DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Some of the Scientists who contributed to the Development of the

Periodic Table:
1. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (German scientist)
He arranged the then known elements into groups of three which he
called  “Triads”.  

Examples:
Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine
Lithium, Sodium and Potassium
Calcium, Strontium and Barium
Sulfur, Selenium and Tellurium
Manganese, Iron and Cobalt

He observed that the atomic mass of the middle element is

approximately the arithmetical mean of the other two. The same is true
with their properties
Cl = 35 amu , gas, very active
Br = 80 amu , liquid , active
I = 127 amu, solid, less active
35 + 127 = 81
2
What were the limitations of Dobereiner’s arrangement?

All the elements known at that time could not be arranged as

Dobereiner's triad's
Example: Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Arsenic
Nitrogen = 14.0 amu
Phosphorus = 31.0 amu
Arsenic = 75.0 amu
2. John Alexander Reina Newland
He observed that when the elements were placed in the order of
increasing atomic masses, similarities in chemical and physical properties
reappeared with each eight element. He called his arrangement the “Law
of Octaves”
 Li Be B C N O F
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
do re mi fa so la ti

What  were  the  limitations  of  Newland’s  periodic  table?

 it worked only up to the element Calcium

 It failed to accomodate the heavier elements

 It left no space for elements that were discovered later

 after the discovery of inert gases, the idea of octaves
failed to work
In  1887,  Newland’s  work  was  honored by the Royal Society of London
for his contributions.
3. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (Russian Chemist)

He arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic weights

 His arrangement was based on the regular, periodic recurrence
of the properties of the elements.
 His arrangement of the elements was called the Periodic Table and
his work became the basis for the system used today.
Reihen Gruppe I Gruppe Gruppe III Gruppe IV Gruppe Gruppe Gruppe Gruppe VIII
II V VI VII
1 H=1

2 Li=7 Be=9.4 B=11 C=12 N=14 O=16 F=19

3 Na=23 Mg=24 Al=27.3 Si=28 P=31 S=32 Cl=35.5

4 K=39 Ca=40 __=44 Tl=48 V=51 Cr=52 Mn=55 Fe=56,Co=59,

Ni=59,Cu=63
5 Cu=63 Zn=65 __=68 __=72 As=75 Se=78 Br=80
-------
6 Rb=85 Sr=87 ?Yt=88 Zr=90 Nb=94 Mo=96 __=100 Ru=104,Rh=1
04
7 Ag=108 Cd=112 In=113 Sn=118 Sb=122 Te=125 J=127 Pd=106,
Ag=108
8 Cs=133 Ba=137 ?Di=138 ?Ce=140
------- ------ ------ -------
9
------ ------- ------ ------- ------
10 ?Er=178 ?La=180 Ta=180 W=184 Os=195
------- ----- Ir-197
11 Au=199 Hg=200 Tl=204 Pb=207 Bi=208 Pt=198,
------ Au=199
12 Th=231 U=240
Mendeleev proposed the Periodic Law which  states  that:  “The  properties  
of  the  elements  are  periodic  functions  of  their  atomic  masses.”

His  classification  was  a  great  improvement  over  Newland’s  in  2  ways:

• it grouped the elements together more accurately

according to their properties
• it predicted the properties of several elements
that had not yet been discovered
Ex. Discovery of eka-aluminum

He was called the Father of the Periodic Table

What  were  the  limitations  of  Mendeleev’s  periodic  table?

 The position of hydrogen was not correctly defined

 In some cases Mendeleev placed elements according to their

similarities in properties and not in increasing order of their
atomic masses, while some dissimilar elements were grouped
together
 Fourteen elements that follow lanthanum called lanthanides
and fourteen elements following actinium called actinides
were not given proper places in Mendeleev's periodic table
 argon was placed before potassium whereas its atomic mass is
more than potassium.
4. Henry Gywn Jeffreys Moseley (English scientist)

He classified the elements according to increasing atomic number

• order of increasing atomic number is the same as the order
of increasing atomic mass with only a few exceptions.
He proposed the Modern Periodic Law which  states  that:  “The  physical  
and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their
atomic  numbers”
OLD PERIODIC TABLE
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
FEATURES OF THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
1. Vertical columns are called groups or families

Long vertical columns – Representative elements or Group A

Short vertical columns – Transition elements or Group B
2. Horizontal rows are called periods or series
GAP
3. Family no. or group no. corresponds to the outermost electrons of the
elements. Outermost electrons are called valence electrons

group no.
 4. Period no. or series no. corresponds to the outermost main energy
level occupied by the valence electrons

Period 1
Period 2
Period 3
Period 4

Period 6
5. Block-type of elements
s – block type – elements that have their outer electrons occupying the
s- orbital
p – block type – elements that have their outer electrons occupying the
s- orbital and ending in p-orbital
d – block type – elements that have their electrons occupying the s and
p-orbitals and ending in d-orbital
f – block type – elements that have their outer electrons occupying the
s, p, d-orbitals and ending in f-orbital
6. Generally, all s, d and f-block type elements are metals and all p-block
type elements are non-metals
7. If the period no. is greater than the group no. , the element is a metal; If the
period no. is less than the group no. , the element is a non-metal; If the period
no. is equal to the group no. or the group no. is greater than the period no. by
1, the element is a metalloid

Examples:
Metals : Na, Ca, Ba, Rb

Non-metals : N, Cl, Br, O

Metalloids : Ge, Sb, Po, B, Si, As

 PERIODIC PROPERTIES
Periodic properties – properties that are repeated at definite intervals

1. Atomic size or atomic radius – refers to the sizes of atoms

Trend in the Periodic Table

Within a Group / Top to Bottom :
- As the atomic number increases, atomic size also increases

Across a Period / Left to Right :

- As the atomic no. increases, atomic size decreases

 2.5
K
2
Na
1.5 Li

Xe
1
Ar Kr
e
0.5 Ne

He
0
0 20 40 60

What elements are at the peak of the graph?

