System Physiology Midterm I Notes 1

Homeostasis:
Section 1.2 How is the Body Organized?
 The simplest structural units into which a complex multicellular organism can
be divided and still retain the functions characteristic of life are called cells
 Cell differentiation is the process of transforming an unspecialized cell into
a specialized cell
 Cells are classified into 4 major cell types:
1. Neurons
2. Connective-tissue cells
3. Epithelial cells
4. Muscle cells
 Cardiac Muscle involuntary
 Smooth Muscle Contractile
 Skeletal Muscle
voluntary

 Tissues → are a collection of one type of cell

o Ex. epithelium ⇒ epithelial tissue
 Organ → two or more types of tissue combine to form a structure
 Organ system → multiple organs that function in a united way
o Ex. urinary system, endocrine system
 Muscle Cells and Tissues
o Muscle cells are specialized to generate mechanical force
o Skeletal muscle cells are attached through other structure to bones
and produce movements of the limbs or trunk (voluntary control)
o Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart
o Smooth muscle cells surround many of the tubes in the body

Section 1.3 Body Fluid Compartments

 Collectively, the fluid present in the blood and in the spaces surrounding cells
is called extracellular fluid → fluid outside of cells
7%  Plasma → liquid portion of blood (component of extracellular fluid)
26%  Interstitial fluid → extracellular fluid surrounding tissue cells
o Interstitium → the space containing the interstitial fluid
67%  Intracellular fluid → fluid inside cells (contains different proteins important
in regulating cellular events
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 2

Figure 1-3

 Compartmentalization is achieved by barriers between the compartments

o The properties of the barriers determine which substances can move
between compartments
Section 1.4 Homeostasis: A Defining Feature of Physiology
 Homeostasis → the maintenance of a steady state
o Homeostasis is a dynamic process, not a static one
 “Internal environment” refers to internal fluid
 “Variable” refers to the solutes that can vary.
 STEADY STATES DO NOT MEAN EQUILIBRIUM
↳ steady state means that you have to supply energy to remain in that
state
∴ Homeostasis is a “steady state” and is energy dependent

Consider swings in the concentration of glucose

Figure 1-4 in the blood over the course of a day. After a
typical meal, carbohydrates in food are broken
down in the intestines into glucose molecules,
which are then absorbed across the intestinal
epithelium and released into the blood. As a
consequence, blood glucose levels rise
considerably within a short time after eating.
Clearly, such a large change in the blood level
of glucose is not consistent with the idea of a
stable or static internal environment. What is
important is that once the concentration of
glucose in the blood increases, compensatory
mechanisms restore the glucose level toward
the level it was before the mean. The
endocrine system is responsible for upholding
glucose levels.
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 3

 Homeostasis does not imply that a given physiological function or variable is

rigidly constant with respect to time, but that it fluctuates within a
predictable and often narrow range
Ex. oxygen levels in the blood do not change much over the course of
time while glucose levels can vary considerably over the course of a
day but will return to the normal levels
o “set point” → steady-state value maintained by homeostatic
control system
Section 1.6 Components of Homeostatic Control Systems
Figure 1-7

 Stimulus → detectable change in internal or external environment

 Receptor → detects the environmental change
 Afferent pathway → the signal travels between the receptor and the
integrating center
 Integrating Center → (Brain) compares the actual value of a variable
to a set point
 Efferent pathway → information going from an integrating center to
an effector (like a command directing the effector to alter
its activity_
 Effector → the component of the system whose change in activity
constitutes the overall response of the system
 Feedback systems
o Negative feedback system is an increase or decrease in the variable
being regulated bring about responses that tend to move the variable
in the direction opposite to the direction of the original change.

+
AB
-
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 4

o Positive feedback system is an initial disturbance sets off train of

events that increases the disturbance even further
 Less common than negative feedback
 Example: labor, ovulation

+
AB
+
Chapter 1 Clinical Case Study:
 64-year old fair-skinned man in good overall health
 He was gardening during a very hot, humid summer day
 After several hours in the sun, he began to feel light-headed and confused
 Earlier he had been perspiring profusely, then his sweating stopped
 He is confused and disoriented and couldn’t recall how long he had perspired
for and how long it had been since he last drank water
 His skin turned a pale-blue color
 What happened to this man that would explain his condition?
o Body temperature is a physiological function that is under homeostatic
control
o ↑ body temperature, ↓ heat production, ↑ heat loss
∴ hot humid day = ↑ body temperature
perspiration = ↑ heat loss
o Perspiration is a salty solution secreted through ducts to the surface of
the skin
o Fluid in sweat comes from the extracellular fluid compartment
∴ Extracellular fluid levels decrease
∴ Blood pressure decreases
∴ The ability of his heart to pump sufficient blood against gravity
to his brain also decreased = light-headed
o Also, sweat is more dilute than extracellular fluid because more water
than ions is secreted from sweat glands
 The total amount of water and ions in the extracellular
fluid decreases with perspiration
↳ Impacts balance of ions in the body fluid
o Skin turning pale-blue
 A decrease in blood pressure is life threatening
∴ Blood vessels in regions of the body that are not
immediately required for survival, i.e. skin, begin to
close off
↳ The amount of oxygen-rich blood flowing
to the surface of the skin decreased
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 5

Often, when one physiological variable such as body temperature is disrupted,

the compensatory responses initiated to correct that disruption cause
imbalanced in other variables → These secondary imbalances must also be
compensated for and the significance of each imbalance must be “weighted”
against the others.

Chapter 1 Test Questions:

1. Which of the following is one of the four basic cell types in the body?
a. Respiratory
b. Epithelial
c. Endocrine
d. Integumentary
e. Immune

2. Which of the following is incorrect?

a. Equilibrium requires a constant input of energy
b. Positive feedback is less common in nature than negative feedback
c. Homeostasis does not imply that a given variable is unchanging
d. Fever is an example of resetting a set point
e. Efferent pathways carry information away from the integrating center of a
reflex arc

3. In a reflex are initiated by touching a hand to a hot stove, the effector belongs to
which class of tissue?
a. Nervous
b. Connective
c. Muscle
d. Epithelial

4. In the absence of any environmental cues, a circadian rhythm is said to be

a. Entrained
b. In phase
c. Free running
d. Phase-shifted
e. No longer present

5. Most of the water in the human body is found in

a. The interstitial fluid compartment
b. The intracellular fluid compartment
c. The plasma compartment
d. The total extracellular fluid compartment
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 6

“Energy Supply for Homeostasis”:

