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Theories OF Personality Summarized
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Theories Of Personality Summarized
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY However, scientists use the term to mean more

than a person's persona, or public image. To
OUTLINE them, personality is a pattern of relatively
permanent traits or characteristics that give some
 Introduction to Personality Theory consistency to a person's behavior.
 Psychodynamic Theories What Is a Theory?
 Freud: Psychoanalysis Theories are tools used by scientists to generate
 Adler: Individual Psychology research and organize observations.
 Jung: Analytical Psychology
 Klein: Object Relations Theory Theory Defined
 Horney: Psychoanalytic Social Theory A theory is a set of related assumptions
 Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis that allows scientists to use logical
 Sullivan: Interpersonal Theory deductive reasoning to formulate
 Erikson: Post-Freudian Theory testable hypotheses.
 Learning Theories Theory and Its Relatives

 Skinner: Behavioral Analysis The term theory is often used incorrectly
 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory to imply something other than a scientific
 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social concept. Although theory has some
Learning Theory relationship with philosophy, speculation,
hypothesis, and taxonomy, it is not the
same as any of these. Philosophy-the
 Dispositional Theories love of wisdom-is a broader term than
 Cattel and Eysenck: Trait and Factor theory, but one of its branches-
Theories epistemology-relates to the nature of
 Allport: Psychology of the Individual knowledge, and theories are used by
scientists in the pursuit of knowledge.
 Humanistic/Existential Theories Theories rely on speculation, but
 Kelly: Psychology of Personal Constructs speculation in the absence of controlled
 Rogers: Person Centered Theory observations and empirical research is
 Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory essentially worthless. Hypothesis, or
 May: Existential Psychology educated guess, is a narrower term than
theory. A single theory may generate
hundreds of hypotheses. Taxonomy
means a classification system, and
theories often rely on some sort of
INTRODUCTION OF PERSONALITY classification of data. However,
taxonomies do not generate hypotheses.
THEORY
Why Different Theories?
Overview of Personality Theory Psychologists and other scientists
Personality theorists (1) make controlled generate a variety of theories because
observations of human behavior and they have different life experiences and
(2) speculate on the meaning of those different ways of looking at the same
observations. Differences in theories are due data.
to more than differences in terminology; they
stem from differences among theorists Theorists' Personalities and Their Theories
on basic issues concerning the nature of humanity. of Personality
Because personality theories flow from
What Is Personality? an individual theorist's personality, some
The term personality has several definitions. In psychologists have proposed the
everyday language, the word personality refers psychology of science, a discipline that
to one's social skills, charisma, and popularity.
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studies the personal characteristics of motives, which permit varying explanations for
theorists. the same observations.
What Makes a Theory Useful? Biography of Sigmund Freud

A useful theory must (1) generate Born in the Czech Republic in 1856, Sigmund
research-both descriptive research and Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. In his
hypothesis testing, (2) be falsifiable; that practice as a psychiatrist, he was more interested
is, research findings should be able to in learning about the unconscious motives of
either support of refute the theory, (3) patients than in curing neuroses. Early in his
organize data into an intelligible professional career, Freud believed that hysteria
framework and integrate new was a result of being seduced during childhood
information into its structure; (4) guide by a sexually mature person, often a parent or
action, or provide the practitioner with a other relative. In 1897, however, he abandoned
road map for making day-to-day his seduction theory and replaced it with his
decisions; (5) be internally consistent and notion of the Oedipus complex, a concept that
have a set of operational definitions; remained the center of his psychoanalytic theory.
and (6) be parsimonious, or as simple as
possible. Levels of Mental Life
Freud saw mental functioning as operating on
Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity three levels: unconscious, preconscious, and
Personality theorists have had different conscious.
conceptions of human nature, and the authors list
six dimensions for comparing these conceptions. Unconscious
These dimensions include determinism versus free The unconscious includes drives and
choice, pessimism versus optimism, causality instincts that are beyond awareness but
versus teleology, conscious versus unconscious that motivate most human behaviors.
determinants of behavior, biological versus social Unconscious drives can become conscious
influences on personality, and uniqueness versus only in disguised or distorted form, such
similarities among people. as dream images, slips of the tongue, or
neurotic symptoms. Unconscious processes
Research in Personality Theory originate from two sources: (1)
In researching human behavior, personality repression, or the blocking out of
theorists often use various measuring procedures, anxiety-filled experiences and (2)
and these procedures must be both reliable and phylogenetic endowment, or inherited
valid. Reliability refers to a measuring experiences that lie beyond an
instrument's consistency whereas validity refers to individual's personal experience.
its accuracy or truthfulness.
Preconscious
The preconscious contains images that
are not in awareness but that can
become conscious either quite easily or
with some level of difficulty.
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Conscious
FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS Consciousness plays a relatively minor
role in Freudian theory. Conscious ideas
Overview of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory stem from either the perception of
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis has endured external stimuli (our perceptual conscious
because it (1) postulated the primacy of sex and system) or from the unconscious and
aggression-two universally popular themes, (2) preconscious after they have evaded
attracted a group of followers who were censorship.
dedicated to spreading psychoanalytic doctrine,
and (3) advanced the notion of unconscious
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Provinces of the Mind Anxiety

Freud conceptualized three regions of the mind: Freud believed only the ego feels
the id, the ego, and the superego. anxiety, but the id, superego, and
outside world can each be a source of
The Id anxiety. Neurotic anxiety stems from the
The id, which is completely unconscious, ego's relation with the id; moral anxiety
serves the pleasure principle and is similar to guilt and results from the
contains our basic instincts. It operates ego's relation with the superego; and
through the primary process. realistic anxiety, which is similar to fear,
is produced by the ego's relation with
The Ego the real world.
The ego, or secondary process, is
governed by the reality principle and is Defense Mechanisms
responsible for reconciling the unrealistic According to Freud, defense mechanisms operate
demands of the id and the superego. to protect the ego against the pain of anxiety.
The Superego Repression

The superego, which serves the idealistic Repression involves forcing unwanted,
principle, has two subsystems-the anxiety-loaded experiences into the
conscience and the ego-ideal. The unconscious. It is the most basic of all
conscience results from punishment for defense mechanisms because it is an
improper behavior whereas the ego- active process in each of the others.
ideal stems from rewards for socially
acceptable behavior. Undoing and Isolation
Undoing is the ego's attempt to do away
Dynamics of Personality with unpleasant experiences and their
Dynamics of personality refers to those forces consequences, usually by means of
that motivate people. repetitious ceremonial actions. Isolation,
in contrast, is marked by obsessive
Instincts thoughts and involves the ego's attempt
Freud grouped all human drives or urges to isolate an experience by surrounding
under two primary instincts-sex (Eros or it with a blacked-out region of
the life instinct) and aggression (the insensibility.
death or destructive instinct). The aim of
the sexual instinct is pleasure, which can Reaction Formation
be gained through the erogenous zones, A reaction formation is marked by the
especially the mouth, anus, and genitals. repression of one impulse and the
The object of the sexual instinct is any ostentatious expression of its exact
person or thing that brings sexual opposite.
pleasure. All infants possess primary
narcissism, or self-centeredness, but the Displacement
secondary narcissism of adolescence and Displacement takes place when people
adulthood is not universal. Both sadism redirect their unwanted urges onto other
(receiving sexual pleasure from inflicting objects or people in order to disguise the
pain on another) and masochism original impulse.
(receiving sexual pleasure from painful
experiences) satisfy both sexual and Fixation
aggressive drives. The destructive instinct Fixations develop when psychic energy is
aims to return a person to an inorganic blocked at one stage of development,
state, but it is ordinarily directed against making psychological change difficult.
other people and is called aggression.
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Regression form of penis envy, precedes the female

Regressions occur whenever a person Oedipus complex, a situation that leads
reverts to earlier, more infantile modes to only a gradual and incomplete
of behavior. shattering of the female Oedipus
complex and a weaker, more flexible
Projection female superego.
Projection is seeing in others those
unacceptable feelings or behaviors that Latency Period
actually reside in one's own unconscious. Freud believed that psychosexual
When carried to extreme, projection can development goes through a latency
become paranoia, which is characterized stage-from about age 5 until puberty-in
by delusions of persecution. which the sexual instinct is partially
suppressed.
Introjection
Introjections take place when people Genital Period
incorporate positive qualities of another The genital period begins with puberty,
person into their own ego to reduce when adolescents experience a
feelings of inferiority. reawakening of the genital aim of Eros.
The term "genital period" should not be
Sublimation confused with "phallic period."
Sublimations involve the elevation of the
sexual instinct's aim to a higher level, Maturity
which permits people to make Freud hinted at a stage of psychological
contributions to society and culture. maturity in which the ego would be in
control of the id and superego and in
Stages of Development which consciousness would play a more
Freud saw psychosexual development as important role in behavior.
proceeding from birth to maturity through four
overlapping stages. Applications of Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud erected his theory on the dreams, free
Infantile Period associations, slips of the tongue, and neurotic
The infantile stage encompasses the first symptoms of his patients during therapy. But he
4 to 5 years of life and is divided into also gathered information from history,
three subphases: oral, anal, and phallic. literature, and works of art.
During the oral phase, an infant is
primarily motivated to receive pleasure Freud's Early Therapeutic Technique
through the mouth. During the second During the 1890s, Freud used an
year of life, a child goes through an aggressive therapeutic technique in
anal phase. If parents are too punitive which he strongly suggested to patients
during the anal phase, the child may that they had been sexually seduced as
become an anal character, with the anal children.
triad of orderliness, stinginess, and He later dropped this technique and
obstinacy. During the phallic phase, boys abandoned his belief that most patients
and girls begin to have differing had been seduced during childhood.
psychosexual development. At this time,
boys and girls experience the Oedipus Freud's Later Therapeutic Technique
complex in which they have sexual Beginning in the late 1890s, Freud
feelings for one parent and hostile adopted a much more passive type of
feelings for the other. The male psychotherapy, one that relied heavily
castration complex, which takes the form on free association, dream
of castration anxiety, breaks up the interpretation, and transference. The
male Oedipus complex and results in a goal of Freud's later psychotherapy was
well-formed male superego. For girls, to uncover repressed memories, and the
however, the castration complex, in the therapist uses dream analysis and free
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association to do so. With free the long term, maximize gratification,

association, patients are required to say and have the least amount of distortion
whatever comes to mind, no matter how
irrelevant or distasteful. Successful Oral Fixation
therapy rests on the patient's Some recent research has found that
transference of childhood sexual or aggression is higher in people who bite
aggressive feelings onto the therapist their finger nails than it is in non-nail
and away from symptom formation. biters, especially in women. Other
Patients' resistance to change can be research found that people who are
seen as progress because it indicates orally fixated tend to see their parents
that therapy has advanced beyond more negatively than did people who
superficial conversation. were less orally fixated.
Dream Analysis Critique of Freud

In interpreting dreams, Freud Freud regarded himself as a scientist, but many
differentiated the manifest content critics consider his methods to be outdated,
(conscious description) from the latent unscientific, and permeated with gender bias. On
content (the unconscious meaning). the six criteria of a useful theory, psychoanalysis
Nearly all dreams are wish-fulfillments, is rated high on its ability to generate research,
although the wish is usually unconscious very low on its openness to falsification, and
and can be known only through dream average on organizing data, guiding action, and
interpretation. To interpret dreams, being parsimonious. Because it lacks operational
Freud used both dream symbols and the definitions, it rates low on internal consistency.
dreamer's associations to the dream
content. Concept of Humanity
Freud's concept of humanity was deterministic
Freudian Slips and pessimistic. He emphasized causality over
Freud believed that parapraxes, or so- teleology, unconscious determinants over
called Freudian slips, are not chance conscious processes, and biology over culture, but
accidents but reveal a person's true but he took a middle position on the dimension of
unconscious intentions. uniqueness versus similarities among people.
Related Research
Freudian theory has generated a large amount
of related research, including studies on defense
mechanisms and oral fixation. ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Defense Mechanisms Overview of Adler's Individual Psychology
George Valliant has added to the list of An original member of Freud's psychoanalytic
Freudian defense mechanisms and has group, Alfred Adler broke from that group and
found evidence that some of them are advocated a theory of personality that was
neurotic (reaction formation, idealization, nearly diametrically opposed to that of Freud.
and undoing), some are immature and Whereas Freud's view of humanity was
maladaptive (projection, isolation, pessimistic and rooted in biology, Adler's view
denial, displacement, and dissociation), was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family
and some are mature and adaptive experiences.
(sublimation, suppression, humor, and
altruism). Valliant found that neurotic Biography of Alfred Adler
defense mechanisms are successful over Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a town near
the short term; immature defenses are Vienna, a second son of middle-class Jewish
unsuccessful and have the highest degree parents. Like Freud, Adler was a physician, and
of distortion; whereas mature and in 1902, he became a charter member of Freud's
adaptive defenses are successful over organization. However, personal and
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professional differences between the two men Fictionalism

led to Adler's departure from the Vienna Fictions are people's expectations of the
Psychoanalytic Society in 1911. Adler soon future. Adler held that fictions guide
founded his own group, the Society for Individual behavior, because people act as if these
Psychology. Adler's strengths were his energetic fictions are true. Adler emphasized
oral presentations and his insightful ability to teleology over causality, or explanations
understand family dynamics. He was not a gifted of behavior in terms of future goals
writer, a limitation that may have prevented rather than past causes.
individual psychology from attaining world
recognition equal to Freud's psychoanalysis. Organ Inferiorities
Adler believed that all humans are
Introduction to Adlerian Theory "blessed" with organ inferiorities, which
Although Adler's individual psychology is both stimulate subjective feelings of inferiority
complex and comprehensive, its main tenets can and move people toward perfection or
be stated in simple form. completion.
Striving for Success or Superiority Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is Adler believed that all behaviors are directed
the striving for success or superiority. toward a single purpose. When seen in the light
of that sole purpose, seemingly contradictory
The Final Goal behaviors can be seen as operating in a self-
The final goal of either success or consistent manner.
superiority toward which all people
strive unifies personality and makes all Organ Dialect
behavior meaningful. People often use a physical disorder to
express style of life, a condition Adler
The Striving Force as Compensation called organ dialect.
Because people are born with small,
inferior bodies, they feel inferior and Conscious and Unconscious
attempt to overcome these feelings Conscious and unconscious processes are
through their natural tendency to move unified and operate to achieve a single
toward completion. The striving force can goal. The part of our goal that we do
take one of two courses: personal gain not clearly understood is unconscious; the
(superiority) or community benefit part of our goal that we fail to fully
(success). comprehend is conscious.
Striving for Personal Superiority Social Interest

Psychologically unhealthy individuals Human behavior has value to the extent that it is
strive for personal superiority with little motivated by social interest, that is, a feeling of
concern for other people. Although they oneness with all of humanity.
may appear to be interested in other
people, their basic motivation is personal Origins of Social Interest
benefit. Although social interest exists as
potentiality in all people, it must be
Striving for Success fostered in a social environment. Adler
In contrast, psychologically healthy believed that the parent-child
people strive for the success of all relationship can be so strong that it
humanity, but they do so without losing negates the effects of heredity.
their personal identity.
Importance of Social Interest
Subjective Perceptions According to Adler, social interest is "the
People's subjective view of the world-not reality- sole criterion of human values," and the
shapes their behavior. worthiness of all one's actions must be
seen by this standard. Without social
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interest, societies could not exist; Safeguarding Tendencies

individuals in antiquity could not have Both normal and neurotic people create
survived without cooperating with others symptoms as a means of protecting their
to protect themselves from danger. Even fragile self-esteem. These safeguarding
today, an infant's helplessness tendencies maintain a neurotic style of
predisposes it toward a nurturing person. life and protect a person from public
disgrace. The three principal
Style of Life safeguarding tendencies are (1) excuses,
The manner of a person's striving is called style which allow people to preserve their
of life, a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 inflated sense of personal worth; (2)
or 5 years of age. However, Adler believed that aggression, which may take the form of
healthy individuals are marked by flexible depreciating others' accomplishments,
behavior and that they have some limited ability accusing others of being responsible for
to change their style of life. one's own failures, or self-accusation;
and (3) withdrawal, which can be
Creative Power expressed by psychologically moving
Style of life is partially a product of heredity backward, standing still, hesitating, or
and environment-the building blocks of constructing obstacles.
personality-but ultimately style of life is shaped
by people's creative power, that is, by their Masculine Protest
ability to freely choose a course of action. Both men and women sometimes
overemphasize the desirability of being
Abnormal Development manly, a condition Adler called the
Creative power is not limited to healthy people; masculine protest. The frequently found
unhealthy individuals also create their own inferior status of women is not based on
personalities. Thus, each of us is free to choose physiology but on historical
either a useful or a useless style of life. developments and social learning.
General Description Applications of Individual Psychology

