Article

Journal of Career Development

1-15
ª Curators of the University
Assessing Adults’ Career of Missouri 2016
Reprints and permission:
Exploration: Development sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0894845316667846

and Validation of the Vocational jcd.sagepub.com

and Maternal Identity

Exploration Scales

Michal Gross-Spector1 and Rachel Gali Cinamon1

Abstract
To promote our theoretical understanding regarding the exploration process during adulthood, the
current study focusses on this process as it relates to work and family life roles and the relations
between them, during the transition to motherhood. Two instruments assessing vocational and
maternal exploration, relating to self and environment dimensions, were developed. Validation was
conducted through two independent studies of two groups of Israeli Jewish women during their
transition to motherhood: exploratory factor analysis (N ¼ 125) and confirmatory factor analysis
(N ¼ 232). Results demonstrated good fit of the model to the data, and reveal statistically significant
estimates for each of the measurements. Positive, significant correlations between the two exploration
processes were found. The findings support the life-long and holistic approach of career development
that exploration is an ongoing process, which occur in different life domains simultaneously. Impli-
cations for future research and practice are discussed.

Keywords
vocational exploration, maternal exploration, transition to motherhood, career development, career
counseling

One of the key elements in career development theories and practice is the identity exploration process
(Flum & Blustein, 2000; Super, 1957). Through this process, people learn about themselves and their
environment in order to make important life choices (Flum & Kaplan, 2006). A consensus among
researchers maintains that the identity exploration process has an ongoing nature relating to various
life roles (Kroger, 2007; Marcia, 2002). Despite this consensus, most research has focused on explo-
ration processes among adolescents and young adults, primarily regarding the vocational role. The
exploration process across other life domains and at later life stages has been rarely conceptualized

1
Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel

Corresponding Author:
Rachel Gali Cinamon, School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv-Yafo 6997801, Israel.
Email: cinamon@tauex.tau.ac.il

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2 Journal of Career Development

and seldom investigated. This narrow approach is contrary to the nature of the world of work in modern
Western societies, characterized by lean production and near-constant change (e.g., Blustein, 2006).
This leads to the proliferation of nonlinear and nonstandard career trajectories and to an increase in
the number of work transitions individuals will have to cope with during their lives (e.g., Fouad &
Bynner, 2008). Therefore, our knowledge about the way individuals construct their identity through
important decisions in more advanced stages of life is narrow and limits our ability to deliver adequate
and relevant career counseling.
One of the most sensitive periods for career decisions in many women’s lives is their transition to
motherhood (Bailey, 2000; Haynes, 2008). During this period, working women who become moth-
ers are typically faced with having to decide how to integrate the major life roles of paid work and
family. Research has indicated that these women tend, at this stage, to reduce their involvement in
the labor market (e.g., Cooper, 2007; Ladge, Clair, & Greenberg, 2012). However, knowledge of the
process by which they take this decision is incomplete. Therefore, this stage of development is suit-
able for examining the exploration process among adults, as it relates to work and family life roles
simultaneously.
The current study meets these theoretical and empirical needs and conceptualizes vocational and
maternal exploration among working women during the transition to motherhood. These measures
have the potential to advance our understanding of adults’ vocational exploration process along with
maternal exploration, which have yet to been studied within this theoretical perspective.

Identity Exploration Process

A key mechanism in constructing an identity is exploration. Identity develops over time, and while the
process is particularly salient during adolescence, it continues over a lifetime and serves as a guide to
choices in key areas of one’s life (Erikson, 1968). The exploration process has been described as the
‘‘work’’ of identity, a ‘‘problem-solving behavior aimed at eliciting information about oneself or one’s
environment in order to make a decision about an important life choice’’ (Grotevant, 1987, p. 204). The
self-dimension of exploration refers to an internal exploration of interests, abilities, and personal val-
ues, while the environment dimension refers to an external exploration of social and economic support,
characteristics of the current labor market, and cultural elements (e.g., Blustein, 1997).
With the advancement of research in the field of identity development, knowledge about the
nature of exploration in a person’s adult life has been expanded (Marcia, 2002). A circular model
(Moratorium, Achievement, Moratorium Achievement [M-A-M-A]) of exploration behavior that leads
to personality commitments has been presented by Marcia (2002). This model describes the develop-
ment of identity in the wake of events that violate the balance established with the individual’s initial
identity construction. Such events can be developmental and positive, such as marriage and birth, or
negative, such as loss and unemployment (Grotevant, 1987). According to this model, transition
to motherhood may serve as a trigger that awakens exploration behavior and may provide impor-
tant theoretical information as to its nature among working adults (e.g., Laney, Hall, Anderson, &
Willingham, 2015).
Despite theoretical agreement regarding the ongoing nature of the identity exploration process in
various life roles (e.g., Flum & Blustein, 2000; Kroger, 2007), most studies have focused on explora-
tion regarding vocational choice. They have also typically limited their investigations to adolescent
and young adult life stages. These commonly investigated life stages are particularly associated with
the making of primary identity choices (Crocetti, Schwartz, Fermani, & Meeus, 2008; Rogers & Creed,
2011). This research tradition of focusing on a single domain and on a single life stage limits our under-
standing of how humans make life decisions through exploration processes. Specifically, deliberations
in subsequent life stages may require a reassessment of earlier life choices, such as during the transition
to motherhood.

