In the annals of ancient Chinese philosophy, the most impressive guideline regarding methods of public administration is to be found in the

Book of Xun-zi. As readers will see in this document, it encompasses (a) personnel policy, (b) the role of prime minister, (c) departmentalization and delegation, (d) taxation and expenditure, (e) consultation before legislation, and (f) the comport of a king At the end of it all, it will also be seen that !un"zi was rather disappointed with the political leaders of his day

============================================

Xun-zi on Methods of Government

An excerpt from The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism Author# $eter % & Chan
All rights reserved

''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' In addition to his enrichment to the Confucian theory of state, !un"zi was also the first Confucian thinker to recommend the following clear administrative guidelines for all enlightened rulers to follow (a) Personnel Policy (he first thing to note, said !un"zi, is that since a lord of men is not able to do everything all by himself, it is necessary for him to rely on his ministers and other assistants for support. These ministers and assistants have got to be worthy of trust and responsibility, i.e., the virtue of their words should be able to control and pacify the people, and their nowledge as well as deliberation should be sufficient to respond to all inds of changes. (
! " # $ % & ' Book of Xun-zi, Chapter 12) These

ministers and assistants are the instruments of state, as they have come to be called. (()*+, Ibid.) )ith respect to the appointment of these instruments of state, the following rules of thumb are to be kept in mind There is no nobility without virtuous accomplishments, and there is no official without ability. There is no reward without accomplishment, and there is no punishment without crime. !o official positions are held for reason of good fortune, and no one will ma e a living for reason of good luc . Those who are worthy and capable will be elevated without reservation, and those who are nown to be good at managing their family clans will receive official commendations. "ut those who cover up their evil and secretive deeds must be made public by way of punishment. (-./010230
45067809:;09<=>?2@A:B C D ! ( E F G H @ I 5 G 8 E F G J @ K L G M Ibid. Chapter 9)

)hat that entails is that those who are worthy and capable should be elevated irrespective of social status, and those who are incapable should be dismissed without hesitation. #escendents of ings, du es, and high officials that do not abide by the rules of propriety and righteousness should be relegated to the status of commoners. Commoners who have accumulated culture and learning, rectified in behavior, and are able to abide by the rules of propriety and righteousness should be promoted to the position of ministers and high officials. . Those who are competent should be retained, but those who are not should be dismissed. . $hile those who are seriously ill should be provided and cared for with food and clothing without reservation, those who are rebellious should be summarily executed. ( >2$N
@OP2$Q@RST$U@VWXY;$Z@[ \ -]^_(`a2bGcdefg \g`ahi jklm2bGcdef^_( noepnoeq rstu@vw@x3y@z{|}0B ~m 0 Ibid.)

*urther, said !un"zi, the performance of all officials should be assessed in accordance with the standard of propriety and the ease with which they execute their duties. They should also be assessed in terms of their ability to respond to changing circumstances. "estow ease and comfort upon them and see if they are able to avoid wayward conduct. %xpose them to sound and color &or music and women', to privileges of power, to indignation as well as misfortune and adversity to see if they are able to hold on to their responsibilities. (n this way, those who are conscientious and those who are not will become as evident as blac and white beyond all possible distortion. Such is the $ay of an enlightened ing. (c@2n'O@
2#&'n@20' @20 0 - Ibid. Chapter 12)

Comment# In view of such interesting suggestions toward assessing government officials, what !un"zi had in mind, if I may be allowed to surmise, is the establishment of some under"cover anti"corruption mechanisms so as to ensure that all ministers and high officials are really as capable, virtuous and clean as they look )hat I would also like to suggest is that if %oh"zi+s call for everyone to report on the virtuous as well as the wicked is also implemented, no government officials would be so stupid as to take bribes or siphon government funds into their own pockets

(b) The Role of the Prime Minister Another thing to note, said !un"zi, is that the strength, security, and success or failure of the state will have much to do with the appointment of a prime minister. ( eG IIbid. Chapter 11) (hat being the case, it is incumbent upon the lord of man to employ a prime minister who will lead all the other officials to devote themselves to their official duties.
( (.| ?- @)(o Ibid.)

