs at very high gas velocity when gas flows
at the pipe core and liquid moves as an annular film enveloping the pipe wall. The turbulent gas
contributes to rough gas/liquid interfaces containing interfacial waves of varying amplitudes.
When liquid-containing lines, such as the current Alaskan pipeline (Abrams 2011), are not operat-
ing at capacity, the lines will not be full and three-phase flow may exist. Some of these lines could
contain solid particles as a result of changing conditions or the introduction of contaminants.
The flow regimes described in Fig. 1.7 may be present when lines are horizontal. Kesana (2013),
Thome (2012), and Brill (1987) describe these flow regimes. These authors describe plug flow as liquid
factor is the friction factor (see Eq. 1.10), but he recommended using Moody curves (Moody 1944),
assuming that the fluid is flowing at the velocity of the mixture. A Moody diagram showing the
Darcy friction factor (fD) plotted against Reynolds number for various roughness factors is shown as
Fig. 1.10 (from Wikipedia 2013b).
d 2
fD = 2 ∆p .���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.14)
L ρq
Asante (2002) described some of the models used to calculate the consequences of multiphase
flow in gas pipelines. They parallel the regimes seen in in Fig. 1.7. Computations using single-phase
and multiphase models are in use to estimate important flow properties. Shoham (2006) explained
that the modeling methods can be divided into “empirical-physical models,” computational models
(including computational fluid dynamics), and mixed models. The methods describe next have used
experiments as well as some level of computational methods to describe the flow regimes occurring
at different points in a pipeline.
Single-Phase Approaches for Multiphase Flow Models. These models use calculation of
observed friction factors ( f in the Moody diagram shown in Fig. 1.10) and pressure drop (∆P) for a
tested fluid mixture and then use the single-phase equations (Eqs. 1.6. through 1.11) for predictions.
(a)
Gas phase with
thick oil film on
Oil and gas the wall INT(O/W-S&SOW-F)
dispersed Horizontal intermittent flow
in water Oil layer with O in W dispersion slug and
stratified oil and water film
Water layer
(b)
Gas phase with
thick oil film on INT(O/W-S&O/W-F)
Oil and gas the wall
dispersed Horizontal intermittent flow with
in water O in W dispersion slug and
oil and water dispersion film
Oil dispersed in
water layer
Fig. 1.9—Various flow patterns in three-phase flow with heavy oil and natural gas (Wang et al. 2013).
Moody Diagram
0.1
0.09
0.08 Transition region
0.07 0.05
0.04
0.06 0.03
0.05 0.02
0.03 0.005
Laminar flow
64 0.002
0.02 Re
0.001
Material ε(mm) 5×10–4
0.015 Concrete, course 0.25
Concrete, smooth 0.025 2×10–4
Drawn tubing 0.0025
Glass, plastic 0.0025 Complete turbulence 10–4
0.01
Iron, cast 0.15 5×10–5
Steel, mortar lined 0.1
Steel, rusted 0.5
Steel, forged 0.025 10–5
Sewers, old 3.0 5×10–6
Water mains, old 1.0 Smooth pipe
10–6
103 104 105 106 107 108
Reynolds Number, Re
Shoham (2006) considered this to be part of the “experimental” approach but noted that it is appli-
cable only under the conditions that are close to those of the experiment.
Multiphase Approaches for Multiphase Flow Models. Asante (2002) claimed that the simplest
models, termed “homogeneous models,” would apply to the mist flow in Fig. 1.7 and use modifica-
tions of the single-phase equations (Eqs. 1.6 through 1.11) and adjust the friction factor ( f ), the
density (r), and the viscosity (m).
An example of this model is in Fancher and Brown (1963), who discussed homogeneous calcula-
tions using the correlation of Poettmann and Carpenter (1952):
dp 1 q2 M 2
= ∆p = − ρ + f 5
.���������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.15)
dl 144 7.413 × 10 ρ d
10
In this expression, p = pressure, psi; L = length, ft; r = flowing density, lbm/ft3; f = Fanning fric-
tion factor; d = pipe diameter, ft; q = oil flow rate, B/D; and M = total mass of gas and liquid, lbm.
Fancher and Brown (1963) noted that as the gas/liquid ratio increases and the liquid rate decreases,
and pressure gradients calculated from Eq. 1.15 are influenced more by the second term of this equa-
tion than by the first.
Stratified flow and annular mist flow conditions (Figs. 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9) are frequently encoun-
tered and are relevant to many FA and IM conditions. They are highly complex, and so the reader
is directed to Asante (2002) and Shoham (2006). Wang et al. (2013) describe multiphase flow tests
and correlations with the multiphase models of Zhang and Sarica (2006), and the authors found that
the water flows show reasonable predictions, whereas the pressure drops and liquid holdups were
underpredicted.
A three-phase flow model based on experimental as well as computational data was described
by Karami et al. (2016). In the nomenclature of Shoham (2006), this would be a mixed model.
To simulate oil, water, and gas flowing conditions, an experimental setup—a 6-in.-ID pipe flow loop
(see Fig. 1 in Karami et al. 2016)—used mineral oil, tap water, and air to simulate the gas phase.
The experiments were conducted under low-liquid-loading condition, which is commonly observed
in wet-gas pipelines. The analyzed flow characteristics included wave pattern, liquid holdup, water
holdup, pressure gradient, and wetted-wall fraction.
Videos of the wave patterns of the liquid phases were also recorded for analyses. The observed
wave patterns included stratified smooth and stratified wavy with 2D waves, 3D waves, roll waves,
and atomization flow. The transitions between the flow patterns vary as a function of water cut. The
trends of pressure gradient, liquid holdup, and water holdup with respect to gas velocity (vSg) and
liquid velocity (vSL), as well as water cut, were observed. Good correlation with several mathemati-
cal models was demonstrated.
Details of additional flow models that are in use are described in NACE SP0208-2008 (2008),
Appendices A and B. Because corrosion, scale, and use of control chemicals depend on the phase
that coats the surfaces, the complex models are critical both to prediction and to pipeline treatments.
Hilgefort (2014) as well as NACESP 0208-2008 (2008) provided information on multiphase flow
models and how the various conditions affect corrosion in pipeline segments (many more details
of corrosion and its manifestations are provided in Chapter 3). Hilgefort (2014) stated that flow
models help predict important conditions that may cause corrosion. Thus, a first step is determining
the potential for accumulation of water and debris if stratified flow exists, given that internal corro-
sion occurs where water (or hygroscopic solids) comes into contact with the pipe wall. Therefore,
if it is known which pipelines are likely to experience water or solids accumulation, the operator
knows which are susceptible to internal corrosion. If the operators know where, along the pipeline,
the water and debris accumulation will occur, they can perform inspections to check for internal
corrosion.
The most important factors in the models are the (1) critical water velocities and inclination
angles for water and/or solids and (2) critical inclination angles (q ), which are
∆(elevation)
θ = arcsin .������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.16)
∆(distance)
These critical factors are then compared to the elevation and inclination profile of the pipeline (like
those in Fig. 1.7d) to find where water or solids may accumulate.
Solids moving in a pipeline, Hilgefort (2014) noted, are subject to gravitational forces, which
deposit the particles, and also to turbulent forces, which keep the particles in suspension.
At lower flow rates, particles tend to settle out and can sit at the pipeline bottom.
1.4.3 Viscosity and Rheology of Fluids. The viscosity of a fluid is an essential property for char-
acterization of flow behavior. This property is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to being deformed
by either shear stress or tensile stress. Viscosity describes a fluid’s internal resistance to flow and
may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. Wikipedia (2009) claims that James Clerk Max-
well (1831–1879) called viscosity “fugitive elasticity” because of the analogy that elastic defor-
mation opposes shear stress in solids, whereas in viscous fluids, shear stress is opposed by rate of
deformation.
