POLITECNICO DI MILANO

School Of Industrial and Information Engineering

POLO REGIONALE DI LECCO

Master’s Thesis
Suspension Design Feasibility Study of Light Commercial Vehicle in ADAMS/Car

Supervisor: Prof. Francesco Braghin

Company supervisor : Mr. Vincenzo Abbatantuoni

Master Thesis by:

Sandip Kumar

Mat. No. 797008

October 2015
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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis, submitted to Politecnico di Milano as partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master is completely novel and has never been presented at any other University for an
equivalent degree. I also certify that the document below has been exclusively done by me, with the
exception of certain standardized data and technique, the sources f o r w h i c h a r e appropriately cited in
the references. This thesis may be made available within the university library and may be photocopied
or loaned to other libraries for the purpose of consultation.

October 2015 Sandip Kumar

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ABSTRACT
In the present era of advancement in science and technology, computer aided engineering plays a pivotal role
in automotive industry. Now complete vehicle can be modeled and simulated for various road conditions.
Results have been obtained with high degree of accuracy for the same. There had been very good correlation
with the real time test data and simulated results. On some occasions simulation results had a better accuracy
while compared to the real test data. This boosted the confidence of industry and now, more and more tests
are performed with the help of CAE.

Following the same trend in this project a complete multibody model for a small passenger taxi car was
developed in Adams/car prior to building the real prototype. The modeling was done in accordance with the
dimensions obtained from CAD model. This ensured model was well with in design parameters. After
completion of the model, it was first evaluated at subsystem level extensively to see the design conformity
and eliminate any observed variation. Parallel and opposite wheel travel analysis was performed to simulate
bump, rebound and roll condition. After that full vehicle simulations were performed to assess straight line
stability, lane change performance and cornering behavior. All the results and outputs were discussed in
detail with the possibility of future application and works.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my sincerest gratitude to my university supervisor Prof.

Francesco Braghin for his expert guidance and freedom of work he provided me throughout the project.
His constructive criticism and valuable suggestions motivated me to perform better than my capabilities.

I would also like to thank my company supervisor Mr. Vincenzo Abbatantuoni for giving me
this wonderful opportunity. His extensive support, patience and trust in my work kept me going in
difficult times and helped me in successful completion of the project. Along with this my gratitude goes
to Mr. Luca Marano for his expert comments and suggestions. His knowledge and understanding of
vehicle dynamics always inspired me to learn more.

A special thanks to Mr. Testi, Mr. Catelani and Mr. Brutti for their support and guidance with
Adams software. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Mr. Marchisio, Davide and Antonio for
helping me with performance parameters and design files.

I would like to thank my parents, jaji, my sisters Sarika, Nitu and my dear friend Ms. Rubina
Mahtab for their constant encouragement and support throughout this arduous journey, without which
this would not have been possible.

Last but not least a special mention to my extraordinary friends Dhanush, Shehzad, Arijit,
Bhuvan, Mukund, Shyam, Pradip, Ashish, Maddy, Geo, Vikas, Shahnawaaz, Amrita and Gesu who
never failed to boost my morale and encouraged me throughout this journey.

Thank you all.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Double wishbone suspension system ................................................................................................11

Figure 2 McPherson strut .................................................................................................................................12
Figure 3 Semi-trailing arm suspension .............................................................................................................13
Figure 4 Ackerman Geometry ..........................................................................................................................14
Figure 5 Camber angle .....................................................................................................................................15
Figure 6 Toe angle ............................................................................................................................................15
Figure 7 Caster angle .......................................................................................................................................16
Figure 8 Kingpin and scrub radius ....................................................................................................................16
Figure 9 Vehicle coordinate system in accordance with SAE convention ........................................................19
Figure 10 Rear suspension assembly ...............................................................................................................21
Figure 11 Final assembly top view ...................................................................................................................21
Figure 12 Final assembly front view ................................................................................................................22
Figure 13 Final assembly front ISO view ..........................................................................................................22
Figure 14 Integration of MSC. ADAMS with CAE software ..............................................................................24
Figure 15 Steps of suspension analysis ............................................................................................................25
Figure 16 MacPherson modelling component topology ..................................................................................28
Figure 17 Front suspension links ......................................................................................................................29
Figure 18 Steering links ....................................................................................................................................31
Figure 19 Front suspension assembly with test rig ..........................................................................................32
Figure 20 Rear suspension assembly with test rig ...........................................................................................34
Figure 21 Lumped mass body system ..............................................................................................................35
Figure 22 Engine and powertrain system representation ................................................................................36
Figure 23 Front and rear tyres .........................................................................................................................37
Figure 24 Database for full vehicle assembly ...................................................................................................37
Figure 25 Full vehicle assembly front view ......................................................................................................38
Figure 26 Full vehicle assembly side view ........................................................................................................38
Figure 27 Full vehicle assembly top view .........................................................................................................39
Figure 28 Full vehicle assembly Front-Iso ........................................................................................................39
Figure 29 Compliance matrix ...........................................................................................................................40
Figure 30 Camber change Design of Experiment .............................................................................................42
Figure 31 Driving machine function .................................................................................................................48
Figure 32 Vehicle straight line test set-up .......................................................................................................49
Figure 33 Single and double lane change ........................................................................................................52
Figure 34 Add text ............................................................................................................................................55
Figure 35 Ramp steer test parameters ............................................................................................................55
Figure 36 Event builder ....................................................................................................................................56

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Specifications and target dimensions. .................................................................................................17

Table 2 Suspension parameters ........................................................................................................................19
Table 3 Type of joints and their respective degrees of freedom ........................................................................25
Table 4 Front parts and joints topology.............................................................................................................28
Table 5 Static parameter variable table ............................................................................................................28
Table 6 Steering system joints topology ...........................................................................................................30
Table 7 Rear assembly joints topology .............................................................................................................33

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LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph 1 Power train map .................................................................................................................................35

Graph 2 Observed toe with sign change ..........................................................................................................42
Graph 3 Toe adjustment geometry ..................................................................................................................43
Graph 4 Modified toe with negligible sign change observed ...........................................................................43
Graph 5 Caster and KPI v/s wheel travel curve ................................................................................................44
Graph 6 Front track change v/s wheel travel ...................................................................................................44
Graph 7 Rear track change v/s wheel travel ....................................................................................................45
Graph 8 Steer angle vs rack displacement .......................................................................................................46
Graph 9 Turn radius .........................................................................................................................................46
Graph 10 Ackerman error ................................................................................................................................47
Graph 11 Longitudinal vs lateral displacement ................................................................................................49
Graph 12 Front steering angle ..........................................................................................................................50
Graph 13 Inclination angle vs time ..................................................................................................................50
Graph 14 Lateral force vs time ........................................................................................................................51
Graph 15 Chassis displacement .......................................................................................................................53
Graph 16 Yaw rate and steering wheel angle at 50kmph ................................................................................53
Graph 17 Yaw rate and steering wheel angle at 55kmph ................................................................................54
Graph 18 Yaw rate and steering wheel angle at 60kmph ................................................................................54
Graph 19 Steering wheel angle v/s lateral acceleration ..................................................................................57
Graph 20 Turning radius v/s steer wheel angle ...............................................................................................57
Graph 21 Yaw rate v/s steer wheel angle ........................................................................................................58
Graph 22 Velocity v/s steer wheel angle .........................................................................................................58
Graph 23 Understeer curve .............................................................................................................................59

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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION 2
ABSTRACT 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
LIST OF FIGURES 5
LIST OF TABLES 6
LIST OF GRAPHS 7
1. INTRODUCTION 10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.1 Introduction and Role of suspension system in a vehicle 11
2.2 Types of suspension system 11
2.2.1 Double wishbone suspension system: 11
2.2.2 McPherson strut suspension: 12
2.2.3 Semi-trailing arm rear axle: 13
2.3 Suspension system parameters 13
2.3.1 Ackerman 13
2.3.2 Camber 14
2.3.3 Toe 15
2.3.4 Caster 16
2.3.5 Kpi and scrub radius 16
2.3.6 17
3. DESIGN OF SUSPENSION COMPONENTS AND GEOMETRY 17
3.1 Choice of type of suspension system 17
3.1.1 Front suspension and steering system 18
3.1.2 Rear suspension system 18
3.2 Approach to CAD modeling and assembly of components. 18
3.3 Final representation of CAD model. 21
4. MODELING AND ANALYSIS IN ADAMS 23
4.1 Introduction to ADAMS/Car 23
4.2 Working principle 23
4.3 Approach to system modeling 26
4.3.1 Global reference coordinate 26
4.3.2 Local coordinate system 26
4.3.3 Markers 26
4.4 Approach to system modeling 26
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 4.4.1 Standard user interface 27
4.4.2 Template builder mode 27
4.4.3 System modeling 27
4.4.4 Modeling of front suspension assembly 27
4.4.5 Modeling rear suspension assembly 32
4.4.6 Body and chassis system 34
4.4.7 Powertrain assembly 35
4.4.8 Front and rear tyres modelling 36
4.4.9 Full vehicle assembly 37
4.5 Evaluation of suspension and steering characteristics 40
4.5.1 Definition of complex matrix 40
4.5.2 Wheel travel analysis 41
4.5.3 Steering analysis 45
4.6 Full vehicle simulation 47
4.6.1 Straight line maintain test 48
4.7 Single Iso-lane change maneuver 51
4.8 Ramp steer 55
5. Conclusion 60
6. Appendix 61
6.1 Front assembly hardpoints. 61
6.2 Steering system 61
6.3 Rear suspension system 61
6.4 Body subsystem 62
6.5 Powertrain subsystem 62
6.6 Tire property file. 62
REFERENCES 68

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1. INTRODUCTION
The company wanted to launch a new short wheel base passenger taxi car capable of seating 4 persons
including driver with a maximum payload of 450 Kgs. The vehicle was expected to be compact in size with
the sufficient ground clearance, affordable and durable enough for rough driving conditions. To make it
compact track width, wheel base and ground clearance was fixed according to the market survey and
benchmarked value.