,nder the direction of the prime minister by way of his subordinates, farmers would partition their fields and cultivate, merchants would divide up commodities and trade, and the various artisans would ta e up their own tas s and help each other. Similarly, nights and high officers will attend to their responsibilities, the feudal lords will hold onto their allotted territories, and the three du es will confer on matters of overall policy. (@@x@
^_(o@+@]@ Ibid.)

In this way, an enlightened ruler can attend to that which is essential. and everything will be dealt with &by the prime minister)s office' accordingly. ( e x Ibid.) *s it is said+ when all officials attend to their duties, when all the feudal lords ta e charge of their territories, and when the three du es would come together and consult, it will be possible for the Son of Heaven to eep to himself. $hen things within and without are li e this, everything will become orderly and easy to manage. This way of assigning responsibilities is also consonant with the rules of propriety as adopted by the hundred ings. (/ ^_(
o@+@]@e`@ )-@c_ Ibid.) This is how everyone, from the Son of Heaven down to

ordinary fol s, is able to employ his talent, pursue his ambition, as well as find peace and happiness in their wor .
(`Gg2nx Ibid. Chapter 12)

Another important function of the prime minister is to evaluate the head of various bureaus, pay attention to various issues, and assess the responsibility of everyone from ministers down to the most minor officials. He will measure the achievement of their efforts and determine their appropriate commendation and reward. *t the end of the year, he will bring these to the attention of the ing. Proper assessments will be approved, but those that are not will be ignored. This is why a lord of man must loo for such a prime minister so that he can remain at ease by empowering

him. (.3x8-
4.5 4GeeRG @G? Ibid. Chapter 11)

(c) e!artmentalize and ele"ate *urther, continued !un"zi, it is also to be observed that when all responsibilities are properly defined, everyone from the ruler to the prime minister and ministers down to the most minor of officials will attend to his allotted duties. *nd everyone will ad,udicate only what is within the purview of his responsibility without trying to hear and see what is beyond it. (+e- ' Ibid.) In this way, all the essential functions of government will be made starkly clear *or instance#
The duty of the -aster of Ceremonies is to now and entertain state guests, ma e sacrificial offerings, arrange state ban.uets, and the { number of animals to be slaughtered. (3/!
Ibid. Chapter 9)

The duty of the -inister of Home *ffairs is to now the hundred clans, erect city walls, and to standardi/e &weighing and measuring' e.uipments, and so on. ( ! Ibid.) The duty of the -inister of -ilitary *ffairs is to now about military organi/ation, weapons, chariots, and so on. ( !
Ibid.)

The duty of the 0rand -aster is to draft edicts, examine ceremonial music, prohibit indecent sounds, and regulate them according to the seasons 11 so as to ensure that barbarian customs and their lewd sounds are ept from disturbing that which is elegant and refine (
?_x Ibid .)

The duty of the -inister of Public $or s is to repair di es and bridges, clearing ditches and irrigation channels, drain marshes, store

water in reservoirs, as well as maintaining their proper level according to the seasons 11 so as to ensure that people would be able to plant even during periods of drought and flood. (
m n ! "# ' \ $%& ?; '( ) x Ibid .)

The duty of the -inister of 2arming is to survey land, inspect their fertility, arrange the planting of the five crops, enhance farming productivity, supervise the storage of grains, and harvest according to the seasons 11 so as to ensure that farmers are able to hold their own with the minimal of strength and capability. ( * +, r -
. 4 /! ?( 01 @ 2 2xIbid.)

The duty of the #irector of 3and and 2orests is to institute regulations on tree burning, nourish the hills and forests as well as la es and marshes, such that shrubs and trees, fishes and turtles, as well as the various inds of vegetation will grow in their proper seasons 4 so as to ensure that the state is self1sufficient with no shortage of material 67 89 : ( )[; ] < ?+ resources. (3 v 45
H = @ >? @ A x Ibid.)