Viscosity is a primary determinent of the energy needed to move fluids in pipes. The Hagen- Poi-
seuille equation (Eq. 1.12) notes that pressure drop is directly proportional to viscosity, and there-
fore more pumps or larger ones will be required to move a more viscous fluid compared with a less
viscous material. Thus, knowledge of the viscosity as a function of the piping and temperatures is
critical information for all pipeline operations.
Viscosity is a function of the fluid’s chemical composition and physical state (usually tempera-
ture). Two different definitions of viscosity are in common use: absolute viscosity and kinematic
viscosity. Absolute (intrinsic) viscosity (h) is a measure of the resistance to flow that a fluid offers
when it is subjected to shear stress, shown as Eq. 1.17. This equation relates the shear stress (s)
exerted on a fluid to the resultant strain rate (g ). Kinematic viscosity (υ) is defined as the ratio of
absolute viscosity to the density of the fluid at the same temperature. The apparent (measured)
viscosity (µa) is the value usually reported in oilfield application and may depend on the shear rate.
σ = ηγ.������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.17)
The viscosity of the crude oil and the viscosities of various treating fluids described in this book
are critical values. In general, the viscosity of crude oil increases with its density—that is, the lower
the °API value of a crude oil (denser oil), the higher the viscosity. Typically, the viscosity of dead oil
is experimentally determined as a function of temperature, and the viscosity of live oil is determined
as a function of pressure at reservoir temperature (for reservoir engineering purposes) and at a lower
temperature (for facility design purposes). In addition, the viscosity of various petroleum fractions
is important in downstream applications.
The viscosity of petroleum fractions also increases with a decrease in the °API value; for
residues and heavy oils with °API value of less than 10 (specific gravity above unity), the vis-
cosity varies from several thousands to several million poises. Viscosity is a bulk property that
can be measured for all types of petroleum fractions in liquid form. Kinematic viscosity is a
useful characterization parameter for heavy fractions in which boiling point data are not avail-
able because of thermal decomposition during distillation. Viscosity is not only an important
physical property but also a parameter that can be used to estimate other physical properties
as well as composition and quality of undefined petroleum fractions (Riazi 2005). Generally,
the kinematic viscosities of petroleum fractions are measured at standard temperatures 37.8°C
(100°F) and 98.9°C (210°F).
As Section 4.6.1 will demonstrate, when the fluid being transported contains several phases, emul-
sions or dispersions may form. Kalra et al. (2012) showed that emulsions will generally increase
fluid viscosity, and this will require the resizing of pumps and other facilities to accommodate the
needed flow rates.
The viscosity of various treating fluids is also of great importance because it affects the chemical/
physical properties of fluids. The measurement of viscosity is accomplished by several techniques.
In general, either the fluid remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the object is station-
ary and the fluid moves past it. The drag caused by the relative motion of the fluid and a surface is a
measure of the viscosity. The flow conditions must also have a sufficiently small value of the Reyn-
olds (Re) number for there to be laminar flow (see the discussions of flow equations in Section 1.5).
For Newtonian liquids (i.e., viscosity that is independent of shear rate), viscosity can be measured
by capillary U-tube viscometers (Fig. 1.11). This devices measures the time it takes for the test liq-
uid to flow through a capillary of a known diameter of a certain factor between two marked points.
By multiplying the time taken for the fluid to flow times the factor of the viscometer, one obtains
the kinematic viscosity. Viscometers are usually placed in a constant-temperature water bath for this
measurement, and kinematic viscosity is measured at temperatures from 15 to 100°C (≈60–210°F).
The test method is described in more detail in ASTM D445-04e1 (2004).
In this method, repeatability and reproducibility are 0.35 and 0.7%, respectively (Denis
and Briant (1997). A large variety of “complex fluids” are encountered in oilfield treat-
ments, especially in reactive stimulation, hydraulic fracturing, and EOR. These are fluids
that behave neither like a liquid nor like a solid under flow, but show a mixed behavior. The
study of these types of fluids is “rheology.” The simplest definition of rheology is the study
of the flow of matter. For simple fluids such as water or many organic liquids, including some
very viscous fluids, the relationship of the shear stress ( s ) applied to the resultant shear strain
rate ( g ) is linear and the ratio of these quantities is the liquid viscosity ( u or h ) as defined
Eq. 1.18 is required for the high-shear region. Here, K is the consistency index in lbf-sn/ft2 or
kPa·sn, and n is the flow behavior index (dimensionless). These relationships hold for most fractur-
ing fluids over the range of shear rates in which the fluid displays non-Newtonian behavior. A log-
log plot of s vs. g usually yields a straight line over a portion of the shear range. The slope of the
straight-line portion is equal to the behavior index n, and the value of t at g = 1.0 s–1 is equal to the
consistency index K. A log-log plot of ma vs. g has a straight-line slope of n – 1 when the power-law
model is applicable. The slope is zero for Newtonian behavior (Constein et al. 2001). To better pre-
dict the full range of fracturing fluid viscosity, a rheology model must use not only n and K but also
a zero-shear viscosity term. The Ellis model (Matsuhisa and Bird 1965) added zero-shear viscosity
at γo to the power-law model to improve viscosity prediction:
1 1 1
= + .�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.19)
µ a µ o Kγ n −1
aA + bB ⇔ cC + dD .�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������(1.20a)
This would imply that the forward and reverse reactions are
and
If the system is ideal, then the equilibrium constant for the system can be expressed in terms of
concentrations as
[C ]c [ D]d
K eq = ,���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.21)
[ A]a [ B]b
where Keq is the equilibrium constant and [ ] denotes concentration of the species. The equilibrium
constant can also be expressed in terms of the free-energy change for the reaction (DG°) as
−∆G
K eq = exp .���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.22)
RT
Here, R is the gas constant and T is the temperature. The Keq is a function of temperature and
pressure only and does not depend on composition of the system. Therefore, if the composition of
the system changes as a result of subsequent reactions or addition of new reactants or products to
the system, the same value of the equilibrium constant(s) can be used to calculate the equilibrium
distribution in the new system provided that the temperature and pressure remain constant and the
equilibrium assumption is valid.
Equilibrium constants are not constants in the true sense because they do depend on temperature
and pressure. An increase in temperature may affect the forward and reverse reactions differently.
The reaction that absorbs the most heat will increase that rate to a larger extent than the other reac-
tion. A new equilibrium constant will now represent the new situation. The simple equation by van’t
Hoff (J. H. van’t Hoff, 1852–1911) can be used to compute the change in equilibrium constant
caused by a change in temperature. The equation can be expressed as
d ln K eq ∆H °
= ,���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.23)
dT RT 2
where DH° is the standard enthalpy change of reaction, T is the temperature, and R is the gas con-
stant. If the reaction is exothermic (i.e., if DH° for the reaction is negative), then the equilibrium
constant decreases as temperature increases. Conversely, Keq increases with temperature for an endo-
thermic reaction.
If the standard enthalpy change of reaction is assumed independent of temperature, then integrat-
ing Eq. 1.23 gives an even simpler result:
K eq
ln = − ∆H ° 1 − 1 .�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.24)
K eq,ref R T Tref
Here, Keq,ref is the value of the equilibrium constant at the reference temperature Teq,ref. This approxi-
mate equation implies that a plot of ln Keq vs. the reciprocal temperature gives a straight line. This
equation is helpful in interpolating and extrapolating equilibrium constant data with reasonable
accuracy.