The most important factor in abnormal Adler applied the principles of individual
development is lack of social interest. In psychology to family constellation, early
addition, people with a useless style of recollections, dreams, and psychotherapy.
life tend to (1) set their goals too high,
(2) have a dogmatic style of life, and (3) Family Constellation
live in their own private world. Adler believed that people's perception
of how they fit into their family is related
External Factors in Maladjustment to their style of life. He claimed that
Adler listed three factors that relate to firstborns are likely to have strong
abnormal development: (1) feelings of power and superiority, to be
exaggerated physical deficiencies, which overprotective, and to have more than
do not by themselves cause abnormal their share of anxiety. Second-born
development, but which may contribute children are likely to have strong social
to it by generating subjective and interest, provided they do not get
exaggerated feelings of inferiority; (2) trapped trying to overcome their older
a pampered style of life, which sibling. Youngest children are likely to
contributes to an overriding drive to be pampered and to lack independence,
establish a permanent parasitic whereas only children have some of the
relationship with the mother or a mother characteristics of both the oldest and the
substitute; and (3) a neglected style of youngest child.
life, which leads to distrust of other
people. Early Recollections
A more reliable method of determining
style of life is to ask people for their
earliest recollections. Adler believed that
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early memories are templates on which rates high on free-choice, social influences, and
people project their current style of life. uniqueness; very high on optimism and teleology;
These recollections need not be accurate and average on unconscious influences.
accounts of early events; they have
psychological importance because they
reflect a person's current view of the
world.
JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Dreams
Adler believed that dreams can provide Overview of Jung's Analytical Psychology
clues to solving future problems. Carl Jung believed that people are extremely
However, dreams are disguised to complex beings who possess a variety of
deceive the dreamer and usually must opposing qualities, such as introversion and
be interpreted by another person. extraversion, masculinity and femininity, and
rational and irrational drives.
Psychotherapy
The goal of Adlerian therapy is to Biography of Carl Jung
create a relationship between therapist Carl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, the
and patient that fosters social interest. oldest surviving child of an idealistic Protestant
To ensure that the patient's social interest minister and his wife. Jung's early experience
will eventually generalize to other with parents (who were quite opposite of each
relationships, the therapist adopts both a other) probably influenced his own theory of
maternal and a paternal role. personality. Soon after receiving his medical
degree he became acquainted with Freud's
Related Research writings and eventually with Freud himself. Not
Although family constellation and birth order long after he traveled with Freud to the United
have been widely researched, a topic more States, Jung became disenchanted with Freud's
pertinent to Adlerian theory is early recollections. pansexual theories, broke with Freud, and began
Research shows that early recollections are his own approach to theory and therapy, which
related to a number of personal traits, such as he called analytical psychology. From a critical
depression, alcoholism, criminal behavior, and midlife crisis, during which he nearly lost contact
success in counseling. Other research has shown with reality, Jung emerged to become one of the
that a change in style of life may be capable of leading thinkers of the 20th century. He died in
producing a change in early recollections. Still 1961 at age 85.
other research suggests that made-up early
recollections may be as meaningful as actual Levels of the Psyche
ones. Jung saw the human psyche as being divided into
a conscious and an unconscious level, with the
Critique of Adler latter further subdivided into a personal and a
Individual psychology rates high on its ability to collective unconscious.
generate research, organize data, and guide the
practitioner. It receives a moderate rating on Conscious
parsimony, but because it lacks operational Images sensed by the ego are said to be
definitions, it rates low on internal consistency. It conscious. The ego thus represents the
also rates low on falsification because many of conscious side of personality, and in the
its related research findings can be explained psychologically mature individual, the
by other theories. ego is secondary to the self.
Concept of Humanity Personal Unconscious
Adler saw people as forward moving, social The unconscious refers to those psychic
animals who are motivated by goals they set images not sensed by the ego. Some
(both consciously and unconsciously) for the unconscious processes flow from our
future. People are ultimately responsible for their personal experiences, but others stem
own unique style of life. Thus, Adler's theory
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from our ancestors' experiences with energy. These forces include causality and
universal themes. Jung divided the teleology as well as progression and regression.
unconscious into the personal unconscious,
which contains the complexes Causality and Teleology
(emotionally toned groups of related Jung accepted a middle position
ideas) and the collective unconscious, or between the philosophical issues of
ideas that are beyond our personal causality and teleology. In other words,
experiences and that originate from the humans are motivated both by their past
repeated experiences of our ancestors. experiences and by their expectations of
the future.
Collective Unconscious
Collective unconscious images are not Progression and Regression
inherited ideas, but rather they refer to To achieve self-realization, people must
our innate tendency to react in a adapt to both their external and internal
particular way whenever our personal worlds. Progression involves adaptation
experiences stimulate an inherited to the outside world and the forward
predisposition toward action. Contents of flow of psychic energy, whereas
the collective unconscious are called regression refers to adaptation to the
archetypes. inner world and the backward flow of
psychic energy. Jung believed that the
Archetypes backward step is essential to a person's
Jung believed that archetypes originate forward movement toward self-
through the repeated experiences of our realization.
ancestors and that they are expressed in
certain types of dreams, fantasies, Psychological Types
delusions, and hallucinations. Several Eight basic psychological types emerge from the
archetypes acquire their own union of two attitudes and four functions.
personality, and Jung identified these by
name. One is the persona-the side of our Attitudes
personality that we show to others. Attitudes are predispositions to act or
Another is the shadow-the dark side of react in a characteristic manner. The two
personality. To reach full psychological basic attitudes are introversion, which
maturity, Jung believed, we must first refers to people's subjective perceptions,
realize or accept our shadow. A second and extraversion, which indicates an
hurdle in achieving maturity is for men to orientation toward the objective world.
accept their anima, or feminine side, and Extraverts are influenced more by the
for women to embrace their animus, or real world than by their subjective
masculine disposition. Other archetypes perception, whereas introverts rely on
include the great mother (the archetype their individualized view of things.
of nourishment and destruction); the wise Introverts and extraverts often mistrust
old man (the archetype of wisdom and and misunderstand one another.
meaning); and the hero, (the image we
have of a conqueror who vanquishes Functions
evil, but who has a single fatal flaw). The two attitudes or extroversion and
The most comprehensive archetype is the introversion can combine with four basic
self; that is, the image we have of functions to form eight general
fulfillment, completion, or perfection. The personality types. The four functions are
ultimate in psychological maturity is self- (1) thinking, or recognizing the meaning
realization, which is symbolized by the of stimuli; (2) feeling, or placing a value
mandala, or perfect geometric figure. on something; (3) sensation, or taking in
sensory stimuli; and (4) intuition, or
Dynamics of Personality perceiving elementary data that are
Jung believed that the dynamic principles that beyond our awareness. Jung referred to
apply to physical energy also apply to psychic thinking and feeling as rational functions
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and to sensation and intuition as of which come from the collective

irrational functions. unconscious, have meanings that lie
beyond the experiences of a single
Development of Personality individual.
Nearly unique among personality theorists was
Jung's emphasis on the second half of life. Jung Active Imagination
saw middle and old age as times when people Jung also used active imagination to
may acquire the ability to attain self-realization. arrive at collective images. This
technique requires the patient to
Stages of Development concentrate on a single image until that
Jung divided development into four image begins to appear in a different
broad stages: (1) childhood, which lasts form. Eventually, the patient should see
from birth until adolescence; (2) youth, figures that represent archetypes and
the period from puberty until middle life, other collective unconscious images.
which is a time for extraverted
development and for being grounded to Psychotherapy
the real world of schooling, occupation, The goal of Jungian therapy is to help
courtship, marriage, and family; (3) neurotic patients become healthy and to
middle life, which is a time from about move healthy people in the direction of
35 or 40 until old age when people self-realization. Jung was eclectic in his
should be adopting an introverted choice of therapeutic techniques and
attitude; and (4) old age, which is a time treated old people differently than the
for psychological rebirth, self- young.
realization, and preparation for death.
Related Research
Self-Realization Although Jungian psychology has not generated
Self-realization, or individuation, large volumes of research, some investigators
involves a psychological rebirth and an have used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to
integration of various parts of the examine the idea of psychological types. Some
psyche into a unified or whole individual. research suggests that extraverts and introverts
Self-realization represents the highest have different preferences in their choice of
level of human development. partners. Other researchers have reported that
personality type is related to academic
Jung's Methods of Investigation performance and success.
Jung used the word association test, dreams, and
active imagination during the process of Critique of Jung
psychotherapy, and all these methods Although Jung considered himself a scientist,
contributed to his theory of personality. many of his writings have more of a
philosophical than a psychological flavor. As a
Word Association Test scientific theory, it rates average on its ability to
Jung used the word association test early generate research, but very low on its ability to
in his career to uncover complexes withstand falsification. It is about average on its
embedded in the personal unconscious. ability to organize knowledge but low on each
The technique requires a patient to utter of the other criteria of a useful theory.
the first word that comes to mind after
the examiner reads a stimulus word. Concept of Humanity
Unusual responses indicate a complex. Jung saw people as extremely complex beings
who are a product of both conscious and
Dream Analysis unconscious personal experiences. However,
Jung believed that dreams may have people are also motivated by inherited remnants
both a cause and a purpose and thus that spring from the collective experiences of
can be useful in explaining past events their early ancestors. Because Jungian theory is a
and in making decisions about the future. psychology of opposites, it receives a moderate
"Big dreams" and "typical dreams," both rating on the issues of free will versus
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determinism, optimism versus pessimism, and Fantasies

causality versus teleology. It rates very high on Klein assumed that very young infants
unconscious influences, low on uniqueness, and possess an active, unconscious fantasy
low on social influences. life. Their most basic fantasies are
images of the "good" breast and the
"bad" breast.
Objects
KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY Klein agreed with Freud that drives have
an object, but she was more likely to
Overview of Object Relations Theory emphasize the child's relationship with
Many personality theorists have accepted some these objects (parents' face, hands,
of Freud's basic assumptions while rejecting breast, penis, etc.), which she saw as
others. One approach to extending having a life of their own within the
psychoanalytic theory has been the object child's fantasy world.
relations theories of Melanie Klein and others.
Unlike Jung and Adler, who came to reject Positions
Freud's ideas, Klein tried to validate Freud's In their attempts to reduce the conflict produced
theories. In essence, Klein extended Freud's by good and bad images, infants organize their
developmental stages downward to the first 4 to experience into positions, or ways of dealing
6 months after birth. with both internal and external objects.
Biography of Melanie Klein Paranoid-Schizoid Position

Melanie Klein was born in Vienna in 1892, the The struggles that infants experience
youngest of four children. She had neither a with the good breast and the bad breast
Ph.D. nor an M.D. degree but became an analyst lead to two separate and opposing
by being psychoanalyzed. As an analyst, she feelings: a desire to harbor the breast
specialized in working with young children. In and a desire to bite or destroy it. To
1927, she moved to London where she practiced tolerate these two feelings, the ego splits
until her death in 1960. itself by retaining parts of its life and
death instincts while projecting other
Introduction to Object Relations Theory parts onto the breast. It then has a
Object relations theory differs from Freudian relationship with the ideal breast and
theory in at least three ways: (1) it places more the persecutory breast. To control this
emphasis on interpersonal relationships, (2) it situation, infants adopt the paranoid-
stresses the infant's relationship with the mother schizoid position, which is a tendency to
rather than the father, and (3) it suggests that see the world as having both destructive
people are motivated primarily for human and omnipotent qualities.
contact rather than for sexual pleasure. The term
object in object relations theory refers to any Depressive Position
person or part of a person that infants introject, By depressive position, Klein meant the
or take into their psychic structure and then later anxiety that infants experience around 6
project onto other people. months of age over losing their mother
and yet, at the same time, wanting to
Psychic Life of the Infant destroy her. The depressive position is
Klein believed that infants begin life with an resolved when infants fantasize that they
inherited predisposition to reduce the anxiety have made up for their previous
that they experience as a consequence of the transgressions against their mother and
clash between the life instinct and the death also realize that their mother will not
instinct. abandon them.
Psychic Defense Mechanisms

According to Klein, children adopt various
psychic defense mechanisms to protect their ego
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against anxiety aroused by their own destructive Superego

fantasies. Klein believed that the superego
emerged much earlier than Freud had
Introjection held. To her, the superego preceded
Klein defined introjection as the fantasy rather than followed the Oedipus
of taking into one's own body the complex. Klein also saw the superego as
images that one has of an external being quite harsh and cruel.
object, especially the mother's breast.
Infants usually introject good objects as Oedipus Complex
a protection against anxiety, but they Klein believed that the Oedipus complex
also introject bad objects in order to begins during the first few months of life,
gain control of them. then reaches its zenith during the genital
stage, at about 3 or 4 years of age, or
Projection the same time that Freud had suggested
The fantasy that one's own feelings and it began. Klein also held that much of the
impulses reside within another person is Oedipus complex is based on children's
called projection. Children project both fear that their parents will seek revenge
good and bad images, especially onto against them for their fantasy of
their parents. emptying the parent's body. For healthy
development during the Oedipal years,
Splitting children should retain positive feelings
Infants tolerate good and bad aspects for each parent. According to Klein, the
of themselves and of external objects by little boy adopts a "feminine" position
splitting, or mentally keeping apart, very early in life and has no fear of
incompatible images. Splitting can be being castrated as punishment for his
beneficial to both children and adults, sexual feelings for his mother. Later, he
because it allows them to like themselves projects his destructive drive onto his
while still recognizing some unlikable father, whom he fears will bite or
qualities. castrate him. The male Oedipus complex
is resolved when the boy establishes
Projective Identification good relations with both parents. The
Projective identification is the psychic little girl also adopts a "feminine"
defense mechanism whereby infants split position toward both parents quite early
off unacceptable parts of themselves, in life. She has a positive feeling for
project them onto another object, and both her mother's breast and her father's
finally introject them in an altered form. penis, which she believes will feed her
with babies. Sometimes the girl develops
Internalizations hostility toward her mother, whom she
After introjecting external objects, infants fears will retaliate against her and rob
organize them into a psychologically meaningful her of her babies, but in most cases, the
framework, a process that Klein called female Oedipus complex is resolved
internalization. without any jealousy toward the mother.
Ego Later Views on Object Relations

Internalizations are aided by the early A number of other theorists have expanded and
ego's ability to feel anxiety, to use altered Klein's theory of object relations.
defense mechanisms, and to form object Notable among them are Margaret Mahler, Otto
relations in both fantasy and reality. Kernberg, Heinz Kohut, and John Bowlby.
However, a unified ego emerges only
after first splitting itself into two parts: Margaret Mahler's View
those that deal with the life instinct and Mahler, a native of Hungary who
those that relate to the death instinct. practiced psychoanalysis in both Vienna
and New York, developed her theory of
object relations from careful
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observations of infants as they bonded primate infants, Bowlby observed three

with their mothers during their first 3 stages of separation anxiety: (1) protest,
years of life. In their progress toward (2) apathy and despair, and (3)
achieving a sense of identity, children emotional detachment from people,
pass through a series of three major including the primary caregiver. Children
developmental stages. First is normal who reach the third stage lack warmth
autism, which covers the first 3 to 4 and emotion in their later relationships.
weeks of life, a time when infants satisfy
their needs within the all-powerful Psychotherapy
protective orbit of their mother's care. The goal of Kleinian therapy was to reduce
Second is normal symbiosis, when infants depressive anxieties and persecutory fears and
behave as if they and their mother were to lessen the harshness of internalized objects. To
an omnipotent, symbiotic unit. Third is do this, Klein encouraged patients to re-
separation-individuation, from about 4 experience early fantasies and pointed out the
months until about 3 years, a time when differences between conscious and unconscious
children are becoming psychologically wishes.
separated from their mothers and
achieving individuation, or a sense of Related Research
personal identity. Some research on attachment theory has found
that children with secure attachment have both
Heinz Kohut's View better attention and better memory than do
Kohut was a native of Vienna who spent children with insecure attachment. Other research
most of his professional life in the United suggests that securely attached young children
States. More than any of the other grow up to become adolescents who feel
object relations theorists, Kohut comfortable in friendship groups that allow new
emphasized the development of the self. members to easily become part of those groups.
In caring for their physical and Still other studies have shown that
psychological needs, adults treat infants 8- and 9-year-old children who were securely
as if they had a sense of self. The attached during infancy produced family
parents' behaviors and attitudes drawings that reflect that security.
eventually help children form a sense of
self that gives unity and consistency to Critique of Object Relations Theory
their experiences. Object relations theory shares with Freudian
theory an inability to be either falsified or
Otto Kernberg's View verified through empirical research.
Kernberg, a native of Vienna who has Nevertheless, some clinicians regard the theory
spent most of his professional career in as being a useful guide to action and as
the United States, believes that the key possessing substantial internal consistency.
to understanding personality is the However, the theory must be rated low on
mother-child relationship. Children who parsimony and also low on its ability to organize
experience a healthy relationship with knowledge and to generate research.
their mother develop an integrated ego,
a punitive superego, a stable self- Concept of Humanity
concept, and satisfying interpersonal Object relations theorists see personality as
relations. In contrast, children who have being a product of the early mother-child
poor relations with their mother will have relationship, and thus they stress determinism
difficulty integrating their ego and may over free choice. The powerful influence of early
suffer from some form of childhood also gives these theories a low rating
psychopathology during adulthood. on uniqueness, a very high rating on social
influences, and high ratings on causality and
John Bowlby's Attachment Theory unconscious forces. Klein and other object
Bowlby, a native of England, received relations theorists rate average on optimism
training in child psychiatry from Melanie versus pessimism.
Klein. By studying human and other
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needs for affection and cause people to

overvalue love.
The Importance of Childhood Experiences

HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY Neurotic conflict stems largely from
childhood traumas, most of which are
Overview of Horney's Psychoanalytic Social traced to a lack of genuine love.
Theory Children who do not receive genuine
Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory affection feel threatened and adopt
assumes that social and cultural conditions, rigid behavioral patterns in an attempt
especially during childhood, have a powerful to gain love.
effect on later personality. Like Melanie Klein,
Horney accepted many of Freud's observations, Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety
but she objected to most of his interpretations, All children need feelings of safety and security,
including his notions on feminine psychology. but these can be gained only by love from
parents. Unfortunately, parents often neglect,
Biography of Karen Horney dominate, reject, or overindulge their children,
Karen Horney, who was born in Germany in conditions that lead to the child's feelings of
1885, was one of the first women in that country basic hostility toward parents. If children repress
admitted to medical school. There, she became feelings of basic hostility, they will develop
acquainted with Freudian theory and eventually feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of
became a psychoanalyst and a psychiatrist. In apprehension called basic anxiety. People can
her mid-40s, Horney left Germany to settle in the protect themselves from basic anxiety through a
United States, first in Chicago and then in New number of protective devices, including (1)
York. She soon abandoned orthodox affection, (2) submissiveness, (3) power, prestige,
psychoanalysis in favor of a more socially or possession, and (4) withdrawal. Normal
oriented theory-one that had a more positive people have the flexibility to use any or all of
view of feminine development. She died in 1952 these approaches, but neurotics are compelled to
at age 67. rely rigidly on only one.
Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory Compulsive Drives