So, the main goal was to develop a multibody model of the planned vehicle and analyze the suspension
behavior prior to build real prototype. This would show a broad picture of the real scenario and road
conditions. Any required modification or change in geometry, components would be possible to do at design
stage itself making project efficient in terms of time and money.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction and Role of suspension system in a vehicle
The role of a car suspension is to maximize the friction between tires and the road surface to provide steering
stability with good handling and to ensure the comfort of the passenger. If the roads were perfectly flat then
there is no need of suspension system but unfortunately this is not the case. The role of suspension varies
between commercial and race cars. While the race car suspension system demands high performance without
any compromise to squeeze out minimum possible lap time, commercial vehicles require maximum life time
and durability of components with compromise in performance. The main aim of suspension system in
commercial vehicle is to have lowest amount of tire wear, minimum noise and vibration with maximum ride
comfort.

A good suspension system should provide best possible ride and handling performance, which is only
possible if wheel follows the road profile with very little tire fluctuation. The vehicle must be in steerable
condition at all times and driver should get a good response while maneuvering. This factor is ensured by the
fact that vehicle responds favorably to the forces generated by the tires during cornering or accelerating with
a good dive and roll geometry design

2.2 Types of suspension system

In commercial or any other vehicle, chassis is the mainframe and must be able to handle the varying engine
power, acceleration, peak cornering speeds at all times which leads to the choice of independent suspension
system. Well known governing factors for this choice is low weight, no mutual wheel influence, little space
requirement, easier steerability, a kinematic or elasto-kinematic toe-in change and ease of adjustment. Low
weight and no mutual influence on the wheel are two important characteristics for good road handling on
uneven road surface with curves. Considering the above factors, independent suspension system was chosen.

While we speak of all the possible design and performance requirements there comes the engineer’s
nightmare to achieve all this within given constraints which is daunting. At various stages of design,
compromise had to be made to achieve a close to ideal performance. The design constraints have been
outlined by the problem statement for suspension system of small, lightweight, affordable and appealing
passenger car. The choice of suspension system and its components are guided mainly by required
investment, manufacturing cost, packaging constraints and performance benchmark values. All the design
constraints and bench marked values will be discussed and explained throughout the project.

2.2.1 Double wishbone suspension system:

Figure 1 Double wishbone suspension system

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It consists of two transverse links (control arms) on either side of the vehicle which are mounted to rotate on
the frame and connected on the outside to steering knuckle via ball joints. The greater the effective distance
between the transverse links, the smaller the forces in the suspension control arms and their mounting
becomes, i.e., the deformation in the component is smaller and wheel control is more precise.

Double wishbone suspension has great advantage with the kinematic possibilities. The inclination of control
arm can decide the height of body, roll and pitch while varying the length of the same influence the angle
movement of the compressing and rebounding wheels i.e. the camber and track width change.

With all the advantages in terms of vehicle performance and ease of adjustment this type of suspension
system is not suited for the vehicle under study. The main reason is requirement of larger control arms with
high inclination which is not possible with such a small track width and large cabin space requirement. It
would be extremely difficult to achieve a proper geometry with shorter arms and packaging space.

2.2.2 McPherson strut suspension:

Figure 2 McPherson strut

This type of suspension system is further development of double wishbone suspension. The upper control
arm is replaced by a pivot point on the wheel panel, which takes the end of the piston rod and the coil spring.
Forces from all the directions are concentrated at this point. The main advantage of the McPherson strut is
that all the suspension components can be combined into one assembly. The steering knuckle can be welded,
brazed or bolted firmly to the outer tube. Further advantages are lower forces in the chassis side of the
mounting, long spring travel and larger packaging space, as there is no upper control arm. Despite minor
disadvantages like lack of noise reduction and bulky structure, this type of suspension system fits right in
choice because of previously mentioned advantages and company’s experience in designing and
manufacturing this kind of suspension. Hence McPherson was chosen for front suspension of the vehicle.

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2.2.3 Semi-trailing arm rear axle:

Figure 3 Semi-trailing arm suspension

The semi-trailing arm rear suspension is characterized by balanced comfort and driving behavior. With the
semi-trailing arm rear suspension, the wheels are mounted on links that move at an angle to the vehicle’s
longitudinal axis as they deflect and rebound. The compact design also allows for a large luggage
compartment. When wheel goes in bump and rebound-travel they cause spatial movement, so the drive shafts
need two joints per side with angular mobility and length compensation. The horizontal and vertical angles
determine the roll steer properties. Camber and toe-in changes increase, the bigger the angles are. Semi-
trailing axles have an elasto-kinematic tendency to oversteer. With the ease of driveshaft mounting and
available wheel travel it was selected for rear suspension system.

2.3 Suspension system parameters

The kinematics of the suspension system can be visualized as a body moving in space relative to another
body with three components of translation and three components of rotation. While the independent type
suspension system allows for relative motion between the wheel and the vehicle body without affecting the
other wheel, it has only one path of motion. Like any other single body, wheel has six degrees of freedom in
space out of which five dof’s are restrained by the suspension linkages. These linkages also severely limit the
orientation of the wheel as it travels in jounce and rebound against spring and damper which can rotate about
its three axes due to the geometry of the suspension. These rotation deviate the geometry from the ideal
suspension design. At maximum, the designer can try to offset the effect of such rotations with fine tuning
the geometry but still it would result in change in camber, caster and toe-angle. An insight to the same has
been briefly discussed below.

2.3.1 Ackerman
When front wheel drive vehicle is steered away from straight-ahead position, the design of steering linkage
determines whether the wheels stay parallel or one wheel steers more than the other. This difference in steer
wheel angle is the effect of Ackerman geometry and the device which provides this effect is called
Ackerman steering. There is no four bar linkage mechanism which can give a perfect Ackerman geometry,

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but a close to perfect condition could be achieved. The condition to meet this criterion is that vehicle must be
driving slowly and free from any lateral forces. Since the passenger cars are designed for low lateral
acceleration use, it is preferred to use Ackerman geometry.

The Ackerman condition is expressed by the following formula:

Where: is the steer angle of outer wheel

is the steer angle of inner wheel

w is the trackwidth

l is the wheelbase

Figure 4 Ackerman Geometry

2.3.2 Camber
Camber angle is the angle that the wheel plane makes with the vertical axis. It is positive when the top of the
wheel leans outwards, away from the vehicle body and negative when it is inwards. Cornering force of the
tyre depends on its angle relative to the road surface. Hence camber is a major contributing factor for good
road grip. When the tyre moves on the road the rubber is elastically deformed, as the tread is pulled through
the tyre/road interface, which causes an additional lateral force known as camber thrust. Due to the
contribution of this camber thrust, tyre develops its maximum lateral force at a small camber angle. Hence it
is suggested to provide a small amount of camber angle in the direction of wheel rotation to optimize tyre
performance during the turn.

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 Figure 5 Camber angle

Passenger cars are designed with soft roll stiffness to provide a smooth ride. This low roll stiffness results in
large wheel travel causing large camber change and eventually reduced tyre performance and excessive
wear. Therefore, within the given parameters a compromise must be made to achieve a balance between the
two, which has been discussed during suspension analysis.

2.3.3 Toe
It is the angel between the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and the line of intersection of the wheel plane and
the vehicle XY plane. It is positive if the wheel front is rotated towards the vehicle body and vice versa.

Figure 6 Toe angle

It can be expressed in degrees or radians but it is more common to express it as the difference between the
track width measured at leading and trailing edges of the tyre. Toe control is important as it directly affects
three major performances, i.e. corner entry handling, straight line stability and tyre wear. When a car is
running in a straight line, the wheels in the given axle should directly point ahead, for maximum power and
low tyre wear. Directional stability of the vehicle is increased by toe-in, while toe-out increases the steering
response. Too much of toe-in causes rapid wear at the outer edges of the tyre and vice versa.

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2.3.4 Caster
Caster angle is the angle in the side elevation (vehicle XZ plane) between the steering (kingpin) axis and the
vehicle axis. It is positive when the top of the steer axis is inclined rearwards and vice versa.

Figure 7 Caster angle

A negative caster helps in quick steer return, increases the straight-line ability of the vehicle, provides a large
tyre contact patch area during turn and good steering feel. But if the caster is increased to a large value it will
also cause an undesired increase in steering effort.

2.3.5 Kpi and scrub radius

The Kingpin inclination (KPI) or steering axis inclination (SAI), is the angle formed between vertical and the
line joining the upper and lower ball joints (steering axis). It affects the self retuning mechanism of the
steering to straight ahead position, bringing the wheel to its highest point. Positive kingpin is defined with
the upper ball joint closer to the chassis than the lower. Kingpin is also used to set scrub radius, which can be
adjusted to zero value when the steering axis coincides with the tyre centerline on the ground. But excessive
KPI and high steering angles lead to positive camber change and corner weight variations.

Figure 8 Kingpin and scrub radius

Scrub radius, also known as kingpin offset, is the lateral distance between the centerline of the wheel and
intersection of the kingpin axis at the ground. A large scrub radius means reduced steering effort at the cost

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of increased friction which causes the tyre to scrape through the surface while turning, as the tyre no more
turns along the center line. So it is desirable to minimize the scrub radius in order to make the
steering less sensitive to road irregularities, braking etc. A zero scrub radius eliminates the negative effects
on the steering but will also leave the driver with a dead feel of the steering. of Acceptable scrub radius
is thought to be those smaller than 25% of the tread width.