The effect of pressure on equilibrium constants is typically smaller than the effect of temperature.
However, for deep wells it can be significant and needs to be considered along with the change in
temperature. The pressure dependence of the equilibrium constant can be calculated from
∂ln K eq ∆V °
∂ P = RT , ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.25)
T
where ∆V° is the molar volume change of the reaction with all reactants and products in their stan-
dard states (Langmuir 1997). If the molar volume change of the reaction is independent of pressure,
then the integration of Eq. 1.25 yields
K eq ∆V °( P − Pref )
ln =− ,������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.26)
K eq,ref RT
where Keq is the equilibrium constant at the desired pressure P. Keq,ref is the equilibrium constant at
Pref, which is typically 1 bar.
In very dilute aqueous solutions, the anions and cations behave in an “ideal” manner, in which
each ion will act as if it is independent of all other ions in the solution. In real solutions, especially
those in which there are high concentrations of other ions (such as in a produced brine), the ions
are affected by the other ions in solution, and so the fluid may not behave as if it has exactly the
same number of ions as described by the concentration. The equilibrium constants in such noni-
deal systems are then expressed in terms of species activity. If, for example, the chemical system
{C }c { D}d −∆G
K eq = = exp , ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.27)
a
{ A} { B} b
RT
where { } denotes the activity of the species. The activity of the species can be thought of as an
effective concentration of the species in solution. Programs to calculate or estimate the activity coef-
ficients are beyond the scope of this discussion, but there are several general purpose geochemical
models available in the public domain that can be used to predict formation of oilfield scale. Most of
them are available at no or minimal charge through the Internet and have been extensively reviewed
in texts on aqueous chemistry. They include Mangold and Tsang (1991); Glynn et al. (1992); Wolery
(1992); van der Heijde and Elnawawy (1993); Langmuir (1997); Butler and Cogley (1998).
These concepts can be applied directly to inorganic scales. Organic deposits such as wax (paraf-
fin), asphaltenes, gas hydrates, and naphthenates also become supersaturated before they can start
to deposit. However, because of system complexity, equilibrium constants cannot usually be calcu-
lated. See Section 4.2.1 for discussions of the rates of scale dissolution or deposition of solids and
how they are influenced by the thermodynamic properties described in this section.
1.4.5 Surface Chemistry. The chemistry and physics of surfaces affect a great number of processes
and services performed in oil/gas transportation and apply to solids as well as liquids. The surface of
any solid or liquid is an interface between that medium and some other that could be a solid, liquid,
or a gas. The chemistry of the interface is affected by both surfaces. In one example (Fig. 1.16), a
drop of oil is placed on a solid surface in a jar of water. The forces at that surface—that is, inter-
facial surface tension (IST, or g )—are caused by the cohesion of the molecules in that surface and
depend on the molecules in both surfaces. Therefore, IST is not a property of the liquid alone but of
the liquid’s interface with another material. In Fig. 1.16, the surface (on the left) is covered with a
water film (it is hydrophilic), and the oil drop is repelled and the contact angle (q ) is close to 0°. In
the middle case, the surface is partially oil-wetting, and in the right figure the surface is completely
oil-wet and the oil droplet spreads out on the surface.
If a liquid is in a container, such as a pipe or tank, then there will be a liquid/air interface at its top surface
and also an interface between the liquid and the container walls. The IST between the liquid and the air
is usually different from its IST with the container walls. Where two surfaces meet, the consequence
must also be such that all forces are in balance. As noted, where the two surfaces meet (and there are
three phases), they form a contact angle, q, which is the angle that the tangent line of the liquid surface
makes with the solid surface. Fig. 1.17 shows an example of solid, liquid, and gas interfaces. Here,
tension forces ( f ) are shown for the liquid/air interface, liquid/solid interface, and solid/air interface.
θ
γow
θ
γso γsw
Fig. 1.16—Wetting angles of water, oil, and mineral surface (Abdallah et al. 2007).
γla
θ
γsl γsa
(b) Water droplet immersed in oil (c) Water droplet immersed in oil
resting on a brass surface resting on a glass surface
Note that Here d is the tube diameter. The mass m of the drop Fig. 1.20—Surface tension ensured
hanging from the end of the tube can be found by equating the by pendant-drop method.
force caused by gravity,
Fg = mg.���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.32)
The component of the surface tension in the vertical direction is Fγ = sin α . Thus,
Here, a is the angle of contact with the tube, and g is the acceleration caused by gravity. The limit
of this formula, as a goes to 90°, gives the maximum weight of a pendant drop for a liquid with a
given surface tension, g. Thus,
mg
γ= .������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.34)
πd
F
γ la = ; l = 2w + 2d . ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ (1.35)
2lcosθ
A number of important properties and uses of pipeline chemicals are related to wetting and capil-
lary forces during pumping in the formation. Howard et al. (2010) explained that the Laplace and
Washburn equations can both be of importance (Grattoni et al. 1995). The Laplace equation relates
capillary pressure—the difference between the phase pressures of a nonwetting (P2) and a wetting
phase (P1) such as water and oil, Pc—to surface tension, g, and contact angle, q. Here, r is the radius
of a capillary tube, L is the height of the fluid rise in the tube, r is the density of the fluid, and g is
the gravitational acceleration (980 cm/sec2).
To evaluate wetting of two fluids in the same geometry, the ratio of two Laplace equations can be
used. For example, using water and a solution with unknown properties leads to
and
Lu γ u cos θ u
= . ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (1.39)
Lw γ w cos θ w
1.4.6 Testing of Pipeline Fluids. Testing of the well/pipeline fluids provides the base data to pre-
dict conditions for FA and IM planning. These short subsections give an outline. Details are in
Frenier and Ziauddin (2008) and Frenier et al. (2010).
Compositional Characterization of Crude Oil/Gas. Important ways for characterizing crude oil
include
• Pressure/volume/temperature relationships
• Density
• Viscosity
• Rheology
• Refractive index
Composition of the Aqueous Phases. The composition of the aqueous phases may greatly affect
scale potential, corrosivity, emulsion tendencies, and hydrate formation. Analysis of water chemis-
try can give important information on the scaling tendencies of the formation water or of water that
may become mixed with the formation water. There are a number of standard methods for analyses
of water, including those found in the volume from the American Public Health Association (Clesceri
et al. 1999). Most of the cations that are important for determination of scaling tendencies can be
determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry or inductively coupled plasma optical emis-
sion spectrophotometry. There are also portable kits (Hach 2005) for analysis of water components
that require addition of specific reagents and examine the development of a color change that can
be read using a simple optical spectrophotometer. Analysis of surface water samples will give some
indication of the presence of scaling ions, but unless a sample can be collected at the formation
face and maintained at the bottomhole temperature and pressure, important scaling ions will not
be present.
The concentrations of acid gases and the resultant pH values are determined by methods described
in Davies and Scott (2006). A major complication with this analysis is that the water content of
a fluid and the chemical composition change in time and place in the pipeline train as a result of
physical changes and introduction or removal of components in the separation and treating stages.
Stimulation and EOR can likewise change the chemical composition of the fluids entering the sys-
tem at any point. Additional testing methods, including microbiological methods, which are used
especially for field samples, are discussed in Section 3.4.3.
• The pipeline systems of the oil/gas industry extend from the wellhead to the final consumer
of the products, and the same types of chemical/physical processes will apply throughout the
system. There are various physical and chemical reactions that are common to all systems,
and these were reviewed in this chapter and referenced for further study. The most universal
principles are the varied reactions at surfaces (liquid/liquid, liquid/gas, liquid/solid, and gas/
solid) and the realities of multiphase flow conditions.
