Computer Networks BCA VI Sem

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Computer Networks and its Applications, Network Structure,

Network Architecture, Topologies, LAN, WAN, MAN, the OSI
Reference Model, the TCP/IP Reference Model, Services, Network
Standard, Example Networks

Computer Networks

A computer network is developed by linking computer systems

together. The network includes the computer systems, the
connections and the hardware needed to allow the communication.

Large Computers, Mini Computers and Microcomputers are

interconnected into all types of configurations. These systems are
called Computer Networks or Information Networks

Networking is the sharing of information and services. Computer

Networking provides the communication tools to allow computers to
share information and abilities.

Computer Networking technologies are generally based on the

following
 Centralized Computing: Large centralized computers
called mainframes, are used to store and organize data. The
data will be entered on to mainframes using local devices
called terminals. The mainframe provides all the data storage
and computational abilities; the terminal is simply a remote
input/output device.
 Distributed Computing: The personal computers have
their own processing capabilities are used for the Distributed
Computing. The application is divided into tasks, and each
task is assigned to a computer for processing.
 Collaborative Computing: It is a type of distributed
computing using networked computers that collaborate by
sharing the processing abilities. It allows computers to request
processing resources from other computers as needed.

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In addition, the following models are used to categorize the way

networking services are provided:
 Client/Server Computing: In the Client/Server computing
model, several clients [PCs] are connected to a server [PC].
In this model, Processing capabilities are distributed across
multiple machines. Clients request services from servers.
The server performs some of the processing for the client.
 Client/Network Computing: In this model users log in to
a network and connect to a set of services rather than to a
specific server.

Required Network Elements:

All networks require the following elements
 Something to share: Network Services
 A pathway for contacting others: Transmission Media
 The rules for communication: Protocols

Benefits of Computer Networks:

 Sharing information: The computer can help you to
centralize the information and maintain control over it.
 Sharing hardware resources: A network allows
sharing of printers, fax, modems, scanners, tape backup units or
almost any other device that can be attached to a computer.
 Sharing of Software resources: Administrator can
centrally install and configure the software and also restrict
access to the software.
 Preserving information: A network also allows for
information to be backed up to a central location.
 Protecting information: A network provides a more
secure environment for a company's important information than
stand-alone computers.
 Electronic -mail (e-mail): The computer network can
also help people communicate by e-mail. You can attach
electronic documents to mail message like photo, sound and
video clip.

Applications of Networks
Computer Networks are used in every field, starting from
traditional uses at companies and for individuals and then move on to
recent developments regarding mobile users and home networking.

Business Applications: Many companies have a substantial

number of computers. For example, a company may have
separate computers to monitor production, keep track of
inventories, and do the payroll. Initially, each of these computers
may have worked in isolation from the others, but at some point,
management may have decided to connect them to be able to
extract and correlate information about the entire company.

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Put in slightly more general form, the issue here is resource

sharing, and the goal is to make all programs, equipment, and
especially data available to anyone on the network without
regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.

Home Applications: Initially, the computers were used for

word processing and games, but in recent years that picture has
changed radically. Probably the biggest reason now is for Internet
access. Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home
users are as follows:

1. Access to remote information.

2. Person-to-person communication.
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.

Access to remote information comes in many forms. It can

be surfing the World Wide Web for information or just for fun.
Information available includes the arts, business, cooking,
government, health, history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports,
travel, and many others. Fun comes in too many ways to
mention, plus some ways that are better left unmentioned.

Mobile Users: Mobile computers, such as notebook

computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), are one of the

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fastest-growing segments of the computer industry. Many owners

of these computers have desktop machines back at the office
and want to be connected to their home base even when away
from home or en route. Since having a wired connection is
impossible in cars and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in
wireless networks. In this section we will briefly look at some of
the uses of wireless networks.

Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing

Social Issues: The widespread introduction of networking

has introduced new social, ethical, and political problems. Let us
just briefly mention a few of them; a thorough study would
require a full book, at least. A popular feature of many networks
are newsgroups or bulletin boards whereby people can exchange
messages with like-minded individuals. As long as the subjects
are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not
too many problems will arise.