 Disease is the lack of homeostasis
1) Carbohydrates
2) Lipids
3) Proteins
Section 2.4 Classes of Organic Molecules
 Carbohydrates
o Water-containing (hydrated) carbon atoms
o Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the form of
Cn(H2O)n
o Composed of monomers and polymers
Ex. glucose
↳ chief provider of energy for the central nervous
Glucose system (CNS). This means that the CNS is an
↓ OBLIGATE GLUCOSE CONSUMER
CO2 is a waste product acid production
↓
↙ ↘
↓ CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-
enzymatic
ATPH2O *the respiratory system is important in the buffering
pathway
process of the body (maintaining pH levels)
o Monosaccharides – simplest sugars (monomers)
CO2(H+) o Disaccharides – carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides
+ Ex. Sucrose
HEAT ↳ Disaccharides are usually cleaved because the body
can only absorb monosaccharides
Enzymes (-ase)
sucrasesucrose (glu + fru)
maltase maltose
lactaselactose Disaccharide
s
o Polysaccharides – monosaccharides linked together to form
polymers
Examples:
G—G—G—G— . . . —G • Glycogen (animals)
• Starch
• Fiber
Glycogen
Glycogenolyis

↓  The Liver holds/stores glycogen

↓  Glycogen exists in the body as a reservoir of available
↓ energy that is stored in the chemical bonds within
Glucose individual glucose monomers
↓  Hydrolysis of glycogen (occurs during fasting) leads to the
Blood release of the glucose monomers into the blood,
preventing blood glucose from decreasing to dangerously
low levels
Nervous
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 7


Lipids
o Predominantly composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms
o Linked by nonpolar covalent bonds
o Lipids are nonpolar and have very low solubility in water
o Lipids can be divided into 4 sub-classes:
1) Steroids (cholesterol, estrogen, and androgens)
2) Phospholipids
3) Fatty Acids
4) Triglycerides
o Triglycerides form when glycerol binds to 3 fatty acids
H
I o Triglycerides are synthesized in the
Triglyceride

H—C—OH + Liver (the Liver is the metabolic center)

FA1
o The process of breaking down
I
H—C—OH + triglycerides are facilitated by LIPASE
FA1 o There are 2 forms of energy sources
I  Glucose
H—C—OH +  Break down of fatty acids
Gluconeogenesis

AA (liver)
FA1
↓ I Glycerol can be turned into glucose
↓ Glycerol
H glycerol ⟶⟶⟶ glucose⟶ blood
↓
Glucose gluconeogenesis
↓ (the production of glucose
Blood from a non-carbohydrate precursor)

o Glucose sparing → during starvation, glucose produced via

gluconeogenesis is only use by CNS
 Proteins
o Composed of amino acids linked via peptide bonds
o A sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds is known as a
polypeptide
AApeptide bond
↓ + ↓ - Primary structure of a protein
①—②—③—④—⑤—⑥ (amino acid sequence)

Secondary Structure

Ex. + -
Polypeptide
①—②—③—④—⑤—⑥
⇓ bending
-
①—②+ ⑤—⑥
⧹ ⧸ Tertiary structure
③—④ (3-D shape of protein)

Quaternary structure (ex. hemoglobin)

 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 8

Chapter 2 Clinical Case Study:

 Athletic 21 yr-old African-American male in good health
 Decides to go mountain claiming
 Despite his fitness, he finds himself breathing heavily
 @ 6000ft, he begins to feel twinges of pain on left side of his upper abdomen
 @ 9000ft, the pain worsens to the point that he has to descend the mountain
 Pain does not go away after returning to ground level
 It is revealed to him that he has a disorder in his red blood cells due to an
abnormal form of hemoglobin
 What happened to this man?
o Hemoglobin is a protein with quaternary structure
 Each subunit is noncovalently bound to the other subunits
 The 3˚ structure of each subunit spatially aligns how the R-groups
interact with one another
∴ Anything that disrupts the 3˚ structure of hemoglobin
disrupts the way the subunits bond with one another
o This patient has a condition called sickle-cell trait (SCT)
 Individuals with SCT have one normal gene from one parent, and
one mutated gene from the other [carriers for sickle-cell
disease (SCD)]
 SCD is caused by the replacement of a single glutamic acid
(charged) residue with one valine (non-polar) in hemoglobin
 Valine causes multiple hemoglobin molecules to bond with
each other, forming huge polymer-like structures, thereby
deforming the red blood cells
 This happens more noticeably when the amount of oxygen
in the RBC is decreased (like in this case, the high altitude
and low atmospheric pressure)
 When RBC takes on the sicklelike shape characteristic of SCD,
they are removed from the circulation by the spleen (organ that
lies in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen)
 The spleen plays an important role in eliminating dead or
damaged RBC from circulating
 In the event of a sudden increase in sickled cells, the
spleen can become overfilled with damaged cells and
become painfully enlarged
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 9

Chapter 2 Test Questions:

1. A molecule that loses an electron to a free radical
a. Becomes more stable
b. Becomes electrically neutral
c. Becomes less reactive
d. Is permanently destroyed
e. Becomes a free radical itself

2. Of the bonding forces between atoms and molecules, which are strongest?
a. Hydrogen bonds
b. Bonds between oppositely charged ionized groups
c. Bonds between nearby nonpolar groups
d. Covalent bonds
e. Bonds between polar groups

3. The process by which monomers of organic molecules are made into larger units
a. Requires hydrolysis
b. Results in the generation of water molecules
c. Is irreversible
d. Occurs only with carbohydrates
e. Results in the production of ATP

4. Which of the following is not found in DNA?

a. Adenine
b. Uracil
c. Cytosine
d. Deoxyribose
e. Both b and d

5. Which of the following statements is incorrect about disulfide bonds?

a. They form between two cysteine amino acids
b. They are noncovalent
c. They contribute to the tertiary structure of some proteins
d. They contribute to the quaternary structure of some proteins
e. They involve the loss of two hydrogen atoms
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 10

Protein-Binding sites:
Section 3C.1 Binding Site Characteristics
 A ligand is any molecule or ion that is bound to a protein by one of the
following forces
(1) electrical attractions between oppositely charged ionic or polarized
groups on the ligand and the protein
(2) weaker attractions dues to hydrophobic foces between nonpolar
regions on the two molecules
 The region of a protein to which a ligand binds — binding site
o A protein may contain several binding sites, each specific for a
particular ligand, or it may have multiple binding sites for the same
ligand
↳ The binding of a ligand to a protein changes the conformation
of the protein
∴ protein’s function is activated/inhibited
 Chemical Specificity
o The force of electrical attraction between oppositely charged regions on
a protein and a ligand decreases exponentially as the distance between
them increases
∴ For a ligand to bind to a protein, the ligand must be close to the
protein surface
o Chemical specificity—the ability of a protein-binding site to bind
specific ligands