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Gross-Spector and Gali Cinamon 3

Furthermore, operationalizing the exploration process during adolescence or young adulthood,

with the individual having accumulated relatively little experience in major life roles, demands dif-
ferent aspects of assessment from those relevant to measuring a more complex re-exploration, fol-
lowing several years of an individual’s involvement in the world of work and relationships. That is,
while exploration at the phase of primary choices focuses on finding social roles in the environment
that would enable an expression of the individual’s personal characteristics, exploration in later
stages of life is likely to include an in-depth internal examination of the changes in a person’s pre-
ferences, values, and commitments and the extent to which past choices still express current attri-
butes and aspirations.
Another issue rising from the longitudinal nature of exploration is the need to adopt a wider and
more holistic approach, especially with working adults, since the worker role is only one of several
social roles that comprise the individual’s identity and lifestyle (e.g., Super, 1990). Focusing only
on the vocational exploration process impedes our understanding of the process, which is likely being
conducted in several domains simultaneously. Identification, characterization, and assessment of the
exploration process in other life domains will allow us to compare these processes and reveal possible
relationships between them (Grotevant, 1987; Vleioras & Bosma, 2005).
In the current study, we will present the development of two measures, assessing vocational and
maternal exploration processes of women during their transition to motherhood. In addition, we will
present an integrative model to examine the relationships between these two processes. This transition
period is a critical juncture for constructing many women’s identities as working mothers and has a
significant impact on their career development. Therefore, it is a suitable phase to investigate the
exploration process among working adults from a broad perspective.

Women’s Career Exploration

The research literature provides little information regarding the exploration process and its nature in
women’s adult life. Studies designed to investigate gender differences through adolescence and emer-
ging adulthood show that young women undergo similar processes of identity construction in diverse
domains, to those of their male counterparts, having common educational and occupational plans (e.g.,
Cinamon, Rich, & Spector, 2012). Women, however, tend to engage in unique exploration patterns as
they deliberate on multiple-role integration. They grant prominence to the family domain and to the
way family and work roles are integrated (Cinamon et al., 2012; Seginer, 2001).
One of the most critical periods for decisions relating to multiple-role integration for women is dur-
ing their transition to motherhood. Studies examining the impact of motherhood on women’s career
choices reveal changes in priorities following the assumption of motherhood. Already during preg-
nancy, many working women modify their priorities and attach great importance to family and their
emerging maternal role, at the expense of high involvement in their vocational role (Bailey, 2000;
Haynes, 2008).
Literature in the field of women’s career development provides evidence relating to the contribution
of women’s involvement in multiple life roles, especially work and family, to their mental and physical
health, as well as to the beneficial role such a lifestyle has in protecting them from depression
(Al-Yagon & Cinamon, 2008; Betz, 2005). Knowledge about the way women make their choices
through the exploration process would enable career counselors to help these women explore their own
preferences in the face of social constructions, restrictions, and stereotypes concerning the identity
components related to being women and mothers (Whitmarsh, Brown, Cooper, Rodgers, & Wentworth,
2007). Accordingly, the current research focuses on the construction of measurement tools reflecting
this 2-fold exploration process, a contribution that will provide important insights regarding the
questions, thoughts, and behaviors occupying women when they come to shape their lifestyle in
vocational and maternal roles.

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4 Journal of Career Development

Vocational Exploration
The vocational exploration process is the focus of fertile research of career development theories
(Savickas, 2005; Super, 1990). Despite theoretical views emphasizing the lifelong and adaptive
functions of this process, little is known about its nature during the adult’s life in the 21st century.
Changes in the structure of work, driven by globalization, technological advances, and the commu-
nication revolution have demanded major adjustments for many employees (Burke & Ng, 2006).
Alongside these labor-market changes, there have been changes in the attitude of many individuals
who seek to take more control of their own career development (DiRenzo & Greenhaus, 2011).
These trends, typically documented within the theoretical frameworks of protean (Hall, 1996) and
boundaryless (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996) career theories, encourage employees not to limit them-
selves to a single career decision in their adult life and to continue to be intensively engaged in the
exploration process in later stages of development. Indeed, Flum and Blustein (2000) suggest, in
their research framework, that the exploration process should be understood as a ‘‘critical means
by which individuals can construct themselves and re-explore and reconstruct themselves through-
out the life span’’ (p. 382).
Thus, one would expect that women, in their transition to motherhood, would re-explore their
vocational role, discover what changes may have occurred in their values and professional aspira-
tions, and how they could be best expressed through their new lifestyle. However, knowledge of the
exploration process during adulthood is very limited, making its characterization difficult. For
example, what questions do these women in transition ask themselves regarding their internal char-
acteristics at a stage where their professional role has already been established? What new informa-
tion would individuals need to discover about their environment at this stage? How is this
information acquired?