Network Applications can be broadly looked upon as

1. With access to remote programs: A model program of a company
or a corporation is available to all its clients.
2. With access to remote database/information: Stored information
or a database can be accessible anywhere in the network by any
nodes of the network.
3. Person-to-Person Communication [Communication Medium]:
Network potential is in e-mail containing digitized voice, still
pictures, video images and a vast amount of information.
4. Establishing the interactive environment: This is a huge and
growing industry – video on demand is an example.

Network Structure

In any network there exists

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 A Collection of Stations
 A set of Nodes (IMPs)
 Communication Channels
Collection of Stations: These may be computers, terminals,
telephones or other communicating devices. These are also called as
Hosts, or End Systems. Each station is attached to a Network Node.
The stations are connected by the communication subnetworks and are
called as Subnets. These carry messages from host and consist of
transmission lines and switching elements.

Switching Elements (Nodes or IMPs): These are used to connect

two or more transmission lines. Special computers may also be used
for the same purpose. The purpose of the switching element is to
choose an outgoing line and forward the data arriving on an incoming
line. All traffic to or from the host has to go via its IMP. These are also
called Packet Switched Node or Data Switching Exchange or
Intermediate System.

Communication Channels: The set of nodes to which stations are

attached is the boundary of the communication network.
Communication Network only moves the data from source to the
destination. Transmission lines are the communication channels
capable of moving bits between the computers.

Computer Network Architecture

To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized

as a stack of layers or levels, each one built upon the one below it. The
number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer,
and the function of each layer differ from network to network. The
purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers,
shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are
actually implemented. In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual
machine, offering certain services to the layer above it.

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Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on

another machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation
are collectively known as the layer n (Ex. layer 4) protocol. Basically, a
protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.

In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one

machine to layer n on another machine. Instead, each layer passes
data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until
the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium
through which actual communication occurs. In Fig., virtual
communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication
by solid lines

Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The

interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower
layer makes available to the upper one.

A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. The

specification of an architecture must contain enough information to
allow an implementer to write the program or build the hardware for
each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.

A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how

communications should take place. It addresses all the processes
required for effective communication and divides these processes into
logical groupings called Layers. When a communication system is
designed in this manner, it’s known as Layered Architecture.

Network Architecture Features

 Addressing
 Packet Size

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 Access Mechanism
 Timeouts
 Error Recovery
 Status Reporting
 Routing
 User Access Control
 Connection-Oriented or Connectionless

Network Topologies

Network topology are the physical layout of the network that the
locations of the computers and how the cable is run between them. It is
important to use the right topology. Each topology has its own
strengths and weakness.

Basic Design of any network is referred as Network Topology.

Following are some of the Topologies:

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Bus:
 All nodes in a same cable.
 When computer send data, it is broadcasted to all
nodes.
 Destination computer read message others ignores
it.
 Used in small Office.
 Need terminate at each node to avoid echo.
 Advantages
– Simple, inexpensive, easy to operate & reliable.
 Disadvantages
– If cable break entire network can be affected.
– Slow during peek hour.

Star:
 All computers connect Network through Central
device usually a hub.
 Advantages
– No risk of entire network failure.
– Easy to troubleshoot.
– Centralized network monitoring & Management
 Disadvantages
– If hub fails, whole network will be down.

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Ring:
 No central connection point.
 Cable connects one node to another till it forms a
ring.
 Messages will be processed from each computer
forming a ring.
 Message sends back to sender in case there is no
receiver.
 Advantages
– Equal access to all computers.
– Performance is equal in peek period also.
– Can perform well with heavy network traffic also.
 Disadvantage
– Expansion or reconfiguration will affect network operations.

Hybrid:
 Different topologies can be combined & can be used
for enterprise Network.
 Larger network combine Bus , Star & Ring topologies.
 Star Ring
– Two or more star topologies are connected using MAU as a
centralized hub.
 Star Bus
– Two or more star topologies are connected using a Bus
“trunk”.
– Bus trunk Servers are network backbones.
 Advantages
– Network Expansion is relatively simple.
– Network not affects if some computer fails.
 Disadvantages
– If Hub malfunctions, computers on the hub will be unable to
communicate.
 Backbone

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– The highest level in the computer network hierarchy, to

which smaller networks typically connects.