3. DESIGN OF SUSPENSION COMPONENTS AND GEOMETRY

Before proceeding to the design of suspension components and related geometry, a comprehensive market
survey was done by the company to find out the customer requirements and market needs. Then based on the
inputs from the survey benchmarking process was carried out. The basic requirement of the vehicle was it
should be low cost, light weight, spacious and full fill the needs of south east Asian countries.

Proceeding with this idea, first size and general specification of the vehicle was decided as follows.

Length ≤3m

Width ≤1.5 m

Height 2.5 m

Ground clearance 0.240 m

Kerb weight ≤450 KG

Wheel radius 12 inches

Engine 230cc water cooled

Transmission Manual, Rear wheel drive

Table 1 Specifications and target dimensions.

Next a decision had to be made for the track width and wheel base of the vehicle. For this one constraint was
already defined as length and width of the vehicle. Second was influenced by the fact that interior of the
vehicle must be spacious along with the provision of luggage compartment. So a wheel base of 1.8m and
track width of 1.2 m was proposed. Keeping in mind the road irregularities a target ground clearance of
0.240 m was also decided. These three values were subject to minor changes as the design would progress.

3.1 Choice of type of suspension system

During this process a comparative study on various types of suspension system for front and rear was done.
Reasoning for the same has been discussed in the following section.

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3.1.1 Front suspension and steering system
As the wheel base was fixed and it had been stated that interior should spacious then it became quite obvious
that front driver and passenger seats would be located close to the wheel envelop. Considering these facts,
there were two good possible choices. It was either double wishbone suspension or McPherson strut type
suspension system.

Double wishbone suspension required two transverse links (control arms) on either side of the vehicle which
would be mounted to rotate on the frame and connected on the outside to steering knuckle via ball joints.
This kind of suspension provided good control over geometry and improved behavior in dynamic condition.
But major disadvantage came in terms of packaging issue. Placement of upper arm required a large wheel
envelop and that would cramp the driver and front passenger leg space. It also required more components
(upper A-arm, extra bushings and ball joints for mountings) and assembling time. In terms of ergonomics
and cost it was not a perfect choice. This ruled out any scope of using double wishbone type suspension.

Second best choice for front was McPherson strut type suspension system. This is a further development of
double wishbone suspension as top. A-arm is replaced by the strut system. It only required lower control arm
mounting and placement of strut in vehicle body full filing the criteria of large cabin space. It also needed
less number of components and assembling time, so in terms of cost also it was an advantage to use this. The
final factor which dominated this choice was company’s previous experience in this type of suspension and
readily available assembly components and no need for any new investment. Hence for front, McPherson
strut suspension was decided.

For steering system rack and pinion type steering system was selected keeping in mind its simple and
effective design. This type of steering also provided a good possibility of having good Ackerman geometry.
Assembly and mounting would also take less space.

3.1.2 Rear suspension system

During the market survey and benchmarking process choice of engine was also locked. Vehicle had to be
rear wheel drive to meet the norms. Rear suspension needed to be spacious enough to accommodate engine
and provide some space for luggage compartment too. Passenger ride comfort was also a major driving
factor. This required a suspension design with softer springs. After a comparative study of solid axle, quad-
link, semi trailing arm type of suspension it was decide to go with semi trailing arm kind suspension as it
provided a balance between comfort and driving behavior. It also met the criteria of low cost and assembling
time. Solid axle kind would have required mounting of a separate differential and it was neither suitable for
engine nor for the light weight nature of vehicle.

3.2 Approach to CAD modelling and assembly of components.

Once finished with the type of suspension it was time to prepare the CAD model to evaluate and tune the
suspension as per the requirement. With the company’s vast database and experience in CAD modelling,
assembly process was quite convenient. Most of the component design and drawings were available in the
database. Whole vehicle design and assembly was carried out according to SAE convention.

According to SAE convention all points of interests were described as coordinates dimensioned from the
intersection of the zero planes in the three-dimensional reference system. XYZ coordinates were
dimensioned to their respective planes.

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 Figure 9 Vehicle coordinate system in accordance with SAE convention

After fixing vehicle coordinate system assembly process started with fixing the wheel center and then
moving on to hub, knuckle and strut assembly. Static parameters like camber and toe were set to zero with
the option to change at later stage. It was decided to go with stock steering knuckle so the only choice of
altering or controlling kingpin inclination, scrub radius and caster was dependent on strut top mount. Hence
according to the requirement following suspension parameters were decided.

SUSPENSION
Tire Static Loaded Radius 0.261 m
Camber Angle 0.0 deg
Kingpin Inclination Angle 16.0 deg
Scrub Radius 0.002 m
Caster Angle 4.0 deg
Caster Trail 0.018 m
STEERING
Rack Stroke 0.160 m
Inner Steer Angle at Lock 50.4 deg
Outer Steer Angle at Lock 37.7 deg
Max. Ackerman Error 3.75 deg
Rack Force Ratio at Lock 1.6 -

Table 2 Suspension parameters

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The 12" wheel had an offset of 40 mm (ET) which allowed a better placement for the tie rod outer ball joint
inside the rim. The brake drum was positioned accordingly. In order to use the identical knuckle geometry
received from the database, the outer ball joint center location of the lower control arm was also modified.

Figure 9. Front suspension assembly

Taking into account, the tire SLR of 261 mm and the ground clearance target of 240 mm, the lowest design
position for the LCA inner pivot axis was kept at -95 mm in Z-axis initially.

The ideal position of the inner lower control arm attachment points was fixed on a line on the Y-Z plane,
which passed through the virtual swing arm rotation center of the MacPherson-type strut suspension. This
ensured that the suspension bump-steer was minimized. This was rechecked during toe control analysis.

For rear suspension the trailing arm pivot radius was kept 354 mm in order to accommodate the tire R12 tire.
In order to achieve sufficient amount of rear axle understeer during steady-state and yaw damping during
transient maneuvers, the pivot axis inclination was tuned to provide toe-in with increasing suspension
compression as per the preliminary idea.

Engine mounting points were decided based on the fact that CG should stay low and sufficient
ground clearance is also available. Drive shaft inner joint was also one of the factor while deciding engine
location as care was taken to keep CV joint angle to minimum for efficient power transfer. In static
condition CV joint had an angle of 10.83 deg. The tentative mounting of spring and dampers were
according to the packaging space which was subject to change as per the suspension analysis.

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 Figure 10 Rear suspension assembly

3.3 Final representation of CAD model.

Figure 11 Final assembly top view

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 Figure 12 Final assembly front view

Figure 13 Final assembly front ISO view

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After completing the full vehicle assembly in CAD, hardpoints were exported for modelling and analysis of
suspension design in Adams/car.

4. MODELING AND ANALYSIS IN ADAMS

4.1 Introduction to ADAMS/Car

Adams, developed by MSC Software Corporation is a multibody dynamics software that is widely used in
engineering industry. Adams/car is the part of Adams software suite and it provides a specialized
environment for modeling vehicles. The software formulates equations of motion based on absolute
coordinates to obtain a time response of the system. It can be time consuming as complex assemblies often
involve large systems of nonlinear differential algebraic equations requiring large amount of computing
power. Adams/car allows the user to create and test virtual prototypes of the vehicle subsystems and
complete vehicles much like the physical system. An extensive library of macros is also built into the
program to speed up the model creation. Using Adams, full vehicle assembly can be created /modified rapidly
and can be simulated for various conditions to understand their performance and behavior. Based on the
analysis result suspension geometry, spring rates and other kinematics can be altered in no time to get the
desired performance behavior. Since the main goal of this project is to design and study the suspension
system and vehicle behavior before building prototype, Adams was selected to perform this task.

Prior to modelling suspension system in Adams, an extensive study in vehicle dynamics, vector theory and
classical approach of designing was performed to understand the working of the software. It is of utmost
importance to understand what goes behind the screen and the working principle of this software. During the
study and modeling of the system it was found that if the user knows the working of the software then it
becomes very easy and efficient to modify the system and obtain desired results.

4.2 Working principle

The main analysis code consists of a number of integrated programs that perform three dimension
kinematic, static, quasi-static or dynamic analyses of the mechanical system. These programs form the core
of the solver. In addition to these a number of other programs are linked to the core solver which is used to
model vehicle tire characteristics, automatically generates vehicle suspension geometry etc. Once the model
is defined the core solver assembles the equation of motion and solves them. Possibility of inclusion of
differential equation in the solution makes it easier to model various control system. Complete Adams
working process has been explained in diagram.

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 Figure 14 Integration of MSC. ADAMS with CAE software

The first step for simulation is to prepare a data set which defines the system. It includes rigid parts,
connecting joints, motion generators, forces and compliances. Adams provides the user to use various joints
and connectors used in the system.

For the real time similarity it is necessary that each rigid body’s mass, center of mass location and moment
of inertia is well defined. For simpler bodies Adams itself calculate all the above mentioned requirements.
For some complex components it was calculated in CAD and then manually entered in the software. Further
each body has a co-ordinates system which can be defined in local co-ordinate system or global co-ordinate
system. Parts and bodies move according to this definition during simulation. The relative motions
between different parts in the system are constrained using joints, gears, couplers etc.

The next step is defining the external and internal force elements. External forces can be constant, time
dependent function or any other state dependent function. These forces can be translational or rotational.
Internal forces act between two parts like spring, damper or rubber mounts. These are referred as action and
reaction forces and they always produce equal and opposite forces on two parts connected by the force
element.