• Multiphase flow of some form is the norm for all line segments, though degree and conditions
may change dramatically in different portions of the system. The different flowing forms may
greatly affect corrosion, scale formation, and other FA issues.
• Pipe materials of construction are critical issues for maintaining integrity and long life and
must be addressed when planning a line segment and when maintenance is needed.
• Although an almost infinite variety of chemicals may transit a system, the division into aque-
ous liquids, hydrocarbon liquids, gases, and solids will help make sense of the mixtures.
• As much chemical information about each chemical class and phase as is possible is necessary
for making predictions about FA and IM issues.
Hydrocarbon-producing wells deliver a vast number of chemicals and chemical mixtures into the
flowlines, into subsurface and surface treating facilities, and then into the pipelines that deliver a
product to a customer. This chapter describes the continuum of maintenance and integrity concerns
that affect the connected pipeline and surface facilities and thus the steady flow of products from the
wellhead to the final user of hydrocarbon chemicals.
The consumer facilities may use a product, such as natural gas, to directly generate power and
heat, or the hydrocarbons may be subjected to processing, such as at a refinery or chemical plant. In
this book, the chemicals produced from the wells that then transit the pipeline systems are grouped
by phase as
• Aqueous liquids
• Hydrocarbon liquids
• Gases
• Solids
This chapter includes short descriptions of the fluids and some solid phases. In addition, here
are described the influence of the reservoir history and type and the effects various possible fluid
phases have on the different categories of pipeline problems found in the upstream and midstream
petroleum environments.
2.1.1 Aqueous Phases. Most of the hydrocarbon streams coproduce vast quantities of salt solutions.
The coproduced water includes connate water associated with the native hydrocarbons, as well as
improved oil/gas recovery (IOR) water (including water for pressure maintenance). Additional water
sources include those produced by stimulation treatments. In addition, condensed water from dif-
ferent operations, such as facilities, forms as a consequence of changes in temperature and pressure.
Most important, all the aqueous phases may differ in composition as a result of times and locations.
Included in the stimulation category are aqueous streams from fracturing and acidizing treatments
(see Frenier and Ziauddin 2014), as well as any other aqueous fluids used during separation activi-
ties. The chemical compositions of these water streams vary significantly from almost potable to
very concentrated brines. Fig. 2.1 (USGS 2002) shows a diagram of salinities of produced water
from various parts of the US. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and stimulation, especially hydraulic
fracturing (HF), may significantly change the water quantity and quality that is produced at the end
of all the well treatment operations. EOR and pressure maintenance using injected water are major
reasons that the water cut usually increases as the well field matures. The aqueous phases present in
a specific section of a pipeline system may also change as a function of the well’s life cycle (POSC
2006; see also Section 2.2.1) and various production activities. Dissolved alkaline and alkaline earth
salts and various acids constitute the majority of the “inorganic”- type materials present. However,
almost any soluble element may be present in small quantities, and HF may introduce additional
chemical species (see Shen et al. 2012).
The amount and composition of the aqueous phase may affect or cause corrosion, inorganic scale,
gas hydrates, and emulsions as well as affecting the use of the final hydrocarbon product. Reports
by Ruegamer et al. (2013) and Wilson (2014) claim that the amount of water used in HF treatments
is changing as a result of new knowledge and the changing nature of the wells.
Jacobs (2016) has reviewed the problems of production and injection of water from the Mississip-
pian Lime formation in western Oklahoma, USA. The play is a carbonate formation, and unconven-
tional techniques, especially directional drilling, are used to recover oil and gas from it. Last year,
production in the Mississippian Lime was estimated to be approximately 100,000 B/D of oil, which
accounted for a quarter of the state’s overall oil production. The problem is that the water cuts were
not just higher than normal, they were often extraordinarily high. Newly completed oil wells have
been known to pump out as much as 98% water at a rate of thousands of barrels per day. According
to Jacobs (2016), the injection of so much water into a porous formation (the Arbuckle) has probably
contributed to induced seismic activity in Oklahoma. Therefore, the continued production from this
important resource is in doubt.
Definitions and examples of stimulation treatments are presented in Frenier and Ziauddin (2014).
Any of these treatments and the changes in them may affect water quality and volume.
The failure of a pipeline carrying waste water can be as significant as the failure of a line carrying
oil or gas in some situations. The Associated Press (AP 2014) has reported that a leaking under-
ground pipeline near Mandaree, Montana, USA, spilled approximately 1 million gal of saltwater
(from fracturing activities in the Bakken plays) near Bear Den Bay, a tributary of the Missouri River,
which provides potable water to some communities. SPE recognizes that the availability and pro-
duction of water is one of the most important issues facing the hydrocarbon production and transport
industries (SPE 2011).
Water vapor will also be entrained with natural gas as well as the liquid hydrocarbons, and its
removal, termed “dehydration,” is described in Section 2.3.2.
2.1.2 Hydrocarbon Liquids. Hydrocarbon liquids well as the gaseous chemicals described in this
section are usually the primary goal of petroleum well production activities. The in-situ crude oil
being produced constitutes a continuum of soluble chemicals, from C1 to large molecules with
molecular weight in the 750-dalton range.
Fig. 2.2 shows some basic chemical structures that constitute crude oil. The chemicals range from
nonpolar chemicals (i.e., saturated hydrocarbons) to highly polar ones (i.e., aromatic asphaltenes and
nitrogen-substituted chemicals). The lower
hydrocarbons are considered in the gases Paraffins
described in the next section. However, it
should be understood that at undisturbed
n-octane
reservoir conditions there exists a single
hydrocarbon phase, and the gaseous hydro-
carbon phases do not emerge until the bub- n-pentadecane
blepoint (Bp) pressure has been reached. Napthenes
When and where the phase changes take
place may greatly affect the viscosity and
stability of the flowing crude oil and the
production of wax, asphaltenes, and gas
hydrates (these subjects are reviewed in
isooctylperhydrophenanthren
Chapter 4). Depending on the source of
the oil, it may consist of heavy fraction as
Aromatic
well as lightweight fractions. Some shale
N
formations produce a very light (and flam-
mable) product—termed “natural gas liq-
uid” (NGL) (see Appendix A)—that may
xylene
cause flow and gathering line problems quinoline
(these are described in Section 2.3.1). Resins and Asphaltenes
mechanical processes (temperature, pressure, flow rates) affect the presences and quantities of the
gaseous phases. The dissolved gases also partially control the aqueous fluid pH and may thus deter-
mine the corrosivity of the fluids. Organic acids such as acetic acid can become volatile under some
conditions and may be one cause of top-of-line corrosion (TLC). O2 is always considered to be an
introduced contaminant, given that the undisturbed reservoir conditions are usually reducing and
any oxygen would quickly be reacted.
Production of natural gas (mostly methane, with various amounts of C2–C5 hydrocarbons) is the
goal of many oilfield operations, and this mixture will usually be separated or removed from the pro-
duction stream before conveyance to a customer. In some wells, the production of CO2 or rare gases
such as helium (He) may also be a primary or secondary goal (see Daly 2005). CO2 has become an
important commodity because this gas is a significant EOR chemical.
2.1.4 Solids. Solids are complex materials usually considered to be unwanted contaminants. Sand
and other formation fines can result from uncontrolled production methods or migration of HF
proppants. Corrosion products, organic solids (especially paraffins, asphaltenes, gas hydrates, and
naphthenates), and scale particles also could enter a flow system. The impingement of flowing solids
onto a surface can cause mechanical and corrosion/mechanical damage to many well system com-
ponents (see Section 3.2.3). A sufficient amount of solids can change the flow regime or actually
block the pipe.