Figure 3-26

Ligand Binding Protein

1) Shape of protein & ligand
2) Charge of protein & ligand
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 11
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 12

o Proteins with different amino acid sequences have different shapes

∴ Differently shaped binding sites with own chemical specificity
o Although some binding sites have a chemical specificity that allows
them to bind only one type of ligand, other may be less specific and can
bind a number
Figure 3-28

Non-specific Specific
↘ ↙ Agonist: a compound that works
similarly and better than its
natural compound counterpart

Antagonist: molecule that competes

with another for a receptor
and binds to the receptor
but does not trigger the
cell’s response (blockers)

Example:
Prednisone (derived from cortisol)
 Anti-inflammatory drug
 Agonist
o More potent than cortisol
(it serves as a better ligand)
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 13

 Affinity
o Affinity—the strength of ligand-protein binding
 The affinity of a binding site for a ligand determines how likely a
bound ligand will leave the protein surface and return to its
unbound state
o Binding sites that tightly bind a ligand—high affinity binding sites
o Binding sites that weakly bind the ligand—low affinity binding sites

* Chemical specificity vs. Affinity

 Chemical specificity depends only on the shape of the binding site
 Affinity depends on the strength of the attraction between the
protein and the ligand
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 14

Figure 3-29

A ligand may have a negative charge that would bind

strongly to a site containing a positively charged amino
acid side chain but would bind less strongly to a site that
has the same shape, but no positive charge
o The more closely the ligand shape matches the binding site
shape, the greater the affinity
∴ Shape can influence affinity as well as chemical
specificity
Proteins with a HIGH AFFINITY for a ligand are more efficient
*reduction of side effects
Affinity plays an important role in medicine—when a
protein has a high-affinity binding site for a ligand,
very little ligand is required to bind to the protein
∴ reducing the likelihood of unwanted side effects

o In figure 3-29, with high concentrations of the ligand, protein 1

will be saturated and the ligand can begin binding with protein
2 with a lower affinity
 Saturated — refers to the fraction of total binding sites that are
occupied at any given time
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 15

Chapter 3 Test Question:

1. Which cell structure contains the enzymes required for oxidative phosphorylation?
a. Inner membrane of mitochondria
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
d. Outer membrane of mitochondria
e. Matrix of mitochondria

2. Which sequence regarding protein synthesis is correct?

a. Translation → transcription → mRNA synthesis
b. Transcription → splicing of primary RNA transcript → translocation of mRNA →
translation
c. Splicing of introns → transcription → mRNA synthesis translation
d. Transcription → translation → mRNA production
e. tRNA enters nucleus → transcription begins → RNA moves to cytoplasm →
protein synthesis begins

3. Which is incorrect regarding ligand-protein binding reactions?

a. Allosteric modulation of the protein’s binding site occurs directly at the binding
site itself
b. Allosteric modulation can alter the affinity of the protein for the ligand
c. Phosphorylation of the protein is an example of covalent modulation
d. If two ligands can bind to the binding site of the protein, competition for binding
will occur
e. Binding reactions are either electrical or hydrophobic in nature

4. According to the law of mass action, in the following reaction,

a. Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide will slow down the forward (left-
to-right) reaction
b. Increasing the concentration of carbonic acid will accelerate the rate of the
revers (right-to-left) reaction
c. Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide will speed up the reverse
reaction
d. Decreasing the concentration of carbonic acid will slow down the forward
reaction
e. No enzyme is required for either the forward or reverse reaction

5. Which of the following can be converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis in the liver?

a. Fatty acid
b. Triglyceride
c. Glycerol
d. ATP
e. Glycogen

6. Which of the following is true?

a. Triglycerides have the least energy content per gram of the three major energy
sources in the body
b. Fat catabolism generates new triglycerides for storage in adipose tissue
c. By mass, the total-body content of carbohydrates exceeds that of total
triglycerides
d. Catabolism of fatty acids occurs in two-carbon steps
e. Triglycerides are the major lipids found in plasma membranes
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 16

Movement of Molecules Across Cell Membranes:

 Idiosyncratic—Unique characteristics of a person
o In medicine, you don’t know how people will respond to
medication (each person possesses different responses to
medicine)
Section 4.1 Diffusion:
 Simple diffusion — movement of solutes down a concentration
gradient
without a transporter or ATP hydrolysis
 Flux — the amount of material crossing a surface in a unity of time
 Net Flux—the overall flux; the net amount of material transferred from
one
location to another
 When the net flux = 0, the system has reached diffusion
equilibrium;
(there are no further changes in concentrations)
Figure 4-3

←Semi-permeable membrane

* The net flux always proceeds from regions of higher

concentration to regions of lower concentration*
 Diffusion rate vs. distance
o Diffusion times increase in proportion to the square of the
distance over which the molecules diffuse
 Diffusion through membranes
o Membranes act as barriers that considerably slow the diffusion
of molecules across their surfaces
o The major factor limiting diffusion across a membrane is the
hydrophobic interior of its lipid bilayer
 Diffusion through the lipid bilayer
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 17

o Nonpolar molecules diffuse much more rapidly across

plasma membranes because they can dissolve in the nonpolar
regions of the membrane occupied by the fatty acid chains of
phospholipids
 Diffusion of ions through protein channels
o Ions such as Na+, K+, Cl-, and Ca2+ diffuse across plasma
membranes using protein components of the membrane
o Channels — proteins that form a hole in the membrane
 Channels can show selectivity for the type of ion or ions
that can diffuse through them
 Selectivity is based on…
(1) Channel diameter
(2) The charged and polar surfaces of the protein
subunits that form the channel walls and
electrically attract or repel the ions
(3) The number of water molecules associated with
the ions
 Role of electrical forces on ion movement
o Membrane potential — voltage difference between inside and
outside the cell (measured in millivolts,
mV)
o The membrane potential provides an electrical force that
influences the movement of ions across the membrane
o Electrochemical gradient — establishes the direction and
magnitude of ion fluxes across
membranes depending on both the
concentration difference and the
electrical difference (the membrane
potential)
 Regulation of diffusion through ion channels
o Ion channels can exist in an open or closed state and changes in
a membrane’s permeability to ions can occur rapidly as these
channels open or close
o Channel gating — the process of opening and closing ion
channels
o After an extended amount of time, at any given electrochemical
gradient, the total # of ions that pass through a channel
depends on how often the channel opens and how long it stays
open
o Two types of Ion Channels:
1) Ungated channels (aka. “leak” channels) → open all the
time
2) Gated channels
 Ligand gated → ion channels that open/close
when bound to a ligand
 Mechanically gated → physically deforming the
membrane can affect the
ex. stomach stretching = full conformation of some
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 18

channel proteins (“stretch”

receptor)
 Voltage gated → changes in charges (in membrane
potential) activate/deactivate
channels
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 19