Maternal Exploration
The existing knowledge regarding the character and the nature of the maternal exploration process is
minimal. This study seeks to address this deficiency, focusing on the identity exploration process of the
maternal role among adult women. In order to examine this process, we adopted the same two dimen-
sions for maternal role exploration used in vocational exploration: self and environment. Here, again,
many questions may be posed regarding the process of exploring the maternal role: What questions do
women ask themselves in order to explore their internal characteristics, values, and preferences regard-
ing this role? Do they ponder their needs, abilities, and interests with the same queries that characterize
vocational exploration? What elements of their environment do women explore in relation to
motherhood?
To summarize, the current study seeks to meet this lacuna and introduce two separate measurement
tools––vocational exploration and maternal exploration––with regard to both self- and environment
dimensions. An examination of the exploration behavior among adult women during a major transition
in their lives will contribute to conceptualizing the exploration process among adults.

Interrelated Exploration Processes

A central theoretical model that highlights interrelated exploration processes in various life roles is
Grotevant’s (1987) model of identity formation. In line with this model, studies in the field of career
development have documented exploration processes in different life domains (e.g., Crocetti et al.,
2008). Yet, the way these processes are interrelated has not been adequately examined. Studies focus-
ing on the interrelations between exploration processes in different domains have supported associa-
tions between identities through simultaneous exploration processes (Cinamon et al., 2012; Seginer,

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Gross-Spector and Gali Cinamon 5

2001). However, these studies are limited, having focused only on the earlier developmental stages of
adolescence and young adulthood.
Theories of female identity have emphasized the interrelations between women’s vocational and
interpersonal identities, especially marriage and motherhood (Erikson, 1968), and the significance
of relations between vocational and family choices (e.g., Fassinger, 2008). In line with this theoretical
and empirical research, the current study focuses on the relations between vocational and maternal
identities, through the exploration process, during the transition to motherhood. Following Grotevant’s
(1987) model, we hypothesized that a positive correlation would be found between the behaviors relat-
ing to the two processes––exploration of motherhood and vocational exploration––in terms of self- and
environment dimensions.

Method
The Process of Designing the Exploration Measurements
The development of the research tools was based on Worthington and Whittaker’s (2006) recom-
mendations and included creating items on the basis of the literature and on the basis of four semi-
structured interviews with working women during their transition to motherhood. Validation of the
tools included two studies with separate samples: exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirma-
tory factor analysis (CFA).
Four semistructured interviews of 60–90 min were conducted with four working women during
their transition to motherhood. All interviewees were on maternity leave at the time of the interviews
(2–8 months after birth of their first child) and were working prior to their giving birth. All intervie-
wees had a minimum education level of bachelor’s degree and were in steady relationships at the time
of the interviews. The interviews were conducted at the participant’s home by the second author and
were coordinated in advance. Each of the interviewees received New Israeli Shekel (NIS) 150 for par-
ticipating in the interview.
The leading question of the interview was ‘‘The transition to motherhood invites women to reflect
upon their lives in several life domains. What are the questions and dilemmas that interest you in your
vocational and maternal life?’’ Additional questions included reference to the way the women express
their interest in these domains: ‘‘How do you express your interest?/How do you gather information on
these issues?’’
Content analysis of the interviews was carried out (Strauss & Corbin, 1994), and items were devel-
oped based on the created categories. Each of the researchers reviewed the interviews independently
for identifying content domains and key categories and then discussed the findings until they reached
an agreement. At the next stage, the interviews were reviewed again by each of the authors separately
in order to identify themes that belong to these categories, followed by a discussion to reach an agree-
ment. Three categories were identified regarding vocational exploration: (a) the personal meaning of
work, (b) an examination of the professional development process, and (c) an examination of voca-
tional options. Three categories were also identified regarding maternal exploration: (a) the personal
meaning of motherhood, (b) seeking information about the maternal role, and (c) seeking opportunities
for social support in the maternal role.

Generating an item pool. A pool of 34 items was generated––18 relating to vocational exploration and 16
relating to maternal exploration––on the basis of information that emerged from the interviews and
from the theoretical definitions of the construct. These items included a reference to the two explora-
tory dimensions in each domain of exploration: self and environment.