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 Media
– Any material that allows data to flow through it or be
stored on it. Include hard disk, floppy disk, wire, cable &
fiber optics.

Mesh:
 Connects devices with multiple paths so the
redundancy exists.
 All devices are cross connected so the best path can
be chosen at any given movement.
 Advantages
– If one connection terminates, data will be delivered
through another.
 Disadvantages
– Additional Hardware cost.

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Local Area Network [LAN]

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned

networks within a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in
size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information.

LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three

characteristics:

1. their size
2. their transmission technology
3. their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case

transmission time is bounded and known in advance simplifying
network management.

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LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to

which all the machines are attached, like the telephone company party
lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10
Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds),
and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

Various topologies are possible for broadcast LANs. Below figure

shows two of them.

Depending on how the channel is allocated, broadcast networks

can be further divided into

1. Static: A typical static allocation would be to divide time

into discrete intervals and use a round-robin algorithm, allowing
each machine to broadcast only when its time slot comes up.
2. Dynamic: Dynamic allocation methods for a common
channel are either centralized or decentralized. In the centralized
channel allocation method, there is a single entity, for example, a
bus arbitration unit, which determines who goes next.

Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-

known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in
many cities. But from their inception until the late 1990s, they were
intended for television reception only.

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Starting when the Internet attracted a mass audience, the cable

TV network operators began to realize that with some changes to the
system, they could provide two-way Internet service in unused parts of
the spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from
a way to distribute television to a metropolitan area network. To a first
approximation, a MAN might look something like the system shown in
Fig. In this figure we see both television signals and Internet being fed
into the centralized head end for subsequent distribution to people's
homes.

Cable television is not the only MAN. Recent developments in

high-speed wireless Internet access resulted in another MAN, which has
been standardized as IEEE 802.16. We will look at this area in Chap. 2.

Wide Area Networks

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area,

often a country or continent. It contains a collection of machines
intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will follow
traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The hosts are
connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The
hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers),
whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by
a telephone company or Internet Service Provider [ISPs]. The job of the
subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone
system carries words from speaker to listener. Separation of the pure
communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the
application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network
design.

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In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct

components: transmission lines and switching elements. Transmission
lines move bits between machines. Switching elements are specialized
computers that connect three or more transmission lines. These
switching computers have been called by various names in the past;
the name router is now most commonly used.

In this model, shown in Fig. below, each host is frequently

connected to a LAN on which a router is present, although in some
cases a host can be connected directly to a router. The collection of
communication lines and routers (but not the hosts) form the subnet.

The principle of a packet-switched WAN is so important that it is

worth devoting a few more words to it. Generally, when a process on
some host has a message to be sent to a process on some other host,
the sending host first cuts the message into packets, each one bearing
its number in the sequence. Then these packets are sent across the
network.

Not all WANs are packet switched. A second possibility for a WAN
is a satellite system. Satellite networks are inherently broadcast and
are most useful when the broadcast property is important.

Design Issues for Layers

1. A mechanism for connection to be established is needed as a
network has many computers with multiple processors.

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2. A mechanism for terminating the connection.

3. Rules for movement of data – Simplex/Half-Duplex/Full-Duplex
4. Error control is needed, as communication circuits are not ideal.
5. Sequencing and Synchronizing of messages.
6. Mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting and reassembling of
messages.
7. Multiplexing and de-multiplexing of messages.
8. Routing and flow control between source and destination.

Reference Models

Some of the Computer Communication Architectures are:

 IBM’s SNA
 DECnet’s DNA
 ISO OSI*
 TCP/IP*
*Reference Models

Advantages of Reference Models

Advantages of using the OSI layered model include, but are not
limited to, the following:

 It divides the network communication process into

smaller and simpler components, thus aiding component
development, design, and troubleshooting.
 It allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.
 It encourages industry standardization by defining
what functions occur at each layer of the model.
 It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers, so it does not hamper development.

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The OSI Reference Model

The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that
is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. We
will just call it the OSI model for short. One of the greatest functions of
the OSI specifications is to assist in data transfer between disparate
hosts—meaning, for example, that they enable us to transfer data
between a Unix host and a PC or a Mac.