Section 4.2 Mediated-Transport Systems

 Transporters — integral membrane protein that mediates passage of
molecule through membrane
 Mediated transport — movement of molecules across membrane by
binding to protein transporter
o Requires conformational change of the transport protein
o The transported solute must bind to specific site on a transporter
which then elicits a conformational change in the transporter
allowing the solute to leave the binding site
FF

 Facilitated diffusion — movement of molecules from a higher to

lower
concentration across a membrane using
transporter proteins
o Does NOT require ATP → no active transport
o Net flux of a molecule across a membrane from higher to lower
concentrations
o Most important facilitated diffusion system in body – transport
of glucose across plasma membranes
 Glucose Transporter (GLUTs)
 Intracellular glucose concentrations remain lower than the
extracellular concentration → continuous net flux of
glucose into the cells

Simple diffusion

2 × more GLUTs
Flux into the cell

Facilitated diffusion

[Glucose]extracellular
 Insulin increases the amount of GLUTs in the cell
 The brain is insulin independent
↳ Brain cells constantly contain GLUTs in membrane for
glucose transport
 Active Transport — moving solutes against its concentration gradient
(requires hydrolysis of ATP)
o OPPOSITE OF FACILITATED TRANSPORT
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 20

o Two means of coupling an energy flow to transporters:

(1) The direct use of ATP in primary active transport
(2) The use of an electrochemical gradient across a
membrane to drive the process in secondary active
transport
Ion pump
Active TransportNa+
(ATP REQUIRED) Secondary Active Transport:
ATP → ADP + Pi 2 compounds are transported
simultaneously. 1 compound is transported
down its concentration gradient (ion) and
1 compound is transported against its
concentration gradient (cotransporter
molecule)
Na+ Na+
Secondary active
Organic Organic transport process
compound compound (NO ATP REQUIRED)
D D
o Secondary active transport
 Transporters that mediate secondary active transport have
2 binding sites: one for an ion, and another for the
cotransported molecule
Section 4.3 Osmosis:
 Water is a polar molecule that diffuses across the plasma membranes
of most cells very rapidly via aquaporins
 Osmosis — net diffusion of water across a membrane
 The degree to which the water concentration is decreased by the
addition of solute depends upon the number of particles (molecules or
ions) of solute in solution (the solute in solution)
 Osmolarity — the total solute concentration of a solution
o One osmol is equal to 1 mol of solute particles
o The higher the osmolarity, the lower the water concentration
Ex. 150 mM NaCl 150 mM Na+

150 mM Cl-
 Extracellular Osmolarity and Cell Volume
o Nonpenetrating solutes — Substances that cannot cross the
Osmolarity ↗
plasma membrane
300 mOsm/L
o Tonicity — only refers to nonpenetrating solutes
 Isotonic solutions have the same concentration of
nonpenetrating solutes as normal extracellular fluid
 Hypotonic solutions have a nonpenetrating solute
concentration lower than that found in cells (water moves
into the cells via osmosis causing cells to swell)
 Hypertonic solutions have a nonpenetrating solute
concentration higher than that found in cells (water moves
out of the cell via osmosis causing cells to shrink)
 System Physiology Midterm I Notes 21


The concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in a solution
determines its tonicity—isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic
Figure 4-19

o Osmolarity of a solution depends on the normal extracellular fluid

without regard to whether the solute is penetrating or
nonpenetrating
 Isoosmotic — solutions with the same total solute
concentration as extracellular fluid
 Hypoosmotic — solution with less solutes
 Hyperosmotic — solutions with more solutes
300 mOsm 300 mOsm
Not hypertonic b/c of + +
penetrating solute 50mM urea 25mM
↑
penetrating 350 mOSM 325 mOSM
solute 300 mOsm
+
25mOsm
300 mOsm

cell cell
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 22

Chapter 4 Clinical Case Study:

 22 year-old, 102 pound woman
 Competes in first marathon
 Consumes 1.2 liters of water in anticipation of the water loss during
marathon
 The day of the race is an unseasonably cool day in April
 As she ran, she continuously consumes water at each water station
 After 3 hours at the 20-mile mark, she begins to feel fatigued
 Her leg muscles began cramping and she started to feel slightly sick to
her stomach
 Thinking she was losing too much fluid, she stops to drink more water
 After 2 more miles, she becomes nauseated and drinks more water
 A mile later, she feels confused and disoriented. She decides to drink
another bottle of water even though she did not feel thirsty
 20 minutes later, the woman collapses, loses consciousness and was
taken to the hospital
 She was diagnosed with exercise-associated hyponatremia a
condition in which the concentration of Na+ in the blood decreases to
dangerously low levels
o Perspiration is a dilute solution of several ions, particularly Na +
o The result of excessive sweating is that the total amount of
water and Na+ in the body becomes depleted
o The patient was exercising rigorously, but was not losing a lot of
fluid because of the unanticipated cool weather
o She was not aware that drinking pure water in such quantities
would significantly dilute her body fluids
 As the concentration of Na+ in her extracellular fluid
decreased, the electrochemical gradient for Na+ across her
cells—including her muscle and brain cells—also
decreased as a consequence
 Water moved into her cells via osmosis causing them to
swell. Many types of cells, including brain cells, are
seriously damaged when they swell due to water influx.
 Swelling of cells causes pressure. Thus, the combination
of water influx, increased pressure, and changes in the
electrochemical gradient for Na+ contributed to the mental
disturbances and subsequent loss of consciousness in our
patient
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 23

Chapter 4 Test Questions:

1. Which properties are characteristics of ion channels?
a. They are usually lipids
b. They exist on one side of the plasma membrane, usually the intracellular
side
c. They can open and close depending on the presence of any of three types
of “gates”
d. They permit movement of ions against concentration gradients
e. They mediated facilitated diffusion
2. Which of the following does not directly or indirectly require an energy source?
a. Primary active transport
b. Operation of the Na+/K+ -ATPase pump
c. The mechanism used by cells to produce a calcium ion gradient across the
plasma membrane
d. Facilitated transport of glucose across a plasma membrane
e. Secondary active transport
3. If a small amount of urea were added to an isosmotic saline solution containing
cells, what would be the result?
a. The cells would shrink and remain that way
b. The cells would first shrink but then be restored to normal volume after a
brief period of time
c. The cells would swell and remain that way
d. The cells would first swell but then be restored to normal volume after a
brief period of time
e. The urea would have no effect, even transiently
4. Which is (are) true of epithelial cells?
a. They can only move uncharged molecules across their surfaces
b. They may have segregated functions on apical (luminal) and basolateral
surfaces
c. They cannot form tight junctions
d. They depend upon the activity of Na+/K+ -ATPase pumps for much of their
transport functions
e. Both b and c are correct
5. Which is incorrect?
a. Diffusion of a solute through a membrane is considerably quicker than
diffusion of the same solute through a water layer of equal thickness
b. A single ion, such as K+, can diffuse through more than one type of
channel
c. Lipid-soluble solutes diffuse more readily through the phospholipid bilayer
of a plasma membrane at any given time
d. The rate of facilitated diffusion of a solute is limited by the number of
transporters in the membrane at any given time
e. A common example of cotransport is that of an ion and an organic
molecule
6. In considering diffusion of ions through an ion channel, which driving force(s)
must be considered?
a. The ion concentration gradient
b. The electrical gradient
c. Osmosis
d. Facilitated diffusion
e. Both a and b
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 24