Li , Na & K - Group IA Alkali Metals
What elements are at the bottom of the graph?
He, Ne, Ar, Kr & Xe - Group 8A Inert Gases
Examples:
No. of Energy Levels occupied by electrons:
Period 2 3 Li = 2 ) 1 2 energy levels

Period 3 11 Na = 2 ) 8 ) 1 3 energy levels

Period 4 19 K = 2)8)8)1 4 energy levels

Examples:
No. of Energy Levels occupied by electrons:
Period 2 10 Ne = 2 ) 8 2 energy levels

Period 3 18 Ar = 2 ) 8 ) 8 3 energy levels

Period 4 36 Kr = 2 ) 8 ) 18 ) 8 4 energy levels

Period 5 54 Xe = 2 ) 8 ) 18 ) 18 ) 8 5 energy levels

 Examples:
No. of Energy Levels occupied by electrons:
Group 1 11 Na = 2 ) 8 ) 1 3 energy levels

Group 3 13 Al = 2 ) 8 ) 3 3 energy levels

Group 5 15 P = 2)8)5 3 energy levels

Group 7 17 Cl = 2 ) 8 ) 7 3 energy levels

Nuclear charge – is the electrostatic force of attraction which is equal to

the atomic number or the number of protons
Effective nuclear charge (Z eff)– equals the no. of protons in the nucleus (Z),
minus the no. of inner electrons (S)

Z eff = Z - S

NOTE: An increase in the nuclear charge of the atoms in the same period
causes the atoms to shrink
Exercises
1. Choose the biggest element
a. Sr , Ba , Ca
b. Ge , Si , C
c. Fe , Ti , Ga
d. S , Na , Si
2. Arrange the elements in order of decreasing atomic size
a. Ni , K , O , Sn , V
b. Pb , S , Ba , Cl , Mn
2. Ionization energy – energy required to remove an electron from a neutral
atom
Examples:

Na + energy Na + + e-
Neutral atom cation

First Ionization energy – is the amount of energy needed to remove the first
electron from a neutral atom
Trend in the Periodic Table
Within a group / Top to Bottom :
- As the atomic no. increases, ionization energy decreases
NOTE:
Low ionization energy means that a low amount of energy is needed to
remove an electron from a neutral atom and high ionization energy means that
the atom is stable and requires a high amount of energy to remove an electron
from that atom
Across a period / Left to right :
- As the atomic no. increases, ionization energy increases
Exercises :

1. Choose the element with the lowest ionization energy

a. Co and Ir
b. Rb and Na
c. P and Sb
2. Choose the element with the highest ionization energy
a. Ni and Ge
b. Pt and Cs
c. Cl and Al
3. Arrange the elements in order of increasing ionization energy
a. W , As , Sc , Fr , C
b. Zn , Mg , Pd , O , I
 3. Electron affinity – is the energy change that occurs when an electron is
added to a neutral atom in the gaseous state ; it measures the attraction or
affinity of the atom for the added electron
Examples:
Cl + e- Cl - + energy
Neutral atom anion

What is the difference between Ionization energy and Electron affinity?

Ionization energy measures the ease with which an atom loses an
electron whereas Electron affinity measures the ease with which an atom
gains an electron.
Why do inert gases have positive electron affinity?
For some atoms, electron affinity is positive because the anions
formed from these neutral atoms have higher energy making the atoms
unstable. The formation of anions for some atoms is energetically unfavorable.

What does a more negative electron affinity mean?

A more negative electron affinity means that the atom has a
greater attraction to the added electron
 50
He N Ne Mg Ar Ca Kr Xe
0
-50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

-100
-150
-200
-250
-300 I
-350 F Br
Cl
-400
Trend in the Periodic Table
Within a group / Top to Bottom
-As the atomic no. increases, electron affinity decreases
Across a period / Left to Right
-As the atomic no. increases, electron affinity also increases

4. Electronegativity – the ability of an atom to attract an electron to

itself

Trend in the Periodic Table

-From top to bottom of the periodic table, electronegativity decreases.
-From left to right of the periodic table, electronegativity increases
NOTE:
The most electronegative element in the periodic table is
Fluorine
5. Ionic size – size of ion formed from the neutral atom

Examples
Na + energy Na + + e-

- The cation formed is smaller than its neutral atom

Cl + e- Cl - + energy

- The anion formed is bigger than its neutral atom

6. Metallic and Non-metallic strength

Trend in the Periodic Table

Metallic character
From top to bottom of the periodic table, metallic
strength increases ; From left to right of the periodic table,
metallic strength decreases

Non-metallic strength
From top to bottom of the periodic table, non-metallic
strength decreases ; From left to right of the periodic table, non-
metallic strength increases.