Adams allows user to effectively access any displacement, velocity, acceleration or other force when
defining the force equation. Forces can also be switched on or off during simulation progress. Precaution
must be taken to ensure formulations are continuous in time domain to avoid any problem during the

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numerical solution of the resulting equations. If these forces or any other parameters are not in the given
range the solver is not able to execute the equation of motion resulting in failed simulation.

In Adams, vehicle suspension bushings and joints are represented by a set of six action and reaction forces,
which hold the two parts together. The equations of force are linear and uncoupled. Following the
common notion too much complexity is bad thing, Stiffness of the bushings and joints were mostly left
unaltered. A list of joints with their degrees of freedom has been updated in the following table.

Constraint Translational Rotational Coupled Total constraints

element(joint) constraints constraints constraints

Cylindrical 2 2 0 4
fixed 3 3 0 6

Planar 1 2 0 3

Rack and pinion 0 0 1 1

Revolute 3 2 0 5

Spherical 3 0 0 3
Translational 2 3 0 5
Universal 3 1 0 4

Coupler 0 0 1 1

Table 3 Type of joints and their respective degrees of freedom

As per the real conditions, in Adams also, forces through the road are transferred to the tire. For each tire on
the model, Adams calculate the three orthogonal forces and torques acting at the wheel center as a result of
the condition at the tire road surface contact patch. It is resolved at the wheel center and then software
integrates it through time to find the new position and orientation of the vehicle and repeats the process.

In short suspension analysis can be explained with following diagram.

Figure 15 Steps of suspension analysis

In Adams suspension analysis is divided in two steps i.e., pre-processor and post processor. During first step
all input data is given through GUI or by command files and then solver performs the analysis. Post
processing is the second step in which all the results files are viewed. Post processor software is the part of
Adams suite and is used with other applications too. Post processor made it easy to understand the vehicle
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behavior. While looking to the model in motion it was easy to debug any anomaly. Post processor also
provided the option to perform mathematical operations and statistical analyses on plot curves. All the
results, simulations and presentation of curves were done in post processor.

4.3 Approach to system modeling

Since, it is quite clear that Adams/car is a powerful tool for simulation not modelling so, before starting the
modelling in Adams, it is highly suggested to sketch out a system schematics which would typically illustrate
the items such as parts, joints, imparted motion applied forces and its location. It also helps in predicting
degrees of freedom and develop a basic understanding how system will work. For the same reason detailed
CAD drawing was prepared and it made the modelling work less tedious to model the system in Adams.

Next step is to set up the reference frame. For a multibody three dimension description is required. It not
only set up the configuration and physical properties of the model but also to describe the calculated outputs
such as the displacement, velocities and acceleration. For the given model three types of reference frame co-
ordinate system was used.

4.3.1 Global reference coordinate

This is the single inertial frame that is fixed and at rest. Any point defined to this reference frame has zero
velocity and acceleration. The ground reference is fixed on a body. For a single suspension model the ground
part may be taken to encompass the points on the vehicle body or sub-frame to which the suspension
linkages are attached. During a full vehicle modelling the ground part was related to the surface of road to
formulate the contact forces and moments in the tire model. It can be also considered as the origin of the
entire model. All other reference frames are measured relative to the ground reference frame.

4.3.2 Local coordinate system

Each body or part has a local co-ordinate system which moves or changes according to the orientation of the
part. Adams takes it as body co-ordinate system. It is defined relative to the ground reference frame.

4.3.3 Markers
These are the points located in the model to define the entities like mass center, position, spring ends etc. It
can belong to part or ground. Orientation of marker is important. For example in case of revolute joints,
marker should be along the axis of rotation or else joint will not behave as intended. The Euler angle method
can be used for orientation of the same.

Basic modeling components in ADAMS

Basic components are rigid bodies (part), geometry (marker), constraints (joints, gears etc.), forces (applied,
spring forces etc.), user defined algebraic and differential equations. Part statement will be used to define
rigid body or lumped mass. Suspension components like control arms, wheel, steering knuckle etc. will be
modelled as rigid bodies. For dynamic analysis full information like center of mass, moment of inertia,
orientation etc. is required.

4.4 Approach to system modeling

Adams works in two interfaces namely:

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4.4.1 Standard user interface
In this mode standard templates are available (most commonly used designs) with all the required
configuration, constraints and joints. It also facilitates the option of modifying various components, hard
points and several other parameters to create the desired geometry.

4.4.2 Template builder mode

In this mode user need to enter all necessary data for the part to be created like role type, hard points, joints
, constraints, mass and inertia properties. It takes more time and effort than standard interface to create
desired template. It can be avoided if the type of geometry to be used is less complicated and more common.
But for creating a new geometry with desired properties and parameters it is always preferred.

For this particular study of the suspension system, choice was predefined as MacPherson for front and Semi
trailing arm for rear. Reasons for the same have been discussed in design of suspension section. Both
Macpherson and semi trailing arm suspension templates are available in Adams/car database. So it was
decided to go with standard user interface and modify the hard points, mass-inertia properties etc. to obtain
the desired configuration and geometry.

4.4.3 System modeling

Steps to create a system model in Adams:

 Creation of database and then selecting the working directory.

 Then select “sub assembly” or “assembly” from file-new-menu

To obtain the complete vehicle model following assemblies and sub-assemblies were modeled and then
finally assembled:

 Front suspension assembly

 Rear suspension assembly
 Body and chassis
 Powertrain assembly
 Front and rear tires

4.4.4 Modeling of front suspension assembly

Front suspension assembly consisted of 3 subassemblies: Suspension links with springs and damper, steering
system and test rig.

4.4.4.1 Modeling MacPherson suspension link subassembly for front

The template represented a standard design of one piece lower control arm and subframe. Upright was
represented by a combination of links to which hub, lower control arm, tie rod and strut was mounted. Fore-
aft and lateral motions of the uprights were regulated by the lower control arm. Steering rotation of the
upright was controlled by the tie rod and vertical, side, front view rotations were controlled by the strut.
During quasi-static analysis a static rotation control actuator locked the degree of freedom of the hub.

All the above mentioned parts were connected with different types of joints and bushings which has the
following topology explained in the table.

Main part Connecting part Type of joint.

Lower control arm Subframe Revolute joint

Upright Lower control arm Ball joint

Upright Upper strut Cylindrical joint

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 Tie rod Upright Spherical joint
Tie rod tie rod to steering (mount part) Convel joint

Subframe Subframe to body (mount part) Fixed joint

Upper strut Strut to body (mount part) Hook joint

Spindle Upright Revolute joint

Table 4 Front parts and joints topology

Figure 16 MacPherson modelling component topology

After defining the topology, parameter variables were defined to incorporate any camber or toe in static
condition. In this case it was set to zero.

Parameter variable value unit

Camber 0 Deg.
Toe 0 Deg

Table 5 Static parameter variable table

For creating the assembly following steps were followed:

Step 1: Creating subassembly.

a) File—New—Subsystem
b) subsystem name : (Front_link_geometry)
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c) Minor role : Front
d) Template name : (Acar database _MacPherson.tpl file.)
Subassembly appeared on the screen.

Step 2: Modifying subassembly

Subassembly was modified using the hardpoints obtained from the CAD geometry. Refer Appendix 6.1

a) Select Adjust—Hardpoints—Table.
b) Following hardpoints were entered in the table. (As given in appendix)
c) Spring preload and damper properties were also adjusted as per the requirement.

The following geometry was obtained:

Figure 17 Front suspension links

4.4.4.2 Modeling steering system subassembly

The type of steering to be modelled was rack and pinion. In the model rotatory motion of the steering wheel
was translated to linear motion by the pinion gear. The rack moved tie rods back and forth to steer the
vehicle. The motion from the steering to pinion was transferred by steering shafts which was connected with
a series of hook joints. Lower column shaft to the rack housing was connected by a revolute joint. Shaft to
the pinion was connected by a torsion bar bushing. Pinion to the rack housing was connected with the
revolute joint.

During kinematic mode, a reduction gear was active which connected the steering input shaft revolute joint to
the pinion revolute joint. The motion of rack to rack housing was constrained by a translation joint. In case
steering assist was required, it was given by VFORCE. Steer assist VFORCE was controlled by
steer_assis_.tbl file of the Adams/car database. In case steer assist was not needed it was switched off. All
parts and connection and joints topology can be summarized in the following table.

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Main Part Connecting part Type of joint

Steering column Intermediate shaft Hook joint

Intermediate shaft Steering shaft Hook joint

Rack Rack housing Translational joint

Steering wheel Steering column to body (mount Revolute joint

part)

Pinion Rack housing Revolute joint

Steering column Steering column to body(mount Cylindrical joint

part)

Steering shaft Rack housing Revolute joint

Rack housing Rack housing mount(switch part) Fixed joint

Table 6 Steering system joints topology

During analysis, switching between kinematic and complaint mode was carried out by the parameter
variable. It was set by the hidden option under parameter variable steering_assist_force. Maximum values of
steering angle, rack displacement, rack force and steering wheel torque was set using the same option.

Steps for creating steering subsystem has been described in following steps.

Step 1: Creating subassembly

a) File—New—Subsystem
b) Enter subsystem name : (Steering_system)
c) Minor role: Front
d) Template name: (Browse to Acar database and the select steering.tpl file.)

Subassembly appears on the screen.

Step 2: Modifying subassembly

Subassembly was modified using the hardpoints obtained from the CAD geometry.
a) Select Adjust—Hardpoints—Table.
b) Following hardpoints were entered in the table. (As given in appendix 6.2)
c) Steering gear ratio was also modified from the default value.

The following geometry was obtained.