Neuronal Signaling and the Structure of the Nervous System:

Section 6B.1 Basic Principles of Electricity
 Electrical potential — the potential for separated electrical charges
of
opposite signs to do work if they are allowed to
come together
 Current — the movement of electrical charge
 Resistance — the hindrance to electrical charge movement
Section 6B.2 The Resting Membrane Potential
 All cells under resting conditions have a potential difference across
their plasma membranes, with the inside of the cell negatively charged
with respect to the outside — resting membrane potential (RMP)
 The resting membrane potential is -70mV (inside relative to outside)
 The resting membrane potential exists because of a tiny excess of
negative ions inside the cell and an excess of positive ions outside
o Note that the Na+ and Cl- concentrations are lower inside the cell
than outside, and that the K+ concentration is greater inside the cell
Table 6- Distribution of Major Mobile Ions Across the
2 Plasma Membrane of a Typical Nerve Cell
Concentration (mmol/L)
Ion Extracellular Intracellular
Na+ 145 15
Cl- 100 7
K+ 5 150

 The concentration differences for Na+ and K+ are established by the

action of the sodium-potassium ion pump (Na+/K+ -ATPase) that pumps
Na+ out of the cell and K+ into it

 The magnitude of the resting membrane potential depends on 2

factors:
(1) Differences in specific ion concentrations in the intracellular
and extracellular fluids
(2) Difference in membrane permeabilities to the different ions
+
Na+ ++- - Ca2
+ - + +-
- - + + Imbalance of charges Form of
+ - (- on inside, + on outside)potential energy
-70mV inside with respect to -
-
outside of cell -70mV + -+
- +
+ - Ion channels open
- - + K+
Cl- + - -
+ ++

 Resting membrane potential → unstimulated cell

+ Ca2+
Kinetic energy
Na+
-
Cl-
K+
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 25

Figure 6-10
 In Figure 6-10, only K+ channels are present
(a) Initially, compartment 1 contains 0.15 M KCl, and no
ion movement occurs because channels are closed
(no movement because the two compartments
contain equal numbers of positive and negative ions)
(b) When the K+ channels are opened, K+ will diffuse
down its concentration gradient from compartment 2
to compartment 1
(c) After a few K+ ions have moved into compartment 1,
that compartment will have an excess of positive
charge, leaving behind an excess of negative charge
in compartment 2
(d) As compartment 1 becomes increasingly positive and
compartment 2 increasingly negative, the membrane
potential difference begins to influence the movement
of the potassium ions. The negative charge of
compartment 2 tends to attract them back into their
original compartment and the positive charge of
compartment 1 tends to repel them

 Another major factor that causes net movement of ions across a

membrane: an electrical potential
 Equilibrium potential — voltage gradient across a membrane that is
equal
in force but opposite in direction to
concentration force affecting a given ion species
o At equilibrium potential for an ion, there is no net movement of
the ion because the opposing fluxes are equal, and the potential
will undergo no further change
o The larger the concentration gradient, the larger the equilibrium
potential because a larger, electrically driven movement of ions
will be required to balance the movement due to the
concentration difference
o Thus, the equilibrium potential for one species can be different in
magnitude and direction from those for other ion species,
depending on the concentration gradients between the
intracellular and extracellular compartments for each ion
 You can use the Nernst equation to calculate the equilibrium
potential for a specific ion
o The Nernst equation describes the equilibrium potential for any
ion species – the electrical potential necessary to balance a
given ionic concentration gradient across a membrane so that
the net flux of the ion is zero
Where,
Eion = equilibrium potential for a particular ion (in mV)
C out
61
Eion= log
Z ( )
C in
Cin = intracellular concentration of the ion
Cout = extracellular concentration of the ion
Z = the valence of the ion
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 26

61 145
E Na =
+1
log
15( )
=+60 mV At these typical concentration, Na+ flux
through open channels will tend to bring
the membrane potential toward +60mV,
61 5
E K = log
+1 ( )
150
=−90 mV whereas K+ flux will bring it toward -90mV

-70mV K -70mV Na
+ +

150 mM K+ 15 mM Na+
5mM 145mM
 Resting membrane potential (RMP) requires ATPases to create ion
concentration gradient (using leaks)
 For a given concentration gradient, the greater the membrane
permeability to an ion species, the greater the contribution that ion
species will make to the membrane ✻
 Given the concentration gradients and relative membrane
permeabilities (Pion) for Na+, K+, and Cl-, the potential of a membrane
(Vm) can be calculated using the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK)
equation:
Pk [ K out ]+P Na[ Naout ]+PCl [Cl in ]
V m=61 log
( Pk [ K in ]+P Na [ Nain ]+PCl [ Cl out ] )
)(5)+(0. 4 )(145 )+(0 . 45 )(7)
V m=61 log ( (1(1)(150)+(0. 4 )(15 )+(0 . 45 )(100) )
=−70 mV

✻ K+ ions have by far the highest permeability, which explains why

a typical neuron’s resting membrane potential is much closer to
the equilibrium potential for K+ than for Na+
 The resting potential is generated across the plasma membrane largely
because of the movement of K+ out of the cell down its concentration
gradient through open K+ channels (called leak K+ channels), so that
the inside of the cell becomes negative with respect to the outside
o Even though K+ influx has more impact on the RMP than does
Na+ flux, the RMP is not equal to the K+ equilibrium potential
because a small number of Na+ channels are open in the resting
state
↳ Some Na+ ions continually move into the cell, canceling the
effect of an equivalent number of K+ ions simultaneously
moving out
∴ Ion channels allow net movement of Na+ into the cell and K+ out of the
cell
 The Na+/K+ -ATPase pump not only maintains the concentration gradients
for these ions but also helps establish the membrane potential more
directly
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 27

o The Na+/K+ -ATPase move 3 Na+ ions out of the cell for every 2 K+
ions they bring in → this unequal transport of positive ions
makes the
inside of the cell more negative
✳ Na+/K+ -ATPase pump exactly balances rate at which ions leak through open channels
✳
Section 6B.3 Graded Potentials and Action Potentials
 Two forms of signaling:
(1) Graded potentials
 Graded potentials are important in signaling over short
distance
(2) Action potentials
 Action potentials are the long distance signals of
neuronal and muscle membranes
 3 terms used to describe the direction of changes in the membrane
potential relative to the resting potential are depolarize, repolarize,
and hyperpolarize
 The resting membrane potential, at -70 mV, is polarized
 The membrane is depolarized when its potential becomes less
negative (closer to 0) than the resting level
o Overshoot refers to a reversal of the membrane potential
polarity (when the inside of a cell becomes positive relative to
the outside)
 Repolarizing — when a membrane potential that has been
depolarized
returns toward the resting value
 The membrane is hyperpolarized when the potential is more
negative than the resting level