Evaluating and selecting the questionnaires items. The researchers discussed the quality of the items in a
critical manner, relating to the way in which the items reflected the latent variable and dimensions, and

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6 Journal of Career Development

considering their wording and clarity. To enhance the content validity of the scale, an expert in the
field of identity exploration was asked to assess the items and comment on them. The expert’s com-
ments and remarks led to the deletion of some items, a change in the wording of others, and to the
emphasizing of the dynamic aspect of the theoretical concept. Following this assessment, the voca-
tional exploration questionnaire comprised 14 items (9 for self-exploration and 5 for environment
exploration), and the maternal exploration questionnaire comprised 13 items (6 for self-exploration
and 7 for environment exploration). Structure validation of these tools was carried out by two studies:
EFA and CFA.

Study 1 (EFA)
Participants
Participants consisted of 125 Israeli Jewish working women (or those working prior to giving birth)
between the ages of 20–43 (Mage ¼ 29.7; SDage ¼ 4.27), during their transition to motherhood
(1–9 months following the birth of their first child). The timing of our study was set to meet the parti-
cipants during their maternity leave, a time for exploring themselves and their environment prior
making decisions regarding work and family roles. The shortest time span (1 month after delivery) was
set to allow women to recover from birth, while the longest time span (a year after delivery) was
chosen, as women in Israel are allowed to extend their maternity leave up to 12 months. In other words,
only women on maternity leave (from 1 to 12 months after birth) were recruited for the study. Regard-
ing marital status, 112 (89.6%) participants were married, 9 (7.2%) were in a steady relationship, and
3 (2.4%) were single. Regarding education level, 103 (82%) were university educated, and less than a
fifth (17%) had a secondary education. Almost all (93.6%) were salaried workers, and nearly two
thirds (64%) were working part-time prior to their giving birth.

Procedure
Participants were recruited to participate in the study by a research assistant (a graduate stu-
dent in the counseling program) who contacted various virtual forums for women after child-
birth. Through these forums, the women were apprised of the study and its objectives and
were referred to the Qualtrics virtual site, which included an extensive explanation of the
study, ethical aspects, the incentive offered them (a breakfast voucher), a statement of consent
to participate in the study, and the study questionnaires. Participants filled out questionnaires
related to vocational exploration, maternal exploration, and professional and demographic
background information.

Measures
Vocational Exploration Questionnaire. This questionnaire included 14 items, assessing exploration of (a)
self (9 items; e.g., During my transition to motherhood . . . I ask myself if my work enables me to
express my skills) and (b) environment (5 items; e.g., I seek out information regarding opportunities
in my profession). Participants responded on a 5-point Likert-type scale, with the response options: 1
(not at all), 2 (seldom), 3 (sometimes), 4 (often), and 5 (all the time).

Maternal Exploration Questionnaire. This questionnaire included 13 items, assessing exploration of (a)
self (6 items; e.g., I ask myself what I am learning about myself as a mother) and (b) environment
(7 items; e.g., I ponder what models of motherhood I have seen). Participants responded on a
5-point Likert-type scale with response options identical to those of the Vocational Exploration
Questionnaire.

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Gross-Spector and Gali Cinamon 7

Professional and demographic variables. The questionnaire included questions regarding participants’ age,
marital status, and occupational information. To ensure that the sample would include only mothers
during their transition to motherhood, they were asked if they were mothers for the first time.

Results
Vocational Exploration Questionnaire
Statistical analysis. Evaluation of items and structure validity was conducted through the item analysis
and EFA, with the aim of creating a simple factor structure that fit the theoretical structure.

Item analysis. Item analysis of the questionnaire included a description of the data, using distribution
and center indices, checking distributions and their declension from normality, the discernment of the
items (corrected item-total correlation), and overall reliability of the scale. Items of the questionnaire
were eliminated due to low variance (SD < .50), significant deviation from normal distribution (kur-
tosis > 3; skewness > 3), low discrimination (corrected item-total correlation < .300), and damage to
the reliability of the scale. Findings of the analysis indicated the need for eliminating item number 6
due to low variance (SD ¼ 0.488), deviation from normal distribution (kurtosis ¼ 7.7), and damage to
the reliability of the scale (Table 1 presents the results of the descriptive statistics of the scale).

EFA. Common FA—principal axis factoring—extraction method with oblique rotation was per-
formed. Interpretation of eigenvalues and pattern matrix revealed a solution of two factors, explain-
ing 57.3% of the total variance. The first factor––self-exploration––comprised 9 items and explained
48.6% of the variance in the data, while the second factor––environment exploration––comprised
4 items and explained 8.7% of the variance. The covariance between each of the items and the two
factors showed good function (communalities > 0.392) of all items. Table 2 presents the results of
the factor analysis.
In summary, following the statistical analyses, the Vocational Exploration Questionnaire included
13 items, 9 reflecting self-exploration and 4 reflecting environment exploration, and resembled the two
a priori dimensions. The internal reliability was .925 and .808 for the self- and environment subscales,
respectively. Internal reliability for the general scale was a ¼ .920.