The OSI isn’t a physical model, though. Rather, it’s a set of

guidelines that application developers can use to create and
implement applications that run on a network. It also provides a
framework for creating and implementing networking standards,
devices, and internetworking schemes.

The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups.

o The top three layers define how the applications

within the end stations will communicate with each other and with
users. None of the upper layers knows anything about networking or
network addresses.

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o The bottom four layers define how data is

transmitted end-to-end. Four bottom layers define how data is
transferred through a physical wire or through switches and routers.
These bottom layers also determine how to rebuild a data stream
from a transmitting host to a destination host’s application

Network devices that operate at all seven layers of the OSI model
include

o Network management stations (NMS)

o Web and application servers
o Gateways (not default gateways)
o Network hosts

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied
to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different

abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined
function.

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3. The function of each layer should be chosen

with an eye toward defining internationally standardized
protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to
minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough
that distinct functions need not be thrown together in the same
layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture
does not become unwieldy.

The Application Layer

The Application layer of the OSI model marks the spot where
users actually communicate to the computer. This layer only comes
into play when it’s apparent that access to the network is going to be
needed soon. And what’s happening is that the Application layer is
acting as an interface between the actual application program—which
isn’t at all a part of the layered structure—and the next layer down, by
providing ways for the application to send information down through
the protocol stack.

The Application layer is also responsible for identifying and

establishing the availability of the intended communication partner,
and determining whether sufficient resources for the intended
communication exist.

These tasks are important because computer applications

sometimes require more than only desktop resources. Often, they’ll
unite communicating components from more than one network
application. Prime examples are file transfers and e-mail, as well as
enabling remote access, network management activities, client/server
processes, and information location. Many network applications provide
services for communication over enterprise networks, but for present

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and future internetworking, the need is fast developing to reach

beyond the limits of current physical networking.
Today, transactions and information exchanges between
organizations are broadening to require internetworking applications
such as the following:

World Wide Web (WWW)

E-mail gateways
Electronic data interchange (EDI)
Special interest bulletin boards
Internet navigation utilities
Financial transaction services

The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer gets its name from its purpose: It presents
data to the Application layer and is responsible for data translation and
code formatting.

This layer is essentially a translator and provides coding and

conversion functions. A successful data-transfer technique is to adapt
the data into a standard format before transmission. Computers are
configured to receive this generically formatted data and then convert
the data back into its native format for actual reading (for example,
EBCDIC to ASCII). By providing translation services, the Presentation
layer ensures that data transferred from the Application layer of one
system can be read by the Application layer of another one.

The OSI has protocol standards that define how standard data
should be formatted. Tasks like data compression, decompression,
encryption, and decryption are associated with this layer. Some
Presentation layer standards are involved in multimedia operations too.

The following serve to direct graphic and visual image

presentation:
PICT A picture format used by Macintosh programs for
transferring QuickDraw graphics.
TIFF Tagged Image File Format; a standard graphics format
for high-resolution, bitmapped images.
JPEG Photo standards brought to us by the Joint
Photographic Experts Group.
Other standards guide movies and sound:
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface (sometimes called
Musical Instrument Device Interface), used for digitized
music.
MPEG Increasingly popular Moving Picture Experts Group
standard for the compression and coding of motion video for
CDs. It provides digital storage and bit rates up to 1.5Mbps.
QuickTime For use with Macintosh programs; manages
audio and video applications.
RTF Rich Text Format, a file format that lets you
exchange text files between different word processors, even
in different operating systems.
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The Session Layer

The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and

then tearing down sessions between Presentation layer entities. This
layer also provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes. It
coordinates communication between systems, and serves to organize
their communication by offering three different modes: simplex, half
duplex, and full duplex. To sum up, the Session layer basically keeps
different applications’ data separate from other applications’ data.

The Transport Layer

The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a data

stream. Services located in the Transport layer both segment and
reassemble data from upper-layer applications and unite it onto the
same data stream. They provide end-to-end data transport services
and can establish a logical connection between the sending host and
destination host on an Internetwork.

The Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms for

multiplexing upper-layer applications, establishing sessions, and
tearing down virtual circuits. It also hides details of any network-
dependent information from the higher layers by providing transparent
data transfer. The Transport layer can be connectionless or connection-
oriented.