Depolarization (“gas
pedal”) Threshold potential (-55mV)
0 mV Activated cell

-55 mV

Hyperpolarized (“brake”)

Time
-70 mV
 The changes in membrane potential that
the neuron uses as signals occur because of changes in the
permeability of the cell membrane to ions
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 28

↳ some channels in the membrane are gated

(opened or closed by mechanical, electrical, or chemical
stimuli)

 The greater movement of ions down their electrochemical gradient

alters the membrane potential so that it is either depolarized or
hyperpolarized relative to the resting state.
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 29
 Graded potentials
o They are called graded potentials simply because the magnitude
of the potential change can vary (is “graded”)
o Whenever a graded potential occurs, charge flows between the
place of origin of this potential and adjacent regions of the
plasma membrane, which are still at the resting potential
o Depending upon the initiating event, grading potentials can
occur in either a depolarizing or a hyperpolarizing direction and
its magnitude is related to the magnitude of the initiating event
 With the movement of ions inside and outside the cell,
charge is lost across the membrane because the
membrane is permeable to ions through open membrane
channels
∴ The change in membrane potential decreases as
the distance increases from the initials site of the
potential change (decremental)

o Because the electrical signal decreases with distance, graded

potentials can function as signals only over very short distances
 However, if additional stimuli occur before the graded
potential has died away, these can be added to the
depolarization from the first stimulus — summation
o Graded potentials are the only means of communication used by
some neurons, whereas in other cells, graded potentials play an
important role in the initiation of signaling over longer distances

 Action Potentials
o Action potentials, unlike graded potentials, are large alterations
in the membrane potential
o Action potentials are rapid and may repeat frequencies of
several hundred per second
o Only excitable membranes (i.e. neurons, muscle cells, some
endocrine, immune, and reproductive cells) are capable of
conducting action potentials whereas all cells are capable of
conducting graded potentials
o The propagation of action potentials down the axon is the
mechanism the nervous system uses to communicate over long
distances
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 30
o Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
 Ligand-gated channels – open in response to the
Initial stimulus binding of
signaling molecules
 Mechanically-gated channels – open in response to
physical
deformation (stretching) of
the plasma membranes
Action potential  Voltage-gated channels give a membrane the ability to
undergo action potentials

 Na+ and K+ voltage-gated channels both have sequences

Similarities of charged amino acid residues in their structure making
between Na+ and the channels reversibly change shape in response to
K+ voltage-gated changed in membrane potential (conformational change)
channels
↳ When the membrane at a negative potential
(i.e. RMP), both types of channels tend to close,
whereas membrane depolarization tends to open
them
 2 Key differences between Na+ and K+ voltage-gated
Differences channels
between Na+ and
K+ voltage-gated (1) Na+ channels are much faster to respond to changes
channels in membrane voltage
 When an area of the membrane is suddenly
depolarized, local Na+ channels open before
the K+ channels do, and if the membrane is
then repolarized, the K+ channels are slower to
close

(2) Na+ channels have an inactivation gate

 Inactivation gate (“ball and chain”) limits the
flux of Na+ ions by blocking the channel shortly
after depolarization opens it
 When the membrane repolarizes, the channel
closes, forcing the inactivation gate back out of
the pore and allowing the channel to return to
the closed state with no Na+ flux occurring

o Action Potential Mechanism

 Membrane potential depends upon the concentration
gradients and membrane permeabilities of different ions,
particularly Na+ and K+
 During an action potential, transient changes in
membrane permeability allow Na+ and K+ ions to move
down their electrochemical gradients
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 31

Step 1: The RMP is close to the K+ equilibrium potential because there are more open K+
channels than Na+ channels (refers to leak channels). An action potential begins
with a depolarizing stimulus (i.e. when a neurotransmitter binds to a specific ion
channel and allows Na+ to enter the cell). This initial depolarization stimulates the
opening of some voltage-gated Na+ channels, and further entry of Na+ through
those channels adds to the local membrane depolarization.
Step 2: Membrane reaches a critical threshold potential
Step 3: Depolarization becomes a positive feedback loop. Na+ entry causes
depolarization, which opens more voltage-gated Na+ channels, which causes more
depolarization, and so on. The membrane potential overshoots so that the
membrane actually becomes positive on the inside and negative on the outside. In
this phase, the membrane approaches, but does not quite reach the Na+
equilibrium potential (+60mV).
Step 4: As the membrane potential approaches its peak value, the Na + permeability
abruptly declines as inactivation gates break the cycle of positive feedback by
blocking the open Na+ channels.
Step 5: The depolarized state of the membrane has begun to open the relatively sluggish
voltage-gated K+ channels, and the resulting elevated K+ flux out of the cell rapidly
repolarizes the membrane toward its resting value.
Step 6: The return of the membrane to a negative potential causes voltage-gated Na +
channels to go from their inactivated state back to the closed state (without
opening) and K+ channels to also return to the closed state. Because voltage-gated
K+ channels close relatively slowly, immediately after an action potential, there is a
period when K+ permeability remains above resting levels and the membrane is
transiently hyperpolarized toward the K+ equilibrium potential —
afterhyperpolarization.
Step 7: Once the voltage-gated K+ channels finally close, the TMP is restored. Unlike
voltage-gated Na+ channels that operate in a positive feedback mode at the
beginning of an action potential, voltage-gated K+ channels bring the action
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 32
potential to an end and induce their own closing through a negative feedback
process.
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 33