Maternal Exploration Questionnaire

Item analysis. Item analysis of the questionnaire comprised the same procedure as carried out in the
Vocational Exploration Questionnaire (Table 3 presents the results of the descriptive statistics).

EFA. Common FA—principal axis factoring—extraction method with oblique rotation analysis was
performed. Interpretation of eigenvalues and pattern matrix revealed a solution of three factors,
explaining 49% of the total variance. Reducing the number of factors to two, through constraint, pro-
vided a better conceptualization solution of two factors––self-exploration and environment explora-
tion––which together explained 42% of the variance. The first factor, self-exploration, consisted of
6 items and explained 34% of the variance, while the second factor, environment exploration, con-
sisted of 7 items and explained 8% of the variance. Reliability and item analysis of these factors
revealed a malfunction of 3 items (2, 4, and 9), which were eliminated. Subsequent factor analysis
revealed a two-factor structure, explaining 48% of the total variance. The first factor (self-explora-
tion) comprised 5 items and explained 38% of the variance, while the second factor (environment
exploration) comprised 5 items and explained 10% of the variance. Table 4 presents the results of
the factor analysis.

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8 Journal of Career Development

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness, and Kurtosis of Vocational Exploration Scale Items (Samples 1
and 2).

Sample 1 Sample 2

Item M SD Skewness Kurtosis M SD Skewness Kurtosis

1. I ask myself if my work allows me to 3.14 1.401 –0.279 –1.190 3.29 1.423 –0.377 –1.168
express my skills.
2. I am concerned with the question of how 3.38 1.261 –0.377 –0.815 3.47 1.291 –0.520 –0.778
much I have developed professionally.
3. I examine other professional interests of 2.10 1.366 0.857 –0.702 2.09 1.370 0.928 –0.573
mine through professional sites or
consulting services.
4. I wonder if I am expressing the values that 2.69 1.358 0.154 –1.173 2.83 1.345 –0.011 –1.160
are important for me through my work.
5. I ponder whether my professional 3.67 1.203 –0.639 –0.485 3.75 1.185 –0.730 –0.318
development matches my aspirations.
6. I attend job fairs. 1.17 0.488 2.939 7.71
7. It concerns me whether I express who I 2.85 1.332 0.076 –1.168 3.00 1.371 –0.047 –1.231
am through my work.
8. I deliberate with others about the 2.73 1.309 0.147 –1.154 2.94 1.340 –0.055 –1.232
meaning of work for me today.
9. I wonder if this is how I wanted my 3.36 1.358 –0.528 –0.949 3.52 1.385 –0.642 –0.843
professional life to turn out.
10. I involve others regarding the question 2.28 1.342 0.695 –0.833 2.47 1.389 0.432 –1.196
of how my work reflects who I am today.
11. I seek out information regarding 2.62 1.365 0.248 –1.258 2.71 1.409 0.224 –1.283
opportunities in my profession.
12. I ask for feedback from friends and 1.79 1.124 1.391 1.053 1.80 1.134 1.403 1.075
colleagues regarding other professional
skills that I may have.
13. I initiate get-togethers to help me get 1.59 1.063 1.862 2.536 1.68 1.107 1.615 1.580
information on other employment
options that could suit my skills.
14. I ask myself if my work is as significant 2.94 1.330 –0.194 –1.204 3.09 1.292 –0.324 –1.005
for me, as I had intended it to be.
Note: Item 6 was omitted after item analysis, and item 10 was omitted after confirmatory factor analysis

In summary, the final version of the Maternal Exploration Questionnaire comprised 10 items, 5
relating to self-exploration and 5 relating to environment exploration. The internal reliability was
.828 and .788 for the self- and environment subscales, respectively. Internal reliability for the general
scale was a ¼ .855.

Study 2 (CFA)
Participants
Participants consisted of 232 Israeli working women between the ages of 20 and 46 (Mage ¼ 29.6,
SDage ¼ 4.08), during their transition to motherhood (from 1 to 9 months after the birth of the first
child). Regarding their marital status, 227 (98.3%) were married or were in a steady relationship,
188 (81%) were university educated, and less than a fifth (18.5%) had a secondary education. Almost
all participants (92.7%) were salaried workers, and nearly two thirds of them (67.2%) were working
full-time prior to giving birth.