2.1.5 Emulsions, Foams, and Solid Dispersions. A wide range of mixed phases can form in pipe-
lines as well as in facilities. Emulsions are a dispersion of one or more liquids in another liquid
(Kokal 2006). Foams are a dispersion of a gas in a liquid. Solids also may be dispersed in liquids
and gases. Important characteristics causing all dispersions in the oil/gas industry include these:
Because of the heterogeneous nature of pipeline-associated fluids, all these factors may present at
any time. More details of problems and applications of mixed phases are provided in Sections 4.6
and 7.5.4 and in Frenier and Ziauddin (2014).
2.2 Effects of the Life Cycle and Reservoir Type on Pipeline Maintenance
The requirements to combat FA and IM problems in pipelines as well as the solutions to them are
largely dictated by the reservoir fluids that are produced, as described briefly in Section 2.1. Conven-
tional and unconventional plays may produce different fluids and fluid volumes that can affect scale
types and locations, corrosion types and locations, and formation of organic solids. Sections 2.2.2 and
2.2.3 provide short descriptions of several conventional and unconventional reservoirs and how pro-
duction and completion methods may affect pipeline problems and solutions. The actual life cycle
of the well, as well as the various stages in the production phase, can also greatly affect the need for
corrosion, scale, and organic solids control in pipelines.
2.2.1 Life Cycle of a Hydrocarbon-Producing Reservoir. The phases of the life cycle of a hydro-
carbon-producing reservoir have been identified in the industry as exploration (discover), appraisal
(define), development (develop), production (deplete), and abandonment (dispose) (POSC 2006).
Except for the earliest phases of exploration, in which geologic and seismic methods are used to find
promising areas where hydrocarbons may be located, large volumes of chemicals are used to aid
production. They are applied during the drilling, completion, production, and abandonment phases.
However, even when additional chemicals are not used, chemistry is important in all the phases (see
Fig. 2.3). Consider, for example, the following applications.
Stimulation
Drilling and fluids flow assurance in
Geochemical cementing mature field: EOR Cementing
analyses services characterization: Monitoring
tracers
Various types of pipelines are used during this phase, and the chemicals affect them in ways
that constitute major themes of this book.
Abandonment. When the well is abandoned, cements and other chemicals are employed to make
sure that the hydrocarbons or other fluids will not reach the surface or pollute aquifers or damage
property. As well, pipelines and gathering lines directly associated with production must be decom-
missioned and safely removed.
Production Subphases. The production activity involves subphases that may affect pipeline activ-
ities. See the review by Lindley (2001) on the production phases; an abstract follows.
Primary Phase. In this phase, the reservoir fluids flow mostly as a result of the initial and internal
pressure of the reservoir. Note that the production is controlled by the pressure differential between
the formation and the bottomhole well pressure. While the pressures may be sufficient for initial
production, stimulation using fracturing and/or reactive chemical treatments may be applied to some
wells to remove formation damage or to improve returns from tight formations (Frenier and Ziauddin
2014). Other production chemicals can also be used to maintain flow, including inhibitors and sur-
factants (these are described in Chapter 6; see also Frenier et al. 2010). For the most part, during
the primary phase, chemicals, including any injected water or gas, are not added to the reservoir
except near the wellbore, so the reservoir is not changed significantly from a chemical standpoint.
However, just by flowing the wells, important equilibrium conditions may be changed. At some
point (either early or very late in the production phase) pressure maintenance will be required. This
may be defined as the secondary phase. Some types of pipelines described in Section 2.3 are in use
during this phase.
Secondary Phase. The pressure to move the fluids through the formations (see Eqs. 1.6 and 1.7)
can be maintained or enhanced by adding a downhole pump to reduce the flowing pressure or by
injecting fluids into the formation. This latter action presents a radical change to the reservoir, given
that a large number of injection wells may be required. This will require a large increase in the num-
ber of pipelines and other piping to serve the expanded production area.
A typical arrangement is a “five-spot” pattern, in which four input or injection wells are located at
the corners of a square—the exact shape of the flood and number of wells depends on the reservoir
dimensions (Singh and Kiel 1982; Chang 2010)—and the production well is placed in the center of
the square. The injection fluid, which is normally water (brine), steam, or gas, is pumped or injected
simultaneously through the four injection wells to displace the oil toward the central production
well (Schlumberger 2010). Otott (2007) presented one description of this layout, and Fig. 2.4 shows
a number of different plans developed on the basis of the reservoir characteristics (Singh and Kiel
1982). The injected fluids act to drive the hydrocarbons to the production wells as well as to main-
tain the flowing pressure. However, these activities may introduce multiple problems, including an
increase in water cut, a change in water saturation and possibly a change in the wettability of the
formation, and introduction of scale-causing ions such as new cations and sulfate. In addition, the
water should be treated to remove dissolved oxygen and a biocide should be added. Not adequately
treating the water is a major cause of corrosion and the “souring” of the reservoir through introduc-
tion of sulfate-reducing bacteria.
Increasing the water cut as well as possibly changing ions in the water can change the corrosion
rates and locations of damage, as well as scaling (more details are in Chapter 3 and Section 4.2).
Because there may now be four injection wells for each production well, the number of connecting
pipes as well as treating facilities may increase and/or change.
Although steam injection may be considered an integral part of an EOR process (or of primary
production for very heavy oils), it can cause multiple problems, including the formation of mixed
deposits (see Frenier et al. 2010; also see Chapter 4). Many chemical treatments can be used in
this phase to maintain production, including inhibitor injections as well as reactive chemical and
propped-fracture treatments. These are described in more detail in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 of Frenier
and Ziauddin (2014).
Corner Side
well well
Injection well
Four-spot
Seven-spot
Smallest area of
flow symmetry
At some point in the life of many reservoirs, the removal of additional hydrocarbons is not pos-
sible or is economically unproductive because the oil is trapped in the pore spaces and so strongly
adsorbed onto the rock surfaces that injection of water, natural gas, or steam cannot remove economic
amounts. Because of uneven coverage of the reservoir resulting from permeability differences, oil
may also have been bypassed by the sweep fluids. At this point, the massive injection of external
chemicals may be planned and the well may be considered to be in the tertiary production phase.
Tertiary Phase. Frenier and Ziauddin (2014) define this production phase as the tertiary use of
EOR chemicals that may be part of an overall IOR process. As much as 2 × 1012 bbl of conventional
oil and as much as 5 × 1012 bbl of heavy oil will remain in the world’s reservoirs after the primary
and secondary production phases have reached their economic limits. This incremental production is
difficult and expensive but will remain as one of the methods for prolonging production from mature
fields. Note that steam injection may be used at earlier phases in some heavy-oil fields (Thomas
2008).Thus, the injection of large amounts of chemicals to remove some of this oil usually defines
the tertiary phase. Much of the current interest is driven by the high price of oil. EOR activities,
especially CO2 flooding (see Frenier and Ziauddin 2014, Chap. 5), will have a dramatic effect on
pipeline FA and IM activities and concerns. The amount of produced water will increase, and the
low pH can greatly affect corrosion potential as well as scaling patterns. Changes in inhibitors will
probably be required.
Different types of reservoirs may produce different chemicals and may involve changing ratios of
hydrocarbons to water, as discussed next in Sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3.
2.2.2 Conventional Reservoirs of Oil and Gas. According to Frenier and Ziauddin (2014), con-
ventional reservoirs include those drilled, completed, and stimulated using the tools that have been
used and developed in the past 100 years. Many of the most important techniques reviewed in the
book were developed for use in these types of plays, which exist in carbonate and sandstone forma-
tions. The stimulation methods include acidizing as well as fracturing using proppants. By excep-
tion, they are not “unconventional” (described in Section 2.2.3). However conventional reservoirs
may also include consolidated and unconsolidated formations.