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 Figure 18 Steering links

4.4.4.3 Creating front suspension assembly

Once both front suspension links and steering subsystem was created and saved in template files, front
assembly was created in following steps.

a) File—New—suspension assembly.
b) Enter Assembly name (front_suspension_complete)
c) Suspension subsystem (Browse and select Front_link_geometry file from subsystem.)
d) Select Steering subsystem (Browse and select Steering_system file from subsystem.)
e) Suspension Test Rig (select _MDI_SUSPENSION_TESTRIG) and apply.

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 Figure 19 Front suspension assembly with test rig

4.4.5 Modeling rear suspension assembly

Rear suspension assembly consisted of 2 subassemblies: Suspension links with springs and damper,
driveshaft system and test rig. The model to be created was semi trailing arm type suspension. It was non
steerable.

4.4.5.1 Modeling rear suspension link subassembly

In this model left and right trailing arms were connected to the rigid subframe and in turn subframe was
connected to body mount part through bushings. The wheel center was located by the arms. Spring and
damper act between arms and body mount parts. The rotational degree of freedom of the hub was locked by
the static rotational control actuator during quasi-static analysis. Joints and connection topology has been
summarized in the following table.

Main part Connecting part Type of joint

Strut to body (mount part) Upper strut Hook joint

Arm Subframe Revolute joint

Subframe Subframe to body (mount part) Fixed joint

Lower strut Arm Hook joint

Upper strut Lower strut Cylindrical joint

Spindle Arm Revolute joint

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Tripod Tripod to differential(mount part) Translational joint

Spindle Arm Revolute joint

Table 7 Rear assembly joints topology

For rear assembly too parameter variables were decided as explained in previous section for front
suspension. Static camber and toe values were kept zero. Complete model was created in following steps.

Step 1: Creating subassembly

a) File—New—Subsystem
b) Enter subsystem name: (Rear_link_geometry)
c) Minor role : Rear
d) Template name: (Browse to Acar database and the select trailingarm.tpl file. )
Subassembly appears on the screen.

Step 2: Modifying subassembly

Subassembly was modified using the hardpoints obtained from the CAD geometry as follows.

a) Select Adjust—Hardpoints—Table.
b) Following hardpoints were entered in the table. (As given in appendix)

4.4.5.2 Creating rear suspension assembly

Once the rear link template file was created and saved in database, complete assembly with the test rig was
created in following steps.

a) File—New—suspension assembly.
b) Enter Assembly name (Rear_suspension_complete)
c) Suspension subsystem (Browse and select Rear_link_geometry file from subsystem.)

Suspension Test Rig (select _MDI_SUSPENSION_TESTRIG) and apply.

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 Figure 20 Rear suspension assembly with test rig

4.4.6 Body and chassis system

Body and chassis system was modeled as single lump of mass which consisted of structural mass of body-in-
white, engine, exhaust system, fuel tank, vehicle interior, driver, passenger and any other payload. Weight
distribution was done by editing trim part mass. The lump mass chassis had the limitation in terms of
torsional stiffness as it could not be defined in this kind of model. It required making several rigid bodies and
then connecting them with spring and damper to obtain the desired stiffness. Since evaluation chassis
stiffness was not the main goal of this study, it was left unchanged.
Chassis template was created in following steps.

Step 1: Creating subsystem.

a) File—New—Subsystem
b) Enter subsystem name: (Chassis_body)
c) Minor role: Any
d) Template name: (Browse to Acar database and the select rigid_chassis_lt.tpl file.)
Subsystem appears on the screen.

Step 2: Modifying subassembly

Subsystem was modified using the hardpoints obtained from the CAD geometry as follows.

a) Select Adjust—Hardpoints—Table.
b) Following hardpoints were entered in the table. (As given in appendix)

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 Figure 21 Lumped mass body system

4.4.7 Powertrain assembly

Powertrain assembly was modeled using standard template available in the database after modifying the
mounting points. Connection of engine to the drive shaft was verified and changed to chassis from ground. In
graphical representation it only shows the mounting point and drive shaft connection. Engine properties were
left unchanged except changing the mass.

Graph 1 Power train map

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Power train template had a very simple topology because it is just a functional representation of the engine.
The only rigid parts along with the engine body were differential outputs and revolute joints which
connected the rigid bodies to the engine body. Powertrain template was created in following steps.

Step 1: Creating subsystem

a) File—New—Subsystem
b) Enter subsystem name: (Power_train)
c) Minor role: Rear
d) Template name: (Browse to Acar database and the select Powertrain_lt.tpl file. )
Subsystem appears on the screen.

Step 2: Modifying subassembly

Subsystem was modified using the hardpoints obtained from the CAD geometry as follows.

a) Select Adjust—Hardpoints—Table.
b) Following hardpoints were entered in the table. (As given in appendix)

Figure 22 Engine and powertrain system representation

4.4.8 Front and rear tyres modelling

Three basic functions were being provided by the tire system. It supported vertical load, developed lateral
forces for cornering and longitudinal forces for acceleration and braking. The template consisted of wheel
parts rigidly connected to mount parts. The tire contact patch forces were transformed in forces and torques
applied at the hub. Force calculations were done by user defined sub routine files based on the tire properties.
Tire topology was defined by a fixed joint which connected the wheel part to the spindle mount part.

For better and ease of handling Pacejka2002.tir tire model was used. It was based on special version of
magic formula. It described the tire behavior for a smooth ride of frequency up to 8 Hz. It was also
suitable for a speed up to 30 Mph. Tire property file used has been added in the appendix.

36
 Figure 23 Front and rear tyres

4.4.9 Full vehicle assembly

Once all the subsystems were created and saved in the respective database, full vehicle assembly was done.

Steps: Creating full vehicle assembly

a) File—New—Full vehicle assembly.
Required fields were filled as per the database templates shown below and the applied.

Figure 24 Database for full vehicle assembly

37
Figure 25 Full vehicle assembly front view

Figure 26 Full vehicle assembly side view

38
Figure 27 Full vehicle assembly top view

Figure 28 Full vehicle assembly Front-Iso

39
4.5 Evaluation of suspension and steering characteristics
In Adams/car during suspension analyses, a total of 38 characteristics (Camber, toe, roll, caster etc.) are
calculated. Force limit for the left and right test rig jack is -2.0e+04 and 4.0e+04 N. This force limit can be
modified while working in the template builder mode, using ‘define actuator’ option.

The suspension and steering characteristics that Adams/car computes are based on the suspension geometry,
suspension compliance matrix or both. Suspension geometry refers to the position and orientation of
suspension parts relative to ground as the suspension is articulated through its ride, roll and steer motion.

Suspension compliance matrix refers to incremental movements of the suspension due to the application of
incremental forces at the wheel center. Throughout the motion, at each position Adams compute the
compliance matrix. Characteristics such as suspension ride and camber aligning torque are the result of
compliance matrix.

4.5.1 Definition of complex matrix

Compliance matrix is the partial derivative of displacement with respect to applied forces.

If the system is assumed to be linear, then its movement can be prescribed with the applied force.

Here, matrix element Cij is the displacement of system, degree of freedom I due to a unit force at degree of
freedom j.

Adams uses a 12x12 matrix relating the motion of the left and right wheel centers to unit forces and torques
applied to the wheel centers. It has the following form:

Figure 29 Compliance matrix

Further for calculating characteristics such as camber, caster, scrub, caster moment arm etc. Adams uses
steering axis of the suspension. User has two method available i.e geometric method and instant axis method.

40
Geometric method: The steer axis is calculated by passing a line through the selected points. Generally it is
suitable for solid axle suspension.

Instant axis method: To calculate the steer axis at a given position, Adams/car first locked the spring travel
and applied an incremental steering torque or force in all directions. Then from the resulting translation and
rotation of the wheel carrier part instant axis of rotation for each wheel was calculated.

For this particular suspension instant axis method of calculation was selected.

4.5.2 Wheel travel analysis

The wheel travel analysis allowed to see, how the suspension characteristics changed throughout the vertical
range of motion. Adams/car provided option of three kinds of wheel analysis i.e parallel, opposite, single
wheel analysis. First two were sufficient to evaluate the characteristics and has been discussed in detail in
following sections.

4.5.2.1 Parallel and opposite wheel travel analysis

These wheel travel analysis were performed to check the behavior of vehicle kinematic parameters when
both wheel went in jounce and rebound condition simultaneously or in opposite direction. Opposite wheel
motion simulated body in roll condition. Main factors which were under investigation were change in
camber, toe, kingpin inclination, and track radius and track width.

Before running test, the parameters like tire model, tire stiffness, wheelbase, sprung mass, CG height, wheel
mass were defined. Once the suspension parameters were fixed, analysis parameters were defined. During
the analysis, the test rig applied forces or displacement or both to the assembly as defined in a load case file.
Adams/car generated a temporary load case file based on the input given which was used for future
simulations.

Test parameters:

 Suspension assembly : Final_front / Rear_assembly

 Output Prefix : PWT_front / PWT_Rear
 Number of steps : 150
 Mode of simulation : Interactive
 Vertical setup Mode : Wheel center
 Bump Travel : 80
 Rebound travel : -60
 Travel Relative To : Wheel center
 Control mode : Absolute

The camber change observed for front in the beginning with the base geometry was in access of ±3.2º. This
high camber change was not acceptable as that would lead to large chassis roll and loss of tire contact patch
area, leading to excessive tire wear. It needed modification, so a design of experiment was carried out using
Adams/Insight to find out the most critical factors. After the experiment, it was observed that Z-component
of lower front control arm pivot point and lower control arm outer ball joints were the major contributing
factors, evident from the following figure.

41
 Figure 30 Camber change Design of Experiment

Finally a camber change of 2.4º was achieved. The change was still large so a compromise was done to
maintain the target ground clearance, because changing the Z-component of lower control arms would move
the vehicle further close to the ground.

Further a change in sign for toe was also observed which would result in unfavorable side drift/jerk during
jounce and rebound conditions.