The duty of the #irector of 5ural *ffairs is to eep all districts and villages in order, demarcate farmyards and houses, encourage rearing of domestic animals and horticulture, promote &rural' education and culture, as well as urging filial piety and brotherly affection 4 so as to ensure that the people will accept their lot, live in peace and happiness. (BC DE v F p GHI U[ JKL
? n M x Ibid.)

The duty of the #irector of *rt and Craft is to attend to the business of various artisans, assess the time value and differentiate the difficulty of their wor . Promote those that are ex.uisite and useful 11 so as to ensure that arts and crafts are not produced only for the benefit of one)s home. (. x4 N = O PQ= ? RS i T
UV GH x Ibid.)

The duty of the -aster of #ivination is to examine the influences of yin and yang &or positive and negative vital forces', prognosticate on both auspicious and inauspicious omens, made manifest the meaning

of crac s on turtle shells, presiding over the selection of the five hexagrams, and to now their portents with respect to fortunes as well as calamities. ( WX YZ[ \]^_ `a r _ ! b$cd
ef gh x Ibid.)

The duty of the #irector of -ar etplace is to eep mar ets clean and roads clear. He will eep tract of thieves and robbers, standardi/e and ad,ust rates and regulations according to the seasons, and to ensure the security of guests and travelers as well as to facilitate the flow of q> goods. (ij k l mn op ? n@
r xIbid.)

The duty of the -inister of Crime is to stop violent behavior, guard against licentiousness, and eliminate evil1doings. This is to be enforced by way of the five punishments for the purpose of transforming the violent, the rapists and other evil1doers. ( stu
vw x rL? yu & z { | x Ibid.)

The duty of the -inister of (nternal *ffairs is to initiate official instructions, rectify laws and regulations, listen to proposals, assess their pros and cons, and ,ustify commendations and rewards. These are to be carried out in their proper time, so as to ensure that the tas of all government officials will be made easy, and to prevent ordinary fol s from doing wrong. (} ZUke|@ ~ 4
.5 ? @ g x Ibid.)

The duty of the -inister of Culture is to expound on ritual ceremonies and music, rectify personal conduct, broaden education, refine popular customs, and to preserve &social' unity. (.cklm U
[ |}@ ]xIbid.)

-ow, said !un"zi, when the above ministries are set up and become operational, what a lord of men needs to do is to have a summary ac.uaintance with what transpires in the remote regions as well as those that are nearby within the boundaries of his state. ( @ ! Ibid. Chapter 12) #oing so would allow the Son of Heaven to see without having to loo , to now without having to hear, to understand without having to thin , and

get things done without having to ta e action. 6ust by sitting still and remain solitary, the world will follow him as one body, in the same way that the four limbs follow the dictates of one)s mind. (`@@ "@! @4 @ / Ibid.) This is why a lord of men should have close associates that he can trust. "y way of their shrewdness and nowledge, everything will become regulated. "y way of their conscientiousness and honesty, everything will also become stable. ( P
! ? ? ? ? '()*+, Ibid.)

(hat is to say, it is by delegating important tas s to those who are conscientious and humane could a lord of men establish his administration on a firm foundation. *s a result, though he remains at ease, his state will become orderly, his accomplishments will be great, and his reputation will be enhanced. ( Z } 8@?x el @ + 4 _ @ Ibid. Chapter 11) The ancients who had great accomplishment and noble reputation certainly Ibid.) followed this same route. ( _4 ) .owever, lamented !un"zi, rulers today have made serious blunders. $hen they delegate the worthy to act on their behalf, they would restrict them as if they were unworthy. $hen they appoint those who are nowledgeable to deliberate on their behalf, they would critici/e them as if they were ignorant. $hen they delegate cultivated intellectuals to act on their behalf, they would become suspicious as if they were perverse. This is li e planting a straight tree and expects its shadow to be croo ed. !o delusion could be greater than this. ( _/?>E
e '?!"e .'? ^me \ 4 ) 9 @ _ Ibid. Chapter 12)