 Cellular accumulation of Na+ and loss of K+ are prevented

by the continuous action of the membrane Na+/K+ –ATPase
pumps
 Action potentials occur only when the initial stimuls plus
the current through the Na+ channels it opens are
sufficient to elevate the membrane potential beyond the
threshold potential
 Theshold stimuli → stimuli strong enough to
depolarize
Membrane
✳ If RMP of a neuron is -70 mV, threshold potential is -55 mV
✳
 Subthreshold potentials – weak depolarization
that do
not surpass threshold
 Subthreshold stimuli – stimuli for subthreshold
potentials
 Once threshold is reached, membrane events are no
longer dependent upon stimulus strength → Rather, the
depolarization generates an action potential because the
positive feedback cycle is operating
 Action potentials either occur maximally, or they do
not occur at all – all-or-none

i.e. Firing a gun → The magnitude of the explosion and the velocity at
which the bullet leaves the gun do not depend on how
hard the trigger is squeezed. Either the trigger is pulled
hard enough to fire the gun, or it is not; the gun cannot
be fired halfway

 Because the amplitude of a single action potential does

not vary in proportion to the amplitude of the stimulus, an
action potential cannot convey information about the
magnitude of the stimulus that initiated it
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 34

↳ you can do this based upon the number and

patterns of action potentials transmitted per unit of
time (i.e. their frequency) and not upon their
magnitu
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 35

o Refractory Periods
 During the action potential, a second stimulus, no matter
how strong, will not produce a second action potential –
absolute refractory period
 Occurs during the period when the voltage-gated
Na+ channels are either already open or have
proceeded to the inactivated state during the first
action potential
 The inactivation gate that has blocked these
channels must be removed by repolarizing the
membrane and closing the pore before the channels
can reopen to the second stimulus
 Following the absolute refractory period, there is an
interval during which a second action potential can be
produced, but only if the stimulus strength is considerably
greater than usual – relative refractory period
 Coincides roughly with the period of
afterhyperpolarization
 During RRP, some but not all of the voltage-gated Na+
channels have returned to a resting state and some of
the K+ channels that repolarized the membrane are still
open
↳ From this relative refractory state, it is possible
for a new stimulus to depolarize the membrane
above the threshold potential, but ONLY if the
stimulus is large in magnitude or outlasts the
RRP

* only a strong signal can make a neuron Absolute refractory period

have an action potential during relative
refractory period

* frequency of = strength of stimulus

action potential

*Importance of Refractory Periods

(1) directionality
(2) encode magnitude Relative refractory period

o Action Potential propagation

 The action potential can only travel the length of a neuron if
each point along the membrane is depolarized to its
threshold potential as the action potential moves down the
axon
 Like graded potentials, the membrane is depolarized at
each point along the way with respect to the adjacent
portions of the membrane, which are still at the resting
membrane potential
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 36

↳ The difference between the potentials causes current

to flow, and this local current depolarizes the
adjacent membrane where it causes the voltage-
gated Na+ channels located there to open
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 37

 The New action potential produces local currents of its own

that depolarize the region adjacent to it producing yet
another action potential at the next site, and so on, to
cause action potential propagation along the length of
membrane
∴ There is a sequential opening and closing of Na+ and
K+
channels along the membrane
 The action potential does not move, but “sets off” a new
action potential in the region of the axon just ahead of it.
Because each action potential depends on the positive
feedback cycle of a new group of Na+ channels where the
action potential is occurring, the action potential arriving
at the end of the membrane is identical in form to the
initial one

 Because a membrane area that has just undergone an

action potential is refractory and cannot immediately
undergo another, the only direction of action potential
propagation is away from a region of membrane that has
been recently activated

i.e. lighting a trail of gunpowder → the fire can only spread in the forward
direction where the gunpowder is fresh, and not
backward where the gunpowder has already
burned
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 38

o Myelin increases rate of propagation

 Myelin is an insulator that makes it more difficult for charge
to flow between intracellular and extracellular fluid
compartments
 There is less ”leakage” of charge across the myelin,
a local current can spread farther along an axon
✳ Action potentials occur only at the nodes of Ranvier
✳
 At the nodes of Ranvier, the myelin coating is interrupted
and the concentration of voltage-gated Na+ channels is
high
∴ Action potentials appear to ”jump” from one node to
the next as they propagate along a myelinated fiber
– saltatory conduction
 Propagation via saltatory conduction is faster than
propagation in nonmyelinated fibers because less charge
leaks out through the myelin-covered sections of the
membrane → more charge arrives at node adjacent to active
node and an action potential is generated there sooner than
if the nonmyelinated
 Also, because ions cross the membrane only at the nodes
of Ranvier, the membrane pumps need to restore fewer
ions (metabolically efficient)
✳ Myelin adds speed, reduces metabolic cost, and saves room
in the nervous system because the axons can be thinner ✳

++ Myelin Sheath
Nodes ↓ (glia cell) *Myelin is a term for glia cells
of + wrapped around axon
Ranvier +
↓
++
myelinated
↓ axon
o Glia Cells → non-neuronal cells (act like glue)
 Metabolic functions
 Scavenge neurotransmitters
 Immune function [astrocyte] (forming blood brain barrier)
↳ Protective mechanisms
selective for solute in
the interstitial fluid
 Type of Glia cell (Myelin)
o CNS → Oligodendrocyte
o PNS → Scwann cell
 Thyroid hormone (T3)
o Critical in fetal development to lay down myelin
o Cretinism/Congenital hypothyroidism
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 39

 Condition where myelin is not properly laid

 Demyelination — multiple sclerosis (“autoimmune

disease”)
o T-cell enter into the Blood Brain Barrier
o “recognizes” myelin as foreign and attacks the
myelin destroying the oligodendrocytes
 Gullain-Barre — autoimmune disease
Section 6A.1 Structure and Maintenance of Neurons
 Central nervous system (CNS) → brain and spinal cord
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) → nerves that connect the brain
or spinal
cord with the body’s muscles, glands,
and sense organs
 Neuron — individual nerve cell
(nerve → a collection of processes dealing with neurons

Dendrites = Input
Electrical Axon = transmission
information
flows Axon terminals = Output

Synapse → the terminal side of the neuron

that interacts with the input of another
neuron

Presynaptic
←
neurotransmitters

Synaptic
cleft
←
Neurotransmitter
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 40
Postsynaptic

 Synapse — the anatomically specialized junction between two

neurons
where one neuron alters the electrical chemical activity of
another

o Afferent Signal (leave PNS → arrive CNS)

o Efferent Signal (leave CNS → arrive PNS)

Section 6C.2: Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release

 A key feature of neuron terminals is that in addition to the Na and K
channels found elsewhere in the neuron, they also possess voltage-
gated Ca channels,
 Depolarization during the action potentials A key feature of neuron
terminals is that in addition to the Na+ and K+ channels found
elsewhere in the neuron, they also possess voltage-gated Ca 2+
channels,
o Depolarization during the action potential opens these Ca2+
channels, and because the electrochemical gradient favors Ca2+
influx, Ca2+ flows into the axon terminal

Section 6C.3 Activation of the Postsynaptic Cell

 Once neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic axon
terminal, they diffuse across the cleft
o A fraction of these molecules bind to receptors on the plasma
membrane of the postsynaptic cell
o Ionotropic receptors — activated receptor is an ion channel
o Metabotropic receptors — receptors that act indirectly on
separate
ion channels through a secondary
messenger
o The result of the binding of neurotransmitter to receptor is the
opening or closing of specific ion channels in the postsynaptic
plasma membrane, which eventually leads to functional changes
in that neuron (ligand-gated channels controlled by receptors)
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 41

 Unbound neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic cleft when

they (1) are actively transported back into the presynaptic axon
terminal (reuptake), in some cases, into nearby glial cells; (2) diffuse
away from the receptor site; or (3) enzymatically transformed into
inactive substances
 Excitatory Chemical Synapses
o At an excitatory synapse, the postsynaptic response to the
neurotransmitter is a depolarization, bringing the membrane
potential closer to threshold
 The usual effect of the activated receptor on the
postsynaptic membrane at such synapses is to open
nonselective channels that are permeable to Na +, K+, and
other small positively charged ions
o When the net movement of positive ions is into the postsynaptic
cell, causing depolarization, this change is called an excitatory
postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
 The EPSP is a graded potential that spreads decrementally
way from the synapse by local current. Its only function is to
bring the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron
closer to the threshold

 Threshold Inhibitory
Chemical Synapses
o At inhibitory synapses, the potential change in the postsynaptic
neuron is generally a hyperpolarizing graded potential called an
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
 Activation of an inhibitory synapse lessens the likelihood
that the postsynaptic cell will depolarize to threshold and
generate an action potential
 At an inhibitory synapse, the activated receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane open Cl- or K+ channels

-70 mV

Threshold

*The membrane of a large area of the cell becomes slightly depolarized during
activation of an excitatory synapse and slightly hyperpolarized or stabilized during
activation of an inhibitory synapse (inputs from more than one synapse can result
in summation of the synaptic potentials, which may trigger an action potential)*
 -70 mV

System Physiology Midterm I Notes 42

Chapter 6 Test Questions:

1. Which best describes an afferent neuron?
a. The cell body is in the central nervous system and the peripheral axon
terminal is in the skin
b. The cell body is in the dorsal root ganglion and the central axon
terminal is in the spinal cord
c. The cell body is in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and the axon
ends on skeletal muscle
d. The dendrites are in the peripheral nervous system and the axon
terminal is in the dorsal root
e. All parts of the cell are within the central nervous system
2. Which incorrectly pairs a glial cell type with an associated function?
a. Astrocytes; formation of the blood-brain barrier
b. Microglia; performance of immune function in the central nervous
system
c. Oligodendrocytes; formation of myelin sheaths on axons in the
peripheral nervous system
d. Ependymal cells; regulation of production of cerebrospinal fluid
e. Astrocytes; removal of potassium ions and neurotransmitters from the
brain’s extracellular fluid
3. If the extracellular Cl- concentration is 110 mmol/L and a particular neuron
maintains an intracellular Cl- concentration of 4 mmol/L, at what membrane
potential would Cl- be closest to electrochemical equilibrium in that cell?
a. + 80 mV
b. + 60 mV
c. 0 mV
d. - 86 mV
e. - 100 mV
4. Consider the following five experiments, in which the concentration gradient
Na+ was varied. In which case(s) would Na+ tend to leak out of the cell if the
membrane potential was experimentally held at +42 mV?
Experiment Extracellular Na+ Intracellular Na+
(mmol/L) (mmol/L)
A 50 15
B 60 15
C 70 15
D 80 15
E 90 15

a. A only
b. B only
c. C only
d. A, B, and C
e. D and E
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 43

5. Which is a true statement about the resting membrane potential in a typical

neuron?
a. The membrane potential is closer to the Na+ equilibrium potential than
to the K equilibrium potential
b. The Cl permeability is higher than that for Na or K
c. The membrane potential is at the equilibrium potential for K
d. There is no ion movement at the steady resting membrane potential
e. Ion movement by the Na/K –ATPase pump is equal and opposite to the
leak of ions through Na and K channels

6. If a ligand-gated channel permeable to both Na + and K+ was briefly opened at

a specific location on the membrane of a typical resting neuron, what would
result?
a. Local currents on the inside of the membrane would flow away from
that region
b. Local currents on the outside of the membrane would flow away from
that region
c. Local currents would travel without decrement all along the cell’s
length
d. A brief local hyperpolarization of the membrane would result
e. Fluxes of Naa and K would be equal, so no local currents would flow

7. Which ion channel state correctly describes the phase of the action potential
it is associated with?
a. Voltage-gated Na channels are inactivated in a resting neuronal
membrane
b. Open voltage-gated K channels cause the depolarizing upstroke of the
action potential
c. Open voltage-gated K channels cause afterhyperpolarization
d. The sizable leak through voltage-gated K channels determines the
value of the resting membrane potential
e. Opening of voltage-gated Cl channels is the main factor causing rapid
repolarization of the membrane at the end of an action potential

8. Two neurons, A and B, synapse onto a third neuron, C. If neurotransmitters

from A opens ligand-gated channels permeable to Na+ and K+ and
neurotransmitter from B opens ligand-gated Cl- channels, which of the
following statements is true?
a. An action potential in neuron A causes a depolarizing EPSP in neuron B
b. An action potential in neuron B causes a depolarizing EPSP in neuron C
c. Simultaneous action potentials in A and B will cause hyperpolarization
of neuron C
d. Simultaneous action potentials in A and B will cause less depolarization
of neuron C than if only neuron A fired an action potential
e. An action potential in neuron B will bring neuron C closer to its action
potential threshold than would an action potential in neuron A
System Physiology Midterm I Notes 44

9. Which correctly associates a neurotransmitter with one of its characteristics?

a. Dopamine is a catecholamine synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine
b. Glutamate is released by most inhibitory interneurons in the spinal
cord
c. Serotonin is an endogenous opioid associated with “runner’s high”
d. GABA is the neurotransmitter that mediates long-term potentiation
e. Neuropeptides are synthesized in the axon terminals of the neurons
that release them

10. Which of these synapses does not have acetylcholine as its primary
neurotransmitter?
a. Synapse of a postganglionic parasympathetic neuron onto a heart cell
b. Synapse of a postganglionic sympathetic neuron onto a smooth muscle
cell
c. Synapse of a preganglionic sympathetic neuron onto a postganglionic
neuron
d. Synapse of a somatic efferent neuron onto a skeletal muscle cell
e. Synapse of a preganglionic sympathetic neuron onto adrenal medullary
cells