Graph 2 Observed toe with sign change

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During toe correction investigation (Fig .25) it was observed that the tie rod joints rotation arc during wheel
travel were slightly deviated from the wheel rotation arc. Hence using the geometry, inner and outer tie rod
ball joint coordinates were modified to follow the same arc of rotation as that of wheel travel. Finally desired
toe change with the same sign was achieved as shown in graph 2.

Graph 3 Toe adjustment geometry

Graph 4 Modified toe with negligible sign change observed

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 Graph 5 Caster and KPI v/s wheel travel curve

For a parallel wheel travel of +80mm and -60mm a maximum caster change of 2.4° was observed. It was
good to control dynamic camber change and for straight line stability. It was also expected to provide good
self-aligning torque during full vehicle simulations. Moreover large caster change would also lower the ride
height of the vehicle and suspension will have to be stiffen causing ride discomfort but in this case it stayed
within limit. For KPI, the analysis started with static value of 16°. But later it was reduced to 11° to control
the camber change. Though with the smaller KPI there was an increase in scrub radius but it provided a good
steering feel and balanced cornering performance.

Graph 6 Front track change v/s wheel travel

The observed track change for the front was ±12mm for a wheel travel of +80mm to -60mm. It did not
create any major effects on vehicle dynamics. Large track change would led to increase in rolling resistance
and excessive tyre wear.
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 Graph 7 Rear track change v/s wheel travel

For rear suspension there was a track change of ±3.5 mm. It was quite small and well within the expected
range.

4.5.3 Steering analysis

This test was performed to check vehicle kinematic behavior when it is steered. It simulates the condition of
vehicle in turn or going around a corner. The target of this steering system is to have a short turning radius,
good Ackerman geometry and a better response.

In steering analysis the wheel is steered over the specified wheel angle or rack travel displacement from the
upper to the lower bound. All the parameters are evaluated for the condition when vehicle is at very low
speed and free of any lateral forces. The application of steering motion results in a wheel displacement at a
specified wheel height. For performing this analysis a steering system, suspension subsystem and test rig is
required.

Test parameters:

 Suspension assembly : Final_front

 Output Prefix : Steering analysis
 Number of steps : 150
 Mode of simulation : Interactive
 Vertical setup Mode : Wheel center
 Upper steer limit : 80
 Lower steer limit :-80
 Control mode : Absolute
 Steer Input : Length

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 Graph 8 Steer angle vs rack displacement

For a rack displacement of ±80mm maximum ideal steer angle of 38° was obtained at inside wheel with the
Ackerman geometry. The target for minimum turning radius was 3.65m and with the maximum steer angle,
it was achieved.(Graph 8). Larger steer angle forces the wheel arch to move inside and due to which pedal
assembly would not be in straight line with the driver foot. But in this case ideal steer angle being less than
40º there was less space needed for wheel envelop thus full filling the criteria of large front cabin space and
there was no problem of driver leg and pedal alignment. It also provided enough space to mount snow chains
if needed.

Graph 9 Turn radius

46
 Graph 10 Ackerman error

4.6 Full vehicle simulation

For full vehicle simulation all previously created subsystems were assembled and complete vehicle model
was prepared as explained during system modeling. During this analysis it was planned to evaluate different
subsystem and to observe how they influence the total vehicle dynamics. This simulation also facilitated the
option of examining the influence of component modifications, change in spring and damper rates. Except
the data driven analysis, it was planned to use MDI_SDI_TESTRIG which were based on driving machine.

In Adams/car during full vehicle simulation, vehicle was driven by driving machine much like a test driver
would do on given instructions. The driving machine steered the vehicle, applied throttle, brake and shifted
gear using clutch as per the values entered. It was also possible to instruct driving machine to switch between
machine control and smart driver option.

47
 Figure 31 Driving machine function

4.6.1 Straight line maintain test

This test is part of the handling and ride analysis of the vehicle. Long driving makes driver feel tired due to
continuous steering correction. It is performed to check the ability of the vehicle to drive in a straight line.
This nomenclature traditionally used is just perceptual one but not from its physical definition. This test
usually represents comfort but in worst case safety. It is generally assessed through the evaluation of four
characteristics such as residual pull, running straight, torque steer, braking straight. The following test was
performed to check for the ability to drive in straight line without any drift, sloppiness with fixed steering
and constant speed. During full vehicle modeling these tests are run in the beginning to check if all the joints
and connectors are attached properly and model is test worthy or not. It also gives an idea regarding the
sensitivity of steering and suspension system against road irregularities or wind disturbances.

48
 Figure 32 Vehicle straight line test set-up

The test was run with constant speed and throttle. Steering input was locked. Mode of test was quasi-static
straight line. During the test in the beginning Adams lock the body’s fore-aft and lateral position using
primitive joint. It also tried to keep the vehicle’s yaw rate and lateral acceleration zero. To remove the effect
of any aerodynamic drag and scrub produced by the tyre, the throttle or brake will be adjust ed to match the
initial acceleration. Once the vehicle settles down, it will deactivate the primitive joint before executing the
maneuver. Finally the vehicle is allowed to run according to its geometry.

Test parameters

a) Initial velocity : 50kmph

b) Steering Input : Locked
c) Throttle control : Constant
d) Gear : 4th
e) Road type : Flat
f) Analysis type : Quasi static

Graph 11 Longitudinal vs lateral displacement

For a straight line travel of more than 200m there was negligible lateral displacement. This shows vehicle
has a good straight line driving behavior and in terms of handling it will be quite comfortable.
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 Graph 12 Front steering angle

Front steering angle vs time graph shows there was no need to adjust steering during the maneuver. Little
vibration is observed just after the start but that is the time when driving machine settles down the vehicle
and prepare for the maneuver.

Graph 13 Inclination angle vs time

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 Graph 14 Lateral force vs time

The camber angle change was same for both set of left and right tires. Lateral forces generated in tires were
cancelled being equal and opposite both in front and rear. Thus it was concluded that vehicle has a good
weight distribution and symmetric set up. It is capable of driving in straight line without much steering
correction and is ready for further tests.

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4.7 Single Iso-lane change maneuver
This maneuver is most operated handling maneuver on highways and public roads. The purpose of this
maneuver is to overtake a vehicle appearing infront on a highway or to avoid running over an object/obstacle
appearing suddenly. Since vehicle changes one lane it is called single lane change. While changing lane both
stability and controllability are mainly evaluated by studying steering and yaw characteristics.

Figure 33 Single and double lane change

In this analysis, the driving machine drives the full vehicle through a lane change as specified in ISO-single
lane change document. During analysis, a longitudinal controller maintains the chassis velocity as specified
and later controller module acts on the steering system to maintain the vehicle on the desired lane change
path. Iso_lane_change.dcd file is used to define the manuever and trace on the XY-Plane. This test was
performed for three speeds.

Test procedures:

a) Experiment Name : ISO-Lane change

b) Static setup : Straight
c) Initial speed : 50, 55, 60 kmph
d) Gear Position :3
e) Step size : 0.01
f) Distance : 250 m

52
 Graph 15 Chassis displacement

This test was repeated for three different speeds 50, 55, 60 kmph respectively to evaluate vehicle yaw
behavior. During simulation vehicle did change lane successfully within given parameter but at the end of
maneuver it drifted slightly laterally, evident from above figure. This drift was progressive with the increase
in vehicle speed. That means in real situation by the end of maneuver driver will have to do the steering
correction to bring the vehicle back in straight line.

Graph 16 Yaw rate and steering wheel angle at 50kmph

53
 Graph 17 Yaw rate and steering wheel angle at 55kmph

Graph 18 Yaw rate and steering wheel angle at 60kmph

From the above 3 curves it was observed that at 50 Kmph vehicle’s yaw rate, steer angle and lateral
acceleration were in good phase but as speed increased this phase difference became evident. This difference
in phase depicts that vehicle is not going in the direction where steering points, rather it is drifting away and
it can be dangerous at high speed. Though the phase difference is not very large and vehicle has a top speed
of 70 kmph, the extreme situation is not expected and it will be safe during the maneuver.

54
4.8 Ramp steer

The main purpose of this test is to evaluate the understeer behavior of the vehicle while negotiating a turn.
To simulate the same condition it is planned to run the vehicle in spiral path (as shown in fig.) at constant
speed while changing the radius at constant rate.

Vehicle entry path

Figure 34 ramp steer test

During this analysis, Adams/car ramps up the steering input from an initial value at a specific rate, which in
this case was 5deg/sec. At the end of this test a time-domain transient response metrics is obtained. The most
important quantities which are to be measured include steering wheel angle, yaw rate, vehicle speed, lateral
acceleration and maneuver radius. All these quantities will be used to evaluate the steering behavior. As
Adams/car does not have a default request inbuilt to evaluate understeering characteristics hence it was
calculated in excel manually with the obtained data of steering wheel angle and maneuver radius.

Test parameters:

Figure 35 Ramp steer test parameters

55
Along with the above parameters a separate event was created using event builder option to keep the velocity
constant and steering input changing. First simulation was done with normal conditions then the generated
.xml file was edited to have the desired driver input of keeping speed constant.

Figure 36 Event builder

As the understeer curve is not directly calculated in Adams/car a separate excel file was generated. To
calculate the steer angle at ground a separate simulation for steering system was done in static condition.
Correlating factor between wheel and steering was calculated from the same. It was then multiplied with the
values of steer angle of ramp steer analysis to get the mean steer angle in dynamic condition and then plotted
against L/R.

56
 Graph 19 Steering wheel angle v/s lateral acceleration

From the above graph of lateral acceleration vs steer wheel angle it is evident that as the turning radius was
getting smaller with each step, lateral accelration was continuosly increasing and it went till a limit of 0.9g
after which vehicle was not able to compensate for lateral forces and it started sliding causing a decreasing
trend in lateral acceleration even while steer angle was kept increasing.

Graph 20 Turning radius v/s steer wheel angle

The simulation started with a zero steer angle and a constant ramp steer of 5deg/s was given. This rapidly
reduced the cornering radius to a smaller value of 30m by the end of maneuver required to bring the vehicle
in unstable state.

57
 Graph 21 Yaw rate v/s steer wheel angle

For the first 10sec of maneuver change of yaw rate was in coherence with the steer angle but as it kept
increasing, yaw rate became constant suggesting vehicle was now sliding away from the path.

Graph 22 Velocity v/s steer wheel angle

To evaluate the steering characteristics, this maneuver had to be constant speed but Adams driver was trying
to keep the vehicle in stable state hence it was decreasing the velocity. Driver control file was modified to
keep the vehicle constant at all time and a constant velocity maneuver was obtained.

58
 Understeer_curve
0.12

dδ/(dL/R)=1 dδ/(dL/R)=0
0.1

1 2 3
Unstable
Mean steer angle 'δ' (rad)

0.08

0.06 L/R
dδ/(dL/R)=1
dδ/(dL/R)=0
0.04

0.02

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28
L/R

Graph 23 Understeer curve

From above figure it is observed that vehicle has understeer characteristics in zone 1 as turning radius is
large enough to compensate for lateral forces and as radius decreases it becomes over steer. Further the
driving machine keeps the velocity constant while turning radius is decreased and cornering conditions are
getting sever with each step. Due to this lateral acceleration reaches a level beyond which it cannot be
compensated by lateral weight shift on tires and after that it goes in the unstable state. The point of unstable
state is far severe than the normal driving conditions hence it was concluded that vehicle is safe during
cornering and it would follow the path desired by the driver.

59
5. Conclusion
MSC Adams/Car was selected as multi-body dynamics software for this study and to predict the behavior in
various dynamic conditions without any need of physical test data. A full vehicle model was successfully
created with the input from CAD model and from the data provided by the OEM.

Prior to the modelling in ADAMS, detailed CAD models were prepared according to the market survey and
target values. For preparing the CAD model, company’s CAD database was extensively used. This provided
more time to focus on multi-body system study.

Modelling process was carried out in ADAMS/car 2014 version. Complete model was divided into
subsystems, like front suspension, rear suspension, body and powertrain. Front MacPherson suspension and
rear semi trailing arm suspension were created by modifying the hardpoints and changing other parameters.
Those parameters which were unknown like spring damper rate and weight distribution were either estimated
or left to default values.

To improve the accuracy of the complete model, each subsystem was individually evaluated and tuned.
Parallel and opposite wheel travel analysis was done for both front and rear suspension subsystem.
Unexpected behavior was addressed at subsystem level and any compromises made were documented to
study its effects during full vehicle simulation.

During full vehicle analysis, vehicle was evaluated for straight line stability, lane change and ramp steer
behavior. Vehicle had a very good straight line driving capability. During lane change test at high speed,
vehicle performance was satisfactory as it was deviating from the path and additional steering corrections
were needed. In ramp steer maneuvers vehicle was forced to go in unstable condition which required high
velocity and shorter turning radius. This condition was not expected in real situation.

So conclusively in terms of ride and handling behavior in normal driving conditions, vehicle had good
capabilities. It was worth to prepare a prototype in accordance with the result obtained from the study. For
future works it would be quite useful to perform a four-post test rig analysis and kinematic & compliance
analysis to further assess and optimize tire, suspension parameter and ride comfort of passengers.

60
6. Appendix
6.1 Front assembly hardpoints.
Hardpoint name Symmetry X value Y value Z value
Lca front Left/right 254 -200 -95
Lca outer Left/right 250.2 -609.3 -162.9
Lca rear Left/right 554 -200 -75
Spring lower seat Left/right 267.28 -548 110

Strut lower mount Left/right 257.5 -603.0 -58

Subframe front Left/right -250 -200 -75

Subframe rear Left/right 1000 -200 -75
Tierod inner Left/right 200 -248 -55
Tierod outer Left/right 127 -617.7 -109
Top mount Left/right 291.9 -438 429.7
Wheel center Left/right 254 -670 -109

6.2 Steering system

Hardpoint name Symmetry X value Y value Z value
Intermediate shaft Single 208.13 101.7 162.63
forward
Intermediate shaft Single 357.62 238.5 422.6
rearward
Pinion pivot Single 200.0 -9.59 -55.0
Steering wheel center Single 661.4 248.02 697.81

Rack house mount Left/right 200.0 -238.0 -55.0

Tierod inner Left/right 200.0 -238.0 -55

6.3 Rear suspension system

Hardpoint name Symmetry X value Y value Z value

Subframe fixed Single 0 0 150
Arm inner pivot Left/right 1765 -358 -71
Arm outer pivot Left/right 1749 -682 -89
Arm strut bushing Left/right 2100 -600 -71
Arm strut bushing x Left/right 1700 -555 -71
Arm strut bushing z Left/right 1749 -682 -71

61
Drive shaft inner Left/right 2054 -120 -2
Spring lower seat Left/right 1950 -590 -71
Spring upper seat Left/right 1950 -590 -71
Subframe front Left/right 1500 -682 -89
Subframe rear Left/right 2200 -600 300
Top mount Left/right 2200 -600 300
Wheel center Left/right 2054 -670 -109

6.4 Body subsystem

Hardpoint name Symmertry X value Y value Z value
Path reference Single 0 0 0
Trim dummy Single 852 0 -2.0
Front whel center Left/right 254 0 -2.0
Rear wheel center Left/right 2054 0 -2.0

6.5 Powertrain subsystem

Hard point name Symmetry X value Y value Z value
Graphics reference Single 2000 -90 610
Front engine mount Left/right 1900 -358 -71
Rear engine mount Left/right 2200 -358 -71

6.6 Tire property file.

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE ='tir'
FILE_VERSION =3.0
FILE_FORMAT ='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION : PAC2002
! : COMMENT : Tire 175/70 R13
! : COMMENT : Manufacturer
! : COMMENT : Nom. section with (m) 0.175
! : COMMENT : Nom. aspect ratio (-) 0.80
! : COMMENT : Infl. pressure (Pa) 190000
! : COMMENT : Rim diameter (inch) 12
! : COMMENT : Measurement ID
! : COMMENT : Test speed (m/s) 16.7
! : COMMENT : Road surface
! : COMMENT : Road condition Dry
! : FILE_FORMAT : ASCII
! : Copyright (C) 2004-2011 MSC Software Corporation
!
! USE_MODE specifies the type of calculation performed:
! 0: Fz only, no Magic Formula evaluation
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only

62
! 3: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz uncombined force/moment calculation
! 4: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz combined force/moment calculation
! +10: including relaxation behaviour
! *-1: mirroring of tyre characteristics
!
! example: USE_MODE = -12 implies:
! -calculation of Fy,Mx,Mz only
! -including relaxation effects
! -mirrored tyre characteristics
!
$----------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH ='meter'
FORCE ='newton'
ANGLE ='radians'
MASS ='kg'
TIME ='second'
$----------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='PAC2002'
USE_MODE = 14 $Tyre use switch (IUSED)
VXLOW = 1
LONGVL = 16.7 $Measurement speed
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT' $Mounted side of tyre at
vehicle/test bench
$-----------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS = 0.29 $Free tyre radius
WIDTH = 0.175 $Nominal section width of
the tyre
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.8 $Nominal aspect ratio
RIM_RADIUS = 0.165 $Nominal rim radius
RIM_WIDTH = 0.127 $Rim width
$----------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
$------------------------------------------------------------parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 1.75e+005 $Tyre vertical stiffness
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 50 $Tyre vertical damping
BREFF = 7 $Low load stiffness e.r.r.
DREFF = 0.25 $Peak value of e.r.r.
FREFF = 0.01 $High load stiffness e.r.r.
FNOMIN = 3800 $Nominal wheel load
$------------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN = -1.5 $Minimum valid wheel slip
KPUMAX = 1.5 $Maximum valid wheel slip
$-----------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN = -1.5708 $Minimum valid slip angle
ALPMAX = 1.5708 $Maximum valid slip angle
$-----------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
[INCLINATION_ANGLE_RANGE]
CAMMIN = -0.26181 $Minimum valid camber angle

63
CAMMAX = 0.26181 $Maximum valid camber angle
$-------------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
FZMIN = 190 $Minimum allowed wheel load
FZMAX = 8250 $Maximum allowed wheel load
$--------------------------------------------------------------scaling
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
LFZO = 1 $Scale factor of nominal
(rated) load
LCX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx shape
factor
LMUX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx peak
friction coefficient
LEX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
curvature factor
LKX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx slip
stiffness
LHX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
horizontal shift
LVX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx vertical
shift
LGAX = 1 $Scale factor of camber for
Fx
LCY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy shape
factor
LMUY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy peak
friction coefficient
LEY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
curvature factor
LKY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
cornering stiffness
LHY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
horizontal shift
LVY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy vertical
shift
LGAY = 1 $Scale factor of camber for
Fy
LTR = 1 $Scale factor of Peak of
pneumatic trail
LRES = 1 $Scale factor for offset of
residual torque
LGAZ = 1 $Scale factor of camber for
Mz
LXAL = 1 $Scale factor of alpha
influence on Fx
LYKA = 1 $Scale factor of alpha
influence on Fx
LVYKA = 1 $Scale factor of kappa
induced Fy
LS = 1 $Scale factor of Moment arm
of Fx
LSGKP = 1 $Scale factor of Relaxation
length of Fx
LSGAL = 1 $Scale factor of Relaxation
length of Fy
LGYR = 1 $Scale factor of gyroscopic
torque
LMX = 1 $Scale factor of overturning
couple

64
LVMX = 1 $Scale factor of Mx vertical
shift
LMY = 1 $Scale factor of rolling
resistance torque
$---------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCX1 = 1.5587 $Shape factor Cfx for
longitudinal force
PDX1 = 1.09 $Longitudinal friction Mux
at Fznom
PDX2 = -0.079328 $Variation of friction Mux
with load
PDX3 = 9.9376e-006 $Variation of friction Mux
with camber
PEX1 = 0.27403 $Longitudinal curvature Efx
at Fznom
PEX2 = 0.10232 $Variation of curvature Efx
with load
PEX3 = 0.074903 $Variation of curvature Efx
with load squared
PEX4 = -0.00026944 $Factor in curvature Efx
while driving
PKX1 = 19.733 $Longitudinal slip stiffness
Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2 = 0.093405 $Variation of slip stiffness
Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3 = 0.12433 $Exponent in slip stiffness
Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1 = -0.001779 $Horizontal shift Shx at
Fznom
PHX2 = 0.00021808 $Variation of shift Shx with
load
PVX1 = -9.9052e-006 $Vertical shift Svx/Fz at
Fznom
PVX2 = -2.8568e-005 $Variation of shift Svx/Fz
with load
RBX1 = 14.927 $Slope factor for combined
slip Fx reduction
RBX2 = -10.534 $Variation of slope Fx
reduction with kappa
RCX1 = 1.1288 $Shape factor for combined
slip Fx reduction
REX1 = 0.62334 $Curvature factor of
combined Fx
REX2 = -0.0039079 $Curvature factor of
combined Fx with load
RHX1 = 0.001683 $Shift factor for combined
slip Fx reduction
PTX1 = 1.9021 $Relaxation length
SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2 = -0.0014739 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz
with load
PTX3 = 0.03631 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz
with exponent of load
$----------------------------------------------------------overturning
[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSX1 = 0 $Lateral force induced
overturning moment

65
QSX2 = 0 $Camber induced overturning
couple
QSX3 = 0 $Fy induced overturning
couple
$--------------------------------------------------------------lateral
[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCY1 = 1.4675 $Shape factor Cfy for
lateral forces
PDY1 = 0.94002 $Lateral friction Muy
PDY2 = -0.17669 $Variation of friction Muy
with load
PDY3 = -0.69602 $Variation of friction Muy
with squared camber
PEY1 = 0.0040023 $Lateral curvature Efy at
Fznom
PEY2 = 0.00085719 $Variation of curvature Efy
with load
PEY3 = 41.465 $Zero order camber
dependency of curvature Efy
PEY4 = 665.25 $Variation of curvature Efy
with camber
PKY1 = -12.536 $Maximum value of stiffness
Kfy/Fznom
PKY2 = 1.3856 $Load at which Kfy reaches
maximum value
PKY3 = -0.93342 $Variation of Kfy/Fznom with
camber
PHY1 = 0.0024749 $Horizontal shift Shy at
Fznom
PHY2 = 0.0037538 $Variation of shift Shy with
load
PHY3 = 0.037561 $Variation of shift Shy with
camber
PVY1 = 0.031255 $Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at
Fznom
PVY2 = -0.0017359 $Variation of shift Svy/Fz
with load
PVY3 = -0.38166 $Variation of shift Svy/Fz
with camber
PVY4 = -0.033117 $Variation of shift Svy/Fz
with camber and load
RBY1 = 5.5228 $Slope factor for combined
Fy reduction
RBY2 = 2.7966 $Variation of slope Fy
reduction with alpha
RBY3 = 0.08688 $Shift term for alpha in
slope Fy reduction
RCY1 = 1.0783 $Shape factor for combined
Fy reduction
REY1 = 0.055543 $Curvature factor of
combined Fy
REY2 = -0.0022958 $Curvature factor of
combined Fy with load
RHY1 = -0.0027141 $Shift factor for combined
Fy reduction
RHY2 = -0.00098972 $Shift factor for combined
Fy reduction with load
RVY1 = 0.0076305 $Kappa induced side force
Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom

66
RVY2 = -0.09933 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with load
RVY3 = 0.16991 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with camber
RVY4 = -9.6324e-005 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with alpha
RVY5 = 1.9 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with kappa
RVY6 = 0 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with atan(kappa)
PTY1 = 1.8473 $Peak value of relaxation
length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2 = 1.9465 $Value of Fz/Fznom where
SigAlp0 is extreme
$---------------------------------------------------rolling resistance
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01 $Rolling resistance torque
coefficient
QSY2 = 0 $Rolling resistance torque
depending on Fx
QSY3 = 0 $Rolling resistance torque
depending on speed
QSY4 = 0 $Rolling resistance torque
depending on speed ^4
$-------------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QBZ1 = 9.2824 $Trail slope factor for
trail Bpt at Fznom
QBZ2 = -2.6095 $Variation of slope Bpt with
load
QBZ3 = -0.86548 $Variation of slope Bpt with
load squared
QBZ4 = -0.16332 $Variation of slope Bpt with
camber
QBZ5 = -0.35511 $Variation of slope Bpt with
absolute camber
QBZ9 = 13.946 $Slope factor Br of residual
torque Mzr
QBZ10 = 0 $Slope factor Br of residual
torque Mzr
QCZ1 = 1.1119 $Shape factor Cpt for
pneumatic trail
QDZ1 = 0.14332 $Peak trail Dpt" =
Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2 = -0.0062385 $Variation of peak Dpt" with
load
QDZ3 = -0.43424 $Variation of peak Dpt" with
camber
QDZ4 = -8.1598 $Variation of peak Dpt" with
camber squared
QDZ6 = -0.0073867 $Peak residual torque Dmr" =
Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7 = 0.0016767 $Variation of peak factor
Dmr" with load
QDZ8 = -0.17212 $Variation of peak factor
Dmr" with camber
QDZ9 = -0.033444 $Variation of peak factor
Dmr" with camber and load

67
QEZ1 = -2.9203 $Trail curvature Ept at
Fznom
QEZ2 = -0.91079 $Variation of curvature Ept
with load
QEZ3 = 0 $Variation of curvature Ept
with load squared
QEZ4 = 0.32935 $Variation of curvature Ept
with sign of Alpha-t
QEZ5 = -1.9083 $Variation of Ept with
camber and sign Alpha-t
QHZ1 = 0.0019422 $Trail horizontal shift Sht
at Fznom
QHZ2 = 0.0034645 $Variation of shift Sht with
load
QHZ3 = 0.14727 $Variation of shift Sht with
camber
QHZ4 = -0.035133 $Variation of shift Sht with
camber and load
SSZ1 = 0.026243 $Nominal value of s/R0:
effect of Fx on Mz
SSZ2 = -0.013391 $Variation of distance s/R0
with Fy/Fznom
SSZ3 = 0.3923 $Variation of distance s/R0
with camber
SSZ4 = -0.16022 $Variation of distance s/R0
with load and camber
QTZ1 = 0.2 $Gyration torque constant
MBELT = 3.5 $Belt mass of the wheel
$-----------------------------------------------contact patch parameters
! 3D contact can be switched on by deleting the comment ! character
! When no further coefficients are specified, default values will be taken
![CONTACT_COEFFICIENTS]
CONTACT_MODEL = '3D_ENVELOPING'

REFERENCES
[1] The Multibody Systems Approach to Vehicle Dynamics, Mike Blundell and Damian Harty

[2] Tune to win, by Caroll smith

[3] Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics- by Gillespie

[4] Jazar - Vehicle Dynamics - Theory and Application (Springer, 2008)

68
[5] Road and off-road vehicle system dynamics handbook, edited by- Giampiero Mastinu and Manfred
Ploechl
[6] Race car vehicle dynamics – Milliken and Milliken
[7] Subjective Evaluation and Vehicle Behavior in Lane-Change Maneuvers
[8] http://mech.unibg.it/~lorenzi/VD&S/Matlab/Tire/tire_models_pac2002.pdf
[9]
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/265323638_Technical_Report_on_Virtual_Prototyping_of_G
round_Vehicles
[10] http://paws.kettering.edu//~amazzei/student_guide.pdf
[11]
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/268351344_Simulation_analysis_and_optimization_design_o
f_front_suspension_based_on_ADAMS
[12] http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02982435
[13] http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00423110801956232
[14] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094114X07000213

[15]https://www.scribd.com/doc/25487188/Using-Adams-PostProcessor-MD-Adams-2010

[16] http://forums.mscsoftware.com/adams/postlist.php?Cat=&Board=car

[17] https://simcompanion.mscsoftware.com/infocenter/index?page=home

[18] https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/ibr/005/sae.j1100.2001.html

[19]file:///C:/MSC.Software/Adams_x64/2014/help/adams_car/wwhelp/wwhimpl/js/html/wwhelp.htm#hre
f=welcome.html

[20] http://www.fsae.com/forums/forumdisplay.php?45-Open-FSAE-Discussion

[21] http://www.eng-tips.com/viewthread.cfm?qid=389983

[22] http://www.millikenresearch.com/rcvd.html

[23] http://www.f1technical.net/forum/

[24] http://papers.sae.org/800845/

[25]http://www.sae.org/servlets/product%3BWebLogicSession%3FPROD_TYP%3DSTD%26PARENT_BPA
_C
D%3DGV%26TECH_CD%3DTIRES

[26] http://www.optimumg.com/technical/technical-papers/

[27] https://uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/handle/10012/7824

[28]https://antonaengineering.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/jon_fernandez_de_antona_beng_project_exc
erpt3.pdf

69