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Gross-Spector and Gali Cinamon 9

Table 2. The Pattern Matrix of the Vocational Exploration Questionnaire, the Corrected Item-Total Correlation,
and the Factors’ a Values.
F1 F2
Item SE EE
7. It concerns me whether I express who I am through my work. .920 –.097
10. I involve others regarding the question of how my work reflects who I am today. .860 –.141
8. I deliberate with others about the meaning of work for me today. .757 .028
9. I wonder if this is how I wanted my professional life to turn out. .747 –.022
1. I ask myself if my work allows me to express my skills. .737 .065
4 I wonder if I am expressing the values that are important for me through my work. .704 .043
5. I ponder whether my professional development matches my aspirations. .692 .052
2. I am concerned with the question of how much I have developed professionally. .670 .164
14. I ask myself if my work is as significant for me, as I had intended it to be. .654 .104
13. I initiate get-togethers to help me get information on other employment options –.054 .810
that could suit my skills.
3. I examine other professional interests of mine through professional sites or .009 .784
consulting services.
11. I seek out information regarding opportunities in my profession. –.017 .636
12. I ask for feedback from friends and colleagues regarding other professional skills that .274 .532
I may have.
Minimum ITC (Item Total Correlation) .692 .584
Maximum ITC (Item Total Correlation) .818 .674
IC (Internal consistency) .925 .808
Note. Factor 1 (F1): SE ¼ self-exploration, factor 2 (F2): EE ¼ environment exploration.

Procedure
Participants were recruited for Study 2 in a process identical to that described in Study 1 (EFA).

Measures
Vocational exploration. Model with two latent variables: self-exploration (9 items) and environment
exploration (4 items).

Maternal exploration. Model with two latent variables: self-exploration (5 items) and environment
exploration (5 items).

Professional and demographic variables. The questionnaire included questions regarding women’s age,
marital status, and occupational information. To ensure that the sample would include only
mothers during their transition to motherhood, participants were asked if they are now mothers
for the first time.

Results
Statistical Analysis
Evaluation of items and structure validity was conducted through the item analysis, internal consis-
tency reliability, and CFA.

Item analysis. Item analysis of the two questionnaires included a description of the data, using distribu-
tion and center indices (Tables 1 and 3 present the results of the descriptive statistics).

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10 Journal of Career Development

Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness, and Kurtosis of Maternal Exploration Scale Items (Samples 1
and 2).

Sample 1 Sample 2

Item M SD Skewness Kurtosis M SD Skewness Kurtosis

1. I am concerned with the question of what 3.67 1.243 –0.683 –0.556 3.68 1.288 –.729 –0.571
it means to be a good mother.
2. I read information related to parenthood. 3.85 1.093 –0.785 –0.117
3. I ask myself what I am learning about 3.18 1.180 –0.275 –0.657 3.23 1.201 –.284 –0.782
myself as a mother.
4. I am participating in a workshop for 1.89 1.186 1.193 0.398
mothers.
5. I wonder if motherhood reflects who I 2.82 1.205 0.008 –0.925 2.73 1.239 .158 –0.994
am.
6. I share with others issues related to 3.90 1.030 –.867 0.202 4.00 .990 –.932 0.446
motherhood.
7. I ponder what models of motherhood I 3.50 1.216 –0.475 –0.727 3.48 1.203 –.457 –0.693
have seen.
8. I am looking for opportunities for social 3.05 1.307 –0.002 –1.073 3.12 1.361 –.126 –1.198
support for me as a mother.
9. I ask myself if I will be a good mother. 3.95 1.204 –1.062 0.223
10. Others help me formulate my own 2.99 1.248 0.041 –0.931 3.04 1.164 .040 –0.729
perceptions as a mother.
11. I wonder if motherhood expands my 3.09 1.294 –0.099 –1.095 3.09 1.260 –.218 –0.999
skills and personality.
12. I am trying to determine what needs 2.87 1.211 0.056 –0.934 2.81 1.227 .131 –0.960
motherhood satisfies for me.
13. I discuss with others regarding my ability 2.82 1.275 0.172 –1.163 2.87 1.278 .106 –1.180
to function as a mother.
Note. Items 2, 4, and 9 were omitted from the final scale after exploratory factor analysis.

Table 4. The Pattern Matrix of the Maternal Exploration Questionnaire, the Corrected Item-Total Correlation,
and the Factors’ a Values.
F1 F2
Item SE EE
11. I wonder if motherhood expands my skills and personality. .884 –.123
5. I wonder if motherhood reflects who I am. .758 .014
12. I am trying to determine what needs motherhood satisfies for me. .636 .015
3. I ask myself what I am learning about myself as a mother. .689 .062
1. I am concerned with the question of what it means to be a good mother. .429 .233
6. I share with others issues related to motherhood. –.107 .722
8. I am looking for opportunities for social support for me as a mother. –.016 .707
10. Others help me formulate my own perceptions as a mother. .019 .707
7. I ponder what models of motherhood I have seen. .196 .506
13. I discuss with others regarding my ability to function as a mother. .267 .454
Minimum ITC (item total correlation) .496 .518
Maximum ITC .700 .626
Internal consistency .828 .788
Note. Factor 1 (F1): SE¼ self-exploration, factor 2 (F2): EE¼ environment exploration.