(d) Ta#ation and $#!enditure

Another thing to keep in mind is that for purpose of nourishing the people, all taxes should be made e.uitable, and all resources should be properly managed by the administration. Cultivated field and out1lying districts should be taxed at ten percent. 0oods at the border and in the mar ets should be inspected without levy. 3umbering in the hills and forests should be regulated according to the seasons but not taxed. Tributes &from the feudal lords and nobles' should be exacted according to distance. Transportation and distribution of valuable commodities as well as grains should be facilitated without bottlenec s. (A Zx > % ? v%
; - r @ 457 < @ @ >? 0 ?fChapter 9) /imilarly,

pro,ects that re.uire enforced labor should be ept rare, so as not to deprive farmers of their wor . (n this way, the state will be wealthy. This is what is called ma ing the people prosperous by way of administration. (1 0 )
e+ ()*Z ; Ibid. Chapter 10)

It is also to be noted that the way to ma e the state materially sufficient is to moderate consumption, eep surpluses in store, and enrich the people. (f the people are rich, their fields will be productive and well cultivated. (f the fields are well fertili/ed and cultivated, their yield will increase a hundred fold. *nd when those above ta e from the harvest in accordance with law and those below moderate the use of goods in the proper way &or in accordance with propriety', the resulting surplus will pile up li e hills, which may have to be burned sometimes when there is no place to store them. (t should thus been seen that by moderating expenditure and enriching the people, not only will a lord of men accumulate mountains of wealth, he is also bound to gain the reputation of being humane, righteous, sage1li e and virtuous (+ = ;@F ! = c ;
Z ; e + k + k e tI @c = 4 0 ! '! = ;e d @ 4 h Ibid.)

In short, it is not to be forgotten that when the people are poor, those above will also be poor. (t is only when they are prosperous will those above become wealthy. $hereas fields, villages, and towns are the roots of wealth, that which is stored in granaries, storehouses and cellars is the outgrowth of that wealth. $hen people perform their wor in accord with the seasons, inflows of commodities will be created. (t is these that will flow out to the treasury as taxes and duties. 7nder this light, an enlightened ruler must ta e care to balance outflow with inflow. (t is only by restricting the former and expanding the latter could surplus for the world be ensured, and those above will not have to worry about material insufficiency. ( et et - >
} ' > ' x 'A v @ ? @t Ibid.)

Another advantage of implementing a prudent budgetary policy is that when the Son of Heaven and his feudal lords are not lavish in consumption, nights and grand officers will refrain from mischievous conducts, minor officials will become diligent, and the mass of ordinary people will also disengage themselves from lewd and strange customs. *s a result, everyone will do what is righteous in accordance with his ability% and no one will commit offences such as theft and banditry. (`0 = ^_(0 m30
x g 0 z 0 mn 62 d Ibid. Chapter 12)

Comment# As readers can see, what !un"zi had pointed to are the fundamentals of national accounting# such as how to balance the inflow and outflow of resources, as well as how to achieve a budgetary surplus for the state As a result, everyone will be able to obtain according to his ability, and no one will have the incentive to cheat and steal (his kind of situation, if I may point out, is akin to what Confucius was reported to have characterized in the Book of Propriety as /hao &an ( or minimum prosperity), but short of what he was also reported to have envisioned As he put it# $hen the great $ay &of Humanity' prevails, . everyone will find his8her place in the world. The virtuous and capable as well as those who are trustworthy and peace loving will be appointed &to serve as officials'. *s a result, no one would care only for his own parents and children, but would see to provide refuge for the aged, employment for the able bodied, support for the orphaned, and care for the widowed, disabled and sic . *s no one would labor ,ust for himself, neither would anyone need to deceive or steal even when doors are not shut. This is what is called 0reat 7nity. ( ` _m E] >2
`` ? = 2 Rs Dv 1 TGl E ) @ m n @ { @ ) * _ "oo of Propriety% &ha!ter ') (his latter, if I may say so, is also the goal of socialism as it

has come to be known (i e , from each according to his ability, to each according to his need)

.owever, said !un"zi, the situation today is not li e this. %xorbitant tax is levied on properties, heavy tax is levied on fields as well as outlying districts, and prohibitive duties are charged at the border stations. *nd this is not all. There are also concerted schemes and plots for rebellion and counter rebellion. (t is due to events such as these that ministers would sometimes assassinate their lords, and subordinate would sometimes murder their superior. ( @
/ > - { r x @ } )- t Ibid. Chapter 10)