Although Horney's writings deal mostly with Neurotics are frequently trapped in a vicious
neuroses and neurotic personalities, her theories circle in which their compulsive need to reduce
also appropriate suggest much that is basic anxiety leads to a variety of self-
appropriate to normal development. She agreed defeating behaviors; these behaviors then
with Freud that early childhood traumas are produce more basic anxiety, and the cycle
important, but she placed far more emphasis on continues.
social factors.
Neurotic Needs
Horney and Freud Compared Horney identified 10 categories of
Horney criticized Freudian theory on at neurotic needs that mark neurotics in
least three accounts: (1) its rigidity their attempt to reduce basic anxiety.
toward new ideas, (2) its skewed view of These include needs (1) for affection and
feminine psychology, and (3) its approval, (2) for a powerful partner (3)
overemphasis on biology and the to restrict one's life within narrow
pleasure principle. borders, (4) for power, (5) to exploit
others, (6) for social recognition or
The Impact of Culture prestige, (7) for personal admiration, (8)
Horney insisted that modern culture is too for ambition and personal achievement,
competitive and that competition leads (9) for self-sufficiency and
to hostility and feelings of isolation. independence, and (10) for perfection
These conditions lead to exaggerated and unassailability.
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Neurotic Trends Feminine Psychology

Later, Horney grouped these 10 neurotic Horney believed that psychological differences
needs into three basic neurotic trends, between men and women are not due to
which apply to both normal and neurotic anatomy but to culture and social expectations.
individuals in their attempt to solve basic Her view of the Oedipus complex differed
conflict. The three neurotic tends are (1) markedly from Freud's in that she insisted that
moving toward people, in which any sexual attraction or hostility of child to
compliant people protect themselves parent would be the result of learning and not
against feelings of helplessness by biology.
attaching themselves to other people; (2)
moving against people, in which Psychotherapy
aggressive people protect themselves The goal of Horney's psychotherapy was to help
against perceived hostility of others by patients grow toward self-realization, give up
exploiting others; and (3) moving away their idealized self-image, relinquish their
from people, in which detached people neurotic search for glory, and change self-hatred
protect themselves against feelings of to self-acceptance. Horney believed that
isolation by appearing arrogant and successful therapy is built on self-analysis and
aloof. self-understnding.
Intrapsychic Conflicts Related Research

People also experience inner tensions or Horney's concepts of morbid dependency and
intrapsychic conflicts that become part of their hypercompetitiveness have both stimulated some
belief system and take on a life of their own, recent research.
separate from the interpersonal conflicts that
created them. Morbid Dependency
The current concept of codependency,
The Idealized Self-Image which is based on Horney's notion of
People who do not receive love and morbid dependency, has produced
affection during childhood are blocked research showing that people with
in their attempt to acquire a stable sense neurotic needs to move toward others
of identity. Feeling alienated from self, will go to great lengths to win the
they create an idealized self-image, or approval of other people. A study by
an extravagantly positive picture of Lyon and Greenberg (1991) found that
themselves. Horney recognized three women with an alcoholic parent,
aspects of the idealized self-image: (1) compared with women without an
the neurotic search for glory, or a alcoholic parent, were much more
comprehensive drive toward actualizing nurturant toward a person they
the ideal self; (2) neurotic claims, or a perceived as exploitative than toward a
belief that they are entitled to special person they perceived as nurturing.
privileges; and (3) neurotic pride, or a
false pride based not on reality but on a Hypercompetitiveness
distorted and idealized view of self. Horney's idea of moving against people
relates to the concept of hyper-
Self-Hatred competitiveness, a topic that has
Neurotics dislike themselves because received some recent research interest.
reality always falls short of their Some of this research indicates that,
idealized view of self. Therefore, they although hypercompetitiveness is a
learn self-hatred, which can be negative personality trait, some types of
expressed as: (1) relentless demands on competitiveness can be positive. Other
the self, (2) merciless self-accusation, (3) research has found that
self-contempt, (4) self-frustration, (5) hypercompetitive European American
self-torment or self-torture, and (6) self- women frequently have some type of
destructive actions eating disorder.
and impulses.
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Critique of Horney Human Needs

Although Horney painted a vivid portrayal of the According to Fromm, our human dilemma cannot
neurotic personality, her theory rates very low in be solved by satisfying our animal needs. It can
generating research and low on its ability to be only be addressed by fulfilling our uniquely
falsified, to organize data, and to serve as a human needs, an accomplishment that moves us
useful guide to action. Her theory is rated about toward a reunion with the natural world. Fromm
average on internal consistency and parsimony. identified five of these distinctively human or
existential needs.
Concept of Humanity
Horney's concept of humanity is rated very high Relatedness
on social factors, high on free choice, optimism, First is relatedness, which can take the
and unconscious influences, and about average form of (1) submission, (2) power, and
on causality versus teleology and on the (3) love. Love, or the ability to unite with
uniqueness of the individual. another while retaining one's own
individuality and integrity, is the only
relatedness need that can solve our
basic human dilemma.
FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS Transcendence

Being thrown into the world without their
Overview of Fromm's Humanistic consent, humans have to transcend their
Psychoanalysis nature by destroying or creating people
Erich Fromm's humanistic psychoanalysis looks at or things. Humans can destroy through
people from the perspective of psychology, malignant aggression, or killing for
history, and anthropology. Influenced by Freud reasons other than survival, but they can
and Horney, Fromm developed a more culturally also create and care about their
oriented theory than Freud's and a much broader creations.
theory than Horney's.
Rootedness
Biography of Erich Fromm Rootedness is the need to establish roots
Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900, the and to feel at home again in the world.
only child of orthodox Jewish parents. A Productively, rootedness enables us to
thoughtful young man, Fromm was influenced by grow beyond the security of our mother
the bible, Freud, and Marx, as well as by and establish ties with the outside world.
socialist ideology. After receiving his Ph.D., With the nonproductive strategy, we
Fromm began studying psychoanalysis and become fixated and afraid to move
became an analyst by being analyzed by Hanns beyond the security and safety of our
Sachs, a student of Freud. In 1934, Fromm mother or a mother substitute.
moved to the United States and began a
psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he Sense of Identity
also resumed his friendship with Karen Horney, The fourth human need is for a sense of
whom he had known in Germany. Much of his identity, or an awareness of ourselves as
later years were spent in Mexico and a separate person. The drive for a sense
Switzerland. He died in 1980. of identity is expressed nonproductively
as conformity to a group and
Fromm's Basic Assumptions productively as individuality.
Fromm believed that humans have been torn
away from their prehistoric union with nature and Frame of Orientation
left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a By frame of orientation, Fromm meant a
changing world. But because humans have road map or consistent philosophy by
acquired the ability to reason, they can think which we find our way through the
about their isolated condition-a situation Fromm world. This need is expressed
called the human dilemma. nonproductively as a striving for
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irrational goals and productively as themselves, but they aggressively take

movement toward rational goals. what they want rather than passively
receiving it. Hoarding characters try to
The Burden of Freedom save what they have already obtained,
As the only animal possessing self-awareness, including their opinions, feelings, and
humans are what Fromm called the "freaks of the material possessions. People with a
universe." Historically, as people gained more marketing orientation see themselves as
political freedom, they began to experience commodities and value themselves
more isolation from others and from the world against the criterion of their ability to
and to feel free from the security of a sell themselves. They have fewer positive
permanent place in the world. As a result, qualities than the other orientations
freedom becomes a burden, and people because they are essentially empty.
experience basic anxiety, or a feeling of being
alone in the world. The Productive Orientation
Psychologically healthy people work
Mechanisms of Escape toward positive freedom through
To reduce the frightening sense of productive work, love, and reasoning.
isolation and aloneness, people may Productive love necessitates a passionate
adopt one of three mechanisms of love of all life and is called biophilia.
escape: (1) authoritarianism, or the
tendency to give up one's independence Personality Disorders
and to unite with a powerful partner; (2) Unhealthy people have nonproductive ways of
destructiveness, an escape mechanism working, reasoning, and especially loving. Fromm
aimed at doing away with other people recognized three major personality disorders: (1)
or things; and (3) conformity, or necrophilia, or the love of death and the hatred
surrendering of one's individuality in of all humanity; (2) malignant narcissism, or a
order to meet the wishes of others. belief that everything belonging to one's self is
of great value and anything belonging to others
Positive Freedom is worthless; and incestuous symbiosis, or an
The human dilemma can only be solved extreme dependence on one's mother or mother
through positive freedom, which is the surrogate.
spontaneous activity of the whole,
integrated personality, and which is Psychotherapy
achieved when a person becomes The goal of Fromm's psychotherapy was to work
reunited with others. toward satisfaction of the basic human needs of
relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, a sense
Character Orientations of identity, and
People relate to the world by acquiring and a frame of orientation. The therapist tries to
using things (assimilation) and by relating to self accomplish this through shared communication in
and others (socialization), and they can do so which the therapist is simply a human being
either nonproductively or productively. rather than
a scientist.
Nonproductive Orientations
Fromm identified four nonproductive Fromm's Methods of Investigation
strategies that fail to move people closer Fromm's personality theory rests on data he
to positive freedom and self-realization. gathered from a variety of sources, including
People with a receptive orientation psychotherapy, cultural anthropology, and
believe that the source of all good lies psychohistory.
outside themselves and that the only way
they can relate to the world is to receive Social Character in a Mexican Village
things, including love, knowledge, and Fromm and his associates spent several
material objects. People with an years investigating social character in a
exploitative orientation also believe that isolated farming village in Mexico and
the source of good lies outside
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found evidence of all the character that emphasized the importance of interpersonal
orientations except the marketing one. relations. He insisted that personality is shaped
almost entirely by the relationships we have with
A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler other people. Sullivan's principal contribution to
Fromm applied the techniques of personality theory was his conception of
psychohistory to the study of several developmental stages.
historical people, including Adolf Hitler-
the person Fromm regarded as the Biography of Harry Stack Sullivan
world's most conspicuous example of Harry Stack Sullivan, the first American to
someone with the syndrome of decay, develop a comprehensive personality theory,
that is, necrophilia, malignant narcissism, was born in a small farming community in upstate
and incestuous symbiosis. New York in 1892. A socially immature and
isolated child, Sullivan nevertheless formed one
Related Research close interpersonal relationship with a boy five
Fromm's theory ranks near the bottom of years older than himself. In his interpersonal
personality theories with regard to stimulating theory, Sullivan believed that such a relationship
research. Recently, Shaun Saunders and Don has the power to transform an immature
Munro have developed the Saunders Consumer preadolescent into a psychologically healthy
Orientation Index (SCOI) to measure Fromm's individual. Six years after becoming a physician,
marketing character. To date, much of their work and with no training in psychiatry, Sullivan
has consisted in establishing the validity of this gained a position at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in
instrument. In general, Saunders has found that Washington, D.C., as a psychiatrist. There, his
people with a strong consumer orientation tend ability to work with schizophrenic patients won
to place low value on freedom, inner harmony, him a reputation as a therapeutic wizard.
equality, self-respect, and community. However, despite achieving much respect from
an influential group of associates, Sullivan had
Critique of Fromm few close interpersonal relations with any of his
The strength of Fromm's theory is his lucid writings peers. He died alone in Paris in 1949, at age
on a broad range of human issues. As a scientific 56.
theory, however, Fromm's theory rates very low
on its ability to generate research and to lend Tensions
itself to falsification; it rates low on usefulness to Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy
the practitioner, internal consistency, and system, with energy existing either as tension
parsimony. Because it is quite broad in scope, (potentiality for action) or as energy
Fromm's theory rates high on organizing existing transformations (the actions themselves). He
knowledge. further divided tensions into needs and anxiety.
Concept of Humanity Needs

Fromm believed that humans were "freaks of the Needs can relate either to the general
universe" because they lacked strong animal well-being of a person or to specific
instincts while possessing the ability to reason. In zones, such as the mouth or genitals.
brief, his view is rated average on free choice, General needs can be either
optimism, unconscious influences, and uniqueness; physiological, such as food or oxygen, or
low on causality; and high on social influences. they can be interpersonal, such as
tenderness and intimacy.
Anxiety
Unlike needs-which are conjunctive and
SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL THEORY call for specific actions to reduce them-
anxiety is disjunctive and calls for no
Overview of Sullivan's Interpersonal Theory consistent actions for its relief. All infants
Although Sullivan had a lonely and isolated learn to be anxious through the empathic
childhood, he evolved a theory of personality relationship that they have with their
mothering one. Sullivan called anxiety
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the chief disruptive force in interpersonal all those experiences that we block from
relations. A complete absence of anxiety awareness. Another is selective
and other tensions is called euphoria. inattention, which involves blocking only
certain experiences from awareness.
Dynamisms
Sullivan used the term dynamism to refer to a Personifications
typical pattern of behavior. Dynamisms may Sullivan believed that people acquire certain
relate either to specific zones of the body or to images of self and others throughout the
tensions. developmental stages, and he referred to these
subjective perceptions as personifications.
Malevolence
The disjunctive dynamism of evil and Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
hatred is called malevolence, defined by The bad-mother personification grows
Sullivan as a feeling of living among out of infants' experiences with a nipple
one's enemies. Those children who that does not satisfy their hunger needs.
become malevolent have much difficulty All infants experience the bad-mother
giving and receiving tenderness or being personification, even though their real
intimate with other people. mothers may be loving and nurturing.
Later, infants acquire a good-mother
Intimacy personification as they become mature
The conjunctive dynamism marked by a enough to recognize the tender and
close personal relationship between two cooperative behavior of their mothering
people of equal status is called intimacy. one. Still later, these two personifications
Intimacy facilitates interpersonal combine to form a complex and
development while decreasing both contrasting image of the real mother.
anxiety and loneliness.
Me Personifications
Lust During infancy, children acquire three
In contrast to both malevolence and "me" personifications: (1) the bad-me,
intimacy, lust is an isolating dynamism. which grows from experiences of
That is, lust is a self-centered need that punishment and disapproval, (2) the
can be satisfied in the absence of an good-me, which results from experiences
intimate interpersonal relationship. In with reward and approval, and (3) the
other words, although intimacy not-me, which allows a person to
presupposes tenderness or love, lust is dissociate or selectively inattend the
based solely on sexual gratification and experiences related to anxiety.
requires no other person for its
satisfaction. Eidetic Personifications
One of Sullivan's most interesting
Self-System observations was that people often
The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the create imaginary traits that they project
self-system, or that pattern of behaviors onto others. Included in these eidetic
that protects us against anxiety and personifications are the imaginary
maintains our interpersonal security. The playmates that preschool-aged children
self-system is a conjunctive dynamism, often have. These imaginary friends
but because its primary job is to protect enable children to have a safe, secure
the self from anxiety, it tends to stifle relationship with another person, even
personality change. Experiences that are though that person is imaginary.
inconsistent with our self-system threaten
our security and necessitate our use of Levels of Cognition
security operations, which consist of Sullivan recognized three levels of cognition, or
behaviors designed to reduce ways of perceiving things-prototaxic, parataxic,
interpersonal tensions. One such security and syntaxic.
operation is dissociation, which includes
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Prototaxic Level Childhood

Experiences that are impossible to put The stage that lasts from the beginning
into words or to communicate to others of syntaxic language until the need for
are called prototaxic. Newborn infants playmates of equal status is called
experience images mostly on a childhood. The child's primary
prototaxic level, but adults, too, interpersonal relationship continues to be
frequently have preverbal experiences with the mother, who is now
that are momentary and incapable of differentiated from other persons who
being communicated. nurture the child.
Parataxic Level Juvenile Era

Experiences that are prelogical and The juvenile stage begins with the need
nearly impossible to accurately for peers of equal status and continues
communicate to others are called until the child develops a need for an
parataxic. Included in these are intimate relationship with a chum. At this
erroneous assumptions about cause and time, children should learn how to
effect, which Sullivan termed parataxic compete, to compromise, and to
distortions. cooperate. These three abilities, as well
as an orientation toward living, help a
Syntaxic Level child develop intimacy, the chief
Experiences that can be accurately dynamism of the next developmental
communicated to others are called stage.
syntaxic. Children become capable of
syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 Preadolescence
months of age when words begin to Perhaps the most crucial stage is
have the same meaning for them that preadolescence, because mistakes made
they do for others. earlier can be corrected during
preadolescence, but errors made during
Stages of Development preadolescence are nearly impossible to
Sullivan saw interpersonal development as taking overcome in later life. Preadolescence
place over seven stages, from infancy to mature spans the time from the need for a single
adulthood. Personality changes can take place at best friend until puberty. Children who
any time but are more likely to occur during do not learn intimacy during
transitions between stages. preadolescence have added difficulties
relating to potential sexual partners
Infancy during later stages.
The period from birth until the
emergence of syntaxic language is Early Adolescence
called infancy, a time when the child With puberty comes the lust dynamism
receives tenderness from the mothering and the beginning of early adolescence.
one while also learning anxiety through Development during this stage is
an empathic linkage with the mother. ordinarily marked by a coexistence of
Anxiety may increase to the point of intimacy with a single friend of the same
terror, but such terror is controlled by the gender and sexual interest in many
built-in protections of apathy and persons of the opposite gender.
somnolent detachment that allow the However, if children have no preexisting
baby to go to sleep. During infancy capacity for intimacy, they may confuse
children use autistic language, which lust with love and develop sexual
takes place on a prototaxic or parataxic relationships that are devoid of true
level. intimacy.
Late Adolescence
Chronologically, late adolescence may
start at any time after about age 16,
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but psychologically, it begins when a found that women-but not men-had

person is able to feel both intimacy and complementary interpersonal styles with
lust toward the same person. Late their close women friends. Also, women
adolescence is characterized by a stable were more likely than men to engage in
pattern of sexual activity and the growth a wide variety of activities with their
of the syntaxic mode, as young people intimate friend, a finding that suggests
learn how to live in the adult world. that women develop deeper same-
Adulthood gender friendships than do men.
Late adolescence flows into adulthood, a
time when a person establishes a stable Imaginary Friends
relationship with a significant other Other researchers have studied Sullivan's
person and develops a consistent pattern notion of imaginary playmates and have
of viewing the world. found that children who have identifiable
eidetic playmates tend to be more
Psychological Disorders socialized, less aggressive, more
Sullivan believed that disordered behavior has intelligent, and to have a better sense of
an interpersonal origin, and can only be humor than children who do not report
understood with reference to a person's social having an imaginary playmate.
environment.
Critique of Sullivan
Psychotherapy Despite Sullivan's insights into the importance of
Sullivan pioneered the notion of the therapist as interpersonal relations, his theory of personality
a participant observer, who establishes an and his approach to psychotherapy have lost
interpersonal relationship with the patient. He popularity in recent years. In summary, his theory
was primarily concerned with understanding rates very low in falsifiability, low in its ability to
patients and helping them develop foresight, generate research, and average in its capacity
improve interpersonal relations, and restore their to organize knowledge and to guide action. In
ability to operate mostly on a syntaxic level. addition, it is only average in self-consistency
and low in parsimony.
Related Research
In recent years, a number of researchers have Concept of Humanity
studied the impact of two-person relationships, Because Sullivan saw human personality as being
involving both therapy and non-therapy largely formed from interpersonal relations, his
encounters. theory rates very high on social influences and
very low on biological ones. In addition, it rates
Therapist-Patient Relationships high on unconscious determinants, average on
Hans Strupp, William Henry, and free choice, optimism, and causality, and low on
associates at Vanderbilt developed the uniqueness.
Structural Analysis of Social Behavior, an
instrument for studying the dynamics
between therapist and patient. This
group of researchers found that patients
tended to have relatively stable ERIKSON: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY
behaviors that were consistent with the
way their therapists treated them. Later, Overview of Erikson's Post-Freudian Theory
these researchers reported therapists' Erikson postulated eight stages of psychosocial
professional training was less important development through which people progress.
to successful therapy than the therapists' Although he differed from Freud in his emphasis
own developmental history. on the ego and on social influences, his theory is
an extension, not a repudiation, of Freudian
Intimate Relationships with Friends psychoanalysis.
Elizabeth Yaughn and Stephen Nowicki
studied intimate interpersonal
relationships in same-gender dyads and
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Biography of Erik Erikson Infancy

When Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902 Erikson's view of infancy (the first year of
his name was Erik Salomonsen. After his mother life) was similar to Freud's concept of the
married Theodor Homburger, Erik eventually oral stage, except that Erikson
took his step-father's name. At age 18 he left expanded the notion of incorporation
home to pursue the life of a wandering artist and beyond the mouth to include sense
to search for self-identity. He gave up that life to organs such as the eyes and ears. The
teach young children in Vienna, where he met psychosexual mode of infancy is oral-
Anna Freud. Still searching for his personal sensory, which is characterized by both
identity, he was psychoanalyzed by Ms. Freud, receiving and accepting. The psycho-
an experience that allowed him to become a social crisis of infancy is basic trust versus
psychoanalyst. In mid-life, Erik Homburger basic mistrust. From the crisis between
moved to the United States, changed his name to basic trust and basic mistrust emerges
Erikson, and took a position at the Harvard hope, the basic strength of infancy.
Medical School. Later, he taught at Yale, the Infants who do not develop hope retreat
University of California at Berkeley, and several from the world, and this withdrawal is
other universities. He died in 1994, a month short the core pathology of infancy.
of his 92nd birthday.
Early Childhood
The Ego in Post-Freudian Psychology The second to third year of life is early
One of Erikson's chief contributions to personality childhood, a period that compares to
theory was his emphasis on ego rather than id Freud's anal stage, but it also includes
functions. According to Erikson, the ego is the mastery of other body functions such as
center of personality and is responsible for a walking, urinating, and holding. The
unified sense of self. It consists of three psychosexual mode of early childhood is
interrelated facets: the body ego, the ego ideal, anal-urethral-muscular, and children of
and ego identity. this age behave both impulsively and
compulsively. The psychosocial crisis of
Society's Influence early childhood is autonomy versus
The ego develops within a given society shame and doubt. The psychosocial crisis
and is influenced by child-rearing between autonomy on the one hand and
practices and other cultural customs. All shame and doubt on the other produces
cultures and nations develop a will, the basic strength of early
pseudospecies, or a fictional notion that childhood. The core pathology of early
they are superior to other cultures. childhood is compulsion.
Epigenetic Principle Play Age

The ego develops according to the From about the third to the fifth year,
epigenetic principle; that is, it grows children experience the play age, a
according to a genetically established period that parallels Freud's phallic
rate and in a fixed sequence. phase. Unlike Freud, however, Erikson
saw the Oedipus complex as an early
Stages of Psychosocial Development model of lifelong playfulness and a
Each of the eight stages of development is drama played out in children's minds as
marked by a conflict between a syntonic they attempt to understand the basic
(harmonious) element and a dystonic (disruptive) facts of life. The primary psychosexual
element, which produces a basic strength or ego mode of the play age is genital-
quality. Also, from adolescence on, each stage is locomotor, meaning that children have
characterized by an identity crisis or turning both an interest in genital activity and an
point, which may produce either adaptive or increasing ability to move around. The
maladaptive adjustment. psychosocial crisis of the play age is
initiative versus guilt. The conflict
between initiative and guilt helps
children to act with purpose and to set
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goals. But if children have too little is intimacy versus isolation. Intimacy is the
purpose, they develop inhibition, the ability to fuse one's identity with that of
core pathology of the play age. another without fear of losing it;
whereas isolation is the fear of losing
School Age one's identity in an intimate relationship.
The period from about 6 to 12 or 13 The crisis between intimacy and isolation
years of age is called the school age, a results in the capacity to love. The core
time of psychosexual latency, but it is pathology of young adulthood is
also a time of psychosocial growth exclusivity, or inability to love.
beyond the family. Because sexual
development is latent during the school Adulthood
age, children can use their energies to The period from about 31 to 60 years
learn the customs of their culture, of age is adulthood, a time when people
including both formal and informal make significant contributions to society.
education. The psychosocial crisis of this The psychosexual mode of adulthood is
age is industry versus inferiority. procreativity, or the caring for one's
Children need to learn to work hard, but children, the children of others, and the
they also must develop some sense of material products of one's society. The
inferiority. From the conflict of industry psychosocial crisis of adulthood is
and inferiority emerges competence, the generativity versus stagnation, and the
basic strength of school age children. successful resolution of this crisis results in
Lack of industry leads to inertia, the core care. Erikson saw care as taking care of
pathology of this stage. the persons and products that one has
learned to care for. The core pathology
Adolescence of adulthood is rejectivity, or the
Adolescence begins with puberty and is rejection of certain individuals or groups
marked by a person's struggle to find that one is unwilling to take care of.
ego identity. It is a time of psychosexual
growth, but it is also a period of Old Age
psychosocial latency. The psychosexual The final stage of development is old
mode of adolescence is puberty or age, from about age 60 until death. The
genital maturation. The psychosocial psychosexual mode of old age is
crisis of adolescence is identity versus generalized sensuality; that is, taking
identity confusion. Psychologically pleasure in a variety of sensations and
healthy individuals emerge from an appreciation of the traditional
adolescence with a sense of who they lifestyle of people of the other gender.
are and what they believe; but some The psychosocial crisis of old age is the
identity confusion is normal. The conflict struggle between integrity (the
between identity and identity confusion maintenance of ego-identity) and
produces fidelity, or faith in some despair (the surrender of hope). The
ideological view of the future. Lack of struggle between integrity and despair
belief in one's own selfhood results in may produce wisdom (the basic strength
role repudiation, or an inability to bring of old age), but it may also lead to
together one's various self-images. disdain (a core pathology marked by
feelings of being finished or helpless).
Young Adulthood
Young adulthood begins with the Erikson's Methods of Investigation
acquisition of intimacy at about age 18 Erikson relied mostly on anthropology,
and ends with the development of psychohistory, and play construction to explain
generativity at about age 30. The and describe human personality.
psychosexual mode of young adulthood
is genitality, which is expressed as Anthropological Studies
mutual trust between partners in a stable Erikson's two most important
sexual relationship. Its psychosocial crisis anthropological studies were of the
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Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok adults at midlife who contributed to the
tribe of northern California. Both studies well-being of young people had a clear
demonstrated his notion that culture and sense of who they were and what life
history help shape personality. had to offer them. Other research found
that people high in generativity are
Psychohistory typically concerned with the well-being
Erikson combined the methods of of others.
psychoanalysis and historical research to
study several personalities, most notably Critique of Erikson
Gandhi and Luther. In both cases, the Although Erikson's work is a logical extension of
central figure experienced an identity Freud's psychoanalysis, it offers a new way of
crisis that produced a basic strength looking at human development. As a useful
rather than a core pathology. theory, it rates high on its ability to generate
research, and about average on its ability to be
Play Construction falsified, to organize knowledge, and to guide
Erikson's technique of play construction the practitioner. It rates high on internal
became controversial when he found that consistency and about average on parsimony.
10- to 12-year-old boys used toys to
construct elongated objects and to Concept of Humanity
produce themes of rising and falling. In Erikson saw humans as basically social animals
contrast, girls arranged toys in low and who have limited free choice and who are
peaceful scenes. Erikson concluded that motivated by past experiences, which may be
anatomical differences between the either conscious or unconscious. In addition,
sexes play a role in personality Erikson is rated high on both optimism and
development. uniqueness of individuals.
Related Research
Erikson's theory has generated a moderately
large body of research, must of it investigating
the concept of identity. In addition, some
researchers have looked at Erikson's concept of
LEARNING THEORIES
generativity.
SKINNER: BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
Identity in Early Adulthood
A longitudinal study by Jennifer Pals and Overview of Skinner's Behavioral Analysis
Ravenna Helson found that identity Unlike any theory discussed to this point, the
established in early adulthood is radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner avoids
associated with stable marriage and speculations about hypothetical constructs and
high levels of creativity. Additional concentrates almost exclusively on observable
research by Helson and Pals found that behavior. Besides being a radical behaviorist,
women who had solid identity and high Skinner was also a determinist and an
creative potential at age 21 were more environmentalist; that is, he rejected the notion of
likely than other women to have had a free will, and he emphasized the primacy of
challenging and creative work environmental influences on behavior.
experience at age 52.
Biography of B. F. Skinner
Generativity in Midlife B. F. Skinner was born in Susquehanna,
People high in generativity should have Pennsylvania in 1904, the older of two brothers.
a lifestyle marked by creating and While in college, Skinner wanted to be a writer,
passing on knowledge, values, and but after having little success in this endeavor, he
ideals to a younger generation, and turned to psychology. After earning a Ph.D. from
should benefit from a pattern of helping Harvard, he taught at the Universities of
younger people. Research by Dan Minnesota and Indiana before returning to
McAdams and colleagues found that
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Harvard, where he remained until his death in unconditioned response, now called the
1990. conditioned response. For example,
Watson and Rayner conditioned a
Precursors to Skinner's Scientific Behaviorism young boy to fear a white rat (the
Modern learning theory has roots in the work of conditioned stimulus) by associating it
Edward L. Thorndike and his experiments with with a loud, sudden noise (an
animals during the last part of the 19th century. unconditioned stimulus). Eventually,
Thorndike's law of effect stated that responses through the process of generalization,
followed by a satisfier tend to be learned, a the boy learned to fear stimuli that
concept that anticipated Skinner's use of positive resembled the white rat.
reinforcement to shape behavior. Skinner was
even more influenced by John Watson, who Operant Conditioning
argued that psychology must deal with the With operant conditioning, reinforcement
control and prediction of behavior and that is used to increase the probability that a
behavior-not introspection, consciousness, or the given behavior will recur. Three factors
mind-is the basic data of scientific psychology. are essential in operant conditioning: (1)
the antecedent, or environment in which
Scientific Behaviorism behavior takes place; (2) the behavior,
Skinner believed that human behavior, like any or response; and (3) the consequence
other natural phenomena, is subject to the laws that follows the behavior. Psychologists
of science, and that psychologists should not and others use shaping to mold complex
attribute inner motivations to it. Although he human behavior. Different histories of
rejected internal states (thoughts, emotions, reinforcement result in operant
desires, etc.) as being outside the realm of discrimination, meaning that different
science, Skinner did not deny their existence. organisms will respond differently to the
He simply insisted that they should not be used to same environmental contingencies.
explain behavior. People may also respond similarly to
different environmental stimuli, a process
Philosophy of Science Skinner called stimulus generalization.
Skinner believed that, because the Anything within the environment that
purpose of science is to predict and strengthens a behavior is a reinforcer.
control, psychologists should be Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that
concerned with determining the when added to a situation increases the
conditions under which human behavior probability that a given behavior will
occurs so that they can predict and occur. Negative reinforcement is the
control it. strengthening of behavior through the
removal of an aversive stimulus. Both
Characteristics of Science positive and negative reinforcement
Skinner held that science has three strengthen behavior. Any event that
principle characteristics: (1) its findings decreases a behavior either by
are cumulative, (2) it rests on an attitude presenting an aversive stimulus or by
that values empirical observation, and removing a positive one is called
(3) it searchers for order and lawful punishment. The effects of punishment
relationships. are much less predictable than those of
reward. Both punishment and
Conditioning reinforcement can result from either
Skinner recognized two kinds of conditioning: natural consequences or from human
classical and operant. imposition. Conditioned reinforcers are
those stimuli that are not by nature
Classical Conditioning satisfying (e.g., money), but that can
In classical conditioning, a neutral become so when they are associated
(conditioned) stimulus is paired with an with a primary reinforcer, such as food.
unconditioned stimulus until it is capable Generalized reinforcers are conditioned
of bringing about a previously reinforcers that have become associated
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with several primary reinforcers. Inner States

Reinforcement can follow behavior on Skinner recognized the existence of such
either a continuous schedule or on an inner states as drives and self-
intermittent schedule. There are four awareness, but he rejected the notion
basic intermittent schedules: (1) fixed- that they can explain behavior. To
ratio, on which the organism is reinforced Skinner, drives refer to the effects of
intermittently according to the number of deprivation and satiation and thus are
responses it makes; (2) variable-ratio, on related to the probability of certain
which the organism is reinforced after an behaviors, but they are not the causes of
average of a predetermined number of behavior. Skinner believed that emotions
responses; (3) fixed-interval, on which can be accounted for by the
the organism is reinforced for the first contingencies of survival and the
response following a designated period contingencies of reinforcement; but like
of time; and (4) variable interval, on drives, they do not cause behavior.
which the organism is reinforced after Similarly, purpose and intention are not
the lapse of varied periods of time. The causes of behavior, although they are
tendency of a previously acquired sensations that exist within the skin.
response to become progressively
weakened upon nonreinforcement is Complex Behavior
called extinction. Such elimination or Human behavior is subject to the same
weakening of a response is called principles of operant conditioning as
classical extinction in a classical simple animal behavior, but it is much
conditioning model and operant more complex and difficult to predict or
extinction when the response was control. Skinner explained creativity as
acquired through operant conditioning. the result of random or accidental
behaviors that happen to be rewarded.
The Human Organism Skinner believed that most of our
Skinner believed that human behavior is shaped behavior is unconscious or automatic and
by three forces: (1) natural selection, (2) cultural that not thinking about certain
practices, and (3) the individual's history of experiences is reinforcing. Skinner
reinforcement, which we discussed above. viewed dreams as covert and symbolic
forms of behavior that are subject to the
Natural Selection same contingencies of reinforcement as
As a species, our behavior is shaped by any other behavior.
the contingencies of survival; that is,
those behaviors (e.g., sex and Control of Human Behavior
aggression) that were beneficial to the Ultimately, all of a person's behavior is
human species tended to survive, controlled by the environment. Societies
whereas those that did not tended to exercise control over their members
drop out. through laws, rules, and customs that
transcend any one person's means of
Cultural Evolution countercontrol. There are four basic
Those societies that evolved certain methods of social control: (1) operant
cultural practices (e.g. tool making and conditioning, including positive and
language) tended to survive. Currently, negative reinforcement and punishment;
the lives of nearly all people are (2) describing contingencies, or using
shaped, in part, by modern tools language to inform people of the
(computers, media, various modes of consequence of their behaviors; (3)
transportation, etc.) and by their use of deprivation and satiation, techniques
language. However, humans do not that increase the likelihood that people
make cooperative decisions to do what is will behave in a certain way; and (4)
best for their society, but those societies physical restraint, including the jailing of
whose members behave in a cooperative criminals. Although Skinner denied the
manner tended to survive. existence of free will, he did recognize
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that people manipulate variables within contingent management program can be

their own environment and thus exercise successful in decreasing cocaine use.
some measure of self-control, which has
several techniques: (1) physical restraint, How Personality Affects Conditioning
(2) physical aids, such as tools; (3) Research has also found that different
changing environmental stimuli; (4) personalities may react differently to the
arranging the environment to allow same environmental stimuli. This means
escape from aversive stimuli; (5) drugs; that the same reinforcement strategies
and (6) doing something else. will not have the same effect on all
people. For example, Alan Pickering and
The Unhealthy Personality Jeffrey Gray have developed and
Social control and self-control sometimes produce tested a reinforcement sensitivity theory
counteracting strategies and inappropriate that suggests that impulsivity, anxiety,
behaviors. and introversion/extraversion relate to
ways people respond to environmental
Counteracting Strategies reinforcers.
People can counteract excessive social
control by (1) escaping from it, Critique of Skinner
(2) revolting against it, or (3) passively On the six criteria of a useful theory, Skinner's
resisting it. approach rates very high on its ability to
generate research and to guide action, high on
Inappropriate Behaviors its ability to be falsified, and about average on
Inappropriate behaviors follow from its ability to organize knowledge. In addition, it
self-defeating techniques of rates very high on internal consistency and high
counteracting social control or from on simplicity.
unsuccessful attempts at self-control.
Concept of Humanity
Psychotherapy Skinner's concept of humanity was a completely
Skinner was not a psychotherapist, and he even deterministic and causal one that emphasized
criticized psychotherapy as being one of the unconscious behavior and the uniqueness of each
major obstacles to a scientific study of human person's history of reinforcement within a mostly
behavior. Nevertheless, others have used social environment. Unlike many determinists,
operant conditioning principles to shape Skinner is quite optimistic in his view of humanity.
behavior in a therapeutic setting. Behavior
therapists play an active role in the treatment
process, using behavior modification techniques
and pointing out the positive consequences of
some behaviors and the aversive effects of BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
others.
Overview of Bandura's Social Cognitive
Related Research Theory
Skinner's theory has generated more research Bandura's social cognitive theory takes an
than any other personality theory. Much of this agentic perspective, meaning that humans have
research can be divided into two questions: (1) some limited ability to control their lives. In
How does conditioning affect personality? and contrast to Skinner, Bandura (1) recognizes that
(2) How does personality affect conditioning? chance encounters and fortuitous events often
shape one's behavior; (2) places more emphasis
How Conditioning Affects Personality on observational learning; (3) stresses the
A plethora of studies have demonstrated importance of cognitive factors in learning; (4)
that operant conditioning can change suggests that human activity is a function of
personality (that is, behavior). For behavior and person variables, as well as the
example, a recent study by Stephen environment; and (5) believes that reinforcement
Higgens et al. demonstrated that a is mediated by cognition.
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Biography of Albert Bandura Self-System

Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925, The self-system gives some consistency to
but he has spent his entire professional life in the personality by allowing people to observe and
United States. He completed a Ph.D. in clinical symbolize their own behavior and to evaluate it
psychology at the University of Iowa in 1951 on the basis of anticipated future consequences.
and since then has worked almost entirely at The self-system includes both self-efficacy and
Stanford University, where he continues to be the self-regulation.
most active of all personality theorists in
investigating his own hypotheses. Self-Efficacy
How people behave in a particular
Human Agency situation depends in part on their self-
Bandura believes that human agency is the efficacy-that is, their beliefs that they
essence of humanness; that is, humans are can or cannot exercise those behaviors
defined by their ability to organize, regulate, necessary to bring about a desired
and enact behaviors that they believe will consequence. Efficacy expectations
produce desirable consequences. Human agency differ from outcome expectations, which
has four core features: (1) intentionality, or a refer to people's prediction of the likely
proactive commitment to actions that may bring consequences of their behavior. Self-
about desired outcomes; (2) foresight, or the efficacy combines with environmental
ability to set goals; (3) self-reactiveness, which variables, previous behaviors, and other
includes people monitoring their progress toward personal variables to predict behavior. It
fulfilling their choices; and (4) self-reflectiveness, is acquired, enhanced, or decreased by
which allows people to think about and evaluate any one or combination of four sources:
their motives, values, and life goals. (1) mastery experiences or performance,
(2) social modeling, or observing
Reciprocal Determinism someone of equal ability succeed or fail
Social cognitive theory holds that human at a task; (3) social persuasion, or
functioning is molded by the reciprocal listening to a trusted person's
interaction of (1) behavior; (2) person variables, encouraging words; and (4) physical and
including cognition; and (3) environmental events- emotional states, such as anxiety or fear,
a model Bandura calls reciprocal determinism. which usually lowers self-efficacy. High
self-efficacy and a responsive
Differential Contributions environment are the best predictors of
Bandura does not suggest that the three successful outcomes.
factors in the reciprocal determinism
model make equal contributions to Proxy Agency
behavior. The relative influence of Bandura has recently recognized the
behavior, environment, and person influence of proxy agency through which
depends on which factor is strongest at people exercise some partial control
any particular moment. over everyday living. Successful living in
the 21st century requires people to seeks
Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events proxies to supply their food, deliver
The lives of many people have been information, provide transportation, etc.
fundamentally changed by a chance Without the use of proxies, modern
meeting with another person or by a people would be forced to spend most
fortuitous, unexpected event. Chance of their time securing the necessities of
encounters and fortuitous events enter survival.
the reciprocal determinism paradigm at
the environment point, after which they Collective Efficacy
influence behavior in much the same way Collective efficacy is the level of
as do planned events. confidence that people have that their
combined efforts will produce social
change. At least four factors can lower
collective efficacy. First, events in other
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parts of the world can leave people with cognitively restructuring them. People
a sense of helplessness; second, complex can use redefinition of behavior to
technology can decrease people's disengage themselves from
perceptions of control over their reprehensible conduct by: (1) justifying
environment; third, entrenched otherwise culpable behavior on moral
bureaucracies discourage people from grounds; (2) making advantageous
attempting to bring about social change; comparisons between their behavior and
and fourth, the size and scope of world- the even more reprehensible behavior of
wide problems contribute to people's others; and (3) using euphemistic labels
sense of powerlessness. to change the moral tone of their
behavior. A second method of
Self-Regulation disengagement from internal standards
By using reflective thought, humans can is to distort or obscure the relationship
manipulate their environments and between behavior and its injurious
produce consequences of their actions, consequences. People can do this by
giving them some ability to regulate minimizing, disregarding, or distorting
their own behavior. Bandura believes the consequences of their behavior. A
that behavior stems from a reciprocal third set of disengagement procedures
influence of external and internal involves blaming the victims. Finally,
factors. Two external factors contribute people can disengage their behavior
to self-regulation: (1) standards of from its consequences by displacing or
evaluation, and (2) external diffusing responsibility.
reinforcement. External factors affect
self-regulation by providing people with Learning
standards for evaluating their own People learn through observing others and by
behavior. Internal requirements for self- attending to the consequences of their own
regulation include: (1) self-observation actions. Although Bandura believes that
of performance; (2) judging or reinforcement aids learning, he contends that
evaluating performance; (3) and self- people can learn in the absence of reinforcement
reactions, including self-reinforcement or and even of a response.
self-punishment. Internalized self-
sanctions prevent people from violating Observational Learning
their own moral standards either through The heart of observational learning is
selective activation or disengagement of modeling, which is more than simple
internal control. Selective activation imitation, because it involves adding and
refers to the notion that self-regulatory subtracting from observed behavior. At
influences are not automatic but operate least three principles influence modeling:
only if activated. It also means that (1) people are most likely to model high-
people react differently in different status people, (2) people who lack skill,
situations, depending on their evaluation power, or status are most likely to
of the situation. Disengagement of model, and (3) people tend to model
internal control means that people are behavior that they see as being
capable of separating themselves from rewarding to the model. Bandura
the negative consequences of their recognized four processes that govern
behavior. People in ambiguous moral observational learning: (1) attention, or
situations-who are uncertain that their noticing what a model does; (2)
behavior is consistent with their own representation, or symbolically
social and moral standards of conduct- representing new response patterns in
may separate their conduct from its memory; (3) behavior production, or
injurious consequences through four producing the behavior that one
general techniques of disengagement of observes; and (4) motivation; that is, the
internal standards or selective activation. observer must be motivated to perform
First is redefining behavior, or justifying the observed behavior.
otherwise reprehensible actions by
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Enactive Learning Related Research

All behavior is followed by some Bandura's concept of self-efficacy has generated
consequence, but whether that a great deal of research demonstrating that
consequence reinforces the behavior people's beliefs are related to their ability to
depends on the person's cognitive enact a wide variety of performances, including
evaluation of the situation. stopping smoking and academic performance.
Dysfunctional Behavior Self-Efficacy and Smoking Cessation

Dysfunctional behavior is learned through the Saul Shiffman and his colleagues studied
mutual interaction of the person (including the effects of daily fluctuations in self-
cognitive and neurophysiological processes), the efficacy on smoking lapses and relapses
environment (including interpersonal relations), among ex-smokers who had quit on their
and behavioral factors (especially previous own for at least 24 hours. They found
experiences with reinforcement). that when these participants smoked
even a single cigarette, their daily self-
Depression efficacy became more variable, leading
People who develop depressive to future lapses and, with some ex-
reactions often (1) underestimate their smokers, a complete relapse. Ex-smokers
successes and overestimate their failures, who believed in their ability to quit
(2) set personal standards too high, or smoking were able to maintain high self-
(3) treat themselves badly for their efficacy and to avoid lapses and
faults. relapse.
Phobias Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance

Phobias are learned by (1) direct Bandura and a group of Italian
contact, (2) inappropriate researchers studied levels of self-
generalization, and (3) observational efficacy and their relation to academic
experiences. Once learned they are performance in middle-school children
maintained by negative reinforcement, living near Rome. They found that
as the person is reinforced for avoiding children who believed that their parents
fear-producing situations. had confidence in their academic ability
were likely to have high academic
Aggressive Behaviors aspirations, high academic self-efficacy,
When carried to extremes, aggressive and high self-regulatory efficacy, and
behaviors can become dysfunctional. In a that each of these factors related either
study of children observing live and directly or indirectly to high academic
filmed models being aggressive, performance.
Bandura and his associates found that
aggression tends to foster more Critique of Bandura
aggression. Bandura's theory receives the highest marks of
any in the text largely because it was
Therapy constructed through a careful balance of
The goal of social cognitive therapy is self- innovative speculation and data from rigorous
regulation. Bandura noted three levels of research. In summary, the theory rates very high
treatment: (1) induction of change, (2) on its ability to generate research and on its
generalization of change to other appropriate internal consistency. In addition, it rates high on
situations, and (3) maintenance of newly parsimony and on its ability to be falsified,
acquired functional behaviors. Social cognitive organize knowledge, and guide the practitioner.
therapists sometimes use systematic
desensitization, a technique aimed at diminishing Concept of Humanity
phobias through relaxation. Bandura sees humans as being relatively fluid
and flexible. People can store past experiences
and then use this information to chart future
actions. Bandura's theory rates near the middle
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on teleology versus causality and high on free given time and place in relation to its
choice, optimism, conscious influences, and likely reinforcement.
uniqueness. As a social cognitive theory, it rates
very high on social determinants of personality. Expectancy
People's expectancy in any given
situation is their confidence that a
particular reinforcement will follow a
specific behavior in a specific situation or
situations. Expectancies can be either
ROTTER AND MISCHEL: COGNITIVE SOCIAL general or specific, and the overall
LEARNING THEORY likelihood of success is a function of both
generalized and specific expectancies.
Overview of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
Both Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel believe Reinforcement Value
that cognitive factors, more than immediate Reinforcement value is a person's
reinforcements, determine how people will react preference for any particular
to environmental forces. Each suggests that our reinforcement over other reinforcements
expectations of future events are major if all are equally likely to occur. Internal
determinants of performance. reinforcement is the individual's
perception of an event, whereas
Biography of Julian Rotter external reinforcement refers to society's
Julian Rotter was born in Brooklyn in 1916. As a evaluation of an event. Reinforcement-
high-school student, he became familiar with reinforcement sequences suggest that the
some of the writings of Freud and Adler, but he value of an event is a function of one's
majored in chemistry rather than psychology expectation that a particular
while at Brooklyn College. In 1941, he received reinforcement will lead to future
a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Indiana reinforcements.
University. After World War II, he took a
position at Ohio State, where one of his students Psychological Situation
was Walter Mischel. In 1963, he moved to the The psychological situation is that part of
University of Connecticut and has remained there the external and internal world to which
since retirement. a person is responding. Behavior is a
function of the interaction of people with
Introduction to Rotter's Social Learning Theory their meaningful environment.
Rotter's interactionist position holds that human
behavior is based largely on the interaction of Basic Prediction Formula
people with their meaningful environments. Rotter Hypothetically, in any specific situation,
believes that, although personality can change at behavior can be predicted by the basic
any time, it has a basic unity that preserves it prediction formula, which states that the
from changing as a result of minor experiences. potential for a behavior to occur in a
His empirical law of effect assumes that people particular situation in relation to a given
choose a course of action that advances them reinforcement is a function of people's
toward an anticipated goal. expectancy that the behavior will be
followed by that reinforcement in that
Predicting Specific Behaviors situation.
Human behavior is most accurately predicted by
an understanding of four variables: behavior Predicting General Behaviors
potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and The basic prediction is too specific to give clues
the psychological situation. about how a person will generally behave.
Behavior Potential Generalized Expectancies

Behavior potential is the possibility that To make more general predictions of
a particular response will occur at a behavior, one must know people's
generalized expectancies, or their
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expectations based on similar past Internal and External Control of

experiences that a given behavior will Reinforcement
be reinforced. Generalized expectancies The Internal-External Control Scale
include people's needs-that is, behaviors (popularly called "locus of control scale")
that move them toward a goal. attempts to measure the degree to which
people perceive a causal relationship
Needs between their own efforts and
Needs refer to functionally related environmental consequences.
categories of behaviors. Rotter listed six
broad categories of needs, with each Interpersonal Trust Scale
need being related to behaviors that The Interpersonal Trust Scale measures
lead to the same or similar the extent to which a person expects the
reinforcements: (1) recognition-status word or promise of another person to be
refers to the need to excel, to achieve, true.
and to have others recognize one's
worth; (2) dominance is the need to Maladaptive Behavior
control the behavior of others, to be in Rotter defined maladaptive behavior as any
charge, or to gain power over others; persistent behavior that fails to move a person
(3) independence is the need to be free closer to a desired goal. It is usually the result of
from the domination of others; (4) unrealistically high goals in combination with low
protection-dependency is the need to ability to achieve them.
have others take care of us and to
protect us from harm; (5) love and Psychotherapy
affection are needs to be warmly In general, the goal of Rotter's therapy is to
accepted by others and to be held in achieve harmony between a client's freedom of
friendly regard; and (6) physical movement and need value. The therapist is
comfort includes those behaviors aimed actively involved in trying to (1) change the
at securing food, good health, and importance of the client's goals and (2) eliminate
physical security. Three need components their unrealistically low expectancies for success.
are: (1) need potential, or the possible
occurrences of a set of functionally Changing Goals
related behaviors directed toward the Maladaptive behaviors follow from
satisfaction of similar goals; (2) freedom three categories of inappropriate goals:
of movement, or a person's overall (1) conflict between goals, (2) destructive
expectation of being reinforced for goals, and (3) unrealistically lofty goals.
performing those behaviors that are
directed toward satisfying some general Eliminating Low Expectancies
need; and (3) need value, or the extent In helping clients change low
to which people prefer one set of expectancies of success, Rotter uses a
reinforcements to another. Need variety of approaches, including
components are analogous to the more reinforcing positive behaviors, ignoring
specific concepts of behavior potential, inappropriate behaviors, giving advice,
expectancy, and reinforcement value. modeling appropriate behaviors, and
pointing out the long-range
General Prediction Formula consequences of both positive and
The general prediction formula states negative behaviors.
that need potential is a function of
freedom of movement and need value. Introduction to Mischel's Cognitive-Affective
Rotter's two most famous scales for Personality System
measuring generalized expectancies are Like Bandura and Rotter, Mischel believes that
the Internal-External Control Scale and cognitive factors, such as expectancies, subjective
the Interpersonal Trust Scale. perceptions, values, goals, and personal
standards, are important in shaping personality.
In his early theory, Mischel seriously questioned
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the consistency of personality, but more recently, within a person. He and Shoda see these stable
he and Yuichi Shoda have advanced the notion variations in behavior in the following
that behavior is also a function of relatively framework: If A, then X; but if B, then Y. People's
stable personal dispositions and cognitive- pattern of variability is their behavioral
affective processes interacting with a particular signature of personality, or their unique and
situation. stable pattern of behaving differently in
different situations.
Biography of Walter Mischel
Walter Mischel was born in 1930, in Vienna, the Behavior Prediction
second son of upper-middle-class parents. When Mischel's basic theoretical position for
the Nazis invaded Austria in 1938, his family predicting and explaining behavior is as
moved to the United States and eventually follows: If personality is a stable system
settled in Brooklyn. Mischel received an M.A. that processes information about the
from City College of New York and a Ph.D. from situation, then individuals encountering
Ohio State, where he was influenced by Julian different situations should behave
Rotter. He is currently a professor at Columbia differently as situations vary. Therefore,
University. Mischel believes that, even though
people's behavior may reflect some
Background of the Cognitive-Affective stability over time, it tends to vary as
Personality System situations vary.
Mischel originally believed that human behavior
was mostly a function of the situation, but Situation Variables
presently he has recognized the importance of Situation variables include all those
relatively permanent cognitive-affective units. stimuli that people attend to in a given
Nevertheless, Mischel's theory continues to situation.
recognize the apparent inconsistency of some
behaviors. Cognitive-Affective Units
Cognitive-affective units include all those
Consistency Paradox psychological, social, and physiological
The consistency paradox refers to the aspects of people that permit them to
observation that, although both lay- interact with their environment with some
people and professionals tend to believe stability in their behavior. Mischel
that behavior is quite consistent, research identified five such units. First are
suggests that it is not. Mischel recognizes encoding strategies, or people's
that, indeed, some traits are consistent individualized manner of categorizing
over time, but he contends that there is information they receive from external
little evidence to suggest that they are stimuli. Second are competencies and
consistent from one situation to another. self-regulatory strategies. One of the
most important of these competencies is
Person-Situation Interaction intelligence, which Mischel argues is
Mischel believes that behavior is best responsible for the apparent consistency
predicted from an understanding of the of other traits. In addition, people use
person, the situation, and the interaction self-regulatory strategies to control their
between person and situation. Thus, own behavior through self-formulated
behavior is not the result of some global goals and self-produced consequences.
personality trait, but by people's The third cognitive-affective units are
perceptions of themselves in a particular expectancies and beliefs, or people's
situation. guesses about the consequences of each
of the different behavioral possibilities.
Cognitive-Affective Personality System The fourth cognitive-affective unit
However, Mischel does not believe that includes people's goals and values, which
inconsistencies in behavior are due solely to the tend to render behavior fairly consistent.
situation; he recognizes that inconsistent Mischel's fifth cognitive-affective unit
behaviors reflect stable patterns of variation includes affective responses, including
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emotions, feelings, and the affects that Critique of Cognitive Social Learning Theory
accompany physiological reactions. Cognitive social learning theory combines the
rigors of learning theory with the speculative
Related Research assumption that people are forward-looking
The theories of both Rotter and Mischel have beings. It rates high on generating research and
sparked an abundance of related research, with on internal consistency, and it rates about
Rotter's locus of control being one of the most average on its ability to be falsified, to organize
frequently researched areas in psychology and data, and to guide action.
Mischel's notion of delay of gratification and his
cognitive-affective personality system also Concept of Humanity
receiving wide attention. Rotter and Mischel see people as goal-directed,
cognitive animals whose perceptions of events
Locus of Control and Health-Related are more crucial than the events themselves.
Behaviors Cognitive social learning theory rates very high
One adjunct of the locus of control on social influences, and high on uniqueness of
concept is the health locus of control, and the individual, free choice, teleology, and
research in this area suggests that self- conscious processes. On the dimension of
mastery of health and people's belief optimism versus pessimism, Rotter's view is slightly
about their personal control over health- more optimistic, whereas Mischel's is about in the
related behaviors predict subsequent middle.
health status. This body of research has
included such health-related behaviors
as smoking, abusing alcohol, and unwise
eating. In general, this research indicates
that people high on internal locus of
control, compared with those high on
DISPOSITIONAL THEORIES
external locus of control, are more likely
to enact health-related behaviors. CATTEL AND EYSENCK: TRAIT AND FACTOR
THEORIES
An Analysis of Reactions to the O. J.
Simpson Verdict Overview of Factor Analytic Theory
Mischel, Shoda, and two of their Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck have each
colleagues used the cognitive-affective used factor analysis to identify traits (that is,
personality system to analyze the verdict relatively permanent dispositions of people).
in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. They Cattell has identified a large number of
found that European Americans and personality traits, whereas Eysenck has extracted
African Americans had different ways of only three general factors.
looking at the Simpson verdict. Although
their reactions tended to follow along Biography of Raymond B. Cattell
racial lines, participants' race itself was Raymond B. Cattell was born in England in 1905,
not as important as their thoughts and educated at the University of London, but spent
feelings in determining their reactions to most of his professional career in the United
the verdict. More specifically, European States. He held positions at Columbia University,
Americans who agreed with the verdict Clark University, Harvard University, and the
had thoughts and emotions very similar University of Illinois, where he spent most of his
to those of African Americans who were active career. During the last 20 years of his life,
elated by the verdict. Moreover, African he was associated with the Hawaii School of
Americans who disagreed with the Professional Psychology. He died in 1998, a few
verdict thought and felt much the same weeks short of his 93rd birthday.
as European Americans who were
dismayed by the not-guilty verdict. Basics of Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a mathematical procedure for
reducing a large number of scores to a few more
general variables or factors. Correlations of the
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original, specific scores with the factors are Personality Traits

called factor loadings. Traits generated through Personality traits include both common traits
factor analysis may be either unipolar (scaled (shared by many people) and unique traits
from zero to some large amount) or bipolar (peculiar to one individual). Personality traits can
(having two opposing poles, such as introversion also be classified into temperament, motivation
and extraversion). For factors to have (dynamic), and abiliy.
psychological meaning, the analyst must rotate
the axes on which the scores are plotted. Eysenck Temperament Traits
used an orthogonal rotation whereas Cattell Temperament traits are concerned with
favored an oblique rotation. The oblique rotation how a person behaves. Of the 35
procedure ordinarily results in more traits than primary or first-order traits Cattell has
the orthogonal method. identified, all but one (intelligence) is
basically a temperament trait. Of the 23
Introduction to Cattell's Trait Theory normal traits, 16 were obtained through
Cattell used an inductive approach to identify Q media and compose Cattell's famous
traits; that is, he began with a large body of 16 PF scale. The additional seven factors
data that he collected with no preconceived that make up the 23 normal traits were
hypothesis or theory. originally identified only through L data.
Cattell believed that pathological
P Technique people have the same 23 normal traits
Cattell's P technique is a correlational as other people, but, in addition, they
procedure that uses measures collected exhibit one or more of 12 abnormal
from one person on many different traits. Also, a person's pathology may
occasions and is his attempt to measure simply be due to a normal trait that is
individual or unique, rather than carried to an extreme.
common, traits. Cattell also used the dR
(differential R) technique, which Second-Order Traits
correlates the scores of a large number The 35 primary source traits tend to
of people on many variables obtained cluster together, forming eight clearly
at two different occasions. By combining identifiable second-order traits. The two
these two techniques, Cattell has strongest of the second-order traits might
measured both states (temporary be called extraversion/introversion and
conditions within an individual) and traits anxiety.
(relatively permanent dispositions of an
individual). Dynamic Traits
In addition to temperament traits, Cattell
Media of Observation recognized motivational or dynamic traits, which
Cattell used three different sources of include attitudes, ergs, and sems.
data that enter the correlation matrix:
(1) L data, or a person's life record that Attitudes
comes from observations made by An attitude refers to a specific course of
others; (2) Q data, which are based on action, or desire to act, in response to a
questionnaires; and (3) T data, or given situation. Motivation is usually
information obtained from objective quite complex, so that a network of
tests. motives, or dynamic lattice, is ordinarily
involved with an attitude. In addition, a
Source Traits subsidiation chain, or a complex set of
Source traits refer to the underlying factor or subgoals, underlies motivation.
factors responsible for the intercorrelation
among surface traits. They can be distinguished Ergs
from trait indicators, or surface traits. Ergs are innate drives or motives, such as
sex, hunger, loneliness, pity, fear,
curiosity, pride, sensuousness, anger, and
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greed that humans share with other Criteria for Identifying Factors
primates. Eysenck insisted that personality factors
must (1) be based on strong
Sems psychometric evidence, (2) must possess
Sems are learned or acquired dynamic heritability and fit an acceptable genetic
traits that can satisfy several ergs at the model, (3) make sense theoretically, and
same time. The self-sentiment is the most (4) possess social relevance.
important sem in that it integrates the
other sems. Hierarchy of Measures
Eysenck recognized a four-level
The Dynamic Lattice hierarchy of behavior organization: (1)
The dynamic lattice is a complex network specific acts or cognitions; (2) habitual
of attitudes, ergs, and sems underlying a acts or cognitions; (3) traits, or personal
person's motivational structure. dispositions; and (4) types or
superfactors.
Genetic Basis of Traits
Cattell and his colleagues provided estimates of Dimensions of Personality
heritability of the various source traits. Eysenck's methods of measuring personality
Heritability is an estimate of the extent to which limited the number of personality types to a
the variance of a given trait is due to heredity. relatively small number. Although many traits
Cattell has found relatively high heritability exist, Eysenck identified only three major types.
values for both fluid intelligence (the ability to
adapt to new material) and crystallized What Are the Major Personality Factors?
intelligence (which depends on prior learning), Eysenck's theory revolves around only
suggesting that intelligence is due more to three general bipolar types:
heredity than to environment. extraversion/introversion,
neuroticism/stability, and
Introduction to Eysenck's Factor Theory psychoticism/superego function. All three
Compared to Cattell, Eysenck (1) was more likely have a strong genetic component.
to theorize before collecting and factor Extraverts are characterized by
analyzing data; (2) extracted fewer factors; and sociability, impulsiveness, jocularity,
(3) used a wider variety of approaches to liveliness, optimism, and quick-wittedness,
gather data. whereas introverts are quiet, passive,
unsociable, careful, reserved, thoughtful,
Biography of Hans J. Eysenck pessimistic, peaceful, sober, and
Hans J. Eysenck was born in Berlin in 1916, but controlled. Eysenck, however, believes
as a teenager, he moved to England to escape that the principal differences between
Nazi tyranny and made London his home for extraverts and introverts is one of
more than 60 years. Eysenck was trained in the cortical arousal level. Neurotic traits
psychometrically oriented psychology include anxiety, hysteria, and obsessive
department of the University of London, from compulsive disorders. Both normal and
which he received a bachelor's degree in 1938 abnormal individuals may score high on
and a Ph.D. in 1940. Eysenck was perhaps the the neuroticism scale of the Eysenck's
most prolific writer of any psychologist in the various personality inventories. People
world, and his books and articles often caused who score high on the psychoticism scale
world-wide controversy. He died in September are egocentric, cold, nonconforming,
of 1997. aggressive, impulsive, hostile, suspicious,
and antisocial. Men tend to score higher
Measuring Personality than women on psychoticism.
Eysenck believed that genetic factors were far
more important than environmental ones in Measuring Superfactors
shaping personality and that personal traits Eysenck and his colleagues developed
could be measured by standardized personality four personality inventories to measure
inventories. superfactors, or types. The two most
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frequently used by current researchers creative scientists, were more intelligent,

are the Eysenck Personality Inventory outgoing, adventurous, sensitive, self-
(which measures only E and N) and the sufficient, dominant, and driven. Other
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (which research found that female scientists,
also measures P). compared to other women, were more
dominant, confident, intelligent, radical,
Biological Bases of Personality and adventurous. Research on the
Eysenck believed that P, E, and N all personality of artists found that writers
have a powerful biological component, and artists were more intelligent,
and he cited as evidence the existence dominant, adventurous, emotionally
of these three types in a wide variety of sensitive, radical, and self-sufficient than
nations and languages. other people. Later research found that
creative artists scored high on Eysenck's
Personality and Behavior neuroticism and psychoticism scales,
Eysenck argued that different indicating that they were more anxious,
combinations of P, E and N relate to a sensitive, obsessive, impulsive, hostile,
large number of behaviors and and willing to take risks than other
processes, such as academic people.
performance, creativity, and antisocial
behavior. He cautioned that Biology and Personality
psychologists can be misled if they do If personality has a strong biological
not consider the various combinations of foundation, then researchers should find
personality dimensions. very similar personality types in various
cultures around the world. Studies in 24
Personality and Disease countries found a high degree of
For many years, Eysenck researched the similarity among these different cultures.
relationship between personality factors Eysenck's later work investigated
and disease. He teamed with Ronald personality factors across 35 European,
Grossarth-Maticek to study the Asian, African, and American cultures
connection between characteristics and and found that personality factors are
both cancer and cardiovascular disease quite universal, thus supporting the
and found that people with a biological nature of personality.
helpless/hopeless attitude were more
likely to die from cancer, whereas Critique of Trait and Factor Theories
people who reacted to frustration with Cattell and Eysenck's theories rate high on
anger and emotional arousal were much parsimony, on their ability to generate research,
more likely to die from cardiovascular and on their usefulness in organizing data; they
disease. are about average on falsifiability, usefulness to
the practitioner, and internal consistency.
Related Research
The theories of both Cattell and Eysenck have Concept of Humanity
been highly productive in terms of research, due Cattell and Eysenck believe that human
in part to Cattell's 16 PF questionnaire and personality is largely the product of genetics and
Eysenck's various personality inventories. Some of not the environment. Thus, both are rated very
this research has looked at personality factors high on biological influences and very low on
and the creativity of scientists and artists. In social factors. In addition, both rate about
addition, some of Eysenck's research attempted average on conscious versus unconscious
to show a biological basis of personality. influences and high on the uniqueness of
individuals. The concepts of free choice, optimism
Personalities of Creative Scientists and versus pessimism, and causality versus teleology
Artists do not apply to Cattell and Eysenck.
Early research using the 16 PF found
that creative scientists, compared with
either the general population or less
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Structure of Personality
According to Allport, the basic units of
personality are personal dispositions and the
proprium.
ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Personal Dispositions
Overview of Allport's Psychology of the Allport distinguished between common
Individual traits, which permit inter-individual
Gordon Allport, whose major emphasis was on comparisons, and personal dispositions,
the uniqueness of each individual, built a theory which are peculiar to the individual. He
of personality as a reaction against what he recognized three overlapping levels of
regarded as the non-humanistic positions of both personal dispositions, the most general
psychoanalysis and animal-based learning of which are cardinal dispositions that
theory. However, Allport was eclectic in his are so obvious and dominating that they
approach and accepted many of the ideas of cannot be hidden from other people. Not
other theorists. everyone has a cardinal disposition, but
all people have 5 to 10 central
Biography of Gordon Allport dispositions, or characteristics around
Gordon W. Allport was born in Indiana in 1897. which their lives revolve. In addition,
He received an undergraduate degree in everyone has a great number of
philosophy and economics from Harvard, and secondary dispositions, which are less
taught in Europe for a year. While in Europe, he reliable and less conspicuous than central
had a fortuitous meeting with Sigmund Freud in traits. Allport further divided personal
Vienna, which helped him decide to complete a dispositions into (1) motivational
Ph.D. in psychology. After receiving his Ph.D. dispositions, which are strong enough to
from Harvard, Allport spent two years studying initiate action and (2) stylistic
under some of the great German psychologists, dispositions, which refer to the manner in
but he returned to teach at Harvard. Two years which an individual behaves and which
later he took a position at Dartmouth, but after guide rather than initiate action.
four years at Dartmouth, he again returned to
Harvard, where he remained until his death in Proprium
1967. The proprium refers to all those
behaviors and characteristics that
Allport's Approach to Personality people regard as warm and central in
Allport believed that psychologically healthy their lives. Allport preferred the term
humans are motivated by present, mostly proprium over self or ego because the
conscious drives and that they not only seek to latter terms could imply an object or
reduce tensions but to establish new ones. He thing within a person that controls
also believed that people are capable of behavior, whereas proprium suggests the
proactive behavior, which suggests that they can core of one's personhood.
consciously behave in new and creative ways
that foster their own change and growth. He Motivation
called his study of the individual morphogenic Allport insisted that an adequate theory of
science and contrasted it with traditional motivation must consider the notion that motives
nomothetic methods. change as people mature and also that people
are motivated by present drives and wants.
Personality Defined
Allport defined personality as "the dynamic Reactive and Proactive Theories of
organization within the individual of those Motivation
psychophysical systems that determine his To Allport, people not only react to their
characteristic behavior and thought." environment, but they also shape their
environment and cause it to react to
them. His proactive approach
emphasized the idea that people often
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seek additional tension and that they Morphogenic Science

purposefully act on their environment in Traditional psychology relies on
a way that fosters growth toward nomothetic science, which seeks general
psychological health. laws from a study of groups of people,
but Allport used idiographic or
Functional Autonomy morphogenic procedures that study the
Allport's most distinctive and single case. Unlike many psychologists,
controversial concept is his theory of Allport was willing to accept self-reports
functional autonomy, which holds that at face value.
some (but not all) human motives are
functionally independent from the The Diaries of Marion Taylor
original motive responsible for a In the late 1930's, Allport and his wife
particular behavior. Allport recognized became acquainted with diaries written
two levels of functional autonomy: (1) by woman they called Marion Taylor.
perseverative functional autonomy, which These diaries-along with descriptions of
is the tendency of certain basic Marion Taylor by her mother, younger
behaviors (such as addictive behaviors) sister, favorite teacher, friends, and a
to continue in the absence of neighbor-provided the Allports with a
reinforcement, and (2) propriate large quantity of material that could
functional autonomy, which refers to self- be studied using morphogenic methods.
sustaining motives (such as interests) that However, the Allports never published
are related to the proprium. this material.
Conscious and Unconscious Motivation Letters from Jenny

Although Allport emphasized conscious Even though Allport never published
motivation more than any other data from Marion Taylor's dairies, he
personality theorist, he did not did publish a second case study-that of
completely overlook the possible Jenny Gove Masterson. Jenny had
influence of unconscious motives on written a series of 301 letters to Gordon
pathological behaviors. Most people, and Ada Allport, whose son had been a
however, are aware of what they are roommate of Jenny's son. Two of Gordon
doing and why they are doing it. Allport's students, Alfred Baldwin and
Jeffrey Paige used a personal structure
The Psychologically Healthy Personality analysis and factor analysis respectively,
Allport believed that people are motivated by while Allport used a commonsense
both the need to adjust to their environment and approach to discern Jenny's personality
to grow toward psychological health; that is, structure as revealed by her letters. All
people are both reactive and proactive. three approaches yielded similar results,
Nevertheless, psychologically healthy persons which suggests that morphogenic studies
are more likely to engage in proactive can be reliable.
behaviors. Allport listed six criteria for
psychological health: (1) an extension of the Related Research
sense of self, (2) warm relationships with others, Allport believed that a deep religious
(3) emotional security or self-acceptance, (4) a commitment was a mark of a mature person, but
realistic view of the world, (5) insight and humor, he also saw that many regular churchgoers did
and (6) a unifying philosophy of life. not have a mature religious orientation and were
capable of deep racial and social prejudice. In
The Study of the Individual other words, he saw a curvilinear relationship
Allport strongly felt that psychology should between church attendance and prejudice.
develop and use research methods that study the
individual rather than groups. The Religious Orientation Scale
This insight led Allport to develop and
use the Religious Orientation Scale to
assess both an intrinsic orientation and
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an extrinsic orientation toward religion. HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL

Allport and Ross found that people with
an extrinsic orientation toward religion
THEORIES
tend to be quite prejudiced, whereas
KELLY: PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
those with an intrinsic orientation tend to
be low on racial and social prejudice.
Overview of Kelly's Personal Construct Theory
Religious Orientation and Psychological Kelly's theory of personal constructs can be seen
Health as a metatheory, or a theory about theories. It
Research has found that people who holds that people anticipate events by the
score high on the Intrinsic scale of the meanings or interpretations that they place on
ROS tend to have overall better those events. Kelly called these interpretations
personal constructs. His philosophical position,
personal functioning than those who
called constructive alternativism, assumes that
score high on the Extrinsic scale. In
general, these studies have found that alternative interpretations are always available
some highly religious people have strong to people.
psychological health whereas others
suffer from a variety of psychological Biography of George Kelly
disorders. The principal difference George Kelly was born on a farm in Kansas in
between the two groups is one of 1905. During his school years and his early
intrinsic or extrinsic religious orientation; professional career, he dabbled in a wide
variety of jobs, but he eventually received a
that is, people with an intrinsic
Ph.D. in psychology from the State University of
orientation tend to be psychologically
healthy, but those with an extrinsic Iowa. He began his academic career at Fort
orientation suffer from poor Hays State College in Kansas, then after World
psychological health. War II, he took a position at Ohio State. He
remained there until 1965 when he joined the
Critique of Allport faculty at Brandeis. He died two years later at
Allport has written eloquently about personality, age 61.
but his views are based more on philosophical
Kelly's Philosophical Position
speculation and common sense than on scientific
Kelly believed that people construe events
studies. As a consequence, his theory is very
narrow, being limited mostly to a model of according to their personal constructs rather than
human motivation. Thus, it rates low on its ability reality.
to organize psychological data and to be
falsified. It rates high on parsimony and internal Person as Scientist
consistency and about average on its ability to People generally attempt to solve
generate research and to help the practitioner. everyday problems in much the same
fashion as scientists; that is, they observe,
ask questions, formulate hypotheses,
Concept of Humanity
infer conclusions, and predict future
Allport saw people as thinking, proactive,
purposeful beings who are generally aware of events.
what they are doing and why. On the six
dimensions for a concept of humanity, Allport Scientist as Person
rates higher than any other theorist on conscious Because scientists are people, their
influences and on the uniqueness of the pronouncements should be regarded
individual. He rates high on free choice, optimism, with the same skepticism as any other
and teleology, and about average on social data. Every scientific theory can be
viewed from an alternate angle, and
influences.
every competent scientist should be open
to changing his or her theory.
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Constructive Alternativism people continually revise their personal

Kelly believed that all our constructs as the result of their
interpretations of the world are subject experiences. (8) The modulation
to revision or replacement, an corollary assumes that only permeable
assumption he called constructive constructs lead to change; concrete
alternativism. He further stressed that, constructs resist modification through
because people can construe their world experience. (9) The fragmentation
from different angles, observations that corollary states that people's behavior
are valid at one time may be false at a can be inconsistent because their
later time. construct systems can readily admit
incompatible elements. (10) The
Personal Constructs commonality corollary suggests that our
Kelly believed that people look at their world personal constructs tend to be similar to
through templates that they create and then the construction systems of other people
attempt to fit over the realities of the world. He to the extent that we share experiences
called these templates or transparent patterns with them. (11) The sociality corollary
personal constructs, which he believed shape states that people are able to
behavior. communicate with other people because
they can construe those people's
Basic Postulate constructions. With the sociality corollary,
Kelly expressed his theory in one basic Kelly introduced the concept of role,
postulate and 11 supporting corollaries. which refers to a pattern of behavior
The basic postulate assumes that human that stems from people's understanding
behavior is shaped by the way people of the constructs of others. Each of us has
anticipate the future. a core role and numerous peripheral
roles. A core role gives us a sense of
Supporting Corollaries identity whereas peripheral roles are
The 11 supporting corollaries can all be less central to our self-concept.
inferred from this basic postulate:
(1) Although no two events are exactly Applications of Personal Construct Theory
alike, we construe similar events as if Kelly's many years of clinical experience
they were the same, and this is Kelly's enabled him to evolve concepts of abnormal
construction corollary. (2) The development and psychotherapy, and to
individuality corollary states that develop a Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test.
because people have different
experiences, they can construe the same Abnormal Development
event in different ways. (3) The Kelly saw normal people as analogous
organization corollary assumes that to competent scientists who test
people organize their personal constructs reasonable hypotheses, objectively view
in a hierarchical system, with some the results, and willingly change their
constructs in a superordinate position theories when the data warrant it.
and others subordinate to them. (4) The Similarly, unhealthy people are like
dichotomy corollary assumes that people incompetent scientists who test
construe events in an either/or manner, unreasonable hypotheses, reject or
e.g., good or bad. (5) Kelly's choice distort legitimate results, and refuse to
corollary assumes that people tend to amend outdated theories. Kelly
choose the alternative in a dichotomized identified four common elements in most
construct that they see as extending the human disturbances: (1) threat, or the
range of their future choices. (6) The perception that one's basic constructs
range corollary states that constructs are may be drastically changed; (2) fear,
limited to a particular range of which requires an incidental rather than
convenience; that is, they are not a comprehensive restructuring of one's
relevant to all situations. (7) Kelly's construct system; (3) anxiety, or the
experience corollary suggests that recognition that one cannot adequately
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deal with a new situation; and (4) guilt, The Rep Test and the Pain Patient
defined as "the sense of having lost one's A number of studies, including the Large
core role structure." and Strong (1997) study, have found
that the Rep test can be a reliable and
Psychotherapy valid instrument for measuring pain.
Kelly insisted that clients should set their
own goals for therapy and that they Critique of Kelly
should be active participants in the Kelly's theory probably is most applicable to
therapeutic process. He sometimes used relatively normal, intelligent people.
a procedure called fixed-role therapy in Unfortunately, it pays scant attention to problems
which clients act out a predetermined of motivation, development, and cultural
role for several weeks. By playing the influences. On the six criteria of a useful theory,
part of a psychologically healthy person, it rates very high on parsimony and internal
clients may discover previously hidden consistency and about average on its ability to
aspects of themselves. generate research. However, it rates low on its
ability to be falsified, to guide the practitioner,
The Rep Test and to organize knowledge.
The purpose of the Rep test is to discover
ways in which clients construe significant Concept of Humanity
people in their lives. Clients place names Kelly saw people as anticipating the future and
of people they know on a repertory grid living their lives in accordance with those
in order to identify both similarities and anticipations. His concept of elaborative choice
differences among these people. suggests that people increase their range of
future choices by the present choices they freely
Related Research make. Thus, Kelly's theory rates very high in
Kelly's personal construct theory and his Rep test teleology and high in choice and optimism. In
have generated a substantial amount of addition, it receives high ratings for conscious
empirical research in both the United States and influences and for its emphasis on the uniqueness
the United Kingdom. of the individual. Finally, personal construct
theory is about average on social influences.
The Rep Test and Children
Use of the Rep test with children reveals
that the self-constructs of depressed
adolescents are marked by low self-
esteem, pessimism, and an external locus ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
of control. Other research with children
and the Rep test shows that Overview of Rogers's Person-Centered Theory
preadolescents construe themselves and Although Carl Rogers is best known as the
others in ways consistent with the Big founder of client-centered therapy, he also
Five personality factors (extraversion, developed an important theory of personality
agreeableness, conscientiousness, that underscores his approach to therapy.
emotional stability, and intelligence), thus
demonstrating that the Big Five factors Biography of Carl Rogers
can come from instruments other than Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious
standard personality tests. family in a Chicago suburb in 1902. After the
family moved to a farm near Chicago, Carl
The Rep Test and the Real Self Versus the became interested in scientific farming and
Ideal Self learned to appreciate the scientific method.
Other research has found that the Rep When he graduated from the University of
test was useful in (1) predicting Wisconsin, Rogers intended to become a minister,
adherence to a physical activity but he gave up that notion and completed a
program, (2) detecting differences Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University in
between the real self and the ideal self, 1931. In 1940, after nearly a dozen years
and (3) measuring neuroticism.
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away from an academic life working as a Awareness

clinician, he took a position at Ohio State People are aware of both their self-
University. Later, he held positions at the concept and their ideal self, although
University of Chicago and the University of awareness need not be accurate or at a
Wisconsin. In 1964, he moved to California high level. Rogers saw people as having
where he helped found the Center for Studies of experiences on three levels of
the Person. He died in 1987 at age 85. awareness: (1) those that are symbolized
below the threshold of awareness and
Person-Centered Theory are either ignored or denied, that is,
Rogers carefully crafted his person-centered subceived, or not allowed into the self-
theory of personality to meet his own demands concept; (2) those that are distorted or
for a structural model that could explain and reshaped to fit it into an existing self-
predict outcomes of client-centered therapy. concept; and (3) those that are consistent
However, the theory has implications far beyond with the self-concept and thus are
the therapeutic setting. accurately symbolized and freely
admitted to the self-structure. Any
Basic Assumptions experience not consistent with the self-
Person-centered theory rests on two concept-even positive experiences-will
basic assumptions: (1) the formative be distorted or denied.
tendency, which states that all matter,
both organic and inorganic, tends to Needs
evolve from simpler to more complex The two basic human needs are
forms, and (2) an actualizing tendency, maintenance and enhancement, but
which suggests that all living things, people also need positive regard and
including humans, tend to move toward self-regard. Maintenance needs include
completion, or fulfillment of potentials. those for food, air, and safety, but they
However, in order for people (or plants also include our tendency to resist
and animals) to become actualized, change and to maintain our self-concept
certain identifiable conditions must be as it is. Enhancement needs include needs
present. For a person, these conditions to grow and to realize one's full human
include a relationship with another potential. As awareness of self emerges,
person who is genuine, or congruent, and an infant begins to receive positive
who demonstrates complete acceptance regard from another person-that is, to
and empathy for that person. be loved or accepted. People naturally
value those experiences that satisfy their
The Self and Self-Actualization needs for positive regard, but,
A sense of self or personal identity unfortunately, this value sometimes
begins to emerge during infancy, and, becomes more powerful than the reward
once established, it allows a person to they receive for meeting their organismic
strive toward self-actualization, which is needs. This sets up the condition of
a subsystem of the actualization incongruence, which is experienced when
tendency and refers to the tendency to basic organismic needs are denied or
actualize the self as perceived in distorted in favor of needs to be loved
awareness. The self has two subsystems: or accepted. As a result of experiences
(1) the self-concept, which includes all with positive regard, people develop the
those aspects of one's identity that are need for self-regard, which they acquire
perceived in awareness, and (2) the only after they perceive that someone
ideal self, or our view of our self as we else cares for them and values them.
would like to be or aspire to be. Once Once established, however, self-regard
formed, the self-concept tends to resist becomes autonomous and no longer
change, and gaps between it and the dependent on another's continuous
ideal self-result in incongruence and positive evaluation.
various levels of psychopathology.
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Conditions of Worth Conditions

Most people are not unconditionally Three conditions are crucial to client-
accepted. Instead, they receive centered therapy, and Rogers called
conditions of worth; that is, they feel that them the necessary and sufficient
they are loved and accepted only when conditions for therapeutic growth. The
and if they meet the conditions set by first is counselor congruence, or a
others. therapist whose organismic experiences
are matched by an awareness and by
Psychological Stagnation the ability and willingness to openly
When the organismic self and the self- express these feelings. Congruence is
concept are at variance with one more basic than the other two conditions
another, a person may experience because it is a relatively stable
incongruence, which includes characteristic of the therapist, whereas
vulnerability, threat, defensiveness, and the other two conditions are limited to a
even disorganization. The greater the specific therapeutic relationship.
incongruence between self-concept and Unconditional positive regard exists
the organismic experience, the more when the therapist accepts the client
vulnerable that person becomes. Anxiety without conditions or qualifications.
exists whenever the person becomes Empathic listening is the therapist's
dimly aware of the discrepancy between ability to sense the feelings of a client
organismic experience and self-concept, and also to communicate these
whereas threat is experienced whenever perceptions so that the client knows that
the person becomes more clearly aware another person has entered into his or
of this incongruence. To prevent her world of feelings without prejudice,
incongruence, people react with projection, or evaluation.
defensiveness, typically in the forms of
distortion and denial. With distortion, Process
people misinterpret an experience so Rogers saw the process of therapeutic
that it fits into their self-concept; with change as taking place in seven stages:
denial, people refuse to allow the (1) clients are unwilling to communicate
experience into awareness. When anything about themselves; (2) they
people's defenses fail to operate discuss only external events and other
properly, their behavior becomes people; (3) they begin to talk about
disorganized or psychotic. With themselves, but still as an object; (4) they
disorganization, people sometimes discuss strong emotions that they have
behave consistently with their organismic felt in the past; (5) they begin to express
experience and sometimes in accordance present feelings; (6) they freely allow
with their shattered self-concept. into awareness those experiences that
were previously denied or distorted; and
Psychotherapy (7) they experience irreversible change
For client-centered psychotherapy to be and growth.
effective, certain conditions are necessary: A
vulnerable client must have contact of some Outcomes
duration with a counselor who is congruent, and When client-centered therapy is
who demonstrates unconditional positive regard successful, clients become more
and listens with empathy to a client. The client congruent, less defensive, more open to
must in turn perceive the congruence, experience, and more realistic. The gap
unconditional positive regard, and empathy of between their ideal self and their true
the therapist. If these conditions are present, then self narrows and, as a consequence,
the process of therapy will take place and clients experience less physiological and
certain predictable outcomes will result. psychological tension. Finally, clients'
interpersonal relationships improve
because they are more accepting of self
and others.
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The Person of Tomorrow Findings

Rogers was vitally interested in the Rogers and his associates found that the
psychologically healthy person, called the "fully therapy group-but not the wait group-
functioning person" or the "person of tomorrow." showed a lessening of the gap between
Rogers listed seven characteristics of the person real self and ideal self. They also found
of tomorrow. The person of tomorrow (1) is able that clients who improved during
to adjust to change, (2) is open to experience, (3) therapy-but not those rated as least
is able to live fully in the moment, (4) is able to improved-showed changes in social
have harmonious relations with others, (5) is more behavior, as noted by friends.
integrated with no artificial boundaries between
conscious and unconscious processes, (6) has a Summary of Results
basic trust of human nature, and (7) enjoys a Although client-centered therapy was
greater richness in life. The factors have successful in changing clients, it was not
implications both for the individual and for successful in bringing them to the level of
society. the fully functioning persons or even
to the level of "normal" psychological
Philosophy of Science health.
Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists must
care about and be involved in the phenomena Related Research
they study and that psychologists should limit More recently, other researchers have
their objectivity and precision to their investigated Rogers's facilitative conditions both
methodology, not to the creation of hypotheses outside therapy and within therapy.
or to the communication of research findings.
Facilitative Conditions Outside Therapy
The Chicago Study In the United Kingdom, Duncan Cramer
When he taught at the University of Chicago, has conducted a series of studies
Rogers, along with colleagues and graduate investigating the therapeutic qualities of
students, conducted a sophisticated and complex Rogers's facilitative conditions in
study on the effectiveness of psychotherapy. interpersonal relationships outside of
therapy. Cramer found positive
Hypotheses relationships between self-esteem, as
This study tested four broad hypotheses. measured by the Rosenberg Self-Esteem
As a consequence of therapy (1) clients Scale, and the four facilitative conditions
will become more aware of their that make up the Barrett-Lennard
feelings and experiences, (2) the gap Relationship Inventory-level of regard,
between the real self and the ideal self unconditionality of regard, congruence,
will lessen; (3) clients' behavior will and empathy. Moreover, the direction of
become more socialized and mature; the relationship strongly suggested that
and (4) clients will become both more Rogers's facilitative conditions precede
self-accepting and more accepting of the acquisition of higher levels of self-
others. esteem.
Method Facilitative Conditions and Couples

Participants were adults who sought Therapy
therapy at the University of Chicago In Belgium, Alfons Vansteenwegen
counseling center. Experimenters asked (1996) used a revised form of the
half of them to wait 60 days before Barrett-Lennard to determine if Rogers's
receiving therapy while beginning facilitative conditions related to success
therapy with the other half. In addition, during couples therapy. He found that
they tested a control group of "normals" client-centered couples therapy can
who were matched with the therapy bring about positive changes in couples,
group. This control group was also and that some of these changes lasted
divided into a wait group and a non- for at least seven years after therapy.
wait group.
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Critique of Rogers by one need or another; (4) people in different

Rogers's person-centered theory is one of the cultures are all motivated by the same basic
most carefully constructed of all personality needs; and (5) needs can be arranged on a
theories, and it meets quite well each of the six hierarchy.
criteria of a useful theory. It rates very high on
internal consistency and parsimony, high on its Hierarchy of Needs
ability to be falsified and to generate research, Maslow held that lower level needs have
and high-average on its ability to organize prepotency over higher level needs; that
knowledge and to serve as a guide to the is, they must be satisfied before higher
practitioner. needs become motivators. Maslow's
hierarchy includes (1) physiological
Concept of Humanity needs, such as oxygen, food, water, and
Rogers believed that humans have the capacity so on; (2) safety needs, which include
to change and grow-provided that certain physical security, stability, dependency,
necessary and sufficient conditions are present. protection, and freedom from danger,
Therefore, his theory rates very high on optimism. and which result in basic anxiety if not
In addition, it rates high on free choice, satisfied; (3) love and belongingness
teleology, conscious motivation, social influences, needs, including the desire for friendship,
and the uniqueness of the individual. the wish for a mate and children, and
the need to belong; (4) esteem needs,
which follow from the satisfaction of love
needs and which include self-confidence
and the recognition that one has a
MASLOW'S HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY positive reputation; and (5) self-
actualization needs, which are satisfied
Overview of Maslow's Holistic-Dynamic only by the psychologically healthiest
Theory people. Unlike other needs that
Abraham Maslow's holistic-dynamic theory holds automatically are activated when lower
that people are continually motivated by one or needs are met, self-actualization needs
more needs, and that, under the proper do not inevitably follow the satisfaction
circumstances, they can reach a level of of esteem needs. Only by embracing
psychological health called self-actualization. such B-values as truth, beauty, oneness,
and justice, can people achieve self-
Biography of Abraham H. Maslow actualization. The five needs on Maslow's
Abraham H. Maslow was born in New York in hierarchy are conative needs. Other
1908, the oldest of seven children of Russian needs include aesthetic needs, cognitive
Jewish immigrants. After two or three mediocre needs, and neurotic needs.
years as a college student, his work improved at
about the time he was married. He received both Aesthetic Needs
a bachelor's degree and a Ph.D. from the Aesthetic needs include a desire for
University of Wisconsin where he worked with beauty and order, and some people
Harry Harlow conducting animal studies. Most of have much stronger aesthetic needs than
his professional career was spent at Brooklyn do others. When people fail to meet
College and at Brandeis University. Poor health their aesthetic needs, they become sick.
forced him to move to California where he died
in 1970 at age 62. Cognitive Needs
Cognitive needs include the desire to
Maslow's View of Motivation know, to understand, and to be curious.
Maslow's theory rests on five basic assumptions Knowledge is a prerequisite for each of
about motivation: (1) the whole organism is the five conative needs. Also, people
motivated at any one time; (2) motivation is who are denied knowledge and kept in
complex, and unconscious motives often underlie ignorance become sick, paranoid, and
behavior; (3) people are continually motivated depressed.
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Neurotic Needs level needs and that they produce more

With each of the above three dimensions genuine happiness and more peak
of needs, physical or psychological experiences.
illness results when the needs are not
satisfied. Neurotic needs, however, Self-Actualization
lead to pathology regardless of whether Maslow believed that a very small percentage
they are satisfied or not. Neurotic needs of people reach an ultimate level of
include such motives as a desire to psychological health called self-actualization.
dominate, to inflict pain, or to subject
oneself to the will of another person. Values of Self-Actualizers
Neurotic needs are nonproductive and Maslow held that self-actualizers are
do not foster health. metamotivated by such B-values as truth,
goodness, beauty, justice, and simplicity.
General Discussion of Needs
Maslow believed that most people Criteria for Self-Actualization
satisfy lower level needs to a greater Four criteria must be met before a
extent than they do higher levels needs, person achieves self-actualization: (1)
and that the greater the satisfaction of absence of psychopathology, (2)
one need, the more fully the next highest satisfaction of each of the four lower
need is likely to emerge. In certain rare level needs, (3) acceptance of the B-
cases, the order of needs might be values, and (4) full realization of one's
reversed. For example, a starving potentials for growth.
mother may be motivated by love needs
to give up food in order to feed her Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
starving children. However, if we Maslow listed 15 qualities that
understood the unconscious motivation characterize self-actualizing people,
behind many apparent reversals, we although not all self-actualizers possess
would see that they are not genuine each of the characteristics to the same
reversals at all. Thus, Maslow insisted extent. These characteristics are (1) more
that much of our surface behavior is efficient perception of reality, meaning
actually motivated by more basic and that self-actualizers often have an
often unconscious needs. Maslow also almost uncanny ability to detect
believed that some expressive behaviors phoniness in others, and they are not
are unmotivated, even though all fooled by sham; (2) acceptance of self,
behaviors have a cause. Expressive others, and nature; (3) spontaneity,
behavior has no aim or goal but is simplicity, and naturalness, meaning that
merely a person's mode of expression. In self-actualizers have no need to appear
comparison, coping behaviors (which are complex or sophisticated; (4) problem-
motivated) deal with a person's attempt centered which is the ability to view
to cope with the environment. The age-old problems from a solid
conative needs ordinarily call forth philosophical position; (5) the need for
coping behaviors. Deprivation of any of privacy, or a detachment that allows
the needs leads to pathology of some self-actualizing people to be alone
sort. For example, people's inability to without being lonely; (6) autonomy,
reach self-actualization results in meaning that they no longer are
metapathology, defined as an absence dependent on other people for their
of values, a lack of fulfillment, and a loss self-esteem; (7) continued freshness of
of meaning in life. Maslow suggested appreciation and the ability to view
that instinctoid needs are innately everyday things with a fresh vision and
determined even though they can be appreciation; (8) frequent reports of
modified by learning. Maslow also peak experiences, or those mystical
believed that higher level needs (love, experiences that give a person a sense
esteem, and self-actualization) are later of transcendence and feelings of awe,
on the evolutionary scale than lower wonder, ecstasy, reverence, and humility;
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(9) Gemeinschaftsgefühl, that is, social self-actualization. The most widely used of these
interest or a deep feeling of oneness is Everett Shostrom's Personal Orientation
with all humanity; (10) profound Inventory (POI), a 150-item forced-choice
interpersonal relations, but with no inventory that assesses a variety
desperate need to have a multitude of of self-actualization facets.
friends; (11) the democratic character
structure, or the ability to disregard The Jonah Complex
superficial differences between people; Because humans are born with a natural
(12) discrimination between means and tendency to move toward psychological health,
ends, meaning that self-actualizing any failure to reach self-actualization can
people have a clear sense of right and technically be called abnormal development.
wrong, and they experience little conflict One such abnormal syndrome is the Jonah
about basic values; (13) a philosophical complex, or fear of being or doing one's best, a
sense of humor that is spontaneous, condition that all of us have to some extent.
unplanned, and intrinsic to the situation; Maslow believed that many people allow false
(14) creativeness, with a keen perception humility to stifle their creativity, which causes
of truth, beauty, and reality; (15) them to fall short of self-actualization.
resistance to enculturation, or the ability
to set personal standards and to resist Psychotherapy
the mold set by culture. The hierarchy of needs concept has obvious
ramifications for psychotherapy. Most people
Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization who seek psychotherapy probably do so
Maslow compared D-love (deficiency because they have not adequately satisfied their
love) to B-love (love for being or essence love and belongingness needs. This suggests that
of another person). Self-actualizing much of therapy should involve a productive
people are capable of B-love because human relationship and that the job of
they can love without expecting a therapist is to help clients satisfy love and
something in return. B-love is mutually belongingness needs.
felt and shared and not based on
deficiencies within the lovers. Related Research
Researchers have investigated Maslow's concept
Philosophy of Science of self-actualization in many divergence settings
Maslow criticized traditional science as being and for a variety of purposes.
value free, with a methodology that is sterile and
nonemotional. He argued for a Taoistic attitude Self-Actualization and Intimate
for psychology in which psychologists are willing Interpersonal Relations
to resacralize their science, or to instill it with Michael Sheffield and his colleagues
human values and to view participants with awe, used the POI as a measure of self-
joy, wonder, rapture, and ritual. actualization and found that high scores
on the POI were inversely related
Measuring Self-Actualization to interpersonal relations. More
Maslow's method for measuring self-actualization specifically, people who approached
were consistent with his philosophy of science. He self-actualization tended to be self-
began his study of self-actualizing people with motivated, accepted feelings of
little evidence that such a classification of people aggression, and were able to sustain
even existed. He looked at healthy people, intimacy.
learned what they had in common, and then
established a syndrome for psychological health. Self-Actualization and Creativity
Next, he refined the definition of self- Mark Runco and his colleagues used the
actualization, studied other people, and changed Short Index of Self-Actualization to
the syndrome. He continued this process until he assess self-actualization and found a
was satisfied that he had a clear definition of positive relationship between self-
self-actualization. Other researchers have actualization scores and two measures of
developed personality inventories for measuring creativity. Although the relationships
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were not strong, they suggest that, as MAY'S EXISTENTIAL THEORY

Maslow's hypothesized, creativity is at
least partly related to self-actualization. Overview of May's Existential Theory
Existential psychology began in Europe shortly
Self-Actualization and Self-Acceptance after World War II and spread to the United
Some researchers have tested Maslow's States, where Rollo May played a large part in
assumption that self-actualizing people popularizing it. A clinical psychologist by
accept themselves. One study (Sumerlin training, May took the view that modern people
& Bundrick, 2000) with African-American frequently run away both from making choices
businessmen found that those who scored and from assuming responsibility.
high on self-actualization tended to have
increased happiness and self-fulfillment. Biography of Rollo May
Another study by William Compton and Rollo May was born in Ohio in 1909, but grew
his colleagues found that self- up in Michigan. After graduating from Oberlin
actualization related to openness to College in 1930, he spent three years roaming
experience and to seeking out new and throughout eastern and southern Europe as an
exciting experiences. itinerant artist. When he returned to the United
States, he entered the Union Theological
Critique of Maslow Seminary, from which he received a Master of
Maslow's theory has been popular in psychology Divinity degree. He then served for two years as
and other disciplines, such as management, a pastor, but quit in order to pursue a career in
nursing, and education. The hierarchy of needs psychology. He received a Ph.D. in clinical
concept seems both elementary and logical, psychology from Columbia in 1949 at the age of
which gives Maslow's theory the illusion of 40. During his professional career, he served as
simplicity. However, the theory is somewhat lecturer or visiting professor at a number of
complex, with four dimensions of needs and the universities, conducted a private practice as a
possibility of unconsciously motivated behavior. psychotherapist, and wrote a number of popular
As a scientific theory, Maslow's model rates high books on the human condition. May died in 1994
in generating research but low in falsifiability. at age 85.
On its ability to organize knowledge and guide
action, the theory rates quite high; on its Background of Existentialism
simplicity and internal consistency, it rates only Søren Kierkegaard, the Danish philosopher and
average. theologian, is usually considered to be the
founder of modern existentialism. Like later
Concept of Humanity existentialists, he emphasized a balance
Maslow believed that people are structured in between freedom and responsibility. People
such a way that their activated needs are acquire freedom of action by expanding their
exactly what they want most. Hungry people self-awareness and by assuming responsibility
desire food, frightened people look for safety, for their actions. However, this acquisition of
and so forth. Although he was generally freedom and responsibility is achieved at the
optimistic and hopeful, Maslow saw that people expense of anxiety and dread.
are capable of great evil and destruction. He
believed that as a species, humans are becoming What Is Existentialism?
more and more fully human and motivated by The first tenet of existentialism is that
higher level needs. In summary, Maslow's view of existence take precedence over essence,
humanity rates high on free choice, optimism, meaning that process and growth are
teleology, and uniqueness and about average on more important than product and
social influences. stagnation. Second, existentialists
oppose the artificial split between
subject and object. Third, they stress
people's search for meaning in their
lives. Fourth, they insist that each of us is
responsible for who we are and what
we will become. Fifth, most take an
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antitheoretical position, believing that Neurotic Anxiety

theories tend to objectify people. Neurotic anxiety is a reaction that is
disproportionate to the threat and that
Basic Concepts leads to repression and defensive
According to existentialists, a basic unity behaviors. It is felt whenever one's values
exists between people and their are transformed into dogma. Neurotic
environments, a unity expressed by the anxiety blocks growth and productive
term Dasein, or being-in-the-world. action.
Three simultaneous modes of the world
characterize us in our Dasein: Umwelt, or Guilt
the environment around us; Mitwelt, or Guilt arises whenever people deny their
our world with other people; and potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the
Eigenwelt, or our relationship with our needs of others, or remain blind to their
self. People are both aware of dependence on the natural world. Both anxiety
themselves as living beings and also and guilt are ontological; that is, they refer to
aware of the possibility of nonbeing or the nature of being and not to feelings arising
nothingness. Death is the most obvious from specific situations.
form of nonbeing, which can also be
experienced as retreat from life's Intentionality
experiences. The structure that gives meaning to experience
and allows people to make decisions about the
The Case of Philip future is called intentionality. May believed that
Rollo May helped illustrate his notion of intentionality permits people to overcome the
existentialism with the case of Philip, a successful dichotomy between subject and object, because
architect in his mid-50s. Despite his apparent it enables them to see that their intentions are a
success, Philip experienced severe anxiety when function of both themselves and their
his relationship with Nicole (a writer in her mid- environment.
40s) took a puzzling turn. Uncertain of his future
and suffering from low self-esteem, Philip went Care, Love, and Will
into therapy with Rollo May. Eventually, Philip Care is an active process that suggests that
was able to understand that his difficulties with things matter. Love means to care, to delight in
women were related to his early experiences the presence of another person, and to affirm
with a mother who was unpredictable and an that person's value as much as one's own. Care is
older sister who suffered from severe mental also an important ingredient in will, defined as a
disorders. However, he began to recover only conscious commitment to action.
after he accepted that his "need" to take care of
unpredictable Nicole was merely part of his Union of Love and Will
personal history with unstable women. May believed that our modern society
has lost sight of the true nature of love
Anxiety and will, equating love with sex and will
People experience anxiety when they become with will power. He further held that
aware that their existence or something psychologically healthy people are able
identified with it might be destroyed. The to combine love and will because both
acquisition of freedom inevitably leads to imply care, choice, action, and
anxiety, which can be either pleasurable and responsibility.
constructive or painful and destructive.
Forms of Love
Normal Anxiety May identified four kinds of love in
Growth produces normal anxiety, Western tradition: sex, eros, philia, and
defined as that which is proportionate to agape. May believed that Americans no
the threat, does not involve repression, longer view sex as a natural biological
and can be handled on a conscious level. function, but have become preoccupied
with it to the point of trivialization. Eros is
a psychological desire that seeks an
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enduring union with a loved one. It may become more aware of his possibilities.
include sex, but it is built on care and In other words, he gained his freedom of
tenderness. Philia, an intimate nonsexual being.
friendship between two people, takes
time to develop and does not depend on The Power of Myth
the actions of the other person. Agape is According to May, the people of contemporary
an altruistic or spiritual love that carries Western civilization have an urgent need for
with it the risk of playing God. Agape is myths. Because they have lost many of their
undeserved and unconditional. traditional myths, they turn to religious cults,
drugs, and popular culture to fill the vacuum. The
Freedom and Destiny Oedipus myth has had a powerful effect on our
Psychologically healthy individuals are culture because it deals with such common
comfortable with freedom, able to assume existential crises as birth, separation from
responsibility for their choices, and willing to parents, sexual union with one parent and
face their destiny. hostility toward the other, independence in one's
search for identity, and, finally, death.
Freedom Defined
Freedom comes from an understanding Psychopathology
of our destiny. We are free when we May saw apathy and emptiness-not anxiety and
recognize that death is a possibility at guilt-as the chief existential disorders of our time.
any moment and when we are willing to People have become alienated from the natural
experience changes, even in the face of world (Umwelt), from other people (Mitwelt), and
not knowing what those changes will from themselves (Eigenwelt). Psychopathology is
bring. a lack of connectedness and an inability to fulfill
one's destiny.
Forms of Freedom
May recognized two forms of freedom: Psychotherapy
(1) freedom of doing, or freedom of The goal of May's psychotherapy was not to cure
action, which he called existential patients of any specific disorder, but to make
freedom, and (2) freedom of being, or them more fully human. May said that the
an inner freedom, which he called purpose of psychotherapy is to set people free,
essential freedom. to allow them to make choices and to assume
responsibility for those choices.
Destiny Defined
May defined destiny as "the design of Related Research
the universe speaking through the design May's theory of personality does not lend itself
of each one of us." In other words, our to easily testable hypotheses, and, therefore, it
destiny includes the limitations of our has not generated much research. Nevertheless,
environment and our personal qualities, Jeff Greenberg and his colleagues have
including our mortality, gender, and investigated the concept of terror management,
genetic predispositions. Freedom and which is based on the notion of existential
destiny constitute a paradox, because anxiety. In general, Greenberg's findings are
freedom gains vitality from destiny, and consistent with May's definition of existential
destiny gains significance from freedom. anxiety as an apprehension of threats to one's
Philip's Destiny existence. However, this research can also be
After some time in therapy, Philip was explained by other psychological theories.
able to stop blaming his mother for not
doing what he thought she should have Critique of May
done. The objective facts of his childhood May's psychology has been legitimately
had not changed, but Philip's subjective criticized as being antitheoretical and unjustly
perceptions had. As he came to terms criticized as being anti-intellectual. May's
with his destiny, Philip began to be able antitheoretical approach calls for a new kind of
to express his anger, to feel less trapped science-one that considers uniqueness and
in his relationship with Nicole, and to personal freedom as crucial concepts. However,
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according to the criteria of present science,

May's theory rates low on most standards.
Currently, his theory is very low on its ability to
generate research, to be falsified, and to guide
action; low on internal consistency (because it
lacks operationally defined terms), average on
parsimony, and high on its organizational powers
due to its consideration of a broad scope of the
human condition.
Concept of Humanity
May viewed people as complex beings, capable
of both tremendous good and immense evil.
People have become alienated from the world,
from other people, and, most of all, from
themselves. On the dimensions of a concept of
humanity, May rates high on free choice,
teleology, social influences, and uniqueness. On
the issue of conscious or unconscious forces, his
theory takes a middle position.
Reference:
http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0072316799/student_view0/
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Theories OF Personality Summarized

Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (Polytechnic University of the Philippines)

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY However, scientists use the term to mean more

 Learning Theories Theory and Its Relatives

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

What Makes a Theory Useful? Biography of Sigmund Freud

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

Provinces of the Mind Anxiety

The Superego Repression

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

Regression form of penis envy, precedes the female

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

association to do so. With free the long term, maximize gratification,

Dream Analysis Critique of Freud

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

professional differences between the two men Fictionalism

Striving for Success or Superiority Unity and Self-Consistency of Personality

Striving for Personal Superiority Social Interest

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

interest, societies could not exist; Safeguarding Tendencies

General Description Applications of Individual Psychology

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

and to sensation and intuition as of which come from the collective

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

determinism, optimism versus pessimism, and Fantasies

Biography of Melanie Klein Paranoid-Schizoid Position

Psychic Defense Mechanisms

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

against anxiety aroused by their own destructive Superego

Ego Later Views on Object Relations

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

observations of infants as they bonded primate infants, Bowlby observed three

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

needs for affection and cause people to

The Importance of Childhood Experiences

Introduction to Psychoanalytic Social Theory Compulsive Drives

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

Neurotic Trends Feminine Psychology

Intrapsychic Conflicts Related Research

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Theories Of Personality Summarized

Critique of Horney Human Needs

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