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Gross-Spector and Gali Cinamon 11

Internal consistency reliability. Cronbach’s a reliability was calculated for the two instruments: Relia-
bility was .919 and .791 for the self- and environment subscales, respectively. Reliability for
overall Vocational Exploration Questionnaire was .915. Reliability was .827 and .781 for self-
and environment subscales, respectively. Reliability for overall Maternal Exploration Question-
naire was .862.

Factor validity by CFA. A CFA was conducted using EQS 6.1. Goodness-of-fit indices were examined,
diagnosis for the findings was made, and the significance of the estimates was tested for each of the
measurements and as an integrated model.

Vocational exploration model. To test the model fit, six indices were examined (Comparative Fit Index
[CFI], Incremental Fit Index [IFI], w2/degrees of freedom [df], Root Mean-Square Error of Approxi-
mation [RMSEA], Standardized Root Mean-Square Residual [SRMR], Goodness of-Fit Index [GFI]).
CFI and IFI values of 0.90 or greater represent a good fit. The recommended ratio of w2 to df should be
less than 3 (Kline, 2005). RMSEA should be between 0 and 0.05 for good fit, between 0.05 and 0.08 for
acceptable fit, and between 0.08 and 0.10 for mediocre fit, whereas values greater than 0.10 are not
acceptable (Browne & Cudeck, 1993). SRMR should be less than 0.05 for a good fit, whereas values
smaller than 0.10 may be interpreted as acceptable. GFI values of 0.95 represent a good fit, while val-
ues greater than 0.90 are interpreted as an acceptable fit (Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003).
The results showed that three indices adjusted to the recommended values (CFI ¼ 0.911, IFI ¼
0.912, and SRMR ¼ 0.053), while the other three did not (GFI ¼ 0.863, RMSEA ¼ 0.103, and w2/
df ¼ 3.36). Examination of model improvement, by adding parameters (Lagrange Multiplier Test
[LMT]), revealed significant change in the value of w2 by the association of item number 10 to Factor
2, which generated a complex factor model. Therefore, it was decided to omit this item. This change
improved the model fit: CFI ¼ 0.942, IFI ¼ 0.943, w2/df ¼ 2.60, RMSEA ¼ 0.085, SRMR ¼ 0.048,
and GFI ¼ 0.9. Examination of the estimate’s significance showed that the values of the loading coef-
ficients of each observable variable on the latent variables (.666  .816) were statistically significant at
p < .05.

Maternal exploration model. The results of the model fit indices, CFI ¼ 0.932, IFI ¼ 0.933, w2/df ¼
2.57, RMSEA ¼ 0.083, SRMR ¼ 0.058, and GFI ¼ 0.93, showed acceptable fit of the model to
the data. Examination of the estimate’s significance showed that the values of the loading coeffi-
cients of each observable variable on the latent variables (.594  .782) were statistically signif-
icant at p < .05.

The integrative model. The integrative model combines vocational and maternal exploration scales
together. The results of the model-fit indices, CFI ¼ 0.928, IFI ¼ 0.929, w2/df ¼ 1.79, RMSEA ¼
0.06, SRMR ¼ 0.055, and GFI ¼ 0.871, showed acceptable fit of the model to the data. Examination
of the estimate’s significance showed that the values of the loading coefficients of each observable
variable on the latent variables were statistically significant at p < .05.

The Research Hypothesis

Research findings revealed a positive, moderate significant correlation between maternal identity
exploration and vocational identity exploration on the self-dimension (r ¼ .403, p < .05) and a weak
positive significant correlation between the areas of exploration on the environment dimension (r
¼.206, p < .05). That is, women reporting higher levels of vocational exploration tended to report
higher levels of maternal exploration as well.

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12 Journal of Career Development