(e) &onsult before (e"islation

As far as legal matters are concerned, said !un"zi, the first thing to note is that when laws are legislated without consultation, ramifications not covered by them will be ignored. It is therefore important to consult over legislations with all officials involved so that ramifications both good and counter productive will not be overloo ed. (n this way, those who are fair1minded can balance their views, and those who are harmonious will be able to ad,ust their positions. 3et those well versed in law expound according to law, and let those who are not to explain by way of examples. *fter all views are heard, proposals that are partisan and short of ,ustification should be dismissed. (@e
R' @o@ 0 0BF@x0 . ] W m0 O ' @0 Ibid. Chapter 9)

*urther, regulations regarding attires, dimensions of palaces and chambers, the number of servants, the right ind of instrumentation for funeral and sacrificial ceremonies must also be legislated. -usic that is not refined should be discarded. Colors that are contrary to traditional designs should be suppressed, and instruments that are not recommended should be destroyed. #oing all these is called returning to the ancients. (z o
= DA e OR e iO = e O ()* Ibid.)

Comment# I am sure that while the idea of consultation before legislation is something that people today would tend to applaud, that music and color have also got to be legislated is perhaps going too far )hat needs to be pointed out though is that for his commitment to the system of propriety as instituted by the ancient (sage) kings, !un"zi was not shy to embrace all their regulations rock, stock, and barrow (o that extent, we must also say that he was not only conscientious and loyal, but also consistent with what his theory of learning was trying to promote

(f) The &om!ort of a )in"

As to a king+s comport, it was the view of !un"zi that those who come forward with good intentions should be treated with propriety &courtesy'. Those who come forward with un ind intentions should be punished. To differentiate between the virtuous and the irreverent is to distinguish between right and wrong. $hen the virtuous and the irreverent are differentiated, those who are courageous and outstanding will come forward. $hen right and wrong are not confused, the state will be in order. (n this way, reputation of the ruler will be nown and the whole world will become cooperative. *ll that remains for a ruler to do is to enforce that which is prohibited. (Z_/F$
c'F$L e> Y) > Ye ') e+H ) m e-x ! Ibid. Chapter 9)

Another thing to note is that when listening to reports, too overpowering and stern in manner is not conducive toward eliciting advice. This is so because subordinates will be overcome by fear and feel alienated. They will also shut their mouth and remain silent. $hen that happens, important issues will be left unattended, and minor ones will be forgotten. 9n the other hand, if the ruler is too harmonious and conciliatory, all inds of indecent and speculative proposals will intrude without stop. $hen that happens, listening to ma,or issues will become troublesome, not to say detrimental to the business on hand. ( "#$% @ &'
e () @ * @ + ')e_x ,-. x ,-/ 0 &' @0 1 e z 23 45 67 )e _x 8 ) 9: Ibid.)

*urthermore, said !un"zi, one deep hole that an enlightened king must avoid is to promote secretiveness and backbiting There has never been an enlightened ing who was secretive yet successful, or fran yet a failure. (f a ing is secretive, only words of bac biting will reach him, while honest opinions will be ept away. (nferior men will see his hearing, while ingly persons will eep their

distance. .... 0n the other hand, if a lord of man is open1 minded, honest opinions will come forward and words of bac biting will be ept away. :ingly persons will come to him, and inferior men will eep their distance. ( @ ; @ %
0 e <2 2 ' = @` ; e 2 @ <2 '` = @ Ibid. Chapter 21)

Comment# (his is an important advice that leaders and managers of our world today (those that have come under the spell of Han Fei Zi in particular) should lean forward and listen (o condone secretiveness and backbiting is never in the interest of the country or organization concerned

(") *in the +earts of Men 1ast but not least, said !un"zi, as intelligent ingly persons are good at winning the heart of men, .it is also important for a ing to do the same. ( `F -G Ibid. Chapter 11) (o win the hearts of men, those above should care dearly for those below and regulate them by way of propriety as if they were na ed infants , 0overnmental edits and ordinances that are not in accord with reason by as much as the tip of a hair should not be applied to the people, much less to the utterly helpless, the orphaned, the aged, widows, and widowers. This is how those below would come to endear themselves to those above as if they were their parents, so much so that no one would become disobedient even when threatened with death. ( t
> @ c tG ?@ `Z A e\ B 2 C t D EF @? Ibid.)