The term “reliable networking” can be used at the Transport

layer. It means that acknowledgments, sequencing, and flow control
will be used.

The Network Layer

The Network layer (also called layer 3) manages device

addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network, and
determines the best way to move data, which means that the Network
layer must transport traffic between devices that aren’t locally
attached. Routers (layer 3 devices) are specified at the Network layer
and provide the routing services within an Internetwork.

The Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer provides the physical transmission of the

data and handles error notification, network topology, and flow control.
This means that the Data Link layer will ensure that messages are

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delivered to the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses, and

translates messages from the Network layer into bits for the Physical
layer to transmit.

The Data Link layer formats the message into pieces; each called
a data frame, and adds a customized header containing the hardware
destination and source address.

The IEEE Ethernet Data Link layer has two sublayers:

Media Access Control (MAC) 802.3 Defines how packets are

placed on the media. Contention media access is “first come/first
served” access where everyone shares the same bandwidth—hence
the name. Physical addressing is defined here, as well as logical
topologies. What’s a logical topology? It’s the signal path through a
physical topology. Line discipline, error notification (not correction),
ordered delivery of frames, and optional flow control can also be used
at this sublayer.

Logical Link Control (LLC) 802.2 Responsible for identifying

Network layer protocols and then encapsulating them. An LLC header
tells the Data Link layer what to do with a packet once a frame is
received. It works like this: A host will receive a frame and look in the
LLC header to find out where the packet is destined for—say, the IP
protocol at the Network layer. The LLC can also provide flow control
and sequencing of control bits. The switches and bridges I talked about
near the beginning of the chapter both work at the Data Link layer and
filter the network using hardware (MAC) addresses.

The Physical Layer

Finally arriving at the bottom, we find that the Physical layer
does two things: It sends bits and receives bits. Bits come only in
values of 1 or 0—a Morse code with numerical values. The Physical
layer communicates directly with the various types of actual
communication media. Different kinds of media represent these bit
values in different ways. Some use audio tones, while others employ
state transitions—changes in voltage from high to low and low to high.
Specific protocols are needed for each type of media to describe the
proper bit patterns to be used, how data is encoded into media signals,
and the various qualities of the physical media’s attachment interface.

The Physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical,

procedural, and functional requirements for activating, maintaining,
and deactivating a physical link between end systems.

This layer is also where you identify the interface between the
data terminal equipment (DTE) and the data communication
equipment (DCE). Some old-phone-company employees still call DCE

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data circuit-terminating equipment. The DCE is usually located at the

service provider, while the DTE is the attached device. The services
available to the DTE are most often accessed via a modem or channel
service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU).

How Layers communicates

 The request from client travels down the OSI/RM until

it reaches the Data Link Layer, where it will be placed on the copper
wire.
 Request transfer across wire until it reaches the
server. The servers data Link Layer pull the request off the wire &
send it up the servers OSI/RM.
 When request comes at server’s application layer the
request is processed.
 Response will be returned in same way.

TCP/IP [Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol]

With the addition of satellite and radio networks, the

internetworking had some problems with the OSI protocols.

 A new Architecture to connect multiple networks in a

seamless way led to TCP/IP Reference Model.
 A more flexible architecture was the need to meet
with divergent requirements.
 Gateways or Routers are used to describe a machine
that performs relaying functions networks.

Hence the evolution of new Reference Model called TCP/IP came into
existence. TCP and IP are the two workhorse protocols of the Internet.
These two protocols have proved so versatile and have gained
enormous importance.

TCP/IP architecture or Internet Architecture has only Four Layers

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Comparison OSI and TCP/IP

Similarities

 Stack of independent protocols

 Functions of the layers
 End-to-End and application/user oriented services.

Differences

OSI Reference Model TCP/IP Reference Model

1 Seven Layers 1 Four Layers

Clear Distinction between

2 services, interfaces and 2 There is no clear distinction
protocols

3 Protocols are more hidden 3 Protocols are less hidden

The model came first and then The protocols came first and
4 4
the protocols then the model.

The protocols were quite

Protocols fit perfectly with the
5 general, layers will not have 5
model.
specific protocols

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Supports both connection-

Supports connectionless
oriented and connectionless
6 6 communication in network
communication in the network
layer.
layer

Only connection-oriented
7 communication in transport
layer
Both models are supported in
7
the transport layer.

