Lecture 5/12: Euler’s Formula and de

Moivre’s Theorem
MA154: Algebra for 1st Year IT

Niall Madden

Niall.Madden@NUIGalway.ie

1 Feb 2007

CS457 — Lecture 5/12: Euler’s Formula and de Moivre’s Theorem 1/16

 Outline

1 Recall...
Polar form
Euler’s formula
Binomial expansions and de Moivre’s Theorem

2 Applications of de Moirve’s Theorem:

3 Roots of Unity

4 Primitive roots

5 Geometry of the roots of unity

The 8th roots of Unity

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 Recall... Polar form

Polar form of the complex number z = x + i y is

z = (r cos θ, r sin θ) = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

where
r = |z|
and
θ is the angle in the Argand plane that the line joining z to the
origin makes with the real axis. That is
y r sin θ sin θ
= = = tan θ.
x r cos θ cos θ

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 Recall... Euler’s formula

For θ ∈ R define Euler’s formula

exp(i θ) = e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ

So can write the polar form of z 6= 0 as

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) = r e i θ .

CS457 — Lecture 5/12: Euler’s Formula and de Moivre’s Theorem 4/16

 Recall... Binomial expansions and de Moivre’s Theorem

The Binomial Theorem:

Xn  
n n−k k
 
n n!
n
(a + b) = a b where = .
k k k! (n − k)!
k=0

De Moivre’s Theorem is:

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ for all n ∈ Z.

CS457 — Lecture 5/12: Euler’s Formula and de Moivre’s Theorem 5/16

 Applications of de Moirve’s Theorem:

Example: Show that cos2 θ = 12 (cos 2θ + 1).

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 Applications of de Moirve’s Theorem:
Exercise: Show that 16 cos4 θ = 2 cos 4θ + 2 cos 2θ + 6.
(Hint: use the previous identity for cos2 θ.

16 cos4 θ
15

10

−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8

3
2 cos 4 θ
2 2 cos 2 θ

−1

−2

−3
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8

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 Roots of Unity

There are two complex numbers that are solutions to the problem

Find z such that z 2 = 1.

They are z = 1 and z = −1. These are the “Square roots of

Unity”.1

1
We say “Unity” when we mean 1 .
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 Roots of Unity

What about the 4th Roots of Unity (numbers z such that

z 4 = 1)? Clearly 1 and −1 will do. But so too will i and −i.

Definition: Roots of Unity

A complex number z with z n = 1 (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) is called an nth
root of unity .

When trying to find them, its often best to try to solve z n − 1 = 0.

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 Roots of Unity

Example
Find the 3rd roots of unity. Write the complex ones in the form
e iθ .

Solution:

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 Roots of Unity

It turns out that every root of unity is of the form e iθ for a

suitable θ:

n
(e iθ )n = cos θ + i sin θ = cos nθ + i sin nθ = 1.

So nθ must be 0, or 2π or 4π or ...
Important: z = e iθ is an nth root of unity if
2kπ
θ= for some k ∈ Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 . . . }.
n

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 Roots of Unity

z = e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ is an nth root of unity if

2kπ
θ= for some k ∈ Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 . . . }.
n

Example:
The 3rd roots of unity are given by taking θ = 0, 32 π and − 23 π:

z1 = cos 0 + i sin 0 =
2
2

z2 = cos π + i sin π =
3 3
2
2

z3 = cos − π + i sin − π =
3 3

CS457 — Lecture 5/12: Euler’s Formula and de Moivre’s Theorem 12/16

 Primitive roots
Definition: Primitive root
An nth root of unity ωn is called Primitive if are all roots of unity
are powers of it.

Example
The 4th roots are 1, i , −1 and − i . Both i and −i are primitive
because:

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 Primitive roots

Example
The 8th roots of unity are the solutions to z 8 = 1. These are
√ √ √ √
{1, 2
2√ + i 2
2√, i, − 2
2√ + i 2
2√,
− 22 − i 22 , 2 − i 2 }
2 2
−1, −i ,

Which are primitive?

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 Geometry of the roots of unity

The nth roots of unity are the vertices of a regular polygons

(equilateral triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon ...) on the unit
circle!!
Example

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 Geometry of the roots of unity The 8th roots of Unity

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