Consolidated Reservoirs. Usually a sandstone formation is cemented together to form a
mass that has substantial compressive strength (see Fig. 2.5a, which shows the constituents,
and Fig. 2.5b, presenting a Berea micrograph). Although carbonate formations—CaCO3 or
CaMg(CO3)2—are much more homogeneous than sandstones, they look much like a sandstone,
even under a microscope, except that most of the matrix is soluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl). As
a consequence, consolidated limestone and sandstone will have high compressive strengths and
can be used as primary building materials. These reservoirs can be stimulated by matrix acidiz-
ing and acid fracturing (carbonates only), as well as by proppant fracturing methods (using both
carbonates and sandstones). Filling a reservoir with a conductive proppant will provide enhanced
permeability and may also improve connections within the reservoir. Lack of connections either
areally or vertically is a major reason for bypassed hydrocarbons. At some point in the well’s life
cycle (POSC 2006), the formation will probably require waterflooding, CO2 flooding, or another
(a) Constituents of
Sandstones
(b) Micrograph of
Berea Sandstone
type of IOR if it is an oil-producing formation. These operations will change the hydrocarbon/
water ratio as well as the chemical constituents, which will alter the impact on the connecting
pipelines.
Unconsolidated Reservoirs. Soft, unconsolidated sand formations exist and frequently have high
permeabilities, but still may be improved through stimulation processes including acidizing or
hydraulic fracturing. Because they may produce sand, frac-pack designs may apply (Morales et al.
2003) to control the sand production. Sand-producing formations can cause significant damage to
piping through erosion/corrosion processes and impingement of the solids (see Section 3.2.3). As
the reservoirs mature, changes in oil, gas, and water ratios and amounts will change pipeline operat-
ing conditions.
2.2.3 Unconventional Reservoirs of Oil and Gas. According to Holditch et al. (2007), the term
“unconventional” usually applies to a low-permeability reservoir (< 0.1 md) that produces mainly
dry natural gas. Many of the low-permeability reservoirs developed in the past are sandstone, but
significant quantities of gas are also produced from low-permeability carbonates as well as shales
and coalbed deposits. Some shale formations have also yielded liquid hydrocarbons (RRCT 2011).
Fig. 2.6 describes the geographic distribution of unconventional original gas in place (Dong et al.
2011) for various sections of the Earth. Note that at the time of the assessment by Dong et al. (2011),
tight gas sands were the largest known source of future gas. However, development of shale gas may
change these estimates significantly.
Cramer (2008) reviewed the stimulation of the “unconventional reservoir,” and he noted that
this term has different meanings to different people. Certain reservoirs that are termed “uncon-
ventional” have a rock matrix consisting of interparticle pore networks with very small pore con-
nections imparting very poor fluid flow characteristics. The author claims that abundant volumes
of oil or gas can be stored in these rocks, and often the rock is high in organic content and is the
source of the hydrocarbon. However, because of marginal rock matrix quality, these reservoirs
generally require both natural and induced fracture networks to enable economic recovery of
the hydrocarbon. Rock types in this class include shale and coalbeds. Cramer (2008) noted that
the term “shale” is a catch-all for any rock consisting of extremely small framework particles
with minute pores charged with hydrocarbon and includes carbonate- and quartz-rich rocks. He
claimed that another type of unconventional reservoir is the stacked pay unit, which exhibits some-
what better pore characteristics than in the case just outlined but with the individual units tend-
ing to be lenticular in shape and having an extremely small size or volume. These two classes of
unconventional reservoirs are amenable to well stimulation.
Region Coalbed Methane (P50) Tight Sands Gas (P50) Shale Gas (P50) Total (TCF) (P50)
Austral-Asia 1,348 6,253 2,690 10,291
North America 1,629 10,784 5,905 18,318
Commonwealth of 859 28,604 15,880 45,343
Independent States
Latin America 13 3,366 3,742 7,122
Middle East 9 15,447 15,416 30,872
Europe 176 3,525 2,194 5,895
Africa 18 4,000 3,882 7,901
World 4,052 71,981 49,709 125,742
Fig. 2.6—Geographic distribution of unconventional original gas in place, in trillion cubic feet (TCF)
(Dong et al. 2011).
When the above rock types become commercially exploited, they are known as resource plays.
Once a low priority, the depletion of conventional reservoirs and improving price for oil and gas
has driven unconventional reservoirs to an important place in the oil/gas industry. In some regions
(i.e., Rocky Mountain Province in the US), unconventional reservoirs represent the primary target
of current activity and remaining hydrocarbon development. Cramer (2008) claimed that given their
unique petrophysical properties, each type of unconventional reservoir requires a unique approach
to well stimulation, with often differing objectives than exist with conventional reservoir types. The
paper reviews the characteristics of the basic unconventional reservoir types, lessons learned, and
successful stimulation practices developed in completing these reservoirs; it also suggests areas for
improvement in treatment and reservoir characterization and in treatment design.
Hydraulic fracturing has contributed greatly to the economic producibility of these reservoirs.
Natural gas production from shallow, fractured shale formations in the Appalachian and Michigan
basins in the US has been under way for decades. What changed the game, as it were, was the rec-
ognition that one could “create a permeable reservoir” and high rates of gas production by intensely
stimulating horizontal wells through multistage fracturing. Chapters 3 and 4 of Frenier and Ziauddin
(2014) describe some of these advances. Details of several important unconventional reservoirs are
presented next.
Shale Gas and Oil Reservoirs. A very important type of predominately silicate formation that
contains shale beds is now being frequently treated using proppant fracturing methods. Shale is the
most common sedimentary formation on Earth (Boyer et al. 2011), but it is quite different from
sandstones that contain sand grains mixed with clays and other minerals. Shale has been defined
as a fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock formed from a clay mud that was compacted over time
(Wikipedia 2010c). As such, the major minerals represented are largely low-permeability reservoir
kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite. This report noted that clay minerals of Late Paleozoic mud-
stones contain expandable clays, whereas in older rocks, especially in Middle to Early Paleozoic
shales, illite clays predominate. The shales may be very dark, almost black in color, because of the
presence of unoxidized carbon compounds as well as iron oxides (Fig. 2.7). These are also called
“organic-rich shales.” Some shale formations, such as the Haynesville (Buller 2010), may also con-
tain calcite and dolomite and may have HCl solubility up to 15%.
Akrad et al. (2011) called these formations “prospective shales” because the clay content is usu-
ally less than 50%. They noted that the high carbonate content of some of these rocks makes them
Fig. 2.7—Shale rocks (USGOV.jpg) and shale sheets (Alexander et al. 2011; Boyer et al. 2011).
“soft,” and thus working these formations may require different fracturing fluids and proppants for
stimulation.
Shale has long been considered a “source” rock (Cramer 2008; McCarthy et al. 2011) as well as a
barrier trap for migrating hydrocarbons. Fracturing of shale now makes it a viable producing forma-
tion, and these formations are now called “resource rock plays” (see Cramer 2008).