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SERVICES

Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Layers can offer two different types of services to the layers

above them:
1. connection-oriented
2. connectionless

Connection-oriented service: To use a connection-oriented network

service, the service user first establishes a connection, uses the
connection, and then releases the connection. The essential aspect of a
connection is that it acts like a tube: the sender pushes objects (bits) in
at one end, and the receiver takes them out at the other end. Typically,
one side makes a proposal and the other side can accept it, reject it, or
make a counterproposal.

Connectionless service: In this Model, there will be no connection

established so no route is decided initially so, each message carries the
full destination address, and each one is routed through the system
independent of all the others. Normally, when two messages are sent
to the same destination, the first one sent will be the first one to arrive.
However, it is possible that the first one sent can be delayed so that
the second one arrives first.

Reliable Service: Assurance for the quality of service, reliability of the

service is trusted in the sense that data could not be lost. Usually, a
reliable service is implemented by having the receiver acknowledge
the receipt of each message so the sender is sure that it arrived. The
acknowledgement process introduces overhead and delays, which are
often worth it but are sometimes undesirable. While dealing with
connection-oriented service like file transfer, will have a limitation of
loosing some data as file will be transmitted part-by-part.

Reliable connection-oriented service has two minor variations:

 Message sequences: The message boundaries are preserved.
When two 1024-byte messages are sent, they arrive as two
distinct 1024-byte messages, never as one 2048-byte message.
 Byte streams: The connection is simply a stream of bytes, with
no message boundaries. When 2048 bytes arrive at the receiver,
there is no way to tell if they were sent as one 2048-byte
message, two 1024-byte messages, or 2048 1-byte messages.

For some applications, the transit delays introduced by

acknowledgements are unacceptable. One such application is digitized
voice traffic. It is preferable for telephone users to hear a bit of noise
on the line from time to time than to experience a delay waiting for
acknowledgements.

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Computer Networks BCA VI Sem

Not all applications require connections. Unreliable (meaning not

acknowledged) connectionless service is often called datagram service,
does not return an acknowledgement to the sender. Example: Junk e-
mails sent are not sent correctly as they have a high probability of
arrival, but no guarantee. The acknowledged datagram service can be
provided for these applications.

Still another service is the request-reply service. In this service

the sender transmits a single datagram containing a request; the reply
contains the answer. Request-reply is commonly used to implement
communication in the client-server model: the client issues a request
and the server responds to it.

Six different types of service

For the following reasons, both reliable and unreliable

communication coexists.
 First of all, reliable communication (in our sense that is,
acknowledged) may not be available. For example, Ethernet does
not provide reliable communication.
 Second, the delays inherent in providing a reliable service may
be unacceptable, especially in real-time applications such as
multimedia.

Service Primitives

A Service primitive is an operation available to a user process to

access the service. These primitives make service to perform some
action or report on an action taken by a peer entity. Normally the
primitives are system calls in the operating system when the protocol
stack is present in the Operating System. These calls cause a trap to
kernel mode, which then turns control of the machine over to the
operating system to send the necessary packets.

The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the

service being provided. The primitives for connection-oriented service
are different from those of connectionless service.

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Computer Networks BCA VI Sem

Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-

oriented service

The Relationship of Services to Protocols

Services and protocols are distinct concepts. A service is a set of

primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it. A
service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer
being the service provider and the upper layer being the service user.

A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and

meaning of the packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer
entities within a layer. Entities use protocols to implement their service
definitions.

In other words, services relate to the interfaces between layers,

as illustrated in Fig. In contrast, protocols relate to the packets sent
between peer entities on different machines.

The relationship between a service and a protocol.

Network Standardization
 In Communication, Standards are used or required to govern the
physical, electrical and procedural characteristics of
communication equipments.
 A widely accepted standard is needed so that all types of
machines can communicate.
 Standardization is needed to meet the customer requirements
 Standards allow different computers to communicate and in
future standards may pass through all the areas of the computer
technology.

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There are advantages and disadvantages of standard making process

Advantages:
1. It allows products from different vendors to communicate
leading to flexibility for the purchaser in selection and use
2. It leads to increase in the market for a particular
equipment or software.