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to promote our theoretical understanding regarding the exploration pro-
cess during adulthood from a broad, holistic perspective. To achieve this goal, we focused on an impor-
tant juncture in a large number of women’s career––the transition to motherhood––that is likely to
stimulate this process in two major life domains simultaneously. We developed two measurement tools
for assessing maternal and vocational exploration relating to self- and environment dimensions, by
means of two independent studies, with two groups of women during their transition to motherhood.
Since the essence of the current research and the two measures developed in its wake relate to
exploration behavior, the proposed tools may have relevance to other stages of development in which
people reflect on their work and parental roles. However, these assumptions need to be examined
through further study.
The findings of the factor analyses––exploratory and confirmatory––showed that these self- and
environment dimensions are distinct, both in the vocational domain and in the maternal domain. That
is, these findings support Flum and Kaplan’s (2006) definition of the exploration process, in that explo-
ration is an active search for information, internal or external, in a self-reflective manner. In addition,
the findings support the theoretical view that exploration is an ongoing process, rarely completed
(Flum & Blustein, 2000). The findings regarding the positive, significant correlations between the two
exploration processes support Grotevant’s (1987) model, in that, at important life junctures, explora-
tion in one domain evokes exploration in other domains. This finding is in line with previous findings
that point to the relationships between exploration processes in various life domains (Cinamon et al.,
2012; Seginer & Noyman, 2005). In Cinamon and colleagues’ (2012) study, the characteristics of the
exploration process during adulthood in Israel were examined. The findings revealed significant cor-
relations between the exploration behaviors of youth in several life domains, including work, study,
and leisure. In women’s literature, research findings have shown that in major life junctures, such
as the transition to motherhood, women construct their identity regarding various aspects and roles,
especially work and family life (Bailey, 1999; Haynes, 2008).
These findings support the holistic approach of career development. According to this approach, peo-
ple construct their identities and lifestyle through the exploration of several life domains simultaneously.
In examining the nature of exploration at this life phase, we have demonstrated that this process
involves intensive internal exploration through the evaluation of present choices in a dynamic fash-
ion. Congruent with Erikson’s (1968) theory of development, it appears that individuals during
adulthood explore their current life choices in the context of past experience and future considera-
tions. The findings regarding the vocational domain pointed to a reassessment that individuals
undertake regarding the meaning of work for them in the present, questioning whether their current
work satisfies their current needs and values, and examining the trajectory of their vocational paths
as they relate to their aspirations. With regard to the maternal domain, findings indicated a similar
process of evaluating the way motherhood enables an expression of women’s needs, skills, and
personality.
The current findings have the potential to deepen our understanding about the exploration process
mechanism and its role in adults’ decision-making process. The tools developed for this study can
facilitate examining the intensity of the exploration behavior in each dimension, the nature of the ensu-
ing decisions taken, and their subsequent satisfaction from them. Also, we can reveal the personal and
environmental factors associated with the exploration behavior in different domains and dimensions.

Practical Implications
These two instruments may facilitate a broader and more developmental perspective in career
counselling, in contrast to the traditional focus of limiting exploration to a single domain during

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Gross-Spector and Gali Cinamon 13

early adulthood. Through these instruments, it will be possible to ascertain important information
regarding the way adult female clients explore their identity in relation to the intensity of the
exploration in each domain and dimension. This will enable adapting interventions to fit the
unique pattern of the exploration process, such as highlighting a less-explored dimension. In addi-
tion, this broad approach could assist individuals to construct a personal model of identity devel-
opment which would consider the exploration process and career decision-making as actions to be
carried out concurrently in a variety of integrated roles, at different periods over the course of a
lifetime (Zikic & Hall, 2009).
Also, these measurements could serve career counselors as tools for helping their clients formulate
questions to be explored and information to be gathered prior to making career decisions. Counselors
would do well to review with their clients various means of gathering information efficiently as well as
to help them refine and analyze the collected information.

Limitations and Further Research

The participants of the present study comprise a relatively homogeneous population in terms of cul-
ture, socioeconomic status, education, and developmental life stage. Thus, it is difficult to generalize
the findings beyond this population. Also, our sample included women in a specific period of transition
to motherhood. It would be necessary to examine the suitability of the research measures to different
periods during the transition to motherhood (e.g., pregnancy) and other life transitions that require
redefinition of the self (as at the birth of another child or a child’s transition to school).
Following the understanding that the exploration process and identity construction are culture
oriented (Schwartz, Kurtines, & Montgomery, 2005), examining these measures among working
women from other cultures and levels of education, can expand our knowledge about this process.
Through further studies, it would be important to examine how these tools would reflect the way adults
in other conditions, gender, and developmental stages, explore their identity in these domains.
Finally, since an item was dropped from the vocational measurement tool in the course of the CFA,
it would be needed for a cross validation of the final structure with other samples.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

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Author Biographies
Michal Gross-Spector has done BA in psychology at Haifa University and MA and PhD in Educational Coun-
seling at Tel Aviv University. Michal entitled doctoral dissertation in ‘‘To Become a Working Mother: A Dialog
Between Identities’’ under supervisor Professor Rachel Gali Cinamon. Michal’s research interests include life-
long career development, vocational and family identity construction among women, and the construction of
identity in adolescence; teaching areas are exploration processes in adolescence and vocational training pro-
cesses in educational counseling. Michal also serves as a managing director of the ‘‘Nitzan Parents Center’’
in Rishon LeZion, Israel, an empowerment and training center for parents with learning disabilities and func-
tioning difficulties.
Rachel Gali Cinamon is a professor at Tel Aviv University, Israel, and head of the Department of Educational
Counseling and Special Education and the Career Development Lab. Her research focus on career development of
women and at risk populations, work–family relations through the life span and career interventions. Her research
group involves in several university–community partnerships that focus on career interventions in high schools
and civic organizations. She is the mother of three children, a spouse, a friend, and a long-distance runner.

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