The trapped carbon is the source of the methane/liquids and is the object of the fracture stimulation
treatments. Shales can also be called slates. The major physical attributes are extremely thin lamella
or parallel bands less than 1 cm thick (see Fig. 2.7); these are known collectively as fissility. The
shale beds have very low permeabilities. Soeder (1988) examined a Marcellus shale that was free
of a mobile liquid phase and had a measured gas porosity of approximately 10% under stress with a
fairly strong “adsorption” component. Permeability to gas (k) was highly stress dependent, ranging
from approximately 20 microdarcies (md) at a net stress of 3,000 psi down to approximately 5 md at
a net stress of 6,000 psi (note that most oil/gas-producing sandstones have permeability values in the
1- to 1,000-md range). These properties make extraction of gas from shales extremely difficult unless
they have been fracture treated. Kaufman et al. (2008) report that shale gas formations also have
microfractures and cleats that provide access to the gas. In this characteristic, they share similarities
with coalbeds that can also be fractured to produce methane. Very important fields of gas-producing
shale include the Barnett Shale in central Texas and the Marcellus Group that underlies parts of New
York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia.
An important formation is the Eagle Ford Shale Group of Texas, which runs from the Mexican
border almost to Dallas in the US. According to the RRCT (2011), the lower section of the Eagle
Ford consists of organic-rich deposits and fossiliferous marine shales. Also, a small area of the Eagle
Ford consists of a thin unit between the shales, and this area is especially amenable to hydraulic frac-
turing. The wells in the deeper part of the play deliver a dry gas, but moving northeastward (and with
an updip), the wells produce more liquids (see the discussion in Boyer et al. 2011; McCarthy et al.
2011). One of the fields is actually an oil field (Eagleville, Eagle Ford). Even though the conditions
are severe, these are the fields’ reservoir characteristics:
• 6 to 10% porosity
• 200 to 600 md
• 7,000- to 10,000-psi bottomhole pressure
• 2.0 to 4.5 million psi Young’s modulus
• Bottom hole static temperature (BST) 270 to 300°F
More than 5 million bbl of oil have been produced in 2 years (RRCT 2011) from this reservoir.
The field ends in the vicinity of Dallas, where an outcrop of Austin Chalk over the shale can be seen
(Fig. 2.8). Thus, it runs for almost 400 miles (width approximately 50 miles) and with a maximum
thickness of approximately 250 ft (RRCT 2011). These dimensions are unusual, because the kero-
gen in most oil shale formations must be removed using heat. Fig. 2.8 also shows the layers of the
Marcellus Shale, which is a very important gas play that covers several eastern US states.
Fig. 2.9 shows the location of major shale oil and gas plays. Note that other shale formations
such as the Bakken in North Dakota, USA, are also producing significant volumes of liquid hydro-
carbons. A US Energy Information Administration report (EIA 2014) claimed that as of 2014, the
Bakken region is producing 1 million BOPD of liquids and 1 billion ft3/D of gas. The reader will
understand that this is an ever-changing value.
Table 2.1 describes the properties of the major shale basins in the US. Because these are active
drilling/exploration areas, the map is continually changing.
Boyer et al. (2011) and Alexander et al. (2011) also claimed that there are significant shale gas-
and oil-containing formations in Europe, Africa, Russia, China, and South Asia, but current produc-
tion is not as developed as in North America.
Austin chalk
Eagle Ford
shale
Marcellus shale
Fig. 2.8—Outcrops of Austin chalk, Eagle Ford shale (Wikipedia 2011d), and Marcellus shale
(Arthur et al. 2009).
Fig. 2.9—Shale gas and shale oil plays (Boyer et al. 2011).
liquid or carbon dioxide moves in transportation, including, but not limited to, line pipe, valves, and
other appurtenances connected to line pipe, pumping units, fabricated assemblies associated with
pumping units, metering and delivery stations and fabricated assemblies therein, and breakout tanks.”
The primary federal regulatory agency in the US is the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration (see PHMSA 2012).
Refineries and chemical plant facilities are not within the scope of this book because many of the
chemical reactions needed to refine the crude oil are more complex (and at much higher temperatures)
than those in the upstream/midstream sectors. However, the refineries and facilities are affected by the
chemicals applied in the upstream parts of the systems. In addition, the unit operations and types of
equipment in some refinery operations are similar to those in upstream treating facilities (see Section
2.3.2). For information on refinery cleaning processes, see Frenier (2001) and Frenier (2017b).
Various types of additional products not directly associated with oil/gas production are conveyed
using pipelines. Examples of the range of other materials include, but are not limited to,
All these lines may have FA and IM issues similar to those faced by oil/gas pipelines, but these
lines are excluded from the current book because of space and time limitations. The reader is encour-
aged to examine Mohitpour et al. (2010), a book that mentions finished products but is also primar-
ily associated with oil/gas transportation.
In the normal parlance of the oil/gas industry, gathering lines, transfer lines, and surface facilities are
considered part of the “upstream environment”; the transmission lines are described as “midstream”;
and refineries and chemical plants are “downstream.” Note, however, that as long as the conditions are
the same, chemistry and physics work the same regardless of the sector. So the lines between the various
oil/gas sectors are frequently blurred, and operators therefore need knowledge of the entire supply train.
2.3.1 Gathering Lines and Wastewater Lines. Gathering lines are the piping systems that connect
individual wellheads to larger collection and treatment facilities. These systems include onshore as
well as offshore well production systems. See Fig. 1.5 for one example of a well gathering line lay-
out. In this category are included lines that move partially treated fluids to further treatment before
the fluids enter a transmission system. Also included is piping that feeds water for flooding, EOR,
and disposal activities. The water is generally recycled water from other production wells. The
wastewater lines can be composed of polymers, which are not easily corroded, as well as large steel
lines (see Harris et al. 2010). The latter are subject to corrosion, scale, and microbiologically influ-
enced corrosion (MIC). The waste water from oil/gas operations is becoming a valuable commodity.
A report by Boschee (2015) describes the very complex system of water recovery and treatments
conducted by Chevron in California. In this case, the recovered water is used for agricultural treat-
ments. The article mentions an 8-mile internally coated pipeline constructed as part of this system.
In the shale oil/gas fields, very large volumes of water are needed for fracturing treatments; there,
the highly contaminated returned fluids are being reclaimed, and much of the water transits newly
constructed pipelines (see Locke and Kimball 2013; Rao 2015). Methods for cleaning recycled
water are described in Section 8.4.1.
Fig. 2.11 shows a small section of a complex onshore system with numerous connections, valves,
filters, and control devices that can become fouled and/or corroded. Ruptures of wastewater pipelines
have caused damage in various oil/gas fields, including several in the Bakken play (Scheyder 2015;
AP 2014). Details of wastewater treatment methods and spill cleanup are in Sections 8.4.1 and 8.4.2.
2.3.2 Surface and Subsurface Facilities. Surface and subsurface facilities include primary and
secondary separation facilities where the aqueous, hydrocarbon liquid, and gaseous phases are
treated to produce pipeline-transmission-quality products. Mokhatab et al. (2006) noted that pro-
cessing is designed to separate natural gas, condensate, incondensable liquids (e.g., water and
hydrocarbons), and acid gases. These processes will allow the further processing and sale or reuse
of the valuable products. Several current engineering/chemical operations are in use to achieve
these goals. Fig. 2.12 shows a generic flow chart of the processes. In the diagram, the fluids are
usually subjected to a physical separation sequence to produce aqueous, liquid hydrocarbon, and
gaseous phases. The different phases may then be given additional treatment, depending on the
original composition and needs (details are in the 2.3.2 subsections).
Well fluids
Physical separation Gas Compression
Pipeline
Refinery Injection/recycle
An example of a complex
integrated treatment plant was
described by Jarragh et al.