Disadvantages:
1. A standard tends to freeze the technology
2. There can be conflicting standards.

Standards fall into two categories, De-facto and De-jure.

De-facto in Latin means ‘From the fact’. These have come into
existence without any formal planning

De-jure in Latin means ‘By Law’. These are legal standards

adopted by authorized standardization bodies.

Standards making bodies

In Telecommunications
 AT and T [American Telephone and Telegraph]
 PT and T [Post, Telegraph and Telephone]
 ITU [International Telecom Union]
 CCITT [Consultative Committee for International Telegraph and
Telephone]

In the International Standards

 ISO [International Standards Organization]
 CCITT
 NBS [National Bureau of Standards]
 ANSI [American National Standards Institute]
 IEEE [Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers]
 ECMA [European Computer Manufacturers Association]

In the Internet Standards

 IAB [Internet Activities Board]
 IRTF [Internet Research Task Force]
 Internet Society

Standardization process involves

 A proposed standard
 Draft Standard
 The Final Standard

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Computer Networks BCA VI Sem

Example Networks
 Since 1970, Variety of Computer Communication Networks
are operating – Public Networks run by Common Carriers,
Research Networks, Co-operative Networks and private networks
 Networks differ in their history, administration, technical
design, facilities offered and user communities.
o History and administration vary from planned and
unplanned
o Facilities range from communication e-mail, R-login, File-
transfer, Remote Execution
o Technical factors range from transmission media,
architecture and routing methods
o There is no limit for user communities

1. The ARPANET – Advance Research Projects Agency

Network
 It is an agency of US Department Of Defense[DOD], started
in 1969
 It was designed for several hundred computers placed in
different parts of the world from Hawaii to Sweden.
 It is the first WAN having many nodes spread over a large
area and the first Internet.
 As the network connecting various nodes has more than
one path from source to destination, the network will remain
operational even if some of its nodes and links go down.
 It is a distributed heterogeneous network using packet
switching, requires more efficient routing algorithm.
 The Subnet consists of IMPs connected by transmission
lines. The subnet software consisted of
 Host-IMP protocol
 IMP-IMP protocol
 Source IMP to destination IMP protocol
 The host software consisted of host-to-host protocol.
 ARPANET services include File Transfer, e-mail and R-Login.

2. MILNET – Military Network

 Uses the same technology as that of ARPANET
 Connects to ARPANET

3. Novell Netware
 Novell Netware is based on the Client-Server Model
 It is the most popular network system to downsizing from
mainframe to a network of PCs
 It has 5 layers and spread over Protocol stack
 Top (Application) layer has application protocols.
 No Presentation and Session Layers.

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 The Physical and Data Link layers have various standards

like Ethernet, Token Ring etc.
 The Network layer has an unreliable connectionless inter
network protocol IPX similar to IP and it has 12 byte address.
 The transport layer has Connection-oriented transport
protocol NCP (Network Core Protocol), which is heart of Netware.
SPX is also found to provide only transport.

4. NSFNET – National Science Foundation Network of US

 A Complete network, consisting of a Backbone
(Transmission link) and regional networks which allowed users at
universities, research labs, libraries to access and communicate.
 Universal access made possible using CSNET for Computer
Science Community providing e-mail service.
 Evolution
1984 – First Backbone (56Kbps)
1990 – Second Backbone (15Mbps)
1991 – A successor, NREN [National Research and Educational
Network] offered Gbps speeds. Information Super
Highway.
1995 – IP services for interconnectivity

5. Internet
 In 1983, TCP/IP became official protocols of ARPANET.
 Networking of Networks (SNA, DNA, LAN) and combination
of all is Internet.
 The size is doubling approximately every year.
 Internet runs with TCP/IP protocol stack and each machine
on the Internet has an IP address.
 Applications: e-mail, File Transfer using FTP, Remote Login,
NEWS.

6. Gigabit Networks
 Gigabit networks are also called test beds
 Provide better bandwidth but no assurance towards
transmission delay.
 Applications: Telemedicine, Virtual Meeting
 Examples: AURORA [622 Mbps, using fiber optics], BLANCA
[622Mbps, using fiber optics], CASA, NECTAR VISTANET

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