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In each of these categories the filter can be further divided into active and passive type.
The output power of passive filter will always be less than the input power while active
filter allows power gain. In this lab we will only discuss passive filter. The characteristic
of a passive filter can be described using the transfer function approach or the attenuation
function approach. In low frequency circuit the transfer function (H()) description is
used while at microwave frequency the attenuation function description is preferred.
Figure 1.1a to Figure 1.1c show the characteristics of the three filter categories. Note that
the characteristics shown are for passive filter.
|H()|
Transfer
1 function
20 V
Attenuation 20Log10 2
V1
30
40 c
|H()| Attenuation/dB
0
1 Transfer 3
function
10
20
30
c 40 c
Figure 1.1B – A high-pass filter frequency response.
|H()| Attenuation/dB
0
1 Transfer 3
function 10
20
30
40 1 2
1 2
Where is the reflection coefficient looking into the filter (we assume no loss in the
filter).
Attenuation/dB
RS =1 0
V1() A Filter V2() 3
RL =1
H() 10
20
30
40
c = 1
Figure 2.1 – A normalized LPP filter network with unity cutoff frequency (1Radian/s).
Low-pass prototype (LPP) filters have the form shown in Figure 2.2 (An
alternative network where the position of inductor and capacitor is interchanged is also
applicable). The network consists of reactive elements forming a ladder, usually known
as a ladder network. The order of the network corresponds to the number of reactive
elements. Impedance transformation and frequency scaling are then applied to transform
the network to non-unity cutoff frequency, non-unity source/load resistance and to other
types of filters such as high-pass, band-pass or band-stop. Examples of high-pass and
band-pass filter networks are shown in Figure 2.3 and Figure 2.4 respectively.
1
L1=g2 L2=g4
C1=g1 C2=g3
RL= gN+1
R
L1=g1 L2=g3
C1=g2 C2=g4
g0= 1 RL= gN+1
C1 CN
L1 L2
Figure 2.3 – Example of high-pass filter, note the position of inductor and capacitor is
interchanged as compared with low pass filter.
C2 L2 CN LN
L1 C1 L3 C3
Figure 2.4 – Example of band pass-filter, the capacitor is replaced with parallel LC
network while the inductor is replaced with series LC network.
3.0 Brief Overview of Low-Pass Prototype Filter Design Using Lumped Elements
There are a number of standard approaches to design a normalized LPP of Figure 2.3 that
approximate an ideal low-pass filter response with cutoff frequency of unity. Among the
well known methods are:
Maximally flat or Butterworth function.
Equal ripple or Chebyshev approach.
Elliptic function.
We will not go into the details of each approach as many books have covered them.
Interested reader can refer to reference [3], which is a classic text on network analysis or
[4], a more advance version. The basic idea is to approximate the ideal amplitude
response |H()|2 of an amplifier using polynomials such as Butterworth, Chebyshev,
Bessel and other orthogonal polynomial functions. This is usually given as:
Vo ( ) Ko
H ( ) (3.1)
Vi ( ) 1 Co PN ( )
Here Ko and Co are constants and PN() is a polynomial in of order N. Ko and Co are
usually dependent on the type of polynomial used. A comparison of approximating the
LPP amplitude response with Butterworth, Bessel and Chebyshev polynomials is
illustrated in Figure 3.1.
Amplitude in
dB Bessel
10
20 log( HB ( ) )
20 log( HC ( ) )
Butterworth
20 log( Hb( ) )
20
Chebyshev
30
0.1 1 10
Figure 3.1 – Amplitude response of fourth order (N=4) Butterworth, Chebyshev and
Bessel filters using (3.1).
Each approximation has its advantages and disadvantages, for instance the
Chebyshev approximation provide rapid cutoff beyond 1.0 radian/second. However the
user must compromise this with ripple in the pass band. The Bessel approximation has
the slowest cutoff rate, but this is offset with a favourable linear phase response, which
reduces phase distortion. A Butterworth approximation has a characteristic between the
two. A ladder LC network with the number of reactive elements corresponding to the
order of the polynomial PN in (3.1) is then compared with equation (3.1). The respective
inductance and capacitance of the reactive elements can then be obtained. An alternative
approach would be to synthesize the transfer function of (3.1) using standard techniques
as listed in references [3] and [4]. It is suffice to say that for each approach, values of g 1,
g2, g3 … gN for an Nth order LPP have been tabulated by many authors (For instance see
[2]). Here we will demonstrate the design of a low-pass filter and a band-pass filter using
the insertion-loss method and illustrate the implementation of the RLC lumped circuit
using distributed elements such as microstrip and stripline in microwave region.
The Table 8.3 of reference [2] is repeated here. We will use this table to design a LPP
Butterworth filter. The values of gi correspond to inductance and capacitance in the LPP
Butterworth filter.
N g1 g2 g3 g4 g5 g6 g7 g8 g9
1 2.0000 1.0000
2 1.4142 1.4142 1.0000
3 1.0000 2.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4 0.7654 1.8478 1.8478 0.7654 1.0000
5 0.6180 1.6180 2.0000 1.6180 0.6180 1.0000
6 0.5176 1.4142 1.9318 1.9318 1.4142 0.5176 1.0000
L1=0.7654H L2=1.8478H
L1 = g1 = 0.7654H
L2 = g3 = 1.8478H
g0= 1 RL= 1 C1 = g2 = 1.8478F
C1=1.8478F C2=0.7654F C2 = g4 = 0.7654F
R Ro Rn (4.1a)
L
L Ro n (4.1b)
o
Cn
C (4.1c)
Ro o
The transformation as shown in (4.1a) to (4.1c) implies that the schematic does not need
to be changed, only the element values are scaled down or up to reflect the new
specifications. Space does not permit us a detailed discussion of how equations (4.1a)-
(4.1c) achieve this. But a qualitative justification is as follows.
A2 Z1Z 2
AZ1 // AZ 2 A Z1 // Z 2 (4.2a)
A Z1 Z 2
AZ1 AZ 2 A Z1 Z 2 (4.2b)
N ( Z1 , Z 2 Z n )
H (4.3)
D( Z1 , Z 2 Z n )
N ( Ro Z1 , Ro Z 2 Ro Z n ) Ro N ( Z1 , Z 2 Z n )
H ' H (4.4)
D( Ro Z1 , Ro Z 2 Ro Z n ) Ro D ( Z1 , Z 2 Z n )
However multiplying each impedance with Ro means we are scaling the impedance due
to each R, L and C by Ro as seen in the following:
Ro Z R Ro Rn R Ro Rn (4.5a)
Ro Z L Ro jLn j Ro L L Ro Ln (4.5b)
1 1 C
Ro Z C Ro C n
jC C Ro (4.5c)
j
Ro
observe that the frequency response of the inductor is scaled by o. Similarly if a
capacitor C is replace with capacitance C/o, its frequency response is also scaled by o.
The resistor being independent of frequency is not affected by frequency scaling.
Combining the frequency scaling and impedance scaling operation, one would arrive at
the equations (4.1a) to (4.1c).
L1=4.061nH L2=9.803nH
g0=1/50 RL= 50
C1=3.921pF C2=1.624pF
Figure 4.2 – The denormalized low-pass filter with cutoff frequency at 1.5GHz and
impedance of 50.
Z12
Zo
where e is the effective dielectric constant of the transmission line structure. When l <
/2, the series element of Figure 5.1 can be thought of as inductor and the shunt element
can be considered a capacitor. This is illustrated in Figure 5.2 (a) with:
X l
Z 11 Z 12 Z o tan (5.3a)
2 2
1 1
B sin l (5.3b)
Z 12 Zo
Assuming a short length of transmission line (l < /4) and Zo=ZH >> 1:
X ZH l (5.4a)
B0 (5.4b)
Assuming a short length of transmission line (l < /4) and Zo=ZL 1:
X 0 (5.5a)
1
B l (5.5b)
ZL
X Zol
When Zo >> 1
jX/2 jX/2 l < /4
(b)
jB
(a)
When Zo 0 B Yol
l < /4
(c)
Figure 5.2 – Approximate equivalent circuits for short section of transmission lines.
The ratio ZH/ZL should be as high as possible, limited by the practical values that
can be fabricated on a printed circuit board. Typical values are Z H=100 to 150 and
ZL=10 to 15. Since a typical ow-pass filter consists of alternating series inductors and
shunt capacitors in a ladder configuration, we could implement the filter on a printed
circuit board by using alternating high and low characteristic impedance section
transmission lines. Using (5.4a) and (5.5b), the relationship between inductance and
capacitance to the transmission line length at the cutoff frequency c are:
c L
lL (5.6a)
ZH
CZ L
lC c (5.6b)
W
Air Conducting trace (thickness = t)
H Dielectric
r H r
Ground Plane
Microstrip Line Strip Line
Figure 6.1 – Cross section view of microstrip and strip transmission line as implemented
on a printed circuit board.
e
Region where (6.1) e
applies.
r
r
1
1
f
f
Microstrip Line Strip Line
Figure 6.2 – Effective dielectric constant of microstrip and strip transmission line.
We will use the microstrip line to implement the low pass filter designed earlier.
Microstrip line is popular, as it is easily fabricated and low cost as compared to stripline.
There is no closed form solution for the propagation of electromagnetic wave along a
microstrip line. The solution for wave propagation is usually obtained through numerical
method. Parameters such as the effective dielectric constant, characteristic impedance
and line attenuation are then obtained from the numerical solution as a function of
frequency. Empirical formulas are obtained from the numerical solution by the methods
of curve fitting. Assuming the conductors and dielectric are lossless, and ignoring the
effect the conductor thickness t, an example of the empirical formulas for e and Zo are
given by [2]:
r 1 r 1 1
e
2 2
12 H (6.1)
1
W
60 8 H W W
Zo ln for 1
r W 4H H
(6.2)
120 W
for 1
r WH 1.393 0.667 ln WH 1.444 H
Zo and e as a function of W/d is plotted in Figure 6.3 using equations (6.1) and (6.2).
The dielectric constant of the PCB dielectric is assumed to be 4.2 (for FR4).
80
72.573
4
3.731
70
3.75
60
e( s ) 3.5
e
50 3.25
ZZ0o ( s )
160
15
40 3.044 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2.976 s 12
W/H
30
140
2.9
20 e
( s)
e
15
Z(os ) 2.8
Z0
12.902 10120
150 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 110 s 2.745 2.7 12
W/H 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.1
W/Hs 0.7
100
W/H
F. Kung 80 11 May 2007
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
s
W/H
RF Engineering – Passive Circuit Microstrip Filter Design
6.2 Implementing the 4th Order Butterworth Low Pass Filter using Step Impedance
Microstrip Line
Consider the schematic of Figure 4.2 again. The filter parameters are as follows:
Cutoff frequency fc = 1.5GHz.
Required ZL = 15.
Required ZH = 110.
L1=4.061nH, L2=9.083nH, C1=3.921pF, C2=1.624pF.
Implementation:
A typical FR4 fiberglass PCB with r = 4.2 and H = 1.5mm is used. From Figure 6.3 the
following trace parameters are obtained:
Therefore
To 50
Load
0.6mm
15.0mm
Figure 6.4 – The top view of the layout for the Low Pass Filter on the printed circuit
board.
7.1 Analysis of the step-impedance low pass filter using Agilent Advance Design
System (ADS) software
1. Log into the workstation.
2. Run the ADS version 2003A software (newer version may be used).
3. From the main window of ADS, create a new project folder named “step_imp_LPF”
under the directory “D:\ads_user\default\” (Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2).
4. The new schematic window will automatically appear once the project is properly
created. Otherwise you can manually create a new schematic window by double
clicking the Create New schematic button on the menu bar.
5. From the component palette drop-down list, set the component palette to “TLines-
Microstrip”. Draw the schematic as shown in Figure 7.5. The MSUB component is
the general substrate characteristics of the printed circuit board. The MLIN
components represent a short length of microstrip transmission lines used in our low
pass filter. Here MLIN1 corresponds to transmission line section 1, MLIN 2 to
Palette List
Ground Node
Work Area
Component Palette
Figure 7.3 – The Schematic Editor window of ADS (New version of ADS may be
slightly different).
Figure 7.4 – Select the “Tlines-Microstrip” component palette from the Palette List.
Substrate
Component
Microstrip Line
Figure 7.5 – Insert the microstrip line component MLIN and substrate component MSUB
into the Work Area.
7. Set the characteristic W and L of each MLIN components according to the table of
Section 6.2.
9. Set the parameters in SP1 to Start = 100MHz, Stop = 4GHz and Step = 10MHz. The
final schematic should be as shown in Figure 7.7. In Figure 7.7, since there is a step
discontinuity between the transmission line sections, this has to be modeled by
inserting a step element “MSTEP” at the junction between two transmission line
sections, this will make the simulated result more accurate.
To model step
discontinuity in
microstrip line
Figure 7.7 – The final schematic for the low pass filter model.
11. Invoke the data display window. Insert a Rectangular Plot component in the data
display.
12. Select the item to display as S21, with the dB option. The S21 represents the
attenuation from terminal 1 (input) to terminal 2 (output) of the filter as sinusoidal
signals from 100MHz to 4GHz are imposed.
13. Study the 3dB cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter. You can use the Marker
feature of the ADS display window to show the value of the attenuation at specific
frequency. m1
fre q=1.410GHz
dB(S (2,1))=-3.051
0
m1
-5
-10
dB(S (2,1))
-15
-20
-25
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
freq, GHz
Figure 7.8 – A sample result from the Data Display window of ADS, illustrating the S 21
of the step-impedance low pass filter.
14. Adjust the parameter of TL1, TL2, TL3 and TL4 until the 3dB cutoff frequency is
within 100MHz of 1.5GHz. This can be done using the optimization feature of the
software. But as a start you can manually tune the width and length of each
transmission line section to achieve the desirable cut-off frequency at 1.5GHz.
Lab Procedure
Following the steps in Section 4 to Section 6, design a 4 th order Butterworth Low-Pass
Filter using ladder LC network with cut-off frequency at 1.8GHz. Show the steps of how
the inductance and capacitance in the network are determined from the Low-Pass
Prototype. Also show the conversion of the LC circuit into microstrip circuit, tabulating
the dimensions of each section of the transmission line. Upon completing the design,
simulate the frequency response of the low pass filter using HP ADS software, again
following the steps shown in Section 7. Use a frequency sweep from 100MHz to 5GHz,
with a step of 10MHz.
Report
The report MUST be hand-written, except for graphics, which can be computer
generated. Please submit your report within 7 days from the experiment to the lab.
References
1. R.E. Collin, “Foundations for microwave engineerng”, 2nd edition, 1992 McGraw-
Hill. TK7876-C645.
2. D.M. Pozar, “Microwave engineering”, 2nd edition, 1998 John-Wiley & Sons.
TK7876.P69.
3. F.F. Kuo, “Network analysis and synthesis”, 2nd edition, 1966 John-Wiley & Sons.
4. Temes G.C., LaPatra J.W., “Introduction to circuit systhesis and design”, 1977
McGraw-Hill, TK454.5.
5. W.K. Chen (editor),”The circuits and filters handbook”, 1995 CRC Press.
TK7876.C4977.
Appendix
Having carried out a computer analysis of the design, an actual step-impedance low pass
filter is built by the author, below are the photograph of the printed circuit board and the
frequency response measured using a vector network analyzer (VNA).
Figure A1 – Picture of the step impedance 4th order Butterworth Low Pass Filter
constructed by the author in Dec 2000.
1.42GHz Scale:
0dB Y axis: 3dB
per division
-3dB X axis:
300MHz per
division