Reboiler
(2013). They noted that the
Kuwait Oil Company has facil-
ities that consist of 22 crude-
processing plants (or gathering
Hot process centers) as well as four gas
vapor and processing plants (or booster
liquid outletq
stations). Two effluent water
disposal plants, as well as a
Steam
inlet seawater treatment plant and
injection plants, are included
in a vast network of pipelines
carrying different products,
Tubes as well as early production
facilities. They also provided
several detailed diagrams that
show the large number of indi-
vidual treatment units, pumps,
and connecting piping that
must be protected from corro-
sion and flow problems. Note
that these diagrams are not
Hot condensate
outlet reproduced here because of
their complexity.
Jarragh et al. (2013)
Warm process described several important
liquid inlet types of processing units.
These include heat exchang-
ers (Fig. 2.15), reboilers
Fig. 2.16—Reboiler schematic. (Fig. 2.16), and various towers
used for hydrocarbon separation as well as for contacting a liquid with a gas to cause a chemical
or physical reaction. This will include dehydration or removal of an acidic gas. One example of a
bubble-cap tower is shown, though many other designs are possible. See Fig. 2.17 for details of the
gas contact in the countercurrent flow reactor (the cleaning of these units is covered in Section 7.6).
Numerous types of physical separation devices are shown in Figs. 2.18 and 2.19. A wide range
of organic, inorganic, and mixed deposits can foul these units. These solids come from the inlet
gases and liquids as well as from the reactions that take place in the units. See Engel and Sheilan
(2014) as well as examples in Section 4.5.
Liquid flow
Overflow
weir
Gas flow Downcommer
Gas flow
Details of flow
Gas to
Typical crude oil compression,
treatment system dehydration
(separation, heating,
dehydration, stabilization,
Multiphase meter storage, metering, pumping)
(Test separator) Oil dehydration
Water-to-water
Gas to Gas to treatment
Electrostatic treater,
compression, compression, heater treater
processing processing degasser, desalter
MP separator LP separator
Crude heater
From Manifold Water-to-water Water-to-water Crude/crude
wells treatment treatment exchanger
Effluent
inlet
Oil-level
controller
Water-level Water line
Oil line and float
controller and float
Weir plate Vortex breaker
The production of oil and gas from the shale formations of North America has developed so rap-
idly that the industry has challenges keeping up with the demand. Boschee (2014d) reported that
the shorter time frame for construction of various facilities in the shale environment may reduce the
planning time. This means that the safety of the designs, especially pressure containment (and thus
the integrity of the piping), is a major consideration.
Physical Separation. The surface facilities are similar to some refinery operations in that chemi-
cal and mechanical methods are used, including heating and cooling of fluids. Most initial separa-
tions depend on gravity and density. This may take place in tanks as well as in more-complicated
equipment. The aqueous, liquid hydrocarbons and the gases may also undergo additional physical
and chemical reactions to dehydrate the hydrocarbons and remove CO2 and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Fig. 2.18 shows a detailed layout for initial surface separation of the different phases when oil,
water, and gases are present. Kokal (2006) and Kelland (2009) note that application of heat promotes
oil/water separation and accelerates the treating process. An increase in temperature has three sig-
nificant effects: It reduces the viscosity of the oil, increases the mobility of the water droplets, and
elevates the settling rate of the water droplets.
Fig. 2.19 describes a gravity separator in more detail. Some subsea separation equipment can pro-
vide a level of dehydration and liquid/gas separation (for more information, see Estefen et al. 2005).
Mokhatab et al. (2006, Chap. 5) examined phase separation theory and designs. Because of the great
variety of chemical processes that are used, separation facilities are frequently fouled with mixtures
of organic solids, inorganic solids, and corrosion products.
Bedwell et al. (2015) reviewed problems found in aging facilities and how both engineering and
chemistry can lengthen the life of these vital units. A drawing by these authors indicates some of
the problems, which include foam, emulsions, and scale. The planning “circle” (Fig. 2.20) indicates
process steps for reducing the impact of these issues, which are addressed more fully in Chapter 4.
In many cases, the separation of solids, as noted by Rawlins (2013), is a highly important process
step that must preceed some of the other treating steps. This author reviewed the literature on solids
prevention at the well using sand control methods described in the paper and by King et al. (2003).
Also reviewed was physical separation in the surface facilities. Rawlins further noted that the solids
can be natural substances from the reservoir (including sand, clay fines, and scale) and introduced
solids (including fracturing proppant). This latter category is increasingly present as oil/gas produc-
tion from shale plays includes more hydrocarbon production.
Foarm brkr.
Foarm brkr.
Foarm brkr.
Mist elim.
Mist elim.
Inlet
1. Theoretical
modeling
4. Chemistry
3. System
and flow
mapping
assurance
Fig. 2.20—Flow assurance (FA) problems and planning for maintaining separation facilities (Bedwell
et al. 2015).
Rawlins (2013) claims that desanders can be incorporated into a surface facility (Fig. 2.21a), or
they can be standalone if sand/solids production is of a higher volume than can be handled by the
sand filter (Fig. 2.21b).
Dehydration. After the primary separation, a natural gas stream may require further dehydration
and removal of the acid gases (H2S, CO2, and organic acids such as acetic acid). These operations
are required to reduce corrosion to pipelines and to provide a method for controlling scale and gas
hydrate formations. Dehydration may follow acid gas removal or may be a standalone operation if
the gas does not need acid removal treatment (see the following subsection for details of acid gas
treatments).
Mokhatab et al. (2006) claimed that there are two fundamentally different processes for dehydra-
tion: refrigeration as well as removal of the water using liquid or solid desiccants. Chapter 7 of their
book has detailed information on these processes.
Several low-temperature processes, among them refrigeration, are able to effect some degree of
dehydration and have been used for many years (Records and Seely 1951). Records and Seely
(1951) described the technology for low-temperature dehydration of natural gas using the Joule-
Thomson (J-T) effect. The change of temperature with respect to a change of pressure in a J-T
process is the J-T coefficient (Kittel and Kroemer 1980):
µ JT = ∂T
∂P ( ) H
. ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� (2.1)
The value of mJT is typically expressed in °C/bar (SI units: K/Pa) and depends on the specific gas
as well as the temperature and pressure of the gas before expansion. The process works by reducing
the temperature of a water-saturated gaseous mixture by expansion through a restrictive orifice (i.e.,
J-T effect) or by other methods described in subsequent paragraphs. It also reduces the equilibrium
water content of the gaseous mixture as a direct function of temperature. Then, gravity difference
forms and separates hydrate particles from the gaseous mixture.
Well-stream
desander with
integral
accumulator
Wellhead
Desander (b)
Note that chilling a gas stream by J-T expansion can also lead to hydrate formation if the pressure
is high enough. Dehydration by a mechanical refrigeration using this or other methods (e.g., external
gas expansion chillers using gas J-T processes) with glycol injection to prevent hydrate formation
is in current use (Huffmaster 2004). Mokhatab et al. (2006) noted that propane is a commonly used
refrigerant in such units. These types of chillers can also be used to produce NGL.
Hubbard (1991) claimed that the removal of water from natural gas can also be accomplished in
several additional ways. Commercial methods currently used when this report was written included
absorption using glycol dehydration and adsorption using a dry desiccant. These authors noted that
the two methods use mass transfer of the water molecule into a liquid solvent (glycol solution) or a
crystalline structure (dry desiccant). The third method uses cooling to condense the water molecule
to the liquid phase, with the subsequent injection of inhibitor (glycol or methanol) to prevent hydrate
formation.
Glycol absorption and dehydration involve the use of a liquid desiccant to remove water vapor
from the gas. In this process, the water forms a stable solution with the complex alcohols. Although
many liquids possess the ability to absorb water from gas, the liquid that is most desirable to use for
commercial dehydration purposes should possess the following properties: