Kaysielyn Ann S.

Roca Chemistry 2

Stem 122-01 Engr. Malaya

KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL

The Molecular Theory of Matter states that "matter comprises of a large number of small particles
which are in constant motion". This theory also assumes that particles are small and widely separated.
They collide with each other and exchange energy. The theory helps in explaining the flow or transfer of
heat and the relationship between pressure, temperature and the volume properties of gases.

Describe the characteristic properties of solids, liquids, and gases.

Characteristic Properties of the States of Matter

Gas Liquid Solid

Assumes the volume and shape of Has a definite volume but assumes the Has a definite volume
its container shape of its container and shape
Is a fluid (flows readily) Is a fluid Is not a fluid
Very compressible Only slightly compressible Virtually incompressible
Low density High density High density
Molecules far apart Molecules close together Molecules close together

Liquid

The properties of liquids are intermediate between those of gases and solids, but are more similar
to solids. In contrast to intramolecular forces, such as the covalent bonds that hold atoms together in
molecules and polyatomic ions, intermolecular forces hold molecules together in a liquid or solid.
Intermolecular forces are generally much weaker than covalent bonds.

Intermolecular forces determine bulk properties such as the melting points of solids and the
boiling points of liquids. Liquids boil when the molecules have enough thermal energy to overcome the
intermolecular attractive forces that hold them together, thereby forming bubbles of vapor within the
liquid. Similarly, solids melt when the molecules acquire enough thermal energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces that lock them into place in the solid.

Solid

Solid substances have definite shapes and volumes. Solid particles do move, but not very far!
Solid particles have relatively little kinetic energy and vibrate in place. Because of this, they can't flow
like liquids. Most solids are arranged in a tightly packed crystalline structure. The crystalline structure is
an orderly, repeating arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice. The shape of the crystal shows the
arrangement of the particles in the solid.
Some solids aren't crystalline-shaped. The ones that aren't are called amorphous solids. Amorphous
solids don't have orderly internal structures. Examples of amorphous solids include rubber, plastic and
glass. Wax is also an amorphous solid. It can be molded into any shape and remolded anytime it is
warmed up a bit.
Liquids and solids are quite different from gases. They are referred to as the condensed states because
their molecules are very close together. Gases have low density, high compressibility, and completely fill
a container. The condensed states have relatively high density, are almost incompressible, and have
definite volumes. These properties indicate that the "molecules" of solids and liquids are close together
and are held by strong intermolecular forces.

One difference between solids and liquids is that liquids like gases are fluids, but solids are not. In liquids,
molecules can move past each other even though they cannot get very far from each other. In solids,
molecules are fixed in position, and at most can only vibrate about that position. Many solids are
characterized by long-range order of their constituent "molecules." This order gives rise to crystal
structures.

Kinetic molecular theory (KML)

A model used to explain the behavior of matter.

 Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is
called kinetic energy.
 The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
 There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.
 Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.
 There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength
of these forces increase as particles get closer together.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.

Intramolecular forces hold atoms together with in a molecule.

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular

• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)

• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

Generally, intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.

“Measure” of intermolecular force:

- boiling point
- melting point
- DHvap
- DHfus
- DHsub
Intermolecular forces

Intermolecular forces determine bulk properties such as the melting points of solids and
the boiling points of liquids. Liquids boil when the molecules have enough thermal energy to
overcome the intermolecular attractive forces that hold them together, thereby forming bubbles
of vapor within the liquid. Similarly, solids melt when the molecules acquire enough thermal
energy to overcome the intermolecular forces that lock them into place in the solid.

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

London Dispersion Forces

Thus far we have considered only interactions between polar molecules, but other factors must be
considered to explain why many nonpolar molecules, such as bromine, benzene, and hexane, are liquids
at room temperature, and others, such as iodine and naphthalene, are solids. Even the noble gases can be
liquefied or solidified at low temperatures, high pressures, or both.

All molecules interact with each other through London dispersion forces, or induced dipole
interactions. In the figure below, a 2-atom molecule collides with a 3-atom molecule. The electron cloud
of the first molecule repels the electron cloud of the molecule it strikes, causing a displacement of some
electron density away from the nucleus. The nucleus is then poorly shielded by its own electrons and
attracts the electron cloud of the first molecule.

Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions

When a molecule with a permanent dipole, such as HCN, collides with a molecule without a
molecular dipole, the collision itself causes a dipole to appear by changes in electron density within the
molecule. The nitrogen atom in HCN is electron rich and the molecular dipole points in the direction of
this atom. Upon collision, the electron cloud of the second atom would be repelled by the excess electron
density on nitrogen so the positively charged nucleus would be closer to N and would interact with it.

Dipole-Dipole Interactions

Molecules with permanent dipoles can interact with other polar molecules through dipole-dipole
interactions. Again this is electrostatic in nature. The molecular dipole vector points towards high electron
density.

Polar covalent bonds behave as if the bonded atoms have localized fractional charges that are equal
but opposite (i.e., the two bonded atoms generate a dipole). If the structure of a molecule is such that the
individual bond dipoles do not cancel one another, then the molecule has a net dipole moment. Molecules
with net dipole moments tend to align themselves so that the positive end of one dipole is near the negative
end of another and vice versa.

Attractive and Repulsive Dipole–Dipole Interactions. (a and b) Molecular orientations in which the
positive end of one dipole (δ+) is near the negative end of another (δ−) (and vice versa) produce attractive
interactions. (c and d) Molecular orientations that juxtapose the positive or negative ends of the dipoles
on adjacent molecules produce repulsive interactions.

Hydrogen Bonding Interactions

Occur between polar molecules that contain an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom
covalently bonded to a hydrogen atom.

Ion-Dipole Forces

The electrostatic attraction between anion and a polar molecule is called an ion-dipole force.
Forces occur between anion and polar molecule.

Intramolecular Forces

intramolecular force is any force that holds together the atoms making up a molecule or
compound.[1] This includes all types of chemical bonds. They are usually stronger than intermolecular
forces, which are present between atoms or molecules that are not bonded. Hydrogen bonds are an
important example of a force that can be either intramolecular or intermolecular.

 Ionic bond
An ionic bond involves a complete transfer of one or more valence electrons of atoms participating in
bond formation, resulting in a positive ion and a negative ion bound together by electrostatic forces.
 Covalent bond
In a true covalent bond, the electrons are shared evenly between the two atoms of the bond; there is little
or no charge separation. Covalent bonds are generally formed between two nonmetals.
 Metallic bond
Metallic bonds generally form within a pure metal or metal alloy. Metallic electrons are
generally delocalized; the result is a large number of free electrons around positive nuclei, sometimes
called an electron sea.

Summary

Intermolecular forces are electrostatic in nature and include van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds.
Molecules in liquids are held to other molecules by intermolecular interactions, which are weaker than the
intramolecular interactions that hold the atoms together within molecules and polyatomic ions. Transitions
between the solid and liquid or the liquid and gas phases are due to changes in intermolecular interactions
but do not affect intramolecular interactions. The three major types of intermolecular interactions are
dipole–dipole interactions, London dispersion forces (these two are often referred to collectively as van
der Waals forces), and hydrogen bonds. Dipole–dipole interactions arise from the electrostatic
interactions of the positive and negative ends of molecules with permanent dipole moments; their strength
is proportional to the magnitude of the dipole moment and to 1/r6, where r is the distance between
dipoles. London dispersion forces are due to the formation of instantaneous dipole moments in polar or
nonpolar molecules as a result of short-lived fluctuations of electron charge distribution, which in turn cause
the temporary formation of an induced dipole in adjacent molecules. Like dipole–dipole interactions, their
energy falls off as 1/r6. Larger atoms tend to be more polarizable than smaller ones because their outer
electrons are less tightly bound and are therefore more easily perturbed. Hydrogen bonds are especially
strong dipole–dipole interactions between molecules that have hydrogen bonded to a highly electronegative
atom, such as O, N, or F. The resulting partially positively charged H atom on one molecule (the hydrogen
bond donor) can interact strongly with a lone pair of electrons of a partially negatively charged O, N, or F
atom on adjacent molecules (the hydrogen bond acceptor). Because of strong O⋅⋅⋅H hydrogen bonding
between water molecules, water has an unusually high boiling point, and ice has an open, cagelike structure
that is less dense than liquid water.