0n the other hand, if the ignorant are allowed to instruct the wise and the unworthy are allowed to supervise the worthy, people)s livelihood would become impoverished, as well as toilsome and bitter. 7nder such circumstances, the people would thin of their ruler as a despicable witch and

hate him as if he were an evil spirit &or ghost'. They would daily see to band together to overthrow and chase him away.
(? G !? H ><;e I ?;e J N ) T L M @ NO PQ Ibid.) K

In short, he who is good at providing a livelihood for the people will be endeared by the people. He who is good at governing society will be accepted by the people. He who is good at establishing the order of men will be appreciated by the people. *nd he who is good at enriching the people will be honored by them. $hen all these four unifying factors are at wor , the world will come and follow the ruler. Such a man may indeed be said to be capable of organi/ing society. , However, if these four unifying factors are missing, the world will leave and desert him. (F<v F R
nFM S F T U V @f( )*2 W U X @ P Ibid. Chapter 12)

This is the reason why any ruler who desires stability would govern impartially and love the people. 9ne who values honor would exalt propriety and respect intellectuals. 9ne who desires accomplishment and fame would elevate the worthy and ma e use of the capable. These are the ma,or policies available to a ruler. (f these three policies are carried out properly, everything else will fall into their places. 9therwise, all else would be of no avail, however appropriate they might have seemed. ( neZ > ;'
e c^' 4 e=>?2')_ e ' e \ Y 0 Z Ibid. Chapter 9) (hat is to say, it is only when the people are

comfortable with their government could the position of a ing be secured. This is what is meant by the saying that the ruler is li e a boat and the people are li e water; and that water is able to float as well as overturn the boat. (gnZ
[ `n: / \ e ]\ e} \ * Ibid.)

(o conclude, said !un"zi# The general outline of the $ay &of government' is therefore this+ (t is only when propriety is exalted and regulations are refined that the state will have stability. (t is only when the worthy are esteemed and the capable employed that the people will now what to do. (t is only when there are continual assessments and impartial evaluations that the people will not distrust the government. (t is only when efforts are rewarded and dishonesty penali/ed that the people will not become slothful. (t is only when everyone is heard and ,udgments uniform that the world will come to follow the ruler. (t is only when official responsibilities are clearly assigned to the talented and capable could the affairs of state be handled according to procedure. "y doing all the above, public interest will be served and private ones bloc ed. $hen ,ustice is made clear and private affairs are put to rest, those who are substantial in virtue will come forward and those who are cunning will bac away. Similarly, those who are greedy for gain will be ept at bay and those who are moderate and honest will have their way. (_ ^ / ce+ _ =>?2e;! ` .]
a e; 5 b 7 e; | c ef'ox w d 32 e] e @ fg # ]d@ f x / )e h @ i j k @ l 7 Ibid. Chapter 12)

Comment# As readers can see, the methods of government as expounded by !un"zi are important additions to the essentials of what Confucius, %oh"zi, and %encius had already offered In the simplest of terms, his overall message is this (he primary business of government is to elevate the worthy and capable, regulate the people by way of righteous laws and regulations, and to take care of their needs as if they were naked infants )hat that points to is the institution of righteous and humane administration at all levels
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''

Peter M,), &han is the author of The -ystery of -ind (!ublished -../)% and Soul, 0od, and -orality (!ublished -..0), Recently% he has also com!eted any 1or2 titled The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism (co!yri"hted and available in eboo2s% but not yet in

!rint). 3or details re"ardin" the above% !lease visit htt!455sites,"oo"le,com5site5!m2chan5home htt!455sites,"oo"le,com5site5!atriarchsofchinese!hiloso!hy5home htt!455111,lulu,com5s!otli"ht5!eterm2chan
''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''